Encyclopaedia Britannica [11, 3 ed.]

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ENCTCLO PJEDIA

D

I

C

T

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BRITANNICA;

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NARY

O F

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE; Conftructed on a PLAN, BY WH 1CH

THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS Are digefled into the FORM Diftindt

TREATISES

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SYSTEMS,

COMPRE0ENUING

The

and PRACTICE, of each, according to the Lateft Difcoveries and Improvements;

HISTORY, THEORY,

AND FULL

EXPLANATIONS

GIVEN OF THE

VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHETHER RELATING TO

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Including

and

ARTIFICIAL Objeds, or to Matters ECCLESIASTICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, COMMERCIAL, &C.

ELUCIDATIONS

of the mod important Topics relative to and the OECONOMY of LIFE :

RELIGION, MORALS,

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A DESCRIPTION of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, 6c. throughout the WORLDS A General HIST OR r, Ancient and Modern, of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States;

AND An Account of the LIVES of the moff Eminent Perfons in every Nation, fiom the earlieft ages down to the prefent times. Compiled frim the zuri tings of the bejl Authors, in ftverul languages ; the mojl approved DiSlionaries, as well of general fcience as of its particular branches ; the TranfaBions, 'Journals, and Memoirs, of Learned Societies, both at home and abroad', the MS. Lcclures of Eminent Profeffors on differentfcienccs ; and a variety of Original Materials, furnifhed by an Exttnfivt Correfpondence. THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED.

ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES.

VOL.

XL

INDOCTI DISCANT, ET AMENT MR Ml NISS E PER1TI.

EDINBURGH, PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFAR^HAR*

MDCCXCm

Cntwfc

Jpslt in Ccttn# of tfjc 3ft of parliament.

ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA.

MEDALS. Utility ^TV/TEDAL, denotes a piece of metal in the form c

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IT °i » f ! either current money , ' ^ ‘ , among the ancients, or ftruck on any particular occafion# in order to preferve t@ pofterity the portrait of fome great perfon, or the memory of fome illuftrious attion. Scaliger-derives the word medal from the Arabic methalia ; a fort of coin with a human head upon it. But the opinion of Voffius is generally received; viz. that it comes from metal/um, “ metal of which fubftance medals are commonly made. SECT.

I. Utility of Medals in History, and various other Sciences.

THERE are few fludies of more importance to hiftory than that of medals ; the foie evidence we can have of the veracity of an hiflorian being only fuch collateral documents as are evident to every body, and cannot be falfified. In modern times, thefe are found . in public memoirs, inttruftions to ambalfadors, and ftate papers of various kinds. Such memorials, however, are fubjecl to various accidents, and bdides commonly remain in the countries where they are lirft publifhed, and cannot therefore - give to the world ^ at large that perfect and entire fatisfa plaufe. Their coins were imitated by the Romans, and preferved in cabinets by the fenators among their choiceft treafures. Suetonius informs us, that on folemn occafions Auguftus was accuftomed to prefent his friends with medals of foreign ftates and princes, along with other valuable teftimonies of his friendfhip. In a more advanced period of the Roman empire, however, individuals would undoubtedly form collections of coins peculiar to their own ftate ; for Dr Stukeley, in his Medallic Hiftory of Caraufius, inr forms us, that a complete feries of filver coins was lately found in Britain, containing all the emperors down to Caraufius inclufively. From Banduri we alfo know, that certain Greek coins were fpecially preferved by the Romans ; and it appears from their code, than ancient gold and filver coins were made ufe of inftead of gems ^ to which diftindtion thofe of Sicily were particularly entitled. From the decline of the Roman empire till towards the end of the 5th centur y>

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Hiftory. ry, almofl all branches of literature were involved in

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'darknefs, and the medallic fcience among the reft. While the Chriftian dominion of Conflantinople lafted, indeed, almoft all the arts and fciences may be fakl to have been kept within its own boundaries ; though the Arabs and eaftern nations had fome arts and fciences of their own : but after the deftru&ion of the imperial city by the Turks, the Greeks were once more compelled to become fathers to the European ' fcience. Even before this time, indeed, fome veftiges of a revival of literature had appeared in Italy ; “ and fo intimate and neceffary a connexion (fays Mr Pinkerton), has now the ftudy of medals with that of ancient erudition, that on the earlieft appearance of a re14 vival of the'latter, the former was alfo difclofed.” Collectors The fir ft among the moderns who began to ftudy of medals. the medallic fcience was Petrarch. Being defired by the emperor Charles IV. to compofe a book containing the lives of eminent men, and to place him in the lift, he replied, that he would do fo whenever the emperor’s life and condudt deferved it. In confequence of this converfation he afterwards fent the emperor a colledtjon of gold and filver coins bearing the reprefentations of eminent men, with an addrefs fuitable to his former declaration. A collection of coins was made in the next age by Alphonfo king of Arragon ; but though this monarch collefted all that could be found throughout Italy, we know that there could not have been very many, as the whole were contained in an ivory cabinet, and carried always about with him. A very confiderable collection was made by Anthony Cardinal St Mark, nephew to Eugene IV. who afcended the pontifical chair in I43I> ant^ f°on after the grand mufeum at Florence was begun by Cofmo de Medici, where a collection of ancient coins and medals had a place among other curiofities. Corvinus king of Hungary about the fame time formed a noble collection of coins along with ancient manufcripts and other valuable relicks of antiquity. Mr Pinkerton confiders Agnolo Poliziano, more commonly known by the name of Angelus Politianus, as the firft writer who adduced medals as vouchers of ancient orthography and cuftoms.. He cites different coins of the Medicean collection in his Mifcellanea written about the year 1490. By means of a cabinet of medals collected by Maximilian I. emperor of Germany; Joannes Huttichius. was enabled to publifh a book of the lives of the emperors, enriched with their portraits, delineated from ancient coins. It is generally fuppofed that this book, which appeared in 15 2 5, was the firft work of the kind ; but Labbe, in his Bibliotheca Nummaria, mentions another named Illujlrium Imagines, by one Andreas bulvius, printed in xyiy, in which moft of the portraits feem to be from medals. About the year 1512 alfo, Guillaume Bude, a French author, had written his treatife De AJfe, though it was not printed till many years afterwards. M. Grollier, treafurer of the French armies in Italy, during part of the 16th century, had a great collection of coins of different kinds ot metals. After his death, his brafs medals were fent to Provence, and were about to be fent into Italy ; when the king of France, having got information of the tranlaClion, gave orders to ftop them, and purchafe the whole at a very high price for his own cabinet of antiquities. M. Grollier had an a£-

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fortment of gold and fdver as well as of brafs medals : hiftoiv the cabinet in which they were contained fell t,vo centuries afterwards into the hands of M. L Abbe de Bothelin ; and was known to have been that of Her from fome flips of paper, on which was his uftul infcription for his books, Joannis Grollierii, et cmicorum. Cotemporary with Grollier was^ Guillaume de Chcml, ^1^^ who wllu was likewife a- man of rank and fortune.. Hecabuias’ had a good collection of medals, and publifhed many in his Treatife on the Religion of the ancient Romans in 1557. In the Low Countries we know, from the letters of Erafmus, that the ftudy of medals was begun about the beginning of the 16th century.. About the middle of that century, Hubertzus Goltzius, a printer and engraver, travelled over moft countries in Em ope fearching for coins and medals, in order to publifh booksconcerning them. From one of thefe works it appears, that there were then in the Low Countries 200 cabinets of medals ; 175 in Germany, upwards of 380 in Italy, and 200 in France. It is probable, however, that there are now four times as many in theie countries, befides 500 in Britain ; but we are not to imagine that all thefe were grand collections, for of fuch there are not above a dozen even in Italy : moft of thofe juft mentioned were of the clafs named cajkets of medals, containing from 100 to 1000 or 2000. . There are few countries, Italy excepted, in which Number of a greater number of coins have been found than in coins found Britain ; though we are by no means well acquainted111 -n a n’ with the time when the ftudy of them commenced. Mr Pinkerton fufpefts that Cambden was one of the firft, if not the very firft, Britifh author who produced medals in this works, and. who muft have had a fmall collection.. Speed’s Chronicle, publifhed in the 17th century, was illuftrated with coins from Sir Robeit. Cotton’s cabinet. Gorkeus’s colleftion was purchafed by Henry prince of Wales, brother to Chailes I. to whom he left it at his death. According to Jofeph Scaliger, it confifted of 30,000 coins and medals. A collection of 5500 coins was purchafed by Archbifliop Laud for 600I. and given to the Bodleian library, Thomas earl of Arundel, earl-marfhal of England, well known from the Arundelian tables and other antiquities which he imported from Greece and Laly into Britain, had a rich cabinet of medals collected by Daniel Nifum. The dukes of Buckingham and Hamilton, Sir William Pafton, Sir Thomas Fanfhaw of Ware-Park,. Sir Thomas Hanmer, Ralph Sheldon, Efq ; Mr Selden, &c. are enumerated by Evelyn as collectors of medals. Charles I. as well as his hiftorian the earl of Clarendon, were alfo collectors. 1 he king had a very fine cabinet ; which, however, were diffipated and loft during the civil commotions. Oliver Cromwell had a fmall collection ; and the cabinet of Charles IT. is mentioned by Vaillant in the preface to his treatife entitled Nummi in Colonas,” &c. 1 his branch of magnificence has not been much attended to by fucceeding Britifh monarchs ; though his prefent majefty h?.s a very good collection of ancient gold coins. *7 A great number of fine cabinets have been formea Britifti in Britain fince the time of Evelyn. About the year cabinet*. 1720 Haym makes mention of thofe of the duke of Devonftiire, the earla of Pembroke and Winchelfea, Sir:

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Sir Hans Sloane, Sir Andrev/Fontaine, Mr Sadler, conftru6ted.Mr Abdy, Mr Wren, Mr Chicheley, and Mr Kemp. ' At prefent there are many remarkable colledtions ; but that of the late Dr Hunter is defervedly efteemed the molt remarkable in Europe, excepting that of the French king. It was not only formed at a great expence, but with much care and ability; many foreign medals offered to it having been rejefted. The other remarkable collections are thofe of the duke of Devonfhire,' the earl of Pembroke, Earl Fitzwilliam, formerly the marquis of Rockingham’s, the honourable Horace Walpole, the reverend Mr Crachrode, the reverend Mr Southgate, Mr Townley, Mr R. P. Knight, Mr Edward Knight, Mr Tyfon, Mr Barker, Mr Brown, and feveral others. The mufeum and univerfities have alfo colledtions ; as well as the lawyers library, and the colleges in Scotland. SECT.

IV. Materials of which Medals are constructed.

18 Ancient >gold coins.

MEDALS are formed of gold, filver, and the various modificatioTTs of copper. The gold ufually made ufe of in coinage is about the finenefs of 22 carats ; and as the art of purifying this metal was very much unknown in former times, the molt ancient medals are for this reafon much more impure than the modern coins. Gold is never found in its native Hate above 22 carats fine ; and the very ancient medals are much under that llandard. Many of them are compofed of a mixture of gold and filver, called by the ancients eleftrum. The gold medals were made of much finer metal after Philip of Macedon became poffeffed of the gold mines of Philippi in Thrace, and the medals of his fon Alexander the Great are equally fine ; as well as thofe of fome other princes of that age. Thofe of the Egyptian Ptolemies are of the finenefs of 23 carats three grains, with only one grain of alloy. The Roman coins are very pure even from the earlieft times; the art of refining gold being well known before any was coined at Rome. Some authors are of opinion, that the Roman coins begin to fall (hort of their purity after the time of Titus ; but Mr Pinkerton denies that any thing of this kind takes place till the time of the emperor Severus ; and even then only in a very4few inftances. Moft of the Roman gold was brought from Dalmatia and Dacia, where that metal is ilill to be met with. A very remarkable circumftance is obferved in the eallern part of Hungary, which belonged to the ancient Dacia: It germinates in the vines of Tokay, and is found in their Hems; as ^ it is elfewhere in the ftraw of corn. Metal callPliny informs us, and indeed it is generally known, .ed eLftrum. that gold and filver are found mixed together in the earth. When the filver amounted to one-fifth part of the gold, the metal was called eletlrum; but fometimes the quantity of filver was added artificially. The gold was in thofe days as well as at prefent refined by means of mercury : and the ancient artifts had certainly attained to great perfc&ion in this branch of metallurgy; as Bodin tells us, that the goldfmiths of Paris upon melting one of Vefpafian’s gold coins found only part of alloy. 20 Moll of the ancient filver, particularly that of Greece, Ancient fil ver. is lefs pure than that of fueceeding times; even the

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Roman filver is rather inferior to the prefent ftandard, Of what and that from the very beginning; but in the time of conftruded, Severus, the filver appears very bad, and continues fo —“~v~—^ until the time of Dioclefian. Many writers upon this fubjeft have miftaken the denarii arei, “ coins of brafs waffled with filver,” for filver currency. Silver coins are extremely fcarce from the time of Claudius Gothicus to that of Dioclefian, or from the year 270 to 284 ; in which fhert fpace no fewer than eight emperors reigned. Silver at that time was found moilly in Spain ; and the commerce with that country was difturbed by the ufurpers who arofe in Gaul: and fuch were the troubles of the times, that not only the filver, but alfo the gold coins of thofe eight emperors, are extremely fcarce. There is ilill, however, fome filver extant of theie eight emperors ; and it is certain, that copper waffled was never ufed as filver currency, but was entirely a diftinct coinage. Occafional depravations of filver had taken place long before ; as Pliny tells us, that Mark Anthony mixed iron with his filver denarii ; and Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he had feen a denarius of Anthony, which was attracted by a magnet. . 2I The ancient brafs coins confiil of two kinds : the Ancient red or Cyprian, which indeed is no other than copper;krafs* and the common yellow brafs. Our author obferves, that in the Roman coinage brafs was of double the value of copper, and he is of opinion, that it was the fame among the Greeks ; and the latter is the metal moil commonly made ufe of in the Greek coinage. The Roman feilertii are always of brafs: the middlingfized kind are partly copper and partly brafs; the former being double the value of the latter, which are the afes, . Mr Pinkerton next proceeds to give an account of Mixed methe mixed metals ufed among the Romans. In Bri-tals. tain all kinds of coins made of mixed metal are without hefitation alleged to be forgeries ; although it is certain that the variety of mixed metals ufed in coincTge was very confiderable. The moil valuable mixture was that of gold or filver, already mentioned, named eleBrum; the filver commonly amounting to onefifth part of the gold made ufe of, or perhaps more. Of this mixture are many of the early coins of Lydia, and fome other Aiiatic ilates ; alfo thofe of the kings of the Bofphorus Cimmerius, during the imperial ages of Rome. Next to the eledtrum were the coins of ^ Corinthian brafs: but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that Corinthian not a fingle coin was ever ilruck of this metal by thebrufs. ancients ; it having been conilantly employed only in the fabrication of vafes or toys. It was in ufe at any rate only for a very fhort time ; being altogether unknown in the days of Pliny the Elder. Our author therefore ridicules thofe who pretend not only to find out imperial coins of this metal, but to difeover three kinds of it; 'viz. one in which the gold predominates, another in which the filver prevails, and a third where the brafs is moll confpicuous. He gives jEneas Vico, one of the moll ancient writers on medals, as the author of this idea ; but whofe opinions were confuted by one Savot, a writer in the 17th century. Vico mentions a coin of this kind Ilruck under Augullus, another of Livia, and a third of Claudius. The miftake, he is of opinion, arofe from the circumllance of the firlt propagator not being able to account for the various

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Of what various mixtures and modifications of brafs obfervable conftru&ed in ancient coins of the large fiz ®; and which in fo common a metal appear very odd to the moderns. Belides the authority of Pliny and other antiquaries of more modern date, who all declare that they never faw a fingle medal of Corinthian brafs, or of that metal mixed with filver and gold, our author adduces another evidence which he looks upon to be fuperior to either ; viz. that thofe who have given into this fuppofition, imagine, that the large pieces called fe/?eriii, and others called dapondiarii, worth about twopence or a penny, are faid to have been compofed of this precious metal. It is unreafonable to think, that any proportion of gold or filver could have been made ufe of in thefe. The coins faid to have been ftruck upon Corinthian brafs are only done upon a modification of common brafs ; of which we know, that in proportion to the quantity of zinc made ufe of in conjunction with the copper, the metal alfumes a variety of hues. On the authority of Pliny he informs us, that the coins miftaken fpr Corinthian brafs were no other than prince’s 24 metal. Egyptian The Egyptian filver coins ftruck under the Roman filver coins, emperors are"at firft of tolerably pure filver ; but afterwards degenerate into a mixture of copper and tin with a little filver. They are very thick, but many of them are elegantly ftruck, with uncommon reverfes. There are likewife three fets of brafs coins belonging to this country from the earlieft times of the Roman emperors there. Some of thefe are of bell-nletal or pot-metal ; and, after the time of Gallienus and Valerian, the coinage of brafs with a fmall addition of filver becomes authorized by the ftate ; the coins ftruck upon it being called denarii eerei. Thofe of lead or/ copper plated with filver have been fabricated by Roman forgers. Some coins of lead, however, have been met with of undoubted antiquity : and an ancient writer informs us, that tin money was coined by Dionyiius ; but none has been found. The lead coins of Tigranes king of Armenia, mentioned as genuine by Jobert, are accounted forgeries by Mr Pinkerton and other modern medallifts. Plautus, however, makes mention of leaden coins, and feveral of them have been found but our author looks upon them to have been chiefly eflay pieces, ftruck in order to let the artift judge of the progrefs of the die. Others are the plated kind already mentioned, fabricated by ancient forgers, but having the plating worn off. A great number of leaden coins are mentioned by Ficorini in a work entitled Piomli Antichi, in which he fuppofes them to have fierved as tickets for guefts ; and coins of the fame kind are alfc mentioned by Pafferi. In the work entitled Notitia Imperii Romani,, there is mention of coins made of leather, but none of them have ever been found. SECT.

V. Of Ancient Money.

IN confidering the different fizes, values, &c. of the Greek and Roman coins, our author treats of the medals as money ; a knowledge of which, he fays, is effentially neceffary to every reader of the claffics; infomuch that it may abnoft difpute the preference with the ftudies of ancient geography and chronology. Notwithftanding all that has been written upon the fub-

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jeA, however, our author is of opinion, that the fcience Ancient is ftill in its infancy, in as far as it relates to the real Money. money of the ancients. “ The ideal (fays he), which —v—— is indeed the moft important province of difcufiion, Kno^edo.c has been pretty clearly afcertained ; and we are almoft 0f ancjen^'' as well acquainted with the Attic mna or mina, and money imthe perplexing progrefs of the Roman fejlertia, as with perfedfc. our own pounds. But with the a&ual coin of the ancients the cafe is different; and the ignorance even of the learned in this point is wonderful.” Our author now goes on, with great afperity of language, to particularize the ignorant manner in which modern authors have treated the fubjeft of medals. “ Arbuthnot and Clarke (fays he), are, if poffible, more ignorant of medals than Budaeus the very firft. The latter profeffes his love of medals, but quotes a confular coin with the head of Cicero ; and looks upon one of the 30 pieces of filver, the reward of the treachery of Judas, and which was faid to be preferved among fome relicks at Paris, to be worthy of reference and commemoration. Arbuthnot, if we may judge from his book, had never feen any ancient coins ; and Clarke, it is well known, was quite ignorant of them. The latter, with all his labour, feems even to have known nothing of the theoretic part of the real ancient money. Indeed Dr Mead’s catalogue feems to have been almoft the only book on medals which had undergone his perufal. On the other hand, the ignorance of medallifts on this fcore is no lefs profound. To this day they look upon the didrachms of -ZEgina, fo celebrated in antiquity, as tridrachms of jRgium ; and upon the early obolus as a brafs coin. In the Roman clafs the large brafs is efteemed the as, while, it ftiall be proved that it is the fejlertius, and worth four afes. The denarius is reckoned at ten afes even in the imperial times ; whereas it only went at that rate for the firft 90 years after the coinage of filver at Rome. The denarius sereus is taken for filver currency ; with other miftakes which evince that medallifts are as ignorant of the theory, as the others are of the practice.” _ 26 In his account of the ancient Greek money, Mr Money firtt Pinkerton obferves, that the light of Icience, like thatc°ine againft which the emperor made a law; but it is not known what gave rife to the name. The dupondius, though of the fame fize with the as, is commonly of finer workmanfhip, the metal being greatly fupenor in value. It continues to be of yellow brafs, as well as the feflertius, to the time of Gallienus ; nut the as is always of copper. Of the afThe imperial as, or ajfctrium, was worth only an farium. halfpenny. At firft it weighed half an ounce, and was always of copper till the time of Gallienus, when it was made of brafs, and weighed only the eight part of an ounce. From the time of Gallienus to that of Dioclefian, it continued to diminifh ftiil more, the iiz.e being then twenty to an ounce. This was the fame with the lepta, or fmalleft coins but the vovutx, which 58 weighed only ten grains. Parts of The parts of the as occur but feldom ; which may, the as. indeed, be well expefted, confidering the low value of it ; though there ftill occur fome of thofe called femis, triens, quadrans, fextans, and uncia, coined in the times of Nero and Domitian. There is no fmall brafs from the time of Pertinax to that of Gallienus, excepting that of Trajanus Decius ; but in the time of Gallienus it becomes extremely common ; and the coins of fmall brafs, as well as the larger, are always marked S. C. fuch as want it being univerfally accounted forgeries, and were plated with iilver, though the plating be now worn off. The fmall pieces ftruck for flaves during the time of the faturnalia, mull alfo be diftinguifhed from the parts of the as. The S. C. upon thefe mod; probably fignifies Salurni Ccnfulto, and were ftruck in ridicule of the true coins, as the flaves on that occafion had every privilege of irony. 59 Of the The feftertius diminifhes from Pertinax to Gallienus fmalleft fo fail, that no parts of the as are ftruck, itfelf being Roman fo fmall. Trajanus Decius, indeed, coined fome fmall coins. pieces, which went for the femis of the time. The fmall brafs coins under Gallienus were called aflaria, fixty of which went to the filver denarius. They are about the ftze of the denarius, and fome of them occur of the coinage of Gallus and his family, of half that fize, which appear to have been ftruck during the latter part of his reign, when the aflarium was diminiflxed to a ftill fmaller fize. It is probable, however, that fome of thefe very fmall coins had been ftruck in all ages of the empire, in order to fcatter among the 60 people on folemn occafions. Mr Pinkerton is of opiOf the mif- nion that they are the mlffUia, though moft other meklk. dallifts think that they were medallions. “ But if fo (fays our author), they were certainly called mijjilia a non mittendo; for it would be odd if fine medallions were fcattered among the mob. It is a common cuftom juft now to ftrike counters to fcatter among the populace on fuch occafions, while medals are given to peers of the kingdom; and we may very juftly reafon from analogy on this occafion.” The ajfarion or lepton of the Conftantinopolitan exn-

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pire was, as we have already obferved, one of the Ancient fmalleft coins known in antiquity, weighing no more , , than 20 grains; and the noumia were the very fmalleft which have reached our times, being only one-half of the former. By reafon of their extreme fmallnefs, they are very fcarce ; but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he has in his pofleffion a fine one of Theodofius II. which has on it the emperor’s head in profile. Theodofius P. F. AV.; on the reverfe a wreath, having in the centre vor. xx.: MULT. xxx. _ , 61 The principal coin of the lower empire was the fol-Corns of lis, which was divided into an half and quarter, named^ S-fticr6 Other readings have been given by varit oug megaUifts, but none have hit upon the true one excepting our author, though the coin itfelf led to it ; being juft three times the weight of that marked xx. W-e have likewife half the large ft coin, which is marked xxx, and which weighs 26 grains ; the fmalleft is only iji; the xxxx weighs 34; and the LX or drachma 53. There is alfo the didrachm of this coin69. * age, of 106 grains. Account of 'The aurei, or Roman gold coins, were at firft 48 in the aura. tjie p0ung . they were afterwards diminiftied in number to 40, owing to an augmentation in the weight of each coin. In the time of Sylla, the aureus weighed no lefs than from 164 to t68 grains, and there were only 30 in the pound ; but fuch confuiion in the coinage was introduced by that conqueror, that no perfon could know exactly what he was worth. Till this time the aureus feems to have continued of the value of 30 lilver denarii, about one pound fterling ; for about that time it was enlarged a whole third, that it might ftill be equivalent to the full number of denarii. But after Sylla had taken Athens, and the arts and manners of Greece became ohjefts of imitation to the Romans, the aureus fell to 40 in the pound, probably when Sylla had abdicated his diclatorfhip. Thus, being reduced near to the fcale of the Greek it palled for 20 denarii, as the latter did for as many drachmas, being in currency 13s. 4b. fterling. “ This (fays Mr Pinkerton) is the more probable, becaufe we know from Suetonius, that the great Csefar brought from Gaul fo much gold, that it fold for nine times its weight of lilver: but the Gallic gold was of a very bafe fort.” In the time of Claudius, the aureus was valued at ICO feftertii, or 25 lilver denarii, at which it continued till the time of Pleliogabalus, when it fell to about 92 grains at a medium, or rofe in number to 55 in the pound. In the reign of Philip, during which the city completed its thouiandth year, the aureus was coined ©f two or three fixes. Thefe are imprefl'ed with a head of Rome on one fide, and various figures on the other ; but the workmanlhip is fo rude, that they are fuppofed to have been {truck in fome of the more uncivilized provinces of the empire. The practice of having different gold coins, however, continued under Valerian, G allien us, and his fucceffors. In the time of Gallienus,. they were of 30, 65, and from 86 to 93 grains; the double aurei being from 172 to 183^ grains ; but the aureus properly fo called was from 86 to 93 ; thofe of 30 and 32- being the tnentes aurei of the Hiftor'ue Augujl# Scriptures ; while the larger, from 62 to 6^, are to be accounted double trientes, and were perhaps called niiruti aurei. The value oi thefe different fixes of aurei is not known. 70 Alteration That Auvelian made fome alteration in the coin is in the gold certain ; but Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to have been coin made on]y ]n t]ie gold; becaufe under him and his fucceffor hmAU1C*

Pr°kus» the common aureus was of 100 grains, a fixe confined to thofe emperors : there are likewife halves of about 50 grains ; and double aurei, commonly of very fine workmanftiip, of upwards of 200 grainsIn the time of Gallienus, the precious metal was fo common, that this emperor vied in magnificence with Nero and Heliogabalus. Aurelian, who plundered the

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rich city of Palmyra, and thus became maffer of tbe Ancient treafures of the eaft, obtained fuch a profufion of gold, _ Money‘ t v that he looked upon it to be produced by nature in """ ^ greater plenty than filver. It is remarkable, that during this emperor’s reign there was a rebellion among the money coiners, which could not be quelled but by the deitruftion of feveral thoufands ; which Mr Pinkerton aferibes to his having ordered the gold to be reftored to its former fixe, but to go for no more filver than it formerly did. “ (So very little filver (fays he) occurs of this period, that it is plain no alteration in the filver produced the war with the moneyers ; and in the brafs he made no change ; or if he had, it were ftrange that fuch commotions ftiould arife about fo trifling a metal. But if, as appears from tbe coins, he ordered the aureus, which had fallen to 80 grains, to be raifed to about 100, it is no wonder that the contra&ors (hould be in an uproar ; for a whole quarter of their coinage, amounting as would feem, to all their profits, was loft. Aurelian judged, that when he found gold fo common in the eaft, it was equally fo in the weft ; and that the moneyers muft have made a moft exorbitant profit ; but his ideas on this fubjeft were partial and unjuft : and after bis fhort reign, which did not exceed five months after the alteration, the gold returned to its former courfe ^ though a few pieces occur of Aurelian’s ftandard, ftruck, as would feem, in the commencement of the reign of Probus his fucceffor. From this time to that of Conftantine I. the aureus weighed between 70 and 80 grains ; but in his reign it was changed for the folidus, of which fix went to the ounce of gold, which went for 14 milliarenfes, and 25 denarii as before ; the value of filver being now to gold as 14 to 1. This new coin continued of the fame value to the final downfal of the Conftantinopolitan empire ; gold being always very plentiful in that city, though filver became more and more fcarce. The folidus was worth 12s. fterling. Here again our author moft feverely criticifes Mr Clarke and Mr Raper : the former (he fays) with refpeft to the value of gold in the time of Conftantine I. “ has left all his fenfes behind him. In page 267, he abfurdly afferts, that 20 denarii went to the folidus in the time of Theodoflus 1. and proceeds with this deplorable error to the end of his work. He then tells us, that only 14 denarii went to the folidus under Conftantine I. &c.” To Mr Raper, however, he is a little more merciful, as he owns, that “ though he (Mr Raper) has ftrangely confounded the milliarenfis with the denarius, he has yet kept common fenfe for his guide.” Mr Pinkerton argues, indeed with great probability, “ that had any change in the coinage taken place between the time of Conftantine and Tbeodofius I. that is, in lefs than 50 years, the laws of that period, which are all in the Theodoiian code, muft have noticed it.”' To this and other arguments upon the fubje£l, Mr Pinkerton adds the following obfervation upon the value of gold and filver: “ As;a ftat'e advances to its height, gold increafes in value ;;and as a ftate declines, it decreafes, providing the metals^are kept on a par as to purity. Hence we may argue, that gold decreafed in its relation to filver perhaps four or five centuries, furnifhed moft European kingdoms with gold in coin,, which otherwife would, from theixtwant of arts, and of

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of interco’urfe with the eaft, then the grand ferainary Money. 0f that metal, have almoft been ignorant of what gold was. Thefe gold coins were called Bezants in Europe, becaufe fent from Byzantium or Conltantinople; and were folidl of the old fcale, fix to the ounce. In Byzantine writers, the folidue is alfo called nomifma, or “ the coin cryjmos, becaufe of gold ; hyperperos, from its being refined with fire, or from its being of bright gold flaming like fire. The folidi alfo, as the aura -formerly', received names from the princes whofe portraits they bore ; as Michelatiy Manudati. Solidus is a term ufed alio for the aureus byr Apulcius, who lived in the time of Antoninus the Philofopher ; nay, as early as in the pnetorian editts of the time of Trajan. It was then a dillinttion from the femiffis or half. In the time of Valerian, when aurei of different fixes had been introduced, it became neeeffary to diftinguifh the particular aurei meant. Hence in the Imperial Referipts, publifhed by the Hijlorht AugvJLt Scriptorcs, Valerian ufes the term Philippeos nojlri vultus, for the common aurei. Aurelian ufes the fame term aurei Philippe;, for the aurei which he had reftored to their fize in fome degree. Gallienus ufes aurei Valsriani for his father’s coins. Aurei Antoniniani are likewife put by Valerian for coins of the early' Antonini, of yi fuperior ffandard to any then ufed. Diviiiotis of In the firil gold coinage at Rome, the aureus was the aureus, divided into four parts ; the femiffis of 60 feftertii ; the tremiifis, or third, of 40 ; the fourth, the name of W'hieh is not merftioned, of 30 ; and the fcrupulum of 20. But in a Ihort time all of thefe fell into difufe, except the femiffis or half, which is extremely fearce ; fo that it is probable that few have been (truck. It is an erroneous opinion (according to Mr Pinkerton), that the femiffis was called a denarius aureus. The aureus itfelf indeed had this name ; but the name of quinarius is applied to the femiffis with greater propriety than the former. Trientes, or tremiffis of gold, are found of Valerian and his fon Gallienus, and weigh about 30 grains. Thofe of Salonina the wife of Gallienus weigh 33 grains. Under the Conftantinopolitan empire, tremiffes again make their appearance ; and from the time of Valentinian downwards, the thirds are the inoft common coins of gold, being worth about 4s. (lerling. The femiffis is likewife mentioned, but none occur earlier than the time of Bafilifcus. The gold tremiffis was the pattern of the French and Spaniffi gold coins ; as the filver denarius, in its diminiihed (late, was of the Gothic and Saxon penny. 72 Account of We (hall clofe this account of the Roman money the Roman „ . , .. with fome remarks concerning the mint, and method coining. °* COIIiage. 1 his at nr(t (eems to have been under the dire&ion of the qmeftor. About the time that fdver was firft-coined in Rome, ws. about 266 B. C. the triumviri monetales were created. They were at firft of fenatorial rank, but were by Auguftus chofen from among the equeftrian ; and the title of triumviri was continued till after the time of Caracalla ; but under Aurelian there was probably but one mafter of the mint, called Rationalis ; and Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that the change took place under Gallienus. He feems alfo to have permitted the provincial cities to coin gold and filver, as well as to have altered the form of the mints in the capital, and to have ordered them all to ftrike money with Latin kgends, and of the

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fame forms ; as in his time we firft meet with coins with mint-marks of cities and offices. The violent infurredtion which took place in his reign has already been mentioned as well as its probable caufe ; and Mr Gibbon has (hown, that the concealed enemies of Aurelian took fuch advantage of this infurredtion, that it coft 7000 of his bed troops before it could be quelled. About this time the procurator monetse feems to have fucceeded the rationalis as director of the mint. In the colonies, the diredlion of the mint feems to have been given to the decemviri, whofe names frequently occur on colonial coins; “ which (fayrs Mr Pinkerton), though generally of rude invention, and ruder execution, are yet often interefting and important.” The engraving of the ancient dies ufed in coinage was a work of much genius and labour ; and at Rome Greek artifts were generally employed in it ; but it has been thought a matter of great furprife, that fcarce any' two ancient coins are to be found exactly the fame. Hence fome antiquaries have imagined, that only a (ingle coin was thrown off from each die. M. Beauvais informs us, that the only two Roman imperial coins ot the firft times which he had feen perfectly alike were thofe of the emperor Galba. It is, however, the opinion of the beft judges, that a perfedt (1milarity betwixt two medals is a very great reafon for fuppofing one of them to be forged. “ It mull alfo be obierved (fays Mr Pinkerton), that the differences in coins, apparently from the fame die, are often fo minute as to efcape an eye not ufed to microfcopic obfervations of this fort. But it would be furpriiing if any' two ancient coins were now found ftruck with the fame die ; for out of each million iffued, not above one has reached us. Dies foon give way by the violence of the work*; and the ancients had no puncheons nor matrices, but were forced to engrave many dies for the fame coin. Even in our mint, upon fending for a (hilling’s worth of new halfpence, it will appear that three or (our dies have been ufed. Sometimes the obverfe o( the die gives way, fometimes the reverfe ; but among us it is renewed by puncheons, though with variations in the lettering or other minute ilrokes; while the ancients were forced to recur to another die differently engraven. The engravers of the die were caWcd ozlatores; other officers employed in the mint were the fpetdatores, expeBaiores, or nummularii. The melters were ftyled fufarii, Jlatuarii, and flaturarii ; thsfe who adjufted the weight were called cequatores mo* netarum ; thofe who put the pieces into the die fuppofitoresy and thofe who ftruck them malleatores. At the head of each office was an officer named primicerius, and the foreman was named optio et exaBorP In order to affift the high relief on the coins, the metal, after being melted and refined, was call into bullets, as appears from the ancient coins not being cut or filed on the edges, but often cracked, and always rough and unequal. Thefe bullets were then put into the die, and received the impreffion by repeated Ilrokes of the hammer, though fometimes a machine appears to have been ufed for this purpofe : for Boiterue informs us, that there was a pidlure of the Roman mintage in a grotto near Baiae, where a machine was reprefented holding up a large (lone as if to let it fall fuddenly, and ftrike the coin at once. None of the ancient money was caft in moulds, exceptC i ing

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Preferva- ing tlie moll ancient and very large Roman brafs, comtion. monly called weights, and other Italian pieces of that '-"■-v——^ fort ; all the reft being mere forgeries of ancient and modern times. Some Roman moulds which have been found are a proof of this; and from thefe fome medallifts have erroneoudy imagined that the ancients firft call their money in moulds, and then ftamped it, in order to make the impreflion more clear and lharp. The ancients had fome knowledge of the method of crenating the edges of their coins, which they did by cutting out regular notches- upon them ; and of this kind we find fome of the Syrian and ancient confular coins, with a few others. The former were call in this lhape, and then ftruck ; but the latter were crenated by incifion, to prevent forgery, by Ihowing the infide of the metal: however, the ancient forgers alfo found out a method of imitating this ; for Mr Pinkerton informs us, that he had a Roman confular coin, of which the incifions, like the reft, were plated with lilver oyer the copper. SECT. VI.

Of the Prefervation of Medals.

WE now come to confider what it is that diftinguiihes one medal from another, and why fome are fo highly prized more than others. This, in general, beiides its genuinenefs, confifts in the high degree of prefervation in which it is. This, by Mr Pinkerton, is called the confervation of medals, and is by him regarded ^ good and as perfed. In this, he fays that a true judge is fo nice, that he will rejeft even the rareft coins if in the leaft defaced either in the figures or legend. Some, however, are obliged to content themfelves with thofe which are a little rubbed, while thofe of fuperior tafte and abilities have in their cabinets only fuch as are in the very ftate in which they came from the mint ; and fuch, he fays, are the cabinets of Sir Robert Auftin, and Mr Walpole, of Roman filver, at Strawberryhill. It is abfolutely neceffary, however, that a coin be in what is called good prefervation ; which in the Greek or Roman emperors, and the colonial coins, is fuppofed to be when the legends can be read with fome difficulty ; but when the confervation is perfedt, and the coin juft as it came from the mint, even the moft common coins are valuable. 73 The fine ruft, like varniffi, which covers the furBrafs and copper beft face of brafs and copper coins, is found to be the beft prefcrved preferver of them ; and is brought on by lying in a by the ruft Gold cannot be contaminated that covers certain kind of foil. but bv iron mold, which happens when the coin lies them. in a foil impregnated with iron ; but filver is fufceptible of various kinds of ruft, principally green and red ; both of which yield to vinegar. In gold and filver coins the ruft muft be removed, as being prejudicial ; but in brafs and copper it is prefervative and ornamental ; a circumftance taken notice of by the 74 Different ancients. “ This fine ruft (fays Mr Pinkerton), which hinds of is indeed a natural varnifh not imitable by the art of tlus ruft. man, is fometimes a delicate blue, like that of a turquoife ; fometimes of a bronze brown, equal to that obfervable in ancient ftatues of bronze, and fo highly prized ; and fometimes of an exquifite green, a little on the azure hue, which laft is the moft beautiful of all. It is alfo found of a fine purple, of olive, and of a cream colour or pale yellow ; which laft is exqui-

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fite, and ffiows the impreffion to as much advantage Prefervatlon as paper of cream colour, ufed in all great foreign - r_ r prelfes, does copperplates and printing. The Neapolitan patina (the ruft in queftion) is of z light green; and when free from excrefcence or blemifh is very beautiful. Sometimes the purple patina gleams through an upper coat of another colour, with as fine effed as a variegated filk or gem. In a few inftances a ruft of a deeper green is found ; and it is fometimes fpotted with the red or bronze (hade, which gives it quite the appearance of the Eaft Indian ftone called the blood-Jlone. Thefe rufts are all, when the real produd of time, as hard as the metal itfelf, and preferve it much better than any artificial varniffi could have done; concealing at the fame time not the moft minute particle of the impreffion of the coin.” 75 The value of medals is lowered when any of the Medals _ letters of the legend are mifplaced ; as a fufpicion forgery is thus induced. Such is the cafe witn many vajuet of thofe of Claudius Gothicus. The fame, or even greater, diminution in value takes place in fuch coins as have not been well fixed in the die, which has occafioned their flipping under the ftrokes of the hammer, and thus made a double or triple image. Many coins of this kind are found in which the one fide is perfedly well formed, but the other blundered in tlm manner juft mentioned. Another blemilh, but ol fmaller moment, and which to fome may be rather a recommendation, is when the workmen through inattention have put another coin into the die without taking out the former. Thus the coin is convex on one fide, and concave on the other, having the fame figure upon both its fides. 75 The medals faid by the judges in this fcience to be Countercountermarked are very rare, and highly valued. They marked have a fmall ftamp impreffed upon them, in fome anmeilals^ head, in others a few letters, fuch as AUG : N. PROBUS, &c. which marks are fuppofed to imply an alteration in the value of the coin; as was the cafe with the countermarked coins of Henry VIII. and Queen Mary of Scotland. Some have a fmall hole through them ; fometimes with a little ring faftened in it, having been ufed as ornaments ; but this makes no alteration in their value. Neither is it any diminution in the value of a coin that it is fplit at the edges ; for coins of undoubted antiquity have often been found in this ftate, the caufe of which has already been explained. On the contrary, this cracking is, generally confidered as a great merit; but Mr Pinkerton fufpe&s that one of thefe cracked coins has given rife to an error with refpeft to the wife of Caraufius who reigned for fome time in Britain. The infcription is read OR 1 UNA AUG : and there is a crack in the medal juft before the O of oriuna. Without this crack Mr Pinkerton fuppofes that it would have been read FORTUNA AUG. , . 76 Some particular foils have the property of giving silver and filver a yellow colour as if it had been gilt. It natu-gold how. rally acquires a black colour through time, which any tarnilhed.. fulphureous vapour will bring on in a few minutes. From its being fo fufceptible of injuries, it was always mixed by the ancients with much alloy, in order to harden it. Hence the impreffions of the ancient filver coins remain perfed to this day, while thofe of modern coins are obliterated in a few years. On this account

Sect. VI.

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Preferva- account Mr Pinkerton exprefTes a wifh, that modern tion. ftates would allow a much greater proportion of alloy » in their filver coin than they ufuahy do. As gold admits of no ruft except that from non above-mentioned, the coins of this metal are generally in perfect confervation, and rrefh as from the mint. 77 T© cleanfe gold coins from this ruft, it is heft to How to clean fe fleep them in aquafortis, which, though a very powerthem. ful folvent of other metals, has no effeA upon gold. Silver may be cleanfed by fteeping for a day or two in vinegar, but more effectually by boiling in water with three parts of tartar and one of fea fait ; on both thefe metals, however, the ruft is always in fpots, and never forms an entire incruftation as on brafs or copper. The coins of thefe two metals muft never be cleanfed, as they would thus be rendered full of fmall holes eaten by the ruft. Sometimes, however, they are found fo totally obfcured with ruft, that nothing can be difcovered upon them ; in which cafe it is.belt to clear them with a graver ; but it may alfo be done by boiling them for 24 hours in water with three parts of tartar and one of alum ; not fea fait as 78 in filver coins. Why anThe high ftate of prefervation in which ancient cient coins co ns are u Lia are m fuch ^ ^ ^Y found, is thus accounted for by Mr an high Hancarville. He obferves, that the chief reafon is ftate of pre-the cuftom of the ancients always to bury one or more fervation. coins with their dead, in order to pay for their paffage over the river Styx. “ From Phidon of Argos (fays he) to Conftantine I. are 36 generations : and from Magna Gracia to the Euphrates, from Cyrene to the Euxine fea, Grecian arts prevailed, and the inhabitants amounted to about 30,000,000. There died, therefore, in that time and region, not lefs than ten thoufand millions of people, all of whom had coins of one fort or other buried with them. The tombs were facred and untouched; and afterwards neglefted, till modern curiofity or chance began to difclofe themThe urn of Flavia Valentina, in Mr Towley’s capital colle&ion, contained feven brafs coins of Antoninus Pius and Eleagabalus. Such are generally black, from being burnt with the dead. The beft and frelh^ eft coins were ufed on thefe occafions from refpeft to the dead ; and hence their fine confervation. At Syracufe a Ikeleton was found in a tomb, with a beautiful gold coin in its mouth ; and innumerable other inftances might be given, for hardly is a funeral urn found without coins. Other incidents alfo confpire to furnifti us with numbers of ancient coins, though the above-recited circumftance be the chief caufe of perfecft confervation. In Sicily, the filver coins with the head of Proferpine were found in fuch numbers as to weigh 600 French livres or pounds. In the 16th century, 60,000 Roman coins were found at Modena, thought to be a military cheft hid after the battle of Bedriacum, when Otho was defeated by Vitellius. Near Breft, in the year 1760, between 20 and 30,000 Roman coins were found. A treafure of gold coins of Lyfimachus was found at Deva on the Marus ; and Strabo, lib. vii. and Paufan-z'« Attic,- tell that he was defeated by the Getse ; at which time this treafure feems to have fallen into their hands.” 79 Number of Thus Mr Pinkerton,, from the authority of Mr ancient Hancarville and others : but confidering thefe vaft coins. numbers of coins found in various places, it feems fur-

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prifing how fo few fhould now remain in the cabinets H°w t0. of the curious, as the fame author informs us that the tr^g£!om whole of the different ancient coins known to us counter_ amount only to about 80,000, though he owns that feite. the calculation cannot be efteemed accurate. u—v—1 SECT.

VII. How to diftingnifh true Medals from counterfeits*

THE molt difficult and the moft important thing in the whole fcience of medals is the method of dh ftinguiihing the true from the counterfeit. The value put upon ancient coins made the forgery of them almoft coeval with the fcience itfelf; and as no laws inflict a punifnment upon fuch forgers, men of great genius and abilities have undertaken the trade : but whether to the real detriment of the fcience or not, is a matter of fome doubt ; for if only exadft copies of genuine medals are fold for the originals, the impohtion may be deemed trifling : but the cafe muft be accounted very different, it people take it upon them to forge medals which never exifted. At firft the forgeries were extremely grofs ; and medals were forged of Priam, of Ariftotle, Artemifia, Hannibal, and moil of the other illuftrious perfonages of antiquity. Moil of thefe were done in fuch a manner, that the fraud could eafily be difcovered ; but others have impofed even upon very learned men. Mr Pinkerton mentions a remarkable medal of the emperor Heraclius, reprefenting him in a chariot on the reverfe, with Greek and Latin infcriptions, which Jofeph Scaliger and Lipfius imagined to have been ftruck in his own time, but which was certainly iffued in Italy in the 15th century. “ Other learned men (fays our author), have been ttrangely miffed, when fpeaking of coins ; for to be learned in one fubjecft excludes not grofs ignorance in others. Budaeus, de Affe, quotes a denarius of Cicero, M. TOLL. Erafmus, in one of his Epiftles, tells us with great gravity, that the gold coin of Brutus ftruck in Thrace, KOSftN, bears the patriarch Noah coming out of the ark with his two fons, and takes the Roman eagle for the dove with the olive branch. Winkelman, in his letters informs us, that the fmall brafs piece with Virgil’s head, reverfe EPC, is undoubtedly ancient Roman ; and adds, that no knowledge of coins can be had out of Rome : but Winkelman, fo converfant in ftatues, knew nothing of coins. It is from other artifts and other productions that any danger of deceit arifes. And there is no wonder that even the ikilful are miffed by fuch artifts as have ufed this trade ; for among^them appear Sd, the names of Viftor Gambello, Giovani del Cavino, c0;ns £0^ called the PADUAN, and his fon Aleffandro Baffiano,ed by.exlikewife of Padua, Benvenuto Cellini, Aleffandro yellent arGreco, Leo Aretino, Jacobo da Frezzo, FederigotlftsBonzagna, and Giovani Jacopo, his brother ; Sebaftiano PI umbo, Valerio de Vicenza, Gorlseus a German, Carteron of Holland, and others, all or moft of them of the 16th century; and Cavino the Paduan, who is the moft famous, lived in the middle of that century. The forgeries of Cavino are held in no little efteem, being of wonderful execution. His and thofe of Carteron are the moft numerousj many of the other artifts here mentioned not having forged above two or three coins. Later forgers • were

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to di- were Dervieu of Florence who confined himfelf to ftmguifh medallions, and Cogornier who gave coins of the 30 true 10m tyrants jn fmall brafs. The chief part of the forgeries

How

of Greek medals which have come to my knowledge are of the firft mentioned, and a very grofs kind, reprefenting perfons who could never appear upon coin, fuch as Priam, iEneas, Plato, Alcibiades, Artemifia, and others. The re*l Greek coins were very little known or valued till the works of Goltzius appeared, which were happily pofterior to the aera of -the grand forgers. Why later forgers have feldom thought of counterfeiting them cannot eafily be accounted for, if it is not owing to the mafterly workmanlhip of the originals, which fets all imitation at defiance. Forgeries, however, of moll ancient coins may be met with, and of the Greek among the reft. 8t Roman for “ The forgeries are more confpicuous among the Rogeries more man medals than any other kind of coins ; but we are “■han Gre^k n0t *;0 upon all thefe as the work of modern ^ '"artifts. On the contrary, we are allured that many of them were fabricated in the times of the Romans themfelves, fome of them being even held in more eftimation than the genuine coins themfelves, on account of their being plated, and otherwife executed in a manner to which modern forgers could never attain. Even the ancients held fome of thefe counterfeits in fuch eftimation, that Pliny informs us there were frequently many true denarii given for one falfe one.”— Caracalla is faid to have coined money of copper and lead plated with lilver ; and plated coins, the work of ancient forgers, occur of many Greek cities and princes ; nay, there are even forgeries of barbaric coins. “ Some Roman coins (fays Mr Pinkerton), are found of iron or lead plated with brafs, perhaps trials of the Ikill of the forger. Iron is the moll common ; but one decurfio of Nero is known of lead plated with copper. Neumann juftly obferves, that no hiftovic faith can be put in plated coins, and that moll faulty reverfes, &c. arife from plated coins not being noticed as fuch. Even of the Roman confular coins Denarius of not very many have ever been forged. The celebrated Brutus. iilver denarius of Brutus, with the cap of liberty and two daggers, is the chief inllance of a confular coin of which a counterfeit is known. But it is eafily rejected by this mark : in the true coin the cap of liberty is below the guard or hilt of the daggers ; in the falfe, the top of it rifes above that hilt.” S3 imperial The imperial feries of medals is the grand objed of medals. modern medallic forgeries ; and the deception was at firll extended to the moll eminent writers upon the fubjeCl. The counterfeits are by Mr Pinkerton divided into fix dalles. I. Such as are known to be imitations, but valued on account of the artifts by which they are executed. In this clafs the medals of the Paduan rank higheft ; the others being fo numerous, that a complete feries of imperial medals of aim oft every kind, nay almoft of every medallion, may be formed from among them. In France, particularly, by far the greater part of the cabinets are filled with counterfeits of this kind. They are diftinguilhed from fuch as are genuine by the following marks : 1. The counterfeits are almoft univerfally thinner. 2. They are never worn nor damaged. 3. The letters are modern. 4. They are either dellitute of varnilh entirely, or have a falfe one, which is

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Sect. VII.

eafily known by its being black, ftuning, and greafy, How to di« and very eafily hurt with the touch of a needle, while the varnilh of ancient medals is as hard as the metal itfelf. Inftead of the greafy black varniih abovementioned, indeed, they have fometimes a light green one, fpotted with a kind of iron marks, and is compofed of fulphur, verdigrife, and vinegar. It may frequently be diftinguifhed by the hairftrokes of the pencil with which it was laid on being vifible upon it. 5. The lides are either filed or too ipuch fmoothed by art, or bear the marks of a fraall hammer. 6, The counterfeits are always exaClly circular, which is not the cafe with ancient medals, efpecially after the time of Trajan. 84 The Paduan forgeries may be diftinguifhed from Paduan forthofe of inferior artifts by the following marks : 1. The gerics how former are feldom thinner than the ancient. 2. They^nown* very feldom appear as worn or damaged, but the others very frequently, efpecially in the reverfe, and legend of the reverfe, which fometimes, as in forged Othos, appear as half confumed by time. 3. The letters in moulds taken from the antique coins have the rudenefs of antiquity. 4. Falfe varnifh is commonly light green or black, and fhines too much or too little. 5, The fides of forged coins are frequently quite fmooth, and undiftinguiihable from the ancient, though to accomplilh this requires but little art. 6. Counterfeit medals are frequently as irregular in their form as the genuine ; but the Paduan are generally circular, though falfe coins have often little pieces cut off, in perfedl imitation of the genuine. 7. In call coins the letters do not go iharp down into the medal, and have no fixed outline ; their minute angles, as well as thofe of the drapery, are commonly filled up, and have not the (harpnefs of the genuine kind. Where the letters or figures are faint, the coin is greatly to be fufpefted. 85 The letters form the great criterion of medals, the Letters the ancient being very rude, but the modern otherwile ; principal 0 the reafon of which, according to Cellini, is, that the ancients engraved all their matrices with the graver or burin, while the modern forgers ftrike theirs with a punch. 86 According to Vico, the falfe patina is green, black, Vico’s acruffet, brown, gray, and iron-colour. The green is£ollntof made from verdigrife, the black is the fmoke of ful- a e rat‘na* phur, the gray is made of chalk fteeped in urine, the coin being left for fome days in the mixture. The ruffet is next to the natural, by reafon of its being a kind of froth which the fire forces from ancient coins ; but when falfe, it fhines too much. To make it they frequently took the large brafs coins of the Ptolemies, which were often corroded, and made them red hot in the fire ; put the coins upon them, and a fine patina adhered. Our author does not fay in what manner the iron-coloured patina was made. “ Sometimes (adds he) they take an old defaced coin, covered with real patina, and ftamp it anew ; but the patina is then too bright in the cavities, and too dull in the protuberances. The trial of brafs coins with the tongue is not to be defpifed ; for if modern the patina taftes bitter or pungent, while if ancient it is quite taftelefs.” Mr Pinkerton informs us, that all medallions from Julius Casfar to Adrian are much to be fufpedled of forgery ; the true medals of the firft 14 emperors being

Sect. VII. MED How to di- ing exceedingly valuable, and to be found only in the ftinginfh cabinets of princes. true from jj. 'p'he fecond clafs of counterfeit medals contains C0 r £^ thofe cafl from moulds taken from the Paduan forge. ries, and others done by eminent mailers. Thefe are 87 fometimes more difficult to be difcovered than the forMedals caft mer, becaufe in calling them they can give any degree from the 0f thicknefs they pleafe ; and, filling the finall fandPaduan forwith mailic, they retouch the letters with a gragenes. The inflrucverj an(j COver the whole with varnilh. tions already given for the former clafs, however, are alfo ufeful for thofe of the fecond, with this addition, that medals of this clafs are generally lighter than the genuine, becaufe fire rarefies the metal in fome degree, while that which is ilruck is rather condenfed by the ftrokes. In gold and filver medals there cannot be any deception of this kind ; becaufe thefe metals admit not of patina, and confequently the varnifh betrays the impofition. The marks of the file on the margin of thofe of the fecond clafs are a certain fign of forgery ; though thefe do not always indicate the forgery to be of modern date, becaufe the Romans often filed the edges of coins to accommodate them to the purpofes of ornament, as quarter guineas are fometimes put into the bottom of punchladdles. It is common to imitate the holes of medals made by time by means of aquafortis ; but this deflroys the fides of a coin more effectually than if it had been eat into naturally. The fraud, however, is not eafily dillin88 guifhed. Medals caft If I. Medals cajl in moulds from an antique.—In this from an an-mo(}e fome forgers, as Beauvais informs us, have been tquv. very careful ? that they would melt a common medal of the emperor whom they meant to counterfeit, left the quality of the metal fhould betray them. “ This (fays Mr Pinkerton), has been done in the filver Septimius Severus, with the reverfe of a triumphal arch, for which a common coin of the fame prince has been melted ; and in other inftances. Putting metals in the fire or upon hot iron to cleanfe them, gives them an appearance of being caft; for fome fpots of the metal being fofter than the reft will run, which makes this one of the word methods of cleaning medals.— The directions given for difcovering the two former deceptions hold good alfo in this. 89 Ancient IV. Ancient medals retouched and altered.—This is a medals re- elafs of counterfeits more difficult to be difcovered touched. than any other. “ The art (fays Mr Pinkerton), exerted in this clafs is altonilhing ; and a connoiffeur is the lefs apt to fufpeCl it, becaufe the coins themfelves are in fad ancient. The acute minds of the Italian artiils exerted themfelves in this way, when the otherforgeries became common and known. With graving tools they alter the portraits, the reverfes, and the infcriptions themfelves, in a furprifing manner. Of a Claudius ftruck at Antioch they make an Otho ; of a Fauftina, avTitiana ; of a Julia Severa, a Didia Clara ; of a Macrinus, a Pefcennius, &c. Give them a Marcus Aurelius, he ftarts up a Pertinax, by thickening the beard a little, and enlarging the nofe. In Ihort, wherever there is the leaft refemblance in perfons, reverfes, or legends, an artift may from a trivial medal generate a moft fcarce and valuable one. This fraud is diftinguilhable by the falfe varnifh which fometimes malks it; but, above all, by the letters of the if

A L S. 25 legend, which are always ’altered- Though this be How to diftinguifn fometimes done with an artifice almoft miraculous, yet true from moft commonly the charadlers ftraggle, are difunited, counterand not in a line.” feits. In counterfeits of this kind fometimes the obverfe is not touched, but the reverfe made hollow, and filled with maftic coloured like the coin, and engraven with fuch device and legend as was moft likely to bring a great price ; others are only retouched in fome minute parts, by which, however, the value of the coin is much diminilhed. “ Againft all thefe arts (fays Mr Pinkerton), fevere ferutiny mull be made by the purchafer upon the medal itfelf; and the inveftigatioh and opinion of eminent antiquaries had upon its being altered, or genuine as it is iffued from the mint. V. Medals imprejfed with new devices, or foldered.— Medals new In the firft article of this clafs the reverfes have been totally filed off, and new ones impreffed with a die and hammer. This is done by putting the face or obverfe, whichever is not touched, upon different folds of pafteboard, afterwards applying the die and linking it with a hammer. The forgery in this clafs is very eafily difcovered, as the devices and inferiptions on the counterfeits are known not to exift on true medals : as the Pons. jFlius on the reverfe of Adrian; the Expeditio Judaica of the fame emperor, &c. The difference of fabrication in the face or reverfe will be difeovered at the firft glance by any perfon of fkill. The foldered medals confift of two halves belonging to different medals, fawed through the middle and then joined with folder. This mode of counterfeiting is common in filver and brafs coins. “ They will take an Antoninus, for example, and faw off the reverfe, then folder to the obverfe which they have treated in the fame manner. This makes a medal, wdiich, from an unknowing purchafer, will bring an hundred times the price of the two coins which compofe it. When the deceit is ufed in brafs coins, they take care that the metals be of one hue ; though indeed fome pretenders in this way fometimes folder copper hnd brafs together, which at once reveals the deceit. Medals which have a portrait on each fide, and which are generally valuable, are the moft liable to a fufpicion of this fraud. To a very nice eye the minute ring of folder is always vifible ; and upon inferting a graver, the fabrication falls into halves.” In the fame manner reverfes are fometimes foklered to faces not originally belonging to them; as one mentioned by Pere Jobert of Domitian with an amphitheatre, a reverfe of Titus joined to it. Another art is fometimes made ufe of in this kind of counterfeits, of which there is an inftance of the temple of Janus upon Nero’s medals ; where the middle brafs is taken off, and inferted in a cavity made in the middle of a large coin of that prince. In the coins of, the lower empire, however, the reverfes of medals are for etimes fo connected with their obverfes, that a fufpicion of forgery fometimes occurs without any foundation. They are met with moft commonly after tin time of Gallienus, when fuch a number of ufurpers ?irofe, that it was difficult to obtain an exaft portrait or' their features ; the coiners had not time, th'refore, to' ftrike a medal for thefe as they could have done for other emperors who reigned longer. Hence, on the reverie of

MED 24 •How to di- of a medal of Marius, who reigned only three days, ftinguifli there is pacator orbis, which Ihows that at that true from time they had reverfes ready fabricated, to be applied as occalion might require. VI. Plated medals, or thofe which have clefts.—It has been already remarked, that many true medals are 91 Plated me- cracked in the edges ; owing to the repeated ftrokes dals, &c. of the hammer, and the little degree of duftility which the metal podeffes. This the forgers attempt to imitate by a file; but it is eafy to diilinguilh betwixt the natural and artificial cleft by means of a fmall needle. The natural cleft is wide at the extremity, and appears to have a kind of almoft imperceptible filaments ; the ■edges of the crack correfponding with each other in a manner which no art can imitate. The plated medals which have been forged in ancient times were long fuppofed to be capable of refilling every eft’ort of modern imitation ^ but of late years, “ fome ingenious rogues (fays Mr Pinkerton), thought of piercing falfe medals of filver with a redhot needle, which gave a blacknefs to the infide of the coin, and made it appear plated to an injudicious eye. This fraud is eafily diftinguilhed by fcraping the infide of the metal.” It is, however, very difficult to dillinguifh the forgeries of rude money when not call; and our author gives no other direction than to confult a Ikilful medallill. Indeed, notwithllanding all the directions already given, this feems to be a refource which cannot by any means with fafety be neglefted. 91 M r Pinker- A real and practical knowledge of coins “ is only to ton’s direc- be acquired (fays he) by feeing a great number, and tions for knowing comparing the forged with the genuine. It cannot therefore be too much recommended to the young medals. connoilfeur, who wilhes to acquire fome knowledge in this way, to vifit all the fales and cabinets hfc can, and to look upon all ancient medals with a very microfcopic eye. By thefe means only is to be acquired that ready knowledge which enables at firll glance to pronounce upon a forgery, however ingenious. Nor let the fcience of medals be from this concluded to be uncertain ; for no knowledge is more certain and immediate, when it is properly lludied by examination of the real objeCts. A man who buys coins, trailing merely to his theoretic perufal of medallic books, will find himfelf wofully miftaken. He ought to lludy coins firll, where only they can be lludied, in themfelves. Nor can it be matter of wonder or implication of caprice, that a medallill of Ik ill Ihould at one perception pronounce upon the veracity or falfehood of a medal ; for the powers of the human eye, employed in certain lines of fcience, are amazing. Plence a Undent can diltinguilh a book among a thoufand fimilar, and quite alike to every other eye : hence a Ihepherd can difcern, &c. : hence the medallill can fay in an inllant, ‘ this is a true coin, and this is a falfe,’ though to other people no dillinclion be perceptible.” 93. Forgeries of modern coins and medals, Mr PinkerForgeries of modern ton obferves, are almoft. as numerous as of the ancient. The fatyric coin of Louis XII. Perdam Babylonis nomen, is a remarkable inilance : the falfe coin is larger than the true,’ and bears date 1512. The rude coins of the middle ages are very eafily forged, and forgeries have accordingly beconje common. Forged coins of Alfred and other early princes of England have ap-

A L S. Sect. VIII. peared, fome of which have been done with great art. Value. “ The two noted Engliih pennies of Rich. I. fays our author, are of this damp ; and yet have impofed upon Melfrs Folkes and Snelling, who have publilhed them as genuine in the two bed books upon Engliih coins. But they were fabricated by the late Mr White of Newgate-dreet, a noted colledlor, who contaminated an otherwife fair charafter by fueh pra&ices. Such forgeries, though eafy, require a Ikill in the hidory and coinage of the times, which luckily can hardly fall to the lot of a common Jew or mechanic forger. But the practice is deteilable, were no gain propofed: and they who doop to it mull fuppofe, that to embarrais the path of any fcience with forgery and futility, implies no infamy. In forgeries of ancient coin, the fidlion is perhaps fufficiently atoned for by the vaft Ikill required ; and the artid may plaufibly allege, that his intention was not to deceive, but to excite his utmod powers, by an attempt to rival the ancient maders. But no polfible apology can be made for forging the rude money of more modern times. The crime is certainly greater than that which leads the common coiner to the gallows ; inafmuch as it is committed with more eafe, and the profit is incomparably larger.” Sect. VIII. Of the Value of Medals. Ael ancient coins and medals, though equally genuine, are not equally valuable. In medals as well as in every thing elfe, the fcarcity of a coin damps a value upon it which cannot otherwife be derived from its intrinfic worth. There are four or five degrees of rarity reckoned up ; the highed of which is called unique. The caufe is generally afcribed to the fewnefs of number thrown off originally, or to their having been called in, and recoined in another form. To the former caufe Mr Pinkerton afcribes the fcarcity of the copper of Otho and the gold of Pefcennius Niger; to the latter that of the coinage of Caligula ; “ though this lad (fays he) is not of Angular rarity; which {hows that even the power of the Roman fenate could not annihilate an edablidied money; and that the fird caufe of rarity, arifing from the fmall quantity originally druck, ought to be regarded as the principal.” In the ancient cities Mr Pinkerton afcribes the fear- Cauf of Alfred which bear his bull are fcarce, and his other money much more fo. Thofe of Hardyknute are fo rare, that it was even denied that they had an exift■ence ; but Mr Pinkerton informs us, that there are three in the Britilh mufeum, upon all of which the name harthcanut is quite legible. No Englifh coins of King John are to be met with, though there are fome Irifn ones ; and only French coins of Richard I. “ Leake (fays Mr Pinkerton), made a ftrange blunder in aferibing coins of different kings with two faces, arfd otherwife fpoiled in the damping, to this prince ; in which, as ufual, he has been followed by a milled number.” Coins of Alexander II. of Scotland are rather fcarce, Scottifh but thofe of Alexander III. are more plentiful. Thofe coins, of John Baliol are rare, and none of Edward Baliol to be found. Sect. IX. Of the Pur chafe of Medals. Medals are to be had at the fhops of goldfmitht and filverfmiths, with thofe who deal in curiofities, &c. but in great cities there are profeffed dealers in them. The beft method of purchafing medals, however, is that of buying whole cabinets, which are every year expofed to audftion at London. In thefe the rare medals are fold by themfelves ; but the common ones are put up in large lots, fo that the dealers commonly purchafe them. Mr Pinkerton thinks it would be better that medals were fold one by one ; becaufe a lot is often valued and purchafed for the fake of a fingle coin ; while the others feparately would fell for perhaps four times the price of the whole lot. “ If any man of common fenfe and honefty (fays Mr PinD kerton),

Sett. IX. MEDALS. 26 Purchafe. kerton), were to take up the trade of felling coins in fides, without the lead appearance of a portrait upon Purchafe.^ London, he would make a fortune in a fhort time. them. Thefe denote the weight by a certain number This profitable bufinefs is now in the hands of one or of knobs ; and have likewife fmall f curettes engraved two dealers, who ruin their own intereft by making upon them. According to Mr Pinkerton, whenever an elegant ftudy a trade of knavery and impofition. we meet with a piece of metal damped on both fides If they buy 300 coins for 10s. they will aik 3s. for with buds and figures, we may lay it down as a certain one of the word of them ! nay, fell forged coins as rule that it is a coin ; but when (lightly ornamented true to the ignorant. The limpletons complain of and marked upon one fide only, we may with equal certainty conclude it to be a weight. 107 want of buiinefs. A knave is always a fool. 102 The ancient Roman afes are worth from 2S. to 2I. Price of the Price of The gold coins of Carthage, Cyrene, and Syracufe, ancien t Rogold coins are worth about twice their intriufic value as metal; according to the fingularity of their devices. Confu- mau alcS eac lar gold coins are worth from il. to 5I. Pompey with ‘ of Carh« thage, See. but the other gold civic coins from 5k t° 3^* The only gold coins of Athens certainly known to his fons 21I. and the two Bruti 25I. The filver coins univerfally worth from a dulling to half a crown, exift are two lately procured by the king. One of are thefe remains in poffeffion of his majefty, but the other excepting that of the cap of liberty and a few others, was given by the queen to X)r Hunter. There was which, if genuine will bring from 10s. to 5I. The conanother in the Britilh mufeum, but fufpe&ed not to fular copper bears an equal price with the filver,^ but be genuine. Dr Hunter’s coin, then, if fold, would is more rare ; the confular lilver coins redored by 1 raare worth 20s. each. hear the higheft price that could be expe&ed for a janWith regard to the Roman imperial coins, it is to 103 coin. at rr be obferved, that fome of thofe which belong to Of filver The filver coins of Syracufe, Dyrrhachium, Maiiilia, Athens, and a few other Hates, are common ; the princes whofe coins are numerous, may yet be rendrachmas and coins of lelfer fize are worth about dered extremely valuable by uncommon reverfes. Mr Pinkerton particularly points out that of Augudus, five (hillings ; the didrachms, tetradrachms, &c. from with the legend C. Marius Trogvs, which is worth five to ten, according to their fize and beauty ; the larged, as might naturally be expected, being more three guineas, though the lilver coins of that prince valuable than the dmall ones. The tetradrachms, when in general are not worth above a (hilling. In like manner, the common gold coins of Trajan are not of cities whofe coins are common, are worth from 7s. worth above twenty (hillings, while thofe with Bafilica 6d. to il. is. but it is impoffible to put a value upon Ulpia, Forum Trajanl, Divi Nerva et Fraj anus, Pater, the rare civic coins; ten guineas have been given for Divi Nerva et Platina Aug. Profedio Aug. Regna 104 a (ingle one. AJJignata, Rex Parthus, and fome others, bear from Greek cop The Greek copper coins are common, and are alper coins. moft all of that kind called yW/ brafs; the middle fize three to fix pounds. The ticket medals belong to the Roman fenate,and are worth from three to ten (hillings. being fearce, and the larged in the ages prior to the The forged coins and medallions of the Paduan fell Roman emperors extremely fo. The common Greek from one to three (hillings each. . 108 coins of brafs bring from 3d. to _i8d. according to Of the coins of other nations, thofe of Hildenc Barbaric their prefervation ; but when of cities, whofe coins are king of the Vandals are in filver, and worth 1 os. ; coins, rare, much higher prices are given. “ The want of a the (mall brafs of Athanaric, 5s* > the gold of Pheofew cities, however (fays Mr Pinkerton), is not thought doric 2I. ; the fecond brafs of Theodahat 5s. ; the to injure a colledion ; as indeed new names are diico- fecond brafs of Badueta rare, and worth 10s. ; the vered every dozen of years, fo that no affortment can third brafs, 3s. The Briti(h coins are very rare, and be perfed. To this it is owing that the rarity of the worth from ten (hillings to two guineas each, fome105 . Grecian civic coins is not much attended to. times much more. Medals with unknown charatfers Gold coins The gold coins of Philip and Alexander the Great of Philip being very common, bear but from five to ten (hillings are always fcarce and dear. Saxon pennies of the andAlexan heptarchy are rare, and worth from ten (hillings to above their intrinfic value ; but thofe of the other ten pounds, according to their fcarcity and prefervader. princes, being rare, fell from 3I. to 30I. each, or even tion. The coins of the Englifh kings are common ; of Edward the Confeffor, in particular ; others The tetradrachms are the deared of the filver mo- thoferare, and worth from ten (hillings to two guineas, narchic money, felling from five to ten (hillings ; and are while two of Hardyknute are worth no lefs than ten if very rare, from 3I. to 30I. Half thefe prices may guineas. The gold medals of Henry, in I545> an(^ be obtained for the drachmas, and the other denomi- the coronation of Edward, are worth 20I. each : the 106 nations in proportion. _ , n r r Mary of Trezzo, 3I. ; Simon’s head of Thurloe in Greek cop The Greek copper coins are for the mod part icar- gold is worth 12I. ; his oval medal in gold upon per coins certhan the filver, except the Syro-Grecian, which Blake’s naval viftory at fea is worth 30I. ; and his more rare than the are common, and almod all of the fize called fmall trial piece, if brought to a fale, would, in Mr Pinkerbrafs “ They ought (fays Mr Pinkerton), to bear a ulver. ton’s opinion, bring a dill higher price. Phe medals a high price ; but the metal and fimilarity to the cop- of Queen Anne, which are intnnfically worth about per civic coins, which are common, keep their adual two guineas and a half, fell for about 3I. each ; the purchafe moderate, if the feller is not well mdruded, filver, of the fize of a crown piece, fell for 10s. and and the buyer able and willing to pay the price ol the copper from five to ten (hillings. Daffier’s copper pieces fell from two to five (hillings, and a few bear a name of weights given to the ancient Roman higher price. „ ,. , . , ^ afes is, according to our author, exceedingly improThe Scottifh gold coins fell higher than the Engliili per ; as that people had weights of lead and brafs 2

Sea. X. MED Arrange- lift, but tbe others are on a par. The {billing of Mament, &c. ry with the bufl is rare, and fells for no lefsthan 30I. ; the half 3I. ; and the royal 5I. 5s. The French tef*°9. toon of Francis and Mary brings 10I. 10s. and the ofScotland.Scotlidi one of Mar,- and Henry would bring 50I. as would alfo the medal of James IV. I he coronation medal of Francis and Mary is worth 20I. Briot’s coronation medal fold in 1755 only for two guineas at Dr Mead’s fale ; but would now bring 20I. if fold no according to rarity. Englifh The Englift coins ftruck in Ireland are of much the coins ftruckpame price with thofe of the native country ; but the in Ireland. gt Patrick’s halfpence and farthings are rather fcarce, and the rare crown of white metal is worth 4I. The gun-money of James II. and all other Irift coins are very common. Sect. X. Arrangement of Medals, with the In* fruition to be derived from them. Having thus given a full account of every thing in general relative to medals, we mufi now come to fome particulars refpefting their arrangement, and the entertainment which a medallifl: may expeft from the trouble and expence he is at in making a colleftion. It has already been obferved, that one of the principal ufes of medals is the elucidation of ancient hiftory. Hence the arrangement of his medals is the firft thing that muff: occur in the formation of a cabinet. The moft ancient medals with which we are acquainted are thofe of Alexander I. of Macedon, who began to reign about 501 years before Chrift. The feries ought of confequence to begin with him, and to be fucceeded by the medals of Sicily, Caria, Cyprus, Heraclia, and Pontus. Then follow Egypt, Syria, the Cimmerian Bofphorus, Thrace, Bithynia, Parthia, Armenia, Damafcus, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, Pergamus, Galatia, Cilicia, Sparta, Pasonia, Epirus, Illyricum, Gaul, and the Alps, including the fpace of time from Alexander the Great to the birth of Chrift, and which is to be accounted the third medallic feries of ancient monarchs. The laft feries goes down to the fourth century, including fome of the monarchs of Thrace, Bofphorus, and Parthia, with thofe of Comagene, Edefla or Ofrhoene, Mauritania, and Judaea. A moft diftinft feries is formed by the Roman emperors, from Julius Caefar to the deftruilion of Rome by the Goths ; nay, for a much longer period, were it not that towards the latter part of it the coins become fo barbarous as to deftroy the beauty of the colleftion. Many feries may be formed of modern potentates. By means of medals we can with great certainty determine the various ornaments worn by ancient it 1 princes as badges of diftinftion. The Grecian kings Dudem an have generally the diadem, without any other ornaancient em- merit; and though in general the fide of the face is blem of to view, yet in fome very ancient Greek and fovereign prefented authority. Roman confular coins, full faces of excellent workmanftip are met with. On feveral coins alfo two or three faces are to be feen, and thefe are always accounted very valuable. The diadem, which was no more than a ribbon tied round the head with a floating knot behind, adorns all the Grecian princes from firft to laft, and is almoft

A L S. 27 an infallible mark of fovereign power. In the Roman Arrange* confular coins it is feen in conjundfion with Numa andnient> ^c'v Ancus, but never afterwards till the time of Licinius, the colleague of Conftantine. Diocleiian, indeed, according to Mr Gibbon, firft wore the diadem, but his portrait upon coins is never adorned with it. So great an averfton had the Romans to kingly power, that they rather allowed their emperors to aflume the radiated crown, the fymbol of divinity, than to wear a diadem ; but, after the time of Conftantine, it becomes common. The radiated crown appears firft on the pofthumous coins of Auguftus as a mark of deification, but in fomewhat more than a century became common. The laurel crown, at firft a badge of conqueft, was afterwards permitted by the fenate to be worn by Julius Caefar, in order to hide the baldnefs of his head. From him all the emperors appear with it on their medals, even to our own times. In the lower empire the crown is fometimes held by a hand above the head, as a mark of piety. Befides thefe, the naval, mural, and civic crowns appear on the medals both of emperors and other eminent men, to denote their great actions. The laurel crown is alfo fometimes worn by the Greek princes. The Arfacidae of Parthia wear a kind of faft round the head, with their hair in rows of curls like a wig. The Armenian kings have the tiara, a kind of cap which was efteemed the badge of imperial power in the call. Conical caps are feen on the medals of Xerxes, a petty prince of Armenia, and Juba the father, the former having a diadem around it. The impious vanity of Alexander and his fucceflbrs Symbols of in afluming divine honours is manifeft on their medals, divinity on where various fymbols of divinity are met with. Some colI^s of them have an horn behind their ear, either to de* .n)J fuc. note their ftrength, or that they were the fucceflbrs ofce{fors> Alexander, to whom this badge might be applied as the fon of Jupiter Ammon. This, however, Mr Pinkerton obferves, is the only one of thefe fymbols which certainly denotes an earthly fovereign, it being doubted whether the reft are not all figures of gods.— According to Eckhet, even the horn and diadem be* long to Bacchus, who invented the latter to cure his headachs ; and, according to the fame author, the only monarch who appears on coins with the horn is Lyfimachus. We are informed, however, by Plutarch, that Pyrrhus had a creft of goats horns to his helmet ; and the goat, we know, was a fymbol of Macedom Perhaps the fucceffors of Alexander wore this badge of the horn in confequence. The helmet likewife frequently appears on the heads of fovereigns, and Conftantine I. has helmets of various forms curioufly ornamented. k The diadem is worn by moft of the Greek queens, by Ofodaltis, daughter of Lycomedes, king of Bithynia; and though the Roman emprefies never appear with it, yet this is more than compenfated by the variety of their headdrefles. Sometimes the bull of an emprefs is fupported by a crefcent, to imply that fte was the moon, as her hufband was the fun of the ftate. The toga, or vail drawn over the face, at firft implied that the perfon was invefted with the pontifical office ; and accordingly we find it on the bulls of Julius Casfar, while Pontifex Maximus., It likewife implies the auD 2 gurfhip,

28 MED Arrange- gurfliip, the augurs having a particular kind of gown ment, &c. ca]le(l lana, with which they covered their heads when u—< 0^fervjng an omen. In latter times this implies only confecration, and is common in coins of empreffes. It is firft met with on the coins of Claudius Gothicus as the mark of confecration of an emperor. The nimbus, or glory, now appropriated to faints, has been already mentioned. It is as ancient as Augutlus, but is not to be met with on many of the imperial medals, even after it began to be appropriated to them. There is a curious coin, which has upon the reverfe of the common piece, with the head of Rome, Urbs Roma, in large brafs, Conilantine I. fitting amid Vidtories and genii, with a triple crown upon his head for Europe, Alia, and Africa, with the legend Securitas 113 Rom.#. Portraits In general only the bull is given npon medals, upon me- though fometimes half the body or more ; in which d ,s “ ' latter cafe the hands often appear with enfigns of majefty in them ; fuch as the globe faid to have been introduced by Augullus as a fymbol of univerfal dominion ; the fceptre fometimes confounded with the confular ftaff, a roll of parchment, the fymbol of legiflative power, and an handkerchief, expreflive of the power over the public games, where the emperor gave the fignal. Some princes hold a thunderbolt, Ihowing that their power on earth was equal to that of Jupiter in heaven ; while others hold an image of Vidtory. Medals likewife afford a good number of portraits of illullrious men ; but they cannot ealily be arranged in chronological order, fo that a feries of them is not to be expedted. It is likewife vain to attempt the formation of a feries of gods and goddeffes to be found on ancient coins. Mr Pinkerton thinks it much better to arrange them under the feveral cities or kings whofe names they bear. A colledHon of the portraits of illuftrious men may likewife be formed from medals of modern date. 114 Reverfes of The reverfes of ancient Greek and Roman coins Greek and afford an infinite variety of inffnidlion and amulement. Roman They contain figures of deities at full length, with coins ' their attributes and fymbols, public fymbols and diverfions, plants, animals, &c. &c. and in ffiort almoll every objedt of nature or art. Some have the portrait of the queen, fon, or daughter of the prince whofe image appears oq the face or obverfe ; and thefe are efteemed highly by antiquaries, not only becaufe every coin itamped with portraits on both iides is accounted valuable, but becaufe they render it certain that the perfon reprefented on the reverfe was the wife, fon, or daughter of him who appears on the obverfe ; by v/hich means they affift greatly in the adjufting of a feries. Some, however, with two portraits are common, as Auguftus, the reverfe of Caligula ; and Marcus Aurelius, reverfe of Antoninus Pius. We find more art and defign in the reverfes of the Roman medals than of the Greek : but, on the other hand, the latter have more exquifite relief and workmanfhip. The very ancient coins have no reverfes, excepting a rude mark ftruck into the metal, refembling that of an inftrument with four blunt points on which the coin was ftruck ; and was owing to its having been fixed by fuch an inftrument on that fide to receive the impreffion upon the other. To this fucceeds the image jj£ a dolphin, or fame fmall animal,

A L S. Sea. X. Si in one of the departments of the rude mark, or in an Arrange^ hollow fquare : and this again is fucceeded by a more ment> &c- ^ perfect image, without any mark of the hollow fquare.* Some of the Greek coins are hollow in the reverfe, as thofe of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, and fome other ancient cities of Magna Graecia. About 500 B. C. perfect reverfes appear on the Greek coins, of exquifite relief and workmanffiip. “ The very mufcles of men and animals (fays Mr Pinkerton), are feen, and will bear infpedftion with the largeft magnifier as ancient gems. The ancients certainly had not eyes different from oxtrs ; and it is clear that they muft have magnified obje&s. A drop of water forms a microfcope ; and it is probable this was the only one of the ancients. To Greek artifts we are indebted for the beauty of the Roman imperial coins; and thefe are fo highly finiihed, that on fome reverfes, as that of Nero’s decurlion, the adventus and progrejjio of various emperors, the fundator pacts of Severus, the features of the emperor, riding or walking, are as exa& as on the obverfe. But though the beft Greek artifts were called to Rome, yet the Greek coins under the Roman emperors are fometimes well executed, and always full of variety and curiofity. No Roman or Etrufcan coins have been found of the globular form, or indented on the reverfe like the early Greek. The firft Greek are fmall pieces of filver, while the Roman are large maffes of copper. The former are ftruck ; the latter call in moulds. The reverfes of the Roman coins are very uniform, the prow of a fhip, a car, or the like, till about the year 100 B. C. when various reverfea appear on their coniular coins in all metals. The variety and beauty of the Roman imperial reverfes are well known. The medallift much values thofe which have a number of figures ; as the Puelloc Faujliniana, of Fauftina, a gold coin no larger than a lixpence, which has 12 figures ; that of Trajan, regna affignata, has four ; the congiarium of Nerva five ^ the allocution of Trajan feven ; of Hadrian 10 ; of Probus 12. Some Roman medals have fmall figures on both fides, as the Apolloni fanciooi Julian II. Such have not received any peculiar name among the medallifts. Others have only a reverfe, as the noted fpintriati, which have numerals I- II. &c. on the obverfe.” xir The natnes of the deities reprefented on the rever-of the deifes of Greek coins are never expreffed ; perhaps, as Mr fent ties reprePinkerton fuppofes, out of piety, a fymboiical repre- ;eJ ’'‘P011 fentation of their attributes being all that they thought proper to delineate ; but the Roman coins always express the name, frequently with an adjunct, as Veneri Victrici, &c. In others, the name of the emperor or emprefs is added ; as Pudiciti.-e Augusts, round an image of Modefty ; Virtus Augusti, a legend for an image of Virtue. The principal fymbols of the divine attributes to be met with on the Greek medals are as follow : 1. Jupiter is known on the coins of Alexander the Great by his eagle and thunderbolts ; but when the figure occurs only on the obverfes of coins, he is diftinguifhed by a laurel crown, and placid bearded countenance. Jupiter Ammon is known by the ram s horn twilling round his ear ; a lymbol of power and ftrength, affumed by fome of the fucceffors of Alexander the Great, particularly by Lyfimachus. 2. Neptune

Sea. X. MED Arrange2. Neptune is known by bis trident, dolpbin, or bement, &c. ing drawn by fea-borfes ; but he is feldom met with on the Grecian coins. 3. Apollo is diitinguifhed by an harp, branch of laurel or tripod ; and fometimes by a bow and arrows. In the character of the Sun, his head is furrounded with rays ; but when the bull only occurs, he has a fair young face, and is crowned with laurel. He. is frequent on the coins of the Syrian princes. 4. Mars is diftinguifhed by his armour, and femetimes by a trophy on his {boulders. His head is armed with a helmet, and has a ferocious countenance. 5. Mercury is reprefented as a youth, with a final! cap on his head, wings behind his ears and on his feet. He is known by the cap, which refembles a fmall hat, and the wings. He appears alfo with the caduceus, or wand twined veith ferpents, and the marfupium, or purfe, which he holds in his hand. 6. Asfculapius is known by his bufhy beard, and Ins leaning on a club with a ferpent twilled round it. He fometimes occurs with his wife Hygeia or Health, with their fon Telefphorus or Convalefcence between them. 7. Bacchus is known by his crowm of ivy or vine, his diadem and horn, with a tiger and fatyrs around him. 8. The figure of Hercules is common on the coins of Alexander the Great, and has frequently been miftaken for that of the prince himfelf. He appears fometimes as a youth and fometimes with a beard. He is known by the club, lion’s Ain, and remarkable apparent ftrength ; fometimes he has a cup in his hand; and a poplar tree, as a fymbol of vigour, is fometimes added to the portrait. 9. The Egyptian Serapis is known by his bulky beard, and a meafure upon, his head. 10. Apis is delineated in the form of a bull, with a flower of the lotos, the water lily of the Nile, fuppofed by Macrobius to be a fymbol of creation ; and Jamblichus tells us, that Oiiris was thought to have his throne in it. xi. Harpocrates, the god of Silence, appears with his finger on his mouth ; fometimes with the fiftrum in his left hand ; a fymbol common to moil of the Egyptian deities. 12. Canopus, another Egyptian deity, appears in the fliape of a human head placed on a kind of pitcher. “ This deified pitcher (fays Mr Pinkerton), feems to refer to an anecdote of ancient fuperftition, which, I believe, is recorded by Plutarch. It feems fome perfian and Egyptian priefts had a conteft which of their deities had the fuperiority. The Egyptian faid, that a fingle vafe, facred to Serapis, would extinguhh the whole power of the Perfian deity of fire. The experiment was tried ; and the wily Egyptian, boring holes in the vafe and Hopping them with wax, afterwards filled the vafe with water; which, gulhing through the holes as the wax melted, extinguilhed the Perfian deity. Hence the vafe was deified.” 13. The Holy Senate and Holy People, appear frequently on Greek imperial coins, fometimes reprelented as old men with beards, at others as youths. The goddeffes reprefented on medals are, 1. Juno, reprefented by a beautiful young woman, x

2 A L S. 9 ir:ln fometimes with a diadem, fometimes without any ^ Jy” badge, which is reckoned a fufficient diitindtion, as 'c, the other goddeffes all wear badges. Sometimes fhe appears as the goddefs of marriage ; and is then veiled to the middle, and fometimes to the toes._ She is known by the peacock, a bird facred to her from the fable of Argus. 2. Minerva is very common on the coins of Alexander the Great ; and her bull has been miftaken by the celebrated painter Le Brun for the hero himfelf. She is very ealily diitinguifhed by the helmet. Her fymbols are, her armour ; the fpear in her right hand, and the aegis, with a Meduia’s head, in her left ; an owl commonly {landing by her. 3. Diana of Ephefus is commonly reprefented on the Greek imperial coins ; and appears with a great number of breails, fuppofed to denote univerfal Nature. She is fupported by two deer, and carries a pannier of fruit upon her head. The bufl of tiiis goddefs is known by tire crefcent on her brow, and fometimes by the bow and quiver at her fide. 4. Venus is known by an apple, the prize of beauty, in her hand. Sometimes the is diftinguiihed only by her total want of drefs ; but is always to be known by her extraordinary beauty, and is fometimes adorned with pearls about the neck. y. Cupid is fometimes met with on the Syrian coins, and is known by his infancy and wings. 6. Cybele is known by a turreted crown and lion ; or is feen in a chariot drawn by lions. 7. Ceres is known by her garland of wheat, and is common on the Sicilian coins that ifland being remarkable for its fertility. Sometimes fhe has two ferpents by her, and is fometimes drawn in a chariot by them. She carries in her hands the torches with which (he is fabled to have gone in fearch of her daughter Proferpine. 8. Proferpine herfelf is fometimes met with om coins, with the name of or the girl* 9. The Egyptian Ills has a bud or flower on her head ; a fymbol of the perpetual bloom of the inhabitants of heaven. She carries alfo a fiftrum in her hand. 10. The Sidonian Aftarte appears on a globe fupported on a chariot with two wheels, and drawn by two horfes. Thefe are the deities moft commonly reprefented on the Greek coins. The more uncommon are, Saturn with his feythe, or with a hook on the Heraclian coins ; Vulcan with his tongs, on the reverfe of a coin of Thyatira, reprefented at w^ork in the prefence of Minerva. Adranus, a Sicilian god, is fometimes reprefented on coins with a dog. Anubis, an Egyptian deity, has a dog’s head. Atis is known by his Phrygian bonnet Caftor and Pollux by a liar on the head of each ; Dis, by his old face, difhevelled hair and beard, and a hook Flora by her crown of flowers ; Nemefis by her wheel; and Pan by his horns and ears belonging to fome kind of beaft. There are likewfife to be found on medals many Il6 different fymbols by themfelves ; of the moft remark-Table of able of which we {hall give the following table, with fymbols. their fignifications : Symbols. Signification. I. Vafes with fprigs, Solemn games. 2.. Small

3° Arrangement, See.

MEDALS. Symbols. 2. Small cheft or hamper, with a ferpent leaping out,

Signification. fMyflic rites of Bacchus. (Coin ilruck at Antioch, where an an3. Anchor on Seleucian medals, chor was dug up. 4. Apollo on Syrian col ns, on an ^ Coveredtripod. inverted hamper, f Arifteus the < fon of Apol5. Bee, l lo. Apollo. 6. Laurel, A river. 7. Reed, Bacchus, 8. Ivy and grapes, f Ceres and Pro9. Poppy, \ ferpine. Ceres. 10. Corn, Minerva. 11. Owl and olive, Venus. 12. Dove, Diana, Ceres, or Profer13. Torch, pine. ("Thefun, Belus, 14. Mudnis, or conic Hone, \ or Venus. Symbols of Countries, &c. 15. Pomegranate flowers, Rhodes. 16. Owl, Athens. 17. Pegafus, Corinth. 18. Wolf’s head, Argos. 19. Bull’s head, Boeotia. 20. Minotaur’s head and laybyrinth, Crete. 21. Horfe’s head, Pharfalia. 22. Lion, Marfeilles. 23. Tortoife, Peloponnefus. 24. Sphinx, _ Scio. 25. Three legs joined, as in the Ifle \ q. _'* of ATT0 Manrs money, - JI Theflaly. 26. Horfe, Byzantium(A). 27. The crefeent, f Suppofed to be 28. Bull, ... { a river, f Acolony drawn 29. Enfign, with the letters Col. -< from one leL gion. f Apis, ftrength 30. Bull, \ or fecurity. f Peace and con31. Caduceus, * \ cord. Abundance. 32. Cornucopias, Priefthood. 33. Pontifical hat, f Batoon of com34. Parazonium, \ mand.

Sea. XL

ArrangeSignfcation. ment, See. f The world pre| ferved by the 35. Globe on an altar with three gods for the liars. three fons of Conftantine I. Security. 36. Fort and gate, 37. Tribuli, a kind of chevaux de Unknown. frize, 38. Altar or tripod, Piety. 39. Dolphin, ... Apollo. . Feilivals. 40. Leftillernia, Augurfhip. 41, Lituus, or twifted wand, Pontificate. 42 Apex, or cap with firings, 43 Thenfa, or chariot employed to f Confecration of carry images, ^ an emprefs. Ditto. 44 Peacock, t, . f Confecration of Ea Ie 45 S * ‘ i an emperor. 117 Legends of The legends put upon medals are defigned as ex-mCdais> planations of them ; but as the compafs of even the largefi coins does not admit of any great length of infeription, it has always been found neceflary to ufe abbreviations ; and in readily decyphering thefe lies a confiderable part of the difficulty of the fcience. This, however, is greater in the Roman than in the Greek medals ; for the Greeks commonly infert as much of the word as is fufficient to enable us ealily to underftand its meaning ; but it is common for thofe who attempt to explain letters that do not often occur, to fall into very ridiculous errors. Of this Mr Pinkerton gives a moft remarkable inftance in Fortunius Li- take of Vorcetus, a learned man, who finding upon a coin of A-tuniusLicedrian the letters, F. IA fignifying the 14th year of thattus. emperor’s reign, imagined that they fignified Lucernas invenit Delta ; “ Delta invented lanthorns and thence aferibed the origin of lanthorns to the Egyptians. Tables explaining the meaning of the abbreviations found upon medals have been publifhed by Patki, Urfatus, and others. Symbols.

Sect. XI. Of Medallions, Medalets, &c. \ Besides the ordinary coins of the ancients, which paired in common circulation through the country, there were others of a larger fize, which are now termed medallions. Thefe were ftruck on the commencement of the reign of a new emperor and other folemn occalions: frequently alfo, by the Greeks in particular, as monuments of gratitude or of flattery. Sometimes they were mere trial or pattern pieces ; and thofe abound after the time of Maximian, with the words Tres Monet# on the reverfe. The common opinion is.

(a) This appears on the early coins of Byzantium, with the legend BYZANTIN. r£2T. “ the preferver of Byzantium.” The reafon of this was, that when Philip of Macedon befieged the city, and was about to fiorm it in a cloudy night, the moon Ihone out on a fudden and difeovered him ; by which means the inhabitants had time to colleft their forces and repulfe him. The Turks on entering Conftantinople, found this badge in many places ; and fufpefting fome magical power in it, aflumed the fymbol and its power to themfelves; fo that the crefeent is now the chief Turkifh enfign.

M E D DCd. XI, Medal- is, that afl the Roman pieces of gold exceeding the ions, &c. denarius aureus, all in filver exceeding the denarius, “—v——" and all in brafs exceeding the feftertius, went ^under the denomination of medallions: but Mr Pinkerton thinks that many of thefe large pieces went in circulation, though not very commonly, as our five and two guinea pieces, filver crowns, &c. do in this country. The fineft medallions were prefented by the mint mafters to the emperor, and by the emperor to his friends, as fpecimens of fine workmanfhip. The bell we have at prefent are of brafs, and many of them compofed of two forts cf metal; the centre being copper, with a ring of brafs around it, or the contrary ; and the infcription is fometimes confined to one of the metals, fometimes not. There is a remarkable difference between the Greek and Roman medallions in point of thicknefs ; the latter being frequently three or four lines thick, while the other feldom exceed one. Very few medallions, however, were ftruck by the Greeks before the time of the Roman emperors; but the Greek medallions of the emperors are more numerous than thofe of the Romans themfelves. All thefe pieces, however, are of fuch high price that few private perfons are able to purchafe them. In the lall century Clyiftina queen of Sweden procured about 300. In the king of France’s colleftion there are 1200; a number formerly fuppofed not to exift ; and Dr Hunter’s collection contains about 400, exclufive of the Egyptian. Befides thefe large pieces, there are fmaller ones, of a fize fomewhat larger than our half-crowns ; and by Italian medallills are called medaglion cini, or fmall medallions. They are ftill fcarcer than the large 119 kind. There is ftill a third kind, which have almoft efcaDf medU' ped the notice of medallifts, viz. the fmall coins or lets. mi/Jilia fcattered among the people on folemn occafions ; fuch as thofe ftruck for the flaves on account of the faturnalia ; counters for gaming ; tickets for baths and featts ; tokens in copper ami in lead, &c. Thefe are diftinguiihed by Mr Pinkerton by the name of medalets. Many, or perhaps almoft all, of thofe ftruck for the faturnalia were fatyrical ; as the flaves had then a licenfe to ridicule not only their mailers but any perfon whatever. Mr Pinkerton mentions one ofrthe moil common pieces of this kind, which has on the obverfe the head of an old woman veiled, with a laurel crown ; the reverfe only s. c. within a wreath. Baudelot is of opinion that it is the head of Acca Laurentia, the nurfe of Romulus, to whom a feftival was ordained. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Pinkerton), it was ftruck in ridicule of Julius Caefar; for the manner of the laurel crown, and its high appearance over the head, perftftly refemble that of Julius on his coins.” Some have a fliip upon one fide ; on the reverfe T, or a crofs, which was the image of Priapus; and occafioned many falfe inveclives againft the fir ft Chriitians, who paid fuch refpedl to the crofs. Some pieces have the heads of the emperors upon one fide ; on the reverfe only numerals, III. IV. V. Sac. and the noted fpintriati of Tacitus. Both thefe kinds appear tickets for the baths, as the number feems to denote the particular bath. Some have the head of a girl, with a veffel ufed at the baths in her hand. The fpintriati are fa immodeft, that few will bear mention. But

31 A L S. fome are merely ludicrous ; as one which has an afs with a bell about his neck, and a foldier riding him; hons> ^ another with two figures hoifting a woman in a balket l'" "v into the air. Of thofe that will juft bear mention, is a man with titles around him, as chief of the games ; and a woman in ridicule of the modeft bath-girl abovementioned. There is alfo one marked xix, on which appears an imperator triumphing in a car : this car is placed on the back of a camel; and behind the imperator is a monkey mimicking him. J20 A fourth clafs of medals are called contorniati from Of the ccnthe Italian contornicito, “ encircled becaiife of thetoru^h* hollow circle which commonly runs around them. They are diftinguiihed from medallions by their thinnefs, faint relief, reverfes fometimes in relief, fometimes hollow ; and in general by the inferiority in their workmanlhip. The opinions of medallifts concerning thefe pieces are very various ; fome fuppofe them to have been ftruck by Gallienus to the memory of illuftrious men and celebrated athleta, at the time that he caufed all the confecration coins of his predecefibrs to be reftored ; others afcribe their invention to Greece, &c. but Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that they were only tickets for places at public games. Many of them, notwithftanding their inferior workmanihip, are very valuable on account of their preferring the portraits of fome illuftrious authors of antiquity, nowhere elfe to be found. Much dependance, however, cannot be put on the portraits of Greek authors and eminent men found upon fome of them ; for though we know that the bulls of Salluft, Horace, &c, mull have been ftruck when their perfons were frelh in the memory of the artifts, yet it was otherwife with Homer, Solon, Pythagoras, See. which are to be found on fome of them, liven theie, however, are valuable, as being ancient and perhaps traditional portraits of thefe great men. The laft whofe portraits are fuppofed to have been delineated in this way, are Apollonius Tyaneus who flourifiied in the time of Domitian, and Apuleius in that of Marcus Antoninus. Mr Pinkerton thinks it a confirmation of his opinion concerning thefe medals, that the reverfes always contain fome device alluding to public games, as that of a charioteer driving a chariot, &c.

Sect. XII. Direclions for making Cabinets. We mull now proceed to the laft part of our fubje6l, viz. that of giving direclions for the formation of cabinets. As we have already feen that the formation of any one mull be attended with very coniiderable expence, it is neceffary for every one who attempts this to proportion the cabinet to his own circumllances. There are, properly fpeaking, three kinds^ of cabinets. 1. Thofe meant to contain a coin oi every fort that has been iffued from the mint in every age and country ; but this, which may be called the large and complete cabinet, is not to be purchafed by private perfons. That of Dr Hunter already mentioned is pedjaps one of the bell private cabinets ever known; ancl coll 23,000!. but as many duplicates were fold as coll 2000I. by which means the expence was reduced to 2i,oool. The vaft colleftion made by the king of France coll upwards of ioo,oool. 2. The fmaikx

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M E D 3 Bire&ions fmaTltr cablact may be fuppofed to confifl only of ^>r making middle and firm'll Roman brafs, Englifii pennies, groats, cabinets. a few rriedals of the more valuable kind, and may be fuppofed to incur an expence of from 200 to 1000I. 3. The fmalleft kind is called a cajket of medals, and does not confifl of above a thoufand at moft of various kinds ; and confequently the expence muil depend on the pleafure of the proprietor. In the formation of the grand cabinet, it muft be obferved that the Greek medals of every denomination do not admit of any arrangement by the metals like the Roman ; not any regular feries of this kind being met with even in the moil opulent cabinets. Hence in all colle&ions the civic coins are ranged according to an alphabetical order; and the monarchic in a chronological one. The fame rule is to be obferved in the Roman confular medals ; they are ranged, like the coins of the Greek cities, in an alphabetical feries of the families. The Roman imperial coins are only thofe capable of being arranged according to fixes and metals. Even from this mull be excepted the minimi, or very fmalleft coins ; which are fo fcarce, that the only regular feries of them in the world is that belonging to the king of Spain, which was formed by a mott fleilful French medallift, and confifts of all the metals. The arrangement of a grand cabinet, according to Mr Pinkerton, is as follows. “ I. The coins of cities and of free ftates in alphabetical order : whether ufing Greek, Roman, Punic, Etrufcan, or Spanifti charafters. “ II. Kings in chronological feries, both as to foundation of empire and feniority of reign. “ III. Heroes, heroines, founders of empires, and cities. IV. Other illuftrious perfons. “ V. Roman afes. 4< VI. Coins of families, commonly called confular. “ VII. Imperial medallions. VIII. Imperial gold. IX. Imperial minimi of all metals. X. Imperial filver. “ XL Imperial firft brafs. “ XII. Second brafs. “ XIII. Third brafs. “ XIV. Colonial coins, which are all of brafs, “ XV. Greek cities under the emperors, of all mtetals and fixes. In a fmaller cabinet they may be put with the Roman, according to their metal and fixe. Thofe without the emperor’s head go to clafs I. though ftruck in Roman times. “ XVI. Egyptian coins ftruck under the Roman emperors, of all metals and fixes. They are moftly of a bafe metal called by the Frenchpatin-, it is a kind of pot-metal or brittle brafs. XVII. Contorniati, or ticket medals. “ XVIII. Coins of Gothic princes, &c. inferibed with Roman charadlers. “ XIX. Coins of fouthern nations ufing uncommon alphabets ; as the Perfian, Punic, Etrufcan, and Spanifh. “ XX. Coins of northern nations ufing uncommon chara&ers, as the Punic and German. “ In the modern part no feries can be formed of copper that will go back above two centuries; but fe-

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A L S. • Sea. XII. quences (chronological feries) of gold and filver may Directions be arranged of all the different empires, kingdoms, and for m:!jt nS ftates, as far as their feveral coinages will allow. Thofe . of England and France will be the moft perfeft. Modern filver is commonly arranged in three- fequences ; the dollar, the groat, and the penny fixes. The medals of each modern country ought of courfe to be feparated ; though it is beft to arrange each fet in chronological order, let their fixe of metal be what they will. It may be remarked here, that our modern medals, of the fixe of a tea-faucer, are only fo many monuments of barbarifm. The ancient medallions are almoft univerfallybut little larger than our crown-piece, though three or four of them may extend to about two inches diameter, but very many modern medals to four inches and more. A large medal always declares an ignorant prince or an ignorant artift. Into the fixe of a crown-piece the ancients threw more miracles in this way than will ever appear in thefe monftrous produ6lions.5, Thefe directions will likewife apply to the formation of a cabinet of the fecond kind: but if the collector means to form a feries of large Roman brafs, he will find the coins of four or five emperors fo fcarce as not to be attainable in that feries, even at any price. He muft therefore fupply their places with middle brafs, as is allowed with regard to Otho,' even in the beft cabinets; there not being above three coins of that emperor in large brafs known in the world t whereas of the middle brafs, two or three hundred may exift. For this reafon Mr Pinkerton concludes, that in cabinets of the fecond clafs, the colle&or may mingle the large and fecond brafs together as he thinks proper, in order to fave expence ; though it would not do fo well to unite fuch difproportionate fixes as the large and fmall. “ In the fmall fequence, however (fays he), there can be no harm in his mixing gold, filver, and brafs, as chance or curiofity may lead him to purchafe any of thefe metals. And tho’ your ftarched bigotted medallift may fneer becaufe fuch a fequence would controvert his formal and narrow way of thinking, common fenfe will authorize us to laugh at the pedant in our turn, and to pronounce fuch a feries more various, rich, and interefting, than if the collector had arranged only one metal, and rejected a curious article becaufe he did not colleft gold or filver. In like manner, if, in the modern part of the fmaller cabinet, any coin of a feries is of high price, or of bad impreffion, there can be no impropriety in putting another of the fame reign, which is cheaper, or better executed, though of a different denomination or of a little larger fixe. In fhort, the collector has no rules but in the Greek cities and Roman families, to obferve alphabetical order and chronology in every thing elfe. ‘Tables of Ancient Coins. The moft ancient coins, according to Froelich, are diftinguifhed by the following marks, which he accounts infallible. 1. Their oval circumference, and globulous fwelling (hape. 2. Antiquity of alphabet. 3. The charafters being retrograde, or the firft divifion of the legend in the common ftyle, v/hile the next is retrograde. 4. The indented fquare already deferib-' ed. 5. The fimple ftru&ure of the mintage. 6, Some of

Tables. MED Ancient of the very old coins are hollowed on the reverfe, with Corns, image imprefied on the front. 7. The drefs, fymy— frequentiy 0f tho rudeft defign and execution. Table I. Ancient Greek Coins. 1. Thofe without imprefiion. 2. With one or more hollow indented marks on one fide, and an impreffion in relief on the other.—Of Chalcedon on the Hellefpont, Lebos, Abdera in Thrace, Acanthus in Macedon, thofe faid to belong to Egium in Achaia. This clafs continues from about 900 to 700 B. C. 3. With an indented fquare divided into fegments, having a fmall figure in one of them ; the reft blank, with a figure in relief on the obverfe.—Of Syracufe and other places adjacent.—Continue from 700 to 600 B. C. 4. Coins hollow on the reverfe, with figures in relief on the obverfe.—Of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, &c. Suppofed,by fome to be a local coinage of Magna Gracia ; but probably of equal antiquity with the former. 5. Coins in which a fquare die is ufed on one or both fides.—Of Athens, Cyrene, Argos, &c.—Of Alexander I. and Archelaus I. of Macedon. Difufed in the reign of the latter about 420 B. C. 6. Complete coins, both in obverfe and reverfe, occur firft in Sicily in the time of Gelo, about 491 B. C. 7. Coins of Alexander the Great and his Succeflbrs. About the time of this hero the Greek coins began to attain to perfection, and were {truck of uncommon beauty. It is remarkable, that on the coins of this monarch his own image feldom occurs. The only one yet found'of Alexander with his portrait upon it, and {truck during his reigm, is a filver hemidrachm in Dr Hunter's cabinet, which is reprefented Plate CCXCII. N° 3. After his death many coins bear his portrait. Trebeilius Pollio informs us, that fome coins, particularly thofe of Alexander, ufed to be worn as amulets ; and many medals are met with in cabinets, bored feemingly with that intention. 8. Coins of the SuccefTors of Alexander.—Thofe of the Syrian monarchs almoft equal the coins of Alexander himfelf in beauty. Thofe of Antiochus VI. are fuppofed to be the moft perfeCI patterns of male beauty to be met with any where. The Egyptian Ptol emies are fomewhat inferior. 9. The coins of the Arfacidse of Parthia done by Greek workmen. 10. Tne Greek imperial coins, being fuch as have the head^of an emperor or emprefs ; fuch as have not -heie imprelLons being clafied with the civic coins, though ftruck under the Roman power. None of the imperial coins occur in gold. Of filver there are thofe of Antiocn, lyre, Sidon, Parfus, Berytus, Csefarea. ^Typtian fiiver coins of bafe metal. Syrian filver coins, which fometimes bear on the reverfe the club of Hercules, or the Tyrian fhell-fifh. Thofe of Sidon bear the image of the goddefs Aftarte, or her chariot. Thofe of Caefarea in Cappadocia of better work than the Syrian. Lycian coins of good workmanfnip : on trie reverfe two harps and an owl fitting upon them. Silver coins of Gelou in Sarmatia refembling the Sy; Vol. XL Part I.

x A L S. 3 rian. The fituation of this town is very much un- Ancient known. It feems to have been fituated on the north Coire. of the Euxine fea, where fome Sarmatic or Sclavonic tribes were mingled with the Scythians or Goths. The Greek imperial brafs coins are very numerous. A feries of almoft all the emperors may be had from thofe of Antioch, with a Latin legend on the obverfe and Greek on the reverfe. Thofe of Bithynia and Phrygia remarkable for good workmanlhip. The coins of Tarfus remarkable for their curious views of objedls, almoft in perfpe&ive. The Egyptian coins, from the time of Auguftus to Nero, are worfe executed than afterwards. From Nero to Commodus they are frequently of admirable workmanfhip, and in a peculiar ftyle, diftintt both from the Greek and Roman. From the time of Commodus they decline, and are loft after the reign of Conftantius I. The Egyptian brafs coins of the Roman period are likewife of excellent workmanlhip, efpecially in the time of Antoninus Pius.

Table II. Roman Coins. I. The confular coins, called alfo the coins of families, and arranged alphabetically in cabinets, according to the names of the families which appear on them. They are, 1. Brafs Coins.—Thefe confift chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanfhip without any interefting imagery. In cabinets they are generally kept in boxes apart by themfelves. The as bears the head of Janus ; the femis of Jupiter with S ; the triens of Minerva with four cyphers; the quadrans of Hercules with three cyphers ; the fextans of Mercury with two cyphers ; and the uncia bears the head of Rome with one cypher. In all thefe pieces the prow of a fliip is conftantly the figure on the reverfe, with very few exceptions. Sometimes indeed they have a {hell, two heads of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the reverfe. About the time of Julius Caefar both the obverfes and the reverfes of the Coins began to be altered. 2. Silver.—Of this the denarius was the firft and principal coin. It was ftamped originally with X, denoting that the value was ten afes. On the reverfe was Caftor and Pollux, or a chariot of Vi&ory. Afterwards the bulls of various deities make their appearance ; and in the feventh century of Rome the portraits of illuftrious perfons deceafed are met with: but till the time of Julius Caefar no figure of any living perfon is to be met with ; Julius himfelf being the firft who affumed that honour. The workmanfhip on the bell and word filver is much the fame. The reverfes are very curious, and point out many remarkable events in Roman hiftory ; but none of thefe occur till about a century before the Chriftian era. The large denarii, with Roma, are the moft ancient ; and fome of thefe bear the Pelafgic A, not the Roman. The filver feftertii have a head of Mercury, with a caduceus on the reverfe. The quinarii have always a head of Jupiter, with aVi&oryon the reverfe. 3. Gold.—Moft of thefe are of great value. The number of thefe exceeds not 100 ; thofe of brafs 200; and of filver 2000. The aureus is the general gold coin ; but two or three gold femifles of families likewife occur. E II.

A L S. Tables. common pieces are thofe with only numerals on the Ancient II. Roman imperial coins. Coms - f i. Brafs.—This is of three fixes ; large, middle, obverfe, which go the length of XIII ; probably tickets for the baths. A great many occur in the time * and Vmall. The firft forms a molt beautiful feries, but very expenlive. *1 he various colours of the pati- of Nero ; of which Mf Pinkerton particularizes one na have the fineft effea. It is the moft important of which has “ on the reverfe a table ornamented with all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in griffins and other devices. IJpou it is placed a wreath of laurel, and a beautiful vafe, of which the embofl'ed The middle brafs is next in value to the former ; human figures are fo minute, and finiffied fo furprifingand in it are many rare and curious coins, particular- ly, as to ftamp thefe coins the moft exquifite producly interefting to Britons, as elucidating the hiftory of tions of the ancient mint.” From the time of Nero the ifland. Of thefe are the triumphal arch of Clau- to that of Vefpafian no fmall brafs occurs : but there dius ; the Exerc. Rritannicus of Adrian; the are many of this emperor and of his fon Titus; while coins of Antoninus Pius, Commodus, Severus, with Domitian has as many as. Nero, and Domitia his wife a Vidory, Victoria Britan.: but efpecially thofe has almoft as many. Succeeding femperors to the time perfonifying the country Britannia. “ I he num- of Pertinax have alfo many brafs coins ; but from his ber of Roman coins relating to Britain (fays Mr Pin- time to that of Valerian there are no real fmall brafs, kerton) is remarkable, more than 20 having been ftruck excepting thofe of Trajanus Decius. After Gallienus at various times; while thofe perfonifying Italy, Gaul, there are a great many coins of this kind ; and Mr Spain, and other regions of the empire, exceed not four Pinkerton mentions one in Dr Hunter s cabinet, of or fix at molt for each country.” Only one country an unknown perfon named Nigrianus. The coin feems vies with Britain, and that is Dacia on the extreme to have been ftruck at Carthage; and our author connorth-eall of the empire, as Britain on the extreme cludes that he was an African ufurper, father to Ninorth-weft. No doubt this circumftance of remote- grinianus. 2. Silver.—-This feries is very complete, and the nefs in thefe two countries recommended them to this particular attention, as more expreffive of the Roman cheapeft of any ; efpecially as the fmall brafs becomes a fine fupplement to it: the latter being h?.d in power. The fmall brafs feries abounds alfo with curious plenty when the filver becomes fcarce, and the filver plentiful when the brafs is fcarce. coins. They are fcarce till the time of Valerian and being 3* Gold.—The Roman imperial gold coins form a Gallienus, but very common afterwards. Mr Pinkerton recommends, therefore, to form a feries in Id/er feries of great beauty and perfeftion; but on account as well as brafs ; both being the cheapett of all of their great price are beyond the purchafe of private the Roman coins. “ In this feries (fays he), it perfons. 4. The colonial coins occur only in brafs, none, is a common fault to arrange many coins which have been plated with gold or {liver, the forgenes of excepting that of Nemaufus, having a right to coin ancient times, but which time has worn oh either filver. They begin in Spain with Julius Ca?far and ■wholly or in part.” All real brafs coins have the s. c. Anthony, and ceafe with Caligula, who took away till the time of Gallienus; as the fenate alone had the the privilege of coinage from the Spanifti colonies. power of ftriking brafs, while the emperor himfelf had The moft beautiful are thofe of Corinth. The other that of gold and filver. When the s. c. therefore, is remarkable colonial coins are thofe of Emerita, IHe, wanting, the coin was certainly once plated ; as, in Terraco, Caffandria, Babba, Berytus, Csefaiea, 1 ageneral, the different type and fabric, being thofe of tne, Emifa, Heliopolis or Baibec, Ptolemais, Sidon, gold and filver, fufficiently Ihow themfelves. With Tyre, Deulton, Dium, Troas, Rhefaina, Neapolis Pertinax, A. D. 192, there is a temporary ceflation of Samaria, which bears a reprefentation of Mount of fmall brafs; nor after him do any princes occur in Gerizzim with the temple on it, Hippo in Africa,^ that feries till Valerian, A. D. 254, excepting Traja- &c. On many of theie coins we meet with fine renus Decius, A. D. 250 only. After Valerian the ie- prefentations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, godries is continuous and common. The brafs coinage deffes, and illuftrious perfons. But coins with thofe gradually declined in fize from the time of Severus; reprefentations are by no means common; the colonial fo that parts ®f the as could not be ftruck, or at leaft coins till the time of Trajan bearing only a plough, it was held unneceffary to ftrike them. Trajanus De- or fome other limple badge of a colony. Cameloducius attempted in vain to reftore the coinage; and Va- num is the only colony in Britain of which we have . lerian and Gallienus were forced to iffue denarii aerei any coins. 5. The minimi.—This includes the fmalleft coins oi and fmall affaria. The feries of large and of middle brafs are of two fixed and known fizes ; the former a- all denominations, moft of which do not exceed the of a filver penny. They are the moft curious of bout that of our crown, the latter of the half crown : fize though after Severus they gradually leffen. But the all; but no feries of them was ever formed by any perfmall brafs takes in all parts of the as; and every brafs fon except the Abbe Rothelin, whofe colledlion foi mcoin not larger than our (hilling belongs to this feries. ed of all metals paffed to the queen of Spain. 1 he The minimi, indeed, or very fmalleft, it is proper to reafon of the fcarcity of thefe fmall coins is probably keep apart. The coins of Julius Gsefar in this fize are their diminutive fize; by reafon of which they are of peculiarly fine workmanllnp. T- hey bear his por- moftly loft. It is furprifing that numbers of Roman coins are trait reverfe of Auguftus, or the reverfe has a crocodile Egypto capta. There are feveral with Maik found through all countries once fubjeft to that powerAmthony, and fome with Cleopatra j but the more ful people. Some have been met with in the OrkMED

Ancient neys, nn profefs the Mohammedan religion, have merely inferip- with fome folidi and femiffes. The former are of good tions without any figures: thofe of the internal parts workman (hip, with the heads of kings. The reverfe are unknown ; and no coinage was ufed among the has a crofs, with the name of the town where they Mexicans and Peruvians, the only civilized nations in were ftruck.'^' The coins of the fecond race begin with Pepin in America ; but La Hontan mentions an American fa751, and continue till Hugh Capet in 987. The vage who had a fquare medal of copper depending from his neck. Mr Pinkerton fuppofes it to have come coins of the firft race are elegant, but thofe of the fecond entirely the reverfe, being almoft all filver penfrom Japan. 10. Modern Italic coins. Befides the Gothic prin- nies, and feldom bearing the portrait of the king. ces mentioned in the former table, the exarchs of Ra- Thofe of Charlemagne have only Carolus in the venna coined money with the infeription Felix Ra- field ; while the reverfe bears r. f. or fome fuch invenna, &c. The Lombards iffued no coins, but there feription ; though one piece ftruck at Rome has a are fome (till extant of Charlemagne. The follow- rude buft of him. The coins of Louis le Debonnaire ing lid (hows the origin of the coinage in various Ita- are better done. The third race begins with Hugh Capet in 987, lian dates. and extends to this time. The coinage did not begin Rome. Papal coinage originates with Hadrian I. Size, of filver pennies,"' with the Pope’s name on to improve till 1226 under St Louis, when the groat one fide, and Scos Petrus on the other. No coins appears. Its name in Italian isgrojfo, in French appear from 975 to 1099, excepting of Leo IX. In in Englilh groat, or great coin ; fo called from its fize j 303 appear pennies of the fenate and people of Rome, in companfon with the penny; and it paffed from Itawith Peter on the one fide and Paul on the other. ly to France, to Germany, and to England. After There are groats of Clement V. with his portrait the conqueft of France by the Englilh, bafe coins of three quarters length ; but the fide-head begks with many kinds were introduced ; and in the year I574» Sixtus V. in 1470. Gold was firft coined by John in the time of Henry III. copper was firft introduced XXII. in 1316. The coins of Alexander VI. into the French coinage. Befides thefe, the other reJulius II. and Leo X. are remarkable for beauty and markable coins of France are, the blancs or biilon. groats, firft iffued in 1348 ; the ecus a la couronne, or elegance. _ Milan. Coinage began with Charlemagne. The crowns of gold, fo called from the crown on one fide,

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[Tables. ifcbbrevia-Qi C. M. P. l. Quintus Cactions. cilius Metelius Pius Iraperator desig. Quaftor Defignatus p. Quasftpr Pra;torius pr. Qu^aeftor Provincialis R. r. Roma, Reftituit recep. Receptis, or Receptus rest. Reftituit rom. et avg. Romae et Augufto r. p. Refpublica S. saec. avr. SazculumAureum saec. fel. SxculiFelicitas sal. Salus sall. Salluftia sarm. Sarmaticus s. c. Senatus Confulto scip. Asia. Scipio Afiaticus ' sec. orb. Securitas Orbis sec. perp. Securitas Perpetua sec. temp. Securitas Tem* porum sen. Senior sept. Septimius ser. Servius sev. Severus sex. Sextus sic. v. sic x. Sicut Quinquennalia, fie Decennalia

MED sig. Signis s. m. Signata Moneta s. p. Qi R. Senatus Populufque Romanus stabil. Stabiiita (terra) svl. Sulla T. t. Titus, Tribunus ter. Terentius, or Tertium temp. Temporum ti. Tiberius tr. or trev. Treveris tree. Trebonianus tr. mil. Tribunus Militaris tr. p. or trib. pot. Tribunicia Poteftate V. v. Quintum v. c. Vir Clarillimus vesp. Vefpafianus vib. Vibius vict. Vi&oria vn. vir. epvl. Septemvir Epulonum vil. pvb. Villa Publica virt. Virtus vn. mr. Venerandae Memorise VOT. X. MVLT. XX. Votis Decennalibus Multiplicatis Vicennalibus X. x. Decern, Denarius xv. vir. sacr.fac. Quindecim Vir Sacris Faciundis.

Abbreviations on the Exergue ; from Banduri and Monaldini. Pinkerton. c. ©. Conflantinopoli NoA. Officina Prima na ale. Alexandria A mb. Antiochenfis Mone- comob. Conflata Moneta Obryzo. Only on gold ta Secundae Officinae or lilver from a gold AN. ant. anti. Antiochia anb. Antiochiae Secunda die Officina : to anh. An- con. Conllantinopoli tiochiae Oftavia Officina conob. Conflata Obryzo. A. p.l. (Inofficina) Prima Only on gold percufla Lugduni cons. Conftantinopoli Aq^aql. Aquileiae kart. Carthago aq^ o. b. f. Aquileiae Of- k. o. Carthaginenfis Offificinae Secundae Fabrica cina ActiP.s. Aquileiae Pecunia L. LC. LVC. LVG. Lucduni, Lugduni Signata aq^s. Aquileias Siguata l. lon. Londini A. ar. arl. Arelate l. p. Lugdunehfis vel LonA. si sc. Prima (in officina) dineniis Pecunia Sifcke lvc. f. s. Lugduni PecuB. sirm. Secunda Sirmii nia Signata b. s. l. c. Secunda Signa- mops. Mediolani Pecunia ta Lugduni Signata

A L S. m. k. v. t. Moneta Kartaginenfis Urbis (in officina) Tertia m. l. Moneta Lugdunenfis vel Londinenfis mostt. Moneta Officinse Secundae Treverorum MSTR.MonetaSignataTreveris o. Officina off. in. const. Officina Tertia Conltantinopoli parl. Percuffa or Pecunia Arelate PLON.PecuniaLondinenfis plvg. PecuniaLugdunenlis p. r. Pecunia Romana, or Perculfa Romas p. t. Pecunia Treverenfis q^ar. Quinita Arelatenfis (officina) r. ro. rom. Romae ra. Ravennae

45 rops. Romse Pecuma Sig- Abbreviations nata s. ar. Signata Arelate s. const. Signata Conftantinopoli sis. Sifciae ss. p. Sifcienfis Pecunia si sc. v. Sifcia Urbs sma. Signata MonetaAntiochiae s. m, her. Signata Moneta Heracleae s. m. n. Signata Moneta Nicomediae s. m. r. Signata Moneta Romae s. t. Signata Treveris tesob. TeflTalonicas Officina Secunda theopo. Theopoli tr. Treveris trob. Treveris Officina Secunda

A Lift of Roman Colonies whofe Coins remain ; and Abbreviations on thefe Coins. Abdera in Spain Acci in Spain Achulla in Africa iEIia Capitolina in Judaea Agrippina in Germany Antiochia in Pifidia in Syria Apamea in Bithynia Arna in Theffaly Aftigi in Spain Babba in Mauritania Tingitana Btfrytus in Phoenicia Bilbilis in Spain Boftra in Arabia Bracara Augufta in Spain Buthrotum in Epirus Cabellio in Gaul Ciefar-Augufta in Spain Caefarea in Paleftine Calagurris in Spain Calpe in Spain Camalodunum in Britain Carrbae in Mefopotamia Carteia in Spain Carthago in Africa Carthago Nova in Spain Cafcantum in Spain Caffandria in Macedon Celfa in Spain Clunia in Spain Coillu in Numidia Comana in Cappadocia Corinthus in Greece Cremna in Pifidia Cuba in Thrace

Damafcus in Coelefyria Dertofa in Spain Deulton in Thrace Dium in Macedon Ebora in Spain Edeffa in Mefopotamia Emerita in Spain Emefa in Phoenicia Ergavica in Spain Germe in Galatia Graccuris in Spain Hadrumetum in Africa Heliopolis in Ccelefyria Hippo Regius in Africa Iconium in Lycaonia Ilerda in Spain Ulergavonia in Spain Illeci in Spain lol in Mauritania Italica in Spain Laelia in Spain Laodicea in Syria Leptis in Africa Lugdunum in Gaul Neapolis in Paleftine Nemaufus in Gaul Nelibis in Mefopotamia Norba Caefarea in Mauritania Obulco in Spain Oea in Africa Olba in Pamphylia Ofca in Spain Oficarda in Spain Panormus in Sicily Parium in Myfia Parlais

46

Abbrevla- Parlais in Lycaonia nons Patricia (Cordaba) in Vj_ v ~ Spain Pella in Macedon Philippi in Macedon Philippopolis in Arabia Ptolemais in Phoenicia Rufcino in Gaul Romula (Hifpalis) in Spain Rhefsena in Mefopotanna Sabaria in Hungary Saguntum in Spain Sebafte in Paleftine Segobriga in Spain

MED Sidon in Phoenicia Singara in Mefopotamia Sinope in Pontus Stobi in Macedon Tarraco in Spain Thefialonica in Macedon Traducla.(Julia)in Spain Troas in Phrygia Turiafo in Spain Tyana in Cappadocia Tyrus in Phoenicia Valentia in Spain Vienna in Gaul Viminacium in Mcefia Utica in Africa

Abbreviations on Colonial Coins. acci. Accitana Colonial Guadix in Spain adi. Adjutrix /eg-io ael. mvn. coel. JElium Municipium Coda, near Seftos on the Hellespont ast. Aftigitana, Eceja in Andalufia b. A. Braccara Augufti, Brague in Portugal c. A. Caefarea Antiochiaj c. a. a. P. or PATR. Colonia Augufta Aroe Patrenfia cab. Cabellio c. A. bvt. Colonia Augufti Buthrotum, in Epirus c. A. c. Colonia Auguita Caefarea c. A. i. Colonia Augufta Julia, Cadiz c. A. E. Colonia Aug. Emerita, Merida cal. Calagurris, Calahorra in Spain c. A. o. a. f. Colonia Antoniana Oea Aug. Felix, Tripoli in Africa c. A. PI. met. SID. Colonia Amelia Pia Metropolis Sidon c. a. r. Colonia Augufta Rauracorum, or Colonia Afta Regia: Augft in Switzerland, or Aft near Xeres de la Frontera in Spain c. c. A. Colonia Csefarea Augufta, Saragojfa in Spain c. c. col. lug. Claudia Copia Colonia Lugdunenfis c. c. i. B. Colonia Campeftris Julia Babba, in Mauritania c. c. I. b. d. d. Colonia Campeftris Julia Babba, Decreto Decurionum c. c. i. h. p. a. Colonia Concordia Julia, Hadrumetina, Pia Augufta c. civ. n. d. p. Corona Civica data Decreto Publico c. c. n. A. Colonia Carthago Nova Augufta c. c. n. c. d. d. Colonia Concordia, Norba Csefareana, Decreto Decurionum c. cor. Colonia Corinthus c. c. r. Ducentefima Remiffa c. c. s. Colonia Claudia Sabaria, in Hungary c. f. p. d. Colonia Flavi^ Pacenfis Develtum, Develtum in Thrace c. g. t. h. p. a. Colonia Gemella Julia Hadriana, Pariana, Augufta r. i. c. a. Colonia Julia Concordia, Apamea c. i. a. d. Colonia Julia, Augufta Dertona, Tortona near Milan c. 1. av. Colonia Julia Aug. Cadiz c. i. avg. f. sin. Colonia Julia Augufta Felix Sinope c. i. b. Colonia Julia Baiba, in Mauritania

A L S. Tables. T‘‘ if.' C. I. c. A. p. A. Colonia Julia Carthago Augufta Pia Abbrevia- ' , Antiqua, or Corinth, or Carthago Nova ( c. i. cal. Colonia Julia Calpe, Gibraltar * y---' c. i. f. Colonia Julia Felix, Cadiz c. i. G. A. Colonia Julia Gemella (c) Augufta c. i. i. a. Colonia Immunis Illici Augufta, Elche in Spain c. i. n. c. Colonia Julia Norba Csefareana, or Alcantara : fometimes it means Col. Julia Nova Carthago c. i. v. Colonia Julia Valentia, Valencia in Spain c. v. t. Colonia Vidlrix Tarraco C. L. i. cor. Colonia Laus Julia Corinthus c. l. i. n. avg. Colonia Laus Julia Nova Augufta, Laus or Lodi in Lucania C. m. l. Colonia Metropolis Laodicea, in Calefyria co. dam. metro. Colonia Damafcus Metropolis C0hh. pret. vii. p. vi. f. Cohortes Prsetorianse Septimum Piae, Sextum Felices COH. i. cr. Cohors prima Cretenfis coh, pret. phil. Cohors Praetoriana Philippenfium col. ael. a. h. met. Colonia Ablia Augufta Hadrumetina Metropolis, in Africa col. af.l. cap. comm. p. F. Colonia ALlia Capitolina Commodiana Pia Felix COL. alex. troas. Colonia Alexandriana Troas COL. amas. or ams. ColoniaAmaftriana, inPaphlagonia COL. ant. Antioch in Pifidia col. arelat. sextan. Colonia Arelate Sextanorum, Arles col. ast. avg. Colonia Aftigitana Augufta, Eceja in Spain COL. AVG. FEL. ber. Colonia Augufta Felix Berytus col. avg. fir. Colonia Aug. firma, Eceja col. avg. ivl. philiP. Colonia Augufta Julia Philippenfis col. avg. pat. trevir. Colonia Augufta Paterna Trevirorum, Treves in Germany, fent from Paternum in Italy col. avr. kar. comm. p. f. Colonia Aurelia Karrhae Commodiana Pia Felix, or Carneatum Commagene, or Carrha in Afta col. B. A. Colonia Braccara Augufta, Brague col. bryt. l. v. Colonia Berytus Legio Quinta col. cabe. Colonia Cabellio col. caes avg. Colonia Caefarea Augufta, in col. camalodvn. Colonia Camalodunum, England col. casilin. Colonia Cafilinum, Cajiellazo in Italy col. cl. ptol. Colonia Claudia Ptolemais, Acre in Phoenicia col. damas. metro. Colonia Damafcus Metropolis col. f. i. a. p. barcin. Colonia Flavia Julia Augufta Pia, Barcino or Barcelona col. fl. pac. devlt. Colonia Flavia Pacenfis Deultum, Develtum in Thrace COL. HA. ME. t. Colonia Hadriana Mercurialis Thaenitana, Mercuriali, Fermo in Italy, and Thenes in Africa col. h. (or hel.) leg. h. Colonia Heliopolis Legio Heliopolitana COL. HEL. i. o. m. h. Colonia Heliopolis Jovi Optimo Maximo Heliopolitano. COL. IVL. AVG. c. I. f. coman. Colonia Julia Augufta Concordia Invi&a Felix Comanorum, dranvn from Concordia in Italy, and fent to Comana in Cappadocia. col.

(c) Gemella implies a colony drawn from two others.

"ables. M E D Abbrevia- cot. ivt, Ava. fel. crfmna. Colonia Julia Augufta tions. Felix Cremna, in Pamphylia “"'"V”*-'' COL. IVL. CER. SAC. AVG. FEL. CAP. OECVM. ISE. HEL. Colonia Julia Certamen Sacrum Augultum Felix Capitolinum Oecumenicum Ifelailicum Heliopolitanum col. ivl. conc. apam. avg. D. d. Colonia Julia Concordia Apamea Augufta Decreto Decurionum col. ivl. pater, nar. Coloiiia Julia Paterna Navbonenfis col. nem. Colonia Nemaufus col. niceph. cond. Colonia Nicephorium Condita, i« Mefopotamia col. patr. Colonia Patrenfis or Patricia, Patras in Greece, or Cordova in Spain col. p. f. avg. f. caes. met. Colonia Prima Flavia Aug. Felix Csefarea Metropolis, in PaleJUne col. p. fl. avg. caes. metrop. p. s. p. fame as above, p. s. p. is Provincias Syrias Paleftinse. col. pr. f. a. caesar. Colonia Prima Flavia Augufta Ctefarea, in Palejiine col. r. f. avg. fl. c. metrop. Colonia Romana Felix Aug. Flavia Caefarea Metropolis. ‘The fame col. rom. Colonia Romulea, or Seville col. rom. lvg. Colonia Romana Lugdunum col. rvs. leg. vi. Colonia Rufcino Legio Sexta, Roujfdlon in France col. sabar. Colonia Saburise col. sabas. Sebafte, in Palfline col. ser. g. neapol. Colonia Servii Galbas Neapolis, in Palejiine col. v. i. celsa, or col. vic. ivl. celsa. Colonia Viftrix Julia Celfa, Keif a in Spain. col. vic. ivl. lep. Colonia Viftrix Julia Leptis, in Africa col. vim. an. i. or ii, &c. Colonia Viminacium Anno prime, Widin in Servia col. vlp. tra. Colonia Ulpia Trajana : Kellen, or Warhal in Tranfdvania co. p. f. coe. metro. Colonia Prima Flavia Casfarea Metropolis co. p. i. A. Colonia Pacenfis Julia Augufta, or Col. Odtaviana c. R. i. f. s. Colonia Romana Julia Felix Sinope c. t. t. Colonia Togata Tarraco c. v. it. Colonia Vidlrix Illice, Elche in Spain D. Decuriones D. c. A. Divus Ccef. Aug. dert. Dertofa gen. col. ner. patr. Genio Colonise Neronianae Patrenfis -— Medallion.

A L S. 47 g. l. s. Genio Loci Sacrum ExplanaM. H. ILLERGAVONIA DYRT. Municipium Hlbera Illergavonia Dertofa, Pert of a in Catalonia . . m. m. i. v. Municipes Municipii Julii Uticenfis m. R. Municipium Ravennatium mvn. cal. ivl. Municipium Calagurris Julia, in Spain mvn. Clvn. Municipium Clunia, Crunna in Spain mvn. fane ;el. Municipium Faneftre Aelium, Fano mvn. stob. Municipium Stobenfe, Soli in Macedon mv. tv. Municipium Turiafo, in Spain n. tr. alexandriane col. bostr. Nerviae Trojanae Alexandrianae Colonias Boftrse, in Palejiine sep. col. lavd. Septimia Colonia Laudicea, or Laodicea sep. tyr. met. Septima Tyrus Metropolis. Explanation of the Plates. Fig. i. 2. 3. 4.

A Perfian Daric Plates A drachm of Egina A filver hemidrachm of Alexander the Great CC^CIII> Tigranes the younger of Armenia, with his fifter 5. One of the coins of the Arfacidae of Parthia 6. A coin of the Saffanidas of Perfia. Firft publiftied by Mr Pinkerton 7. Denarius of Cneius Pompey from Mr Pinkerton, reverfe. Received by Spain 8. A brafs coin of Cunofcelinus 9. Pefcennius Niger. Struck at Antioch ; unique. In Dr Hunter’s cabinet; publifhed by Mr Pinkerton 10. A filver coin of Caraufius 11. Reverfe of Claudius in firft brafs 12. Reverfe of Adrian I 3- Of Antoninus Pius 14. Of Commodus I 5* Of Severus 16. A Saxon penny 17. A Saxon ftyca 18. 19. Ancient pennies, fuppofed to be ScottifL 20. A penny of William of Scotland 21. A penny of Robert the Great 22. An Irifti penny 23. The gold penny of Henry III 24. The large noble of the firft coinage of Edward III 25. The gold medal of David II. of Scotland 26. The ryal of Queen Mary of Scotland 27. Letters on Anglo-Saxon coins 28. Abbreviations on ditto 29. Monetarius

■■■MIlUBIIftl

MED Imprejfions of Medals. See Casting. MEDALLION, or Medalion, a medal of an extraordinary fize, fuppofed to be anciently ftruck by the emperors for their friends, and for foreign princes and ambafiadors.. But, that the fmallnefs of their number might not endanger the lofs of the devices they bore, the Romans generally took care to ftamp the fubjett of them upon their ordinary coins. Medallions, in refpeft of the other coins, were the fame as modern medals in refpedt of modern money : they were exempted from all commerce, and had no

MED other value than what was fet upon them by the fancy Mede. of the owner. Medallions are fo fcarce, that there 1 cannot be any fet made of them, even though the metals and fizes ftiould be mixed promifeuoufly. MEDE (Jofeph), a very learned Englilh divine of the 17th century, was educated at Cambridge, and foon diftinguifhed himfelf to great advantage ; for by the time he had taken the degree of mailer of arts in 1610, he had made an uncommon progrefs in all academical ftudies. His firft appearance as a writer was by an addrefs to Dr Andrews, then biftiop of Ely, in 1 a Latin

M E D M E D [ 48 ] r tie. a Latin trad Be Sanclitate Relaliva, which was high- with the language of the prophets. He w as a curious Medea, and laborious fearcher of antiquities relating to reli''—~’ly approved of by that prelate, who defired him to be his domeftic chaplain. This Mr Mede very civilly re- gion, ethnic, Jewufh, Chritlian, and Mahometan : to fufed ; valuing the liberty of his ftudies above any which he added other attendants, neceffary for underhopes of preferment, and efteeming that freedom which flanding the more difficult parts of Scripture. In 1620, he refufed the provoltfhip of Trinity-colhe enjoyed in his cell, fo he ufed to call it, as the haven of all his wilhes. And indeed thefe thoughts had lege, Dublin, into which he had been eledled at the poflefled him betimes ; for when he was a fchoolboy, recommendation of Archbifhop Ufher, who was his parhe was fent to by his uncle, Mr Richard Mede, a mer- ticular friend ; as he did alfo when it was offered to chant, who, being then without children, offered to him a fecond time, in 1630. The height of his am-, adopt him for his fon if he would live with him : but bition was, only to have had fome fmall donative finehe refufed the offer, preferring, as it fhould feem, a cure added to his fellowfhip, or to have been thrown into fome place of quiet ; where, retired from the noife life of ftudy to a life of gain. He was not chofen fellow of his college till after he and tumults of the world, and pofTefled of a compewas mailer of arts, and then not without the afhftance tency of fortune, he might have been entirely at leifure •of his friend Bifhop Andrews : for he had been palled for fludy and afts of piety. In the mean time, alover at feveral eleftions, on account of a caufeleis fuf- though his circumflances were fcanty, for he had nopicion which Dr Cary, then mailer of the college, af- thing but his fellowftiip and a college le&ure, his chaterwards bifhop of Exeter, had conceived of him, that rity was diffufive and uncommon ; and, llrange as it “ he looked too much towards Geneva.” Being made may now feem, he devoted the tenth of his income to fellow, he became an eminent and faithful tutor. Af- pious and charitable ufes. But his frugality and tempeter he had well grounded his pupils in humanity, lo- rance always afforded him plenty. His prudence or gic, and philofophy, fo that they were able to walk moderation, either in declaring or defending his prias it were alone, he ufed to fet every one his daily vate opinions, was very remarkable ; as was alfo his freetalk ; which he rather chofe, than to confine himfelf dom from partiality, prejudice or prepofleffion, pride, and them to precife hours for ledlures. In the evening anger, felfifhnefs, flattery, and ambition. He was meek, they all came to his chamber ; and the firfl queftion patient, equally remote from fuperftition and licentioulhe put to each was, Shjid dulitas ? “ What doubts nefs of thinking ; and, in fhort pofleffed every virtue. have you met with in your fludies to-day i” lor he This great and good man died in 1638, in his 5 2d year, fuppoled, that to doubt nothing and to underhand having fpent above two-thirds of his time in college. MEDEA, in fabulous hiflory, a celebrated forcerefs, nothing was juft the fame thing. I his was right, and the bell method to make young men exercife their ra- daughter of JEetes king of Colchis. Her mother’s tional powers, and not acquiefce in wdiat they learn name, according to the more received opinion of Hemechanically, and by rote, with an indolence of fpirit fied and Hyginus, was Idyia, or, according to others, which prepares them to receive and fwallow implicitly Ephyre, Hecate, Aflerodia, Antiope, and Neaera. She whatever is offered to them. As to himfelf, he was fo was the niece of Circe. When Jafon came to Colchis entirely devoted to the fludy of all excellent know- in queft of the golden fleece, Medea became enamoured ledge, that he made even the time he fpent in his a- of him, and it was to her well-direfted labours that mufements ferviceable to his purpofe. He allowed him- the Argonauts owed their prefervation. Medea had felf little or no exercife but walking ; and often, in the an interview with her lover in the temple of Hecate ; fields or college garden, would take occaiion to fpeak wffiere they bound themfelves by the mofl folemn oaths of the beauty, iignatures, virtues, or properties of the to eternal fidelity. No fooner had Jafon overcome all r plants then in view, for he w as a curious florifl, an ac- the difficulties which iEetes had placed in his way, curate herbalifl, and thoroughly verfed in the book of than Medea embarked with the conquerors for nature. The chief delight he took in company w'as Greece. To flop the purfuit of her father, fhe tore tf youth. This fudden change in vEfon afloand other nations, fo famous.; tracing them as far as nifhed the inhabitants of lolchos ; and the daughters he could have any light to guide him in their oriental of Pelias were alfo defirous to fee their father reflored fchemes and figurative expreflions, as likewife in their by the fame power to the vigour of youth. Medea, hieroglyphics, not forgetting to inquire alfo into the willing to revenge the injuries which her hufband’s faoneirocritics of the ancients : which he did the rather, mily had fuffered from Pelias, increafed their curithe murder of their fabecaufe of that affinity he conceived they might have ofity ; and betrayed them into ) ther

MED [ 49 ] MED Medea ther as preparatory to his rejuvencfcence, which ihe cording to Ptolemy, on the north by part of the Caf- Media, If afterwards refufed to accompliih. This adfion great- pian fea ; on the fouth by Perfis, Sufiana, and AflTyria; ! e a’ ly irritated the people of lolchos } and Medea with on the eafl'by Parthia and Hyrcania ; and on the weft her hufband fled to Corinth to avoid their refentment. by Armenia Major. It was anciently divided into feHere they lived for 10 years with mutual attachment, veral provinces, vix. Tropatene, Charomithrene, Dawhen the love of Jafon for Glauce the king’s daugh- rites, Marciane, Amariace, and Syro-Media. By a ter interrupted their harmony, and Medea was divor- later divifion, however, all thefe were reduced to two ; ced. Medea revenged the infidelity of Jafon, by cauf- the one called Media Magna, the other Media Atro~ ing the death of Glauce, and the deftruftion of her patia, or limply Atropatene. Media Magna was boundfamily. She alfo killed two of her children in their ed by Perfis, Parthia, Hyrcania, the Hyrcanian fea, father’s prefence ; and when Jafon attempted to punifli and Atropatene, and contained the cities of Ecbatan, the barbarity of the mother, fhe fled through the air Laodicea, Apamea, Raga, Rageia or Ragea, &c. upon a chariot drawn by winged dragons. From Co- Atropatene lay between the Cafpian mountains and rinth Medea came to Athens, where, after fhe had un- the Cafpian fea. dergone the neceflary purification of her murder, fire This country originally took its name from Madai, married King iEgeus, or (according to others) lived the third fon of Japhet; as is plain from Scripture, in an adulterous manner with him. From her conduit where the Medes are conftantly called Madai. Among with JEgeus, Medea had a fon who was called Medus. profane authors, fome derive the name Media, from Soon after, when Thefeus wiflied to make himfelf one Medus the fon of Jafon and Medea ; others from known to his father, Medea, jealous of his fame and a city called Media, Sextus Rufus tells us that in his fearful of his power, attempted to poifon him at a time it was called Medenat and from others we learn feafl: which had been prepared for his entertainment. that it was alfo called Aria. The moft probable hiHer attempts, however, failed of fuccefs, and the fight ftory of the Medes is as follows : jof the fword which Thefeus wore by his fide convinThis people lived in fubjedfion to the Aflyrians till ced jEgeus that the ftranger againfl whofe life he had the reign of Sennacherib, when they threw off the yoke, fo bafely confpired was his own fon. The father and and lived for fome time in a ftate of anarchy. But at the fon were reconciled ; and Medea, to avoid the laft, rapine and violence, the natural confequences of punifliment which her wickednefs deferved, mount- fuch a fituation, prevailed fo much that they were coned her fiery chariot and difappeared through the air. ftrained to have recourfe to fome kind of government, She came to Colchis ; where, according to fome, fhe that they might be enabled to live in fafety. Accordwas reconciled to Jafon, who had fought her in her na- ingly, about 699 B. C. one Dejoces having procured tive country after her fudden departure from Corinth. himfelf to be chofen king) united the fcattered tribes She died at Colchis, as Juftin mentions, when fhe had into which the Medes were at that time divided ; and been reftored to the confidence of her family. After having applied himfelf as much as poflible to the civideath fhe married Achilles in the Elyfian fields, ac- lization of his barbarous fubjedts, left the throne to cording to the traditions mentioned by Simonides. his fon Phraortes, after a reign of 53 years. The murder of Mermerus and Pheres, the youngefl of The new king, who was of a warlike and enterprifJafon’s children by Medea, is not to be attributed to ing difpofition, fubdued almoft all the Upper Afia lythe mother, according to ./Elian ; but to the Corin- ing between Mount Taurus and the river Halys which thians, who aflaffinated them in the temple of Juno runs through Cappadocia into the Euxine fea. Elated Acraea. To avoid the refentment of the gods, and with this good fuccefs, he invaded Affyria, the empire to deliver thernfelves from the peftilence which vifited of which was now much declined, and greatly weaktheir country after fo horrid a maflacre, they engaged ened by the revolt of many nations which had followthe poet Euripides for five talents to write a tragedy, ed the example of the Medes. Nebuchodonofor or which cleared them of the murder, and reprefented Chyniladan, however, the reigning prince, having afMedea as the cruel aflafiin of her own children. And fembled what forces he could, engaged Phraortes, debefides, that this opinion might be the better credit- feated, took him prifoner, and put him to death ; afed, feftivals were appointed, in which the mother was ter which, entering Media, he laid wafte the country, reprefented with all the barbarity of a fury murdering took the metropolis Ecbatan itfelf, and levelled it her own fons. with the ground. MEDEOLA, climbing African asparagus, On the death of Phraortes, his fon Cyaxares was plain botany : A genus of the hexandria order, belong- ced on the throne. He was no lefs valiant and entering to the trigynia clafs of plants ; and in the natural prifing than his father, and had better fuccefs againft method ranking under the nth order, Sarmcntacea. the Affyrians. With the remains of that army which There is no calyx ; the corolla is fexpartite andrevolu- had been defeated under his father, be not only drove t ed ; the berry trifpermous. Its chara&ers are thefe : the conquerors out of Media, but obliged Chyniladan The flower has no empalement ; it has fix oblong oval to fhut himfelf up in Nineveh. To this place he impetals, and fix awl-fliaped ftamina terminated by in- mediately laid clofe fiege ; but was obliged to give over cumbent fuminits ; and three horned germina termi- the enterprife on account of an irruption of the Scynating the ftyle ; the germina afterward turn to a thians into his own country. Cyaxares engaged thefe roundifh trifid berry with three cells, each contain- new enemies with great refolution ; but was utterly ing one heart-fhaped feed. There are two fpe- defeated ; and the conquerors over-ran not only all Mecies. dia, but the greateft part of Upper Afia, extending MEDIA, now the province of Ghilan in Perfia, their conquetts into Syria, and as far as the confines once the feat of a potent empire, was bounded, ac- of Egypt. They continued mailers of all this vail Vol. XI. Part I. G track '

MED M E D [ 50 ] track of country for 28 years, till at laft Media was to divide the thorax and the lungs into two parts, and Mediate n. delivered from their yoke by a general maffacre at the to fuftain the vifcera, and prevent their falling from Medicinal Mcdi.ifti- inftigation of Cyaxares. one fide of the thorax to the other. See Anatomy,^ After this deliverance, the Medes foon repoflefTed N° 117. MEDIATE, or Intermediate, fomething that themfelves of the territories they had loft; and once more extended their frontiers to the river Halys, their {lands betwixt and conneCts two or more terms confiancient boundary to the weftward. After this we find dered as extremes; in which fenfe it {lands oppofed to the Medes engaged in a war with the Lydians; which, immediate. MEDIATOR, a perfon that manages or tranfads however, ended without any remarkable tranfa&ion : but on the conclufion of it, Cyaxares having entered between two parties at variance in order to reconcile into a ftritt alliance with Nebuchadnezzar king of Ba- them. The word, in Scripture, is applied, 1. To Jefus bylon, returned in conjunction with the Babylonians Chrift, who is the only interceflbr and peace-maker before Nineveh ; which they took and levelled with between God and man, (1 Tim.ii. 5*) 2. To Mofes, the ground, putting moft of the inhabitants to the wdio interpofed between the Lord and his people, to declare unto them his word, (Deut. v. 5. iii. 19.) fword. MEDICAGO, Snail-trefoil, in botany : A geAfter this viftory the Babylonian and Median empires feem to have been united: however, after the nus of the decandria order, belonging to the diadeldeath of Nebuchadnezzar, or rather in his lifetime, phia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranka war enfued, which was not extinguiihed but by the ing under the 32d order, Papilionacea, The legumen diftolution of the Babylonian empire. The Medes, is compreffed and fcrewed ; the carina of the corolla under Aftyages the fon of Cyaxares I. withftood the luring down from the vexillum. There are nine fpepower of the Babylonian monarchs ; and under Cyrus cies, though only five are commonly cultivated in this and Cyaxares II. utterly deftroyed their empire by the country. They are low trailing plants, adorned with taking of Babylon, as is related under that article. fmall yellow flowers, fucceeded by fmall, round, fnailAfter the death of Cyaxares, the kingdom fell to Cy- ftiaped fruit, which are downy, and armed with a few rus, by whom the feat of the empire was transferred {hort fpines. They are all eafily propagated by feeds. to Persia, under which article the hiftory of Media For the properties and culture of Lucern, a fpecies now falls to be confidered, as alfo the manners,' &c. of of this genus, fee Agriculture, N° 183. MEDICINAL, any thing belonging to medithe inhabitants. cine. MEDIANA, the name of a vein or little veftel, Medicinal Springs, a general name for any founmade by the union of the cephalic and baiilic, in the tain, the waters of which are of ufe for removing cerbend of the elbow. MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy, a double mem- tain diforders. They are commonly either chalybeate, brane, formed by a duplicature of the pleura; ferving or fulphureous.. See Springs and Water. Media

MEDICINE.

MEDICINE is the art of preventing, curing, or berty, when, through a public calamity, all the reft alleviating, thofe difeafes to which the human of the people were made flaves to the prince. It is not probable, therefore, that among the Efpecies are fubjedled. gyptians religion and medicine were originally conHi ST our of Medicine'. joined ; and if we fuppofe the Jews not to have inr Origin of The fabulous hiftory of the ancients derives this art vented the art, but received it from fome other nation, medicine immediately from their gods ; and, even among the it is as little probable that the priefts of that nation among the moderns, fome are of opinion that it may juftly be were their phyficians as thofe of Egypt. Jews; That the Jewilh phyficians were abfolutely diftindt confidered as of divine revelation. But without adoptfrom their priefts, is very certain. Yet as the Jews reing any fuppofition of which no probable evidence can be given, we may conclude that mankind were fided for fuch a long time in Egypt, it is probable naturally led to it from cafual obfervations on the dif- they would retain many of the Egyptian cuftoms, eafes to which they found themfelves fubje&ed ; and from which it would be very difficult to tree them. that therefore, in one fenfe at leaft, it is as ancient as We read, however, that when King Afa was difeafed the human race. But at what period it began to be in his feet, ** he fought not to the Loid, but to the pradlifed as an art, by particular individuals following phyficians.” Hence we may conclude, that among it as a profefiion, is not known. Tne moft ancient the Jews the medicinal art was l®oked upon as a mere phyficians we read of were thofe who embalmed the human invention ; and it was thought taat the Deity patriarch Jacob by order of his fon Jofeph. T-he fa- never cured difeafes by making people acquainted cred writer ftyles thefe phyficians fervants to Jofeph : with the virtues of this or that herb, but onl^/ by bis whence we may be aflured that they weye not priejls, miraculous power, fhat the fame opinion prevailas the firft phyficians are generally fuppofed to have ed among the heathens who were neighbours to the been ; for in that age we know the Egyptian priefts Jews, is alfo probable from what we read of Ahaziah were in. fuch high favour, that they retained then ii- king of Judah, who having fent meffengers to inquire %

ki iiftoiy, MED! CINE. )rigin of cf Baal-'/ebub god of Ekron concerning his difeafe, he Hops up the orifice with mud. The hint of clyfters Origin of Medicine, (Jcljj-e any remedy from him or his priefts, but was taken from the ibis, a bird which is faid to give Medicine, itfelf clyfters with its bill, &c. They ufed venefecfimply to know whether he fhould recover or not. What feems moft probable on this fubjedt therefore tion, however, but very little, probably on account is, that religion and medicine came to be mixed toge- of the warmth of the' climate ; and the exhibition of ther only in confequence of that degeneracy into ig- the remedies above-mentioned, joined with abftinence, 3 norance and fuperftition which took place among all formed the moft of their practice. The Greeks, too, had feveral perfons to whom they Among the nations. The Egyptians, we know, came at laft to c ret sbe funk in the moil ridiculous and abfurd fupertti- attributed the invention of pbyftc, particularly Pro- ’ ^ tion ; and then, indeed, it is not wonderful to find rnetheus, Apollo, or Paean, and iEfculapius ; which their priefts commencing phyficians, and mingling laft was the moft celebrated of any. But here we muft. charms, incantations, &c. with their remedies. That obferve, that as the Greeks were a very warlike people, this wras the cafe, though long after the days of Jo- their phyfic feems to have been little elfe than what feph, we are very certain ; and indeed it feems as na- is now called furgery, or the cure of wounds, fractural for ignorance and barbarifm to combine religion tures, &c. Hence iEfculapius, and his pupils Chiwith phyftc, as it is for a civilized and enlightened ron, Machaon, and Podalirius, are celebrated by Hopeople to keep them feparate. Hence we fee, that mer only for their fkill in curing thefe, without any among all modern barbarians their priefts or conjurors mention of their attempting the cures of internal difeafes. We are not, however, to fuppofe that they a are their only phyficians. unong the y\re are fG little acquainted with the ftate of phyfic confined themfelves entirely to furgery. They no gyptians; among the Egyptians, that it is needlefs to fay much doubt would occafionally preferibe for internal diforconcerning them. They attributed the invention of ders ; but as they were moft frequently converfant with medicine, as they did alfo that of many other arts, to wounds, we may naturally fuppofe the greateft part of Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. He their fkill to have confiiled in knowing how to cure is faid to have written many things in hieroglyphic thefe. If we may believe the poets, indeed, the knowcharadfers upon certain pillars, in order to perpetuate ledge of medicine feems to have been very generally his knowledge, and render it ufeful to others. Thefe diffufed. Almoft all the heroes of antiquity are rewere tranferibed by Agathodemon, or the fecond Mer- ported to have been phyficians as well as warriors. cury, the father of Tat, who is faid to have compofed Moft; of them were taught phyfic by the centaur Chibooks of them, that were kept in the moft facred ron. From him Hercules received inftruftions in the places of the Egyptian temples. The exiHence of medicinal art, in which he is faid to have been no lefs finch a perfon, however, is very dubious, and many of expert than in feats of arms. Several plants were the books aferibed to him were accounted forgeries as called by his name ; whence fome think it prolong ago as the days of Galen ; there is alfo great rea- bable that he found out their virtues, though othera fon to fufpedl that thofe books -were written many are of opinion that they bore the name of this reages after Hermes, and when phyfic had made confi- nowned hero on account of their great efficacy in rederable advances. Many of th!F books attributed to moving difeafes. Ariftaeus king of Arcadia was alfo him are trifling and ridiculous ; and though fometimes one of Chiron’s fcholars ; and is fuppofed to have difhe-is allowed to have all the honour of inventing the eovered the ufe of the drug called ftlphium, by fome art, he is on other occafions obliged to fhare it with thought to be afafeetida. Thcfeus, Telamon, Jafon, Ofiris, Ifis, atid Apis or Serapis. Peleus, and his fon Achilles, were all renowned for After alj, the Egyptian phyfic appears to have been their knowledge in the art of phyiic. The laft is little elfe-than a colledfion of abfurd fuperftitions. Ori- faid to have difeovered the ufe of verdegrife iiV cleanfgen informs us, that they believed there were 36 de- ing foul ulcers. All of them, however, feem trt have mons, or gods of the air, who divided the human body been inferior in knowledge to Palamedes, who hinderamong them ; that they had names for all of them ; and ed the plague from coming into the Grecian camp afthat, by invoking them according to the part affefted, ter it had ravaged moft of the cities of the Hellefpont, the patient was cured. Of natural medicines we hear and even Troy itfelf. His method was to confine his of none recommended by the father of Egyptian phy- foldiers to a fpare diet, and to oblige them to ufe much fic ; except the herb moly, which he gave to Ulyfles in exercife. order to fecure him from the enchantments of Circe } The pra&ice of thefe ancient Greek phyficians, notand the herb mercury, of which he firft difeovered the withftanding the praifes beftowed on them by their ufe. His fucceflbrs made ufe of venefe&ion, cathartics, poets feems to have been very limited, and in fome cafes emetics, and clyfters. There is no proof, however, that even pernicious. All the external remedies applied this pradlice was eftablifhed by Hermes ; on the con- to Homer’s wounded heroes were fomentations ; while trary, the Egyptians themfelves pretended that the inwardly their phyficians gave them wine, fometimes firft hint of thofe remedies was taken from fome ob- mingled with cheefe feraped down. A great deal of servations on brute animals. Venefeftion was taught their phyfic alfo confifted in charms, incantations, them by the hippopotamus, which is faid to perform amulets, See. of which, as they are common to all futhis operation upon itfelf. On thefe occafions, he pefftitious and ignorant natioas, it is fuperfluous t4 Serapion.

C I N E. Hiftorjr,, and afcribed qualities of different kinds to her. For Afclepithe fame reafon he ridiculed the dodrine of Hippo- adc»- w-v crates with regard to crifes ; and afferted that tne " termination of difeafes might be as well accounted for from mere matter and motion. He maintained, that we were deceived if we imagined that nature always did good ; iince it was evident that file often did a great deal of harm. As for the days particularly fixed upon by Hippocrates for crifes, or thofe on which we ufually obferve a change either for the better or the worfe, Afclepiades denied that fuch alterations happened on thofe days rather than on others. Nay, he afl'erted that the crifis did not happen at any time of its own accord, or by the particular determination of nature for the cure of the diforder, but that it depended rather on the addrefs and dexterity of the phyfician ; that we ought never to wait till a diftemper terminates of its own accord, but that the phyfician by his care and medicines muft haften on and advance the cure.—According to him, Hippocrates and other ancient phyficians attended their patients rather with a view to obferve in what manner they died than in order to cure them *, and this under pretence that nature ought to do all herfelf, without any affiftance. According to Afclepiades, the particular affemblage of the various corpufcles above-mentioned, and reprefented as of different figures, is the reafon why there are feveral pores or mterftices within the common mafs, formed by thefe corpufcles y and why thefe pores are of a different fixe. This being taken for granted, as thefe pores are in all the bodies we obferve, it muft of courfe follow that the human body has fome peculiar to itfelf, which, as well as thofe of all other bodies, contain other minute bodies, which pafs and repafs by thofe pores that communicate with ea/i other ; and as thefe pores or interftices are larger or fmaller, fo the corpufcies which pafs through them differ Pro“ portionably as to largenefs and minutenefs. Ihe blood confifts of the largeft of thefe corpufcles, and the fpirits, or the heat, of the fmalleft. From thefe principles he infers, that as long as the corpufcles are freely received by the pores, the body remains in its natural ftate ; and on the contrary, it begins to recede from that ftate, when the corpufcles find any obftacle to their paffage. Health therefore depends on the juft proportion between the pores and the corpufcles they are deftined to receive and tranfnut , as difeafes, on the contrary, proceed from a difproportion between thefe pores and the corpufcles. i he moft ufual obftacle on this occafion proceeds from the corpufcles embracing each other, and being retained in fome of their ordinary paffages, whether thefe corpufcles arrive in too large a number, are of irregular figures, move too faft or too flow, &c. Among the diforders produced by the corpufcles flopping of their own accord, Afclepiades reckoned phrenfies, lethargies, pleurifies and burning fevers. Pains, in particular, are clafled among the accidents which derive their origin from a ftagnation of the largeft of all the corpufcles of which the blood confifts. Among the diforders produced by the bad ftate and difpefition of the pores, he placed deliquiums, languors, extenuations, leannefs, and dropfies.^ Fhele laft diforders he thought proceeded from the pores being too much relaxed and opened: the particular, dropfy m

Mory. M E D I Aiepiades-particular, he thinks, proceeds from the flefh being u ~y—’ perforated with various fmall holes, which convert the nourifhment received into them into water. Hunger, and efpecially that fpecies of it called fames can'ina^ proceeds from an opening of the large pores of the Itomach and belly ; and third: from an opening of their fmall ones. Upon the fame principles he accounted for intermittent fevers. Quotidian fevers are caufed by a retention of the larged; corpufcles, thofe of the tertian kind by a retention of corpufcles fomewhat fmaller, and quartan fevers are produced by a retention of the fmalled: corpufcles of all. The practice of Afclepiades was fuited to remove thefe imaginary caufes of diforders. He compofed a book concerning common remedies, which he principally reduced to three, •vise,, geftation, fri&ion, and the ufe of wine. By various exercifes he propofed to render the pores more open, and to make the juices and fmall bodies, which caufe difeafes by their retention, pafs more freely ; and while the former phyficians had not recourfe to geftation till towards the end of long-continued diforders, and when the patients, though entirely free from fever, were yet too weak to take fufficient exercife by walking, Afclepiades ufed geftation from the very beginning of the moft burning fevers. He laid it down as a maxim, that one fever was to be cured by another ; that the ftrength of the patient was to be exhautted by making him watch and endure thirft to fuch a degree, that, for the two firft days of the diforder, he would not allow them to cool their mouths with a drop of water. Celfus alfo obferves, that though Afclepiades treated his patients like a butcher during the firft days of the diforder, he indulged them fo far afterwards as even to give directions for making their beds in the fofteft manner. On feveral occalions Afclepiades ufed frictions to open the pores. The dropfy was one of the diftempers in which this remedy was ufed ; but the moft lingular attempt was, By this means, to lull phrenetic patients afleep. But though he enjoined exercife fo much to the fick, he denied it to thofe in health ; a piece of conduCt not a little fuipriling and extraordinary. He allowed wine freely to patients in fevers, provided the violence of the diftemper was fomewhat abated. Nor did he forbid it to thofe who were afflicted with a phrenzy : nay, he ordered them to drink it till they were intoxicated, pretending by that means to make them fleep; becaufe, he faid, wine had a narcotic quality, and procured fleep, which he thought abfolutely neceflary for thofe who laboured under that diforder. To lethargic patients he ufed it on purpofe to excite them, and roufe their fenfes : he alfo made them fmell ftrong-fcented fubftances, fuch as vinegar, caftor, and rue, in order to make them fneeze ; and applied to their heads cataplafms of muftard made up with vinegar. Belides thefe remedies, Afclepiades enjoined his patients abftinence to an extreme degree. For the firft three days, according to Celfus, he allowed them no aliment whatever ; but on the fourth began to give them victuals. According to Ctelius Aurelianus, however, he began to nourilh his patients as foon as the acceflion of the difeafe was diminiflied, not waiting till an entire remiffion ; giving to fome aliments on the firft, to others on the fecond, to others on the third, and fo on to the feventh day. It feems almoft incredible to us, that people ftiould be able to fail till Vol. XI. Part I.

CINE. . 65 this laft mentioned term ; but Celfus alfures us, that Afclpeiadesabftinence till the feventh day was enjoined by the-v— predeceftors of Afclepiades, and by Heraclides Tarentinus. The next great revolution which happened in the medicinal art, was brought about by Themifon, the difciple of Afclepiades,' who lived not long before the time of Celfus, during the end of the reign of Auguf^ tus, or beginning of that of Tiberius. The feCt Methodic founded by him was called methodic, becaufe he endea- fed. voured to find a method ot rendering medicine more eafy than formerly. ^ He maintained, that a knowledge of the caufes of Themifon. difeafes was not necefiary, provided we have a due regard to what difeafes have in common and analogous cafes to one another. In confequence of this principle, he divided all difeafes into two, or at moft three, kinds. The firft included difeafes arifing from ftriCture; the fecond, thofe arifing from relaxation; and the third, thofe of a mixed nature, or fuch as partook both of ftrifture and relaxation. Themifon alfo aflerted, that difeafes are fometimes cute, and fometimes chronical; that for a certain time they increafe ; that at a certain time they are at their height ; and that at laft they are obferved to diminifti. Acute difeafes, therefore, according to him, muft be treated in one way, and chronical ones in another ; one method muft be followed with fuch as are in their augmentation, another with fuch as are at their height, and a third with fuch as are in their declenfion. He aflerted, that the whole of medicine confifted in the obfervation of that fmall number of rules which are founded upon things altogether evident. He faid, that all diforders, whatever their nature was, if included under any of the kinds above mentioned, ought to be treated precifely in the fame way, in whatever country and with whatever fymptoms they happen to arife. Upon thefe principles, he defined medicine to be a method of conducing to the knowledge ot what difeafes have in common with each other, and which at the fame time is evident. Themifon was old when he laid the foundation of the Methodic feft ; and it was only brought to perfection by Thefl’alus, who lived under the emperor Nero. Theflalus. Galen and Pliny accufe this phyfician of intolerable infolence and vanity , and report that he gave himfelf the air of defpiiing all other phyficians ; and fo intolerable was his vanity, tliat he atfumed the title of the conqueror of phyficians, which he caufed to be put upon his tomb in the Appian way. Never was mountebank (fays Pliny), attended by a greater number of fpedlators than Thefialus had generally about him ; and this circumftance is the lefs to be wondered at, if we confider that he promifed to teach the whole art of medicine in lefs than fix months. In reality, the art might be learned much fooner if it comprehended no more than what the methodifts thought neceflary: for they cut off the examination of the caufes of difeafes followed by the dogmatics; and fubftituted in the roora of the laborious obfervations of the empirics, indications drawn from the analogy of difeafes, and the mutual refemblance they bear to each other. The moft fkilful of all the methodic fe6l, and he who put the laft hartd to it, was Soranus. He lived under the emperors Soranus. Trajan and Adrian, and wms a native of Ephefus. 4Q One of the moft celebrated medical writers of an- Celfus. I tiquity

CINE. Hiftory. of the healing art in ail its branches, whether pertiquity was Ceiius, whom we have already had oc- formed tnatiUf cviclu^ vel tnediccimtntis* His writings, Celfus. * cafion to mention. Moil writers agree that he lived therefore, will naturally be had recourfe to by every in the time of Tibenusj but his country is uncertain. one who willies either to become acquainted with the It is even difputed whether or not he was a profeffed practice of the ?.ncients prior to the fail of the Roman phyfician. Certain it is, however, that his books on or to read medical Latin in its greatell pu» medicine are the molt valuable of all the ancients next empire, rity. . , 41 to thofe of Hippocrates. From the latter, indeed, he About the 131ft year after Chrift, in the reign of Galen, has taken fo much, as to acquire the name of the the emperor Adrian, lived the celebrated Galen, a natin Hippocrates ; but he has not attached himfelf to tive of Pergamus, whofe name makes fucb a confpicuhim fo clofely as to rejeft the affiftance of other au- ous figure in the hiftory of phyiic. At this time the thors. In many particulars he has preferred Afcle- dogmatic, empiric, methodic, and other lefts, had piades. With him he laughs at the critical days of each their abettors. The methodics were held in Hippocrates, and afcribes the invention of them to great efteem, and looked upon to be fuperior to the a foolilh and fuperftitious attachment to the Pythago- dogmatics, who were ftrangely divided among themrean dodtrine of numbers. He aifo rejected the doc- felves, fome of them following Hippocrates, others trine of Hippocrates with regard to venefedion, of Erafiftratus, and others Afclepiades. ^ he empirics which he made a much more general ufe ; but did not made the leaft confiderable figure of any. Galen untake away fo much at a time, thinking it much better dertook the reformation of medicine, and reitored to repeat the operation than weaken the patient by too dogmatifm. He feems to have been of that feft great an evacuation at one time. He ufed cupping which was called ecleSic, from their choofing out ot alfo much more frequently, and differed frorn^ him different authors what they efteemed good in them, with regard to purgatives. In the beginning of dif- without being particularly attached to any one more orders, he faid, the patients ought to endure hunger than the reft. This declaration he indeed fets out and thirft : but afterwards they were to be nounfhed with ; but, notwithftanding this, he follows Hippowith good aliments; of which, however, they were not crates much more than any of the reft, or rather folto take too much, nor till themfelves all of a hidden, lows nobody elfe but him. Though before his time after having failed. He does not fpecify how long feveral phyficians had commented on the works of the patient ought to pra&ife abftinence ; but affirms, Hippocrates, yet Galen pretends that none of them that in this particular it is neceffary to have a regard had underftood his meaning. His firft attempt thereto the difeafe, the patient, the feafon, the climate, and fore was to explain the works ot Hippocrates j with other circumftances of a like nature. I he figns drawn which view he wrote a great deal, and aftei this few from the pulfe he looked upon to be very precarious about compofing a fyftem of his own. In one of bii and uncertain. “ Some (fays he), lay great ilrefs upbooks, entitled, “ Ot the Eftabliflunent of Medicine, on the beating of the veins or the arteries; which io a he defines the art to be one which teaches to predeceitful circumftance, lince that beating is flow pr ferve health and cure difeafes. In another book, quick, and varies very much, according to the age, fex, however, he propofes the following definition : “ Meand conftitution of the patient. It even iometimes dicine (fays he), is a fcience which teaches what is happens that the pulte is weak and languid when the found, and what is not fo ; and what is of an^indiffeftomach is difordered, or in the beginning of a fever, rent nature, or holds a medium between what is found though in other refpefts the body be in a good Hate ; and what is the reverfe.” He affirmed, that theie are fo that we might, in this latter cafe, be induced to be- three things which conftitute the objeft of medicine, lieve, that a man is very weak, wdien he is jutl enter- and which the phyfician ought to confider as found, ing into a violent paroxyfm, has ttrength enough left, as not found, or of a neutral and indifterent nature. and may be eafily recovered from it. On the con- Thefe are the body itfelf, the figns, and the cau.es. trary, the pulfe is often high, and in a violent com- Fie efteems the human body found, when it is in a motion, when one has been expofed to the fun, or good ft ate or habit with regard to the iimple parts of comes out of a bath, or from ufmg exercife ; or when which it is compofed, and when beiides there is a ju l one is under the influence of anger, fear, or any other proportion between the organs formed of thefe iiniple paffion. Betides, the pulfe is eatily changed by the parts. On the contrary, the body is reckoned to. be arrival of the phyfician, in confequence of the patient s unfound, when it recedes from this Hate, and the juft anxiety to know what judgment he will pafs upon his proportion above mentioned. It is in a (late of neu-, cafe. To prevent this, the phyfician mull not teel the trality or indifference, when it is in a medium between patient’s pulfe on his fxrft arrival : he muff firil fit down foundnefs and its oppofite Hate. The ralutary figna by him, affume a cheerful air, inform himfelf of his con- are fuch as indicate prei'ent health, and^ prognorucate dition; and if he is under any dread, endeavour to re- that the man may remain in that bate for fome time move it by encouraging difeourfe ; after which he may to come. The infalubrious figns, on the contrary, inexamine the beating of the artery. This, neverthekfs, dicate a prefent diforder, or lay a foundation for fudoes not hinder us from concluding, that if the light fpefting the approach of one. 1 he neutral figns, or ©f the phyfician alone can produce fo remarkable a fuch as are of an indifferent nature, denote neither change in the pulfe, a thoufand other caufes may pro. duce the fame effedl.” But although Celfus thought health nor iudifpofition, either for the prefent, or for the time to come. In like manner he fpeaks of caules for himfelf, and in not a few particulars ditiered irom falutary, unfalutary, and indifferent. his predecelfovs, yet in his writings, which are not only Thefe three difpofitions of the human body, that is, dill preferved, but have gone through almoft innu- foundnefs, its reverfe, and a neutral ftate, comprehend merable editions, we have a compendious view o. the or mdifnofition: practice of almoft all his predeceffors; and he treats all the differences between health and diforder M

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Hiftcry. M E D I Galen, unpofition; and each of thefe three ftatea or difpofi—v—' tionn has a certain extent peculiar to itfelf. A found habit of body, according to the definition of it already given, is very rare, and perhaps never to be met with } but this does not hinder us to fuppofe fuch a model for regulating our judgment with refpeft to different conftitutions. On this principle Galen eftabhlhes eight other principal conftitutions, all of which differ more or lefs from the perfect model above mentioned. The four firft are fuch as have one of the four qualities of hot, cold, moift, or dry, prevailing in too great a degree ; and accordingly receive their denomination from that quality which prevails over the reft. The four other fpecies of conftitutions receive their denominations from a combination of the above mentioned ; fo that, according to his definition, there may be a hot and dry, a hot and moift, a cold and moift, and a cold and dry, conljkution. Befides thefe differences, there are certain others which refult from occult and latent caufes, and which, by Galen, are laid to arife from an id'wfyncrafy of conllitution. It is owing to this idiofyncrafy that fome have an averfion to one kind of aliment and fome to another ; that fome cannot endure particular fmells, &c. But though thefe eight laft-mentioned conftitutions fall Ihort of the perfection of the firft:, it does not thence follow, that thofe to whom they belong are to be claffed among the valetudinary and difeafed. A difeafe only begins when the deviation becomes fo great as to hinder the adtion of the parts. Galen defcribes at great length the figns of a good or bad conftitution, as well as thofe of what he calls a neutral habit. Thefe figns are drawn from the original qualities of cold, hot, moift, and dry, and from their juft proportion or difproportion with refpedi to the bulk, figure, and fituation, of the organical parts. With Hippocrates he eftablfthes three principles of an animal body ; the parts, the humours, and the fpirits. By the parts lie properly meant no more than the folid parts ; and thefe he divided into fimilar and orgaiiical. Like Hippocrates, he alfo acknowledged four humours ; the blood, the phlegm, the yellow bile and black bile. He eftablHhed three different kinds of fpirits ; the vital, the animal, and the natural. The firft of thefe are, according to him, nothing elfe but a fubtile vapour ariiing from the blood, which draws its origin from the liver, the organ or inftvument of fanguiiication. After thefe fpirits are conveyed to the heart, they, in conjunftion with the air we draw into the lungs, become the matter of the fecond fpecies, that is, of the vital fpirits, which are again changed into thole of the animal kind in the brain. He fuppofed that thefe three fpecies of fpirits ferved as inftruments to three kinds of faculties, which refide in the refpedlive parts where thefe faculties are formed. The natural faculty is the firft of thefe, which lie placed in the liver, and imagined to prefide over the nutrition, growth, and generation, of the animal. The vital faculty he lodged in the heart, and fuppofed that by means of the arteries it communicated warmth and life to all the body. The animal faculty, the nobleft of all the three, and with which the reafoning or governing faculty was joined, according to him, has its feat in the brain ; and, by means of the nerves, diftributes a power of motion and fenfation to all the parts, and prefides over all the other faculties. The

C I N E. original fource or principle of tnotion in all thcie faculties, Galen, as well as Hippocrates, defines to be Nature. Upon thefe principles Galen defined a difeafe to be “ fuch a preternatural difpolition or affeftion of the parts of the body, as primarily, and of itfelf, binders their natural and proper adtion.” He eftabiiftied three principal kinds of difeafes : the firft relates to the fi* milar parts : the fecond, to the organical ; and the third is common to both thefe parts. The firft kind of difeafes confifts in the intemperature of the fimilar parts ; and this is divided into an intemperature without matter, and an intemperature 'with matter. The firft difeovers itfelf when a part has more or lefs heat or cold than it ought to have without that change of quality in the part being fupported and maintained by any matter. Thus, for inftance, a perfon’s head may be overheated and indifpofed by being expofed to the heat of the fun, without that heat being maintained by the continuance or congeftion of any hot humour in the part. The fecond fort of intemperature is when any pail is not only rendered hot or cold, but alfo filled with a hot or cold humour, which are the caufes of the heat or cold felt in the part. Galen alfo acknowledged a fimple intemperature ; that is, when one of the original qualities, fuch as heat or cold, exceeds alone and feparately ; and a compound intemperature, when two qualities are joined together, fuch as heat and drynefs, or coldnefs and humidity. He alfo eftabliftied an equal and unequal temperature. The former is that which is equally in all the body, or in any particular part of it, and which creates no pain, be* caufe it is become habitual, fuch as drynefs in the hectic conftitution. The latter is diftinguifhed from the former, in that it does not equally fubiift in the whole of the body, or in the whole of a part. Of this kind of intemperature we have examples in certain fevers, where heat and cold, equally, and almoft at the fame time, attack the fame part ; or in other fevers, which render the furface of the body cold as ice, while the internal parts burn with heat ; or laftly, in cafes where the ftomach is cold and the liver hot. The fecond kind of diforders, relating to the organical parts, refults from irregularities of thefe parts, with refpedt to the number, bulk, figure, fituation, &c. ; as when one has fix fingers, or only four; when one has any part larger or fmaller than it ought to be, &c. The third kind, which is common both to the fimilar and the organical parts, is a folution of continuity, which happens when any fimilar or compound part is cut, bruifed, or corroded. Like Hippocrates, Galen diftinguifhed difeafes into acute and chronical; and, with refpedt to their nature and genius, into benign and malignant ; alfo into epidemic, endemic, and fporadic. After having diftinguifhed the kinds of difeafes, Galen comes to explain the caufes; which he divides into external and internal. The external caufes of difeafes, according to him, are fix things, which contribute t. ment While mecy;cjne as we]l a3 other iciences. at the fame time, the introduction of the art of printing rendered the communication of new opinions as well as new practices fo eafy a matter, that to enumerate even the names of thofe who have been juftly rendered eminent for medical knowledge would be a very tedious talk. It was not, however, till 1628 that Dr William Harvey of London demonftrated and communicated to the public one of the moil important dif^ coveries refpefting the animal economy, the circulaDifcovery tion of the blood. This difeovery, more effeclually of the dr- than any reafoning, overturned all the fyftems which dilation. had fubfifted prior to that time. It may juftly be rec honed the moft important difeovery that has hitherto been made in the healing art: for there can be no doubt that it puts the explanation of the phenomena of the animal body, both in a ftate of health and difeafe, on a more folid and rational footing than formerly. It has not, however, prevented the rile of numerous fanciful and abfurd fyftems. Thefe, though fafhionable for a ftiort time, and ftrenuouily fupported by blind adherents, have yet in no long period fallen into deferved contempt. And notwithilanding the abilities and induftry of Stahl, Hoffman, Boerhaave, and Cullen, we may eafily venture to affert that no general fyftem has yet been propofed which is not liable to innumerable and unfurmountable objections. Very great pregrefs has indeed been made in explain-

C I N E. 71 ing the philofophy of the human body, from alcer- Moderns, taming by decifive experiment the influence of the '-'“’■'V * circulating, the nervous, and the lymphatic fyftems in the animal economy. But every attempt hitherto made to eftablifh any general theory in medicine, that is to condudl the cure of every difeafe on a few general principles, has equally deviated from truth with thofe of Hippocrates and Galen ; and has equally tended to miilead thofe who have adopted it. Indeed we may with confidence venture to aflert, that from the very nature of the fuhjeft itfelf, medicine does not admit of fuch fxmplicity. No one can deny that the human body confifts of a very great number of different parts, both folids and fluids. It is, however, equally certain, that each of thefe is from many different caufes liable to deviations from the found ftatc. And although fome flight changes may take place without what can be called a morbid affeftion, yet we well know, that every change taking place to a certain degree in any one part will neceffarily and unavoidably produce an affection of the whole. Hence we may without hefitation venture to affirm, that every general theory which can be propofed, attempting to explain the phenomena, and conduft the cure of all difeafes on a few general principles, though for fome time it may have ftrenuous advocates, will yet in the end be found to be both ill-grounded and pernicious. The art of medicine has been much more ufefully improved by careful attention to the hiftory, theory, and practice of particular difeafes, and by endeavouring to afeertain from cautious obfervation the fymptoms by which they are to be diftinguiffied, the caufes by which they are induced, and the means by which they are to be prevented, alleviated, or cured. On this footing, therefore, we fliall endeavour to give a brief account of at leaft the moft important affeclions to which the human body is fubjected, delivering what appear to us to be the belt eftablifhed fails and obfervation s refpeiling each. But before entering on the confideration of particular difeafes, or what has commonly been ftyled the prailiee of medicine, it is neceffary to give a general view of the moft important funilions of the animal body, and of the chief morbid affeclions to which they are fubjeiled ; a branch which has ufually been named the Theory or Injlituiwns of Medicine.

Theory of Medicine, or an Account of the principal Functions of the Animal’ Body, WHILE the functions of living animals, but particularly of the human fpecies, are very numerous, the accounts given of thefe both in a ftate of health and difeafe are very various. Without, therefore, pretending to enumerate the contradictory opinions of different authors, we Ihall here prefent the reader with a view of this fubjeft, extracted from one of the lateft and bell publications re fp eft ing it, the Conjfeftus Medicine Theoretic# of Dr James Gregory, formerly profeffor of the inftitutions of medicine in the univerfity of Edinburgh, and now profeffor of praftice. In this work, which was lirft publilhed in 1780, and afterwards reprinted under an enlarged form in

1782, Dr Gregory introduces his fubjeft by obferv-Hivifion of ing, that fome funftions of the human body relate the functo itfelf only, and others to external things. To the y0115 “ff0 a" latter clafs belong thofe which by phyficians are called the animalfun&ions; to which are to be referred all turaour fenfes, as well as the power of voluntary motion, by which we become acquainted with the univerfe, and enjoy this earth. Among the funftions which relate to the body, only fome have been named mtal, fuch as the circulation of the blood and refpiration j becaufe, without the conftant continuance of thefe life cannot fubfift. Others, intended for repairing the wafte of the fyftem, have been termed the natural functions r

M E D I 72 Divifion of lions : for by the conftant attrition of the folids, fundtions. and the evaporation of the fluid parts of the body, we Hand in need of nourifhment to fupply this wafte ; after which the putrid and excrementitious parts muft be thrown out by the proper pafl'ages. The digeltion of the food, fecretion of the humours, and excretion of the putrid parts of the food, are referred to this clafs ; which, though neceflary to life, may yet be interrupted for a confidei'able time without 57 . danger. Diftinction A djcafe takes place, when the body has fo far of difeafos declined from a found ftate, that its functions are into fimple either quite impeded, or performed with difficulty. and com- A difeafe therefore may happen to any part of the pound. body either folid or fluid, or to any one of the functions : and thofe may occur either Angle, or feveral of them joined together ; whence the diftin&ion of difeafes into fimple and compound. We have examples of the mod fimple kinds of difeafes, in the rupture or other injury of any of the corporeal organs, by which means they become lefs fit for performing their offices ; or, though the organs themfelves fliould remain found, if the folids or fluids have degenerated from a healthy date ; or if, having lod their proper qualities, they have acquired others of a different, perhaps of a noxious nature ; or ladly, if the moving powers {hall become too weak or too drong, or direct their force in a way contrary to what nature requires. The mod fimple difeafes are either produftive of 58 Symptoms. others, or of fymptoms, by evliich alone they become known to us.—Every thing in which a lick perfon is obferved to differ from one in health is called a fymptom ; and the mod remarkable of thefe fymptoms, and which mod condantly appear, define and conditute the difeafe. The caufes of difeafes are various ; often obfcure, and fometimes totally unknown. The mod full and perfect proximate caufe is that which, when prefent, produces a difeafe, when taken away removes it, and when changed alfo changes it.—There are 59 Predifpo- alfo remote caufes, wdiich phyficians have been acncnt caufe, cudomed to divide into the predifponent and exciting ones. The former are thofe which only render the body fit for a difeafe, or wdvich put it into fuch a Exciting date that it will readily receive one. The exciting caufe. caufe is that wdiich immediately prodiJfces the difeafe in a body already difpofed to receive it. The predifponent caufe is ahvays inherent in the body itfelf, though perhaps it originally came from without; but the exciting caufe may either come from within or from without. gj* From the combined action of the predifponent and Proximate exciting caufes comes the proximate caufe, wdiich neicaufe. ther of the two taken fingly is able to produce; feeing neither every exciting caufe will produce a difeafe in every perfon, nor will every one predifpofed to a difeafe fall into it without an exciting caufe.—A body predifpofed to difeafe therefore has already declined fomewdiat from a date of perfect health, although none of its functions are impeded in fuch a manner that we can truly fay the perlon is difeafed. Yet fometimes the predifponent caufe, by continuing long, may arrive at fuch a height, that it alone, without the addition of any exciting caufe, may pro-

CINE. Theory, duce a real difeafe.—Of this we have examples in the Origin of debility of the fimple folids, the mobility of the Tdeafes. living folids, and in plethora.—The exciting caufe' alfo, though it fhould not be able immediately to bring on- a difeafe ; yet if it continues long, will by degrees dedroy the dronged conditution, and render it liable to various difeafes ; becaufe it either produces a predifponent caufe, or is converted into it, fo that the fame thing may fometimes be an exciting caufe, fometimes a predifponent one ; of which the inclemencies of the weather, floth, luxury, &c. are examples. 6z Difeafes, however, feem undoubtedly to have their Hereditary origin from the very conditution of the animal ma-difeafes. chine ; and hence many difeafes are common to every body when a proper exciting caufe occurs, though fome people are much more liable to certain difeafes than others. Some are hereditary ; for as healthy parents naturally produce healthy children, fo difeafed parents as naturally produce a difeafed odspring. Some of the difeafes appear in the earlied infancy ; others occur equally at all ages ; nor are there wanting fome which lurk unfufpe&e'd even to the lated old age, at lad breaking out w ith the utmod violence on a proper occafion. Some difeafes are born with us, even though they have no proper foundation in our conditution, as wdien a foetus receives fome hurt by an injury done to the mother ; wdiile others, neither born with us nor having any foundation in the conditution, are fucked gj in wuth the nurfe’s milk. Many difeafes accompany Difeafes the different dages of life ; and hence fome are proper hom age to infancy, youth, and old age. Some alfo are properaild *ex‘ to each of the fexes, efpecially the weaker fex ; proceeding, no doubt, from the general conditution of the body, but particularly from the date of the parts fubfervient to generation. Hence the difeafes peculiar to virgins, to mendruating women, to wromen with child, to lying-in wromen, to nurfes, and to old wtomen. The climate itfelf, under which people live, Djfeafes produces fome difeafes ; and every climate hath a ten-from clidency to produce a particular difeafe, either from its mate, excefs of heat or cold, or from the mutability of the wreather. An immenfe number of diieafes alfo may be produced by impure air, or fuch as is loaded with putrid, marfhy, and other noxious vapours. The fame thing may happen likew'ife from corrupted aliment, whether meat or drink; though even the bed and mod nutritious aliment will hurt if taken in too great quantity; not to mention poifons, which are endowed with fuch pernicious qualities, that even when taken in a very fmall quantity they produce the mod grievous difeafes, or perhaps even death itfelf. Ladly, From 65 innumerable accidents and dangers to which mankind^kafes are expofed, they frequently come off with broken limbs, wounds, and contufions, fometimes quite incurable ; and thefe misfortunes, though proceeding from an external caufe at fird, often terminate in internal difeafes. Hitherto wre have mentioned only the dangers wdiich come from without; but thofe are not lefs, nor fewer in number, which come from wuthin. At every breath, man pours forth a deadly poifon both to himfelf and others. Neither are the effluvia of the lungs alone hurtful : there flows out from every pore of the body a mod fubtile and poifonous matter, perhaps of a putrefcent

Theory. MED! Origin of fent nature, which being long accumulated, and not Drieafes. allo;vecj t0 diffufe itfelf through the air, infefts the u—y—— |.0{3y wdh moft grievaus difeafes ; nor does it ftop here, but produces a contagion which fpreads dcvailation far and wide among mankind. From too much or too little exercife of our animal-powers alfo no fmall danger enfues. By inatlivity either of body or mind, the vigour of both is impaired ; nor is the danger much lefs from too great employment. By moderate ufe, all the faculties of the mind, as well as all the parts of the body, are improved and ilrenglhened ; and here nature has appointed certain limits, fo that exercife can neither be too much negledtcd, nor too much increafed, with impunity. Hence thofe who ufe violent exercife, as well as thofe who fpend their time in fioth and idlenefs, are equally liable to difeafes $ but each to difeafes of a different kind : and hence alio the bad effefts of too great or too little employment of the ^ mental powers. pifeafes Befides the dangers arifing from thofe adtions of the from paf- body and mind which are in our own power, there are f-of the 0£ P £]'S arifing from thofe which are quite involuntary. Thus, paffions of the mind, either when carried to too great excefs, or when long continued, equally deftroy the health ; nay, will even fometimes bring on iudden death. Sleep alfo, which is of the greateil fervice in refloring the exhaufled ftrength of the body, proves noxious either by its too great or too little quantity. In the molt healthy body, alfo, many things always require to be evacuated. The retention of thefe is hurtful, as well as too profufe an evacaution, or the excretion of thofe things either fpontaneoufiy or artificially which nature direfts to be retained. As the folid parts fometimes become flabby, foft, almofl diffolved, and unfit for their proper offices ; fo the fluids are fometimes infpifl’ated, and formed even into the hardeft folid mafl'es. Hence impeded attions of the organs, vehement pain, various and grievous difeafes. Laftly, Some animals are to be reckoned among the caufes of difeafes: namely, fuch as fupport their life at the expence of others : and thefe either invade us from without, or take up their refidence within the body, gnawing the bowels while the perfon is yet alive, not only with great danger and diftrefs to the patient, but fometimes* even producing death 67 itfelf. r * U medha- Man, however, is not left without defence againft nx nature. j*0 many ancl f0 great dangers. The human body is poffeffed of a moft wonderful power, by which it preferves itfelf from difeafes, keeps off many, and in a very fhort time cures fome already begun, while others are by the fame means more flowly brought to a happy conclufion. This power, called the autocratela, or vis wsdicatrix nature, is well known both to phyficians and philofophers, by whom it is moll juftly celebrated ; this alone is fufficient for curing many difeafes, and is of fervice in all. Nay, even the bell medicines operate only by exciting and properly directing this force; for no medicine will aft on a dead carcafs. But though phyficians juftly put confidence in this power, and though it generally cures difeafes of a fiighter nature, it is not to be thought that thofe of the more grievous kind are to be left to the unaffifted efforts of the vis medicatr’ix. Phyficians therefore have a twofold error to avoid, namely, either defpifing the powers of naVol. XL Part I.

C I N E. 73 ture too much, or putting too great confidence in °f,gin them ; becaufe in many difeafes thefe efforts are either D,iea^e?too feeble or too violent, infomuch that fometimes they are more to be dreaded than even the difeafe itfelf. So far therefore is it from being the duty of a phyfician always to follow the footfteps of nature,, that it is often neceffary for him to take a direftly contrary courfe, and oppofe her efforts with all his might. 68 After this general view of the functions of the ani-Cl'em,c;d mal body, of the nature and caufes of difeafe, and of the powers by which thefc are to be combated, Dr Gregory proceeds to treat of the folid materials of which the body is formed. He tells us, that the animal folid, when chemically examined, yields earth, oil, fait, water, phlogifton or inflammable air, and a great quantity of mephitic air. Thefe elements are found in various proportions in the different parts of the body ; and hence thefe parts are endowed with very different mechanical powers, from the hardefl and moll folid bone to the foft and- almofl fluid retina. Nay, it is principally in this difference of proportion between the quantities of the different elements, that the difference between the folid and fluid parts of the animal confift, the former having much more earth and lefs water in their compofltion than the latter. The cohefion, he thinks, is owing to fomething like a chemical attraftion of the elements for one another ; and its caufe is neither to be fought for in the gluten, fixed air, nor earth. This attraction, however, is not fo flrong but that even during life the body' tends to diffolution ; and immediately after death putrefaftion commences, provided only there be as much moifture in it as will allow an intefline motion to go on. The greater the heat, the fooner does putrefaftion take place, and with the greater rapidity does it proceed ; the mephitic air flies off, and together with it certain faline particles ; after which, the cohefion of the body being totallydcflroyed, the whole falls into a putrid colluvies, of which at length all the volatile parts being diffipated, nothing but the earth is left behind. This analyfis, he owns, is far from being perfeft ; becaufe nobody has ever been able, by combining the chemical principles of flefh, to reproduce a compound any thing like what the flefli originally was : but, however imperfeft the analyfis may be, it flili has fhe advantage of {bowing, in fome meafure, the nature and caufes of certain difeafes, and thus leads phyficians to the knowledge of proper remedies. ,> The folid parts are fitted for the purpofes of life in Qualit ies three feveral ways ; namely, by their cohefion, their of the uniflexibility, and their elaflicity, all of which are various mai fulids. in the various parts of the body. Moll of the functions of life confifl in various motions. In fome the moil violent and powerful motions are required ; and therefore fuch a degree of coheiion is neceffary in thefe parts as will be fufficient for allowing them to perform their offices without any danger of laceration. It is therefore neceffary that fome of the folid parts fliould he more flexible than others ; and it is likewife neceffary that thefe parts, along with their flexibility, fhould have a power of recovering their former fliape and fituation, after the removal of the force by which they were altered. Thefe variations in flexibility, within certain HIv mits.

Theory, medicine. 74 Qualities mits, feldom produce any material confequence with growth, ftate, decreafe of the body j its rig^ity . of the Ani- regarcl to the health : though fometimes, by exceed- daily increaflng ; and at laft the unavoidable death ht^ids. the proper bounds, they may bring on real and incident to old age from a continuance ol the lame . _ f * very dangerous difeafes ; and this either by an excefs or Perhaps the different denfity of the folids is in fome diminution of their cohefion, flexibility, or elafticity. By augmenting the cohefion, the elafticity is alfo for meafure owing to nature herfelf ; but it feems rather^ to the moil part augmented, but the flexibility diminiih- depend more on the powers of exercife or inadlivity in ed ; by diminiihing the cohefion, the flexibility be- changing the ftate of the folids, the effedts of which on the body, whether good or bad, may hence be cacomes greater, but the elafticity is diminifhed. fily underftood. The caufes pf thefe affections, though various, may Heat relaxes and expands all bodies, but cold renbe reduced to the following heads : Either the chemical coinpofition of the matter itfelf is changed ; or, ders them more denfe and hard ; the effedts of which the competition remaining the fame, the particles of on the human body are well known to moft people. the folid may be fo difpofed, that they {hall more or lefs Though the body is found to preferve_ a certain deftrongly attraft one another. As to the compofition, gree of heat almoft in every fttuation, it is impoffible almoft all the elements may exift in the body in an un- but that its furface muft be affedted by the temperadue proportion, and thus each contribute its fhare to ture of the ambient atmofphere ; and we have not the the general diforder. But of many of thefe tb’ngs we leaft reafon to doubt that every part of the body may know very little ; only it is apparent, that the fluid thus feel the effedts of that temperature. What a difparts, which confift chiefly of water, and the folid, ference is there between one who, expofed to the fouthwhich are made up of various elements, are often^ in wind, becomes lazy and languid, fcarce able to drag very different proportions : the more water, the leis is along his limbs ; and one who feels the force of the the cohefion or elafticity, but the greater the flexibi- cold north-wind, which renders the whole Body alert, ..... ,. lity ; and the reverfe happens, if the folid or earthy ftrong, and fit for aftion ! That thefe various caufes, each of winch is capable part predominates. Caufes af- The remote caufes of thefe different flates, whether of affedting the conftitution of the body when taken feeling the predifponent or exciting, are very various. In the firft kingly, will produce much greater effedts when comfolids. place, idiofyncrafy itfelf, or the innate conftitution of bined, is Efficiently evident. The experiments of the body, contributes very much to produce the above- Bryan Robinfon, the effeas of the warm bath, and inmentioned effeas. Some have naturally a much harder deed daily experience, ihow it fully. It is not yet certainly known what is the ultimate and drier temperament of the body than others ; men, ftruaure of the minuteft parts of the animal folid ; for inftance, more than women ; which can with the utmoft difficulty, indeed fcarce by any means what- whether it confifts of ftraight fibres or threads, whofe ever, admit of an alteration. The fame thing takes length is very confiderable in proportion to their place at different periods of life ; for, from firft to laft, breadth, varioufly interwoven with one another, as the human body becomes always drier and more rigid. Boerhaave fuppofes ; or of fpiral ones, admirably conMuch alfo depends on the diet made ufe of, which al- voluted and interwoven with one another, as fome miways produces a ccrrefponding ftate of the folids in pro- crofcopical experiments feem to {how ; or whether the portion to its being more or lefs watery. Neither are cellular texture be formed of fibres and lamina', and there wanting ftrong reafons for believing, that not from thence the greateft part of the body, as the ce71 only the habit of tne body, but even the difpoli- lebrated Haller hath endeavoured to prove. The cellular texture is obferved throughout theCell^ tion of the rnind, depends very much on the diet we make ufe of. The good or bad eoncodrion of the ali- whole body: it furrounds and connects the fibres ment alfo, the application of the nourifliment prepared themfelves, which are Efficiently apparent m many of from it, and likewife the ftate of the air with regard to the organs ; and (lightly joins the different parts which to have any kind of motion upon the neighbourmoifture or drynefs, affecl the temperament of the ouuht 0 ing ones. By a condenfation of the fame Ebftance body not a little ; and hence thofe who inhabit mountains or dry countries, are very diflerent from alfo the ftrongeft, and what feem the thiiyieft, memthe inhabitants of low marlhy places. Laftly, The branes are formed ; the moft fimple of which, bemg manner of living contributes fomewhat to this effedl: accurately examined, dilcover the cellular ftiufture. exercife preffes out and exhales the moifture of the This cellular Ebftance fometimes increafes to a Erpnbody, if in too great quantity ; on the contrary, floth fing degree, and all parts formed of it, membranes, and lazinefs produce an effedt diredlly oppolitc, and veffels, &c. efpecially by a gentle diftention ; for a Edden and violent diftention either breaks it altogeeaufe a redundancy of humour. _ ther, or renders it thinner. Sometimes alfo it grows Buf, putting the chemical compofttion of the folid between neighbouring parts, and joins thole which naparts out of the queftion altogether, they may be affedled by many other caufes. The condenfation, for ture has left free. Preternatural concretions of this inftance, or compreffion of the particles, whether by kind are often obferved after an inflammation of the mechanical caufes or by means of cold or heat, makes lungs, or of the abdominal vifeera; and thefe new a confiderable alteration in the ftrength and elafticity membranes are found to be truly cellular. This Ebof every folid body. How much mechanical preffure ftance, when cut, or by any other means divided, grows contributes to this may be underftood from the expe- together of its own accord ; but if, by reafon of very riments of Sir Clifton Wintringham : and hence alfo great inflammation and Eppuration, a large portion of are we to deduce the reafon of many fadls of the high- the cellular texture has been deftroyed, it is never eft importance in the animal economy > namely, the again renewed, and an ugly fear is left. It is even.

Theory. M E D I Cellular faitj, that this fubftance, in certain cafes, is capable Texture. 0f jpining the parts either of the fame body with one another, or of a foreign body with them ; and upon this, if on any foundation, refts the art of Taliacotius, and that of tranfplanting teeth, lately fo much talked fef. The cellular texture is in fome places merely a kind of net-work, in others filled with fat. Wherever too great bulk or compreffion would have been inconvenient or dangerous, as in the head, lungs, eyes, eyebrows, penis, fcrotum, &c. there it collets no fat, but is < lax, and purely reticulated ; but between the tnufcles of the body and limbs below the Ikin, in the abdomen, efpecially in the omentum and about the kidneys, very much fat is fecreted and collefte 7* ^* Animal fat. The fat is a pure animal oil, not very different from the expreffed and mild vegetable ones ; during life it is fluid, but of different degrees of thicknefs in different parts of the body. It is fecreted from the blood, and is often fuddenly reabforbed into it, though pure oil is very rarely obferved in the blood. It is indeed ■very probable, that oil, by digeftion, partly in the priniEe vise, and partly in the lungs, is converted into gluten, and this again into oil by means of fecretion ; though no organs fecreting the fat can be fhown by anatomifts. It is, however, probable, that there are fuch organs ; and that the cellular texture has fome peculiar flrufture in thofe parts which are deftined to contain the fat already fecreted, without fuffering it to pafs intoother places; for it neverpafles into thcfe parts which are purely reticulated, although the cellular texture is eafily permeable by air Or water over the whole body from head to foot. The fat is augmented by the ufe of much animal food, or of any other that is oily and nourifhing, provided the digeftion be good ; by the ufe of ftrong drink, efpecially malt liquor; by much reft of body and mind, much deep and inactivity, caftration, cold, repeated blood-letting, and in general by whatever diminifhes the vital and animal powers. Much, however, depends on the conftitution of the body itfelf; nor is it poffible to fatten a human creature at pleafure like an ox. A certain degree of fatnefs, according to the age of the perfon, is a fign and effeCt of good health ; but when too great, it becomes a difeafe of itfelf, and the caufe of other difeafes. It may always be very certainly removed by ftrong exercife, little fleep, and a fpare and folid diet. The fat always makes up a confiderable part of the bulk of the body, and very often by far the greateft part. Its ufe feems to be to make the motion of the body more eafy and free by leffening the friCtion of the moving parts, and thus preventing the abrafion of the folids, which would otherwife happen. It is alfo of ufe to hinder the parts from growing together, which fometimes happens, when by an ulcer or any other accident a part of the cellular texture containing the fat is deftroyed. Befides all this, the fat contributes not a little to the beauty of the body, by ftlling up the large hiterilices between the mufcles, which. would otherwife give the perfon a deformed and Ihocking- appearance. It is thought to be nutritious, when ab^ forbed from its cells by the blood ; but of this we * ^iave no gre^t certainty. It feems to have fome power

CINE. 75 of defending from the cold, feeing nature has be flow- Animal ed it in very great quantity on thofe animals which in-, t-‘u' , habit the colder regions. mn Thofe parts of the body which enjoy fenfe -vital Mobility, are called living or vital folids. They are the lijg, brain, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, fpinal marrow, the nerves ariflng from thefe and difFufed throughout the whole body, and which are diftributed through the various organs of fenfe and through the mufcles, and laftly, the mufcles themfelves. Senfation is much more general than mobility, as being common to all the parts already mentioned. Mobility is proper to the mufcular fibres alone: wherever there is fenfation, therefore, we may believe that there are nerves; and wherever there is mobility, we may believe that mufcular fibres exift. Kay, even mobility itfelf feems to originate from the Connexion which the mufcles have with the nerves; for foon after the nerves are comprefled, or tied, or cut, the mufcles to which they are diftributed lofe their faculties; which happens, too, when the brain itfelf, or the origin of the nerves, is affefted. Some reckon that the mufcles are produced from the nerves, and confift of the fame kind of matter. Both indeed have a fimilar ftru&ure, as being fibrous and of a white colour: for the mufcles when well freed from the blood, of which they contain a great abundance, are of this colour as well as the nerves; neither can the nervous fibres by any means be diftinguilhed from the mufcular fibres themfelves. Both have alfo fenfation; and both ftimulants and fedatives aft ift the fame manner, whether they be applied to the mufcles themfelves or to the nerves. It is difficult for us to difcover the origin of many parts of the body, or to afcertain whether they are produced all at the fame time or one after another J yet it mult be owned, that many of the muicular parts are obferved to have attained a remarkable degree of ftrength, while the brain is ftill foft and almoft fluid ; and that the action of thefe mufcular parts is required for the aftion and growth of the brain. The mufcles are alfo of a much firmer contexture than the nerves j and enjoy a power of their own, namely, that 6f irritability, of which the nerves never participate. Of neCeffity, therefore, either the mufcles muft be conftrufted of fome kind of matter different from that of the nerves; or if both are made of the fame materials, their organization muff be exceedingly different. But if the fubftance of the mufcles and nerves be totally different, we may eafily be convinced that much of * the one is always mixed with the other; for it is impoffible to prick a mufcle even with the fmalleft needle, without wounding or lacerating many nervous fibres at the fame time. Since, therefore, there is fuch a clofe connexion Between the mufcles and nerves both as to their funftions and ftrufture, they are defervedly reckoned by phyfiologifts to be parts of the fame genus, called the genus nervofumy or nervous . . 74 After treating of fenfe in general, Dr Gregory seRfe 0f proceeds to confider particularly each of the fenfes, feeling, both external and internal. He begins with the fenfe of feeling, as being the moft fimple, and at * the fame time in common to every part of the nervous fyftem. In fome places, however, it is much more acute than in others; in the fkin, for inK 2 ftances

1 heory, MEDICINE. rv External rftance, and efpecially in tKe points of the fingers. body, efpecially thefe which promote the circulation External _ v J Senfes. fhefe are reckoned to have nervous papilla, which of the blood. # Anxiety, in the medical fenfe of the word, arifes, in by the influx of the blood are fomewhat erefted in the aftion of contaft, in order to give a more acute the firft place, from every caufe difturbing or impeding fenfation ; though indeed this opinion feems rather to the motion of the blood through the heart and large be founded on a conjefture derived from the ftrudhire veffels near it. Anxiety, therefore, may arife from of the tongue, which is not only the organ of tafte, but many difeafes of the heart and its vcfiels, fuch as its alfo a molt delicate organ of touch, than upon any enlargement, too great conftriction, offification, polypus, palpitation, fyncope, inflammation, debility, and certain obfervations. T5 Pain. From the fenfeof feeling, as well as all the other fenfes, alfo fome affeftions of the mind. It is likewife produced either pain or pleafure may arife; nay, to this fenfe we by every difficulty of breathing, from whatever caufe commonly refer both pam and alrnoft all other trouble- it may arife ; becaufe then the blood pafles lefs freely fome fenfations, tho’ in truth pain may anfe from ex el}' through the lungs : anxiety of this kind is felt deep in vehement fenfation. It is brought on oy any great the bread. It is faid alfo to arife from the difficult force applied to the fentient part ; whether this force paffage of the blood through the liver or other abdocomes from within or from without. TV hatever, minal vifeera. A certain kind of anxiety is very common and therefore, pricks, cuts, lacerates, diftends, compicffes, bruifes, ftrikes, gnaws, burns, or in any manner of troublefome to hypochondriacal people ; and arifes way Itimulates, may create pain. Hence it is fo fie- from the llomach and inteftines being either loaded quently conjoined with fo many difeafcs, and is olten with indigefted and corrupted food, or diftended with more intolerable even than the difeafe itfelf. A mo- air produced by fermentation and extricated from tbs derate degree of pain ftimulates the affefted part, and aliments. By fuch a load, or diiteiition, tne fl.omach, by degrees the whole body; produces a greater flux of which is a very delicate organ, becomes greatly afblood and nervous power to the part aftecled; and of- feded. Befides, the free defeent of the diaphragm is ten ilimulates to fuch motions as are both neceffary thus hindered, and r&piration obftru&ed. Anxiety and healthful. Hence, pain is fometimes to be rec- of this kind is ufually very much and fuddenly relieved koned among thofe things which guard our life. When by the expulfion of the air; by which, as well as by very violent, however, it produces too great irritation, other flgns of a bad digeftion, it is eafily known. In inflammation and its corifequences, fever, and all thofe thefe cafes the anxiety is ufually, though with little evils which flow from too gre?.t force of tne ciicuia- accuracy, referred to the ftomach. Anxiety alfo frequently accompanies fevers of every tion it diforders the whole nervous fyltem, and produces fpafms, watching, convullions, delmum, debi- kind, fometimes in a greater, and fometimes in a lefllity, and fainting. Neither the mind nor body can er degree. In this cafe it arifes as well from the gelong bear very vehement pain; and indeed nature has neral debility as from the blood being driven from appointed certain limits, beyond which file will not the furface of the body and accumulated in the large permit pain to be carried, without bringing on deliri- veffels ; as in the beginning of an intermittent fever. um, convulfions, fyncope, or even death, to refcue the Or it may arife from an aftedion of the ftomach, when overloaded with crude, corrupted aliment; or dimiferable fulferer from his torments. Long continued pain, even though in a more gentle dended and naufeated with too much drink, efpedegree, often brings on debility, torpor, palfy, and cially medicated drink. As the fever increafes, the rigidity of the attedfed part. But if not too vioient, anxiety of the patient becomes greater and greater ; nor accompanied with fever, ficknefs, or anxiety, it remarkably fo, according to the teftimony of phyfifometimes feems to contribute to the clearneL and cians, either immediately before the crifis, or on the acutenefs of the judgment, as fome people tekify who night preceding it; as before the breaking out of exanthemata, hsemorrhagy, iweat, or diarrhoea, which have been afflidted with the gout. 76 Anxiety is another difagreeable fenfation, quite dif- fometimes remove fevers. I he patient feels hkewiie an Anxiety. ferent from pain, as being more obtufe and lefs ca- anxiety from the ftriking in of any eruption or critical pable of being referred to any particular part, though metaftafis. This fenfation alfo accompanies fevers and frequently more intolerable than any pain. But we moft'other difeafes, when the vital power is exhaufted, mult take care to diftinguifh between this anxiety of and death approaches, of which it is the forerunner which we treat in a medical fenfe, and that which is and the fign. It happens at that time, becaufe the fpoken of in common difeourfe. ’1 be latter does not vital powers, unable to perform their fundions, cannot at all depend on the ftate of the body, but belongs en- make the blood circulate. But what kind of anxiety tirely to the mind ; and arifes from a fenfe of danger, this is, the other figns of approaching death fhow very or a forefight of any misfortune. The former is truly evidently. Moreover, even in the time of deep, anxiecorporeal; and derives, no lefs than pain, its origin from ty may arife from the fame caufes : hence frightful which frequently difturb our repofe with fura certain Hate of the body. Notwithftanding this diffe- dreams, prife and terror. 77 rence, however, it is very poffibie for both thefe kinds Itching, an uneafy fenfation, with a defire of fcratch-Itching, of anxiety to be prefent at the fame time, or for the the place affeaed, is often very troublefome, alone to be the caufe of the other. A very great bodily ■ ing anxiety will ftrike fear and defpondency into the though it feems to be more akin to pleafure than to pain. molt refolute mind ; and mental anxiety, on the As pain proceeds from too great an imitation, either contrary, if very vioient and long-continued, may in- chemical or mechanical, fo does itching proceed fiom one. H itihatipnj oe fncuon, 01 a u oollen fh^j c duce the former, by deftroying. the powers oi the a flight for

Theory. M EDI External for inftance, upon the fkin of a perfon unaccuftomed Senfes. to it, and of a delicate conllitution, excites itching ; * as do alfo many acrid foffils, vegetables, and animals. Hen ce an itching is the lirft fenfation after the application of cantharides, although the fame, when augmented, becomes painful. The fame effedf is produced by any thing acrid thrown out upon the ftan; as in exanthematic fevers, the difeafe called the itch, See. Lice, worms, efpeciaily afearides, irritating either the fkin or the inteftines,'excite a troublefome itching. Certain fpecies of internal itching excite people to many neceilary actions both in a difeafed and healthy Hate ; fueh as the excretion of the fasces and urine, coughing, fneezing, and the like. Too acute a fenfation over the whole body is very rarely, if ever, obferved^ In a particular part the fenfe of feeling is often more acute than it ought to be, either from the cuticle itfelf being too thin and foft, or being removed ; or from the part itfelf being inflamed, or expofed to too great heat. It becomes obtufe, or is even quite deftroyed over the whole body, or in great part of it, from various affections of the brain and nerves ; as when they are wounded, compreffed, or defective in vital power. This is called anaejlhejia, and fometimes accompanies pally. This fenfe may be deficient in a particular part, either from the nerve being difeafed, or from its being compreffed or wounded, or from the part itfelf being expofed to too great a degree of cold ;—or from the fcarf-ikin which covers it being vitiated, either becoming too thick or hard, by the handling of too rough, or hard, or hot bodies, as is the cafe with glaffmakers and fmiths; or from the elevation of the cuticle from the fubjacent cutis, or true Ikin itfelf, by the interpofition of blood, ferum, or pus ; or from the cutis being macerated, relaxed, or become torpid, which fomer times happens to hydropic perfons; orjallly, from the whole organ being corrupted by gangrene, burning, cold, or contufion. This fenfe is very rarely depraved, unlefs perhaps in the cafe of delirium, when all the fundions of the brain are diffurbed in a furprifing o manner. r ie en e neX(: to Tuite. ^^ f ^ be confidered is that of tafte, the principal organ of which is the tongue ; the nearer the tip of it, the more acute is the fenfe*. and the nearer the glottis fo much the more obtufe. It muff be owned, however, that, fome kind of acrid fubffanceSi the taffe of which is fcarce perceived upon the tip of the tongne, excite a molt vehement fenfation about its roots, or even in the throat kfelf. The tongue is endowed with many large and beautiful nervous papillse-, which feem to be the chief feat of this fenfe, and in the aCt of tailing are elevated and ereCted, in order to give the more acute fenfation. Nothing can be tailed which is not foluble in the faliva, that, being applied in a fluid form, it may pervade the involucra of the tongue, and affeCl its nervous pulp ; and hence infoluble earths are quite infipid. Neither is it fuflicient for, a body to be foluble that it may be tailed: it muff alfo have fomething in it faline, or at kail acrid, in order to ftimulate the nervous fubftance ; and hence, whatever has kfs fait than the faliva is totally infipid. The taile is rarely found to be too acute, unlefs through a fault in the epidermis which covers the

CINE. 77 tongue. If this be removed or wounded, or covered External with ulcers, aphthae, &c. then the tafte, becoming too Scljles. acute, is painful: or fometimes no other feniation -/“—J than that of pain is felt. It may he impaired, as well as the fenfe of feeling, from various difeafes of the brain and nerves ; of which, however, the inffances are but rare. In fome people it is much more dull than in others ; and in fuch the fenfe of fmelling is ufually deficient alfo. The tafte is moll commonly deficient on account of the want of faliva ; for a dry tongue cannot perceive any tafte : hence this fenfe is very dull in many difeafes, efpecially in fevers, catarrhs, See. as well on account of the defedl of faliva as of appetite, which is of fo much fervice in a Hate of health ; or by reafon of the tongue being covered with a vifeid mucus. The tafte is frequently depraved ; when, for example, we have a perception of tafte without the application of any thing to the tongue ; or, if any thing be applied to it, when- we perceive a tafte different from what it ought to be.. This happens for the moll part from a vitiated condition of the faliva, which is itfelf tailed in the mouth. Hence we may perceive a fweet, faline, bitter, putrid, or rancid tafte, according to the ftate of the faliva : which may be corrupted either from the general vitiated condition of the mafs of humours, or the glands which fecrete it ; of the mouth itfelf ; or even of the ftomach, the vapours and eructations of which rife into the mouth, efpeciaily when the ftomach is difeafed. Beiides the faults of the faliva, however, the talle may be vitiated from other caufes ; as, for inftance, the condition of the nervous papillae. This, however, is as yet but little known to us : for the tafte is fometimes plainly vitiated when at the fame time the faliva appears quite infipid when tailed by other people.. PhyficlanSj in almoft every difeafe, but efpecially in fevers, inquire into the ftate of the tongue; not, indeed, without the greateft reafon : for from this they can judge of the condition of the ftamach ; of the thirft, or rather the occafion the patient has for drink, when, on account of his deliriurti or ftupor, he neither feels his thirft nor is able to call for drink. And, laftly, from an infpehtion of the tongue, phyficians endeavour to form fome judgment concerning the nature, increafe, and remiffion of the fever. 79 After the fenfe of tafte, Dr Gregory next treats of Smelfi that of fmell. Its feat is in that very foft and delicate membrane, filled with nerves and blood-veffels, which covers the internal parts of the nofe, and the various finufes. and cavities proceeding from thence. This fenfe is more acute about the middle of the feptum, and the offa fpongiofa, where the membrane is thicker and fofter, than in the deeper cavities, where the membrane is thinner, lefs nervous, and kfs filled with blood-veffels ; although even thefe da not feem to be altogether deftitute of the fenfe of fmelling. As by our tafte we judge of the folubk parts of bodies, fo by our fmell we judge of thofe very volatile and fubtik parts which-fly off into the air ; and like the organ of tafte, that oi frnell is kept moift, that it may have the more exquiiite fenfation, partly by its proper mucus, and partly by the tears which defeend from the eyes. Some kinds of odours greatly affe£l the nervous ^y2 ftem.

M E D I External ftem, and produce the moft. furprifing effefts. Some Senfes, gratefully excite it, and immediately recruit the fpirits when almoil finking ; while fume produce fainting, hay, as it is alleged, even fudden death. To this head aifo are we to refer thofe antipathies, which, though truly ridiculous* are often not to be fubdued by any force of mind. This fenfe is fometimes too acute, as well from fome difeafe in the organ itfelf, which happens more rarely, as from the too great fenfibility of the nervous fyilem in general, as is fometimes obferved in nervous Fevers, phrenitis, and hyfteria. It is more frequently, however, too dull, either from difeafes of the brain and nerves, as from fome violence done to the head, or from fome internal caufe ; or it may proceed from a drynefs of the organ itfelf, either on account of the cuftoinary humours being fuppreffed or turned another way, or from the membranes being opprefled with too great a quantity of mucus or of tears. Of both thefe cafes we have inftances in the catarrh, where at firil the noftrils are dry, but afterwards are deluged with a thin humour, or flopped up with a thick one. But in thefe, and many other examples, the membrane of the nofe itfelf is affetted with inflammation, relaxation, or too great tenfion, by which it is impoffible but the nerves, which conftitute a great part of it, muft be vitiated. It is evident alio, that whatever obftru&s the free entrance of the air into the noftrils, or impedes its paffage through them, muft prove detrimental to the fenfe of fmelling. 80 The fenfe of hearing is more frequently vitiated than "‘Hearing. almoft any of the reft, as having a moft delicate organ, and one compofed of many and very fmall parts, of which an account is given under the article Anatomy.—It frequently becomes too acute ; either from the general habit of the body being too irritable, fuch as often happens to hyfterical and lying-in women : or from too great a fenfibility of the brain itfelf, which is not unfrequently obferved in fevers, as well as in phrelutis, and fometimes in the true mania ; or it may be from a difeafe of the ear itfelf, as when it is affe&ed with inflammation, pain, or too great tenlion.—It may be rendered dull, or even be altogether deftroyed, fo that the perfon rtiall become totally deaf from the fame caufes afting with different degrees of force. This happens efpecially from the want of the external ear $ or from the meatus auditorius being flopped up with mucus, wax, or other matters ; or from the fides of the canal growing together, as fometimes happens after fuppuration or the fmall-pox ; or by the membrane of the tympanum becoming rigid or relaxed, or being eroded or ruptured ; or the tympanum itfelf, or the Euftachian tube, may from certain caufes be obflrudled; or fome of the little bones or membranes, or fome of the mufcles of the labyrinth itfelf, may be affe&ed with concretion, fpafm, palfy, or torpor ; or laftly, it may happen from difeafes of the brain and nerves, all the organs of hearing remaining found. Hence deafnefs is often a nervous difeafe, coming fuddenly on, and going off of its own accord. Hence alfo it is common in old people, all of whole folid parts are too rigid, while their nervous parts have too little fenfibility. Perfons labouring under fevers, efpecially of the typhous kind, often become deaf. When this colnes on

CINE. Theory, along with other iigns of an oppreffed brain, and a External great proftration of ftrength, it may be a very bad fign ; but for the moft part it is a very good one, even '*T—“** though accompanied with fome degree of torpor or fleepinefs. A very common difeafe in the fenfe of hearing is when certain founds, like thofe of a drum, a bell, the falling of water, &c. are heard without any tremor in the air, or without a found perfon’s hearing any thing. This difeafe is called tinnitus aurium, of which various kinds have been obferved. For the moft part it is a very flight tranfient diforder ; but fometimes it is moft obftinate, long-continued, and troublefome. It fometimes arifes from the flighteft caufe, fuch as any thing partially flopping up the meatus auditorius or Euftachian tube itfelf, fo that accefs is in part denied to the air ; whence it happens that the latter ftrikes the membrane of the tympanum, or perhaps the interior parts, unequally, and with too much force. Hence bomhi) a kind of tinnitus, are heard even by the moft healthy when they yawn. A much more frequent and troublefome fpecies of tinnitus accompanies many difeafes both of the febrile and nervous kind. This is occafioned partly by the increafed impetus of the blood towards the head, with an insreafe of fenfibility in the nervous fyftem itfelf, fo that the very beatings of the arteries are heard ; and partly from the increafed fenfation and mobility of the nerves and mufcles of the labyrinth : whence it happens, that the parts which ought to be at reft until excited by the tremor of the air, begin to move of their own accord, and impart their motion to other parts which are already in a morbid ftate of too great fenfibility. A tinnitus fometimes arifes from any vehement affeftion of the mind ; fometimes from a diforder in the ftomach ; fometimes from a rheumatic diforder affecling the ears and head ; or from a catarrh, which commonly afferits the tube. Sometimes, however, the tinnitus alone affedls the patient; and even this is a difeafe of no fmall confequence. Thefe various caufes, however, both of this and other diforders of the hearing, are often very difficult to be diftinguifhed, as well on account of the inacceffible fituation of the organ, as on account of the little knowledge we have of its aftion. But from whatever caufe it arifes, both this and the other various affections of the hearing can neither be cured certainly nor eafily. St Concerning the nature of the fenfe of fight, the reader may confult the articles Anatomy and Optics* Of this fenfe fome flight diforders, or rather varieties, are often obferved. Thofe perfons are called Jbort* Jighted who cannot fee diftinCtly unlefs the object be very near them. This diforder arifes from too great a refraction cf the rays, by reafon of their being too foon collected into a focus by the cryftalline lens, and diverging again before they fall upon the retina, by which means they make an indiftinCt picture upon it. The moft; ufual caufe is too great a convexity of the eye or fome of its humours, as too prominent a cornea. It is a diforder common to young people, which is fometimes removed when they grow older. As foon as the firft approaches of fhort-fightednefs are obferved, it is fuppofed it may be obviated by the perfon accultoming

[Theory. M E D I External accuftomlng himfelf to view remote objefts, and keepAienfej, jng his eyes off very fmaH and near ones ; as, on the contrary, it may be brought on by the oppofite cuftom ; becaufe the eye accommodates itfelf fomewhat to the diftnnces of thofe objefts which it is accuftomed to view. But a concave glafs, which caufes the rays of light to diverge more than naturally they would before falling upon the cornea, is the moft fimple and certain remedy. Long-Jighted people are thofe who cannot fee an objeft diftin£lly unlefs it be at a coniiderable diftance $rom them. This arifes from caufes contrary to the former ; namely, the eye being too flat, fo that there is no room for refra&ing the rays and bringing them into a focus. Hence this defedt is common in old people, and remedied by the ufe of convex glafles. Thofe are called nyftalopes who fee better with a very Weak than with a ftrong light. It is a defedt very feldom to be met with in the human race, though every perfon is fenfible of it who hath been long kept in the dark and is then fuddenly brought into the light. The difeafe arifes from too great a fenflbility of the retina, and the pupil being too open. The light is liable to many and grievous diforders. It is {harpened beyond meafure, io that the perfon cither perceives nothing diftindtly, or with great pain, from the fame caufes that induce a fimilar diforder in the other fenfes ; namely', exceffive fenflbility' in the general habit of body ; or a particular ftate of the brain common in phrenitis, or even in thofe afflicted with fevers arifing from inflammation or too great excitement ; though more frequently from the condition of the eye itfelf, one becomes unable to bear the light. The inflammation of the tunica adnata, and the forepart of the fchlerotica, is communicated to the back parts of it, and from thence to the choroides and retina itfelf. Hence the light becomes intolerable, and vifion is attended with pain and great irritation, fometimes inducing or augmenting a delirium. The fenfe of feeing is made dull, or even totally abolilhed, by age ; the aqueous humour not being fupplied in fufficient quantity, and the cornea and lens, or the vitreous humour, becoming fhrivelled or decayed. It may likewife happen from the cornea becoming dry and opaque ; which is to be imputed to the languid motion of the blood, and to great numbers of the fmall vefiels being obftru&ed or having their fides concreted ;—or from the cryftalline lens becoming yellow like amber, and the retina itfelf lefs fenfible, for old age diminilhes every fenfation. It is totally abolifhed by injuries of the brain, the optic nerve, or the retina, even though the ttrufture of the organ fliould remain found. This difeafe is called an arnaurofis ■; and is eafily known by the dilatation and immobility of the pupil, the humours of the eye remaining clear. It is commonly owing to congeftion of blood; and fometimes, where no congeftion of blood can be Ihown, to mere torpor of the nerves. If it be only a torpor of part of the retina, we fee black fpots in thofe things at which we look; or flies feem to pafs before our eyes, a very bad fign in fevers, and almoft always mortal. The fight is abolifhed alfo by the obfcurity or opacity of any of the parts through which the rays ought to pafs and be refracted ; as if the cornea lofe its tranfparency by being covered with

CINE. 79 fpots ; or the aqueous humours become corrupted with External blood, ferum, or pus; or the lens (which often hap-, ^er‘tes' . pens and which is called a eatarad) becomes of a gray or brown colour, or the vitreous humour be in like manner corrupted ; or laftly, when all the humours being difiblved, confufed, and mixed together, by inflammation and fuppuration, either do pot fuffer the light to pafs at all, or to pafs imperfedtly and unequally ; whence either no image is formed on the retina, or it appears obfcure, diftorted, imperfeft, and ill-coloured. The fight is alfo depraved, when things appear to it of a colour different from their own, or even in another fituation and of another fhape than they ought to have. This happens from the humours being tinctured with any unufual colour, as is faid to happen in feme inftances of jaundice ; or from an extravafatioa and mixture of the blood with the aqueous humour. A furprifing depravation alfo, or conftant and perpetual defedl of vifion, is not unfrequently obferved in men otherwife very healthy, and who fee quite clearly ; namely, that they cannot diftinguifh certain colours, green, for example, from red *. Another de-* See the pravation is, when, without any light being admitted article Coto the eyes, fparks, fmall drops of a flame or gold co- L0URS f‘r‘lour, and various other colours, are obferved to float ^^ before us. This is generally a very flight and tranfient diforder, common to thofe whole conftitutions are very irritable ; and arifes from the flight impulfe, as it would feem, on the retina, by the veffels beating more vehemently than ufual. A fiery circle is obferved by prefiing the eye with the finger after the eye-lids are fhut. The fame reafon, perhaps, may be given for thofe fparks which are feen by perfons labouring under the falling-ficknefs, and increafing to the fize of an immenfe and luminous beam before they fall down in convulfions. A fimilar beam thofe who have recovered from hanging or drowning teftify that they have obferved : for by reafon of the refpiration being fuppreffed, the veffels of the head fwell and comprefs the whole brain and nervous parts of the head. Sparks of the fame kind, and thefe too of no good omen, are obferved in patients labouring under a fever, where a phrenitis or fierce delirium is at hand-: and likewife in thofe who are threatened with palfy, apoplexy, or epilepfy.—A diftinft but falfe perception, namely of vifible things which do not exitt, is to be imputed to fome injury of the brain, to madnefg or a delirium, not to any difeafe of the eye. A very frequent defedl of vifion remains to be mentioned ; namely, fquinting. A perfon is faid to fquint who has the axes of the eyes more oblique than ufual,» and direfted to different points. Hence a great deformity, and often an imperfeft and confufed vifion by which the objects are fometimes feen double. It is an evil for the moft part born with the perfon, and often corre£ted by thofe attempts which an infant makes to fee more pleafantly and diftinftly ; and this even without being confcious of its own defe&s. It is alfo eafily learned, efpecially in infants, even without their own knowledge, by that kind of imitation which has a great influence over the human race, efpecially in their tender years.—It is by no means, however, fo eafily unlearned. Squinting is frequently occafioned by a fpafm, palfy, rigidity,

So M E D I External rigidity, See. of the mufelea which manage the eye; by Senfes. epilepiy ; by certain difeafes of the head, the hydro*' ’ "cephahis efpecially ; or by any great injury done to the head. Sometimes, though very rarely,- it comes on fuddenly without any known caufe. It is very probable, however, that fquinting often arifes from a fault of the retin®, when their central points, for inftance, and thofe limilarly placed with refpedl to the centre, do not agree. In this cafe there muft be a contortion of the eye, that the objeft may not be feen double. This feems alfo to be the reafon why fquinting is horribly increafed when the perfon brings the objedl near his eye in order to view it more pcrfeftly. Or if the central point of either, or both, of the retin® be infenfible, or nearly fo, it is neceffary for the perfon to diPcort his eyes that he may have any difcindl vifion of obje&s. If the optic nerve had not entered the retina obliquely, but paffed dire£11 y through its centre, we would all either have fquinted or feen 8a double. ’Vertigo. Phyficians have referred to the fenfe of vifion that moil troublefome fenfation which we call a vertigo : though it feems rather to belong to that of feeling, or of confcioufnefs ; for in many inilances the diforder is not removed either in the dark or by (hutting the eyelids. The vertigo takes place when external objects really at reft feem to reel, to whirl round, to tremble, or to move in any manner of way. If the diforder be very violent, the perfon is neither able to fee, on account of a dimnefs of fight ; nor can he (land, as the powers fail which ought to govern the limbs. A naufea alfo ufually accompanies the vertigo, and the one generally produces the other. Thi§ diforder is obferved to be both the fymptom and forerunner of fome dangerous difeafes ; fuch as apoplexy, epilepfy, hyfteria ; h®morrhages from the nofe and other parts ; fupprejftons of the menfes ; plethora.; fevers, as well fuch as are accompanied with debility as thofe in which there is an increafed impetus of the blood towards the head. An injury done to the head alfo, but rarely one done to the eyes unlefs in fo far as it affefts the whole head, brings on a vertigo. A vertigo may be likewi'fe produced by a very great and fudden lofs of blood or other fluid ; by debility ; fyncope ; various difeafes of the alimentary canal, of the ftomach efpecially ; poifons admitted into the body, particularly of the narcotic kind, as opium, wine, &c. and hence vertigo is a fymptom of every kind of drunkennefs. Various motions alfo, either of the head or the whole body, being toffed in a ihip, efpecially if the veifel be fmall and the fea runs high, produce a vertigo. In thefe and fimilar examples, the unufual and inordinate motions of the blood are communicated to the nervous parts which are in the head ; or thefe being afte&ed by fympathy from the neighbouring parts, produce a confufed fenfation as if of a rotatory motion. Nay, it is often produced from an affection of the mind itfelf, as from beholding any thing turned fwiftly round, or a great cataraft, or looking down a precipice, or even by intenfe thought without looking at any thing. Though a vertigo be for the moil part a fymptom and concomitant of other difeafes, yet it is fometimes a primary difeafe, returning at intervals, increafing

CINE. Theory, gradually, and equally impeding and deftroying the Internal Senle8, fun&ions of the body and mind. After having treated of the external fenfes, Dr' Gregory next proceeds to confider thofe properly call- j ^j1 ed internal; which are, the memory* the imagination, and the judgment. The firft is lefiened, difturbed, or even totally deftroyed, in many difeafes, efpecially thofe which affeft the brain ; as the apoplexy, paffy, internal tumors of the head, external violence applied, fevers, efpecially thofe in which there is an increafed motion of the blood towards the head, or where the brain is any other way very much aft’:fled. It is very rarely, however, depraved in fuch a manner that ideas are not reprefented to the mind in their proper order; or if at any time fuch a diforder occurs, it is eonfidtred rather as a diforder of the imagination, or as a delirium, than a failure of the memory. The mind is faid to be difordered when the perceptions of memory or imagination are confounded with thofe of fenfe, and of confequence thofe things believed to be now prefent which are really pail, or which never exifted ; or when the fenfe of the perfon concerning ordinary things is different from that of other people. The general name for fuch diforders is vefania : if from fever, it is called delirium. A general fury without a fever, is called mania, or madnefs : but a partial madnefs, on one or two points, the judgment remaining found in ail other refpefls, is called melancholia. There is, however, no exafl and accurate limits between a found mind and madnefs. Ail immoderate vivacity borders upon madnefs ; and, on the other hand, a forrowful and gloomy difpofition appr©aches to melancholy. 84 . Delirium accompanies fevers of many different-kinds. Delir.um. Sometimes it is flight, eaflly removed, and fcarce to be accounted a bad fign. Often, however, it is very violent, and one of the very worft of figns, requiring the utmoft care and attention. A delirium is either fierce or mild. The fierce delirium is preceded and accompanied by a rednefs of the countenance, a pain of the head, a great beating of the arteries, and noife in the ears ; the eyes in the mean time looking red, inflamed, fierce, jhining, and unable to bear the light ; there is either no fleep at all, or fleep troubled with horrid dreams ; thf wonted manners are changed ; an uhufual peevifnnefs and illnature prevail. The depravation of judgment is firft obferved between fleep and waking, and by the perfon’s crediting his imagination, while the perceptions of fenfe are neglefled, and the ideas of memory occur in an irregular manner. Fury at.laft takes place, and fometimes an unufual and incredible degree oi bodily ftrength, fo that feveral people can fcarce keep a Angle patient in his bed. The mild delirium, on the contrary, is often accompanied with a weak pulfe, a pale collapfed countenance, and a vertigo when the patient fits in an erect pofture ; he is feldom angry, but often ftupid, and fometimes remarkably grieved and fearful. The lofs of judgment, as in the foimer kind, is firft perceived when the patient is half awake ; but a temporary recovery enfues upon the admiffion of the light and the converfation of his friends. The patient mutters much to himfelf, and attends little to the things around him ; at laft, becoming quite ftupid, he neither feels the » fenfationa

Theory, MED Delirium, fenfatlons of hung?? o? thirft, nor apy of the other u—v——' propenfities of nature, by which means the urine and excrements are voided involuntarily. As the difcrder increafes, it terminates in fubfultus tendinum, tremors, convulfions, fainting, and death. The other fpecies of delirium alfo frequently terminates in this, when the fpirits and ftrength of the patient begin to fail. The fymptoms accompanying either of thefe kinds of delirium fhow an unulual, inordinate, and unequal motion of the blood through the brain, and a great change in that ftate of it which is neceffary to the exercTe of the mental powers. It is fufficiently probable, that an inflammation of the brain, more or lefs violent and general, fometimes takes place, although the figns of univerfal inflammation are frequently flight. This we learn from the diffe£tion of dead bodies, which often Ihow an unufual rednefs of the brain or of fome of its parts, or fometimes an effuflon or fuppuration. The ftate of the brain, however, may be much affefted, and delirium induced, by many other caufes befides the motion of the blood. In many fevers, typhus, for inftance, the nervous fyftem itfelf is much fooner and more affected than the blood ; and though the morbid affections of the nervous fyftem are as invilible to the fenfes as the healthy ftate of it, the fymptoms of its injuries plainly ihowthat its aCtion, or excitement, as fome call it, is unequal and inordinate. In this 85 way, too, a delirium is produced by feveral poifons. .felancho- rg]ie pathology of melancholy and mania is much I [;n ma" more obfeure ; as coming on without any fever, or difturbance in the blood’s motion. Often alfo they are hereditary, de » nding on the original ftructure of the body, efpecially of the brain ; the fault of which, however, cannot be detefted by the niceft anatomift. But it is well known, that various difeafes of the brain, obftruftions, tumors, either of the brain itfelf, or of the cranium prefling upon it, any injury done to the head, and, as fome phyficians relate, the hardnefs and drynefs of the brain, and fome peculiar irritations affedling the nervous fyftem, are capable of bringing on this malady. And indeed fo great are the irritations affedting the nervous fyftem in mad people, that they often fleep little or none for a long time.—Yet even this fo defedfive and imperfedi knowledge of the difeafes of the brain and nerves, is by no means free from difficulties. For though we know that the brain, or a certain part of it, is hurt, or that it is irritated by a fwelling, or a pointed bone growing into it, nobody can foretel how great, or what may be the nature of the malady from fuch a hurt: for examples are not wanting of people who, after lofrng a large part of the brain, have recovered and lived a long time ; or of thofe who have perceived no inconvenience from a large portion of that vifeus being corrupted, until at length they have fallen fuddenly down and died in 86 convuliions. -otifm. Another difeafe of the internal fenfes, quite different from thefe, is fatuity or idiotifm. Thofe are called idiots who are deftitute either of judgment or memory, or elfe have thefe faculties unequal to the common offices of life. A kindof idiotifm is natural and common to ail infants ; neither is it to be accounted a difeafe ; but if it laft beyond the ftate of infancy, Vcl. XI. Part L

I C N E, Si it is a real difeafe, and for the moft part incurable. Idiotiftn. It has the fame caufes with the other difeafes of the internal fenfes ; although thefe can fcarcely be detedfed by the eye or by the knife of the anatomift. It frequently accompanies, or is the effeeft of, epilepfy. Hence, if the epilepfy derives its origin from caufes not feated in the head, as from worms lodging in the inteftines, the fatuity may be cured by diilodging thefe, and removing the epilepfy. It Is not unlikely that the fatuity of children, and the dotage of old men, may arife from the brain being in the former too foft, and in the latter too hard. 87 The mufcular power may be difeafed in a great num-Diforda's ber of ways. The mobility itfelf may be too great ;in ^ie. but this muft be carefully diftinguifhed from vigour. By mobility is meant the eafe with which the muf-I>0W'' cular fibres arc excited into contradfion. The vigour, on the other hand, is that power with which the contraftion is performed. They are fometimes joined, but more frequently feparate, and for the moft part the exceffes of each are owing to contrary caufes. gg Too great mobility is when motions are excited by Mobility, too flight a ftimulus, or when too violent motions are produced by the cuftomary ftimulus. A certain habit of body, fometimes hereditary, renders people liable to this difeafe. Women have a greater fhare of mobility than men have. Infants have a great deal of mobility, oft^n too great; youth has lefs than infancy, but more than man’s eftate ; though old age has commonly too little. A lazy, fedentary life, full diet, a fuppreffion of the ufual evacuations, fulnefs of the blood-veffels, and fometimes their being fuddenly emptied, laxity, flaccidity of the folids in general, but fometimes too great a tenfion of the moving fibres, the ufe of diluents, efpecially when warm, or heat applied in any manner, produce too great mobility. And this may be either general or particular, according as the caufes have been applied to the whole body, or only to a part of it. gp Vigour in general is rarely morbid ; although fome- Vigour, times certain mufcular parts appear to have too great ftrength. In maniacs and phrenitics, an immenfe ftrength is obferved in all the mufcles, efpecially in thofe that ferve for voluntary motion ; w'hich is not unjuftly reckoned morbid. The reafon of this excefs is very cbfcure ; however, it is plainly to be referred to a difeafed ftate of the brain. A more frequent and more important excefs of vigour is obferved in thofe mufcular fibres that do not obey the will, fuch as thofe which move the blood. Its circulation is thus often increafed, not without great inconvenience and danger to the patient. But a {lighter excefs of this kind, pervading the wyhole body, renders people apt to receive inflammatory difeafes, and is ufually called aphlogijlic diathefis. But this is better obferved wrhen local, as in inflammation itfelf. Too great vigour of the mufcular fibres may arife from the nervous pow^r increafed beyond meafure, as in mania, phrenitis, or violent affedtions of the mind ; from too great a tenfion of the fibres, by which they more eafily and vehemently conceive motions,, as of the arteries when filled with too much blood ; from catching cold, by being expofed either to cold or heat, as ufually happens in the fpring ; or laftly, though,the nervous power and teafion of the fibrqs L fhould

CINE. Theory. 82 M E D I rheumatifm, gout, luxations, fraaures of the bones, Difordersi„ Difordemnrtiould not at all he changed, their aftion may be. . „ ^ f ,, lar Power the Mufcu- come too great, from a ftimulus more violent than ufual and ifchuria. An univerfal palfy, however, as it is called, leldom iar Power. applie(J, or from the ufual ftimulus, if the fibres ^ themfelves have already acquired too great a fhare of affe&s the whole body, even thotigh it ftiould origimobility. , . 2 nate from a difeafe of the brain. We moft common9o Torpor: The oppofite to too great mobility is torpor, ana ly fee thofe who are paralytic affe&ed only on one to too great vigour is debility. Torpor is fuch a di- fide, which is called an hemiplegia. It is faid that minution of mobility as renders the parts unequal to the fide of the body oppofite to the difeafed fide of their functions. It arifes from caufes diredUy oppo- the brain is moft commonly affedted. If all the parts fite to mobility; fuch as, in the firft place, a haider below the head become paralytic, it is called a paraand more rigid contexture of the parts themfelves, or plegia. In thefe difeafes the fenfes for the moft part even fometimes from one too lax and flaccid ; from old remain ; though fometimes they are aboliflied, and at age ; from fome peculiar temperament of body, fuch others rendered dull. Sometimes, though rarely, and as one phlegmatic, frigid, or infenfible ; too great and which is an exceeding bad fymptom, the motion, feninceflant labour, cold, fpare diet, and an exhaufted fation, pulfe, and heat of the paralytic limbs are loft; body. This evil is the more to be dreaded, becaufe, in which cafe the arteries themfelves become paralytic. the powers of the body being deficient, nature is nei- A palfy of the whole body, as far as regards the vother able to make any effort of herfelf, nor are the re- luntary motions, with anaefthefia and fleep, is called medies, in other cafes the moft efficacious, capable of an apoplexy. This proceeds from fome injury of the brain : though a ftate very fimilar to it is induced by r affording her any affiftance. 9 jDebility. Debility takes place, when the motion of the narcotics, opium, wine itfelf, or any generous liquor mufcles, either voluntary or involuntary, is not per- taken to excefs ; and laftly, by breathing in air corformed with fufficient ftrength. A greater or leffer rupted by noxious impregnations, Inch as a large profhare of debility, either general or of fome particular portion of carbonic acid, hydrogenous gas, or any fi. 93 part, accompanies almoft all difeafes, and is indeed no milar a&ive aeriform fluid. Another difeafe to which mufcular motion is liable, Spaim. fmall part of them : for it is hardly poffible that a difeafe can fubfift for any length of time without in- and that neither flight nor unfrequent, is calledy/n/w. ducing fome degree of debility. When a ftate of ae- This is a violent and irregular motion of the mufcles. bility is induced, it renders a man obnoxious to innu- Of fpafms there are two kinds, the tonic and clonic. merable diforders, and throws him as it were defence- The latter is frequently called a convuljjon ; in order lefs in their way. It often depends on the original to diftinguifli it from the other, which is more pecuftru&ure of the body, fo that it can be correfted liarly called fpafm. Spafm therefore is a violent, conftant, and preternaneither by regimen nor medicines of any kind. A tural contraftion of the mufcular fibr *. ; but a condifferent degree of ftrength alfo accompanies the different ages of mankind ; and thus, in fome cafes, de- vulfion is an unufual and violent contra&ion alternated bility cannot be reckoned morbid. But a truly mor- with relaxation. People are rendered liable to fpafm bid and unwonted debility arifes from the nervous by too fen Able an habit of body, or too great mobiforce being dimmifhed ; from difeafes of the brain and lity ; and hence it is a difeafe common in women, in nerves, or of the mufcles through which they are di- infants, and in weak, luxurious, lazy, and plethoric ftributed ; from a decay of the nerves themfelves ; from people. It is brought on thofe already predifpofed to a want of the due tenfion of the fibres, or the fibres it, by any kind of ftimulus applied to the brain, or to themfelves becoming torpid ; from the body exhaufted any nerve, mufcle, or nervous part connefted with it: by fpare diet, want, evacuations ; or laftly, from dif- of which we have examples in dentition ; worms lodged in the inteftines, and irritating them ; any acrid matter eafes affe&ing the whole body, or fome particular inferring the blood, or much affe6ring the ftomach and 04 parts of it. Palfy. The higheft degree of debility, namely, when the inteftines ; the irritation of any nerve, or of the brain ftrength of the mufcles is altogether or nearly deftroy- itfelf, by an exoftofis, fwelling, too great fulnefs of the veffels, pain, vehement affe&ions of the mind, fudden ed, is called paralyfis or pnlfy i and is either univeifal, evacuation, or poifons admitted into the body. Freor belonging only to fome particular mufcles. An univerfal palfy arifes from difeafes of the brain and quently, however, the malady originates from flight nerves, fometimes very obfcure, and not to be difco- caufes, little known, and not eafily obferved. Spafm is both the caufe and effeft, and frequently vered by the anatomift ; for the nervous power itfelf conftitutes the greateft part, of moft difeafes. It is is often deficient, even when the ftrufture of the nerves often very difficult either to be known or cured ; beYemains unhurt; yet often a compreffion, obftruc.tion, or injury of the veffels, extravafation of blood, or caufe it is fo multiform, and produces as many diffeferum, colleftions of pus, fwellings, &c. are difcover- rent fymptoms as there are organs affefted ; of which ed. It frequently arifes from certain poifons a&ing it furprifingly difturbs, impedes, or increafes the funcon the nerves ; from the fumes of metals ; from the tions. It is a difeafe feated in the original ftamma of difeafes of parts, and affedions of the mufcles, very the conftitution ; and neither to be removed by flight 94 Yemote from the brain, as in the colic of Poiftou. A remedies, nor in a fliort time. With regard to fleep, Dr Gregory obferves, that its Sleeppalfy of Angle mufcles, but lefs perfeft, often arifes without any defeft of the brain or nerves, from any ufe is fufficiently apparent from tht- effeas which it violent and continued pain, inflammation, too great produces in the body. It reftores the powers both of tenfion, relaxation, reft, or deftruftion of the contex- mind and body when exhaufted by exercife, giving vito ture of the parts, fuch as commonly happens after the &gour to the one, and reftoring its wonted alacritythe

Theory. M E D I piforders the Other. It renders the mufeles again aftive and of Sleep. moveable, after they have become wearied, rigid, pain1 ful, and trembling by hard labour. It moderates the quicknefs of the pulfe, which ufually increafes at night, and brings it back to its morning Itandard. It feems alfo to aifift the digeftion of the aliment ; leffens both the fecretions and excretions ; and renders the fluids thicker than otherwife they would be, efpecially in a body endovved with little fenfibilityor mobility. Hence fleep is not only ufeful, but abfolutely neceffary for preferving life and health ; and is a moft excellent remedy both for alleviating, and totally removing, a great many difeafes. Want of fleep is hurtful in a great many different ways, efpecially to the nervous fyftem. It renders the organs of fenfe both external and internal, as well as thofe of every kind of motion, unfit for performing their offices. Hence the fenfations are either abolifhed, or become imperfed! or depraved ; and hence imbecility of mind, defeft of memory, a kind of delirium, mania itfelf, pain of the head, weaknefs of the joints, an imperfeft or inordinate adlion of the vital organs, quicknefs of pulfe, heat, fever, depraved digeftion, atrophy, leannefs, and an increafe or perturbation of the fecretions and excretions. Sleep may be prevented both in healthy and fick people from various caufes ; fuch as ftrong light, noife, pain, anger, joy, grid, fear, anxiety, hunger, thirft, vehement defire, motion of the body, memory, imagination, intenfe thought, &c. On the other hand, fleep is brought on by a flight impreffion on the organs of fenfe, or none at all; by the humming of bees, the noife of falling water, cold and infipid difcourfe ; or laftly, by fuch an exercife of the memory as is neither too laborious nor difturbing to the mind.— Too great an impulfe of the blood towards the head, fuch as often happens in fevers, prevents fleep ; but a free and equal dillribution of the blood through the whole body, efpecially the extreme parts, frequently brings it on. Whatever weakens the body alfo favours fleep ; and hence various kinds of evacuations, the warm bath, fomentations, fometimes heat itfelf, are ufeful for promoting it. It alfo comes on eafily after taking food, or indulging venery ; the violent fenfation being then quieted, and the body itfelf fomewhat weakened. Cold produces a deep fleep of long continuance, not eafily difturbed, and often terminating in death. Laflly, There are certain fubftances which, when applied to the body, not only do not excite the nervous fyflem, but plainly lay us afleep, and render us unfit for fenfation : of this kind are thofe called narcotics, as opium and the like ; among which alfo we may reckon wine taken in too great quantity. Laftly, Watching itfelf is often the caufe of fleep ; becaufe while a man is awake he always more or lefs exercifes the organs of his body, by which the nervous influence is diminifhed, and thus the more violently the body is exercifed, in the fame proportion is the perfon under a neceffity of fleeping. Sleep is deficient in many difeafes; for there are few which do no( excite pain, anxiety, or uneafinefs, fufficient to prevent the approach of fleep, or to difturb it. Fevers generally caufe thofe who labour under them tq fleep ill; as well on account of the uneafinefs which accompanies this kind of difeafes,

CINE. as by reafon of the impetus of the blood towards Difor^rs the head being frequently increafed ; and likewife # from the ftomach being difordered, loaded with meat, or diftended with drink. Hence alfo we may fee the reafon why many hypochondriac and hyfteric patients fleep fo ill; becaufe they have a bad digeftion, and their ftomach is difpofed to receive many though frequently flight diforders ; the flighteft of which, how. ever, is fufficient to deprive the patient of reft, proyided the body be already irritable, and endowed with too great a fhare of mobility. Want of fleep will hurt in difeafes as well as in health; and for the fame reafon ; but in a greater degree, and more quickly, in the former than in the latter j and is therefore not only a very troublefome fymptom of itfelf, but often produces other very dangerous ones. Too much fleep, on the other hand, produces many mifchiefs, rendering the whole body weak, torpid, and lazy ; and it even almoft takes away the judgment. It alfo difturbs the circulation, and diminiihes moft of the fecretions and excretions. Hence plethora, fatnefs, flaccidity, and an inability for the common offices of life.—The caufes of this excefs are, either the ufual caufes of fleep above-mentioned increafed beyondl meafure, or fome fault in the brail), or a compreflion of it by an extravafation of the humours ; or fometimes, as it would feem, from great debility produced by an unufual caufe, as in thofe who are recovering from typhous fevers and other dileafes. In thefe examples, however, this excefs of fleep is by no means hurtful ; nor even, perhaps, in thofe cafes* where an excefs of grief continued for a long time, or a greift fright, have produced a furprifing and unexpe&ed tomnelency. Laftly, Many people have accuftomed themfelves, and that not without a great deal of hurt to their conftitutions, to fleep too much. Nor are there examples wanting of fome who have paffed whole days, and even months, in fleep almoft uninterrupted. 95 With regard to the manner in which the circulation Circul#of the blood is performed, and the various principles tlon5 of which it is compofed, fee the articles BloOd, and Anatomy. As for the diforders to which the blood and its circulation are fubjedf, Dr Gregory obferves, that in our younger years the veins are much more denfe, firm, and ftrong, than the arteries ; but the latter, by reafon of the continual preffure upon them, and the ftrength which they exert, become daily more firm, hard, and ftrong, until at laft they equal or exceed the veins themfelves in ftrength ; and it is not uncommon in old men to find fome part of the arteries converted into an horny fubftance, or even into a folid bone.- Hence in the ftate of infancy the greateft part of the blood is contained in the arteries, and in old age in the veins ; an affair indeed of no fmall moment, as it (hows the reafon, in fome meafure, of the ftate or increafe and decreafe of the body. Befides, if any difeafe happens from too great a quantity of blood, it thence appears- that it muft fhow itfelf in young fubjetts in the arteries, and in old ones in the veins ; and this is the reafon of many difeafes which accompany certain periods of life. In moft, if not in all fpecies of animals, the arteries of the females are much more lax and capacious when compared with the veins, and theweins much lefs, than L 2 in

g4 ' M E D I Diforders In the males of the fame genus. The defign of naof Circula- ture in conformation, is probably that they may tl0n ' be the better able to nourifh the foetus in their womb. "v ' The fame likewife feems to be the reafon why women are more inclined to plethora than men ; and to this greater capacity of the arteries and fmallnefs of the veins are we to afcribe that beauty and elegant fhape of the arms in women, not disfigured or livid with 1 veins as in men. The blood is alfo diftributed in various proportions to the different parts of the body, and that proportion too differs at different periods of our lives. At firft an immenfe quantity is fent to the head, becaufe that part of the body is firft to be evolved and fitted for its offices : but as foon as the parts begin to make a confiderable refiftance to the efforts of the blood, and the veffels cannot eafily be further dilated, it is neceffarily fent off to other parts ; by which means the reft of the body increafes in bulk, and becomes fitted for performing its proper fun&ions. The effeft of this change is alfo very foon obferved, namely, when none of the blood paffes through the navel, and of confequence a greater quantity is fent by the iliac arteries to the inferior extremities. Thefe, though fo fmall and fiender in the foetus, increafe very fuddenly ; fo that often in not many months the child can not only ftand on its feet, but even walk tolerably well. Puliation of Phyficians are wont to judge of the ftate of the cirthe arteries, culation by the pulfe ; which indeed is very various, as well with regard to its frequency, as to the ftrength and equality of its ftrokes and intervals.—Its common quicknefs in a healthy grown-up perfon is about 70 ftrokes'ia a minute. In a foetus, perhaps, it is more than 'double ; and in an infant a few months old, hardly lefs than 120. As we grow up, this quicknefs gradually diminifhes ; fo that in extreme old age it fometimes does not exceed 50, or is even flower. This rule, however, is not without exceptions : for many, efpecially thofe of an irritable habit, have the pulfe much quicker ; while others, even in the vigour of their age, have their pulfe remarkably flow. It is for the moft part fomewhat quicker in women than in men. The pulfe is alfo rendered quicker, both in a healthy and difeafed body, by the application of ftimuli of many different kinds. Exercife efpecially, by accelerating the return of the blood through the veins, increafes the quicknefs of the pulfe to a furprifing degree. Various kinds of irritations affefting the nervous fyftem, as intenfe thinking, paffions of the mind, pain, heat, ftimulating medicines, wine, fpices, &c. likewife produce the fame effect. The acrimony • of the blood itfelf alfo is thought to quicken the pulfe. When a perfon firft awakes in the morning, the pulfe is flow, but becomes quicker by degrees on account of the many irritating matters applied to the body. Its quicknefs is increafed after taking food, efpecially of the animal kind, or fuch as is hot or feafoned with fpices. In the evening a flight fever comes on, for which, reft and fleep are the remedy. Thefe things, however, are fcarce to be obferved in a healthy perfon, but are very evident in one that is feverifn, efpecially when the difeafe is a hedtic.—Again, even debility itfelf often renders the pulfe quicker than

CINE. Theory. ufiial; becaufe the ventridle of the heart not being Diforders quite emptied, it is the fooner dilated again, and ofcf (^ulap confequence contrafts the fooner. For this reafon a phyfician can never judge of the ftrength of the circulation from the frequency of the pulfe. jLaftly, In all fevers, however different from'one another, the pulfe is found to be too quick, partly perhaps from debility, partly from the acrimony of the fluids, and partly from the repulfion of the blood from the furface of the body, and the accumulation of it in the large veffels where it afts as a ftimulus ; though it muff be owned, that a great deal of this is obfcure, if not totally unknown ; nor in truth are we able to underftand in what manner the autocratcia a£ls with regard to the frequency of the pulfe. The pulfe is feldom obferved too flow, unlefs when the mobility of the body is much diminiflied, as in decrepid old age, or from a compreffion or difeafe of the brain ; but a greater compreffion of the brain ufually produces a ftill more remarkable flownefs of the pulfe, as in the hydrocephalus, apoplexy, &c.—• Sometimes alfo the pulfe is too flow in thofe who are recovering from tedious fevers. But this is a matter of little moment, and feems to be owing to fome kind of torpor. Indeed it has generally been confidered as a mark of a thorough and complete folution of the fever ; for it is commonly obferved, that when this ftate of the pulfe takes place, the patient feldom fuffers a relapfe. While the frequency of the pulfe continues the fame, its ftrokes may be either full, great, ftrong, and hard ; or foft, fmall, and weak. A full, great, and ftrong pulfe takes place when the ventricle ftrongly and completely empties itfelf; throwing out a great quantity of blood into the arteries, which fully diftends them and ftimulates them to a ftrong contradtion. A pulfe of this kind is common in ftrong healthy men, and is feldom to be accounted a- fymptom of difeafe. But if it be too ftrong, and ftrike the finger of the perfon who feels it violently and fharply, it is called a hard pulfe. This hardnefs is produced by a fudden and violent contradlion of the heart and arteries, which diftends even the remote branches, as thofe thefe countries a vein may be fafeiy opened either during the remiffion, dr in the height of a paroxyfm ; and our author alfo found good efterits refulting from bleeding in the hot fits of the marfh fever, even after it had almoft come to regular intermiffions. After bleeding, a purgative was itfually exhibited, of which he gives us the following formula. jjo. Infufi feiiae commup. §iij. Lie