Egyptian Women in Agricultural Development: An Annotated Bibliography 9781685854843

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EGYPTIAN WOMEN IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

EGYPTIAN WOMEN IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

An Annotated Bibliography

Mohamed A. Faris Mahmood Hasan Khan

LYN NE RIENNER PUBLISHERS

B O U L D E R L O N D O N

Published in the United States of America in 1994 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. 1800 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80301 and in the United Kingdom by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. 3 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8LU © 1994 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fans, Mohamed A. Egyptian women in agricultural development : an annotated bibliography / by Mohamed A. Faris and Mahmood H. Khan, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references ISBN 1-55587-484-3 1. Rural women—Egypt—Bibliography. 2. Women in rural development—Egypt—Bibliography. I. Khan, Mahmood Hasan. II. Title. Z7964.E3F37 1994 [HQ1793] 016.30542'0962—dc20 94-4428 CIP British Cataloguing in Publication Data A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.

Printed and bound in the United States of America

(S3)

The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1984.

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CONTENTS

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Acknowledgments

vi

Introduction

1 Part 1 General Survey

1 2 3 4

Legal Status Social Status Economic Status Policy Issues

9 21 57 87 Part 2 Social Aspects

5 6 7 8

Reproductive Role Participation and Decisionmaking Health Issues Education Issues

101 109 117 123

Part 3 Economic Aspects 9 10 11

Ownership and Access to Resources Discretionary Income Participation in Economic Activities

129 131 137

Part 4 Policy Aspects 12 13 14

Role of Local and National Governments Role of Nongovernmental Organizations Role of International Organizations

145 149 151 154

About the Book and Authors

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS • •

In completing this book, we were ably assisted by several individuals. We would like to acknowledge here their painstaking help. In Montreal, Hafida Mihoubi, Ara Khan, and Abdullahi Barise undertook library research and prepared the initial summaries for the database; Jamal Roumeliotis organized the data files on computer; and Hussam Al-Sharif verified the database and applied the necessary software programs for retrieval and processing. Hanaa Abd El-Harith in Cairo maintained the basic material and modified the data files as required, and Omar Aly-Hassan in Montreal provided the muchneeded coordination for the team. Lana Denny in Montreal did most of the secretarial work and Anita Mahoney in Vancouver prepared the final draft for the publisher. We must add that all of these individuals showed great patience in the face of considerable pressure and the deadlines imposed on them. We would also like to thank Cheryl Carnahan for copyediting the manuscript and Martha Peacock and Michelle Welsh at Lynne Rienner Publishers for their cooperation in producing the book. Mohamed A. Fans Mahmood Hasan Khan

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INTRODUCTION

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The conventional wisdom in the 1950s and the early 1960s held that u n d e r d e v e l o p e d countries could best achieve economic growth by following the market-based experience of industrialization in Western countries. T h e benefits of growth would "trickle down" to the laboring population through market mechanisms and increased employm e n t . Little attention was focused on the issue of structural cons t r a i n t s o n c e r t a i n g r o u p s , i n c l u d i n g w o m e n , in t e r m s of t h e i r accessibility to the market. Women's domestic and subsistence activities, crucial t h o u g h they were to the existing economic and social order, were neither recognized nor valued. Benefits of development were designed to reach households by way of the male providers. The inequities of the growth-oriented approach through "free" markets became apparent during the first UN Development Decade (1960-1970). In this period, attention to women was usually focused on the e n h a n c e m e n t of their domestic skills. Women became the target of population control a n d family p l a n n i n g programs, because high birth rates were seen as the major reason for poverty. In the second UN Development Decade (1970-1980), the goals and measures of development were re-examined in the light of alarming poverty and increased inequalities. With this re-examination of poverty and distributional issues, women's position a m o n g the poor and their role as providers of labor and food began to be recognized. Women are the major contributors to community life, particularly in the area of agriculture, but their economic contribution was not reflected in national statistics. Modernization was actually displacing women f r o m their traditional productive functions and diminishing their income and status. Women's issues reached the global forum with the UN declaration of International Women's Year in 1975. A world conference in Mexico resulted in the World Plan of Action for the Implementation of the Objectives of I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s Year a n d in the UN Decade for Women (1975-1985). T h e rhetoric of women in developm e n t (WID) was supported to some extent by resources made avail1

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INTRODUCTION

able to w o m e n ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s , r e s e a r c h projects, a n d c o n s u l t i n g firms that focused on WID-related activities a n d projects. However, the WID initiatives were f r a g m e n t e d , short-term, a n d underinvested, a n d they h a d little impact on the basic p r o b l e m s of s u b o r d i n a t i o n a n d oppression. T h e third Development Decade (1980-1990) witnessed rising global economic problems a n d a r e t u r n to the ideology of market-oriented policies f o r development. Many u n d e r d e v e l o p e d countries h a d to begin to make structural adjustments, reduce social services, a n d increase the cost of basic needs. A considerable p r o p o r t i o n of the additional b u r d e n of a d j u s t m e n t in b o t h rural a n d u r b a n areas fell o n women. T h e g r a d u a l b u t certain shift to t h e c o n c e r n s of "sustainable d e v e l o p m e n t " o n a global scale has r e i n f o r c e d t h e n e e d f o r j o i n t actions by m e n a n d w o m e n as equal p a r t n e r s . In fact, it may have h e i g h t e n e d t h e realization that structural c h a n g e s in the relationships between m e n a n d women are a central part of the strategy to achieve the goals of sustainable development at the household, community, regional, national, a n d international levels. It is in this context that the WID a p p r o a c h has b e e n replaced by g e n d e r in developm e n t (GID), because the latter c o n c e p t is m o r e focused a n d powerful. T h e objective of the WID a p p r o a c h was to improve the status of women in a way that was n o t directly relational to the status of m e n . T h e aim of the GID a p p r o a c h is to empower women and to improve t h e i r p o s i t i o n in society relative to t h a t of m e n . T h e GID analysis includes relations of power a n d d o m i n a n c e at the h o u s e h o l d , community, regional, national, a n d international levels. It examines both the productive a n d the reproductive work of w o m e n a n d m e n a n d focuses on the balance a m o n g personal, household, a n d community spheres. An u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the structure and dynamics of g e n d e r relations is t h o u g h t to be central to the analysis of social organization and social progress. It is, however, acknowledged that g e n d e r is j u s t o n e of a n u m b e r of o r g a n i z i n g principles in society a n d only o n e d e t e r m i n a n t of women's situation. In this sense, GID is a holistic concept: It considers the totality of social, economic, a n d political life in analyzing the forces that shape society a n d affect women's ability to direct, a n d to b e n e f i t in, the process of development. T h e g e n d e r f o c u s e d a p p r o a c h t o d e v e l o p m e n t h a s e m e r g e d in t h e e a r l y 1980s a n d seeks to reduce the inequities women face a n d to enable t h e m to participate with m e n in achieving greater control over their lives. Although w o m e n ' s issues a n d rights have assumed their rightful place in the developed countries, they have received scant attention in the u n d e r d e v e l o p e d countries. According to a recent r e p o r t of the

INTRODUCTION

3

I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r O f f i c e , w o m e n c o n s t i t u t e o n e - h a l f of t h e world's p o p u l a t i o n a n d one-third of the "official" labor force, a n d they p e r f o r m nearly two-thirds of the work hours, receive one-tenth of total world income, and own less than o n e - h u n d r e d t h of all of the property in the world. In many countries they c o n t i n u e to work h a r d until they are a b o u t to give birth; they limit their activities or withdraw f r o m the labor force for only a short time after childbirth. T h e statistics o n s o m e social i n d i c a t o r s p r o v i d e d in t h e 1993 Human Development Report give only a small indication of the male-female disp a r i t i e s in 173 c o u n t r i e s ; they d o n o t fully c a p t u r e t h e pervasive n a t u r e of the male-female imbalance in economic a n d social relations that exists in reality. As in many o t h e r u n d e r d e v e l o p e d countries, w o m e n in Egypt play a key role in the agricultural sector. However, this role has n o t b e e n acknowledged by o r reflected in the official statistics on services, employment, a n d income. Nor has t h e r e b e e n a fair appreciation of the s o c i o e c o n o m i c constraints w o m e n e n c o u n t e r w h e n they try to participate in the process of d e v e l o p m e n t that is underway. T h e r e is increasing recognition in Egypt of the n e e d to integrate women, particularly in the rural areas, into the mainstream of the d e v e l o p m e n t process to help ease the drudgery of their work, reduce their d o u b l e workload, raise their social status, a n d improve their standard of living. To plan p r o g r a m s f o r rural women, however, requires a careful analysis of their c u r r e n t roles a n d of the opportunities women themselves identify as desirable a n d that will work within the overall social a n d economic structure of rural communities. Gaining a factually correct u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the existing conditions in rural Egypt can greatly assist us in making assessments a b o u t these needs a n d opportunities—assessments that are essential if the targeted a n d general programs are to be effective even on a limited scale. D e t e r m i n i n g which p r o g r a m s o r policies at t h e n a t i o n a l o r regional level may best h e l p w o m e n to alleviate t h e i r existing constraints a n d to achieve their full potential can only b e achieved by placing the p r e s e n t relationships of m e n a n d women within the context of Egypt's rural economy a n d its development, in which women play a key r o l e in b o t h p r o d u c t i o n a n d r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e y a r e f a r m h a n d s a n d mothers, professionals a n d ordinary workers, b u t only some are managers a n d decisionmakers. Several research reports a n d official studies a b o u t rural women in Egypt have b e e n c o m p l e t e d in the past two decades. However, n o systematic a t t e m p t seems to have b e e n m a d e to synthesize the findings in o r d e r to (1) provide i m p o r t a n t insights into the existing problems a n d (2) identify useful leads for f u t u r e studies as guidelines for policymakers in p l a n n i n g a n d i m p l e m e n t i n g suitable programs that

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INTRODUCTION

integrate rural women into the ongoing process o f rapid development in Egypt. At present, many policies and programs tend to exacerbate, rather than alleviate, the conditions of rural women. T h e methodological framework o f this bibliography is simple and somewhat arbitrary. T h e review of literature is divided into four parts, each of which is explained here. General Survey This section includes a review o f studies that deal in general with each of the issues as it might relate to rural women. 1. Legal Status: Laws and acts that confirm and give rights to women (voting rights, family laws, and similar laws). 2. Social Status: Gender equality in basic rights and participation at the household and community levels. 3. E c o n o m i c S t a t u s : O w n e r s h i p o f assets a n d a c c e s s to resources, employment in formal and informal activities, economic activities in and outside of the household. 4. P o l i c y Issues: R o l e o f n a t i o n a l a n d l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s , nongovernmental organizations, international donor agencies. Social Aspects This part contains specific material (including village or regional case studies) on various social issues that involve rural women at the national, local, and community (village) levels. 1. Reproductive Role: Marriage, childbearing, and all aspects of family planning (including availability and use of government services by rural women). 2. Participation and D e c i s i o n m a k i n g : All activities in which women participate and make decisions that affect their own lives as well as their households and communities. 3. Health Issues: Age structure, mortality and morbidity, incidence of diseases and their effects on women, availability and use o f public and private medical support services. 4. Education Issues: Access to informal and formal education and its effect on women's work, role, and status in the household and society. Economic Aspects T h e studies included here focus on all of the specific economic activities that affect individual females, households, and communities (villages). Indirectly, these activities affect the social status of rural women.

INTRODUCTION

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1. Ownership and Access to Resources: Land ownership, ownership of livestock, businesses from which women can and do derive income. Resources here involve access to the use of land, credit, market opportunities, and similar elements. 2. Discretionary Income: Refers to income women create and use themselves (over which they have complete or significant control). This income may be from own-farm activities (e.g., poultry, fruits, a n d vegetables), working on o t h e r farms, working outside the farm for wages or salaries, nonfarm business (handicrafts, shops, etc.), and selling assets. 3. Participation in Economic Activities: Refers to the use of labor time and the contribution of women through unpaid household chores (cooking, washing, rearing children, etc.) and farm work (e.g., on own or other farms: weeding, harvesting, milking, etc.); also to paid work (other households, farms, nonfarm jobs or businesses). Policy

Aspects

This section includes all of the studies related to policy aspects: actions or approaches adopted by governments (local and national), nongovernmental organizations (local, national, and international), and international d o n o r agencies or organizations that involve the role and status of rural women at the local (village), regional (governorate), and national levels. 1. Role of Local and National Governments: Refers to enacting laws and regulations; changing policies; undertaking specific actions; establishing and funding specific programs, support systems, or institutions; and conducting or supporting studies. 2. Role of Nongovernmental Organizations: Includes activities (e.g., action programs, funding, support institutions, studies) of local, national, and international nongovernmental organizations in regard to the status and work of rural women. 3. Role of International Organizations: This section covers the same range of activities as those u n d e r n o n g o v e r n m e n t a l organizations. T h e r e are 175 annotated documents in the bibliography. T h e documents include 53 books, 75 journal articles, 10 graduate theses, 24 technical reports, a n d 13 papers. Citations of the studies that address multiple issues are included in each of the relevant sections; however, the annotation of these studies is given only the first time the study appears in the book, with appropriate cross-references provided throughout.

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Parti GENERAL SURVEY

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1 •

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LEGAL STATUS

1. A b a z a , M o n a . "La P a y s a n n e E g y p t i e n n e et le ' F e m i n i s m e T r a d i t i o n n e l ' " ( T h e Egyptian p e a s a n t a n d t h e "traditional feminism"), Peuples Mediterraneens 4 1 / 4 2 (1987): 135-151. In this article, the author presents various authors' viewpoints c o n c e r n i n g the c h a n g i n g role of rural Egyptian women a n d their respective positions in the Muslim Arab world. The discussion centers a r o u n d feminism a n d presents issues f r o m a feminist perspective. Issues involving economic, legal, social, a n d personal matters are examined. 2. Abdel Kader, Soha. Egyptian Women in a Changing Society, 18991987. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1987. 163 pp. This book does not p u r p o r t to rectify the biases and shortcomings of previous r e s e a r c h . A l t h o u g h written within a t h e o r e t i c a l framework that recognizes the intricate relationship of women's role and status to the social, economic, and political organization of society, because of its paucity of empirical data and its reliance mostly on secondary sources, this is an exploratory study. Also, given that the impact of social change on the role and status of women is a complex, multidimensional p h e n o m e n o n that cannot be easily conceptualized, this book's approach is eclectic and multidisciplinary. A n u m b e r of t h e o r e t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s a n d c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s have b e e n advanced to explain the status of women in the period of Egyptian history u n d e r investigation and in light of the socioeconomic and political ramifications of that period for the corresponding phase of the Egyptian feminist movement. This book consists of three parts. It begins with the year 1899, in which Qasim Amin's The Emancipation of Women was published. Part 1, which consists of one chapter, therefore, is an analysis of the role and status of the different classes of Egyptian women at the end of the nineteenth century. Given the paucity of primary sources, the author incorporates an analysis of these memoirs in Chapter 1; otherwise, 9

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the chapter draws mostly on secondary sources. Part 2 consists of five chapters, corresponding to the five phases of the Egyptian feminist movement outlined previously. Part 3 presents conclusions. 3. Al-Qazzaz, Ayad. "Current Status of Research on Women in the Arab World," Middle Eastern Studies 14 (1978): 372-380. This article is based on a survey of approximately 150 issues that relate to Arab women. Although further research in new areas is suggested, the article highlights the types of information about Arab women available in English and assesses and evaluates them. Simple classification of the available literature on Arab women is possible by country, by specific periods in time, and by the orientation of the writer. The author chose the third method here, for it cuts across countries and tends to provide the reader with knowledge of the general significance of the sources. The literature can be classified broadly into three categories: (1) literature with a religious orientation, (2) literature with a social science orientation, (3) an overview of literature. Each of these categories is divided into subcategories, but they are not mutually exclusive. The subcategories represent a heuristic tool to alert the reader to the basic orientation of each article. 4. Brocas, Anne-Marie, Anne-Marie Cailloux, and Virgine Oget. Women and Social Security: Progress Towards Equality of Treatment. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990. 116 pp. Since the mid-1970s the principle of equal treatment for men and women in the area of social security has presented a growing challenge to the effectiveness of social protection. Radical changes in the role and status of women and in family relationships have led us to question standards and attitudes. To what extent has the equality principle found expression in social security policies? And to what extent is there still a need for specific protection for women? These are the questions addressed in this lively, topical study, which provides examples from a wide range of countries. Part One explores whether men and women in equivalent employment enjoy equal rights regarding social security and highlights discriminatory provisions that still exist. Part Two covers women's special needs as mothers and as workers with family responsibilities. Policies to help women who are in precarious situations or who live in poverty are also discussed. The authors argue for a move toward personal entitlement to social security for women regardless of their financial and marital status. This, however, is likely to be achieved only when women are fully

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i n t e g r a t e d into the workforce (with c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r periods of maternity and child rearing) and when tasks and roles in society are genuinely shared between men and women. 5. Dearden, Ann, ed. Arab Women. London: Minority Rights Group, 1983. 17 pp. Arab women make up nearly half of the Arab world's population of some 135 million people. Among all of the world's Muslim women, they form a distinctive group. But their status cannot be given a single classification; this varies greatly according to the country in which they live and the section of society to which they belong. This report attempts to give a general overview of the social and legal status of women in the Arab world. The study examines cases in ten countries. 6. Egypt, Arab Republic of, Central Agency for Public Mobilization a n d Statistics ( C A P M A S ) , a n d U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d (UNICEF). The Situation of Women in Egypt. Cairo: Shorouk Press, n.d. 51 pp. This analysis covers the status of Egyptian women in the areas of education, the labor force, legislation, political and community participation, contemporary Egyptian family, and the media. T h e final chapter offers recommendations for the amelioration of the status a n d contributions of women in these areas. A critical overview of women's development projects in Egypt is also presented. 7. El H a m a m s y , Laila S. " T h e C h a n g i n g R o l e of t h e E g y p t i a n Woman," Middle East Forum 33 (1958): 24-28. In recent years, in most Arab countries, women have emerged from the privacy of the h o m e to take an active part in public affairs. They are f o u n d in factories, in teaching and medicine, in social work, and in law. This article covers the rights of women regarding their social, political, legal, and economic status. Also discussed are issues of the education of women and the differences between rural and city women. 8. El Safty, Madiha, Monte Palmer, and Mark Kennedy. "An Analytic Index of Survey Research in Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science 8 (1985): 267-282. Monographs 1 and 2. This is a collection of survey research conducted in Egypt. These research surveys were undertaken by Egypt's Ministry of Social Affairs and various research centers, including nongovernmental organizations and agencies. Some of the sections of this study are directly relevant to the work and status of women in Egypt.

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9. G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e o f Islam on W o m e n - i n Development Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, Canadian International Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. This report is intended as a practical aid for individuals working in international development agencies or organizations in Egypt in order to introduce them to the religious factors that could influence the integration of women into the development projects. It also gives numerous recommendations. 10. Hussein, Aziza. "Family Law and Family Planning in Egypt." In Each in Her Own Way, edited by Marion Fennelly Levy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988, pp. 155-181. Aziza Hussein grew up in a privileged family in Egypt and married a man who became the minister of social affairs. As a young matron she was drawn into her husband's work in community development, and it transformed her life. At his invitation she went to one of the small villages to help women improve their embroidery to make it more salable. She developed such an understanding of their needs and an empathy with them that she returned to Cairo a committed and eloquent spokesperson for the advancement of women. She spoke out not only for rural women, so many of whom were miserably poor, but for all women struggling to gain protection under a more enlightened family law. It was thus fitting that she be appointed the first Egyptian delegate to the UN Status of Women Commission. After stepping down from that post, she spearheaded the drive for amendments to the existing Egyptian family law to provide women with greater legal protection. 11. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. Third World Women Speak Out is published in the belief that it is important for developers, policymakers, and citizens to hear from the people they are trying to aid. Too often, it is the women who are not heard and whose problems are not visible. T h e UN D e c a d e for Women and its World Plan of Action are one expression of the needs and concerns of women. It is hoped that this book will be a valuable and instructive document for the growing constituency that is recognizing that women are partners in the development process. T h e message o f this book is that women in the villages and towns of the developing world are coping with tremendous problems and have a resilience that many will admire. They have aspirations for their children, for their entire families, and for themselves. They

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could benefit greatly f r o m assistance on a small scale that is directed at the village a n d the family b u t that specifically takes account of women and their needs. R e p o r t s i n c l u d e discussions a n d interviews with w o m e n in Tunisia, Egypt, the Sudan, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Mexico. Some topics traditionally associated with women, such as the role of women within the family, nutrition, health, and family planning, are thoughtfully examined. Reaction to issues such as women's political participation and leadership is also offered. Huston concludes by stressing the need to increase professional and public sensitivity to the realities of women's lives in developing countries. 12. International Labour Office (ILO). Women in Rural Development: Critical Issues. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1980. 51 pp. In May 1978, with assistance from the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the ILO's Rural Employment Policies Branch invited a n u m b e r of specialists to Geneva to participate in a consultation on the subject of women and rural development. The purpose of this consultation was twofold: (1) to establish communication with people familiar with the topic of women a n d rural development in o r d e r to define the most pressing areas for research, policy, and action; and (2) to make the ILO's work better known to individuals and institutions concerned with rural women in the Third World. Participants f r o m d i f f e r e n t regions were invited, and several observers were also present. They were asked to make short presentations based on their research related to the following general topics: m o d e s of p r o d u c t i o n , agrarian structures, and w o m e n ' s work; sex roles and the division of labor in rural economies; effects of the penetration of the market on rural women; and rural development and women. More important, participants were asked to derive conclusions f r o m their experience that could be relevant to programs on rural women. This booklet includes a selection of abstracts written by the participants. A list of t h e m a i n issues raised in t h e discussion t h a t occurred in each session is included, together with the conclusions that followed. 13. Keddie, Nikki R. " P r o b l e m s in t h e Study of Middle E a s t e r n W o m e n , " International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 ( 1 9 7 9 ) : 225-240. The study of Middle Eastern women poses a n u m b e r of methodological problems, some common to Third World studies and others peculiar to the Middle East. Recent research and editorial experience led t h e a u t h o r to f o r m some conclusions r e g a r d i n g research on

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GENERAL SURVEY

Middle Eastern women, both historical and contemporary. The most obvious problem is that almost no serious scholarly historical study has been conducted on women in the Middle East. Middle Eastern history has long been "backward" in many ways; its historians' training in historical and social theory and methods a n d their interest in past social a n d e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t s are almost exclusively post-World War II phenomena, and the field as a whole lacks the theoretical a n d methodological sophistication of European or Far Eastern history. It is, therefore, not surprising that historians of the Middle East should be late in taking an interest in women's history and that the results thus far have been quantitatively small. 14. Lesch, Ann Mosely, and Earl L. Sullivan. "Women in Egypt: New R o l e s a n d R e a l i t i e s . " I n d i a n a p o l i s , U n i v e r s i t i e s F i e l d Staff International, 1986. Mimeographed. 9 pp. This survey discusses many factors related to female employm e n t in the public arena. T h e authors have f o u n d that the social gains by women in Egypt in the past twenty-five years are winning i n c r e a s i n g a c c e p t a n c e , b u t p r o b l e m s a n d pockets of o p p o s i t i o n remain that reflect gender, class, demographic, and religious concerns. The survey covers a slice of Egyptian society and gives an indication of attitudes rather than of actual behavior. It reveals that a certain degree of discord exists between the sexes and classes, but the responses also suggest that a broad consensus may have developed regarding the nature of the problems facing Egyptian women today. 15. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for Anglophone Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. The consultant was asked to update statistics on the socioeconomic status of women in Egypt—including life expectancy, fertility, literacy and education, legal rights, attitude toward family planning, participation in the labor force, access to credit, and general degree of i n d e p e n d e n c e — i n o r d e r to o u t l i n e t h e existing b a c k g r o u n d against which to i m p l e m e n t a $5 million women-in-development (WID) project over a period of five years. T h e consultant used the available literature at CIDA as well as i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n d Egyptian (Arabic) reports, articles, books, a n d audiovisual materials and conducted telephone interviews with pers o n n e l at a g e n c i e s s u c h as UNICEF, t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l W o m e n ' s Tribune Centre, the Population Council, and the World Bank. Much of the information regarding attitudes, existing WID activities, and

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constraints on and suggestions for implementing a WID project in Egypt is based on the consultant's recent four-year work experience in Egypt in the fields of family planning, WID, and community development. 16. M c C a n n , B a r b a r a . " W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t : C a n a d i a n International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Program." Ottawa, McCann Consulting, 1988. Mimeographed. 106 pp. This report is divided into four mEyor sections. The first section deals with the context in which CIDA'S development assistance functions. The second section addresses women in Egypt and the influences on their lives. The third section covers donor experiences. The last section reviews current and planned CIDA projects in Egypt and their considerations for and impact on women. The report also gives recommendations for implementation of the WID strategy within CIDA.

17. Mohsen, Safia K. "The Egyptian Woman: Between Modernity and Tradition." In Many Sisters: "Women in Cross-Cultural Perspective, edited by Carolyn J . Mathiasson. New York: Free Press, 1974, pp. 37-58. In recent years, Egyptian writers have emphasized the impact of westernization on their traditional way of life. Specifically, they have paid attention to the effects of Western ideas on the traditional conception of the role of women and on the various areas of conflict the introduction of these ideas has created. Because of its recognition and support of inequality, the law has come under attack by those advocating a more modern role for women, one based on legal and social equality. Pressure for reform has resulted in a number of proposals aimed at freeing women from the restrictions placed on them by present laws and from the traditional roles these laws support. This chapter aims to show that in their eagerness to improve the status of women in Egyptian society, the advocates of women's rights have tended to neglect the fact that the traditional role of women is supported by much more than a set of formal, legal rules. Despite the appearance of modernity, the attitude both men and women hold toward the role of women in public life— as well as in private life—still remains fairly conservative. 18. Nawar, Isis, Saheir Nour, Mona Barakat, Madiha Taleyawi, Somia Hassan, Mowahib Ayyaid, and Salwa Said. "Profiles o f Egyptian W o m e n . " A l e x a n d r i a , University o f A l e x a n d r i a , n.d. M i m e o graphed. 16 pp. This paper has two parts. The first addresses the general status of Egyptian women, and the second part focuses on the status of rural

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women. The presentation describes changes in the status of Egyptian women and the impact of women on national development, which is mirrored in the role of women in the labor force, at home, and in the general social and political life of the society. 19. Palmer, Ingrid. "The Role of Women in Agrarian Reform and Rural Development," Land Reform, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives 1 (1979): 57-70. Palmer presents a checklist of demands that can be made on behalf of women concerning agrarian reform: to ease women's drudgery and long hours of work; to secure for women structured, equitable access to family assets and income so they can meet the basic needs of their families; to promote women, especially landless women, into higher productivity wage employment; to ensure that women emerge progressively in the social and political life of the community; and to promote the social and legal status of women. This report emphasizes new production methods and institutions, because they illuminate concerns such as the sexual division of labor and relations in economic exchange between the sexes. In this report, policy implications are drawn out of the demands made on behalf of women as issues in designing the elements of a reform package. 20. Richards, Alan. Egypt's Agricultural Development, 1800-1980: Technical and Social Change. Boulder: Westview Press, 1982. 296 pp. This book provides a survey and an interpretation of the transformation of Egyptian agriculture from 1800 to the late 1970s. It focuses on the interaction of technical change in agriculture, rural social classes, and government policy. It examines the role of the international economic and state systems in generating the pattern of Egyptian agricultural development. 21. Roemburg, Rebekka Van. "An Overview of Women in Development in the Arab Republic of Egypt." Cairo, Royal Danish Embassy (Danish International Development Agency [DANIDA] Section), 1991. Mimeographed. 43 pp. The report is intended to provide background information for the formulation of DANIDA's future strategy on women in development in Egypt. It consists of four chapters, covering the socioeconomic and legal status of women, government policies on women in development, indigenous women's organizations, and other donor activities in this field. Appendix 4 contains references on the status of WID in Egypt.

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22. Rogers, Barbara. The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980. 200 pp. This study is not primarily about women but, rather, is about how planners relate to them. At a number of meetings, Third World women have made it clear that they want to analyze their own situation. For Westerners, a more useful contribution is to tackle the problem of the discriminatory processes in their own culture and society, processes that are being imposed on others through what some like to call development. This book is, therefore, about planners trained in the Western tradition and the impact of their received ideas about women in general, and p o o r women in particular, in the T h i r d World. The work presented here is in three parts. The first discusses Western male ideology about gender distinctions and the division of labor, and how the male ideology's interpretations of other societies are used to bolster myths about women's "natural" place in society. Next, the planning process itself is analyzed: This reveals discrimination against women in the development agencies, the distortions in the research and data collection on which development planning is based, and the relegation of Third World women to special projects in the "domestic" ghetto. Finally, the discriminatory impact of the planning process is outlined in terms of subsistence agriculture, the sector in which most Third World women are concentrated. The general trends with regard to the impact of development planning on women's access to resources and on their workload are discussed briefly, as are the implications of women's problems for the success or failure of the development process. 23. Rugh, Andrea B. Family in Contemporary Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984. 305 pp. The main focus of this book is on lower- and middle-class urbanites and their adjustments to the contemporary conditions of cities. Despite its emphasis on contemporary family patterns, this study is concerned less with radical forms of change than with the factors that have permitted a particular concept of family to emerge and remain stable over a period of time. It differentiates superficial behaviors of adjustment that come and go over short periods of time and, simultaneously, within different contexts from structural principles that provide long-term stability for cultural patterns. The study does not describe the "demise" or the "resurgence" of family patterns, because social change is not a linear process with a directional flow that is readily discerned. Rather, this is a study of the surface rearrangement of behavior in response to new contingencies

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across time and sometimes across social space. Once a society or a s u b g r o u p develops a wholeness or completeness in its conceptual frame—when the contradictions i n h e r e n t in the h u m a n condition are resolved through accepted modes of expression—it becomes difficult for a society to make any major changes unless forced to do so by some radical intervention. Even then, traces of that early coherence and its embracing value structures come back to haunt the development of new organizational structures. 24. Sullivan, Earl L. "Women in Egyptian Public Life. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 223 pp. The subjects of this book are women among the current political and economic elite, chosen because their careers illustrate both the rewards and the challenges facing women in public life in Egypt today. As a group they are talented and impressive, yet few observers of m o d e r n Egypt know who they are, what they do, how they reached their c u r r e n t positions, or what sacrifices they have h a d to make along the way. These topics are considered and their significance discussed in light of the political a n d economic e n v i r o n m e n t within which Egyptian women have struggled to get ahead. First, the focus of research is not on the continued subordination of women, which the author does not deny, but on ways in which social processes that affect male-female relationships are undergoing transformation. Second, the empirical focus is on a specific group of women who function within the context of Egypt's polity and economy as well as within the household. In separate chapters, the book deals with four groups of women; in each, a section is devoted to the "formative years" of the subjects, concentrating on the childhood household and the members of that household as socializing agents. Another section deals with marriage and family, and the role of the a d u l t h o u s e h o l d in t h e lives of t h e s e w o m e n is e x a m i n e d . Additionally, each c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s extensive discussions of the women's public lives. Thus, the household is one of the foci of analysis, but not the only one. 25. United Nations Children's Fund. An Annotated Bibliography on the Children of Egypt. Cairo: United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. 174 pp. T h e process of p r e p a r i n g this r e p o r t involved reviewing seco n d a r y source m a t e r i a l r e l a t e d to the situation of c h i l d r e n a n d w o m e n . T h e review covered u n p u b l i s h e d r e s e a r c h in Egypt a n d abroad. O n e product of the review, in addition to the main report, was this annotated bibliography. T h e UNICEF office in Egypt hopes this bibliography will serve as a reference for others who are con-

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cerned about the collection and use of information to improve the well-being of Egyptian children. 26. Wahba, Mourad, ed. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Rural Women and Development. Cairo: Wahdan Press, 1980. 380 pp. This seminar brought together academic studies on rural women and development. Although this topic has been the subject of research in a number of institutions, this seminar had a distinct character, because it tackled the experiences of countries other than Egypt—namely, Kenya, Holland, Turkey, and Sri Lanka. The aims and objectives of this seminar centered around a few key assumptions regarding the integration of rural women into the development process. The editor states these briefly as he understands them. First is the assumption that a positive and meaningful link exists between something called people's participation and something called development; second, that the most appropriate strategy in promoting people's participation is through something called communal self-help; and third, that the integration of rural women into the development process depends upon a recognition of their potential to serve as full partners in that process. 27. Zenie-Ziegler, Wedad. In Search of Shadows: Conversations with Egyptian Women. London: Zed Books, 1988. 140 pp. The author has compiled this book from interviews and observations of rural and urban women in Egypt. During the investigation, the author spoke to working-class women about their daily lives, the relationships within their families, and their environment. The author also questioned a small group of women from Cairo's intelligentsia, who spoke without reference to Islamic laws of the discriminatory practices that keep women "down" in Muslim countries.

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28. Abaza, Mona. "The Changing Image of Women in Rural Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science 10 (1987): 1-119. Monograph 3. This study investigates the changing forms of social life among rural people, especially rural women. A major focus of the analysis involves changes in economic relations and, specifically, work relations as these relate to the migration of males to the oil-producing countries. Theoretically, this study is derived f r o m the analytic perspective characterized by increased concern with systems analysis on a global scale, which has emerged in the social sciences during recent decades. As a critique of modernization theory, the dependency paradigm relates underdevelopment to the rise of capitalism as a global system. T h e study focuses on g e n d e r relations, using the perspective that local-level social relations are directly related to global developments. It shows how these relations a m o n g Egyptian peasants are reshaped by economic and social changes introduced at the national level. 29. Abaza, Mona. "Feminist Debates and 'Traditional Feminism' of t h e F e l l a h a in R u r a l Egypt." B i e l e f e l d , G e r m a n y , University of B i e l e f e l d , S o c i o l o g y of D e v e l o p m e n t R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , 1987. Mimeographed. 26 pp. Abaza concentrates on three areas: the transformation of social relations, patterns of sexual division of labor, and cultural representation of sex roles in a small village. The study was carried out in a small village in the region of Mansoura, governorate of Dakhahliyya. This study a t t e m p t s to d e s c r i b e s o m e f e a t u r e s of w o m e n ' s strength t h r o u g h depicting their activities in a rural setting. This s t r e n g t h is i m b e d d e d in p e a s a n t culture, a n d it has a dialectical aspect, which means that historically, it was always subject to threat from the state or from family fights. The overall change imposed by open-door policies and supposed "modernization" represents a new threat to this strength. Migration to the oil-producing countries, proliferation of the i n f o r m a l sector, monetization of social relations, 21

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acquisition of better education and jobs in state administration, and the frequenting of mosques and, thus, having access to formal channels of religion are all new opportunities offered to males. Having experienced these changes, they seem to escape "peasant" status, with all its cultural connotations. 3 0 . Abaza, M o n a . "La P a y s a n n e E g y p t i e n n e et le ' F e m i n i s m e T r a d i t i o n n e l ' " ( T h e Egyptian peasant and the "traditional feminism"), Peuples Mediterraneens 41/42 (1987): 135-151. (See 1.) 31. Abaza, Mona. "Women and Vendettas," Peuples Mediterraneens 44/45 (1988): 109-115. A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l studies that analyze the p h e n o m e n o n o f vendettas in Mediterranean societies often tend to portray women as being merely objects of honor fights. It is also assumed that women do not take an active part in such conflicts and remain passive. For i n s t a n c e , P. B o u r d i e u (in " T h e S e n t i m e n t o f H o n o r in Kabyle Society," in Honor and Shame: The Values of Mediterranean Society, edited by E. Peristiany. Y. Q. Midway Reprint, 1974, pp. 191-242) and A. Abu Zeid (in "Honor and Shame Among the Bedouin of Egypt," also in Honor and Shame, pp. 243-259) seem to interpret the role of women as symbolizing an absent center. Through the h o n o r and shame mechanism, they are considered one of the crucial causes of fighting or killing, whereas the women themselves seem to have very little to say or few decisions to make. This article attempts to challenge this argument by bringing evidence that women do indeed play a very active role in launching the entire process of the fight through what can be called informal or traditional power mechanisms. Women seem to exercise such powers through the strong mother-son relationship, family ties, or gossiping, as well as through managing the household as a unit of production and consumption. The fact that they play an active role in producing or launching vendettas might not systematically imply that they can fully control the consequences of the event. The fact that men have access to formal channels such as state power is one main reason the c h a l l e n g e response m e c h a n i s m ( B o u r d i e u , " T h e S e n t i m e n t o f H o n o r " ) , although it cannot occur without women, is ultimately expressed through men. For several reasons, such as the general structural change in the Egyptian village, men seem to lose respect for forms of "traditional feminism." (See 1.) 32. Abaza-Stauth, Mona. "Women Between Economic Liberalization and Social Deprivation: A Case Study in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, University of Durham, 1985. 211 pp.

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This study attempts to shed some light on the question of how changes in the 1970s and 1980s reshaped g e n d e r relations in the Egyptian village. The study draws evidence from a rural setting in the eastern section of the Nile Delta in t h r e e main areas: w o m e n ' s e x t e n d e d e c o n o m i c activities a n d labor relations, w o m e n ' s new extended spheres of social life, and peasant women's position regarding popular culture practices. 33. A b d e l K a d e r , S o h a . Egyptian Women in a Changing Society, 1899-1987. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1987. 163 pp. (See 2.)

34. Abdel Monem, Fayza Mohamed. "The Social Position of the Rural W o m e n in D i f f e r e n t Social Levels." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1985. 419 pp. The object of this study is to analyze the social position of rural women by applying different social standards. The results are: 1. T h e change of economic policy in the 1970s to an "opendoor policy" caused the marginalization of the traditional sectors of production. 2. The change in the type of production and the dependence on both the market and money made rural women lose most of their authority because of the displacement of their role in production. 3. In the village, the production process changed from that of production to meet basic needs to the accumulation of a surplus for markets. 4. The change in the mode of traditional production had a significant effect on the status of rural women, both within their family and in society. 35. Al-Qazzaz, Ayad. "Current Status of Research on Women in the Arab World," Middle Eastern Studies 14 (1978): 372-380. (See 3.) 36. Ammar, Hamed. Growing Up in an Egyptian Village: Silwa, Province of Aswan. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1954. 332 pp. This is a study of the social and psychological aspects of education in a village community in which an interdisciplinary approach was adopted. For the sociological segment, which forms the main body of the book, the author has attempted to utilize many of the conceptual categories and methods usually employed in studies of total culture, which aim to create out of the diverse pieces of human realities "a coherent representation of a society, in terms of the gen-

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eral principles of organization and motivation that regulate behavior in it." T o achieve this purpose, many of the theoretical assumptions utilized in research in anthropology and sociology have been applied, for "there can be no valuable empirical observations without the lead of a theory." This, then, is an attempt to study childhood in an Egyptian village community. Children are observed not only in schools or classrooms but also in their everyday lives within the social groups in which they live, work, play, and move. As far as Ammar knows, there have been no studies of this kind, except a few autobiographies written by some eminent writers. These autobiographies, however, must be regarded, if they are to be used in sociological studies, with two main reservations—first, the therapeutic manipulation of the writer's memory regarding certain experiences, and second, the requirement of Arabic literary style. 37. Badran, Hoda. "Women, Population, and Integrated Rural D e v e l o p m e n t . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the s e m i n a r o n the R o l e o f W o m e n in I n t e g r a t e d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t with E m p h a s i s o n Population Problems. Cairo, November 1974. 6 pp. This article states that two i n t e r r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s are f o u n d worldwide—namely, rapid population growth and the need for rapid economic progress. Also, there is gradual recognition that it is difficult to deal with both without considering the status of women. It is well-known that as family m e m b e r s , rural w o m e n p a r t i c i p a t e in almost all agricultural work in the fields besides being involved in other production activities at home. But agricultural extension programs to improve production skills are almost exclusively for males. Services for women focus on home economics and child care, which are considered the main responsibilities o f women. T h e s e factors combined with illiteracy, lack of awareness, and other problems leave women unable to participate effectively in community affairs. This article indicates that the division of labor between the two sexes and, consequently, the status of women are highly related to farming techniques and to the density of population. 3 8 . Badran, Hoda. " W o m e n ' s Human Rights: A Conditionality for Sustainability." In Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt, edited by Mohamed A. F a r i s a n d M a h m o o d H a s a n K h a n . B o u l d e r : L y n n e R i e n n e r Publishers, 1993. 273 pp. In this c h a p t e r the author's focus is sustainable agriculture, specifically regarding the status of rural women in Egypt. She stresses the fact that rural Egyptian women do not receive basic human rights. Several indicators are presented, such as maternal mortality, malnu-

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trition, and lack of education. Finally, the author discusses the inadequacy of community delivery systems to meet these basic needs of rural women. 39. Beneria, Lourdes. "Accounting for Women's Work." In Women and Development: The Sexual Division of Labor in Rural Societies, edited by Lourdes Beneria. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1982, pp. 119-147. This chapter discusses the reasons for the shortcomings in the conceptual categories employed generally in the literature. Its focal point is the analysis of statistical biases and of the concepts that feed statistical categories. The section "The Biases of Available Statistics" analyzes the conventional definitions of active labor as commonly used, how these definitions affect data collection, and, more specifically, how they bias the evaluation of women as economic agents. The section "The Concept of Active Labor" deals with the more theoretical aspects of the problems by linking these definitions to a given conceptual framework of purposes discussed in the last part of the chapter. The author argues that within conventional definitions of labor force, women's participation in economic activities tends to be grossly underestimated, particularly in areas with a relatively low degree of market penetration into economic life. This results mostly from conceptual and ideological biases concerning the nature of women's work and from difficulties in collecting accurate statistics on their participation. The main thrust of the chapter, however, is to point out the shortcomings of conventional labor force concepts. T h e author's main argument is that an active labor force should include all workers engaged in both use-value and exchange-value production, which includes all types of subsistence-production and household-reproduction activities. 40. Boserup, Ester. "Population, the Status of Women, and Rural Development." In Rural Development and Population: Institutions and Policy, edited by Geoffrey McNicoll and Mead Cain. London: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 45-60. Major increases in population modify the man-land ratio, facilitate specialization and communication, and provide other economies of scale. Whether the impact of these changes on rural development, and the likely feedback effects on demographic trends, are positive or negative depends in the first instance on macroeconomic factors, notably government policy. But microeconomic factors enter the picture as well. This chapter deals with one of these microeconomic factors—namely, the subordinate status of rural women compared with that of men of the same age and social group. The author considers

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how women's status varies under three types of family organization and land-tenure arrangements prevalent in rural areas and argues that the response of rural populations to economic and demographic change is more or less flexible, depending upon the type of family organization. The status of women varies among rural communities and sometimes among families in the same village. The roles of women are also strikingly different. It is impossible to discuss the multitude of local patterns in a brief review; nevertheless, family organization and the status of women are related to the agricultural system, which in turn is related to population density and technological levels. Therefore, it is impossible to simplify the analysis by distinguishing a few major patterns of interrelationships among population, status of women, and rural development that together describe most rural communities in the Third World. 41. Brink, Judy H. "The Effect of Emigration of Husbands on the Status of Their Wives: An Egyptian Case," International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 201-211. This study analyzes labor migration, using a micro approach. Employing Egyptian household data for 1983 and 1984, the author analyzes the impact of emigration of husbands on the lives of women. Of the seventy-nine women interviewed in the village of Sadeeq, eight had husbands working abroad. The status of this subset of women was compared with that of the women whose husbands were at home and was measured by four variables: the ability to allocate food money; the ability to allocate money for routine expenditures such as clothing, medicine, and educational supplies; the ability to make decisions about purchasing expensive items such as a television or a washing machine; and the freedom to leave home without permission. In the extended families, food money is allocated by mothers-inlaw. In nuclear families, wives allocate this money. The effect of migration on this variable was that families with migrant husbands were able to build a nuclear family home sooner than most; thus, those wives were able to control food money at a comparatively younger age. Six of the families in the subsample lived in nuclear households. The ability to allocate money for food and routine expenses and to leave the house without permission was affected by the husband's migration. Emigration provided the money to build a house and enabled the couple to leave the extended family. The absence of husbands from the nuclear family further increased the status of wives by freeing them from supervision and by increasing their ability to make financial decisions regarding routine expenditures and ongoing projects. Although rural women do not establish a

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nuclear family, and they gain power at the expense of their mothersin-law, the splitting of extended families is a normal part of the rural family life cycle. Most sons eventually establish their own household; labor migration only speeds up this process. 4 2 . Brocas, Anne-Marie, Anne-Marie Cailloux, and Virgine Oget. Women and Social Security: Progress Towards Equality of Treatment. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990. 116 pp. (See 4.) 4 3 . Brown, Nathan. "Peasants and Notables in Egyptian Politics," Middle Eastern Studies 26 (1974): 144-160. The purpose of this article is not to present the social history of rural Egypt. Instead, it is to point out that understanding the role of the agricultural middle class is essential to understanding Egyptian rural society over the past century. The article also shows how that class used its position to cast its problems as the problems of rural society as a whole. The inquiry, thus, has two parts. First is the description of the emergence and the role of the agricultural middle class. The second part argues that our knowledge of social and economic conditions in the countryside has been inhibited by the tendency to confuse the complaints of the middle class with the sufferings of the peasantry. The period covered by this article is bound by two major events: the Urabi Revolt of 1882 and the 1952 revolution. This time span covers the e m e r g e n c e o f the middle class and ends with a m a j o r land reform. Although voices of the peasantry from this period may be permanently missing, a record of their actions is not. 44. Dearden, Ann, ed. Arab Women. London: Minority Rights Group, 1983. 17 pp. (See 5.) 45. Deere, Carmen Diana, and Magdalena Leon de Leal. "Measuring Rural Women's Work and Class Position," Studies in Family Planning 10 (1979): 370-374. This brief article considers some of the methodological problems involved in measuring rural women's economic participation through sample surveys. It draws upon the authors' experiences in researching the economic roles of rural women in a national-level study in Colombia and in a regional-level study in Peru. The specific objective of the sample surveys was to quantify the existing sexual division of labor among the peasantry. The unit of analysis was the rural household, and the focus of measurement was the division of labor by sex in such activities as daily maintenance, household production, and incoming-generating activities pursued outside the household.

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The theoretical framework upon which both studies were based seeks to integrate the analysis of the sexual division of labor in rural areas with the broader analysis of agrarian change. Specifically, the studies sought to isolate the effect of the process of capitalist development in rural areas on peasant households and on rural women's work. The authors conceptualize capitalist development as the development of wage labor and of capitalist units of production that rely on the purchase of wage labor. The key construct for identifying this process is the social differentiation of the peasantry, through which peasant households become either proletarian, selling their labor power, or petty capitalist, employing wage labor in the productive process. The basis for the social differentiation is the unequal access to the means of production among direct producers in rural areas. 46. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. This paper discusses the current position of rural women, defines the main constraints on their entering the development processes, and proposes measures that will help to create an approach to women's programs that will consider their multiple roles as homemakers, as mothers, and especially as agricultural producers. One of the main objectives is to re-emphasize the economic importance of women farmers in terms of participation in the labor force, tasks performed, and the value of time spent working. Furthermore, the author elaborates on the main issues that continue to confront women farmers as they seek to improve the quality of their lives and that of their families. A final purpose is to assist policymakers by proposing actions that can be taken to assist women farmers. These include policies that can be implemented, based on lessons drawn from the past. 47. Egypt, Arab Republic of, Ministry of Social Affairs, and International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. This project has been designed as a demonstration effort to meet the needs of village women in terms of training, with the aim of achieving specific goals. The aims are to expand the resource base of the village women by providing the skills, knowledge, and experience necessary to generate reliable and sustainable income; to increase the earnings of rural women and their access to resources; to promote

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rural women's participation in community services and activities; to encourage rural women to hold positions in community organizations; to improve the social and e c o n o m i c position o f women; to encourage groups o f women or individuals to set up workshops or h o m e p r o d u c t i o n units; and to train women leaders so they can implement training programs. 48. Egypt, Arab Republic of, Central Agency for Public Mobilization a n d S t a t i s t i c s (CAPMAS) a n d U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d (UNICEF). The Situation of Women in Egypt. Cairo: Shorouk Press, n.d. 51 pp. (See 6.) 4 9 . El-Banna, Ferial M a h m o u d . " T h e E c o n o m i c R o l e o f W o r k i n g Women in Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Zagazig University, 1985. 228 pp. This is a case study of the role of women who are engaged in several rural industries. T h e research was carried out in a village and included several s o c i o e c o n o m i c aspects o f female participation in these industries, including demographic and educational characteristics, labor time spent, and income levels o f females in a variety of rural-based, small-scale handicraft activities. 5 0 . El Guindi, Fadwa. "Veiled Activism: Egyptian W o m e n in the C o n t e m p o r a r y Islamic M o v e m e n t , " Peuples Mediterraneens 2 2 / 2 3 (1983): 7 9 - 8 9 . No observer of Egypt's contemporary scene can miss the visible presence of completely or partially veiled young women, whose numbers seem to have increased since the mid-1970s. Western observers familiar with Egypt, particularly with cosmopolitan Cairo, find this d e v e l o p m e n t difficult to c o m p r e h e n d . Disapproving Egyptians' attempts to dismiss it or to explain it away have failed, because denial does not eliminate a phenomenon's existence. Rather, what began as scattered acts by a few young women has evolved into a full-fledged broad-based movement composed largely of educated youth, men, and women from the urban middle class that has rapidly gained wider appeal and support among diverse classes, strata, institutions, careers, and age groups. T h e movement's strong moral-Islamic stamp has disturbed progressives and alarmed the secular-minded. B o t h groups consider this trend a "regressive" development for Egypt. Certainly, its most visible manifestation, voluntary veiling by women, has provoked the strongest reactions. 5 1 . El H a m a m s y , L a i l a S. " T h e C h a n g i n g R o l e o f t h e Egyptian Woman," Middle East Forum 33 (1958): 2 4 - 2 8 . (See 7.)

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52. El-Katsha, Samiha, Awatif Younis, Olfat El-Sabie, and Ahmed Hussein. "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Household Water Use in Two Egyptian Villages," Cairo Papers in Social Science 12 (1989): 1-96. Monograph 2. This monograph is a revised draft of a 1986 report by the Social Research Center of the American University in Cairo for the Ford Foundation. The objectives of the research were (1) to determine the patterns of women's behavior related to the handling and utilization of water and associated materials for household purposes and disposal of sullage; (2) to identify some linkages between behavioral patterns and the transmission of water-borne and water-washed diseases; (3) to seek an understanding of the cultural and household economy contexts within which the behavioral patterns find their rationale; (4) to determine present environmental sanitary conditions, at both the village and the household levels; and (5) to investigate the extent to which women understand the mechanisms of disease transmission. The research was conducted in two villages in Menufia governorate, located approximately seventy kilometers north of Cairo. 53. El Safty, Madiha, Monte Palmer, and Mark Kennedy. "An Analytic Index of Survey Research in Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science 8 (1985): 267-282. Monographs 1 and 2. (See 8.) 54. El-Solh, Camillia Fawzi. "Migration and the Selectivity of Change: Egyptian Peasant W o m e n in I r a q , " Peuples Mediterraneens 31/32 (1985): 243-258. In 1975, the governments of Iraq and Egypt signed a bilateral agreement according to which Egyptian peasant families would be resettled permanently in Iraq. The Iraqi government would shoulder all traveling expenses and provide the families with free housing and the indefinite lease to a plot of land, which each family would be allowed to cultivate as an individual holding. One hundred settlers and their families, recruited from Lower, Middle, and Upper Egypt, arrived a year later in the Khalsa Settlement, which the Iraqi authorities had built for them thirty-six miles south of Baghdad. In this article the author discusses the economic role and status of the Egyptian peasant women in Khalsa and the opportunities they took advantage of in this resettlement. A majority of Egyptian families used this opportunity to improve their standard of living. Economic self-interest is more often accorded priority, although the fiction of adhering to valued customs is upheld. This pattern is particularly exemplified by the Egyptian peasant women in the Khalsa settlement.

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55. Fahim, Hussein M. "Change in Religion in a Resettled Nubian Community." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins and Saad Eddin Ibrahim. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1985, pp. 455-467. In dealing with the problem of religion in Middle Eastern communities, actual practices should be presented, described, and analyzed. There is need for data that reflect observed behavior. It is from this anthropological point of view that this study deals with changes in religion in the Muslim Nubian community of Kanuba (pseudonym). Kanuba, one of the 1934 Nubian settlements in Daraw, some thirty miles north of Aswan, was chosen in 1963 by the Social Research Center of the American University in Cairo for a community study aimed at investigating the effects of resettlement on traditional patterns of Nubian culture and society. Limited resettlement of Nubians had occurred voluntarily as one solution to economic hardships resulting from the gradual inundation of many parts of Nubia following the 1902 construction and subsequent heightening of the Aswan Dam in 1912 and 1933. This chapter represents part of an ongoing analysis of the Kanuba material collected during a two-year period of resident fieldwork (1963 and 1964). The main theoretical proposition of the study is that resettlement has resulted in more contact and communication between Nubians and non-Nubian communities, with consequent modification of some aspects of the traditional Nubian way of life. Cultural changes do not occur in isolation; thus, the changing conditions within Kanuba have directly or indirectly affected the community's religious system. The transformation of traditional religious beliefs and practices in a Muslim community that is undergoing change, which results from accelerated modernization brought about by resettlement, is the major issue analyzed in this study. 56. Fakhouri, Hani. Kafr El-Elow: An Egyptian Village in Transition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. 134 pp. The focus of this study is the manner in which industrialization and urbanization have affected social institutions in Kafr El-Elow— how the village community managed to borrow and then integrate the new traits into a relatively peasant culture. The author examines the ways in which villagers earn their living and covers the kinship organization that has prevailed since the village community was established in the mid-eighteenth century and that has produced a cohesive network of social relationships based on intermarriage. Islam, the all-pervasive religious force, is discussed as an institution, and the

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author makes observations regarding its influence on the villagers' behavior. The importance of formal education in the community is analyzed, particularly in terms of its effect in generating a new spirit of competition among the villagers. We see how the villagers of Kafr El-Elow have assumed a new political identity, that is, how the village is being integrated into a larger political unit such as the state. 57. Finnish International Development Agency. "Memorandum on W o m e n ' s Issues for Planning of the Second Phase of the Primary Health Care Project in Beni Suef." Helsinki, Finnish International Development Agency, 1992. Mimeographed. 14 pp. T h e data f o r this m e m o r a n d u m on w o m e n ' s issues in Egypt were collected d u r i n g a three-week mission to Egypt in December 1991. The purpose of the visit was to prepare a project document for phase two of the Primary Health Care Program in Beni Suef governorate. This study was prepared as background material in preparation for studies on women in the target areas. It discusses women's general situation and the forces that affect them. 5 8 . G a d a l l a , S a a d M. Is There Hope? Fertility and Family Planning

in a

Rural Egyptian Community. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1978. 259 pp. In conducting this research project, the Social Research Center adopted a long-term approach for studying in-depth the changes that can occur in the reproductive norms a n d fertility p e r f o r m a n c e of selected populations affected in different degrees by social, economic, and cultural changes in Egypt. For this purpose, the center chose communities in several governorates in Egypt on the basis of differences in cultural patterns and community size and among primarily rural areas, semiurban communities, and fully urbanized areas. This study is based on data collected during the first stage of the center's research project in a community selected to exemplify rural life in the Nile Delta. T h e community consists of three adjacent villages (Shanawan, Kafr Shanawan, and Kafr El Amra) in Menufia gove r n o r a t e . T h e research, c o n d u c t e d f r o m July 1969 t h r o u g h J u n e 1970, included (1) a survey of 3,398 households comprising the total populations of the three villages; (2) a survey of the fertility history of all women ever married in the villages (4,403); (3) a sociological survey of factors affecting fertility a n d family p l a n n i n g behavior of a probability sample of 457 currently married women (and their husbands), who represented 15.7 percent of all married women u n d e r age fifty in the surveyed households; and (4) a community study to collect basic information on the cultural context of each village and of the governorate as a whole.

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5 9 . Gadalla, Saad M., Nazek Nosseir, a n d D u f f G. G i l l e s p i e . "Household Distribution of Contraceptives in Rural Egypt," Studies in Family Planning 11 (1980): 105-113. The study was designed to test rapidly a household contraceptive distribution system, comparing the eligible population's contraceptive use before and after the initiation of household distribution. Almost twenty-one thousand women (ages fifteen through forty-four) were interviewed in early 1977, just before the distribution of contraceptives, and were reinterviewed in late 1977. The delivery system was tested in the governorate of Menufia. A 45 percent increase in contraceptive prevalence occurred as a result of the distribution through the rural health units. Modifications in the mix of contraceptives and inclusion of a health and nutrition component were suggested, and it was recommended that the project cover the entire governorate of Menufia. 60. Gamal Eddine, Nadia, and Mohamed Saied Heikal. "Educational Needs of Illiterate Rural Women: A Case Study in Barahamh and Qualaa Villages, Q e n a Governorate." Cairo, Regional Center for Illiteracy, 1988. Mimeographed. 102 pp. This study presents the educational needs of rural women in order to improve their knowledge in various domains so that they can exercise their full potential influence in the economic sector and the development of the country. 6 1 . G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e o f Islam on W o m e n - i n Development Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, Canadian International Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 62. Gran, Judith. "Impact of the World Market on Egyptian Women," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 58 (1977): 3-7. This article follows Michel Kamel's definition of the petit bourgeoisie in the Arab world as comprising "the entire small-scale productive sector," that is, "poor peasants, small landowners and tenants, artisans and owners of small workshops," as well as, by extension, "small merchants, public service employees, the great majority of functionaries, officers and other military personnel . . . students and finally, intellectuals" (Michel Kamel, "La Politique et Ideologique de Petite Bourgeoisie dans le Monde Arab" [The politics and ideology of the petit bourgeoisie in the Arab world] in Renaissance du Monde Arabe, e d i t e d by A. A b d e l - M a l e k , A. A. B e l a l , a n d H. H a n a f i . Gembloux: Duculot, 1972). This definition, however, fails to distinguish between the precapitalist segment, which would include many

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peasants, artisans, and merchants—those who are involved in economic activity without reference to the world market—and the capitalist segment, whose economic functions can be referred to the world market. The article deals only with the latter segment and with the urban, as opposed to the rural, petit bourgeoisie. The terms petit bourgeoisie and lower middle class are used interchangeably. 63. Hammam, Mona. "Labor Migration and the Sexual Division of Labor," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 95 (1981): 5-11. Within the Arab world, women are entering the wage labor force in increasing numbers. The extent of their participation depends upon a variety of social and economic forces that reflect the uneven rate by which each society has been integrated into the world market. In every case, though, the sexual division of labor within the household affects, and is affected by, the expansion of the wage labor market and women's absorption into it. In the present era this dynamic has intensified on a regional level, as newly rich oil-producing states draw millions of workers from elsewhere in the Arab world and beyond. The framework for this study recognizes the structurally uniform, mutually reinforced functional relationships that exist between household subsistence production and income-earning activities in the formal sector, on the one hand, and wage employment in the informal, capitalist sector, on the other. This continuum is encompassed within the total social and sexual division of labor. It reveals the often invisible, certainly underrepresented, and generally unacknowledged role women play under conditions of capitalist development in the realization of surplus value. 64. Harik, Iliya. The Political Mobilization of Peasants: A Study of an Egyptian Community. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974. 309 pp. This study—which focuses intensively and informally on a particular village in Egypt—illuminates a larger milieu of concern for those who wish to enlarge their understanding of the center-village interaction in Egypt, in the Middle East, and elsewhere as peasant village societies are incorporated into more complex and dynamic sociopolitical systems. At its core, this work portrays the response of a particular village to the revolution. The work is "systematic"—that is, it is ordered by a deliberate and defensible mode of analysis—but the product is more than an abstract set of survey research findings. It is palpable knowledge.

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True to his methodological commitment, the author makes no generalizations about the response to the revolutionary movement in Egypt's four thousand other villages. Yet his study is suggestive. It inspires surmises about more general patterns of change and development than those portrayed, and it lays a foundation of method and perspective that could convert those surmises into determinate knowledge. The study offers useful insights into the large and ubiquitous problem of relations between central governments with modernizing ideologies and social change strategies (and stratagems) and the peasant communities at which such ideologies and strategies are aimed. In this study, one is exposed not only to the village but to the village-in-context, which is a splendidly germane way of perceiving what happens—what can happen under certain conditions—to the ideas, aims, and efforts that emanate from the center as they reach their intended targets. 65. Harik, Iliya, and Susan Randolph. Distribution of Land, Employment, and Income in Rural Egypt. Ithaca: Center for International Studies, Cornell University, 1979. 166 pp. An examination of the labor force in rural areas will enable us to determine, or at least to gain an idea of, various income streams as well as help us to understand the occupational composition of the population. Those who are only partially employed in agriculture or who are not employed in agricultural occupations need to be considered. The authors discuss incomes on the basis of complete expenditure data and relate them to various occupational groups. In conclusion, they consider the achievements and limitations of agrarian reform and address areas in which policy could have a positive impact on the situation of the rural poor. 66. Hassan, Naima A. "Studies on the Role of Women in Better Family Living and Community Development with Special Reference to Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Cairo University, 1985. 137 pp. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of rural women in various agricultural operations—including crop production, animal husbandry, poultry, and small-scale agro-industries—which have a direct impact on family income and the standard of living. The author examines the correlation between additional income of females and certain key independent variables such as family size, n u m b e r of e d u c a t e d children, and a m o u n t of m o d e r n household equipment. The study concludes by identifying the needs of rural women and suggesting various policy options to meet those needs.

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67. H e l a l i , A h l a m M o u s t a f a . "Study of S o m e D i m e n s i o n s of Organized Women's Activities in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1989. 157 pp. The improvement of societies, and of rural ones in particular, depends upon the range and degree of the members' participation in making such improvements. In Egypt, the planners of development programs have considered women in the process of development by encouraging them to be members of organizations and to participate in c o m m u n i t y projects. T h e object of this study is to analyze the nature of rural female participation, their motives for participation in development projects, the fields of such participation, major social factors that affect the degree of participation, the nature of benefits for rural females, major social factors that affect the benefits, and the relationship between rural female participation a n d their benefits from the projects. 68. Helmy, Enayat, and Kamilia Shoukry. "Promotion of W o m e n ' s R o l e in F o o d P r o d u c t i o n : D r a f t T e r m i n a l R e p o r t . " C a i r o , Cooperation Project Between the Egyptian and N e t h e r l a n d s G o v e r n m e n t s a n d the Food a n d Agriculture Organization, 1991. Mimeographed. 25 pp. The project's aims are to develop, test, and evaluate an experimental a p p r o a c h to multiple socioeconomic activities. T h e implementation environment faced unfavorable conditions at the beginning, mainly because most of the rural female beneficiaries lacked experience in dealing with different institutions and authorities such as banks and technical and local governmental staffs. Also, a majority of the needy rural women had never previously established or participated in organized private enterprises. But, through an appropriate policy and a studied plan, encouraging results were obtained during the execution of the three-year project. 69. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Defis de la Vie Moderne: le Cas de l'Egypte" (Muslim Women Facing the Challenges of Modern Life: The Case of Egypt). In Les Femmes Musulmanes a I'ere des Islamismes, edited by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: C e n t r e Maghrebin de Recherche et d'lnformation, 1985, pp. 95-102. This is an extract from an interview in the Egyptian daily newspaper Akhbar El Youm, conducted by Moustafa Mahmoud on August 26, 1985. T h e interview deals with questions regarding women and Muslim life in Egyptian society. Topics discussed include sex roles, division of labor, employment of women, sex segregation, education and veiling, family, child care, and marriage.

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7 0 . H o f f m a n - L a d d , V a l e r i e J . " P o l e m i c s on the Modesty and Segregation of Women in Contemporary Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19 (1987): 23-50. This article examines the arguments and concepts that surround the modesty and segregation o f women in contemporary Egypt, based on an e x a m i n a t i o n o f popular literature and the media, as well as the implications o f these ideas for the role of women. It should be noted that the study was done by a Western researcher; hence, it carries a particular perspective on women and Islam. 71. Holmboe-Ottesen, Gerd, Ophelia Mascarenhas, and Margareta W a n d e l . " W o m e n ' s R o l e in F o o d P r o d u c t i o n a n d N u t r i t i o n : Implications for Their Quality of Life," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 8 - 1 5 . The authors review the literature on the subject of how women's work within the food chain may affect their nutritional status and other aspects of their lives. They point out the discrimination against women that exists in food and work allocation: Women often work harder and have greater energy expenditures than men, but they receive less food. In this context it is necessary to take into account the possible conflict that may arise between women's expected role in providing nutrition to their families and opportunities for improving their own quality of life. 7 2 . Hopkins, Nicholas S. " T h e Political E c o n o m y o f Two Arab Villages." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins and Saad Eddin Ibrahim. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1985, pp. 307-321. This chapter analyzes the political economy of two Arab villages, one in northern Tunisia and the other in Upper Egypt. First, the geographical setting of the villages is put into context; then, the patterns of agriculture, in particular the social organization of agricultural production, are analyzed. These data are followed by an examination of the social organization of the village in general, with emphasis on the problem of the emergence of class and the significance of political action. The discussion stresses common features in the two cases, illustrating the process of agrarian transition within the Arab world. Not only the similarities but also the contrasts between the two cases help us see the general pattern. The methodology is thus a comparative one, in which the distinctive elements of each case are used to clarify obscure parts of the other and features of both contribute to the development of a general theory.

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73. Hopkins, Nicholas S. Agrarian Transformation in Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1988. 215 pp. This is an analytical study of the labor process in Egyptian agriculture that is based on a detailed field study of the social organization of agriculture in one village. The book describes the institutions of agriculture such as property rights a n d dispute settlement, the place of the household in the organization of hired and family labor, and the role of mechanization and irrigation. The growing interest within economic anthropology in the systems of production stands behind the direction of this book and its theoretical options. The detailed analysis of systems of production at the local level provides an essential complement to the economic studies of development. Although sensitive to the questions of economists and development specialists, the author employs a certain anthropological tradition and approach. The goal of this study is to delineate the present social organization of agricultural production in Egypt. The emphasis is on the household and the family as a unit of production and as one way of organizing the productive work of agriculture. Agricultural mechanization, which stimulates changes in the organization of the labor process in agriculture, is a major new element in existing rural conditions. By fragmenting the labor process, mechanization transforms it. All of this occurs within the context of a village social order, which organizes land tenure and access to economic resources. The book traces the interaction between individual strategies and strivings on the one hand and the constraints of the system itself on the other. 74. Hopkins, Nicholas S., Abderrahman El-Haydery, Salah El-Zoghby, Hanaa Singer, Hanen Sabea, Hania Sholkami, Reem Saad, and Ziad Ahmed Bahaa El-Din. "Participation and Community in the Egyptian New Lands: The Case of South Tahrir," Cairo Papers in Social Science 11 (1988): 1-127. Monograph 1. This study describes the results of research carried out by the Desert Development Center of the American University in Cairo in the summer of 1986. It deals with the processes of community formation and local participation in the institutional structure of the New Lands villages. T h e purpose of the research was to refine existing knowledge of this structure in the New Lands in order to evaluate the success of different experiments in creating viable h u m a n settlements and communities in the desert areas of Egypt. The research was carried out in three villages in South Tahrir—Omar Makram, Baghdad, a n d Ma'raka. T h e r e s e a r c h e r s were i n t e r e s t e d in evaluating t h e desert-area residents' participation in the institutions of government and of the community.

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75. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. (See 11.) 76. Ibrahim, Barbara Lethem. "Family Strategies: A Perspective on Women's Entry to the Labor Force in Egypt." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins and Saad Eddin I b r a h i m . Cairo: A m e r i c a n University in Cairo Press, 1985, pp. 257-268. As is the case in many other countries, family households are the fundamental units of social and economic behavior in Egypt. This simple fact is sometimes overlooked in the labor market and in employment studies that focus on behavior at an aggregate level. It is within the family that the society-level access to education, j o b s , health care, and nutrition is distributed to individuals. Families provide both the setting and the procedures for allocating resources a m o n g m e m b e r s . T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m i n e s the p h e n o m e n o n o f women's labor force participation in Egypt from the perspective of strategies adopted within families to meet the families' perceived needs. What circumstances determine the likelihood of wives, daughters, or underage children entering the labor force? The utility of a concept of family strategies is illustrated with observational and interview data collected in 1977 and 1978 among fifty Cairene women working at unskilled production jobs in public-sector factories. Development: 7 7 . I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r O f f i c e . Women in Rural Critical Issues. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1980. 51 pp. (See 12.) 7 8 . J e n n i n g s , A n n e Margaret. "Power and I n f l u e n c e : W o m e n ' s Associations in an Egyptian Nubian Village." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Riverside, 1985. 207 pp. This dissertation uses the results of field research in a Nubian village to question the validity of the stereotype and widely accepted model of Muslim society in which the men dominate and women are seen as the subservient (passive) party. The author finds that the two genders are interdependent and complementary. Sexual segregation, seemingly detrimental to women, does not exclude them from important decisionmaking but gives the sexes differential control over separate aspects of village life. The social networks developed by women from childhood on allow them to acquire information through which they exercise significant social and economic control in both male and female spheres.

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79. K e d d i e , Nikki R. " P r o b l e m s in t h e Study of M i d d l e E a s t e r n W o m e n , " International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 ( 1 9 7 9 ) : 225-240. (See 13.) 80. Kelly, Allen C., Atef M. K h a l i f a , a n d M. N a b i l El-Khorazaty. Population and Development in Rural Egypt. D u r h a m : Duke University Press, 1982. 278 pp. T h e r e has b e e n considerable d e b a t e in Egypt over how m u c h emphasis should be attached to the family p l a n n i n g a p p r o a c h versus t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a p p r o a c h to p o p u l a t i o n policy. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m u c h of this d i a l o g u e has b e e n cast in a n e i t h e r - o r f r a m e w o r k . However, the p e n d u l u m is now swinging toward a m o r e balanced perspective in which the j o i n t use—and even the integration—of these two a p p r o a c h e s is in vogue. Kelly a n d his c o a u t h o r s t e n d to agree with this position. They argue that this balanced a p p r o a c h to population policy currently r e p r e s e n t s the optimal strategy for rural EgyptIn an attempt to provide quantitative evidence o n the relationships a m o n g e c o n o m i c , social, a n d d e m o g r a p h i c changes, several m a j o r data-collection efforts have b e e n m a d e f o r b o t h the u r b a n a n d rural areas of Egypt. T h e time is ripe to use these h o u s e h o l d survey data to identify some of the underlying relationships between family size a n d economic a n d social conditions, with the specific objective of providing policy r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s that are consistent with national p o p u l a t i o n a n d socioeconomic objectives. T h e main research findings can be readily summarized by considering f o u r b r o a d questions about rural Egypt that follow f r o m the research themes: (1) Why are families so large? (2) H o w will s o c i o e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t affect population growth? (3) Why are the contraceptive prevalence rates so low? (4) What is the likely impact of programs that integrate family p l a n n i n g a n d socioeconomic development? 81. Khafagy, Fatma. "Women a n d Labor Migration: O n e Village in Egypt," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 17-21. This article describes the effects of male emigration on the division of labor in the village of El-Qabbabat, fifty kilometers n o r t h of C a i r o . T h e r o l e of wives h a s c h a n g e d c o n s i d e r a b l y , with a d d e d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , i n c r e a s e d w o r k l o a d , a n d m o r e p o w e r ; this h a s s t r e n g t h e n e d the husband-wife relationship as well as w o m e n ' s relationships with their children a n d in-laws. These new responsibilities have b e e n exercised largely in informal, r a t h e r than formal, organizations.

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82. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work and Status in Rural Egypt," National Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journals (1991): 38-52. It is common for women's work to be underrepresented in labor force statistics. Nowhere is this more a p p a r e n t than in the Middle East and North Africa, where women's official labor force participation rates are a m o n g the lowest in the world: 25 percent and 18 percent, respectively. Yet women do e n g a g e in productive as well as reproductive activities, and their work has important implications for their overall status, despite cultural ideals that attribute more importance to men in both the family and society. This article examines the nature and significance of women's work in rural Egypt and explores the implications of that work for women's status. What kinds of work are available to women in rural Egypt, and what is the relationship between women's work and women's status? T h e a u t h o r does n o t p r e t e n d to answer these questions f o r all of Egypt. Her attention is directed primarily to rural women in the gove r n o r a t e of B e n i Suef, w h e r e she c a r r i e d o u t a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l research on rural markets and marketing in the years 1981-1982 and again in 1984-1985. The author believes her findings from Beni Suef are not atypical for most of Egypt, where the seclusion of women is m o r e prevalent a n d w o m e n ' s participation in marketing activities appears to be restricted. 83. Lesch, Ann Mosely, and Earl L. Sullivan. "Women in Egypt: New R o l e s a n d R e a l i t i e s . " I n d i a n a p o l i s , U n i v e r s i t i e s F i e l d Staff International, 1986. Mimeographed. 9 pp. (See 14.) 84. Leslie, J o a n n e , Gretel H. Pelto, a n d Kathleen M. Rasmussen. "Nutrition of W o m e n in Developing Countries," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 4-7. This article highlights a n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t questions concerning the nutrition of women in developing countries. The aspects addressed fall into three subject areas: economic perspectives on the nutrition of women, the maternal depletion syndrome, and cultural perspectives on the nutrition of women. Some key questions concerning the nutrition of women in developing countries today follow. 1. What types of social settings present the greatest risk of malnutrition for women, and what is the social epidemiology of this malnutrition? 2. How do women's economic activities affect their nutritional status, particularly with r e f e r e n c e to the balance between energy output and income generation?

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3. W h a t are t h e p r i m a r y b a r r i e r s to w o m e n ' s utilization of health care services, and how do women's economic activities and other social roles affect their utilization for their children and also for themselves? 4. To what extent is the current primary health care emphasis on "self-help" a n d "community participation" compatible with the long work days and multiple economic and social roles of women? 5. What evidence supports the existence of a "maternal depletion syndrome," and what operational measures should be used to define it? 6. To what extent do cultural beliefs and expectations restrict the food intake of women relative to that of men, and to what extent are the gender differences evident in communities in which food resources are limited? 7. In explaining malnutrition in women, what is the relative importance of cultural beliefs and practices that influence intake compared to the role of activity patterns and the social circumstances that influence energy expenditure? 85. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for Anglophone Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 86. M c C a n n , B a r b a r a . " W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t : C a n a d i a n International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Program." Ottawa, McCann Consulting, 1988. Mimeographed. 106 pp. (See 16.) 87. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "The Zero-Sum Game: A F r a m e w o r k f o r E x a m i n i n g W o m e n a n d N u t r i t i o n , " Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 27-32. This article emphasizes the time a n d energy constraints on women who are the targets of programs and are expected to participate in them. It outlines a framework for examining women's roles in providing food and nutrition for their families and presents some of the problems faced by women in their social roles. The authors propose that more symposia are needed to explore the issues involved in making programs more effective for women. The first section of the article reviews women's resources and their contributions to the family's resources. This is followed by an examination of the biological, economic, and cultural roles in the lives of women that pertain to household food security, nutrition, growth, and development. T h e next section discusses the ways role conflicts and resource constraints

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act together to adversely affect nutrition and decrease women's participation in programs. The final section touches on the program and policy issues related to these conflicts. 8 8 . M e h d i , Abbas S a l i h . " M o d e r n i z a t i o n in T h r e e Egyptian Communities." Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1987. 141 pp. This dissertation examines the application of "modernization theory" to the structure and belief system of the family in Egypt, a predominantly Muslim society. With the use of survey data, censuses, and historical sources, the author examines the family structure and modernization beliefs in three Egyptian settlements that vary in their level of development. Although modernization theory has general application in Egypt, certain caveats must be recognized. First, the actual level o f modernism achieved by men and women varies. Women hold more modern family beliefs than men when equally exposed to modernizing forces. Second, the exposure to modernizing forces varies because of differing patterns of social interaction in communities that vary in their economy and development. Third, the manifestations of modernity may be more constrained for men than for women among those reared in traditional Islamic culture. 89. Mohsen, Safia K. "The Egyptian Woman: Between Modernity and Tradition." In Many Sisters: Women in Cross-Cultural Perspective, edited by Carolyn J . Mathiasson. New York: Free Press, 1974, pp. 37-58. (See 17.) 90. Morsy, Soheir A. "Sex Roles, Power, and Illness in an Egyptian Village," American Ethnologist 5 (1978): 137-150. The purpose of this article is to question the utility of studying sex roles in terms of individual strategies and competition for power. This is pursued within the context o f the study of health-related behavior. The incidence of folk illness and symptomatology derived from the Cornell Medical Index are utilized as indices of patterned power differentials associated with sex role e x p e c t a t i o n s in an Egyptian village. After an introductory discussion of the choice-selfinterest maximization model and definitions of power and authority, a short description of adult sex roles in the community is outlined. This is followed by a brief account of the folk illness uzr and a hypothesis linking the incidence of the affliction to power differentials. Finally, data that illustrate the patterned incidence of stress and illness as functions of asymmetrical power relations are presented; the indices that are independent of the folk medical system are employed to illuminate structural principles associated with perceived stress and subservient status.

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91. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural Women, Work, and Gender Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In "Women in Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine Taminian, Soheir A. Morsy, Zeinab B. El Bakri, and El-Wathiy M. Kameir. Providence: Berg Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-217. This comparative study of rural women in two Egyptian villages of the Nile Delta focuses on work, social position, and gender ideology in relation to the transformations in the Egyptian national and regional political economy. Informed by a holistic conception of work that transcends remunerative wage labor, it examines women's roles in production and social reproduction (cf. J u d i t h Tucker, "Egyptian Women in the Work Force," MERIP Reports 50 [1976]: 3-9; Olivia Harris and Kate Young, " E n g e n d e r e d Structures: S o m e Problems in the Analysis of Reproduction." In The Anthropology of Precapitalist Societies, e d i t e d by J . K h a n a n d J . L o b e r a . L o n d o n : Macmillan, 1984, pp. 109-147; L. Beneira and G. Sen, "Accumulation, Reproduction and Women's Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited," Signs 7(2) [1981]: 279-298; and Elizabeth Croll, " R u r a l P r o d u c t i o n and R e p r o d u c t i o n : S o c i a l i s t D e v e l o p m e n t Experiences." In Women's Work: Development and Division of Labor by Gender, edited by E. Leacock and H. Safa. South Hadley, Mass.: Bergin and Garvey, 1986, pp. 224-252). Fieldwork conducted in the villages of Fatiha and Bahiya during the mid-1970s and early 1980s, respectively, provided some of the data on which this study is based. Attention is focused on the social and material conditions and ideology that produce and reproduce the gender division of labor among local social collectivities as well as on male-female power relations in the communities. 92. Nawar, Isis, Saheir Nour, Mona Barakat, Madiha Taleyawi, Somia Hassan, Mowahib Ayyaid, and Salwa Said. "Profiles o f Egyptian Women." Alexandria, University of Alexandria, n.d. Mimeographed. 16 pp. (See 18.) 93. Nelson, Cynthia. "Public and Private Politics: Women in the Middle Eastern World," American Ethnologist 1 (1974): 551-563. The main questions examined in this article are: (1) What is the notion of power as used by ethnographers writing about nomadic and sedentary societies of the Middle East? (2) Given this notion o f power, what are the images of women and power in the domestic and public domains? (3) What are the epistemological consequences to ethnography if we rethink the notions of power and recognize the special features of power as a particular kind of social relation—reci-

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procity of influence—rather than as an embodied quality institutionalized in social structures? 94. Nelson, Cynthia, and Lucie Saunders. "An Exploratory Analysis of I n c o m e - G e n e r a t i n g S t r a t e g i e s in C o n t e m p o r a r y Rural Egypt." Working Paper no. 122. Cairo, American University in Cairo, 1986. Mimeographed. 28 pp. Two cases of income-generating strategies in rural Egypt are examined within the context of issues in development, particularly those that relate to women's status and power. The cases document the development of income-generating strategies, through local initiation in the first case and with outside encouragement in the second. These strategies differed in the type of commitment, capital requirements, responsibility, and training requirements. It is argued that over the long term, having funds enables women to participate in the decisionmaking process in a capitalist economy. 95. Nelson, Nici, ed. African Women in the Development Process. London: Frank Cass, 1981. 136 pp. Five of the eight chapters in this book deal with specific situations in which African women find themselves, ranging widely from sub-elite nurses in Zambia to the efforts of uneducated women in Nigeria to form a cooperative. Two chapters address the effect of development projects on women. As an anthropologist, the author feels analyses of objective conditions of development are important and necessary to delineate the circumstances under which women "march forward" rather than be "pulled backward." These articles attempt to provide this analysis for women within the African context. Three of the chapters are general in nature; two are theoretical. The first examines the nature and extent of women's participation in economic activities and the need to redefine economic activity to include production for use. The next considers current views on the division of labor in the extensive and intensive agriculture of subSaharan Africa and their implications for agricultural development. The third chapter is more practical; it examines the organizational and management difficulties that will be encountered by agencies that hire female project staff members and involve village women in community participation exercises. T h e remaining chapters are profiles o f women in different socioeconomic contexts. Two authors analyze a particular socioeconomic trend and its effect on women. The first of these critically examines the wholesale adoption of a Western model of medicine and nursing in Zambia. Problems arise because nurses are imperfectly socialized into Western-style ethics of medical care and feel ambiva-

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lence toward their work. The second is interested in the situation in which the wives of migrants find themselves in Lesotho and whether they view their seemingly independent marital life positively or negatively. The next chapter is a detailed examination of the potential implications for women's status and autonomy of a new government d e v e l o p m e n t policy o n l a n d a n d p r i v a t e h o u s i n g in a c o a s t a l Tanzanian community. The last two chapters take stock of two West African development projects. O n e author worked in a rice irrigation scheme in Gambia, and the other was on the project staff of an experimental integrated rural development project run by the University of Ife in Nigeria and examines the differential results of the initial failure to integrate women into the development project. 96. Network of Egyptian Professional W o m e n . Egyptian Women in Social Development: A Resource Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1988. 346 pp. T h e Network of Egyptian Professional Women (NEPW), an ad hoc group that serves in a volunteer capacity along with various visiting consultants, was established in January 1985. The main objective of NEPW was to investigate, expand, and create among women at the local, national, and international levels the following facilities: appropriate channels of communication, networking opportunities, professional advocacy, and expertise-building. T h e lack of sufficient i n f o r m a t i o n on Egyptian professional women with expertise in a variety of areas of social d e v e l o p m e n t prompted NEPW to create a resource guide that would serve as a roster. A preliminary model was developed for pretesting at the conference commemorating the end of the UN Decade for Women held in Nairobi in July 1985. T h e prototype included information on fifty professional Egyptian women active in the field of social development. Feedback permitted the group to upgrade the data-collection instrument and modify the final roster layout. This resource guide contains 174 entries, mainly from Cairo and Alexandria. An effort was also made to include entries f r o m other governorates. The guide has a built-in capacity for expansion into other fields in which Egyptian women are active. It also has the potential for computerization on a database system. 97. Palmer, Ingrid. "The Role of Women in Agrarian Reform and R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t L a n d , " Land Reform, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives (1979): 57-70. (See 19.) 98. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp.

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Structural adjustment, gender, and demographic issues are all of great concern to policymakers and scholars. T o date, however, their interaction has received insufficient attention. These interrelationships take on added importance in sub-Saharan Africa, where dashed hopes and falling real income levels were part of the so-called lost development decade of the 1980s. Sub-Saharan Africa is also the region where women play a very important role in family survival and often have primary responsibility for the production of food crops and trading activities. Fertility rates remain extremely high, as does the productive burden on women; child labor continues to play a key role in the family survival strategy; and economic policies and incentives associated with structural adjustment programs often attempt without success to increase living standards by emphasizing economic efficiency. This monograph addresses these issues by analyzing how structural adjustment policies affect women's relative economic position and, in turn, demographic trends. It also describes how gender and demographic considerations affect the economic efficiency (that is, success) of the structural adjustment policies. The author's concern is not to call attention to social injustices and to the need to rectify gender inequalities per se but to see that gender considerations are systematically taken into account in economic policies. She argues that structural adjustment policies and increased economic efficiency are unlikely to be achieved in sub-Sahran Africa or, indeed, anywhere unless gender differences in productive activities, resources, access to markets, family responsibilities, and so on are taken into consideration. 99. Palo, Achola O. "African Women in Rural Development: Research T r e n d s a n d Priorities." O L C P a p e r no. 12. Washington, D.C., Overseas Liaison Committee, 1976. Mimeographed. 39 pp. Neglect of the central role women have historically played in agriculture and f o o d production has resulted in the loss of this important human resource potential for developing countries. Palo criticizes researchers and politicians who assign, finance, and conduct research on African women within a "colonial and neocolonial context" in which sex role stratification is inherent. Such research is carried out with an academic point of view that ignores the daily realities faced by African women and that contains an inadequate notion of what African development entails. The author argues that, ultimately, developing countries should take responsibility for identifying their own specific priorities for research. She does, however, offer a list of general research areas relevant to African rural development. These include land access and use rights, allocation of labor, time management, domestic decision-

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making, j o b migration, agricultural training, women's participation in marketing and cooperatives, women's self-help groups, women's role in pastoral societies and marginal areas, family planning, nutrition, and health. 1 0 0 . Radwan, Samir, and Eddy L e e . Agrarian Change in Egypt: An Anatomy of Rural Poverty. L o n d o n : Croom Helm, 1985. 167 pp. As the title suggests, rather than being a pure country study, this book focuses on the anatomy of rural poverty as reflected in the case of Egypt. There is a twin objective: to develop a methodology for the analysis of poverty in a poor, agrarian economy and to illustrate the scope and limitations of this methodology through reference to the experience of Egypt over the past quarter century. The study is primarily centered around the results of a survey of a random sample of one thousand households in eighteen villages in Egypt carried out in February 1977. The purpose was threefold: (1) to provide up-to-date data on various aspects of development in rural Egypt; (2) to evaluate the impact of different policies on the agricultural sector in general and the rural poor in particular; and (3) to deduce the policy implications of the present situation. The orientation of this book is, therefore, different from previous efforts. The focus is on issues of poverty, inequality, and the conditions of employment in a poor, agrarian economy. An attempt is also made to contrast the picture of the agrarian structure of the 1970s with the subsequent developments that took place during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The period covered by the present survey represents a watershed, because it witnessed major changes that were to shape the agrarian structure in the 1980s. 101. Rasmussen, Kathleen M., and Jean-Pierre Habicht. "Malnutrition Among W o m e n : Indicators to Estimate P r e v a l e n c e , " Food and Nutrition Bulletin 11 (1987): 29-37. The availability of data about the extent of maternal malnutrition and its consequences for women, their children, and the rest of the family varies. Data on the birth weight of the newborn are rather extensive; those on the well-being of the breast-feeding child are becoming more readily available. Data are almost completely lacking, however, on consequences for the performance and survival of the mother throughout her life cycle or for those who depend on her in the family or in society at large. This article contributes to both shortterm and long-term efforts to help women and the societies in which they live to improve women's nutrition.

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102. Richards, Alan. Egypt's Agricultural Development, 1800-1980: Technical and Social Change. Boulder: Westview Press, 1982. 296 pp. (See 20.) 103. Rockefeller Foundation, and International Service for National Agricultural Research. "Women and Agriculture Technology: Relevance for Research." New York, Rockefeller Foundation, 1985. Mimeographed. Volume 1, 79 pp. An intercenter seminar of members of the Consultative Group o n I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h (CGIAR) was h e l d at t h e Rockefeller Conference Center in 1985. The objectives of the seminar were to assess current activities in the centers that were related to more effective integration of women in the modernization of agriculture and to seek possible ways to improve the p e r f o r m a n c e of the CGIAR system in this area. The seminar's structure sought to emphasize analytical presentations and discussion. A panel focused on the particular characteristics of the categories of female producers and beneficiaries of research. Also, specific issues were discussed by participants, and suggestions were prepared for future action. 104. R o e m b u r g , R e b e k k a V a n . "An Overview of W o m e n in Development in the Arab Republic of Egypt." Cairo, Royal Danish Embassy (DANIDA Section), 1991. Mimeographed. 43 pp. (See 21.) 105. Rogers, Barbara. The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980. 200 pp. (See 22.) 106. Rogers, Beatrice Lorge, and Nadia Youssef. "The Importance of Women's Involvement in Economic Activities in the Improvement of Child Nutrition and Health," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 33-41. Rogers and Youssef believe nutrition programs "need to recognize explicitly that nutritional problems often have their origins in social and economic systems, and that these problems can be solved only by bringing about changes in these systems, particularly at the household level." They state that social services are suffering f r o m dwindling government resources in developing countries and stress that women must draw u p o n their own resources to improve their nutritional and health status. Their proposals promote not only more e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p f o r w o m e n b u t also o r g a n i z a t i o n s of w o m e n , including unions. They also discuss the development of cooperative child care,

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which would help women to conserve some of their resources. T h e purposes of this article are to outline the major reasons nutrition and health care programs should include a focus on income generation for women, to describe some examples of women's groups organized for economic purposes that were also successful forums for nutrition and health education, and to identify the major issues in designing and implementing such programs, including accommodating child care needs. 107. Rugh, Andrea. "WID Projects in Egypt: Final Report." Cairo, U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t (USAID), 1 9 7 9 . M i m e o graphed. 80 pp. This report contains information solicited by USAID on the following: 1. A survey of the available literature on Middle Eastern women, particularly Egyptian women 2. A list of existing Egyptian women's organizations and some of their functions 3. A basic list of women leaders active in decisionmaking 4. An evaluation o f the impact o f selected USAID projects on women 5. A framework for planning women's programs in Egypt, with recommendations T h e r e p o r t , t h e r e f o r e , ( 1 ) a t t e m p t s to raise some o f the issues involved in planning women's programs, (2) indicates the special circumstances that exist in Egypt, (3) describes some of the varieties of types within the group "women," (4) suggests an approach to planning that might be appropriate, (5) identifies particular problem areas, and (6) r e c o m m e n d s specific projects that might form the nucleus of a comprehensive program for women in Egypt. 108. Rugh, Andrea B. Family in Contemporary Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984. 305 pp. (See 23.) 109. Sayigh, Rosemary. "Roles and F u n c t i o n s o f Arab W o m e n : A Reappraisal," Arab Studies Quarterly 3 (1981): 2 5 8 - 2 7 4 . This article takes a close look at the "Orientalist" approach, its reflections in Arab thinking, and some recent findings that help to put the question of Arab women into a different framework from the conventional comparison with the West. T h e first part of the article explores the hypothesis that Western interest in Arab women has often been directly related to political frustration by examining two

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Orientalist works. The second part suggests the broad lines of a new approach to the roles and functions of Arab women, drawing upon recent anthropological studies, research on feminist theory, and the author's own work among Palestinians in Lebanon. 110. S t a u t h , G e o r g . " C a p i t a l i s t F a r m i n g and Small P e a s a n t Households in Egypt" and "Commoditization and the Small Peasant Household in Egypt." In The Rural Middle East: Peasant Lives and Modes of Production, edited by Kathy Glavanis and Pandeli Glavanis. London: Zed Books, 1990, pp. 122-141 and pp. 142-161. The author wants to show how the organization of the production process in a market-oriented agricultural production system determines the structure of income of a subsistence-oriented, small peasant household in rural Egypt. The problem posed here is not one o f separation or m e a s u r e m e n t o f transfers between " d i f f e r e n t " spheres of the economy; rather, it is one of the distinction of various types of transactions. A better understanding of the relations between the household sector and the market sector would have to include not only the "quantitative" mechanisms of their interactions but also the underlying structures, which ultimately define the quality of life and work relations in the different sectors. The households observed here are those of the Fellahin in a village in Egypt, and the production system is the Izba system as applied in Egyptian (capitalist) farming. T h e analysis includes the issue of commoditization among small peasant households in rural Egypt and the factors hindering its further development. It also compares small peasant household production in Egypt with simple commodity production in agriculture within the context of advanced capitalist society. This comparison is made in order to highlight the specificity of the productive enterprise in Egypt and the constraints on its transformation into simple commodity production or capitalist agriculture. 111. Sullivan, Earl L. Women in Egyptian Public Life. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 223 pp. (See 24.) 112. Toth, James. "Pride, Purdah, or Paychecks: What Maintains the Gender Division of Labor in Rural Egypt," International fournal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 213-236. An examination of the gender division of labor in the Middle East is followed by an assessment of how Egyptian farm work functions on the basis of gender. Discussion focuses on why such divisions continue and why, in the last quarter of the twentieth century, supposedly clear lines of separation have become so confused. The strict boundary between men's and women's work is maintained first as a

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cultural distinction and then as an economic determinant; the substitution o f women for men is encouraged, or men are paid women's wages when the absence of employment alternatives pushes them to accept "feminine" employment. Rural Egyptian women have clearly c o n t r i b u t e d significant amounts o f labor to the production of food and exports. When economic diversification permitted unskilled male farm laborers to leave agricultural employment for migrant labor, construction j o b s , and overseas work, women replaced them, although the low esteem and low wages such employment generates were transferred to them. Prior to the oil boom, employers substituted women for men in order to reduce their labor costs. Women's options were even more restricted than men's, and they were less able to resist low wages. In Egypt, with its ethnic homogeneity, gender played the divide-and-conquer role that race and nationality play in other capitalist countries. Today, however, the options for women are far greater than before, and Egyptians of both sexes eagerly thwart the gender division o f rural labor in order to realize better futures and better family incomes. 113. United Nations Children's Fund. An Annotated Bibliography on the Children of Egypt. Cairo: United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. 174 pp. (See 25.) 1 1 4 . United Nations Children's Fund. "Women's Development Program: Position Paper." New York, United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. This is a position paper on the activities of the UNICEF Women's Development Program, prepared for discussion by members o f the Mid-Term Review Working Group. T h e paper gives a background of program activities since its inception in 1981, the 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 2 plan of operations, activities from 1989 to the present, major shortcomings, and the plan for the next two and a half years. T h e overall objective of the Women's Development Program is to improve the quality of life of poor female heads of households by improving their income levels, improving their practices and level of knowledge, and increasing their use of existing services and their participation in the activities available to them. 1 1 5 . U.S. Agency for International Development, Center for Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in M a n a g e m e n t . " W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., U . S . Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. This report summarizes the activities of the W o m e n in Social Services Workshop. T h e primary purpose of the workshop was to pro-

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vide m a n a g e m e n t training a n d thereby to increase the involvement of w o m e n in t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of p r o j e c t s t h a t create b e n e f i t s f o r o t h e r w o m e n . T h e w o r k s h o p f o c u s e d o n (1) individual a n d g r o u p b e h a v i o r a l a p p r o a c h e s to m a n a g e m e n t ; (2) specific m a n a g e m e n t tools, budgeting, a n d project planning; (3) technical aspects of family p l a n n i n g , h e a l t h , a n d w o m e n ' s i n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g p r o g r a m s ; (4) individual projects to be i m p l e m e n t e d in the participants' c o m m u n i ties; a n d (5) d e v e l o p m e n t of a support network f o r Egyptian women. T h e twenty-six women who a t t e n d e d the workshop represented family p l a n n i n g a n d social service organizations in communities t h r o u g h o u t Egypt. T h e w o m e n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e new materials a n d t r a i n i n g methodologies were i m p o r t a n t to their f u t u r e work. 116. U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . " W o m e n in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency f o r International Development (USAID), 1982. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 12 pp. This policy p a p e r demonstrates how w o m e n ' s c o n c e r n s in less developed countries can be integrated into the USAID p r o g r a m . T h e m a j o r challenge for economic development is the n e e d to make m o r e e f f i c i e n t use of scarce r e s o u r c e s . W o m e n a n d girls a r e r e s o u r c e s f o r d e v e l o p m e n t whose contribution is already substantial, yet their contribution would be dramatically e n h a n c e d if they were better educated, were in b e t t e r health, a n d h a d b e t t e r access to training, services, a n d jobs. T h e r e f o r e , to pursue a d e v e l o p m e n t p l a n n i n g strategy without a women-in-development focus would b e wasteful a n d selfd e f e a t i n g . T h e u n d e r l y i n g premise of this p a p e r is that a focus o n the e c o n o m i c participation of women is essential if USAID is to u n d e r take an effective strategy that p r o m o t e s balanced economic development. 117. Vavrus, Linda Gire, a n d Ron Cadieux. Women in Development: A Selected Annotated Bibliography and Resource Guide. East L a n s i n g : Michigan State University, 1980. 69 pp. This a n n o t a t e d bibliography on the subject of women in develo p m e n t is compiled f r o m the collection of the Non-Formal Education (NFE) I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r . All of t h e m a t e r i a l s h i g h l i g h t e d a r e b r o u g h t to the r e a d e r ' s a t t e n t i o n by p e r s o n s in the worldwide NFE network, thus giving a sense of the n u m b e r of individuals who are addressing this crucial area. Interest in the subject is characterized by a c o m m o n c o n c e r n f o r the dynamic situation of women interacting with changing socioeconomic conditions a n d processes. Special focus is given to the changing status, roles, relationships, a n d opportunities of p o o r w o m e n , particularly as these are a f f e c t e d by d e v e l o p m e n t policies a n d practices.

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118. Wahba, Mourad, ed. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Rural Women and Development. Cairo: Wahdan Press, 1980. 380 pp. (See 26.) 119. Wickering, Deborah. "Experience and Expression: Life Among Bedouin Women in South Sinai," Cairo Papers in Social Science 14 (1991): 1-70. Monograph 2. This m o n o g r a p h explores the dynamics o f social relations among the Tarabiin bedouin of the South Sinai. In particular, it asks how the bedouin women see themselves within the complex interpersonal relations that make up their lives. The author approaches this question from a theoretical perspective, which reflects the fact that her research is a blending of several elements, including phenomenology, hermeneutics, and the sociology of knowledge. T h e study focuses on how members of the Tarabiin community perceive themselves, and how this experience of "self' is expressed in their everyday work, play, and social relations. T h e author's participation in and interaction with the community and the process through which the results of this study emerged from the encounter between the author and the Tarabiin bedouin are themes that run throughout the text. 120. Young, Kate, ed. Women and Economic Development: Local, Regional, and National Planning Strategies. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988. 231 pp. The chapters in this volume were commissioned by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization's (UNESCO's) Division for Socio-Economic Analysis as part of its ongoing program of devising appropriate methodologies to capture data on social processes and economic change in both developed and developing countries. The program was particularly concerned with identifying useful socioeconomic indicators for development planning. The papers were first read at a UNESCO workshop held in San Marino in July 1985 and then were edited for publication as part of UNESCO's Socio-Economic Studies series. The method used to stimulate reflection at the national level on the issues of women's needs, appropriate indicators, and national planning was to ask a n u m b e r o f groups (research centers and women's organizations) in five countries to organize a national seminar on women's present level of incorporation in development and the steps needed to enhance this incorporation in the future. In some cases this led to original research being undertaken at the national level; in Togo, for example, the group carried out a nationallevel survey of women. In other countries a synthesis of a number of

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meetings on similar topics occurred, in addition to a national-level seminar. The papers are organized to meet UNESCO's request that recommendations be put forward on how women's concerns could be dealt with more systematically by planners. 121. Zenie-Ziegler, Wedad. In Search of Shadows: Conversations Egyptian Women. London: Zed Books, 1988. 140 pp. (See 27.)

with

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122. Abaza, Mona. "The Changing Image of Women in Rural Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science 10 (1987): 1-119 Monograph 3. (See 28.) 123. Abaza, Mona. "Feminist Debates and 'Traditional Feminism' of the Fellaha in Rural Egypt." Bielefeld, Germany, University of Bielefeld, Sociology of D e v e l o p m e n t Research C e n t r e , 1987. Mimeographed. 26 pp. (See 29.) 124. Abaza, Mona. "La Paysanne Egyptienne et le 'Feminisme Traditionnel'" (The Egyptian peasant and the "traditional feminism"), Peuples Mediterraneans 41/42 (1987): 135-151. (See 1.) 125. Abaza-Stauth, Mona. "Women Between Economic Liberalization and Social Deprivation: A Case Study in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, University of Durham, 1985. 211 pp. (See 32.) 126. Abdel Kader, Soha. Egyptian Women in a Changing Society, 1899-1987. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1987. 163 pp. (See 2.)

127. Abdel Monem, Fayza Mohamed. "The Social Position of the Rural Women in Different Social Levels." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1985. 419 pp. (See 34.) 128. Abu Nasr, Julinda, Nabi F. Khoury, and Henry T. Azzam, eds. Women, Employment, and Development in the Arab World. Berlin: Mouton Publishers, 1985. 143 pp. In light of the scarcity of research on this subject, the Institute for Women's Studies in the Arab World and the International Labour Office prepared this book to help fill the void. The book, which delineates the main determinants of women's productivity in some Arab countries, serves as a reference on Arab women's economic activities. 57

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It also provides quantitative a n d qualitative data that may be helpful to planners, policymakers, and researchers. T h e volume includes specific profiles of female labor force participation in L e b a n o n , Y e m e n Arab Republic, t h e Gulf states, a n d J o r d a n . It also includes a comparative study of the sex-role orientation of university students in Kuwait, Egypt, a n d L e b a n o n , a n d an overview c h a p t e r deals with basic levels a n d trends in f e m a l e labor force participation. A set of policy r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for m o r e effective integration of Arab women in development is provided. All of the c o u n t r y p r o f i l e s p r e s e n t quantitative d e s c r i p t i o n s of f e m a l e l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n rates u s i n g s o c i o - d e m o g r a p h i c variables a l o n g with i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of t h e existing t r e n d s a n d m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e sexes. T h e b o o k also describes labor f o r c e barriers to w o m e n ' s employment a n d existing policies aimed at p r o m o t i n g their integration in development. 129. Adams, R i c h a r d H., J r . " D e v e l o p m e n t a n d Structural C h a n g e in Rural Egypt, 1952 to 1982," World Development 13 (1985): 7 0 5 725. This study evaluates the changes that o c c u r r e d in rural Egypt between 1952 a n d 1982 in terms of a growth-conscious, poverty-orie n t e d d e f i n i t i o n of d e v e l o p m e n t . A c c o r d i n g to t h e study, developm e n t requires improvements in t h r e e indicators over time: poverty, inequality, a n d land a n d labor productivity. Using a variety of empirical data, the study demonstrates that each of these criteria has either stabilized o r improved in rural Egypt since 1952. T h e study, therefore, c o n c l u d e s that " d e v e l o p m e n t " has i n d e e d taken place in the countryside. However, the low rate of qualitative structural change in the basic factors of land a n d labor p r o d u c t i o n raises questions a b o u t the prospects f o r such development in the f u t u r e . 130. Adams, Richard H., J r . Development and Social Change in Rural Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 231 pp. T h e p u r p o s e of this study is to examine the interaction a m o n g local-level administrative staffs, peasant farmers, a n d the rural socioe c o n o m i c o r d e r a n d the effect of that interaction o n the course of agricultural development in two rural areas of Egypt. Since the 1952 revolution, the Egyptian state has created a wide variety of administrative organizations at the village level: agricultural cooperatives, village banks, village councils, and local political bodies. These institutions have b e e n c h a r g e d with the f o r m i d a b l e task of improving t h e economic, social, a n d political lives of peasant producers. Yet n o serious attempt has b e e n m a d e to analyze or evaluate their impact on the fabric of village life. How, f o r example, has the state tried to use these

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local-level institutions to raise the productivity and welfare o f farmers? With what results? How have these institutions interacted with different members of the rural periphery: rich farmers, small farmers, and landless peasants? What types o f rural power structures have affected the performance of these institutions? T h e main argument of this study provides a suitable framework for analyzing these and similar questions in a context that has relevance for other developing countries. According to this study, Egypt, like many other developing countries, has used local-level institutions to control agricultural production in order to tax it. Since 1952, the state's ability to supervise a considerable n e t outflow of resources from agriculture has produced a curious pattern o f "development without qualitative structural change" in the countryside. Development, in the sense of improvements in the levels of poverty, inequality, and productivity, has indeed occurred in rural Egypt, but these quantitative changes have not come about as a result of qualitative structural changes in the basic factors of production in Egyptian agriculture. O n the whole, the types of technological and institutional changes that have stimulated growth in land and labor productivity in other developing countries have largely bypassed Egypt. 131. Adams, Richard H., J r . "Worker Remittances and Inequality in Rural Egypt," Economic Development and Cultural Change 38 (1989): 4 5 71. This study analyzes the impact of international migration and remittances on the socioeconomic order in rural Egypt. T h e empirical findings show that age, marital status, employment, size of land farmed, and number of household males over age thirteen are all statistically related to an individual's decision to work abroad. Age, size of land farmed, employment as a "student," and number of household males over age thirteen are all negatively related to the decision to work abroad, whereas the influence of the other variables is positive. T h e study shows t h a t the r e m i t t a n c e e a r n i n g s o f m i g r a n t s abroad have had a negative impact on rural income distribution in Egypt. T h e data indicate that remittances worsened rural household i n c o m e d i s t r i b u t i o n — i n b o t h a g g r e g a t e and p e r capita t e r m s — b e c a u s e t h e y w e r e e a r n e d m a i n l y by u p p e r - i n c o m e v i l l a g e r s . R e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r h o u s e h o l d s are r a n k e d in terms o f gross income or per capita income, households in the top income quintile benefited the most from remittances. T h e s e findings thus tend to confirm the fact that international remittances can have a deleterious impact on rural income distribution because they are earned mainly by upper-income villagers.

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132. A d a m s , R i c h a r d H . , J r . " T h e E c o n o m i c U s e s a n d I m p a c t o f International Remittances in Rural Egypt," Economic Development and Cultural Change 39 (1991): 6 9 5 - 7 2 2 . T h e p u r p o s e of this article is to e x t e n d the d e b a t e over the use of international remittances by c o m p a r i n g the e x p e n d i t u r e behavior of a set of migrant h o u s e h o l d s with those of a control set o f nonmigrant h o u s e h o l d s . B e c a u s e all h o u s e h o l d s are s e p a r a t e d into quintile g r o u p s o n the basis of e x p e n d i t u r e or i n c o m e , it b e c o m e s possible to identify how the r e m i t t a n c e e a r n i n g s a f f e c t the c o n s u m p t i o n a n d i n v e s t m e n t b e h a v i o r o f d i f f e r e n t types o f m i g r a n t s : rich, m i d d l e i n c o m e , a n d p o o r . T h i s d i s a g g r e g a t e d view o f the i m p a c t of remittances will transcend those positions that merely decry their " u n p r o ductive" a n d "wasteful" impact. T h i s article is d i v i d e d into six sections. T h e first p r o v i d e s an overview of the data set. Section 2 presents the p r e d i c t e d i n c o m e a n d e x p e n d i t u r e f u n c t i o n s u s e d in analyzing m i g r a n t a n d n o n m i g r a n t behavior. Section 3 discusses the c h o i c e o f the f u n c t i o n a l f o r m f o r the m o d e l . Section 4 specifies a n d estimates the m o d e l . Section 5 presents the empirical results, a n d section 6 summarizes the main findings. 133. A h m e d , Iftikhar. " T e c h n o l o g y a n d Rural W o m e n in the T h i r d World," International Labour Review 122 (1983): 4 9 3 - 5 0 5 . This article b e g i n s with a brief empirical overview of the i m p a c t of technological c h a n g e o n rural w o m e n in the T h i r d World. It discusses the p r o b l e m of predicting the i m p a c t of such c h a n g e a n d the m e c h a n i s m s a n d causes of the f e m a l e labor d i s p l a c e m e n t that follows it. An attempt is also m a d e to assess the role of rural-factor imperfections in e x p l a i n i n g sex-based inequalities in access to m o d e r n inputs, technology, knowledge, a n d skills. T h e implications of these inequalities f o r the choice of techniques a n d allocation of resources are then analyzed. Finally, the s o c i o e c o n o m i c a n d technical c o n s t r a i n t s o n wider dissemination of technologies to rural w o m e n are identified at b o t h the h o u s e h o l d a n d the policy level. 1 3 4 . A n k e r , R i c h a r d . " F e m a l e L a b o u r F o r c e P a r t i c i p a t i o n in D e v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s : A Critique o f C u r r e n t D e f i n i t i o n s a n d D a t a Collection M e t h o d s , " International Labour Review 122 (1983): 7 0 9 - 7 2 2 . It is generally r e c o g n i z e d that the d a t a o n f e m a l e l a b o r f o r c e participation are inaccurate or, at the least, i n c o m p l e t e . T h e p r o b l e m is particularly acute in d e v e l o p i n g countries, where w o m e n are frequently p r e s e n t e d as economically inactive m e m b e r s of society, even t h o u g h their labor (especially a m o n g the p o o r ) is essential f o r their families' survival. A n u m b e r of c o n f e r e n c e s , commissions, a n d com-

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mittees have pointed out the shortcomings of female labor force data and have recommended that they be improved—that the important e c o n o m i c r o l e played by w o m e n be r e f l e c t e d in statistics (e.g. UN/ESCAP; United Nations, Sex-based Stereotypes, Sex Bases and National Data Systems. S T / E S A / S T A T / 9 9 . New York: United Nations, 1980). T h e International Labour Office has received its share of criticism for failing to report the full data on the participation of the female labor force. This article discusses the difficulties involved in obtaining accurate labor force data for women in the Third World f r o m the point of view of interviewers, respondents, and labor statisticians or economists. Suggestions are made regarding alternative definitions of the labor force and the survey questionnaire in order to circumvent some of these problems. Preliminary results f r o m a field study are presented to illustrate these points. 135. Anker, Richard, a n d Martha Anker. "Measuring the Female Labour Force in Egypt," International Labour Review 128 (1989): 511520. In this article, the authors look into the question of whether Egyptian women are as economically inactive as official statistics suggest. If the statistics are inaccurate, we must ask why this is so and how they can be improved. In the first section, the authors present the official labor force data for Egypt and indicate how recent changes in the p r o c e d u r e s a n d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s used by the Egyptian Central Agency f o r Public Mobilization a n d Statistics (CAPMAS) to collect these data have affected responses and, consequently, official estimates of the female labor force. The next section briefly describes the results of the methodological household survey conducted jointly by the International Labour Office a n d CAPMAS a n d discusses several potentially important ways to improve the data on the female labor force. 136. B a d r a n , H o d a . " W o m e n , P o p u l a t i o n , a n d I n t e g r a t e d Rural D e v e l o p m e n t . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at t h e s e m i n a r o n t h e Role of W o m e n in I n t e g r a t e d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t with E m p h a s i s o n Population Problems. Cairo, November 1974. 6 pp. (See 37.) 137. Blumberg, Rae Lesser. "Rural Women in Development: Veil of Invisibility, W o r l d of Work," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 3 (1979): 447-472. Recent evidence shows that the process of development has frequently resulted in increased economic marginalization of poor rural women in much of the Third World. Yet efforts aimed at incorporat-

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ing these poor n o n u r b a n women into development have been hampered by the "veil of invisibility" that hides their past and present conditions and contributions. This article formulates some hypotheses c o n c e r n i n g f e m a l e invisibility a n d productivity a n d contrasts the extant view of rural women as relatively unproductive with evidence drawn f r o m evolutionary history a n d data f r o m the UN microlevel studies. The former indicate that women were the primary producers in most pre-agrarian communities. T h e latter indicate that women continue to produce approximately half of the world's food, although there is wide regional variation. The article concludes with an analysis of the statistical biases and stereotypes that obscure these contributions and briefly indicates the cost of this invisibility to the countries involved as well as to the women themselves. 138. Boserup, Ester. "Population, the Status of Women, and Rural Development." In Rural Development and Population: Institutions and Policy, edited by Geoffrey McNicoll and Mead Cain. London: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 45-60. (See 40.) 139. Brink, Judy H. "Changing Extended Family Relationships in an Egyptian Village," Urban Anthropology 16 (1987): 133-149. Participation, observation, a n d interviews in a m o d e r n i z i n g Egyptian village revealed that the availability of wage labor and modern education for young people in rural areas has changed the nature of family relationships within the extended family. In early stages of development, older men lose power when their sons leave the family farm and enter wage labor. Older women, however, retain their position of power within t h e family, b e c a u s e t h e i r daughters-in-law remain in the h o m e u n d e r their authority. In later stages of development, when young women become educated and enter m o d e r n wage labor, older women lose power within the family as their daughtersin-law gain autonomy and decisionmaking ability. It is suggested that if a m a j o r i t y of r u r a l E g y p t i a n w o m e n b e c o m e e d u c a t e d a n d employed, a reversal of daughter-in-law and mother-in-law roles may occur, and the mother-in-law will lose her position of power and prestige within the extended family. 140. Brocas, Anne-Marie, Anne-Marie Cailloux, and Virgine Oget. Women and Social Security: Progress Towards Equality of Treatment. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990. 116 pp. (See 4.) 141. Burton, Michael L., and Douglas R. White. "Sexual Division of Labor in Agriculture," American Anthropologist 86 (1984): 568-583. Female contributions to agriculture decline with agricultural

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intensification. The authors formulate and test a theory of processes of agricultural intensification that explains a high proportion of the variation in female contributions to agriculture. Five variables show replicable effects across two or more regions of the world: n u m b e r of dry months, importance of domesticated animals to subsistence, use of the plow, crop type, and population density. Of these, the first two are the most powerful predictors of female agricultural contributions, whereas population density has only very weak effects. In this article t h e a u t h o r s d e v e l o p an ecological e x p l a n a t i o n f o r variations in female agricultural contributions. They focus on both of the issues that have motivated concern with the Boserup hypothesis: g e n d e r roles and processes of agricultural intensification. They tested a n d extended the explanation offered by Ester Boserup (Women's Role in Economic Development. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1970), adding variables for the importance of domesticated animals, crop type, and climate. In so doing, the authors reexamined anthropological thinking about the effects of tropical climate that cause significant female contributions to agriculture. 142. C e n t r e f o r E c o n o m i c a n d Financial R e s e a r c h Studies. "An A s s e s s m e n t of t h e E c o n o m i c s of I n c o m e - G e n e r a t i n g Activities Undertaken by Rural Women in Egypt." Cairo, Centre for Economic and Financial Research Studies, n.d. Mimeographed. 19 pp. + Annex. This report examines a project presented to the United Nations Children's Fund. T h e project includes three types of activities meant to enhance women's incomes: raising poultry, sheep, and goats, and using sewing machines. More recently, the idea of cattle breeding was considered. T h e project examines each type of activity in order to identify the volume a n d revenue of sales, costs of o p e r a t i n g such activity, size of the surplus generated within each activity, and levels of d e m a n d and the nature of market structure. 143. Commander, Simon, and Aly Abdullah Hadhoud. "From Labour S u r p l u s to L a b o u r Scarcity? T h e A g r i c u l t u r a l L a b o u r Market in Egypt," Development Policy Review 4 (1986): 161-180. T h i s article c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e a p p a r e n t s h i f t within t h e Egyptian economy from a condition of chronic labor surplus to one where a scarcity of male labor in the agricultural sector imposes a major constraint on production. T h e results are, for the most part, derived from a survey of a stratified sample in several villages in three Nile Delta governorates (Sharqiyya, Gharbiya, a n d Dakhaliya) in 1984. T h e article first analyzes recent trends in the national economy, with particular reference to their impact on the agricultural sector. A detailed discussion follows of both d e m a n d and supply-side factors

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that determine the use of labor in agriculture. The authors demonstrate that the supply of labor to the agricultural labor market has been principally constrained by the growth in nonfarm employment. However, the survey data are used to show that, despite increased tightness in the labor market as reflected by the wage trend, the labor market remains a nonclearing market. At the same time, increased use of female and child labor, as well as the wider adoption of agricultural machinery, has occurred. These changes have important implications for analyzing recent developments in the labor market. Finally, the likely longer-term consequences for labor absorption of current mechanization programs into agriculture are considered. 144. Deere, Carmen Diana, and Magdalena Leon de Leal. "Measuring Rural Women's Work and Class Position," Studies in Family Planning

10 (1979): 370-374. (See 45.)

145. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, U n i t e d Nations F o o d and Agriculture O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 9 8 9 . Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 146. Dixon, Ruth B. "Women in Agriculture: Counting the Labor Force in Developing Countries," Population and Development Review 8

(1982): 539-566.

Not only is domestic labor—a predominantly female activity in all societies—excluded from censuses and national accounts such as the gross national product, but women's work in the fields is excluded from the rural labor force statistics. In some countries, unpaid female family helpers in agriculture are systematically excluded, resulting in a consistent undercount of the agricultural labor force and an underestimation of female participation. In other countries, women appear and disappear in large numbers from one survey to the next. Problems of definition and procedure plague the collection of labor force statistics in almost all situations in industrialized and developing countries alike, for young and old, male and female. Yet women and children are disproportionately undercounted in most censuses for a number of reasons, some relating to the strict definitions of economic activity proposed in international guidelines and some to the selective application of these guidelines, as when farm wives are simply assumed not to be economically active. Because the extent of undercounting is not consistent across countries or even within countries over time, census-based labor force statistics form a

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shaky basis for analyzing international trends and variations. T h e examples cited suggest that the observed differences are often statistical artifacts rather than real behavioral patterns. 147. Dixon-Mueller, Ruth. Women's Work in Third World Agriculture. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1985. 151 pp. How can women's contribution as agricultural producers be measured? This study addresses a number of methodological issues that relate to the conceptualization, collection, and interpretation of indicators of the sexual division of labor in Third World agriculture. Intended as a guide to researchers and planners interested in questions of food policy and rural employment, the review has four purposes: 1. T o identify several distinct dimensions of the division o f labor in agricultural production, with differing methodological and policy implications 2. To illustrate, with examples from the literature, a variety of measurement techniques and indicators of gender differences in task specialization, access to farm resources, time use, productivity, returns to labor, and labor force participation 3. T o comment critically on the usefulness and reliability of information obtained by different methods of data collection and presentation 4. T o suggest some possible interpretations of the various indicators for agricultural and employment planning This study is part of a larger effort to construct meaningful social indicators for monitoring changes in the position of women in both industrialized and developing societies. It begins with a discussion of the sexual division of labor by activity and then moves to the uses of time, of productivity and returns to labor, and of labor force participation. 1 4 8 . Egypt, A r a b R e p u b l i c of, Ministry o f S o c i a l Affairs, a n d International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. (See 47.) 149. Egypt, Arab Republic of, Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS), and U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d (UNICEF). The Situation of Women in Egypt. Cairo: Shorouk Press, n.d. 51 pp. (See 6.)

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150. El-Banna, Ferial Mahmoud. "The Economic Role of Working Women in Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Zagazig University, 1985. 228 pp. (See 49.) 151. El Hamamsy, Laila S. " T h e Changing Role o f the Egyptian Woman," Middle East Forum 33 (1958): 24-28. (See 7.) 152. El-Katsha, Samiha, Awatif Younis, Olfat El-Sabie, and Ahmed Hussein. "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Household Water Use in Two Egyptian Villages," Cairo Papers in Social Science 12 (1989): 1-96. Monograph 2. (See 52.) 153. El Safty, Madiha, M o n t e Palmer, and Mark Kennedy. "An Analytic Index of Survey Research in Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science 8 (1985): 267-282. Monographs 1 and 2. (See 8.) 154. El-Solh, Camillia Fawzi. "Migration and the Selectivity o f Change: Egyptian Peasant Women in Iraq," Peuples Mediterraneens 31/32 (1985): 243-258. (See 54.) 155. Fahim, Hussein M. "Change in Religion in a Resettled Nubian Community." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins and Saad Eddin Ibrahim. American University in Cairo Press, 1985, p. 455-467. (See 55.) 156. Fakhouri, Hani. Kafr El-Elow: An Egyptian Village in Transition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. 134 pp. (See 56.) 157. Fernea, Elizabeth. "Women and Family in Development Plans in the Arab East," Journal of Asian and African Studies 21 (1986): 81— 88. The role of women and the family in economic development in the Middle East has often been misunderstood. One reason for this has been Western ethnocentrism. The diversity of women's situations has been ignored, including their agricultural and craft labor, their labor in the home, and their assumption of the role of head of household. Development plans to benefit women and the family must take into account a wide variety of economic arrangements and recognize the symbiosis between the formal and informal sectors. 158. Gadalla, Saad M. Is There Hope? Fertility and Family Planning in a Rural Egyptian Community. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1978. 259 pp. (See 58.)

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159. G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e of Islam on W o m e n - i n D e v e l o p m e n t Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 160. Ghai, D h a r a m , a n d Samir Radwan, eds. Agrarian Policies and Rural Poverty in Africa. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1983. 311 pp. This volume presents some results of the continuing work on rural poverty, employment, and agrarian systems being carried out by the International Labour Office within the framework of the World Employment Program. In contrast with the situation in Asia and Latin America, relatively little comparative work has b e e n d o n e on the issues of rural poverty, income distribution, and agrarian change in Africa. This is partly a result of the paucity of data on this subject. O n e of the objectives of the present volume is to help fill this gap in the knowledge and understanding of the process and results of rural development in African countries since independence. The country studies included here attempt to provide a quantitative and qualitative profile of rural poverty and income distribution and to evaluate the impact of state policies on them, especially with respect to land tenure, public expenditure, and resource extraction f r o m the rural areas. Given the large n u m b e r of countries in subSaharan Africa, it was difficult to select studies that would be completely representative of their diversity. Nevertheless, in choosing the case studies, an attempt was made to cover a wide range of production systems, agrarian structures, rates and patterns of growth, and strategies of structures of development. The results of these studies should, therefore, be of interest and relevance to most African countries. The contributors to this volume are aware of the constraints imposed by data limitations on analysis of the p a t t e r n of a n d changes in rural poverty a n d income distribution. Although the availability of additional data would n o d o u b t lead to revision of some of the results presented, evidence f r o m a n u m b e r of sources confirms the validity of the main conclusions of the study. 161. Glavanis, Kathy R.G. "Aspects of Non-Capitalist Social Relations in Rural Egypt: T h e Small Peasant Household in an Egyptian Delta Village." In Family and Work in Rural Societies: Perspectives on Non-Wage Labour, edited by N o r m a n Long. L o n d o n : Tavistock Publications, 1984, pp. 30-60. T h e a u t h o r examines social relations in a noncapitalist rural society in the context of small peasant households in rural Egypt.

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This examination is based on fieldwork in the Nile Delta. The chapter is divided into two major sections. The first attempts to demonstrate what the author calls the consolidation of the Egyptian peasant household, a noncapitalist form of production, following the 1952 revolution, and the major forces that have been responsible for this consolidation. The second section focuses on some of the forms of noncapitalist social relations that have helped to ensure the reproduction of the small peasant household, despite the increasing commoditization of the Egyptian countryside through the active intervention of the Egyptian state. 162. Goldschmidt-Clermont, Luisella. Economic Evaluations of Unpaid Household Work: Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1987. 213 pp. This book reviews evaluations of unpaid household work in Third World countries. Prior to this work, the number of studies that had been undertaken had been unknown. The author found forty such evaluations from Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. This treasure trove of information is the basis for the book. In the first half of the book, the author discusses the different methodological approaches used in economic evaluations of unpaid household work; this is essential reading for persons interested in this field. The discussion brings out the difficulties and advantages inherent in each method. The author clearly indicates, however, that she prefers output-based evaluations to input-based evaluations. The second part of the book contains a review of forty studies from developing countries. The emphasis is placed on a critical evaluation of the methodological approaches used in these studies, along with excerpts from the study results. These summaries are much more than an annotated bibliography and will undoubtedly become a major reference source. The main purpose of the study is methodological: to determine evaluation methods used and whether the experience gained suggests new ways of tackling evaluation. The second purpose is to gain some indication of the orders of magnitude of labor and production at stake in domestic activities versus market-oriented activities. The study includes domestic and related activities. It considers as "economic" all activities that use scarce resource labor in order to produce goods and services—i.e., activities outside the production boundary adopted in official statistics. The study reviews evaluations of productive activities that are infrequently evaluated in economic terms, regardless of the purpose (national accounting or other) for which the evaluations were made.

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163. Gran, Judith. "Impact of the World Market on Egyptian Women," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 58 (1977): 3-7. (See 62.) 164. Hammam, Mona. "Egypt's Working Women: Textile Workers of Chubra El-Kheima," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 82 (1979): 3-7. This research was conducted over a five-month period in 1975 as part of a larger study of the role of literacy in fostering liberation struggles among oppressed people. One hundred and forty workers were interviewed; of these, over a third were females and an equal proportion were illiterate. All illiterate workers were required by law to attend the literacy classes provided for them. Their promotions at work depended on their successful completion of these classes, and monetary incentives were used to encourage workers to attend and to complete their studies. 165. Hammam, Mona. "The Continuum in the Social Division of Labour Based on Sex and the Material Reproduction of Labour in Egypt: Review of USAID WID Strategy and Portfolio of Projects." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development, 1981. Mimeographed. 38 pp. The focus of the report is on the programming opportunities that draw women into productive employment and strengthen their access to sources of income. There is a clear recognition that women not only assume economic responsibility for household consumption needs through income-saving activities but are increasingly assuming financial responsibility as well, through informal-sector occupations or regular wage employment, to meet the family's heightened dependence on market goods for subsistence. Given the existing need to raise the household disposable income and savings potential—as reflected in part by increased levels of female participation in the labor force and in informal-sector occupations—the primary consideration is to ascertain where the aggregate demand for female labor exits and can be expanded within an overall employment strategy for Egypt. 166. Hammam, Mona. "Labor Migration and the Sexual Division of Labor," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 95 (1981): 5-11. (See 63.) 167. Hammam, Mona. "Capitalist Development, Family Division of Labor, and Migration in the Middle East." In Women's Work:

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Development and the Division of Labor by Gender, edited by Eleanor L e a c o c k and H e l e n I. Safa. S o u t h Hadley: B e r g i n and Garvey Publishers, 1986, pp. 158-173. The analytical framework recognizes the structural and functional linkages that exist among women's unpaid labor in the household, their economic participation in the informal sector, and the rate and extent of their absorption in the formal wage labor market. At the level of the household, women actively engage in the production of use values (simple commodities outside the sphere of market circulation) for the family's direct consumption and, occasionally, for exchange (mainly in the informal sector or local market). In the urban informal sector, women tend to dominate in personal, individualized services (as laundresses, domestic servants, seamstresses, midwives, soothsayers, etc.) and as petty producers and traders. In both sectors, women constitute a "reserve army of labor" and appear on the economic scene in a range of roles that elude adequate enumeration—as casual laborers, the marginally self-employed, seasonal workers, unpaid family workers, the unemployed, and so on. Like their male counterparts in this labor reserve, they serve to depress wages in the formal sector, thus yielding to the capitalist a higher rate of surplus value extraction. 168. Harik, Iliya. The Political Mobilization of Peasants: A Study of an Egyptian Community. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974. 309 pp. (See 64.) 169. Harik, Iliya, a n d Susan R a n d o l p h . Distribution of Land, Employment, and Income in Rural Egypt. Ithaca: Center for International Studies, .Cornell University, 1979. 166 pp. (See 65.) 170. Hassan, Naima A. "Studies on the Role of Women in Better Family Living and Community Development with Special Reference to Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Cairo University, 1985. 137 pp. (See 66.) 171. Hassanein, Laila M. " E x t e n s i o n T r a i n i n g Needs for Rural Women in Family Development Areas, Nobar Hamlets, Alexandria Governorate." Ph.D. diss., Alexandria University, 1986. 185 pp. T h e main objective of this research was to study the training needs of rural women in order to enhance their status and the development of the family. Based on responses of randomly selected rural women, the study found a high correlation between the female's (wife's) education and her participation in the decisionmaking process at home and on the farm. According to the results of this

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study, extension programs for wives in general are clearly i m p o r t a n t in increasing their u n d e r s t a n d i n g of their role in the social a n d econ o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t of the family. 172. Hassouna, Wafik A. "Education of W o m e n — F o r What?" Cairo Papers in Social Science 1 (1983): 52-57. M o n o g r a p h 1. Hassouna's manifesto, which advocates the education of women f o r responsible m o t h e r h o o d , challenges many assumptions of contemporary feminists, who have taken f o r granted that t h e r e is a positive correlation a m o n g education, w o m e n ' s labor force participation, a n d development. In fact, his views are in accord with new research findings f r o m o t h e r regions of the world, which d e m o n s t r a t e empirically that economic d e v e l o p m e n t does n o t necessarily entail high levels of female labor force participation. T h e a u t h o r begins with the r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t social p l a n n i n g o n a n y level s h o u l d t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t d e v e l o p m e n t (society's potential a n d technology) and the relationship of these factors to the status of women (social values). 173. H e l a l i , A h l a m M o u s t a f a . " S t u d y of S o m e D i m e n s i o n s of O r g a n i z e d W o m e n ' s Activities in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1989. 157 pp. (See 67.) 174. Helmy, Mona. "Les F e m m e s Musulmanes Face aux Défis d e la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l ' E g y p t e " ( M u s l i m W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s of M o d e r n L i f e : T h e Case of E g y p t ) . In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by F a t i m a H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin d e Recherche et d ' I n f o r m a t i o n , 1985, pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 175. Hijab, Nadia. Womanpower: The Arab Debate on Women at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. 176 pp. This b o o k portrays the Arab world—its society, economy, a n d politics—through an e x a m i n a t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t d e b a t e over Arab w o m e n at work. T h e a u t h o r speaks of the Arab world a n d of Arab w o m e n , a l t h o u g h m u c h diversity exists f r o m o n e A r a b c o u n t r y to a n o t h e r , within A r a b states b e t w e e n village a n d town, a n d within towns b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t classes. T h e a u t h o r c o n s i d e r s t h e A r a b region to be a political a n d cultural entity that has c o m m o n features within it. T h e majority of its 180 million people share language, history, a n d religion. T h e term Muslim world, for example, brings in countries that d o n o t speak the same languages or share the same history as the Arab world. N o r d o the various international geopolitical terms currently in use d o the j o b : T h e Middle East or Near East is n o t suffi-

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c i e n t to cover t h e A r a b w o r l d , as t h o s e w h o a d d o n " a n d N o r t h Africa" implicitly admit, a n d terms like Western Asia have b e e n geographically stretched by the U n i t e d Nations to include Egypt. T h e a u t h o r seeks to avoid g e n e r a l i z a t i o n by u s i n g c o n c r e t e examples a n d country case studies to illustrate certain trends. She attempts to shed some light on the n a t u r e of the debate currently raging in the Arab world a n d to make u p in synthesis what may b e lacking in specifics: Much material has b e e n p r o d u c e d o n the subject of Arab women, b u t a comprehensive picture of the situation has yet to emerge. 176. H o p k i n s , N i c h o l a s S. " T h e Political E c o n o m y of Two A r a b Villages." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins a n d Saad Eddin Ibrahim. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1985, pp. 307-321. (See 72.) 177. H o p k i n s , Nicholas S. Agrarian Transformation in Egypt. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1988. 215 pp. (See 73.) 178. H o p k i n s , N i c h o l a s S., A b d e r r a h m a n El-Haydery, S a l a h ElZoghby, H a n a a Singer, H a n e n Sabea, H a n i a Sholkami, R e e m Saad, and Ziad A h m e d Bahaa El-Din. "Participation a n d Community in the Egyptian New Lands: T h e Case of South Tahrir," Cairo Papers in Social Science 11 (1988): 1-127. M o n o g r a p h 1. (See 74.) 179. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. (See 11.) 180. Ibrahim, Barbara L e t h e m . "Family Strategies: A Perspective o n W o m e n ' s Entry to the Labor Force in Egypt." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, e d i t e d by Nicholas S. H o p k i n s a n d Saad E d d i n I b r a h i m . C a i r o : A m e r i c a n U n i v e r s i t y in C a i r o P r e s s , 1985, p p . 257-268. (See 76.) 181. International L a b o u r Office. Women in Rural Development: Critical Issues. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1980. 51 pp. (See 12.) 182. Ishak, Yeldez, Z e i n a b El-Tobshy, N a i m a H a s s a n , a n d Collen Brown. "Role of W o m e n in Field C r o p s P r o d u c t i o n a n d R e l a t e d I n f o r m a t i o n . " Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals I m p r o v e m e n t Project (EMCIP), M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e a n d L a n d R e c l a m a t i o n , 1985. Mimeographed. 45 pp. This r e p o r t is based o n a research study c o n d u c t e d in Gharbiya a n d Minya g o v e r n o r a t e s to d o c u m e n t t h e agricultural tasks b e i n g

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performed by women. Because women are important in the production and utilization of food in Egypt, and EMCIP's purpose is to contribute knowledge that will increase f o o d production, studies were undertaken to d o c u m e n t specific tasks w o m e n are performing in maize, wheat, rice, forages, and soybean production; utilization of maize, wheat, rice, forages, and soybeans; participation in animal and poultry care and h o u s e h o l d tasks; and the e x t e n t to which women participate in decisions on household budgets and farm operations. 183. Ishak, Yeldez, Zeinab El-Tobshy, Naima Hassan, and Collen Brown. "Egyptian W o m e n in Agriculture." Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals Improvement Project (EMCIP), Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, 1987. Mimeographed. 58 pp. This publication contains the results of two studies conducted by the EMCIP staff to analyze the work and knowledge of Egyptian farm women and their families, time spent in agricultural tasks by gender, and knowledge and implementation of the recommended practices. The first study used case studies to show the quality of time spent by the family in agricultural p r o d u c t i o n . It described the amount of time spent by women and girls of the family on animal care, poultry care, household work, personal needs, and leisure time. The second study was conducted through questionnaires, and it docu m e n t e d the knowledge of women compared to that of m e n with respect to the recommended new technology and its effect on the implementation of new practices. 184. J e n n i n g s , A n n e Margaret. "Power and I n f l u e n c e : W o m e n ' s Associations in an Egyptian Nubian Village." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Riverside, 1985. 207 pp. (See 78.) 185. Keddie, Nikki R. "Problems in the Study of Middle Eastern Women," International Journal of Middle East Studies 10 (1979): 2 2 5 240. (See 13.) 186. Kelly, Allen C., Atef M. Khalifa, and M. Nabil El-Khorazaty. Population and Development in Rural Egypt. Durham: Duke University Press, 1982. 278 pp. (See 80.) 187. Khafagy, Fatma. "Women and Labor Migration: One Village in Egypt," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 17-21. (See 81.) 188. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e G e n e r a t i o n Activities on Rural Women." Cairo, U n i t e d

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N a t i o n s I n t e r n a t i o n a l C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d , 1987. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 83 pp. The objectives of the program are to improve knowledge, attitudes, and practices of rural women in various areas of family life; to provide rural women with income-generation opportunities through skill development; to support activities that enable women to increase family income; and to provide day-care facilities for children of rural women. 189. Larson, B a r b a r a K. "Periodic Markets in Egypt a n d Tunisia Compared," Peasant Studies 10 (1982): 49-58. Weekly markets in villages and towns are a colorful and ubiquitous f e a t u r e of the social a n d e c o n o m i c l a n d s c a p e across N o r t h Africa. Although these markets have had a long history in the area, they continue to grow and thrive, and they serve important functions in t h e local a n d n a t i o n a l e c o n o m i e s , d e s p i t e the many c h a n g e s brought about by modernization and government attempts to bring them u n d e r control. To understand why this is so, it is instructive to compare weekly markets in Egypt and Tunisia to see how they are similar or different, what functions they serve, and how they have been affected by central government controls. T h e Egyptian data on which this analysis is based come f r o m field research the author carried out on markets in two Egyptian governorates—Sharqiyya in the Delta and Beni Suef in Middle Egypt—in 1981 and 1982. The Tunisian data come from the author's observations of the village market in al-Qarya (a pseudonym) in northwestern Tunisia while doing research on another topic in 1969 and 1970, supplemented by the work of Russel Stone and Laurence Michalak on Tunisian weekly markets in the years 1969-1970 a n d 1977-1979, respectively. 190. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work and Status in Rural Egypt," Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 3 (1991): 38-52. (See 82.) National

191. Lesch, Ann Mosely, and Earl L. Sullivan. "Women in Egypt: New R o l e s a n d R e a l i t i e s . " I n d i a n a p o l i s , U n i v e r s i t i e s Field Staff International, 1986. Mimeographed. 9 pp. (See 14.) 192. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for A n g l o p h o n e Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.)

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193. M c C a n n , B a r b a r a . " W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t : CIDA E g y p t P r o g r a m . " Ottawa, M c C a n n Consulting, 1988. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 106 pp. (See 16.) 194. McGuire, J u d i t h S., a n d Barry M. Popkin. "Beating the Zero-Sum Game: W o m e n a n d Nutrition in the T h i r d World. Part 1," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 11 (1989): 38-63. This article reviews w o m e n ' s r e s o u r c e s a n d c o n t r i b u t i o n s to family resources; it t h e n examines the biological, economic, a n d cultural roles in w o m e n ' s lives that pertain to nutrition, h u m a n growth, a n d h o u s e h o l d f o o d security. T h e discussion centers a r o u n d the ways role conflicts a n d resource constraints act t o g e t h e r to affect nutrition adversely a n d to decrease women's participation in intervention programs. 195. McSweeney, B r e n d a Gael. "Collection a n d Analysis of Data o n Rural W o m e n ' s Time Use," Studies in Family Planning 10 (1979): 3 7 9 383. A m a j o r objective of the data collection was to g e n e r a t e precise i n f o r m a t i o n o n w o m e n ' s time allocation. Considerable accuracy was necessary to p e r m i t testing of hypotheses c o n c e r n i n g w o m e n ' s labor inputs a n d the availability of women's f r e e time in comparison with their male counterparts; to examine w o m e n ' s extra-familial a n d intrafamilial allocation of time a n d the implications of such time use for d e v e l o p m e n t policies a n d p r o g r a m s ; to r e c o r d activities in which w o m e n ' s participation was substantial in o r d e r to assess w h e t h e r the p r o j e c t ' s t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s a n d t e c h n o l o g i e s were a d d r e s s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o b l e m areas; a n d to analyze w h e t h e r time pressures were an obstacle to w o m e n ' s access to education. A n o t h e r objective was to obtain i n f o r m a t i o n o n variables influencing time-use patterns a n d behavior. 196. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural W o m e n , Work, a n d G e n d e r Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In Women in Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine T a m i n i a n , Soheir A. Morsy, Z e i n a b B. El Bakri, a n d El-Wathiy M. K a m e i r . P r o v i d e n c e : B e r g Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-217. (See 91.) 197. Moughtin, Cliff, Tarek Shalaby, a n d H u g h McClintock, eds. Who Needs Development? Planning with the Poor in Third World Countries. Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 1992. 127 pp. This study addresses o n e small b u t significant c o n t r i b u t i o n to rural development: the informal m e t h o d s used by families to improve

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their domestic economy. It is c o n c e r n e d with methods of raising household income, a development goal that directly involves women. T h e discussion is based on the findings of research on household p r o d u c t i v i t y c a r r i e d out at the I n s t i t u t e o f P l a n n i n g Studies, University o f N o t t i n g h a m ( C l i f f M o u g h t i n , T a r e k Shalaby, and Oussadou Aomar, "Income Generating Activities for W o m e n in Rural Settlements." Nottingham: Institute of Planning Studies, University of Nottingham, 1988). T h e research examines factors that influence the process of household income generation in the new villages of the "Nubariya" reclamation scheme in Egypt. Discussion focuses on the extent to which traditional income-generating activities have continued in the new villages. Particular attention is paid to the generation of additional income through the production of f o o d crops f r o m kitchen gardens, the keeping of livestock, and the sale of traditional crafts. T h e aim is also to identify methods of improving and expanding such i n c o m e - g e n e r a t i n g activities. T h e study has the f u r t h e r objective of examining the extent to which such activities contribute to household and village self-sufficiency. M o r e specifically, the following questions and issues are raised: Is the use of kitchen gardens, keeping of livestock, and practice of handicrafts financially rewarding? For what purpose is the extra income used? What are the impediments faced by settlers in engaging in such income-generating activities? A r e families in the lowest s o c i o e c o n o m i c groups ( f a r m e r s ) benefiting from women engaging in these activities? 198. Nawar, Isis, Saheir Nour, Mona Barakat, Madiha Taleyawi, Somia Hassan, M o w a h i b Ayyaid, and Salwa Said. " P r o f i l e s o f Egyptian W o m e n . " Alexandria, University of Alexandria, n.d. Mimeographed. 16 pp. (See 18.) 199. Nelson, Cynthia, and Lucie Saunders. "An Exploratory Analysis of I n c o m e - G e n e r a t i n g Strategies in C o n t e m p o r a r y Rural Egypt." Working Paper no. 122. Cairo, American University in Cairo, 1986. Mimeographed. 28 pp. (See 94.) 200. N e l s o n , N i c i , ed. African Women in the Development London: Frank Cass, 1981. 136 pp. (See 95.)

Process.

201. Nuss, Shirley, Ettore Denti, and David Viry. Women in the World of Work: Statistical Analysis and Projections to the Year 2000. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1989. 132 pp. This book evaluates past trends and future prospects for equality in opportunities for economic activity at the regional level; identifies trends in economic activity for females and males by age group

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between 1950 a n d 2000; evaluates past trends a n d their implications f o r f u t u r e progress f o r the global female population a n d f o r women between ages fifteen a n d sixty-four; highlights d i f f e r e n c e s between women a n d m e n in benefits obtained f r o m growth in economic activity a n d makes projections a b o u t the m a g n i t u d e of efforts necessary o n the part of governments in each region of the world to p r o m o t e econ o m i c activity d u r i n g the r e m a i n d e r of t h e twentieth century; a n d finally, details differences between female a n d male economic activity in t h e m a j o r sectors of t h e e c o n o m y a n d r e c o m m e n d s targets f o r growth in female activity. R e c o g n i z i n g t h a t in m a n y p a r t s of t h e world, particularly in developing countries, the e c o n o m i c activity of w o m e n is underestim a t e d , t h e b o o k c o n c l u d e s with the r e c o m m e n d a t i o n that governm e n t s in these regions combine efforts to re-evaluate female activity in the light of new definitions and work to provide new opportunities f o r w o m e n . R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s are m a d e f o r improving data collection a n d f o r creating opportunities for women that p r o m o t e equality between women a n d m e n a n d that advance women toward economic i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d self-reliance by the year 2000. Thus, Women in the World of Work is a contribution to efforts underway to p r o m o t e equality b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d m e n in access to increased a n d diversified opportunities for economic activity. 2 0 2 . O w e i s s , I b r a h i m M., e d . The Political Economy of Contemporary Egypt. W a s h i n g t o n , D.C.: G e o r g e t o w n University, 1990. 334 pp. Most books o n r e c e n t political a n d economic developments in Egypt deal with e i t h e r t h e Nasser o r t h e Sadat p e r i o d . This b o o k focuses o n the economic a f t e r m a t h of both. T h e contributors survey a n d analyze the p r e s e n t situation, its difficulties a n d opportunities. Many also look at the f u t u r e , with a variety of suggestions as to how a country such as Egypt can s u r m o u n t its d a u n t i n g problems. All b u t o n e of the contributions originated f r o m a 1988 symposium organized by the C e n t e r f o r C o n t e m p o r a r y Arab Studies on the critical decisions f a c i n g Egypt. T h e b o o k i n c l u d e s articles derived f r o m those papers, whose principal subject was the political economy of Egypt. Most have b e e n revised a n d u p d a t e d with the intention of making the volume a cohesive b o o k a n d n o t merely a record of conf e r e n c e proceedings. By the e n d of the 1980s, Egypt faced crises in virtually all of its e c o n o m i c sectors. Problems of low productivity a n d p o o r economic m a n a g e m e n t were c o m p o u n d e d by the adverse social effects of high p o p u l a t i o n growth rates, high rates of inflation, a n d massive u r b a n overcrowding. Overshadowing Egypt's f u t u r e plans was the p r o b l e m of servicing a massive foreign debt. Despite all of this,

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most contributors argue that Egypt has economic options that could ameliorate its situation. 203. Palmer, Ingrid. " T h e Role of Women in Agrarian Reform and Rural Development," Land Reform, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives 1 (1979): 5 7 - 7 0 . (See 19.) 204. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.) 2 0 5 . P a l o , A c h o l a O . " A f r i c a n W o m e n in R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t : Research Trends and Priorities." OLC Paper no. 12. Washington, D.C., Overseas Liaison C o m m i t t e e , 1 9 7 6 . M i m e o g r a p h e d . 39 pp. ( S e e 99.) 2 0 6 . Radwan, Samir, and Eddy L e e . Agrarian Change in Egypt: An Anatomy of Rural Poverty. London: Croom Helm, 1985. 167 pp. (See 100.) 2 0 7 . Richards, Alan, ed. Food, States, and Peasants: Analyses of the Agrarian Question in the Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 1986. 283 pp. O n e of the most serious problems facing the Middle East and North Africa is the region's growing ability to feed its expanding popu l a t i o n . Rapidly escalating d e m a n d has m a d e the r e g i o n highly d e p e n d e n t o n f o o d i m p o r t s , a n d policy initiatives i n t e n d e d to increase domestic production have met with mixed success at best. T h e contributors to this volume e x a m i n e the historical origins o f state policies toward agriculture, r e c e n t policy changes and their effects on domestic supply, and the social and political implications of these shifts. Focusing on the region's agricultural economies, contributors analyze Turkey's strong performance as well as Egypt's weak response to its agricultural problems. Pricing, investment strategies, irrigation policies, and the impact of large-scale labor migration on agricultural sectors are discussed. A common theme of the interplay between politics and economics runs throughout. 2 0 8 . R i c h a r d s , A l a n , a n d P h i l i p L. M a r t i n , eds. Migration, Mechanization, and Agricultural Labor Markets in Egypt. B o u l d e r : Westview Press, 1983. 289 pp. T h e chapters in this volume address three interrelated issues: the impact of labor emigration, the structure and functioning of agricultural labor markets, and the causes and c o n s e q u e n c e s o f farm

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mechanization in Egypt. Many were originally presented at a workshop held in Cairo in December 1981 under the auspices of the Agricultural D e v e l o p m e n t Systems Project of the University of California and the Ministry of Agriculture, financed by the U.S. Agency for International Development. All are based on extensive first-hand knowledge; many use data gathered especially to address one or more of the issues stated above. All have important policy implications. These studies are one part of the larger effort by both Egyptian and foreign social scientists to provide analysis that would help policymakers in their effort to accelerate the development of Egyptian agriculture. A knowledge of the basic agronomic and economic aspects of Egyptian agriculture is essential for understanding the magnitude of this task. Such knowledge also provides a necessary context for the essays in this book. Six features of Egyptian agriculture stand out: 1. Very scarce, but very rich, irrigated soil 2. Moderate inequality in the distribution of land among the rural population, and predominance of small farms 3. A mixed farm system, with both crop and livestock production occurring on the same farm 4. Multiple cropping and high crop yields 5. Pervasive government regulation of agriculture 6. A rate of output growth that barely keeps up with population growth and that lags well behind the total growth of domestic demand, as incomes rise by around 8 percent per year 209. Rockefeller Foundation, and International Service for National A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h . "Women a n d A g r i c u l t u r e T e c h n o l o g y : Relevance for Research." New York, Rockefeller Foundation, 1985. Mimeographed. Volume 1, 79 pp. (See 103.) 210. Rockefeller Foundation, and International Service for National A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h . "Women a n d A g r i c u l t u r e T e c h n o l o g y : Relevance for Research." New York, Rockefeller Foundation, 1985. Mimeographed. Volume 2, 271 pp. + Annex. T h i s is the s e c o n d v o l u m e of the Consultative G r o u p on International Agricultural Research seminar. This volume is a reprint of the background document distributed to the seminar participants. It is in three parts. The first deals with background documents prepared by twelve international centers to describe their experience with user-oriented research. The second part contains regional reviews of the literature that describes women's role in agricultural

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production and decisionmaking in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The final part summarizes the paper given by Dr. Uma Lele at the Conference on Population Growth and Labor Force Absorption in the Developing World: 1960-2000. 2 1 1 . R o e m b u r g , R e b e k k a V a n . "An Overview o f W o m e n in Development in the Arab Republic of Egypt." Cairo, Royal Danish Embassy (Danish I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency [DANIDA] Section), 1991. Mimeographed. 43 pp. (See 21.) 212. Rogers, Barbara. The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980. 200 pp. (See 22.) 213. Rugh, Andrea B. Family in Contemporary Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984. 305 pp. (See 23.) 214. Saunders, Lucie W., and Soheir Mehenna. "Unseen Hands: Women's Farm Work in an Egyptian Village," Anthropological Quarterly 59 (1986): 105-114. The data drawn from questionnaires, censuses, and interviews conducted in a village in the Egyptian Delta—with a high proportion of small holders—are compared to show the ways women's work in agriculture reflected changes in local economic conditions from the early 1960s to the late 1970s. During these years, women's participation decreased in agricultural labor but increased in animal husbandry as the village economy expanded. Also at issue is the extent of rural women's participation in production, which is undercounted in national statistics. Factors suggested for underreporting of women's agricultural activity include seasonality and occasional character of women's work in agriculture, low prestige of women's work in cultivation, and inclusion of cultivation as an aspect of women's roles as wives and daughters. 215. Saunders, Lucie W., and Soheir Mehenna. "Village Entrepreneurs: An Egyptian Case," Ethnology 25 (1986): 75-88. Recent studies of the economic and social consequences o f perennial irrigation in Egypt and o f agrarian reform during the Nasser era suggest that the peasant sector must have produced entrepreneurs when conditions were advantageous, which differs from an earlier construct of an unchanging agrarian society composed of noninnovative peasants. This study seeks to demonstrate how national conditions and community financial resources constrained or facilitated different kinds o f e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l activity, with different impacts on the village over time.

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Generally, entrepreneurs are those who carry out new combinations, making decisions that differ f r o m the behavior of others. At issue here is not their existence a m o n g the Egyptian peasantry nor the psychological characteristics that have been viewed as primary factors in e n t r e p r e n e u r s h i p . Rather, the a u t h o r s ask what local a n d national conditions cause village e n t r e p r e n e u r s to succeed or fail, given the persisting constraints on accumulation within the peasant sector. When they succeed, what impact do they have on growth and local social and economic differentiation? The initial premise is that economic conditions are the primary factors in the success of village enterprises but that there is little local control over those conditions. The second premise is that national economic conditions, including t h e c h a n g e s i n t r o d u c e d by a g r a r i a n r e f o r m a n d t h e policies of President Sadat, did not have a monolithic impact in rural Egypt. The data indicate intercommunity variation in response to national policies and events of national import. 216. Sayigh, Rosemary. "Roles a n d F u n c t i o n s of Arab W o m e n : A Reappraisal," Arab Studies Quarterly 3 (1981): 258-274. (See 109.) 217. Self, Janet, Nemat Shafik, Cheryl Compton, and Salwa Soliman Saleh. "Women's Access to Productive Resources: Recommendations for an AID Program Strategy." A Report to the USAID Mission in Egypt. Cairo, U.S. Agency for I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development (USAID), 1984. Mimeographed. 47 pp. The purposes of the report are to provide a review of the USAID p r o g r a m in Egypt with r e g a r d to t h e e c o n o m i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n of women and to outline an approach to improving the program's success at reaching women. T h e assessment focuses on USAID projects that provide low-income women with access to productive resources. The authors of the report reviewed the experiences of various USAID projects in both rural and urban areas to identify lessons learned in order to evaluate project implementation and future programming. In general, the team f o u n d that although USAID-Cairo has had n o strategy to guide the selection and support of women-in-development (WID) efforts, women have emerged as beneficiaries and agents of change u n d e r various USAID activities. This has contributed to a growing recognition of w o m e n ' s e c o n o m i c roles a n d has revealed the tremendous potential for pursuing WID goals even more vigorously. 218. Shalaby, M. T a r e k . " H o u s e h o l d Productivity in New Rural Settlements in Egypt: Perspectives on Kitchen Gardens," Third World Planning Review 13 (1991): 237-259. This article discusses the role of women in the generation of additional income to improve their domestic economy through pro-

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duction of food from kitchen gardens. The discussion is based on the findings of research in household productivity carried out at the University of Nottingham and funded by the Overseas Development Administration. In the first part of the article, the discussion focuses on general issues of the new rural settlements in Egypt. The case study is discussed in the second part, including kitchen gardens and income generation, livestock and household productivity, use of the extra income, and craft activities and income generation. 219. Sileem, Fouad M. "Extension Needs of Egyptian Rural Women for Developing Poultry Production." Ph.D. diss., Al-Azhar University, 1984. 186 pp. Because rural women play a central role in rearing poultry, the study focuses on the specific extension needs of females in order to improve poultry production in rural areas. To identify these needs and to suggest a feasible extension package, the author examines the current state of knowledge of females and the problems they normally encounter in making correct decisions. Several suggestions are offered to target the extension program to females—wives and widows—actively engaged in poultry production. 220. Stauth, Georg. "Capitalist Farming and Small Peasant Households in Egypt" and "Commoditization and the Small Peasant Household in Egypt." In The Rural Middle East: Peasant Lives and Modes of Production, edited by Kathy Glavanis and Pandeli Glavanis. London: Zed Books, 1990, pp. 122-141 and pp. 142-161. (See 110.) 221. Sukkary-Stolba, Sohair. "Changing Roles of Women in Egypt's Newly Reclaimed Lands," Anthropological Quarterly 58 (1985): 182-189. Migration to Egypt's reclaimed lands offers many challenging opportunities. This article examines the roles various groups of women play in developing Tahaddi, a reclaimed sector. The pioneering experiences of settlers are compared to the frustrated efforts of many agricultural graduates' wives. The impact of migration on women's workload, social mobility, and public participation is analyzed. 222. Sullivan, Earl L. Women in Egyptian Public Life. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 223 pp. (See 24.) 223. Toth, James. "Pride, Purdah, or Paychecks: What Maintains the Gender Division of Labor in Rural Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 213-236. (See 112.)

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224. Townsend, Janet. Women in Developing Countries: A Select Annotated Bibliography for Development Organizations. Sussex: I n s t i t u t e o f Development Studies, 1988. 190 pp. A wealth of literature has been published recently on women in developing countries. This bibliography seeks to give workers in development organizations access to the items of immediate relevance to their work. It has been assembled at the request of War on Want and OXFAM and seeks—with their advice—to enable development workers to become familiar with the useful, accessible, recent publications for the country in which they specialize. The bibliography is organized by country, with countries grouped into continents. Each continent has a general section, and a general section also concludes the entire bibliography. Every effort has been made to list for each country the main items published about women. This publication has strong practical application for organizations engaged in development projects and is available in libraries in the United Kingdom. 2 2 5 . T u c k e r , J u d i t h . "Egyptian W o m e n in the Work F o r c e : An Historical Survey," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 50 (1976): 3 - 9 . This article deals with Egyptian women working in the public sphere. It covers various types of work such as female labor in the nonagricultural sector, clerical or administrative work, and professional employment. It also discusses the types of work women have performed throughout history. The last section discusses the planned economy and women's work in the future. Both capitalist and Marxist ideologies are used to analyze female labor. The issue of the division of labor is discussed throughout. 226. United Nations Children's Fund. An Annotated Bibliography on the Children of Egypt. Cairo: United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. 174 pp. (See 25.) 227. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. "Training of Female Agriculture Extension Workers." Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, 1992. Mimeographed. 5 pp. A six-week course was conducted in November-December 1990 for thirty-nine female extension workers who were carefully selected to form a corps of trainers. They were chosen from the governorates of Menufia, Qaylubia, Beni Suef, and Southern Sinai. The course curriculum was developed from assessments of the training needs of female extension agents. The subjects covered included the planning,

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implementation, and evaluation of extension programs, with particular attention given to the identification of the felt needs of rural women and to the extension teaching methods and communication skills. The main technical subjects that were taught were the prevention of preharvest and postharvest food losses; fruit and vegetable production and processing at home; livestock production, domestic processing of dairy products, and hygiene; and human nutrition. The course also dealt with the marketing of farm produce and the operation of cooperatives. 2 2 8 . U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , C e n t e r f o r Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in M a n a g e m e n t . " Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. (See 115.) 2 2 9 . U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . " W o m e n in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1982. Mimeographed. 12 pp. (See 116.) 230. Wahba, Mourad, ed. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Rural Women and Development. Cairo: Wahdan Press, 1980. 380 pp. (See 26.) 231. Young, Kate, ed. Women and Economic Development: Local, Regional, and National Planning Strategies. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988. 231 pp. (See 120.) 2 3 2 . Youssef, Nadia H. Women and Work in Developing Societies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. 141 pp. This study makes an intensive and systematic analysis of thirteen countries in the Latin American and Middle Eastern regions. The purpose is to identify some of the critical independent variables that influence the extent to which women participate in employment outside of agricultural work. The departure point is an examination of the contemporary relationship between economic development and women's participation in the nonagricultural labor force in industrialized and nonindustrialized countries. By charting historical changes during the nascent period of industrialization in the United States, and by comparing the findings with the degree of economic development associated with women's involvement in the nonagricultural sectors in developing countries, the concept of a consistently positive relationship between economic development levels and female participation in the nonagricultural workforce is put to the test. The question of whether the developing countries are repeating the pattern of the

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now industrialized West is answered with a compelling "no." In all Middle Eastern societies, women are not responding to higher levels of economic development with a parallel increase in work participation rates in nonagricultural activities. In Latin American countries, high rates of female activity are sustained independent of the level of e c o n o m i c development. T h e evidence is sufficient to show that women's work involvement does not operate in accordance with the axioms of economic theory. 233. Youssef, Nadia H. "A Women-Specific Strategy Statement: A Case of Egypt." Cairo, International Center for Research on Women, 1980. Mimeographed. 41 pp. The purpose of this study is to investigate the issues to be considered and the strategies that are necessary to integrate women into Egypt's economy. It outlines current evidence on the general relationship a m o n g female education, employment, and fertility and expands on those factors that are relevant to Egyptian women. The reasons for this relationship are explored, which is particularly important in challenging standard beliefs and corresponding policy and action programs. The author then describes and analyzes trends in the levels and categories of female education, outlines long-term targets for improving the condition of Egyptian women, and examines the structural changes that are critical for integrating women into the Egyptian economy by the end of the twentieth century. The final section of the report outlines specific actions concerning the demand for and absorption of women within Egypt's evolving employment structure and those groups of women who are in particular need of attention and those for whom economic integration is the most feasible. 234. Z i m m e r m a n n , S o n j a D. " T h e Role of Egyptian Women in Animal Husbandry and Dairy Production—Recommendations for D e v e l o p m e n t . " L e i d e n University, N e t h e r l a n d s , 1983. Mimeographed. 6 pp. This report summarizes research material and recommendations based on anthropological fieldwork in an Egyptian village. The subject of the research, which was carried out from March 1979 to J u n e 1980, was the working conditions of women in rural Egypt. The main objective was to collect data on the needs of women and to make recommendations with regard to development policy. The emphasis lay on obtaining information from what the women said and did, rather than drawing conclusions from statistical analysis. This is also a review of studies, which includes the author's village study and the complementary studies of national and international development policy and national statistics.

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235. Abaza, Mona. "The Changing Image of Women in Rural Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science 10 (1987): 1-119. Monograph 3. (See 28.) 236. Abaza, Mona. "La Paysanne Egyptienne et le 'Feminisme Traditionnel'" (The Egyptian peasant and the "traditional feminism"), Peuples Mediterraneens 41/42 (1987): 135-151. (See 1.) 237. Abdel Kader, Soha. Egyptian Women in a Changing Society, 1899-1987. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1987. 163 pp. (See 2.)

238. Abu Nasr, Julinda, Nabi F. Khoury, and Henry T. Azzam, eds. Women, Employment, and Development in the Arab World. Berlin: Mouton Publishers, 1985. 143 pp. (See 128.) 239. Badran, Hoda. "Women's Human Rights: A Conditionality for Sustainability." In Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt, edited by Mohamed A. Faris a n d M a h m o o d Hasan Khan. Boulder: Lynne R i e n n e r Publishers, 1993. 273 pp. (See 38.) 240. Biggs, Stephen, and John Farrington. Agricultural Research and the Rural Poor—A Review of Social Science Analysis. Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 1991. 139 pp. This book reviews recent trends in social science analysis of agricultural research (SSAAR), identifying gaps in research and outlining areas of high potential payoff to future SSAAR. The authors review the major themes treated in the evolution of theory on the generation and diffusion of agricultural technology and institutions, from international agricultural research centers to national research and extension services. Researchers have neglected a broad range of issues affecting institutions—whether formal, informal, public, or private— that are involved in agricultural research and technology promotion. The authors also construct a framework for setting research pri87

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orities, which includes historical, technological, a n d institutional dimensions. Examples in applying the framework are given, and areas of high f u t u r e payoff are identified. These include (1) m e t h o d s for working directly with technology users a n d p r o m o t i n g research, (2) ways of stimulating feedback f r o m users a n d drawing out implications for f u t u r e research policy, (3) development of institutions for equitable use of c o m m o n property resources, a n d (4) analysis of motivation a n d rewards within research services. T h e book concludes with a list of over one thousand references classified by major themes. 241. Brocas, Anne-Marie, Anne-Marie Cailloux, a n d Virgine Oget. Women and Social Security: Progress Towards Equality of Treatment. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990. 116 pp. (See 4.) 242. Egypt, Arab Republic of, Central Agency for Public Mobilization a n d Statistics (CAPMAS), a n d U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d (UNICEF). The Situation of Women in Egypt. Cairo: Shorouk Press, n.d. 51 pp. (See 6.) 243. El H a m a m s y , Laila S. " T h e C h a n g i n g Role of t h e Egyptian Woman," Middle East Forum 33 (1958): 24-28. (See 7.) 244. El Kholy, H e b a . " W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t : A s s e s s m e n t of Selected USAID-Financed Projects: Final Report." Cairo, U.S. Agency f o r International Development (USAID) a n d Environmental Quality International, 1987. Mimeographed. 41 pp. + Annex. USAID contracted Environmental Quality International to carry out a rapid appraisal of seven USAID project activities in Egypt, specifically focusing on their impact on women. T h e seven activities identified for review were vocational training f o r productivity, neighborh o o d u r b a n services, housing a n d community upgrading, the small f a r m e r production project, the Egyptian major cereals project, participant training, a n d the basic education project. Emphasis was placed on assessing the effectiveness of the projects in providing productive opportunities for women a n d in e n h a n c i n g women's participation in Egypt's development. This report is divided into three parts. T h e first discusses briefly t h e policies of t h e g o v e r n m e n t of Egypt on t h e role of w o m e n in national development. T h e second includes a critical review of the seven USAID project activities. T h e third presents the overall conclusions a n d recommendations for f u t u r e USAID p r o g r a m m i n g activities d e s i g n e d to e n h a n c e w o m e n ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t process in Egypt.

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245. El Menoufy, Kamal. "Communication and Rural Development in an Egyptian Village," Journal of Arab Affairs 4 (1985): 57-65. This study examines Telwana, a village 45 kilometers from Cairo that has substantial access to urban centers. Data were collected from the Central Bureau f o r Statistics, the post office, a n d a survey of access routes to the village, as well as through questionnaires. It was f o u n d that traditional message systems continue to be used along with m o d e r n systems. The traditional home-based economy requires limited external communication, and villagers still prefer messengers to telecommunications and mail, which they view with some distrust. 246. El Safty, M a d i h a , M o n t e P a l m e r , a n d Mark K e n n e d y . "An Analytic Index of Survey Research in Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social Science?, (1985): 267-282. Monographs 1 and 2. (See 8.) 247. Fakhouri, Hani. Kafr El-Elow: An Egyptian Village in Transition. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972. 134 pp. (See 56.) 248. Fernea, Elizabeth. "Women and Family in Development Plans in the Arab East," Journal of Asian and African Studies 21 (1986): 81-88. (See 157.) 249. Fikry, Mona. "Mission Memorandum, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization." Cairo, FAO, 1991. Mimeographed. 18 pp. + Annex. T h i s m e m o r a n d u m discusses a U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d Agriculture Organization (FAO) consultancy conducted in Cairo to assess the level of commitment within the Ministry of Agriculture to issues pertaining to women in agricultural production and to study the possibility of establishing within the ministry an administrative and technical body that would be primarily concerned with efforts to mainstream women's particular concerns in agriculture. 250. Fischer, J o h n L. "The Role of W o m e n in Meeting Food a n d Nutritional Needs," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 1 (1979): 33-36. This article summarizes the p r o c e e d i n g s of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l conference on the role of women in meeting basic food and water needs in developing countries, which was held at the University of Arizona, Tucson, in January 1978. The focus of the conference was the UN World Food Conference's Resolution on Women and Food Proceedings (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, 1974). The c o n f e r e n c e was s p o n s o r e d by t h e C o n s o r t i u m f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development and was partially f u n d e d by a grant f r o m W o m e n in

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Development, United States Agency for International Development. Two h u n d r e d fifty individuals a t t e n d e d the c o n f e r e n c e ; of these, forty-four women and five men were from nineteen developing countries. T h e participants came from a wide variety of backgrounds and included representatives f r o m the UN agencies, private voluntary organizations, and numerous women's organizations. 251. Gadalla, Saad M., James McCarthy, and O o n a Campbell. "How the Number of Living Sons Influences Contraceptive Use in Menufia Governorate, Egypt," Studies in Family Planning 16 (1985): 1 6 4 - 1 6 9 . Couples in rural areas of many Arab societies, including Egypt, have consistently r e p o r t e d strong p r e f e r e n c e s for sons. However, these reported preferences are not always reflected in reproductive behavior. In thirty-eight villages o f Menufia governorate in Egypt, women's responses to a community-based contraceptive distribution program were examined, taking into consideration both the number of living children and the number of living sons each woman reported. Controlling for number of living children, women with more sons were more likely to have been using contraception before the distribution program began. Among women not using contraception before the program, those with more sons were more likely to initiate and continue contraceptive use for a nine-month period following the distribution. These findings imply that in addition to obstacles related to contraceptive availability, several cultural, social, and economic factors influence fertility behavior and exert considerable pressure on married couples to have large families, including several sons. Unless this pressure is changed or reduced, the impact of family planning programs is likely to reach a plateau at a relatively low prevalence level. 252. Gardner, J o h n W., and J a c k E. Proctor. "Technical Assistance: Rural Small-Scale Enterprise Pilot Credit Activity in Egypt." Bethesda, Maryland, Growth and Equity through Microenterprise Investments and Institutions (GEMINI) Publications D e v e l o p m e n t Alternatives, 1990. Mimeographed. 22 pp. + Annex. In 1987, the U.S. Agency for International Development (Egypt) s i g n e d a c o o p e r a t i v e a g r e e m e n t with A g r i c u l t u r e C o o p e r a t i v e D e v e l o p m e n t I n t e r n a t i o n a l (ACDI), in c o o p e r a t i o n with LDII Technical Amana, the governors o f Damietta and Sharkia, and the National Bank for Development, to conduct a one-year pilot project to ascertain the technical and financial feasibility of lending credit to small rural enterprises. T h e project was designed to test a methodology b a s e d o n t h e s u c c e s s f u l e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e B a d a n K r e d i t Kecamatan in Indonesia; the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh; ACDl's

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rural credit activities in Egypt, Jordan, Tanzania, the Philippines, and Kenya; and the small-scale enterprise component of the Helwan (Egypt) Housing and Community Upgrading Program. The methodology rests on loan officers going into the villages to make loans and open savings accounts. 253. Geadah, Yolande. "The Influence of Islam on Women-inDevelopment Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, Canadian International Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 254. Ghai, Dharam, and Samir Radwan, eds. Agrarian Policies and Rural Poverty in Africa. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1983. 311 pp. (See 160.) 255. Glavanis, Kathy R.G. "Aspects of Non-Capitalist Social Relations in Rural Egypt: The Small Peasant Household in an Egyptian Delta Village." In Family and Work in Rural Societies: Perspectives on Non-Wage Labour, edited by Norman Long. London: Tavistock Publications, 1984, pp. 30-60. (See 161.) 256. Harik, Iliya. The Political Mobilization of Peasants: A Study of an Egyptian Community. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974. 309 pp. (See 64.) 257. Harik, Iliya, and Susan Randolph. Distribution of Land, Employment, and Income in Rural Egypt. Ithaca: Center for International Studies, Cornell University, 1979. 166 pp. (See 65.) 258. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. (See 11.) 259. Ibrahim, Saad Eddin, and Nicholas S. Hopkins. "The Nature of Arab Society—an Introduction." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Saad Eddin Ibrahim and Nicholas S. Hopkins. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1985, pp. 9-15. Part I of this book discusses the general questions concerning Arab unity and Arab identity. It points out that unity and diversity are two of the parameters of Arab society. Another is the interplay between forces of continuity and forces of change—indigenous forces and external forces. In discussing what makes up Arab society, the editors' introduction lists some of these parameters: the spiritual role of religion and common historical experience; the material role of trade and other economic activities in shaping Arab society; and the

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emergence of a new Egyptian identity as the result of the interaction of economic, political, and cultural parameters and forces of change. 260. International Labour Office. Women in Rural Development: Critical Issues. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1980. 51 pp. (See 12.) 261. Ishak, Yeldez, Zeinab El-Tobshy, Naima Hassan, and Collen Brown. "Role of Women in Field Crops Production and Related Information." Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals Improvement Project, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, 1985. Mimeographed. 45 pp. (See 182.) 262. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e Generation Activities on Rural W o m e n . " Cairo, United Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 263. Khattab, Hind A.S. "Knowledge, Perception, and Practice o f Egyptian Rural Women on Prevention and Immunization: Final Report, Volumes I and II." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1986. Mimeographed. Vol. I: 116 pp. + Annex; Vol. II: 50 pp. The objectives of this action-research program were twofold. The first goal was to assess the mothers' or parents' current knowledge regarding immunization and perception o f the c o n c e p t of immunization as a preventive measure, as well as to study the current practice of immunization. An attempt was made to find some of the resistance points to seeking immunization services that are readily available at no expense. T h e second objective was to use these findings to form the basis of a communication strategy that would identify and analyze different subgroups among the audience, select appropriate media and media materials for different communication tasks, and develop messages addressing the variety of people concerned. 264. Levy, Victor. "Cropping Patterns, Mechanization, Child Labor, and Fertility Behavior in a Farming Economy: Rural Egypt," Economic Development and Cultural Changed (1983): 777-791. The effect of the economic value of children on fertility in rural societies is of importance to policymakers in altering fertility trends. This study, which offers empirical findings from rural Egypt, focuses on the direct relation between modernization and changes in agriculture and the economic contribution of children and its effect on desired family size and fertility among farmers.

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265. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project. Cairo, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for Anglophone Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 266. M c C a n n , B a r b a r a . " W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t : C a n a d i a n International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Program." Ottawa, McCann Consulting, 1988. Mimeographed. 106 pp. (See 16.) 267. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural Women, Work, and Gender Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In Women in Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine Taminian, Soheir A. Morsy, Z e i n a b B. El Bakri, a n d El-Wathiy M. Kameir. P r o v i d e n c e : Berg Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-217. (See 91.) 268. Nawar, Isis, Saheir Nour, Mona Barakat, Madiha Taleyawi, Somia Hassan, Mowahib Ayyaid, a n d Salwa Said. "Profiles of Egyptian Women." Alexandria, University of Alexandria, n.d. Mimeographed. 16 pp. (See 18.) 269. N e l s o n , Nici, ed. African Women in the Development London: Frank Cass, 1981. 136 pp. (See 95.)

Process.

270. Nieuwenhuijze, C.A.O. Van, M. Fathalla Al-Khatib, a n d Adel Azer. The Poor Man's Model of Development: Development of Potential at Low Levels of Living in Egypt. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1985. 206 pp. This study is an attempt to break new g r o u n d in three major respects. Substantively, it attempted to move as close as possible to the "inside" experience of low levels of living and the concomitant perception of betterment of conditions. Methodologically, it represented an effort to move beyond the questionnaire approach, which has been predominant in Egypt, toward something that offered a better o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r e s p o n d e n t s to make themselves u n d e r s t o o d . R e g a r d i n g c o n c l u s i o n s , t h e move b e y o n d f a c t f i n d i n g , in combination with other available knowledge, serves as a means by which to f o r m u l a t e policy r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . This research project took place during the transition, which occurred around 1980, from concern with the "informal sector" to interest in grassroots-level initiatives. It p r e s u p p o s e s that the established centralistic, "top-down" economistic paradigm is not the final word regarding development. It reflects the search for complementary, indeed, countervailing, approaches.

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271. Oakley, Peter, and others. Projects with People: The Practice of Participation in Rural Development. Geneva: International L a b o u r Office, 1991. 284 pp. The growing acceptance of people's participation as a development objective has sharpened the demand for a clearer and more concrete interpretation of the methodology for promoting such participation. This study addresses this issue. The authors examine a wide range of experiences in which genuine attempts are being made to promote participation of people within the broad framework of rural development projects. The study presents a selection of case studies drawn from three developing regions of the world, which highlight the methodological approach applied in promoting participation within a variety of sectoral, institutional, and policy settings. This analysis contributes significantly to our understanding of the concrete steps and instruments needed to turn participation into an operational concept. T h e book briefly discusses the concept of participation and examines a n u m b e r of key issues related to its practice. It then reviews the practice of participation to date in the different sectors involved in rural development projects. It presents case studies drawn from the authors' direct involvement, then outlines and discusses the study's interpretation of participation as a strategy in rural development projects and examines in detail the key characteristics and elements of this strategy. There is a review of the emerging methodologies of participation, followed by a detailed examination of some of their more common elements. Finally, the study examines the issue of evaluation of participation in rural development projects. 272. Oweiss, Ibrahim M., ed. The Political Economy of Contemporary Egypt. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1990. 334 pp. (See 202.) 273. Palmer, Ingrid. "The Role of Women in Agrarian Reform and Rural Development," Land Reform, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives 1 (1979): 57-70. (See 19.) 274. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.) 275. Radwan, Samir, and Eddy Lee. Agrarian Change in Egypt: An Anatomy of Rural Poverty. London: Croom Helm, 1985. 167 pp. (See 100.)

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276. R i c h a r d s , A l a n . Egypt's Agricultural Development, 1800-1980: Technical and Social Change. Boulder: Westview Press, 1982. 296 pp. (See 20.) 277. R i c h a r d s , Alan, e d . Food, States, and Peasants: Analyses of the Agrarian Question in the Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 1986. 283 pp. (See 207.) 2 7 8 . R i c h a r d s , A l a n , a n d P h i l i p L. M a r t i n , e d s . Mechanization, and Agricultural Labor Markets in Egypt. Westview Press, 1983. 289 pp. (See 208.)

Migration, Boulder:

279. Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n , a n d International Service for National Agricultural Research. "Women and Agriculture Technology: Relevance f o r Research." New York, Rockefeller F o u n d a t i o n , 1985. M i m e o g r a p h e d . Volume 1, 79 pp. (See 103.) 2 8 0 . R o e m b u r g , R e b e k k a V a n . "An O v e r v i e w of W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t in the A r a b Republic of Egypt." Cairo, Royal Danish E m b a s s y ( D a n i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A g e n c y [DANIDA] Section), 1991. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 43 pp. (See 21.) 281. Rogers, Barbara. The Domestication of Women: Discrimination in Developing Societies. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1980. 200 pp. (See 22.) 282. Rugh, Andrea. "WID Projects in Egypt: Final Report." Cairo, U.S. Agency f o r International Development, 1979. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 80 pp. (See 107.) 283. Rugh, A n d r e a B. Family in Contemporary Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1984. 305 pp. (See 23.) 2 8 4 . S a u n d e r s , L u c i e W., a n d S o h e i r M e h e n n a . " V i l l a g e E n t r e p r e n e u r s : An Egyptian Case," Ethnology 25 (1986): 75-88. (See 214.) 285. Schutjer, Wayne A., C. S h a n n o n Stokes, a n d J o h n R. Poindexter. "Farm Size, L a n d O w n e r s h i p , a n d Fertility in Rural Egypt," Land Economics 59 (1983): 393-403. T h e p u r p o s e of this article is to p r e s e n t the findings of a household-level analysis of l a n d availability a n d fertility variation a m o n g farm families in rural Egypt within a framework that considers varia-

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tion in both land ownership and the size of cultivated holdings. The article presents a brief review of the concept of land as it relates to human fertility. The theoretical and empirical literature suggests that the distribution of land-use rights and ownership influence human fertility in opposite directions. Implications of the results for land distribution programs and population policies in developing nations are also discussed. 286. Shawqi, Abdel Monem, Abdel Samie El Sharif, Aida Latif, and Nicola F. Ruck. "A Study of Food Habits of Mothers and Children Attending Rural and Urban Health Centres in Minya, Egypt," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics?,! (1985): 112-117. The Egyptian Ministry of Health routinely carries out national programs to improve the standard of primary health care. One such program was the second Population Project, which included training primary health staff in maternal and child health, especially family planning and nutrition. In order to improve the nutrition component of this training, a survey of the food habits of mothers and their young children was planned to fill the gap in the information available in Egypt. It was hoped that this would reveal common deficiencies in diets and enable appropriate nutrition education to be planned and carried out. In addition, some information on family size, child deaths, contraceptive use, and use of the health services was collected for the benefit of the project as a whole. The overall aims of the study were (1) to collect information on food habits and food availability to help improve the relevance and accuracy of nutrition education carried out by the Directorate of Health Services in Minya, and (2) to train the staff of the directorate in methods of research and evaluation. 287. Stycos, J. Mayone, Aziz Bindary, Roger C. Avery, Atef M. Khalifa, Hussein Abdel-Aziz Sayed, and Ann Way. "Contraception and Community in Egypt: A Preliminary Evaluation of the Population/Development Mix," Studies in Family Planning 13 (1982): 365-372. The survey was designed in part to evaluate the impact of the early Population and Development Program (PDP) by restricting its sample to rural areas and stratifying it according to PDP exposure. The village was the primary sampling unit in a self-weighting sample of all ever-married women ages fifteen to forty-nine. The design took into account the duration of exposure to the PDP as well as region of residence (Upper or Lower Egypt). The selection of villages was done independently in each stratum, and villages were chosen systematically, with the probabilities proportional to their population size in

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1976. Researchers interviewed 5,315 women in 124 villages in late 1980. 288. United Nations Children's Fund. An Annotated Bibliography on the Children of Egypt. Cairo: United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. 174 pp. (See 25.) 289. U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . "The E x p e r i e n c e of Rural Women with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages: Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. This r e p o r t deals with the e x p e r i e n c e of twenty women, ten each f r o m Eqleet and Silwa villages in Aswan, with the Rural Women's P r o j e c t . It gives a b r i e f p r o f i l e of e a c h village visited by t h e researchers. Each case study is then presented separately to r e n d e r this r e p o r t m o r e easily usable as a source of data. Because of this m e t h o d of presentation, the report is, in fact, a systematic presentation of field notes recorded by researchers. It is based on both objectively observable facts a n d figures a n d the researchers' subjective understanding of the social reality. A n u m b e r of analytical remarks are made so as to highlight the points most relevant to the report's objectives. 290. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. "Training of Female Agriculture Extension Workers." Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, 1992. Mimeographed. 5 pp. (See 227.) 291. U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , C e n t e r f o r Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in M a n a g e m e n t . " W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. (See 115.) 292. U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . " W o m e n in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1982. Mimeographed. 12 pp. (See 116.) 293. Voll, S a r a h P. " E g y p t i a n L a n d R e c l a m a t i o n S i n c e t h e Revolution," Middle East Journal M (1980): 127-148. Since the early days of the 1952 revolution, the Egyptian governm e n t has p u r s u e d a p r o g r a m of l a n d r e c l a m a t i o n with varying degrees of enthusiasm, competence, and success. The driving forces behind the effort were the commitment of the revolutionary leaders to improve the condition of the rural p o o r coupled with the rapid growth in population and the steady decline of the land-to-person

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ratio. Thus, the revolution's first initiative was the passage of the Agrarian Reform Law, promulgated in September 1952, only two months after the coup. Land redistribution, however, was clearly only a partial and temporary solution to the problem of the landless peasant. The provision of an adequate livelihood for all peasant farmers demanded a massive increase in the cultivated area as well. Although the agrarian reform component of the government's policy has been extensively analyzed, there is little in the economic literature on the land reclamation program. This article surveys the history of Egyptian land reclamation since 1952 and addresses some of the issues that effort has raised. 294. Wahba, Mourad, ed. Proceedings of the International Seminar on Rural Women and Development. Cairo: Wahdan Press, 1980. 380 pp. (See 26.) 295. Young, Kate, ed. Women and Economic Development: Local, Regional, and National Planning Strategies. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988. 231 pp. (See 120.)

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296. Badran, Hoda. "Women's Human Rights: A Conditionality for Sustainability." In Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt, edited by Mohamed A. Faris and M a h m o o d Hasan Khan. B o u l d e r : Lynne R i e n n e r Publishers, 1993. 273 pp. (See 38.) 297. Bennett, Lynn. "The Role of Women in Income Production and Intra-Household Allocation of Resources as a Determinant of Child Nutrition and Health," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 16-26. This article presents a theoretical framework for answering the question of whether women's income-producing work improves or damages the health and nutritional status of their children. The author maintains that the literature has not provided clear evidence that the children of working mothers have lower nutritional status than those of nonworking mothers. She notes that previous studies have not controlled either for the family's income level or for other important variables, such as the presence of an employed male and land-tenure status. Bennett argues that one of the key steps in understanding women's role in relation to child health and nutritional status "may be a careful investigation of the process of resource allocation within the h o u s e h o l d . " She opposes the use of a single joint-utility function as an adequate representation of household decisionmaking dynamics. Her recommendations include conducting investigations based on an interdisciplinary approach, including economics, health, nutrition, and anthropology; and she presents a framework for these investigations. 298. Boserup, Ester. "Population, the Status of Women, and Rural Development." In Rural Development and Population: Institutions and Policy, edited by Geoffrey McNicoll and Mead Cain. London: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 45-60. (See 40.) 299. Brink, Judy H. "Changing Extended Family Relationships in an Egyptian Village," Urban Anthropology 16 (1987): 133-149. (See 139.) 101

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300. Brink, J u d y H. "The Effect of Emigration of H u s b a n d s o n the Status of T h e i r Wives: An Egyptian Case," International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 201-211. (See 41.) 301. DeLancey, Virginia, a n d Elweya Elwy. "Rural W o m e n a n d the C h a n g i n g Socio-Economic C o n d i t i o n s in t h e N e a r East." A m m a n , U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 302. El-Taliawy, M a d i h a S. "A C o m p a r a t i v e Study o n K n o w l e d g e , A t t i t u d e s , a n d P r a c t i c e of F a m i l y P l a n n i n g A m o n g I n d u s t r i a l Workers' Wives a n d F a r m e r s ' Wives in Two Local C o m m u n i t i e s in B e h e i r a a n d E l - G h a r b i a G o v e r n o r a t e s . " P h . D . diss., A l e x a n d r i a University, 1980. 235 pp. T h e object of this study was twofold. T h e first was to c o m p a r e knowledge, attitudes, a n d practices of family p l a n n i n g between industrial workers' wives in the El-Beida community of Beheira governorate and the farmers' wives in the Kfour Belshay community in Gharbiya g o v e r n o r a t e . T h e s e c o n d p u r p o s e was to d e t e r m i n e t h e effects of socioeconomic a n d health factors on knowledge, attitudes, a n d practice of family p l a n n i n g a m o n g women (wives) in the two communities. 303. Gadalla, Saad M. Is There Hope'? Fertility and Family Planning in a Rural Egyptian Community. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1978. 259 pp. (See 58.) 304. Gadalla, Saad M. " T h e I n f l u e n c e of R e p r o d u c t i v e N o r m s o n Family Size a n d Fertility Behavior in Rural Egypt." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Saad Eddin Ibrahim a n d Nicholas S. H o p k i n s . Cairo: A m e r i c a n University in Cairo Press, 1985, p p . 106-122. T h e m a i n objective of this study is to identify cultural n o r m s regarding r e p r o d u c t i o n in a rural community in Egypt a n d to gain insight into the influence of those n o r m s on family size a n d fertility behavior. T h e study is based o n empirical research c o n d u c t e d u n d e r the a u t h o r ' s direction in 1970 as part of a comprehensive population research p r o g r a m carried o u t by the Social Research C e n t e r of the American University in Cairo. T h e study community consists of t h r e e villages selected to exemplify rural life in the Nile Delta. T h e data presented were obtained f r o m in-depth interviews with a probability sample of 457 married couples in the selected community. T h e p o p u l a t i o n of the t h r e e villages u n d e r study is character-

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ized by high density, dependency on traditional farming as the main source of livelihood, low standard of living, high illiteracy rate (especially among females), high birth rates and recently declining death rates, early and universal marriages, and prevalence of large families. Women who had completed their childbearing period (ages forty-five to forty-nine) had been married, on average, at age fifteen for a period of thirty-two years. During this duration, each woman had an average of ten pregnancies, terminating in eight live births and netting five living children. On average, each woman experienced two pregnancy losses and three child deaths throughout her reproductive period. Only 60 percent of the children born live survived to the end of her childbearing age. The main thesis is that cultural norms about reproduction, which provide prescriptions that govern the reproductive process in this traditional agricultural setting, are significant factors in promoting early and universal marriages and in inducing married couples to reproduce, at short intervals, as many children as possible throughout their married life. 3 0 5 . Gadalla, Saad M., Nazek Nosseir, and Duff G. Gillespie. "Household Distribution of Contraceptives in Rural Egypt," Studies in Family Planning 11 (1980): 105-113. (See 59.) 306. Gadalla, Saad M., James McCarthy, and Oona Campbell. "How the Number of Living Sons Influences Contraceptive Use in Menufia Governorate, Egypt," Studies in Family Planning 16 (1985): 164-169. (See 251.) 3 0 7 . Geadah, Yolande. "The Influence of Islam on Women-inDevelopment Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, Canadian International Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 308. Hassouna, Mary Taylor. "Assessment of Family Planning Service Delivery in Egypt," Studies in Family Planning 11 (1980): 159-166. The key issues analyzed in this study include the ability of delivery systems to promote family planning, particularly in terms of availability and capability of manpower; accessibility of these services; range and choice among contraceptive methods, and their availability; and mechanisms for client recruitment, motivation, and follow-up. The study revealed that ten years after its inception, the Egyptian family planning program was still primarily a clinic-only, oral contraceptive, physician-dominated program suffering from a shortage of

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personnel (particularly personnel trained in IUD insertion), followup, and outreach activities. As a result, participation rates have been low, and discontinuation rates have been high. 309. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Défis de la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l ' E g y p t e " (Muslim W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s of M o d e r n Life: T h e Case of E g y p t ) . In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin de Recherche et d'Information, 1985, pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 310. H o f f m a n - L a d d , V a l e r i e J. " P o l e m i c s o n t h e M o d e s t y a n d Segregation of Women in Contemporary Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19 (1987): 23-50. (See 70.) 311. Hussein, Aziza. "Family Law and Family Planning in Egypt." In Each in Her Own Way, edited by Marion Fennelly Levy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988, pp. 151-181. (See 10.) 312. Ibrahim, Barbara Lethem. "Family Strategies: A Perspective on Women's Entry to the Labor Force in Egypt." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins a n d Saad Eddin I b r a h i m . Cairo: A m e r i c a n University in C a i r o Press, 1985, p p . 257-268. (See 76.) 313. Kelly, Allen C., Atef M. Khalifa, a n d M. Nabil El-Khorazaty. Population and Development in Rural Egypt. Durham: Duke University Press, 1982. 278 pp. (See 80.) 314. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work and Status in Rural Egypt," National Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 3 (1991): 38-52. (See 82.) 315. Levy, Victor. "Cropping Patterns, Mechanization, Child Labor, a n d F e r t i l i t y B e h a v i o r in a F a r m i n g E c o n o m y : R u r a l Egypt," Economic Development and Cultural Change 83 (1983): 777-791. (See 264.) 316. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for A n g l o p h o n e Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.)

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317. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "Beating the Zero-Sum Game: Women and Nutrition in the Third World. Part 1," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 11 (1989): 38-63. (See 194.) 3 1 8 . Mehdi, Abbas Salih. " M o d e r n i z a t i o n in T h r e e Egyptian Communities." Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1987. 141 pp. (See 88.) 319. Mohsen, Safia K. "The Egyptian Woman: Between Modernity and Tradition." In Many Sisters: Women in Cross-Cultural Perspective, edited by Carolyn J . Mathiasson. New York: Free Press, 1974, pp.

37-58. (See 17.)

320. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural Women, Work, and Gender Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In Women in Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine Taminian, Soheir A. Morsy, Zeinab B. El Bakri, and El-Wathiy M. Kameir. Providence: Berg Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-217. (See 91.) 321. Rizk, Ibrahim A., C. Shannon Stokes, and Merwyn R. Nelson. "The Influence of Individual and Other Community-Level Child Mortality on Fertility in Egypt," Studies in Comparative International Development 17 (1982): 74-86. This article analyzes child mortality in relation to three dimensions of reproductive behavior: birth intervals, additional children desired, and use of contraception. In addition to the individual experience with child mortality, community-level infant mortality is examined in relation to additional children desired and contraceptive use. The level of infant mortality in a community is hypothesized as influencing community fertility norms and perceptions of child survivorship. The analysis attempts to separate behavioral and biological influences on actual fertility. 322. Schutjer, Wayne A., C. Shannon Stokes, and John R. Poindexter. "Farm Size, Land Ownership, and Fertility in Rural Egypt," Land Economics 59 (1983): 393-403. (See 285.) 323. Shaaban, Mamdouh M., Maher Salah, Ali Zarzour, and Sayed Abdullah. "A Prospective Study of NORPLANT Implants and the TCu 380Ag IUD in Assiut, Egypt," Studies in Family Planning 14 (1983): 163-169. This study was designed to evaluate the acceptability and use

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effectiveness of NORPLANT implants in Egypt. A parallel study was carried out to compare the performance of the implants with that of the Copper T IUD, an established method that is widely used. The TCu 380Ag is the newest and longest-acting model of the Copper T. The w o m e n w e r e r e c r u i t e d at t h e Family P l a n n i n g C l i n i c of t h e Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology at Assiut University. T h e clinic serves Assiut City and also handles cases referred f r o m other parts of Assiut governorate, a b o u t 375 kilometers south of Cairo. About 8 percent of the NORPLANT implant acceptors were f r o m the adjacent governorates of Sohag, New Valley, and Minya in the poorer part of the country, where a large family is an economic and a social asset. The communities in Assiut and adjacent governorates are generally male-dominated and conservative. 324. Stycos, J. Mayone, Aziz Bindary, Roger C. Avery, Atef M. Khalifa, H u s s e i n Abdel-Aziz Sayed, a n d A n n Way. " C o n t r a c e p t i o n a n d Community in Egypt: A Preliminary Evaluation of the P o p u l a t i o n / Development Mix," Studies in Family Planning 13 (1982): 365-372. (See 287.) 325. Sukkary-Stolba, Sohair. "Changing Roles of Women in Egypt's Newly Reclaimed Lands," Anthropological Quarterly 58 (1985): 182-189. (See 221.) 326. U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . "The E x p e r i e n c e of Rural Women with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages: Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. (See 289.) 327. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. "Training of Female Agriculture Extension Workers." Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, 1992. Mimeographed. 5 pp. (See 227.) 328. U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , C e n t e r f o r Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in M a n a g e m e n t . " W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. (See 115.) 329. Wickering, Deborah. "Experience and Expression: Life Among B e d o u i n W o m e n in South Sinai," Cairo Papers in Social Science 14 (1991): 1-70. Monograph 2. (See 119.) 330. Zaki, S. A. "Nutritional Status and Some Relevant Aspects of a S e l e c t e d S a m p l e of R u r a l P r e g n a n t W o m e n in Two E g y p t i a n

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Villages," Journal of Agricultural Research, Tanta University 11 (1985): 824-836. The study assesses the nutritional status of pregnant women as well as their awareness of nutritional needs during pregnancy and the care of infants. The study was conducted in two Egyptian villages, Bani Magdol and Abou Rawash, in Giza governorate. Data on social characteristics and nutritional status were collected through personal interviews using a specially designed questionnaire.

PARTICIPATION AND DECISIONMAKING

331. Abaza, Mona. "Feminist Debates and 'Traditional Feminism' of the Fellaha in Rural Egypt." Bielefeld, Germany, University of Bielefeld, Sociology o f Development Research Centre, 1987. Mimeographed. 26 pp. (See 29.) 332. Abaza-Stauth, Mona. "Women Between Economic Liberalization and Social Deprivation: A Case Study in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, University of Durham, 1985. 211 pp. (See 32.) 333. Abdel Monem, Fayza Mohamed. "The Social Position of the Rural Women in Different Social Levels." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1985. 419 pp. (See 34.) 334. Abu Nasr, Julinda, Nabi F. Khoury, and Henry T. Azzam, eds. Women, Employment, and Development in the Arab World. Berlin: Mouton Publishers, 1985. 143 pp. (See 128.) 335. Badran, Hoda. "Women, Population, and Integrated Rural Development." Paper presented at the seminar on the Role of Women in Integrated Rural Development with Emphasis on Population Problems. Cairo, November 1974. 6 pp. (See 37.) 336. Badran, Hoda. "Women's Human Rights: A Conditionality for Sustainability." In Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt, edited by Mohamed A. Faris and Mahmood Hasan Khan. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1993. 273 pp. (See 38.) 337. Beneria, Lourdes. "Accounting for Women's Work." In Women and Development: The Sexual Division of Labor in Rural Societies, edited by Lourdes Beneria. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1982, pp. 119-147. (See 39.) 109

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338. Bennett, Lynn. "The Role of Women in Income Production and Intra-Household Allocation of Resources as a Determinant of Child Nutrition and Health," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 16-26. (See 297.) 339. Boserup, Ester. "Population, the Status of Women, and Rural Development." In Rural Development and Population: Institutions and Policy, edited by Geoffrey McNicoll and Mead Cain. London: Oxford University Press, 1990, pp. 45-60. (See 40.) 340. Brink, Judy H. "Changing Extended Family Relationships in an Egyptian Village," Urban Anthropology 16 (1987): 133-149. (See 139.) 341. Brink, Judy H. "The Effect of Emigration of Husbands on the Status of Their Wives: An Egyptian Case," International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 201-211. (See 41.) 342. Burton, Michael L., and Douglas R. White. "Sexual Division of Labor in Agriculture," American Anthropologist 86 (1984): 568-583. (See 141.) 343. Dearden, Ann, ed. Arab Women. London: Minority Rights Group, 1983. 17 pp. (See 5.) 344. Deere, Carmen Diana, and Magdalena Leon de Leal. "Measuring Rural Women's Work and Class Position," Studies in Family Planning 10 (1979): 370-374. (See 45.) 345. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 346. El-Banna, Ferial Mahmoud. "The Economic Role of Working Women in Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Zagazig University, 1985. 228 pp. (See 49.) 347. El Gingihi, Hoda M. "The Role of Mass Media in Nutrition E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m s f o r Rural W o m e n , " Bulletin of Faculty of Agriculture, University of Cairo 36 (1985): 681-709. Rural women play a vital role on the farm and at home. They need continual educational programs, especially those that relate to family health and nutrition, including food selection and consumption. These programs reach rural w o m e n through different mass

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c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e a n s such as radio, television, a n d publications. This research was conducted in the village of Elkounayesa, Giza governorate, to learn the kinds of programs people like; the p r e f e r r e d time, t h e source of n u t r i t i o n knowledge, a n d its relation to mass media; and the proportions of people who watch television a n d who listen to the radio. T h e study included o n e h u n d r e d randomly selected women. T h e socioeconomic data pertaining to the study were collected by personal interviews. 348. El-Katsha, Samiha, a n d A n n e U. White. "Women, Water, a n d Sanitation: Household Behavioral Patterns in Two Egyptian Villages," Water International 14 (1989): 103-111. U n d e r s t a n d i n g the behavior patterns of women in rural households regarding water a n d sanitation may be the key to solving the p r o b l e m of why improvements in facilities are not always accompanied by a reduction in disease prevalence. An interdisciplinary team surveyed 312 households in two Delta villages in Egypt, examining 46 of t h e m in-depth, by participant observation. T h e patterns of storing water a n d its use for drinking, cooking, washing, animal rearing, a n d waste disposal are r o o t e d in w o m e n ' s beliefs r e g a r d i n g cleanliness a n d what e n h a n c e s the health a n d well-being of their families. T h e women suggest practical solutions for their water a n d sanitation problems such as carts for collecting waste water, but they feel powerless to influence local governments or even their husbands to institute new practices. 349. El-Katsha, Samiha, Awatif Younis, Olfat El-Sabie, a n d A h m e d Hussein. "Women, Water, a n d Sanitation: H o u s e h o l d Water Use in Two Egyptian Villages," Cairo Papers in Social Science 12 (1989): 1-96. M o n o g r a p h 2. (See 52.) 3 5 0 . El Kholy, H e b a . " W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t : A s s e s s m e n t of Selected USAID-Financed Projects: Final Report." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development and Environmental Quality International, 1987. Mimeographed. 41 pp. + Annex. (See 244.) 3 5 1 . G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e of Islam o n W o m e n - i n D e v e l o p m e n t Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency, 1990. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 30 pp. + A n n e x . (See 9.) 352. Goldschmidt-Clermont, Luisella. Economic Evaluations of Unpaid Household Work: Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1987. 213 pp. (See 162.)

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353. Hammam, Mona. "Labor Migration and the Sexual Division of Labor," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 95 (1981): 5-11. (See 63.) 354. Hassan, Naima A. "Studies on the Role of W o m e n in Better Family Living and Community Development with Special Reference to Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Cairo University, 1985. 137 pp. (See 66.) 355. H a s s o u n a , W a f i k A. " E d u c a t i o n of W o m e n — F o r W h a t ? " Cairo Papers in Social Science 1 (1983): 52-57. M o n o g r a p h 1. (See 172.) 356. Helmy, Enayat, and Kamilia Shoukry. "Promotion of Women's R o l e in F o o d P r o d u c t i o n : D r a f t T e r m i n a l R e p o r t . " C a i r o , Cooperation Project Between the Egyptian and Netherlands G o v e r n m e n t s a n d the Food a n d Agriculture O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1991. Mimeographed. 25 pp. (See 68.) 357. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Défis de la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l ' E g y p t e " (Muslim W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s of M o d e r n Life: T h e Case of E g y p t ) . In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin de Recherche et d'Information, 1985, pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 358. H o f f m a n - L a d d , V a l e r i e J . " P o l e m i c s on t h e M o d e s t y a n d Segregation of Women in Contemporary Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 19 (1987): 23-50. (See 70.) 359. Hussein, Aziza. "Family Law and Family Planning in Egypt." In Each in Her Own Way, edited by Marion Fennelly Levy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988, pp. 155-181. (See 10.) 360. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. (See 11.) 361. Ibrahim, Barbara Lethem. "Family Strategies: A Perspective on Women's Entry to the Labor Force in Egypt." In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Nicholas S. Hopkins and Saad Eddin I b r a h i m . Cairo: A m e r i c a n University in C a i r o Press, 1985, p p . 257-268. (See 76.)

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362. Ishak, Yeldez, Zeinab El-Tobshy, Naima Hassan, a n d Collen Brown. "Role of W o m e n in Field Crops P r o d u c t i o n a n d Related Information." Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals Improvement Project, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, 1985. Mimeographed. 45 pp. (See 182.) 363. J e n n i n g s , A n n e Margaret. "Power a n d I n f l u e n c e : W o m e n ' s Associations in an Egyptian Nubian Village." Ph.D. diss., University of California, Riverside, 1985. 207 pp. (See 78.) 364. Khafagy, Fatma. "Women and Labor Migration: O n e Village in Egypt," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 17-21. (See 81.) 365. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e G e n e r a t i o n Activities on R u r a l W o m e n . " Cairo, U n i t e d Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 366. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work and Status in Rural Egypt," National Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 3 (1991): 38-52. (See 82.)

367. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for A n g l o p h o n e Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 368. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "The Zero-Sum Game: A F r a m e w o r k f o r E x a m i n i n g W o m e n a n d N u t r i t i o n , " Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 27-32. (See 87.) 369. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "Beating the Zero-Sum Game: Women and Nutrition in the Third World. Part 1," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 11 (1989): 38-63. (See 194.) 370. Mohsen, Safia K. "The Egyptian Woman: Between Modernity a n d Tradition." In Many Sisters: Women in Cross-Cultural Perspective, edited by Carolyn J. Mathiasson. New York: Free Press, 1974, pp. 37-58. (See 17.) 371. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural Women, Work, and Gender Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In Women in

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Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine Taminian, Soheir A. Morsy, Zeinab B. El Bakri, and El-Wathiy M. Kameir. Providence: Berg Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-217. (See 91.) 372. Nelson, Cynthia, and Lucie Saunders. "An Exploratory Analysis of Income-Generating Strategies in Contemporary Rural Egypt." Working Paper no. 122. Cairo, American University in Cairo, 1986. Mimeographed. 28 pp. (See 94.) 373. Nuss, Shirley, Ettore Denti, and David Viry. Women in the World of Work: Statistical Analysis and Projections to the Year 2000. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1989. 132 pp. (See 201.) 374. Piwoz, Ellen Gail, and Fernando E. Viteri. "Studying Health and Nutrition Behaviour by Examining Household Decision-Making, Intrahousehold Resource Distribution, and the Role of Women in These Processes," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 7 (1987): 1-31. Underlying this article is a recognition o f the relationship between poverty and poor health and nutrition and a realization that poverty does not equally affect all members of a household. T h e authors contend that households do not operate to promote the common good. Given the conditions of chronic resource scarcity, some family members consistently fare worse than others. It is, therefore, necessary to identify the intrahousehold factors that influence health and nutrition behavior. Because household behavior is determined by a number of factors, several types of intervention are proposed. To improve the chances of lasting success for development programs, the authors advocate designing and testing educational messages that address all aspects of household behavior. 375. Rockefeller Foundation, and International Service for National A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h . " W o m e n and A g r i c u l t u r e T e c h n o l o g y : Relevance for Research." New York, Rockefeller Foundation, 1985. Mimeographed. Volume 1, 79 pp. (See 103.) 376. Rockefeller Foundation, and International Service for National A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h . " W o m e n and A g r i c u l t u r e T e c h n o l o g y : Relevance for Research." New York, Rockefeller Foundation, 1985. Mimeographed. Volume 2, 271 pp. + Annex. (See 209.) 377. Self, Janet, Nemat Shafik, Cheryl Compton, and Salwa Soliman Saleh. "Women's Access to Productive Resources: Recommendations for an AID Program Strategy." A Report to the USAID Mission in Egypt.

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Cairo, U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1984. Mimeographed. 47 pp. (See 217.) 378. Sukkary-Stolba, Sohair. "Changing Roles of Women in Egypt's Newly Reclaimed Lands," Anthropological Quarterly 58 (1985): 182-189. (See 221.) 379. Sullivan, Earl L. Women in Egyptian Public Life. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 223 pp. (See 24.) 380. Taylor, Elizabeth. "Egyptian Migration a n d P e a s a n t Wives," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 3-10. This article deals with the impact of labor migration from Egypt to the oil-producing countries and Western countries on the Egyptian labor market and on women in rural areas. The author also analyzes the dramatic changes migration has b r o u g h t a b o u t in the lives of rural women. 381. U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . "The E x p e r i e n c e of Rural Women with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages: Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. (See 289.) 382. U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . " W o m e n ' s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m : Position Paper." New York, U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s Fund, 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. (See 114.) 3 8 3 . U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , C e n t e r f o r Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in M a n a g e m e n t . " W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. (See 115.) 384. U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . " W o m e n in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1982. Mimeographed. 12 pp. (See 116.) 385. Wickering, Deborah. "Experience and Expression: Life Among B e d o u i n W o m e n in South Sinai," Cairo Papers in Social Science 14 (1991): 1-70. Monograph 2. (See 119.) 386. Zimmermann, Sonja D. "The Cheese Makers of Kafr AI Bahr: T h e Role of Egyptian W o m e n in A n i m a l H u s b a n d r y a n d Dairy

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Production." Leiden, State University of Leiden, Netherlands, 1982. Mimeographed. 55 pp. The object of the research in this report was to collect data on the needs of women and to make recommendations on their behalf with regard to development activities. The report first describes women's role in animal husbandry, dairy production, and marketing and the importance of that role to the farm women and the women traders in dairy products. It discusses two projects and two project proposals regarding their significance to farm women. Finally, it presents a number of recommendations for dairy development in which the interests of farm women can be taken into account. 387. Z i m m e r m a n n , Sonja D. " T h e Role of Egyptian Women in Animal Husbandry and Dairy Production—Recommendations for D e v e l o p m e n t . " L e i d e n University, N e t h e r l a n d s , 1983. Mimeographed. 6 pp. (See 234.)

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• HEALTH ISSUES

388. Badran, Hoda. "Women's Human Rights: A Conditionality for Sustainability." In Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt, edited by Mohamed A. Faris and M a h m o o d Hasan K h a n . B o u l d e r : L y n n e R i e n n e r Publishers, 1993. 273 pp. (See 38.) 389. Bennett, Lynn. "The Role of Women in Income Production and Intra-Household Allocation of Resources as a Determinant of Child Nutrition and Health," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 16-26. (See 297.) 390. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d and A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1 9 8 9 . Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 391. El Gingihi, Hoda M. " T h e Role o f Mass Media in Nutrition Education Programs for Rural Women," Bulletin Faculty of Agriculture, University of Cairo 36 (1985): 681-709. (See 347.) 392. El-Katsha, Samiha, Awatif Younis, Olfat El-Sabie, and Ahmed Hussein. "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Household Water Use in Two Egyptian Villages," Cairo Papers in Social Science 12 (1989): 1-96. Monograph 2. (See 52.) 3 9 3 . El-Mallah, Samira. " C u r r e n t P r o b l e m s in Gynecology and Obstetrics and Their Effects on Patient Attitude," Cairo Papers in Social Science 1 (1983): 58-65. Monograph 1. Women in Egypt, veiled and secluded from public spheres, have for years relied upon midwives for help during pregnancies and births. T h e midwives, usually inadequately trained, have practiced their trade without the advice and supervision of medical doctors. Since the early 1950s, however, things have changed greatly for Egyptian women, who are now legally emancipated. El-Mallah high117

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lights the potential negative effects on p r e g n a n t women when no cooperative communication occurs between the two different healing practitioners—the traditional midwife and the gynecologist. In fact, she poses the interesting question of how the potential healing role of the traditional midwife can be more effectively integrated into the larger health service system in Egypt. 394. El-Taliawy, Madiha S. "A Comparative Study on Knowledge, A t t i t u d e s , a n d P r a c t i c e of Family P l a n n i n g A m o n g I n d u s t r i a l Workers' Wives and Farmers' Wives in Two Local Communities in B e h e i r a a n d El-Gharbia G o v e r n o r a t e s . " P h . D . diss., A l e x a n d r i a University, 1980. 235 pp. (See 302.) 395. Finnish International Development Agency. "Identification of a R e g i o n a l W a t e r S u p p l y a n d S a n i t a t i o n P r o j e c t in B e n i Suef G o v e r n o r a t e — M i s s i o n R e p o r t . " Helsinki, F i n n i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency, 1992. Mimeographed. 23 pp. This r e p o r t is based on a study of basic socioeconomic a n d behavioral data to corroborate some of the mission findings in the Beni Suef governorate of Egypt. The research was carried out in several phases—literature review, field visit, selection of critical issues, design, implementation and analysis of a structured questionnaire— all of which were substantiated by in-depth interviews and case studies. The information collected represents some of the critical issues that need to be considered in the establishment of the water and sanitation project. 396. Finnish International Development Agency. "Memorandum on W o m e n ' s Issues for P l a n n i n g of the Second Phase of the Primary Health Care Project in Beni Suef." Helsinki, Finnish International Development Agency, 1992. Mimeographed. 14 pp. (See 57.) 397. Fischer, J o h n L. "The Role of W o m e n in Meeting Food a n d Nutritional Needs," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 1 (1979): 33-36. (See 250.) 398. G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e of Islam on W o m e n - i n D e v e l o p m e n t Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, Canadian I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 399. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Defis de la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l ' E g y p t e " (Muslim W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s of M o d e r n Life: T h e Case of Egypt). In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n .

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Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin de Recherche et d'Information, 1985, pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 400. Holmboe-Ottesen, Gerd, Ophelia Mascarenhas, and Margareta W a n d e l . " W o m e n ' s R o l e in F o o d P r o d u c t i o n a n d N u t r i t i o n : Implications for Their Quality of Life," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 8 - 1 5 . (See 71.) 401. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. (See 11.) 402. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e G e n e r a t i o n Activities on Rural W o m e n . " Cairo, United Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 403. Khattab, Hind A. S. "Knowledge, Perception, and Practice of Egyptian Rural W o m e n on Prevention and Immunization: Final Report, Volumes I and II." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1986. Mimeographed. Volume I: 116 pp. + Annex; Volume II: 50 pp. (See 263.) 4 0 4 . Lane, Sandra D., and Afaf I. Meleis. "Roles, Work, Health P e r c e p t i o n s , and H e a l t h R e s o u r c e s o f W o m e n : A Study in an Egyptian Delta Hamlet," Social Science and Medicine 33 (1991): 11971208. Women's health needs can only be described and the programs to address them can only be implemented with an understanding of women's multiple roles and responsibilities. A life-cycle approach in examining these roles and responsibilities provides a useful framework to achieve such understanding. This article describes the results of a study conducted in a village in Egypt, focusing on the daily life experiences of/women and their work, family responsibilities, health perceptions, and health resources. The authors argue that programs designed to address women's health needs must consider these critical aspects of their lives. This argument is based on the premise that women's health needs have been neglected and that efforts to ameliorate this situation should be a high priority on the international health care agenda of the 1990s. 405. Leslie, J o a n n e , Gretel H. Pelto, and Kathleen M. Rasmussen. "Nutrition of Women in Developing Countries," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 4 - 7 . (See 84.)

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406. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "Beating the Zero-Sum Game: Women and Nutrition in the Third World. Part 1," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 11 (1989): 38-63. (See 194.) 407. Miller, F. DeWolfe. "Problems of Water Storage in the Rural Village. Home: The Egyptian Zir," Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene SI (1984): 53-59. Although the adverse health impact of the domestic water storage vessels used frequently in developing countries has been widely recognized, a search for systematic investigations found little data. This report describes the use of water storage vessels by rural households in Egypt. This system of storage was found to have a number of implications (1) for quality and quantity of water used in the house, (2) for undermining the potentially positive health benefits of current and new water supply programs, and (3) for confounding the interpretation of epidemiological investigations of water-related disease transmission. 408. Morsy, Soheir A. "Sex Roles, Power, and Illness in an Egyptian Village," American Ethnologist 5 (1978): 137-150. (See 90.) 409. Piwoz, Ellen Gail, and Fernando E. Viteri. "Studying Health and Nutrition Behaviour by Examining Household Decision-Making, Intra-Household Resource Distribution, and the Role of Women in These Processes," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 7 (1987): 1 - 3 1 . (See 374.) 410. Rasmussen, Kathleen M., and Jean-Pierre Habicht. "Malnutrition A m o n g W o m e n : Indicators to Estimate P r e v a l e n c e , " Food and Nutrition Bulletin 11 (1987): 29-37. (See 101.) 411. Rizk, Ibrahim A., C. Shannon Stokes, and Merwyn R. Nelson. "The Influence of Individual and Other Community-Level Child Mortality on Fertility in Egypt," Studies in Comparative International Development 17 (1982): 74-86. (See 321.) 412. Rogers, Beatrice Lorge, and Nadia Youssef. "The Importance of Women's Involvement in Economic Activities in the Improvement of Child Nutrition and Health," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 33-41. (See 106.) 413. Shawqi, Abdel Monem, Abdel Samie El Sharif, Aida Latif, and Nicola F. Ruck. "A Study of Food Habits of Mothers and Children

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Attending Rural and Urban Health Centres in Minya, Egypt," Journal of Tropical Pediatrics 31 (1985): 112-117. (See 286.) 414. U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . "The E x p e r i e n c e of Rural Women with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages: Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. (See 289.) 4 1 5 . U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , C e n t e r f o r Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in M a n a g e m e n t . " W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. (See 115.) 416. White, Gilbert F., and Anne U. White. "Potable Water for All: T h e E g y p t i a n E x p e r i e n c e with R u r a l W a t e r S u p p l y , " Water International 11 (1986): 54-63. During the 1950s, Egypt achieved a more rapid and proportionately larger improvement in potable water supply for its rural population t h a n any o t h e r d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r y . T h e way in which this occurred laid the groundwork for addressing difficulties in mainten a n c e a n d e x t e n s i o n of services. Similar p r o b l e m s arose in t h e Fayoum project in the period 1953-1964. A program for basic village services initiated in 1979 applied some of the lessons learned in the earlier p r o g r a m b u t raised new e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues. T h e early change in water service was n o t followed by striking reductions in prevalence of childhood disease.

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EDUCATION ISSUES

417. Abu Nasr, Julinda, Nabi F. Khoury, and Henry T. Azzam, eds. Women, Employment, and Development in the Arab World. Berlin: Mouton Publishers, 1985. 143 pp. (See 128.) 418. Ammar, Hamed. Growing Up in an Egyptian Village: Silwa, Province of Aswan. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1954. 332 pp. (See 36.) 419. Badran, Hoda. "Women's Human Rights: A Conditionality for Sustainability." In Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt, edited by Mohamed A. Faris and M a h m o o d Hasan K h a n . B o u l d e r : Lynne R i e n n e r Publishers, 1993. 273 pp. (See 38.) 420. Dearden, Ann, ed. Arab Women. London: Minority Rights Group, 1983. 17 pp. (See 5.) 421. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 4 2 2 . Egypt, Arab R e p u b l i c of, Ministry o f S o c i a l Affairs, a n d International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. (See 47.) 423. El-Taliawy, Madiha S. "A Comparative Study on Knowledge, Attitudes, and P r a c t i c e o f Family P l a n n i n g A m o n g I n d u s t r i a l Workers' Wives and Farmers' Wives in Two Local Communities in B e h e i r a and El-Gharbia Governorates." Ph.D. diss., Alexandria University, 1980. 235 pp. (See 302.) 4 2 4 . Fathy, S h a d i a H. "A Study o f Motivations a n d Needs F o r Participation in Informal Education Programs Among Young Rural 123

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Women in Mariut Area, Alexandria Governorate," Alexandria Journal of Agriculture Research 30 (1985): 1213-1226. A total of 115 village girls in the Mariut area were surveyed to determine their previous and present enrollment in informal education. T h e relevant impact of selected sociodemographic variables was specifically studied using the chi-square test. T h e girls were classified into g r o u p s a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r i n t e n t i o n to enroll a n d actual participation. To examine the subjects' perceptions of their educational needs, the expectancy value of Fishbein was adjusted and administered to all groups. The Kendal rank correlation coefficient was used to study the degree of consensus among these groups in perceiving their educational needs. A cluster of situational and dispositional variables used for the sociodemographic structure appeared to have a bearing on enrollment behavior of the sample population. No significant differences were revealed a m o n g the various groups in the overall perception of their educational needs. The differences were f o u n d mainly in the basic personal values underlying the perception. 425. Fikry, Mona. "Mission Memorandum, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization." Cairo, FAO, 1991. Mimeographed. 18 pp. + Annex. (See 249.) 426. Gamal Eddine, Nadia, and Mohamed Saied Heikal. "Educational Needs of Illiterate Rural W o m e n ; A Case Study in B a r a h a m h a n d Qualaa Villages, Q e n a Governorate." Cairo, Regional C e n t e r f o r Illiteracy, 1988. Mimeographed. 102 pp. (See 60.) 427. G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e of Islam on W o m e n - i n D e v e l o p m e n t Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, Canadian I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 428. Hammam, Mona. "Egypt's Working Women: Textile Workers of Chubra El-Kheima," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 82 (1979): 3-7. (See 164.) 429. H a s s a n e i n , Laila M. " E x t e n s i o n T r a i n i n g N e e d s f o r R u r a l Women in Family Development Areas, Nobar Hamlets, Alexandria Governorate." Ph.D. diss., Alexandria University, 1986. 185 pp. (See 171.) 430. Hassouna, Wafik A. "Education of W o m e n — F o r What?" Cairo Papers in Social Science 1 (1983): 52-57. Monograph 1. (See 172.)

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431. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Défis de la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l'Egypte" ( M u s l i m W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s o f M o d e r n Life: T h e Case of Egypt). In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin de Recherche et d'Information, 1985,

pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 432. Huston, Perdita. Third World Women Speak Out: Interviews in Six Countries on Change, Development, and Basic Needs. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1979. 153 pp. (See 11.) 433. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e G e n e r a t i o n Activities o n Rural W o m e n . " Cairo, U n i t e d Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 434. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of W o m e n in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, Canadian International D e v e l o p m e n t A g e n c y (CIDA) Egypt Desk for A n g l o p h o n e Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 4 3 5 . M e h d i , A b b a s S a l i h . " M o d e r n i z a t i o n in T h r e e E g y p t i a n Communities." Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University, 1987. 141 pp. (See 88.) 436. Piwoz, Ellen Gail, and Fernando E. Viteri. "Studying Health and N u t r i t i o n Behaviour by E x a m i n i n g H o u s e h o l d Decision-Making, Intra-Household Resource Distribution, and the Role of W o m e n in T h e s e Processes," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) : 1 - 3 1 . (See 374.) 437. Rizk, Ibrahim A., C. Shannon Stokes, and Merwyn R. Nelson. "The I n f l u e n c e of Individual a n d O t h e r Community-Level Child Mortality on Fertility in Egypt," Studies in Comparative International Development 17 (1982): 74-86. (See 321.) 438. Sileem, Fouad M. "Extension Needs of Egyptian Rural W o m e n for Developing Poultry Production." Ph.D. diss., Al-Azhar University, 1984. 186 pp. (See 219.) 439. U n i t e d N a t i o n s Children's Fund. "The E x p e r i e n c e of Rural W o m e n with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages:

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Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. (See 289.) 4 4 0 . U.S. Agency for International Development, Center for Population Activities. "Egyptian Women in Social Services: Women in Management." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1980. Mimeographed. 27 pp. (See 115.) 441. Youssef, Nadia H. "A Women-Specific Strategy Statement: A Case of Egypt." Cairo, International Center for Research on Women, 1980. Mimeographed. 41 pp. (See 233.)

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OWNERSHIP AND ACCESS TO RESOURCES 442. Abaza, Mona. "Feminist Debates and 'Traditional Feminism' of t h e F e l l a h a in R u r a l Egypt." B i e l e f e l d , G e r m a n y , University of B i e l e f e l d , S o c i o l o g y of D e v e l o p m e n t R e s e a r c h C e n t r e , 1987. Mimeographed. 26 pp. (See 29.) 443. DeLancey, Virginia, a n d Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women a n d the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." A m m a n , U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 4 4 4 . G r a n , J u d i t h . " I m p a c t of t h e W o r l d M a r k e t o n E g y p t i a n Women," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 58 (1977): 3-7. (See 62.) 445. H a m m a m , Mona. "The C o n t i n u u m in the Social Division of Labour Based on Sex and the Material Reproduction of Labour in Egypt: Review of USAID WID Strategy and Portfolio of Projects." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development, 1981. Mimeographed. 38 pp. (See 165.) 446. Hassan, Naima A. "Studies on the Role of W o m e n in Better Family Living and Community Development with Special Reference to Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Cairo University, 1985. 137 pp. (See 66.) 447. Ishak, Yeldez, Zeinab El-Tobshy, Naima Hassan, a n d Collen Brown. "Egyptian W o m e n in Agriculture." Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals I m p r o v e m e n t Project, Ministry of Agriculture a n d L a n d Reclamation, 1987. Mimeographed. 58 pp. (See 183.) 448. Khafagy, Fatma. "Women and Labor Migration: O n e Village in Egypt," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 17-21. (See 81.) 129

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449. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work and Status in Rural Egypt," National Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 3 (1991): 38-52. (See 82.) 450. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for Anglophone Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 451. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "The Zero-Sum Game: A F r a m e w o r k f o r E x a m i n i n g W o m e n a n d N u t r i t i o n , " Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 27-32. (See 87.) 452. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural Women, Work, and Gender Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In Women in Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine Taminian, Soheir A. Morsy, Z e i n a b B. El Bakri, a n d El-Wathiy M. Kameir. P r o v i d e n c e : Berg Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-217. (See 91.) 453. Palmer, Ingrid. "The Role of Women in Agrarian Reform and R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t L a n d , " Land Rejorm, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives (1979): 57-70. (See 19.) 454. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.) 455. Palo, A c h o l a O. " A f r i c a n W o m e n in R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t : Research T r e n d s and Priorities." OLC Paper no. 12. Washington, D.C., Overseas Liaison Committee, 1976. Mimeographed. 39 pp. (See 99.) 456. U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . " W o m e n ' s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m : Position P a p e r . " New York, U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s Fund, 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. (See 114.) 457. U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . " W o m e n in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1982. Mimeographed. 12 pp. (See 116.) 458. Z i m m e r m a n n , S o n j a D. " T h e Role of Egyptian W o m e n in Animal H u s b a n d r y a n d Dairy P r o d u c t i o n — R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r D e v e l o p m e n t . " L e i d e n University, N e t h e r l a n d s , 1983. M i m e o graphed. 6 pp. (See 234.)

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459. Abaza, Mona. "Feminist Debates and 'Traditional Feminism' of the F e l l a h a in Rural Egypt." B i e l e f e l d , Germany, University o f Bielefeld, Sociology of Development Research Centre, 1987. Mimeographed. 26 pp. (See 29.) 460. Abdel Monem, Fayza Mohamed. "The Social Position of the Rural Women in Different Social Levels." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1985. 419 pp. (See 34.) 461. Blumberg, Rae Lesser. "Rural Women in Development: Veil of Invisibility, World o f Work," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 3 (1979): 447-472. (See 137.) 4 6 2 . Centre for E c o n o m i c and Financial Research Studies. "An Assessment o f the E c o n o m i c s o f I n c o m e - G e n e r a t i n g Activities Undertaken by Rural Women in Egypt." Cairo, Centre for Economic and Financial Research Studies, n.d. Mimeographed. 19 pp. + Annex. (See 142.) 463. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 464. Dixon-Mueller, Ruth. Women's Work in Third World Agriculture. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1985. 151 pp. (See 147.) 4 6 5 . Egypt, Arab R e p u b l i c of, Ministry o f S o c i a l Affairs, a n d International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. (See 47.) 131

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466. El-Katsha, Samiha, and A n n e U. White. "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Household Behavioral Patterns in Two Egyptian Villages," Water International 14 (1989): 103-111. (See 348.) 467. Fernea, Elizabeth. "Women and Family in Development Plans in the Arab East "Journal of Asian and African Studies 21 (1986): 81-88. (See 157.) 468. Goldschmidt-Clermont, Luisella. Economic Evaluations of Unpaid Household Work: Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1987. 213 pp. (See 162.) 4 6 9 . G r a n , J u d i t h . " I m p a c t of t h e W o r l d M a r k e t o n E g y p t i a n Women," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 58 (1977): 3-7. (See 62.) 470. H a m m a m , Mona. "The C o n t i n u u m in the Social Division of Labour Based on Sex and the Material Reproduction of Labour in Egypt: Review of USAID WID Strategy and Portfolio of Projects." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development, 1981. Mimeographed. 38 pp. (See 165.) 471. Hassan, Naima A. "Studies on the Role of W o m e n in Better Family Living and Community Development with Special Reference to Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Cairo University, 1985. 137 pp. (See 66.) 4 7 2 . H e l a l i , A h l a m M o u s t a f a . "Study of S o m e D i m e n s i o n s of Organized Women's Activities in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1989. 157 pp. (See 67.) 473. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Défis de la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l ' E g y p t e " (Muslim W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s of M o d e r n Life: T h e Case of Egypt). In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin de Recherche et d'Information, 1985, pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 474. Hijab, Nadia. Womanpower: The Arab Debate on Women at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. 176 pp. (See 175.) 475. Ishak, Yeldez, Zeinab El-Tobshy, Naima Hassan, a n d Collen Brown. "Role of W o m e n in Field Crops P r o d u c t i o n a n d Related Information." Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals Improvement Project,

DISCRETIONARY INCOME

133

Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, 1985. Mimeographed. 45 pp. (See 182.) 476. Ishak, Yeldez, Zeinab El-Tobshy, Naima Hassan, and Collen Brown. "Egyptian Women in Agriculture." Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals Improvement Project, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation, 1987. Mimeographed. 58 pp. (See 183.) 477. Khafagy, Fatma. "Women and Labor Migration: One Village in Egypt," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 17-21. (See 81.) 478. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of Income Generation Activities on Rural Women." Cairo, United Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 479. Larson, Barbara K. "Periodic Markets in Egypt and Tunisia Compared," Peasant Studies 10 (1982): 49-58. (See 190.) 480. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work and Status in Rural Egypt," National Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 3 (1991): 38-52. (See 82.) 481. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of Women in Egypt with Considerations for Implementing a WID Project." Cairo, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk for Anglophone Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 482. Lynch, Patricia D., and Hoda Fahmy. Craftswomen in Kerdassa, Egypt: Household Production and Reproduction.

Geneva: International

Labour Office, 1984. 91 pp. This study is both qualitative and empirical: It relies on anthropological methods of observation and recording under conditions of long-term contact to determine women's productive and reproductive roles and their attitudes and concepts regarding these roles. Key informants, observation, and structured interviews were used to situate local cases within a wider economic context. A brief description of the case studies is presented in the appendix to demonstrate the complexity of social, economic, and ideological factors that determine individual life choices. The study attempts to record the material conditions of life in specific conditions and at one historical moment in Egypt. The location was chosen as a focus of study because it was believed to be representative of certain conditions of development

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and change. The authors believe developing links with the world market has effects on social relations within the area under study and that the nature of social relations, in turn, affects the rate at which capitalization takes place. The authors suggest how relations differ by craft and specify those relations that limit mobility in land, credit, and labor. Restraints on commoditization (i.e., translating intangibles into commodities) are noted. Relations in rural or semirural areas in subsistence, traditional, and tourist crafts are different from those in highly industrialized urban areas, where fully capitalized production takes place. The authors want especially to note these differences for women. The study is relevant to the need for education and skills to equip women in lower income groups for a role in national development. Education and training for these women—who have hitherto been somewhat overlooked by government training policies—if combined with cooperatives and credit schemes, may provide ways for women in these groups to increase income-generating skills, life chances, and socioeconomic conditions. Results of such programs would be reflected in family behavior in general and in parental roles in particular. 483. McGuire, Judith S., and Barry M. Popkin. "The Zero-Sum Game: A Framework for Examining Women and Nutrition," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 10 (1988): 27-32. (See 87.) 484. Morsy, Soheir A. "Rural Women, Work, and Gender Ideology: A Study in Egyptian Political Economic Transformation." In Women in Arab Society: Work Patterns and Gender Relations in Egypt, Jordan, and Sudan, edited by Seteny Shami, Lucine Taminian, Soheir A. Morsy, Zeinab B. El Bakri, and El-Wathiy M. Kameir. Providence: Berg Publishers, 1990, pp. 87-271. (See 91.) 485. Moughtin, Cliff, Tarek Shalaby, and Hugh McClintock, eds. Who Needs Development? Planning with the Poor in Third World Countries. Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 1992. 127 pp. (See 197.) 486. Nelson, Cynthia, and Lucie Saunders. "An Exploratory Analysis of Income-Generating Strategies in Contemporary Rural Egypt." Working Paper no. 122. Cairo, American University in Cairo, 1986. Mimeographed. 28 pp. (See 94.) 487. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.)

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135

4 8 8 . Palo, Achola O. "African W o m e n in Rural Development: Research Trends and Priorities." OLC Paper no. 12. Washington, D.C., Overseas Liaison Committee, 1976. Mimeographed. 39 pp. (See 99.) 489. Radwan, Samir, and Eddy Lee. Agrarian Change in Egypt: An Anatomy of Rural Poverty. London: Croom Helm, 1985. 167 pp. (See 100.) 4 9 0 . Shalaby, M. Tarek. "Household Productivity in New Rural Settlements in Egypt: Perspectives on Kitchen Gardens," Third World Planning Review 13 (1991): 237-259. (See 218.) 491. Sileem, Fouad M. "Extension Needs of Egyptian Rural Women for Developing Poultry Production." Ph.D. diss., Al-Azhar University, 1984. 186 pp. (See 219.) 4 9 2 . Stauth, Georg. "Capitalist F a r m i n g and Small P e a s a n t Households in Egypt" and "Commoditization and the Small Peasant Household in Egypt." In The Rural Middle East: Peasant Lives and Modes of Production, edited by Kathy Glavanis and Pandeli Glavanis. London: Zed Books, 1990, pp. 122-141 and pp. 142-161. (See 110.) 4 9 3 . Tucker, Judith. "Egyptian W o m e n in the Work F o r c e : An Historical Survey," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 50 (1976): 3 - 9 . (See 225.) 494. United Nations Children's Fund. "The Experience of Rural Women with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages: Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. (See 289.) 4 9 5 . United Nations Children's Fund. "Women's Development Program: Position Paper." New York, United Nations Children's Fund, 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. (See 114.) 4 9 6 . U.S. Agency for I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development. "Women in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1982. Mimeographed. 12 pp. (See

116.)

497. Zimmermann, Sonja D. "The Cheese Makers of Kafr AI Bahr: T h e Role of Egyptian Women in Animal Husbandry and Dairy Production." Leiden, State University of Leiden, Netherlands, 1982. Mimeographed. 55 pp. (See 386.)

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498. Z i m m e r m a n n , S o n j a D. " T h e Role of Egyptian Women in Animal Husbandry and Dairy Production—Recommendations for D e v e l o p m e n t . " L e i d e n University, N e t h e r l a n d s , 198S. Mimeographed. 6 pp. (See 234.)

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PARTICIPATION IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 499. Abaza, Mona. "Feminist Debates and 'Traditional Feminism' of the F e l l a h a in Rural Egypt." B i e l e f e l d , Germany, University o f Bielefeld, Sociology of Development Research Centre, 1987. Mimeographed. 26 pp. (See 29.) 500. Abdel Monem, Fayza Mohamed. " T h e Social Position of the Rural Women in Different Social Levels." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1985. 419 pp. (See 34.) 501. Ahmed, Iftikhar. "Technology and Rural Women in the Third World," International Labour Review 122 (1983): 493-505. (See 133.) 5 0 2 . Badran, Hoda. "Women, Population, and Integrated Rural D e v e l o p m e n t . " P a p e r p r e s e n t e d at the s e m i n a r on the Role o f W o m e n in I n t e g r a t e d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t with E m p h a s i s on Population Problems. Cairo, November 1974. (See 37.) 503. Beneria, Lourdes. "Accounting for Women's Work." In Women and Development: The Sexual Division of Labor in Rural Societies, edited by Lourdes Beneria. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1982, pp. 119-147. (See 39.) 504. Blumberg, Rae Lesser. "Rural Women in Development: Veil of Invisibility, World of Work," International Journal of Intercultural Relations 3 (1979): 447-472. (See 137.) 505. Brink, Judy H. "The Effect of Emigration of Husbands on the Status of T h e i r Wives: An Egyptian Case," International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 201-211. (See 41.) 506. Burton, Michael L., and Douglas R. White. "Sexual Division of Labor in Agriculture," American Anthropologist 86 (1984): 5 6 8 - 5 8 3 . (See 141.) 137

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5 0 7 . Centre for E c o n o m i c and Financial Research Studies. "An Assessment o f the E c o n o m i c s o f I n c o m e - G e n e r a t i n g Activities Undertaken by Rural Women in Egypt." Cairo, Centre for Economic and Financial Research Studies, n.d. Mimeographed. 19 pp. + Annex. (See 142.) 508. Deere, Carmen Diana, and Magdalena Leon de Leal. "Measuring Rural Women's Work and Class Position," Studies in Family Planning 10 (1979): 370-374. (See 45.) 509. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 510. Dixon, Ruth B. "Women in Agriculture: Counting the Labor Force in Developing Countries," Population and Development Review 8 (1982): 539-566. (See 146.) 5 1 1 . Dixon-Mueller, Ruth. Women's Work in Third World Agriculture. Geneva: I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r O f f i c e , 1 9 8 5 . 151 pp. ( S e e 147.) 5 1 2 . Egypt, Arab R e p u b l i c of, Ministry o f S o c i a l Affairs, a n d International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. (See 47.) 513. El-Banna, Ferial Mahmoud. "The Economic Role of Working Women in Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Zagazig University, 1985. 228 pp. (See 49.) 514. El-Katsha, Samiha, and Anne U. White. "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Household Behavioral Patterns in Two Egyptian Villages," Water International \ 4 (1989): 103-111. (See 348.) 515. Fernea, Elizabeth. "Women and Family in Development Plans in the Arab East," journal of Asian and African Studies 21 (1986): 81-88. (See 157.) 516. Goldschmidt-Clermont, Luisella. Economic Evaluations of Unpaid Household Work: Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1987. 213 pp. (See 162.)

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139

5 1 7 . G r a n , J u d i t h . " I m p a c t of t h e W o r l d M a r k e t o n E g y p t i a n Women," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 58 (1977): 3-7. (See 62.) 518. Hammam, Mona. "Egypt's Working Women: Textile Workers of Chubra El-Kheima," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 82 (1979): 3-7. (See 164.) 519. H a m m a m , Mona. "The C o n t i n u u m in the Social Division of Labour Based on Sex and the Material Reproduction of Labour in Egypt: Review of USAID WID Strategy and Portfolio of Projects." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development, 1981. Mimeographed. 38 pp. (See 165.) 520. H a m m a m , Mona. "Capitalist Development, Family Division of L a b o r , a n d M i g r a t i o n in t h e M i d d l e East." In Women's Work: Development and the Division of Labor by Gender, e d i t e d by E l e a n o r L e a c o c k a n d H e l e n I. Safa. S o u t h H a d l e y : B e r g i n a n d Garvey Publishers, 1986, pp. 158-173. (See 167.) 521. Hassan, Naima A. "Studies on the Role of W o m e n in Better Family Living and Community Development with Special Reference to Rural Industries." Master's thesis, Cairo University, 1985. 137 pp. (See 66.) 522. H a s s a n e i n , Laila M. " E x t e n s i o n T r a i n i n g N e e d s f o r R u r a l W o m e n in Family Development Areas, Nobar Hamlets, Alexandria Governorate." Ph.D. diss., Alexandria University, 1986. 185 pp. (See 171.) 5 2 3 . H e l a l i , A h l a m M o u s t a f a . " S t u d y of S o m e D i m e n s i o n s of Organized W o m e n ' s Activities in Rural Egypt." Master's thesis, Ain Shams University, 1989. 157 pp. (See 67.) 524. Helmy, Mona. "Les Femmes Musulmanes Face aux Défis de la Vie M o d e r n e : le Cas d e l ' E g y p t e " (Muslim W o m e n F a c i n g t h e C h a l l e n g e s of M o d e r n Life: T h e Case of E g y p t ) . In Les Femmes Musulmanes a l'ere des Islamismes, e d i t e d by Fatima H o u d a - P e p i n . Marrakesh: Centre Maghrébin de Recherche et d'Information, 1985, pp. 95-102. (See 69.) 525. Hijab, Nadia. Womanpower: The Arab Debate on Women at Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. 176 pp. (See 175.)

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526. Ishak, Yeldez, Z e i n a b El-Tobshy, N a i m a Hassan, a n d Collen Brown. "Role of W o m e n in Field C r o p s P r o d u c t i o n a n d R e l a t e d I n f o r m a t i o n . " Cairo, Egyptian Major Cereals I m p r o v e m e n t Project, Ministry of Agriculture a n d L a n d Reclamation, 1985. Mimeographed. 45 pp. (See 182.) 527. Ishak, Yeldez, Z e i n a b El-Tobshy, N a i m a H a s s a n , a n d Collen Brown. "Egyptian W o m e n in A g r i c u l t u r e . " Cairo, Egyptian M a j o r C e r e a l s I m p r o v e m e n t P r o j e c t , Ministry of A g r i c u l t u r e a n d L a n d Reclamation, 1987. Mimeographed. 58 pp. (See 183.) 528. Khafagy, Fatma. "Women a n d Labor Migration: O n e Village in Egypt," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 124 (1984): 17-21. (See 81.) 529. Larson, Barbara K. "Women's Work a n d Status in Rural Egypt," National Women Studies Association (NWSA) Journal 3 (1991): 38-52. (See 82.) 530. Lotayef, Karima. "Report o n Socio-Economic Status of W o m e n in Egypt with Considerations for I m p l e m e n t i n g a WID Project." Cairo, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk f o r A n g l o p h o n e Africa B r a n c h , 1987. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 52 p p . (See 15.) 531. Lynch, Patricia D., a n d H o d a Fahmy. Craftswomen in Kerdassa, Egypt: Household Production and Reproduction. Geneva: I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour Office, 1984. 91 pp. (See 482.) 532. McSweeney, B r e n d a Gael. "Collection a n d Analysis of Data o n R u r a l W o m e n ' s T i m e Use," Studies in Family Planning 10 (1979): 379-383. (See 195.) 533. M o u g h t i n , Cliff, T a r e k Shalaby, a n d H u g h McClintock, eds. Who Needs Development ? Planning with the Poor in Third World Countries. Nottingham: University of Nottingham, 1992. 127 pp. (See 197.) 534. Nelson, Cynthia, and Lucie Saunders. "An Exploratory Analysis of I n c o m e - G e n e r a t i n g Strategies in C o n t e m p o r a r y R u r a l Egypt." Working P a p e r no. 122. Cairo, American University in Cairo, 1986. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 28 pp. (See 94.) 535. Nuss, Shirley, Ettore Denti, a n d David Viry. Women in the World of

PARTICIPATION IN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

141

Work: Statistical Analysis and Projections to the Year 2000. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1989. 132 pp. (See 201.) 536. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.) 537. P a l o , A c h o l a O. " A f r i c a n W o m e n in R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t : Research Trends and Priorities." OLC Paper no. 12. Washington, D.C., Overseas Liaison C o m m i t t e e , 1976. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 39 pp. (See 99.) 538. Saunders, Lucie W., a n d Soheir M e h e n n a . "Unseen H a n d s : Women's Farm Work in an Egyptian Village," Anthropological Quarterly 59 (1986): 105-114. (See 214.) 539. Shalaby, M. T a r e k . " H o u s e h o l d Productivity in New R u r a l Settlements in Egypt: Perspectives on Kitchen Gardens," Third World Planning Review 13 (1991): 237-259. (See 218.) 540. Sileem, Fouad M. "Extension Needs of Egyptian Rural Women for Developing Poultry Production." Ph.D. diss., Al-Azhar University, 1984. 186 pp. (See 219.) 541. Sukkary-Stolba, Sohair. "Changing Roles of Women in Egypt's Newly Reclaimed Lands," Anthropological Quarterly 58 (1985): 182-189. (See 221.) 542. Toth, James. "Pride, Purdah, or Paychecks: What Maintains the G e n d e r Division of Labor in Rural Egypt," International Journal of Middle East Studies 23 (1991): 213-236. (See 112.) 543. T u c k e r , J u d i t h . "Egyptian W o m e n in t h e W o r k F o r c e : An Historical Survey," Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP) Reports 50 (1976): 3-9. (See 225.) 544. U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . "The E x p e r i e n c e of Rural Women with the Rural Women's Project in Eqleet and Silwa Villages: Aswan Governorate." Cairo, United Nations Children's Fund, 1988. Mimeographed. 61 pp. (See 289.) 545. U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . " W o m e n ' s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m : Position Paper." New York, U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s Fund, 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. (See 114.)

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5 4 6 . U . S . A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t . " W o m e n in Development: USAID Policy Paper." Washington, D.C., U.S. Agency for International Development, 1982. Mimeographed. 12 pp. (See 116.) 5 4 7 . Y o u s s e f , N a d i a H. Women and Work in Developing Societies. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. 141 pp. (See 232.) 548. Youssef, Nadia H. "A Women-Specific Strategy Statement: A Case of Egypt." Cairo, International Center for Research on Women, 1980. Mimeographed. 41 pp. (See 233.) 549. Zimmermann, S o n j a D. " T h e Cheese Makers o f Kafr A1 Bahr: T h e R o l e o f Egyptian W o m e n in A n i m a l H u s b a n d r y a n d Dairy Production." Leiden, State University of Leiden, Netherlands, 1982. Mimeographed. 55 pp. (See 386.) 5 5 0 . Z i m m e r m a n n , S o n j a D. " T h e R o l e o f Egyptian W o m e n in Animal Husbandry and Dairy P r o d u c t i o n — R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for D e v e l o p m e n t . " L e i d e n University, N e t h e r l a n d s , 1 9 8 3 . M i m e o graphed. 6 pp. (See 234.)

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Part 4 POLICY ASPECTS

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ROLE OF LOCAL AND NATIONAL GOVERNMENTS 551. Adams, Richard H., Jr. "Bureaucrats, Peasants, a n d the Dominant Coalition: An Egyptian Case Study," Journal of Development Studies 22 (1986): 336-354. This article challenges the thesis that local-level bureaucrats must be part of any "dominant coalition" at the village level. Based on a case study of Egyptian agricultural officials, Adams argues that local bureaucrats may well be more useless than they are dominant in any political or economic sense. In rural areas, in which local officials lack the resources, supplies, funds, and other necessisites to do their jobs, they may be fairly inconsequential. In such situations their position as public servants may be appropriated by members of the rich peasantry, who have no particular need to work closely with resourcepoor local government staffs. 552. Adams, Richard H., Jr. Development and Social Change in Rural Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 231 pp. (See 130.) 553. Anker, Richard, a n d Martha Anker. "Measuring the Female Labour Force in Egypt," International Labour Review 128 (1989): 511520. (See 135.) 554. Brocas, Anne-Marie, Anne-Marie Cailloux, a n d Virgine Oget. Women and Social Security: Progress Towards Equality of Treatment. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1990. 116 pp. (See 4.) 555. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural W o m e n and the Changing Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." Amman, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 556. El-Katsha, Samiha, a n d A n n e U. White. "Women, Water, and Sanitation: Household Behavioral Patterns in Two Egyptian Villages," Water International 14 (1989): 103-111. (See 348.) 145

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557. El Menoufy, Kamal. "Communication and Rural Development in an Egyptian Village," Journal of Arab Affairs 4 ( 1 9 8 5 ) : 5 7 - 6 5 . (See 245.) 5 5 8 . El Safty, Madiha, M o n t e Palmer, and Mark Kennedy. "An Analytic Index of Survey Research in Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social ScienceS (1985): 267-282. Monographs 1 and 2. (See 8.) 559. Gadalla, Saad M. Is There Hope? Fertility and Family Planning in a Rural Egyptian Community. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1978. 259 pp. (See 58.) 560. Gardner, J o h n W., and Jack E. Proctor. "Technical Assistance: Rural Small-Scale Enterprise Pilot Credit Activity in Egypt." Bethesda, Maryland, Growth and Equity through Microenterprise Investments and Institutions (GEMINI) Publications Development Alternatives, 1990. 22 pp. + Annex. Mimeographed. (See 252.) 561. Ghai, Dharam, and Samir Radwan, eds. Agrarian Policies and Rural Poverty in Africa. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1983. 311 pp. (See 160.) 562. Glavanis, Kathy R.G. "Aspects of Non-Capitalist Social Relations in Rural Egypt: The Small Peasant Household in an Egyptian Delta Village." In Family and Work in Rural Societies: Perspectives on Non-Wage Labour, edited by Norman Long. London: Tavistock Publications, 1984, pp. 30-60. (See 161.) 563. Harik, Iliya. The Political Mobilization of Peasants: A Study of an Egyptian Community. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974. 309 pp. (See 64.) 5 6 4 . Harik, Iliya, a n d Susan R a n d o l p h . Distribution of Land, Employment, and Income in Rural Egypt. Ithaca: Center for International Studies, Cornell University, 1979. 166 pp. (See 65.) 5 6 5 . Hopkins, Nicholas S., A b d e r r a h m a n El-Haydery, Salah ElZoghby, Hanaa Singer, Hanen Sabea, Hania Sholkami, Reem Saad, and Ziad Ahmed Bahaa El-Din. "Participation and Community in the Egyptian New Lands: The Case of South Tahrir," Cairo Papers in Social Science 11 (1988): 1-127. Monograph 1. (See 74.) 566. Hussein, Aziza. "Family Law and Family Planning in Egypt." In Each in Her Own Way, edited by Marion Fennelly Levy. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1988, pp. 155-181. (See 10.)

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567. Ibrahim, Saad Eddin, and Nicholas S. Hopkins. "The Nature of A r a b S o c i e t y — a n I n t r o d u c t i o n . " In Arab Society: Social Science Perspectives, edited by Saad Eddin Ibrahim and Nicholas S. Hopkins. Cairo: A m e r i c a n University in Cairo Press, 1985, p p . 9 - 1 5 . (See 259.) 568. Khafagy, Fatma, Hania Sholkami, and Hanaa Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e G e n e r a t i o n Activities on R u r a l W o m e n . " Cairo, U n i t e d Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 569. Levy, Victor. "Cropping Patterns, Mechanization, Child Labor, a n d F e r t i l i t y B e h a v i o r in a F a r m i n g E c o n o m y : R u r a l E g y p t , " Economic Development and Cultural Change 83 (1983): 777-791. (See 264.) 570. Nieuwenhuijze, C.A.O. Van, M. Fathalla Al-Khatib, a n d Adel Azer. The Poor Man's Model of Development: Development of Potential at Low Levels of Living in Egypt. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985. 206 pp. (See 270.) 571. Nuss, Shirley, Ettore Denti, and David Viry. Women in the World of Work: Statistical Analysis and Projections to the Year 2000. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1989. 132 pp. (See 201.) 572. Oweiss, Ibrahim M., ed. The Political Economy of Contemporary Egypt. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1990. 334 pp. (See 202.) 573. Palmer, Ingrid. "The Role of Women in Agrarian Reform and R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t L a n d , " Land Reform, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives (1979): 57-70. (See 19.) 574. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.) 575. R i c h a r d s , Alan. Egypt's Agricultural Development 1800-1980: Technical and Social Change. Boulder: Westview Press, 1982. 296 pp. (See 20.) 576. Richards, Alan, ed. Food, States, and Peasants: Analyses of the Agrarian Question in the Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 1986. 283 pp. (See 207.)

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5 7 7 . Richards, Alan, and Philip L. Martin, eds. Migration, Mechanization, and-Agricultural Labor Markets in Egypt. Boulder: Westview Press, 1983. 289 pp. (See 208.) 5 7 8 . Saunders, Lucie W., and Soheir M e h e n n a . "Village Entrepreneurs: An Egyptian Case," Ethnology 25 (1986): 75-88. (See 215.) 579. Schutjer, Wayne A., C. Shannon Stokes, and John R. Poindexter. "Farm Size, Land Ownership, and Fertility in Rural Egypt," Land Economics59 (1983): 393-403. (See 285.) 580. Self, Janet, Nemat Shafik, Cheryl Compton, and Salwa Soliman Saleh. "Women's Access to Productive Resources: Recommendations for an AID Program Strategy." A Report to the USAID Mission in Egypt. Cairo, U.S. Agency for I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , 1 9 8 4 . Mimeographed. 47 pp. (See 217.) 5 8 1 . United Nations Children's Fund. "Women's Development Program: Position Paper." New York, United Nations Children's Fund, 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. (See 114.) 582. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. "Training of Female Agriculture Extension Workers." Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization, 1992. Mimeographed. 5 pp. (See 227.) 5 8 3 . Voll, Sarah P. "Egyptian L a n d R e c l a m a t i o n Since the Revolution," Middle East Journal M (1980): 127-148. (See 293.) 584. Young, Kate, ed. Women and Economic Development: Local, Regional, and National Planning Strategies. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988. 231 pp. (See 120.)

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ROLE OF NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 585. Adams, Richard H., Jr. Development and Social Change in Rural Egypt. New York: Syracuse University Press, 1986. 231 pp. (See 130.) 586. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women a n d the C h a n g i n g Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." A m m a n , United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 5 8 7 . E g y p t , A r a b R e p u b l i c of, M i n i s t r y of Social A f f a i r s , a n d International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. (See 47.) 588. El Safty, M a d i h a , M o n t e P a l m e r , a n d Mark K e n n e d y . "An Analytic I n d e x of Survey Research in Egypt," Cairo Papers in Social ScienceS (1985): 267-282. Monographs 1 and 2. (See 8.) 589. Fikry, Mona. "Mission Memorandum, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization." Cairo, FAO, 1991. Mimeographed. 18 pp. + Annex. (See 249.) 590. Fischer, J o h n L. "The Role of W o m e n in Meeting Food a n d Nutritional Needs," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 1 (1979): 33-36. (See 250.) 591. Gardner, J o h n W., and Jack E. Proctor. "Technical Assistance: Rural Small-Scale Enterprise Pilot Credit Activity in Egypt." Maryland, Growth and Equity t h r o u g h Microenterprise Investments and Institutions (GEMINI) Publications Development Alternatives, 1990. Mimeographed. 22 pp. + Annex. (See 252.) 592. G e a d a h , Y o l a n d e . " T h e I n f l u e n c e of Islam o n W o m e n - i n D e v e l o p m e n t Projects in Egypt." Ottawa, C a n a d i a n I n t e r n a t i o n a l 149

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Development Agency, 1990. Mimeographed. 30 pp. + Annex. (See 9.) 593. Helmy, Enayat, and Kamilia Shoukry. "Promotion of Women's R o l e in F o o d P r o d u c t i o n : D r a f t T e r m i n a l R e p o r t . " C a i r o , Cooperation Project Between the Egyptian and Netherlands G o v e r n m e n t s a n d the Food a n d Agriculture Organization, 1991. Mimeographed. 25 pp. (See 68.) 594. N e l s o n , Nici, e d . African Women in the Development London: Frank Cass, 1981. 136 pp. (See 95.)

Process.

595. Network of Egyptian Professional W o m e n . Egyptian Women in Social Development: A Resource Guide. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1988. 346 pp. (See 96.) 596. Oakley, Peter, a n d others. Projects with People: The Practice of Participation in Rural Development. Geneva: I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r Office, 1991. 284 pp. (See 271.) 5 9 7 . R o e m b u r g , R e b e k k a V a n . "An Overview of W o m e n in Development in the Arab Republic of Egypt." Cairo, Royal Danish Embassy ( D a n i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t Agency [DANIDA] Section), 1991. Mimeographed. 43 pp. (See 21.) 598. Rugh, Andrea. "WID Projects in Egypt: Final Report." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development, 1979. Mimeographed. 80 pp. (See 107.) 599. U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . " W o m e n ' s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m : Position Paper." New York, U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s Fund, 1992. Mimeographed. 19 pp. (See 114.) 600. Young, Kate, ed. Women and Economic Development: Local, Regional, and National Planning Strategies. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988. 231 pp. (See 120.)

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601. Biggs, Stephen, and J o h n Farrington. Agricultural Research and the Rural Poor—A Review of Social Science Analysis. Ottawa: International Development Research Center, 1991. 139 pp. (See 240.) 602. DeLancey, Virginia, and Elweya Elwy. "Rural Women and the C h a n g i n g Socio-Economic Conditions in the Near East." A m m a n , U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o d a n d A g r i c u l t u r e O r g a n i z a t i o n , 1989. Mimeographed. 64 pp. + Appendix. (See 46.) 603. Dixon, Ruth B. "Women in Agriculture: C o u n t i n g the Labor Force in Developing Countries," Population and Development Review 8 (1982): 539-566. (See 146.) 6 0 4 . Egypt, A r a b R e p u b l i c of, M i n i s t r y of Social A f f a i r s , a n d International Labour Organization. Training Rural Women in Income Generating and Basic Life Skills. Cairo: State Information Service Press, 1992. 6 pp. (See 47.) 605. Fikiy, Mona. "Mission Memorandum, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization." Cairo, FAO, 1991. Mimeographed. 18 pp. + Annex. (See 249.) 606. Fischer, J o h n L. "The Role of W o m e n in Meeting Food a n d Nutritional Needs," Food and Nutrition Bulletin 1 (1979): 33-36. (See 250.) 607. Gardner, J o h n W., and Jack E. Proctor. "Technical Assistance: Rural Small-Scale Enterprise Pilot Credit Activity in Egypt." Bethesda, Maryland, Growth and Equity through Microenterprise Investments a n d Institutions ( G E M I N I ) Publications D e v e l o p m e n t Alternatives, 1990. Mimeographed. 22 pp. + Annex. (See 252.) 151

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608. Khafagy, Fatma, H a n i a Sholkami, a n d H a n a a Singer. "Impact of I n c o m e G e n e r a t i o n Activities o n R u r a l W o m e n . " C a i r o , U n i t e d Nations International Children's Fund, 1987. Mimeographed. 83 pp. (See 188.) 609. Lotayef, Karima. "Report on Socio-Economic Status of W o m e n in Egypt with Considerations for I m p l e m e n t i n g a WID Project." Cairo: Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Egypt Desk f o r A n g l o p h o n e Africa Branch, 1987. Mimeographed. 52 pp. (See 15.) 610. Palmer, Ingrid. "The Role of W o m e n in Agrarian Reform a n d R u r a l D e v e l o p m e n t L a n d , " Land Reform, Land Settlements, and Cooperatives (1979): 57-70. (See 19.) 611. Palmer, Ingrid. Gender and Population in the Adjustment of African Economies: Planning for Change. Geneva: International Labour Office, 1991. 187 pp. (See 98.) 6 1 2 . R o e m b u r g , R e b e k k a V a n . "An O v e r v i e w of W o m e n in D e v e l o p m e n t in the Arab Republic of Egypt." Cairo, Royal Danish E m b a s s y ( D a n i s h I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t A g e n c y [DANIDA] Section), 1991. Mimeographed. 43 pp. (See 21.) 613. Rugh, Andrea. "WID Projects in Egypt: Final Report." Cairo, U.S. Agency for International Development, 1979. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 80 p p . (See 107.) 614. Self, J a n e t , N e m a t Shafik, Cheryl C o m p t o n , a n d Salwa Soliman Saleh. "Women's Access to Productive Resources: R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r an AID P r o g r a m Strategy." A Report to the USAID Mission in Egypt. C a i r o , U.S. A g e n c y f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t , 1 9 8 4 . M i m e o g r a p h e d . 47 p p . (See 217.) 615. U n i t e d Nations C h i l d r e n ' s F u n d . " W o m e n ' s D e v e l o p m e n t P r o g r a m : P o s i t i o n P a p e r . " New York, U n i t e d N a t i o n s C h i l d r e n ' s Fund, 1992. M i m e o g r a p h e d . 19 pp. (See 114.) 616. United Nations Food a n d Agriculture Organization. "Training of Female Agriculture Extension Workers." Rome, Food a n d Agriculture Organization, 1992. Mimeographed. 5 pp. (See 227.) 617. Vavrus, Linda Gire, and Ron Cadieux. Women in Development: A Selected Annotated Bibliography and Resource Guide. East L a n s i n g : Michigan State University, 1980. 69 pp. (See 117.)

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618. Young, Kate, ed. Women and Economic Development: Local, Regional, and National Planning Strategies. Oxford: Berg Publishers, 1988. 231 pp. (See 120.)

ABOUT THE BOOK AND AUTHORS • •

As in many developing countries, women in Egypt play a key role in the agricultural sector. This has not been adequately reflected, however, in the official statistics on services, employment, and income, nor has there been a fair appreciation of the socioeconomic constraints women encounter in participating in the development process. In response, this fully annotated bibliography represents diverse studies—including books, j o u r n a l articles, technical reports, a n d dissertations—that d o c u m e n t the role and status of rural Egyptian women. T h e authors' extensive coverage of the literature in both Arabic a n d English, as well as the t h e m a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n of the material, provides a valuable r e f e r e n c e f o r students, researchers, practitioners, and policymakers interested not only in Egypt, but also in the problems of rural women in developing countries in general. Mohamed A. Faris is professor of plant science at the Macdonald Campus of McGill University. He is Director of the Canada-EgyptMcGill Agricultural Response Program (CEMAJRP). Mahmood Hasan Khan is professor of economics at Simon Fraser University. They recently c o e d i t e d Sustainable Agriculture in Egypt (Lynne R i e n n e r Publishers, 1993).

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