Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading [1 ed.] 9781617283864, 9781607412366

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Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

Education in a Competitive and Globalizing World Series

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EFFECTS OF FAMILY LITERACY INTERVENTIONS ON CHILDREN’S ACQUISITION OF READING

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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD SERIES Motivation in Education Desmond H. Elsworth (Editor) 2009. ISBN 978-1-60692-234-7 The Reading Literacy of U.S. Fourth-Grade Students in an International Context Justin Baer, Stéphane Baldi, Kaylin Ayotte,Patricia J. Green and Daniel McGrath 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60692-138-3

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Teacher Qualifications and Kindergartners Achievements Cassandra M. Guarino, Laura S. Hamilton, J.R. Lockwood,Amy H. Rathbun and Elvira Germino Hausken 2009 ISBN 978-1-60741-180-2 Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading Ana Carolina Pena (Editor) 2009 ISBN: 978-1-60741-236-6

Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

Education in a Competitive and Globalizing World Series

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.

EFFECTS OF FAMILY LITERACY INTERVENTIONS ON CHILDREN’S ACQUISITION OF READING

ANA CAROLINA PENA EDITOR

Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York

Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

Copyright © 2009 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, electrostatic, magnetic, tape, mechanical photocopying, recording or otherwise without the written permission of the Publisher. For permission to use material from this book please contact us: Telephone 631-231-7269; Fax 631-231-8175 Web Site: http://www.novapublishers.com

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NOTICE TO THE READER The Publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this book, but makes no expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information contained in this book. The Publisher shall not be liable for any special, consequential, or exemplary damages resulting, in whole or in part, from the readers’ use of, or reliance upon, this material. Independent verification should be sought for any data, advice or recommendations contained in this book. In addition, no responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property arising from any methods, products, instructions, ideas or otherwise contained in this publication. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information with regard to the subject matter covered herein. It is sold with the clear understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering legal or any other professional services. If legal or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent person should be sought. FROM A DECLARATION OF PARTICIPANTS JOINTLY ADOPTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION AND A COMMITTEE OF PUBLISHERS. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Available upon request ISBN: H%RRN

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Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1

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Chapter 2

Chapter 3

vii A Child Becomes a Reader: Proven Ideas from Research for Parents. Birth through Preschool National Institute for Literacy The Effect of Family Literacy Interventions on Children’s Acquisition of Reading from Kindergarten to Grade 3 National Institute of Literacy A Child Becomes a Reader: Proven Ideas from Research for Parents. Kindergarten through Grade 3 National Institute for Literacy

Index

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PREFACE Parents can help their children learn to read. The effectiveness of parents’ help, however, varies according to the type of parent-child activities. Educators, when deciding which type of intervention to implement, will have to weigh the differences in effectiveness across the different types of intervention against the amount of resources needed to implement the interventions. The information in this book comes from many research studies that examined early literacy development. This book contains a summary of what scientific research says about how children learn to read and write, and also discusses the things you can do with your child at different grade levels to help him become a reader. What to look for in quality day-care centers and preschools to help your children become readers is examined as well.

Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

Copyright © 2009. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved. Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

In: Effects of Family Literacy Interventions… ISBN 978-1-60741-236-6 Editor: Ana Carolina Pena © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 1

A CHILD BECOMES A READER: PROVEN IDEAS FROM RESEARCH FOR PARENTS∗

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BIRTH THROUGH PRESCHOOL National Institute for Literacy INTRODUCTION When does a child learn to read? Many people might say, “in kindergarten or first grade.” But researchers have told us something very important. Learning to read and write can start at home, long before children go to school. Children can start down the road to becoming readers from the day they are born. Very early, children begin to learn about spoken language when they hear their family members talking, laughing, and singing, and when they respond to all of the sounds that fill their world. They begin to understand written language when they hear adults read stories to them and see adults reading newspapers, magazines, and books for themselves. These early experiences with spoken and written language set the stage for children to become successful readers and writers. ∗

This publication was produced under National Institute for Literacy Contract No. ED-00CO-0093 with RMC Research Corporation.

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Mothers, fathers, grandparents, and caregivers, this booklet is for you. It gives ideas for playing, talking, and reading with your child that will help him1 become a good reader and writer later in life. You don’t need special training or expensive materials. For your baby or toddler, you can just include some simple, fun language games and activities into the things you already do together every day. For your preschooler, you can keep in touch with your child’s teachers so that you know what he is learning in school and support that learning at home. This article contains: • • •

•

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•

A short summary of what scientific research says about how children learn to read and write Things you can do with your children from birth through age 2 to help them become readers Things you can do with your children between the ages 3–4 and what to look for in quality day care centers and preschools to help your children become readers A list of helpful terms. Throughout the booklet, these terms appear in bold type Ideas for books to read and organizations to contact if you would like more help or information

Remember, keep it simple and have fun. Make these activities part of the warm, loving relationship you are already creating with your child.

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF READING AND WRITING From several decades of research, we have learned a lot about how children learn to read and write. This research tells us that to become skilled and confident readers over time, young children need lots of opportunities to: • • • • 1

Build spoken language by talking and listening Learn about print and books Learn about the sounds of spoken language (this is called phonological awareness) Learn about the letters of the alphabet

To make this booklet easier to read, we sometimes refer to a child as “he” or “she. ” However, all of the information about how children learn to read applies to both boys and girls

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Listen to books read aloud

Talking and Listening

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Remember the old saying “children should be seen and not heard”? Research tells us that for children to become readers, they should listen and talk a lot. By the time children are one year old, they already know a lot about spoken language—talking and listening. They recognize some speech sounds. They know which sounds make the words that are important to them. They begin to imitate those sounds. Children learn all of this by listening to family members talk. Even “baby talk,“ which exaggerates the sounds and rhythms of words, makes a contribution to children’s ability to understand language. Children who do not hear a lot of talk and who are not encouraged to talk themselves often have problems learning to read. The information in this booklet comes from many research studies that examined early literacy development. The reports and books listed at the back of this booklet offer more research-based information about how children learn to read and write.

Print and Books Even though books don’t come with operating instructions, we use them in certain ways. We hold them right-side up. We turn the pages one at a time. We read lines of words starting at the left and moving to the right. Knowing about print and books and how they are used is called print awareness. Print awareness is an important part of knowing how to read and write. Children who know about print understand that the words they see in print and the words they speak and hear are related. They will use and see print a lot, even when they’re young—on signs and billboards, in alphabet books and storybooks, and in labels, magazines, and newspapers. They see family members use print, and they learn that print is all around them and that it is used for different purposes.

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Sounds in Spoken Language Some words rhyme. Sentences are made up of separate words. Words have parts called syllables. The words bag, ball, and bug all begin with the same sound. When a child begins to notice and understand these things about spoken language, he is developing phonological awareness—the ability to hear and work with the sounds of spoken language. When a child also begins to understand that spoken words are made up of separate, small sounds, he is developing phonemic awareness. These individual sounds in spoken language are called phonemes. For example, the word big has three phonemes, /b/, /i/,and /g/.2 Children who have phonemic awareness can take spoken words apart sound by sound (the name for this is segmentation) and put together sounds to make words (the name for this is blending). Research shows that how easily children learn to read can depend on how much phonological and phonemic awareness they have.

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The ABCs Singing the alphabet song is more than just a fun activity. Children who go to kindergarten already knowing the shapes and names of the letters of the alphabet, and how to write them, have an easier time learning to read. Knowing the names and shapes of letters is sometimes called alphabetic knowledge.

Reading Aloud Reading aloud to children has been called the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for success in reading. Reading aloud, with children participating actively, helps children learn new words, learn more about the world, learn about written language, and see the connection between words that are spoken and words that are written.

2

A letter between slash marks, /b/, shows the phoneme, or sound, that the letter represents, and not the name of the letter. For example, the letter b represents the sound /b/.

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INFANTS AND TODDLERS, BIRTH THROUGH AGE 2 What to Do at Home Talking to and reading to infants and toddlers are two good ways to prepare them for later success in reading.

Talk to Your Child

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1. Begin talking and singing to your child from birth. Your baby loves hearing your voice. Play peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake. Recite nursery rhymes or other verses that have strong rhythms and repeated sounds. Sing lullabies and other songs. 2. Let your baby know that you hear her babbles, coos, and gurgles. Repeat the sounds she makes. Smile back. When you respond to her sounds, she learns that what she “says“ means something and is important to you. Sometimes, you can supply the language for her. PARENT TALK When your baby stretches her arm toward her bottle and says, “ga-ga-ga,“say, “Oh, you’re ready for some more milk? Here’s your milk. Isn’t it good!“ 3. Play simple touching and talking games together. These games help a child learn what different parts of the body are called. PARENT TALK Ask “Where are your toes?“ Then touch your child’s toes and say, “Here are your toes!“ Repeat several times, then switch to fingers or ears or eyes or the nose 4. Point to familiar objects and name them. When a child hears an object called the same name over and over, he learns to connect the spoken word with its meaning. PARENT TALK “Here’s your blanket. Your very favorite blanket What a nice, soft blanket!“

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National Institute for Literacy 5. When your child begins to speak, build his language. A child starts talking by using single words and short sentences. You can help by filling in missing words and using complete sentences. PARENT TALK Child: “Cookie.“ Parent: “Oh, you want another cookie? OK, you can have just one more.“ Child: “Go car.“ Parent: “Yes, we’re all going to go in the car. But first, you have to put on your coat.“ 6. Encourage your child to talk with you. Ask questions that show you are interested in what she thinks and says. Ask her to share ideas and events that are important to her. Ask her questions that require her to talk, rather than just to give yes or no answers. Listen carefully to what she says.

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PARENT TALK “What would you like to do next?“ “What do you suppose made that big noise?“ 7. Answer your child’s questions. Listen to your child’s questions and answer them patiently. Take time to explain things to him as completely as you can. Keep answering questions that your child asks again and again, because children learn from hearing things over and over.

Read to Your Child 1. Make reading a pleasure. Read to your child in a comfortable place. Have her sit on your lap or next to you so that she can see and point to the print and the pictures. Show her that reading is fun and rewarding. 2. Show enthusiasm as you read with your child. Read the story with expression. Make it more interesting by talking as the characters would talk, making sound effects, and making expressions with your face and hands. When children enjoy being read to, they will grow to love books and be eager to learn to read them. 3. Read to your child often. Set aside special times for reading each day, maybe after lunch and at bedtime. The more you can read to him, the

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better—as long as he is willing to listen. Reading times can be brief, about 5 to 10 minutes

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Reading Together Even six-week-old babies like • About books—how to hold them. How to the feeling of closeness when a turn the pages one at a time. How books parent, grandparent, or other have words and pictures to help tell the caretaker reads to them. story. When children find out that • About print—there is a difference between reading with a loving adult can words and the pictures. You read words be a warm, happy experience, and look at pictures. they begin to build a lifelong • About words—every word has a meaning. love of reading. There are always new words to learn. Reading aloud also • About book language—sometimes book helpschildren learn specific language sounds different from everyday things about reading and conversation. words. • About the world—there are objects, places, events, and situations that they have not heard about before.

Good Books for Infants and Toddlers • Board books are made from heavy cardboard with a plastic coating. The pages are easy for very young children to turn. Board books are sturdy and can stand hard wear by babies, who tend to throw them, crawl over them, and chew them. Board books can be wiped clean. • Cloth books, which are printed on cloth, are soft, strong, and washable. • Touch-and-feel books invite children to explore them with their fingers. They contain objects with different textures or contain holes or pages of different shapes. • Interactive books have flaps that lift or other parts that move. Toddlers love them, but these books tend not to hold up well under rough treatment. • Books with interesting language, rhythm, and sounds such as books with rhymes, songs, and poetry. • Books with predictable patterns and repeated language such as those that retell traditional nursery rhymes or songs. 4. Talk with your child as you read together. Comment about what’s happening in the story. Point to pictures and talk about what’s happening in them. When your child is ready, have him tell you about the pictures.

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National Institute for Literacy PARENT TALK “See the cat under the tree?“ “Look, the family is getting into a car. I wonder where they’re going?“ “What’s happening on this page?“ 5. Encourage your child to explore books. Give your baby sturdy books to look at, touch, and hold. Allow her to turn the pages, look through the holes, or lift the flaps. As your child grows older, keep books on low shelves or in baskets where she can see them and get them herself. Encourage her to look through the books and talk about them. She may talk about the pictures. She may “pretend“ to read a book that she has heard many times. Or, she may pretend read based only on the pictures. 6. Read favorite books again and again. Your child will probably ask you to read favorite books many times. You might get tired of reading the same books, but children love hearing the same stories again. And it helps them learn to read by hearing familiar words and seeing what they look like in print.

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What Children Should Be Able to Do by Age 3 The following is a list of accomplishments that you can expect for your child by age 3. This list is based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember, though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules.

A Three-Year-Old Child3 • • • • • 3

Likes reading with an adult on a regular basis Listens to stories from books and stories that you tell Recognizes a book by its cover Pretends to read books Understands that books are handled in certain ways

The main sources for this list of accomplishments are Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children and Learning to Read and Write: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children. For more information about these sources, see Bibliography at the end of this booklet

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Looks at pictures in a book and knows that they stand for real objects Says the name of objects in books Comments on characters in books Asks an adult to read to him or to help him write May begin paying attention to print such as letters in names Begins to tell the difference between drawing and writing Begins to scribble as a way of writing, making some forms that look like letters

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PRESCHOOLE AGES 3 AND 4 At ages 3 and 4, children are growing rapidly in their language use and in their knowledge of reading and writing. They are learning the meanings of many new words, and they are beginning to use words in more complicated sentences when they speak. They know more about books and print. They are eager to write. They may even be showing an interest in learning to read. Many three- and four-year-old children attend day care centers or preschool for part or most of the day. The information in this section of the booklet will help you and your child, whether your child stays at home all day or attends a day care center or preschool.

What to Do at Home Continue to talk and read with your child, as you did when he was an infant and toddler. Also, add some new and more challenging activities.

Talk and Listen 1. When you do something together—eating, shopping, taking a walk, visiting a relative—talk about it. 2. Take your child to new places and introduce him to new experiences. Talk about the new, interesting, and unusual things that you see and do. 3. Teach your child the meaning of new words. Say the names of things around the house. Label and talk about things in pictures. Explain, in simple ways, how to use familiar objects and how they work.

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National Institute for Literacy PARENT TALK “That’s a whale! It’s a great big animal, as big as a truck. It lives in the ocean.“ “This is a vacuum cleaner. We use it to clean the floor. See how it cleans up the spilled cereal?“ 4. Help your child to follow directions. Use short, clear sentences to tell him what you want him to do. PARENT TALK “Give me your hand, please.“ “Please take off your mittens and put them on the table. Then I’d like for you to bring me your jacket so that I can hang it up.“ 5. Play with words. Have fun with tongue twisters such as “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers“ and nonsense rhymes such as “Hey Diddle, Diddle,“ as well as more modern nonsense rhymes.

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Read Together 1. Keep reading to your child. Read her a lot of different kinds of books. Reread her favorite books, even if you get tired of them before she does. 2. Read predictable books. Your child will begin to recognize the repeated words and phrases and have fun saying them with you. 3. Read poetry and other rhyming books to your child. When reading a familiar rhyme, stop before a rhyming word and ask your child to provide the word. 4. Ask your child what she thinks will happen next in a story. Get excited when she finds out whether her guess was right. 5. Talk about books. Ask about favorite parts. Help your child relate the story to his own life. Answer his questions about characters or events. 6. Build a library, or book collection, for your child. Look for books at bookstores, garage sales, used bookstores, and sales at the library. Suggest that people give books to your child as birthday gifts and on other special days.

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Teach about Print and Letters 1. Help your child learn to recognize her name in print. As she watches, print the letters of her name, saying each letter as you write it. Display her name in special places in your home. Encourage her to spell and write her name. 2. Point out words and letters everywhere you can. Read street signs, traffic signs, billboards, and store signs. Point out certain letters in these signs. Ask your child to begin naming common signs and find some letters. 3. Teach your child the alphabet song. 4. Share alphabet books with your child. Some alphabet books have songs and games that you can learn together. 5. Put magnetic letters on your refrigerator or other smooth, safe metal surface. Ask your child to name the letters as he plays with them. 6. Play games using the alphabet. Ask your child to find letters in books, magazines, newspapers, and other print.

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What to Look for in Day Care Centers and Preschools If your child attends a day care center or preschool, look for these important characteristics of teachers, classrooms, and instruction.

Teachers In quality day care centers and preschools, teachers: • •

Keep a well-run, orderly classroom that also encourages children to participate in and enjoy learning Use many creative ways to help children learn language and learn the knowledge and skills that will help them become readers

Classrooms In quality day care centers and preschools, classrooms have: • • • •

Lots of books and magazines that children can handle and play with Areas for many different activities, such as art, science, housekeeping, writing, and perhaps computers Plenty of print on labels, signs, and posters Writing materials, including paper, pencils, crayons, and markers

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Magnetic letters, or letters made of foam, plastic, wood, or other durable material so children can pretend write and play

Instruction In quality day care centers and preschools, teachers: • • • • • •

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• • •

Read aloud to children frequently, from many different kinds of books Talk with children throughout the day and listen carefully to what they say Play games such as “Simon Says“ and “Mother, May I?“ that require children to listen carefully Give children opportunities to build their knowledge by exploring their interests and ideas Help children learn the meanings of new words by naming colors, shapes, animals, familiar objects, and parts of the classroom Teach about the sounds of spoken language by reading aloud books with interesting sounds, chanting, and rhyming; by having children say or sing nursery rhymes and songs; and by playing word games Teach children about print by pointing out and using the print that is all around them Teach the letters of the alphabet Encourage children to scribble, draw, and try to write

What Children Should Be Able to Do by Age 54 The following is a list of some accomplishments that you can expect for your child by age 5. This list is based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember, though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules.

Spoken Language A five-year-old child:

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Understands and follows oral (or spoken) directions Uses new words and longer sentences when she speaks Recognizes the beginning sounds of words and sounds that rhyme Listens carefully when books are read aloud

Reading A five-year-old child: • • • • •

Shows interest in books and reading Might try to read, calling attention to himself and showing pride in what he can do (“See, I can read this book!“) Can follow the series of events in some stories Can connect what happens in books to her life and experiences Asks questions and makes comments that show he understands the book he is listening to

Print and Letters A five-year-old child:

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• • •

• • •

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Knows the difference between print (words) and pictures and knows that print is what you read Recognizes print around him on signs, on television, on boxes, and many other places Understands that writing has a lot of different purposes (for example, signs tell where something is located, lists can be used for grocery shopping, directions can tell you how to put something together) Knows that each letter in the alphabet has a name Can name at least 10 letters in the alphabet, especially the ones in her name “Writes,“ or scribbles, messages

The main sources for this list of accomplishments are Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children and Learning to Read andWrite: Developmentally Appropriate Practices for Young Children. For more information about these sources, see Bibliography at the end of this booklet.

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SOME HELPFUL TERMS TO KNOW Day care providers and preschool teachers might use some of the following terms when talking to you about how your child is learning to read. You will find that many of these terms are used in this booklet. • • • • •

•

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•

• • •

• •

•

• •

alphabetic knowledge—Knowing the names and shapes of the letters of the alphabet. big books—Oversized books that allow for the sharing of print and illustrations with children. blending—Putting together individual sounds to make spoken words. developmental spelling—The use of letter-sound relationship information to attempt to write words. emergent literacy—The view that literacy learning begins at birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful reading and writing activities. environmental print—Print that is a part of everyday life, such as signs, billboards, labels, and business logos. experimental writing—Efforts by young children to experiment with writing by creating pretend and real letters and by organizing scribbles and marks on paper. invented spelling—See developmental spelling. literacy—Includes all the activities involved in speaking, listening, reading, writing, and appreciating both spoken and written language. phonemes—The smallest parts of spoken language that combine to form words. For example, the word hit is made up of three phonemes (/h/ /i/ /t/) and differs by one phoneme from the words pit, hip and hot. phonemic awareness—The ability to notice and work with the individual sounds in spoken language. phonological awareness—The understanding that spoken language is made up of individual and separate sounds. In addition to phonemes, phonological awareness activities can involve work with rhymes, words, sentences, and syllables. pretend reading—Children’s attempts to “read“ a book before they have learned to read. Usually children pretend read a familiar book that they have practically memorized. print awareness—Knowing about print and books and how they are used. segmentation—Taking spoken words apart sound by sound.

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spoken language—The language used in talking and listening; in contrast to written language, which is the language used in writing and reading. syllable—A word part that contains a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel sound (e-vent, news-pa-per, pret-ty) vocabulary—The words we must know in order to communicate effectively. Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in listening Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading; Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young Children Learning at Home and School. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2000). The Scientist in the Crib. New York: Harper Perennial. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

RESOURCES FOR PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS The following web sites can provide you with useful information about learning to read. The Partnership for Reading. www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading National Parent Information Network (NPIN). www.npin.org National Institute for Literacy (NIFL). www.nifl.gov No Child Left Behind web site describes the current education law and how it affects K-3 schools, parents, and children. www.ed.gov/nclb

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Reading Rockets offers activities and ideas for building your child’s reading skills at home. www.readingrockets.org/families PBS Parents can help parents learn how children become readers and writers by helping them develop by talking, reading, and writing together every day. www.pbs.org/parents/readinglanguage/ The White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans offers resources on helping the language development of infants and young children. www.yesican.gov/earlychildhood/index.html The Head Start Information and Publication Center provides publications and other resources on literacy for parents of young children. www.headstartinfo.org The American Federation of Teachers web site offers pages for parents on building strong partnerships with schools. www.aft.org/parents/index.htm The National Education Association web site contains information on parent involvement in literacy and other topics. www.nea.org/parents/index.html HIPPYUSA (Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters) has a web site for parents to help them understand their roles as their children’s first teacher. www.hippyusa.org. The National Association for the Education of Young Children promotes excellence in early childhood education. www.naeyc.org/families/ Parents as Teachers National Center suggests ways for parents to interact with their children to develop early literacy. www.parentsasteachers.org

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In: Effects of Family Literacy Interventions… ISBN 978-1-60741-236-6 Editor: Ana Carolina Pena © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 2

THE EFFECT OF FAMILY LITERACY INTERVENTIONS ON CHILDREN’S ACQUISITION OF READING FROM KINDERGARTEN TO GRADE 3∗

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National Institute of Literacy ABSTRACT Goal. Educators believe that parents can help their children learn to read. But what evidence supports this belief? And if parent involvement does matter, what kinds of parent involvement are most efficient? The goal of this report was to review the scientific literature on parent involvement in the acquisition of reading from kindergarten to grade 3. Method. In the present review, parent involvement in literacy acquisition was narrowly defined to include parent-child activities that focus on reading. Moreover, the 14 studies that were analyzed were those that included an intervention where researchers tested whether parent involvement enhanced children’s literacy. Standard meta-analytic procedures were used to analyze the study outcomes. Findings: Overall. The combined results for the 14 intervention studies, representing 1174 families, were clear: Parent involvement has a positive impact on children’s reading acquisition. The mean effect size for the ∗

A Meta-Analytic Review, Conducted by Monique Sénéchal, For the National Center for Family Literacy. Produced by RMC Research Corporation Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 2006.

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National Institute of Literacy combined studies was moderately large (effect size = .68). This effect size corresponds to a 10-point gain on a literacy test (with a standard deviation of 15) for the intervention children as compared to the control children. Findings: Intervention type. The three types of parent involvement represented in the review differed in their effectiveness. Having parents teach specific literacy skills to their children was two times more effective than having parents listen to their children read and six times more effective than encouraging parents to read to their children. In the present review, providing supportive feedback to parents during the intervention did not alter effectiveness. Also, the duration of the intervention did not moderate its effectiveness. Findings: Participant characteristics. Parent involvement had a positive impact from kindergarten to grade 3. In addition, the interventions were as effective for children experiencing reading difficulties as they were for normally-developing children. Finally, the socioeconomic level of the participating families did not affect the positive impact of the interventions. Findings: Study design. Studies that included standardized tests yielded smaller effects than other studies. Conclusion. Parents can help their children learn to read. The effectiveness of parents’ help, however, varies according to the type of parent-child activities. Educators, when deciding which type of intervention to implement, will have to weigh the differences in effectiveness across the different types of intervention against the amount of resources needed to implement the interventions.

INTRODUCTION Goal Educators believe that parents can help their children learn to read. But what is the evidence that supports the idea that involving parents in their children’s literacy acquisition will result in better outcomes for the children? And if parent involvement does matter, what kinds of parent-child interactions are associated with improvements in children’s literacy acquisition? The goal of this report was to review the scientific literature on parent involvement in the acquisition of literacy from kindergarten to grade 3.

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Context Parents can be involved in their child’s literacy development in a variety of ways. Indeed, parent involvement can be classified in at least three categories: school-based involvement, home- school conferencing, and home-based involvement (Fantuzzo et al., 2000; Hill and Craft, 2003). The first type of parental involvement is school-based involvement, which includes various parental activities and behaviors occurring in their children’s school environment. Some examples of school-based involvement activities include volunteering in the classroom, acting as a chaperone for class field trips, participating in fundraising activities in the school, or planning classroom activities with teachers. The second type of parental involvement is home-school conferencing, which involves communication between parents and teachers or other school staff regarding children’s academic achievement, enjoyment of school, and rate of progress. Some examples of home-school conferencing activities include talking to a teacher about a child’s areas of strength or weakness in school, attending parent-teacher conferences to discuss a child’s progress and performance, scheduling meetings with school administrators in order to solve problems or to learn more about what is occurring in school, or talking with a child’s teachers about classroom rules and daily class routines. The third type of parental involvement is home-based involvement, which involves parents actively encouraging children to engage in learning in the home setting and providing learning opportunities for their children. Some examples of home-based involvement include reviewing a child’s homework, spending time working with a child on number skills or reading and writing skills, bringing home learning materials such as books or educational videos for a child, or talking to a child about the parent’s love for learning. In the present research synthesis, we focused on parent-child activities occurring at home that aimed at improving children’s literacy. One of the most studied parent-child activities that is assumed to promote early literacy is joint book reading. Indeed, the results of a meta-analytic review of 17 studies revealed an overall positive association between parents reading to their children and children’s emergent literacy or reading achievement (Bus, van IJzendoorn, and Pellegrini, 1995). Another review of the research literature also revealed a positive association between joint book reading and early literacy in some, but not all, of the 12 correlational studies examined (Scarborough and Dobrich, 1994). These two reviews, however, included mostly correlational studies, and, therefore, it is impossible to assess whether book reading was the cause of the positive effects.

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Another parent-child activity that has received attention is parents listening to their child read. Two reviews of studies that have examined the effect of parents listening report positive effects. One review included studies in which schools sent books home along with general information about how to encourage children to read as well as studies in which parents were given specific techniques on coaching their child during the reading (Toomey, 1993). In this review, it appeared that providing parents with simple but specific techniques showed greater benefits for children at risk of reading failure than did providing parents with general information. Another review (Topping and Lindsay, 1992) only examined studies that used a specific technique for listening to children read. This technique, called paired reading, is one where the parent reads along with the child, providing corrective feedback and praise, until the child feels sufficiently confident to read alone. In this review again, positive effects are reported. It seems that the four reviews described in the previous paragraphs support the idea that involving parents can enhance children’s literacy development. There seems to be evidence that shared book reading as well as listening to children read are two parent-child activities that can have positive effects. There may, however, be other parent-child activities that have positive effects. For instance, direct teaching is another activity that is related to literacy acquisition (Evans, Shaw, and Bell, 2000; Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2002). The approach taken for the research synthesis reported here is different from the four previous reviews in a number of ways: (1) no a priori decisions were made about the type of parent-child activities to be included in the present review; (2) only intervention studies with control groups were included to allow us to make stronger statements about the role of parent involvement on the acquisition of reading; and (3) meta-analytic procedures were used to integrate the findings across studies.

Focus In the present review, parent involvement in literacy acquisition was narrowly defined to include parent-child activities that focus on reading. No decisions or judgments were made ahead of time on the type of parent intervention to be included, and, therefore, a broad search of the research literature was conducted. Once the literature was surveyed and reviewed, the parent involvement interventions were classified in one of three categories. The first category consisted of studies where parents were asked to read to their child. Another category included interventions where parents were asked to listen to their child read. The final category included those interventions in which parents were

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trained to do literacy exercises with their child. This classification of the articles on parent involvement will be used to present the information about the studies. In this review, reading acquisition is used as a general term that refers to the early literacy behaviors of children in kindergarten as well as the more advanced behaviors of children in grade 3. Therefore, reading acquisition includes early literacy behaviors such as knowledge of letter names and letter sounds, phoneme awareness, as well as early word reading. Reading acquisition also captures children’s word recognition and reading comprehension. Children’s spelling skills were also of interest, but the review conducted did not yield studies that focused on spelling skills. Although a few studies included kindergarten measures of early (or invented) spelling, their number was too small to warrant a different outcome category. Hence, these early spelling skills were included in the early literacy category. The definition of early literacy used in the present review excludes measures of child language such as vocabulary knowledge or listening comprehension. Some researchers have argued that it is important to distinguish early literacy from language development because they hold different relations to different types of parent-child activities (for example, Sénéchal, LeFevre, SmithChant, and Colton, 2000), and it remains to be tested whether improvement in the language skills of young children will eventually translate into improved literacy in grades 1 to 3. The studies were selected to determine the causal role of parent actions in children’s literacy development. The studies used in this analysis were those that included an intervention where researchers tested whether a particular kind of involvement would produce the desired outcomes in children. The selection of intervention studies that included control groups allowed an assessment of the relative impact of different kinds of parent-child activities in fostering literacy skills. Assessing the causal role of parent involvement would not be possible from an analysis of studies with other research designs such as interventions without control groups, or descriptive and correlational studies that document the relations between parent involvement and child literacy, but do not control for alternative explanations for the findings. For instance, correlation coefficients do not control for the possibility that the relation between the two key variables is due to their common relation with a third variable. Recent research shows that the relations between the frequency and variability of book reading at home in kindergarten and reading comprehension in grade 3 can be explained by their common association to children’s vocabulary knowledge (see Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2002).

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When conducting research to assess the causality between a treatment and an outcome, the designs that have the highest degree of internal and external validity are experimental designs that include: (a) pre- and posttests; (b) randomized assignment to the treatment and control groups; and (c) a control group that receives an alternative form of treatment. Next in line in terms of design strength are experimental studies that have all of the above characteristics with one exception: The control group does not receive an alternative form of treatment. Next come studies for which participants are not assigned randomly, but are matched on key characteristics. Study designs are called quasi-experimental when the participants are not assigned randomly to the treatment and control groups. Quasi-experimental designs are weaker than experimental designs because they do not control for the possibility of a bias in participant assignment such that participants with specific characteristics (for example, high motivation) may be assigned to the intervention group, and that it may be those characteristics, not the treatment per se, that are responsible for the obtained effects. The present review included experimental as well as quasi-experimental designs because Rosenthal (1995) argued that the exclusion of quasi-experiments is too restrictive and it is best to (a) include these studies and (b) test whether the overall effects that were found were due to the presence of studies with weaker designs. Such a test was conducted in the present report. Intervention studies without control groups were excluded from the present synthesis because this study design fails to separate the effects of normal maturation from those affected by the treatment or intervention. Generally, a young child will score better on most measures when they are older than when they are younger. Because both the experimental and control group continue to mature during the experiment, when they are compared, these gains are zeroed out. The effects of maturation are not zeroed out in the pre-/posttest design without a control group, and so these effects are almost always higher and are simply not comparable with the effect sizes that are used for the analyses reported here.

Questions Addressed Meta-analytic procedures provide a test of the overall effect of parent involvement on children’s literacy as well as a test of similarity in the size of the effects across studies (that is, a test of homogeneity). In the case when an overall effect is not based on a homogenous body of research, then one examines

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variables, labeled moderators, that might explain the variability in effects across studies. Three categories of questions were addressed to test for potential moderators in the present synthesis. The first category documented whether characteristics of the interventions were related to the impact of parent involvement on children’s reading acquisition. This category included questions such as whether different types of parent involvement have a differential effect on the acquisition of reading and whether the format and amount of parent training was associated with learning to read. The second and third categories of questions examined whether there were other study characteristics that might moderate the effect of involving parents in their child’s literacy acquisition. These analyses are supplementary to the first set of questions and become important when one finds considerable variability in effects across studies. The questions selected are those typical in meta-analytic research (for example, see the meta-analysis by Bus and van IJzendoorn, 1999; Ehri, Nunes, Willows, Schuster, Yaghoub-Zadeh, and Shanahan, 2001; also see the recommendations in Rosenthal, 1995). The second category of questions addressed the issue of whether characteristics of the samples were associated with the relative impact of parent involvement. In this section, questions such as the role of the socioeconomic status of the family, as well as the grade and reading level of the children were examined. It was of interest to document the reading level of the parents, but none of the studies selected included measures of the reading skills of the parents. The third category concerned questions about the design of the studies. For example, it examined whether the use of standardized tests or the sample size moderated the effect of parent involvement. The results of each question category will be described in a separate section.

METHODOLOGY Finding the Studies The database of studies included in the meta-analysis was established in three steps: (1) a search of electronic databases; (2) a search of review articles; and (3) a search of the reference sections of the articles selected in steps 1 and 2. The articles retained in the meta-analysis were those that met the following five selection criteria:

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National Institute of Literacy • • • • •

Studies published in a peer-reviewed journal. Studies that used an experimental or a quasi-experimental design to allow us to make statements about causality Studies that tested the hypothesis that parent involvement enhances the acquisition of reading. Studies that included at least five participants. Studies that reported statistics permitting the calculation or estimation of effect sizes, or reported effect sizes.

Step 1: Electronic searches. The first step was to search the scientific literature to find articles on parent involvement. To do so, three sets of keywords were selected that would allow a systematic and thorough search of two electronic databases: PsycINFO and ERIC. The first set of keywords included 11 terms that described parent involvement, the second set included 21 terms that described reading and spelling, and the third set included four terms that described the grade levels of interest.

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•

•

•

Set 1: Parent involvement. Family environment, family influence, family literacy, home literacy practices, home experiences, parent involvement, parent participation, parent school relations, parent tutoring, parent curriculum, and parent-child reading. Set 2: Literacy. Alphabet, letter names, letter sounds, reading readiness, phoneme awareness, phonological awareness, decoding, reading, beginning reading, reading development, reading acquisition, word identification, word recognition, word reading, miscues, reading ability, reading achievement, reading comprehension, spelling, learning to spell, and invented spelling. Set 3: Grade level. Kindergarten, grade 1, grade 2, and grade 3.

The electronic searches were performed by linking the key words within each set with the operator ‘or’ and linking each set with the operator ‘and.’ This search yielded 136 potential articles on parent involvement. The abstract for each article was examined and the studies that clearly did not meet the selection criteria were excluded. The application of these procedures resulted in the selection of 77 articles on parent involvement. Step 2: Review articles. The reference sections of three review articles on parent involvement were hand-searched for studies that met the five criteria listed in the previous section and that were not found in the electronic searches. The review articles were those of Bus, van IJzendoorn, and Pellegrini (1995), Toomey

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(1993), and Topping and Lindsay (1992). The application of these procedures resulted in the selection of 22 additional articles on parent involvement. Step 3: Selecting articles. The 99 articles found in steps 1 and 2 were obtained from libraries and examined to ensure that they met the five selection criteria. The application of this procedure resulted in the exclusion of 86 articles, and, consequently, 13 articles were analyzed further. In addition, three articles that described an intervention study without control groups were also retained as potential sources of additional research (Fry, 1977; Lopez and Cole, 1999; Mudre and McCormick, 1989). Step 4: Reference sections. The reference sections of these 16 articles were hand-searched for additional articles that might have been missed in steps 1 and 2. The application of this procedure resulted in the examination of one additional intervention study. This study did not have a control group, and, consequently, was not included (Ebey, Marchand-Martella, Martella and Nelson, 1999), nor did its reference section yield any additional article on parent involvement that met all five selection criteria. A total of 13 articles were included in the meta-analysis. One of these articles (Leach and Siddall, 1990) included four conditions, and, consequently, it was decided to assign the two conditions described as the most intensive and specific as treatments and to match randomly with the treatments the remaining two conditions labeled controls. For the purpose of the meta- analysis, one treatmentcontrol pair was labeled Study 1 and the other pair Study 2. Hence, the metaanalysis was conducted on 14 studies. Short summaries for each study are presented in tabular form at the end of this report. The distribution of the excluded articles based on the five selection criteria is as follows: 67% of them did not meet the design criteria; 25% the specific hypothesis; 8% the relevant statistics; and 2% the publication criterion. Selection bias. Studies that were included were those published in peerreviewed journals. This selection criterion was used to assure that a panel of peers judged the study to be of sufficient methodological rigor to warrant publication. This criterion, of course, does not guarantee that the articles selected will be of high quality, nor does it imply that unpublished research or research published elsewhere is of lower quality. It simply assured that a panel of research peers had assessed the research. This criterion might, however, introduce a selection bias because it is typically the case that only statistically significant results are published in peer- reviewed journals. It was, therefore, important to verify whether the publication criterion did not overestimate the effect of parent involvement. One way to do so is to estimate the number of studies with null results that would be needed to bring down the combined effect found in the

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present report to a probability level of .05. Hence, a fail-safe number was calculated according to the formula presented in Mullen and Rosenthal (1985; see appendix). Given the findings of the present synthesis, more than 500 additional studies with null results would be required to change the overall findings. Furthermore, the reliance on refereed publications ensured that the studies were largely or entirely obtainable, since it is difficult or impossible to conduct a comprehensive search of the unpublished literature. Such studies are not equally accessible, which could introduce a source of bias into the research and could prevent future replication.

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Coding the Studies The coding instrument included three sections that referred to the three categories of characteristics, namely, intervention, participant, and study characteristics. The characteristics were selected because they could be moderators of the effects found. As such, examining these characteristics may help in understanding potential variation across the studies. Each of the three categories of characteristics is described in turn. Intervention characteristics. An analysis of the characteristics of the interventions can reveal which aspects of the interventions were associated with the variation in effects across studies. Each study was coded on the following four intervention characteristics: (1) the type of parent involvement intervention with each specific intervention recoded into one of the following: parents read to their child; parents listen to their child read; and parents teach specific reading skills to their child; (2) the intensity of the parent training as indicated by the duration, in hours, of the workshops; (3) the presence or absence of supportive feedback given to parents during the intervention; and (4) the duration, in months, of the intervention. The moderating effect of the presence or absence of materials provided by the researchers could not be examined because materials were provided through workshops/meetings in all but one study (Miller, Robson, and Bushell, 1986). In addition, the delivery mode of the parent training (workshops or handouts) was not examined further because only two studies provided handouts (Hannon, 1987; Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell, 1987). Participant characteristics. The analysis of participant characteristics across the studies can show how the intervention effects relate to particular kinds of participants. For example, it is possible to determine if the impact of the interventions is different for different age groups. Each study was coded on the

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following three participant characteristics: (1) the grade level of the children; (2) the reading level of the children to reflect whether children were reading at a normal-level, at risk for reading difficulties, or having reading problems; and (3) the socioeconomic level of the families, to reflect whether families had a low or a middle to high income. Study characteristics. The analysis of study characteristics allowed us to determine whether effects were related to quality factors or other aspects of the studies. Each intervention was coded on the following seven characteristics of study design: (1) the assignment of participants to the intervention and control groups (that is, random or not random); (2) the sample size; the type of tests used to measure reading (that is, standardized or researcher-designed tests); the timing of posttest administration (that is, were posttests administered immediately after the intervention or not); (5) the type of outcome measure used (that is, the specific measures were recoded into the following four sets of measures: early literacy, word reading, reading comprehension, or a composite of the previous measures); (6) the year of publication; and (7) the country in which the study was conducted. It was impossible to analyze whether parents implemented the interventions correctly because intervention fidelity information was not reported in most studies. It was also impossible to code whether the control groups received a related treatment (or another type of treatment, or no treatment) because only two studies included a control group that received a related treatment (Study 1 and 2, Leach and Siddall, 1990). Another study included a control group that received a related treatment as well as a no-treatment control group, but failed to provide the means and standard deviations for the two control groups, and therefore, it was impossible to calculate separate effect sizes (Wilks and Clarke, 1988). The related treatments are described in the short summaries for these three studies presented at the end of the document.

Assessing Coder Reliability Two coders, a principal and a secondary coder, rated each study. Inter-coder reliability was 94%, ranging from 100% agreement to 85% agreement on the 14 dimensions coded as well as the transcription of means, standard deviations, F statistics, and p values. Of the 22 disagreements, 14 were due to factual errors and were corrected, while the remaining eight disagreements were due to differences in interpretation and were not corrected. A third coder rated the dimensions that produced the eight interpretation disagreements, and the final coding value determined by two out of three coders was selected.

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Using Effect Sizes as a Common Index of Intervention Efficiency Across Studies The primary statistic used to integrate and compare the 14 studies was the effect size. In the present report, an effect size is the standardized difference between the intervention group and the control group (or an estimate of the difference). Hence, an effect size of 1 represents a difference of 1 standard deviation between the intervention and the control groups. For instance, if a study used a standardized test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15, then an effect size of 1 would represent a 15-point advantage for the intervention group over the control group. Similarly, an effect size of 0.50 would represent a 7.5point difference between the intervention and the control groups, and an effect size of 0 would represent no difference between the intervention and the control groups. In the present report, the description of effect sizes in terms of points gained on a test were used to gauge the magnitude of the effects. Another description of effect sizes corresponds to the educational relevance of the effect sizes. This second description is important because small effect sizes can still have educational importance. For example, it may be the case that educators may want to promote the use of techniques that have small effect sizes because these techniques require very few resources as compared to techniques that have a greater effect size but require resources that are not available.

Meta-Analytic Procedures This section describes methodological details that will be of interest to those familiar with meta-analytic procedures. These methodological details are not necessary to understand the findings sections. The effect size index selected in the present analysis was Cohen’s d, a standardized measure of the difference between the performance of the children in the intervention group and those in the control group. Cohen’s d is calculated by subtracting the mean of the control group from the mean of the intervention group, and dividing the obtained difference by the averaged standard deviations for the intervention and control groups. There were two studies for which Cohen’s d could not be calculated directly because the means and/or standard deviations for the intervention and control groups were not reported. For these studies, effect sizes were estimated from F statistics (Wilks and Clarke, 1988) or p values (Searls, Lewis, and Morrow, 1982). In the Wilks and Clarke (1988) study, the F statistic included two degrees of

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freedom in the denominator because there were three groups; this means that an overall effect size could be estimated, but this would be based upon all of the differences and not just the differences between the experimental and control condition. It was decided to use the F statistic, nonetheless, because a close inspection of the means and the description of the post-hoc tests revealed a clear advantage for the parent involvement group over the other two groups—in other words almost all of the difference captured by the F statistic was due to the treatment of interest. An additional study (Miller, Robson, and Bushell, 1986) reported a large pretest difference between the two groups of participants, and consequently, the p values that acknowledged this difference (that is, the F for the repeated measures analyses) were used. The formulas for calculating effect sizes from F or p values are given in the appendix at the end of the document. Combining effect sizes within studies. Most studies in the database included multiple reading measures. In conducting meta-analyses, however, it is advisable to have a single estimate of effect size per study to ensure effect size independence. Producing a single estimate of effect size for each study was done in four steps: (1) for studies using standardized and experimenter- designed tests, only the standardized measures were used to optimize comparisons across studies; (2) for studies reporting composite scores as well as subtest scores for the same standardized test, only the composite scores were used; (3) for the two studies that included immediate and delayed posttests, only the measures for the immediate posttest were used to optimize the comparisons with the 10 studies that included immediate posttests only; and (4) effect sizes were computed for any remaining measure and the median effect size was used as a single estimate for each study. Combining effect sizes across studies. Combining effect sizes across studies was conducted using standard meta-analytic procedures (Cooper and Hedges, 1994; Hedges and Olkin, 1985; and see the appendix). For the entire set of studies and each characteristic level, a homogeneity statistic was computed to assess whether the variability in effect sizes within the set of studies was greater than would be expected by chance (that is, p ≤ .05). For each characteristic, a betweenlevel statistic was computed to assess whether the different levels of the characteristic were statistically significant from each other. In all cases, mean effect sizes were weighted to acknowledge that studies with larger samples provide more reliable estimates of the population effect size and that the use of unweighted effect sizes will introduce some bias in the statistics. The weights used here were the inverse of the effect size variance for each study (Hedges, 1982). A fixed-effect model was used to compute within- and between-levels

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statistics. This means that significance testing is based on the total number of participants across studies, not the number of studies (Rosenthal, 1995). To assess whether some studies yielded effect sizes that were outliers, the distribution of effect sizes was examined by calculating the homogeneity statistic for the entire set of studies but removing each study one at a time (Hedges and Olkin, 1985). This procedure revealed one potential outlier (Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell, 1987). The analyses were run with and without this study to assess whether its presence altered the pattern of statistically significant results. In all but two analyses, the inclusion of this study did not alter the findings, and, consequently, all studies were included. The analyses for which the outlier affected the outcome were run without the outlier, as described in the appropriate sections.

FINDINGS: OVERALL EFFECTS

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Does Parent Involvement Influence Reading Acquisition? Yes. Combining the results of the 14 intervention studies, representing 1174 families, shows that parent involvement does have a positive impact on children’s reading acquisition. The mean weighted effect size was moderately large at 0.68 (with 95% confidence intervals from 0.56 to 0.81). This effect size corresponds to a 10-point gain on a standardized test (with a standard deviation of 15) for the intervention children as compared to the control children. There was, however, considerable variability in the magnitude of effect sizes across studies, ranging from a low of 0.07 to a high of 2.02. As a consequence of the variability across studies, it is necessary to assess whether the characteristics of the studies could account for the variability across studies. The next three sections of the findings attempt to explain why the study results were so variable. To do so, the characteristics of the interventions, the participants, and designs of the 14 studies with control groups were examined. The characteristics of each study are presented in Table 1 and the findings are reported in three sections. Within each section, the findings are presented as answers to questions, with the first part of the answer describing the distribution of studies across characteristic levels, and the second part addressing whether these specific characteristics were moderators that explained differences in the impact of the interventions. In addition, each section contains a summary table that presents the tests conducted to assess whether the effect sizes were different for characteristic level.

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FINDINGS: INTERVENTION CHARACTERISTICS The findings for the four intervention characteristics are presented as answers to questions. The first part of each answer is a description of the characteristic levels and the final part is the statistical comparison in effectiveness among the different levels of the characteristic.

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1. Is the Type of Parent Involvement Related to Reading Acquisition? There were three levels of parent involvement. The first level, labeled Read to Child, included two studies in which parents were encouraged to read to their child. Parents in one study were instructed by researchers on appropriate reading practices such as how to read aloud effectively to their children, how to choose appropriate books, select a quiet environment and an optimal time of day, and how to ensure child interest in the books (Foster and Bitner, 1998). Parents in another study were encouraged to engage in scripted parent-child interactions and extended book-related discussions, as well as to complete book-based activities related to monthly themes (for example, vocabulary enrichment) with their child (Jordan, Snow, and Porche, 2000). In the second level, parents listened to their child read. This second category was labeled Listen to Child Read and included five studies. In all but one study (Miller, Robson, and Bushell, 1986) in the Listen to Read category, children’s books were sent home from school. The techniques to train parents varied. In two studies, teachers or researchers provided general suggestions to parents for listening to their child read (Hannon, 1987; Tizard, Schofield, and Hewison, 1982). Parents read along with their child and provided corrective feedback in three studies. In two of these studies, the paired reading technique was employed (Leach and Siddall, Study 1, 1990; Miller, Robson, and Bushell, 1986). The paired reading technique involves a parent and a child reading aloud simultaneously. The child tries to read every word, and if the child makes a mistake he or she is given time to repeat the word correctly. During simultaneous reading, the child knocks to signify his desire to read alone, at which time the parent stops reading aloud. If the child makes a mistake or cannot read a word alone, the parent provides the correct word for the child to repeat. At this time simultaneous reading recommences until the child knocks again.

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Table 1. Intervention, Participant, and Study Characteristics for Each of the 14 Studies

Grade: K = kindergarten, Mixed = a combination of grades; Reading Level: 1 = normal, 2 = at risk, 3 = remedial; SES: 1 = Low income, 2 = Middle/high income; N = total sample size; Test time: I = immediately after the intervention, D = after a delay. Outcome measure: 1 = early literacy, 2 = word reading, 3 = reading comprehension, 4 = composite measure; - A hyphen indicates missing information. a Participants were matched * p ≤ .05 one tailed.

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Parents encouraged their child to use context cues in one study. In this study, parents were trained to use meaning, context, and phonic cues instead of direct word prompts, to praise their child, and to delay intervention when their child struggled while reading a word (Wilks and Clarke, 1988). The third level of interventions was labeled Parents Teach Child Literacy Skills and included seven studies in which parents were trained to teach their child specific skills that are linked to reading. For example, parents taught their child the alphabet in some studies, and parents taught word reading in others. Parents were given specific exercises to do with their child in four studies. Parents were trained to use word cards in order to help their child learn to read new words and sentences containing these words (Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell, 1987). Parents learned to select suitable reading environments, to correct their child’s errors, and to teach letter-sound correspondence and letter-sound blending (Kraft, Findlay, Major, Gilberts, and Hofmeister, 2001). Parents provided their child with practice exercises to learn to read onesyllable words, to recognize and say beginning consonant and ending vowelconsonant sounds, and to blend beginning and ending sounds to sound out new words (Niedermeyer, 1970). Parents engaged in daily activities with their child involving phonics rules, basal readers, sight words, letter-sound correspondence, and recommended children’s books. These activities were designed to reinforce reading skills taught to children at school (Searls, Lewis, and Morrow, 1982). In the other three studies, parents were given a structured program that included exercises as well as books or texts. The difficulty level of the texts was controlled and the texts promoted, in some cases, specific letter-sound knowledge and/or the reading of specific words. In one study, parents were trained to implement the Teach Your Child to Read in 100 Easy Lessons program (Engelmann, Haddox, and Bruner, 1983), an empirically validated reading program for the parents of preschool children (Leach and Siddall, Study 2, 1990). In another study, parents were trained to use the Reading Recovery model, which included lessons involving reading new and unfamiliar books, letter identification, decoding unfamiliar words, writing a sentence or story, and reassembling a cut-up sentence or story (Faires, Nichols, and Rickelman, 2000). In a final study, parents were trained using the Reading Made Easy program (Harrison, 1981) that involved teaching sounds and letters, basic sight words, blending sounds, and decoding words (Mehran and White, 1988). Training parents to teach their child reading with specific exercises produced the greatest results, with a mean weighted effect size of 1.15. This would correspond to a 17-point increase on a standardized measure for the intervention

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children as compared to the control children. The five studies where parents were trained to listen to their child read produced a moderate effect size (0.51) which indicates that, after the intervention, the intervention children made gains of 8 points on a standardized measure compared to the control children. The difference between these two types of interventions was statistically significant: Training parents to teach their child was more effective intervention than training parents to listen to their child read. In contrast to the above results, the two studies where parents read to their child produced a small effect size (0.18) that was not different from 0. That latter finding is important because it suggests that having parents read to their child may not improve early literacy skills as defined in the present study. The studies within each of the three intervention categories showed considerable variability. In the subsequent analyses, we examined whether other intervention variables explained the variability across studies.

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2. Is the Amount of Training Parents Received Related to Intervention Outcomes? The studies were divided into two levels. There were six studies for which the amount of parent training lasted between one to two hours and four studies for which the training lasted between three to eight hours. In the set of 10 studies that could be included in this analysis, studies that provided less training (two hours or less) yielded larger effect sizes than studies that provided more training (three to eight hours). A close inspection of this finding, however, revealed that it is probably due to the fact that four of the six less-training studies were ones where parents were trained to teach. Hence, this finding was not interpreted further.

3. Is Providing Parents with Supportive Feedback Related to Intervention Outcomes? In eight studies, parents were given feedback during the intervention either through home visits or telephone interviews. In most cases, the feedback was to help parents implement the intervention techniques. In six studies, parents were not given such feedback. Note that most studies did not provide enough information about the duration or type of supportive feedback given to parents to allow further descriptions of this characteristic. In the present set of studies,

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providing supportive feedback did not produce better child outcomes than the studies that did not.

4. Is the Length of the Intervention Related to Intervention Outcomes? Studies were classified according to three levels, namely, short, somewhat short, and long interventions. Preliminary analyses revealed that the study by Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell (1987) acted as an outlier, and, consequently, it was excluded in the analyses presented below. There were three short interventions that were 1.5 months or shorter (mean length was 1.3 months, range 1.0 to 1.5 months), there were seven somewhat short interventions lasting between 2.5 to 5 months (mean = 3.6 months), and there were three long interventions that lasted 10 months or longer (mean length was 20 months, range 9 to 36 months). In the set of studies, the intervention length did not affect study outcomes.

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Summary Table of Statistical Results Table 2 summarizes the statistical analyses that were conducted for this section on intervention characteristics. It presents: (a) the number studies and of participating families for each characteristic level; (b) the results of a test to assess whether the studies included in each level produced homogeneous effect sizes; (c) the mean effect size (that is, d) for each level; (d) the confidence interval (for p = .05) for each effect size; and (e) the results of between-levels comparisons. Examination of the confidence intervals is very useful for three reasons. First, confidence intervals provide a gauge with which the variability across studies can be appreciated. Hence, wide confidence intervals reflect that the studies included are more variable as compared to narrower confidence intervals. Second, confidence intervals that include zero are not statistically significant. And third, comparisons of the confidence intervals across levels allow one to assess whether the different levels are statistically different from each other. That is, levels whose confidence intervals do not overlap are statistically significantly different from each other. As indicated in Table 2, the attempts to explain the variability across studies by grouping the studies that shared common intervention characteristics did not result in more homogeneous effect sizes. This indicates that the effect sizes for the studies within a set are more different from each other than would be expected by

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chance (p ≤ .05). Second, this variability is also seen in the width of the confidence intervals. This band around the mean effect size for each level of the characteristics is much wider when the study results are more variable. Hence, caution should be used in interpreting the results.

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Table 2. Tests for Intervention Characteristics

a

The study by Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell was excluded because it was an outlier in this analysis. b Somewhat short studies were between 2.5 and 5 months in length.

FINDINGS: PARTICIPANT CHARACTERISTICS The findings for the three participant characteristics are described below.

1. Is the Grade Level of the Participating Children Related to Intervention Outcomes? Studies were divided into two levels: early literacy and more advanced reading. The four early literacy studies included children in kindergarten, and the

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10 more advanced reading studies included children in grades 1 to 3. The five studies that included children from different grades were included in the advanced reading category because they included older children. The impact of the parent involvement interventions for the children in grades 1 to 3 was similar to that for the kindergarten children.

2. Is the Reading Level of the Participating Children Related to Intervention Outcomes? Eleven studies were conducted with normally developing children, and four studies were conducted with children who were at risk for reading difficulties or who experienced reading difficulties. The impact of the parent involvement interventions did not differ between the studies that included children reading at a normal level and those that included children reading below or at risk of reading below grade level.

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3. Is the Socioeconomic Status of the Participating Families Related to Intervention Outcomes? The families in five studies were low income, whereas families in three studies included a range from middle to high income. The remaining eight studies did not provide sufficient information about socioeconomic status to establish the economic levels of the participating families. Effect sizes did not differ between the families that came from middle/high- or low- income backgrounds.

Summary Table of Statistical Results Table 3 summarizes the statistical findings of the section on participant characteristics. As indicated in the table, the attempts to explain the variability in study outcomes by grouping the studies that shared common participant characteristics did not result in significant differences or in more homogeneous effect sizes. Hence, caution should be used in interpreting the results.

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National Institute of Literacy Table 3. Tests for Participant Characteristics

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FINDINGS: STUDY CHARACTERISTICS The findings for the seven study characteristics are presented below.

1. Does the Manner of Assigning Participants to the Intervention and the Control Group Influence the Intervention Outcome? Eight studies used an experimental design in which the participants were randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups. In the remaining six studies, participants were not randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups (although participants were matched in two of these six studies, see Table 1). It was usually the case in these studies that parents volunteered for the intervention or that an entire classroom participated in the intervention. It was very important to test whether the overall effects obtained were not due to the presence of studies with a weaker experimental design. The effect sizes for studies that assigned participants randomly did not differ from those that did not randomly assign participants to the intervention and control groups.

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2. Is the Size of the Sample Related to Intervention Outcomes? Studies were divided into two levels of sample sizes based on whether the sample was smaller than 50 or 50 and larger. There were six studies with smaller samples (28 participants, on average) and eight studies with larger sample sizes (126 participants, on average). Studies that included smaller samples did not differ from studies that included larger samples.

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3. Is the Timing of the Posttest Related to Intervention Outcomes? In the group of studies reviewed, there were 10 studies that tested the impact of the intervention immediately after its completion. There were two studies that included an immediate and a delayed posttest. For these two studies, one followup posttest was administered 10 months after the end of the study (Mehran and White, 1988), and the other follow-up was three years after the end of the study (see Hewison, 1988 that reports the follow-up to Tizard, Schofield, and Hewison 1982). There were two studies that assessed the intervention after a delay. The delay was 20 weeks for Wilks and Clarke (1988), and two weeks for Niedermeyer (1970). To test whether the timing of the posttest influences the intervention outcome, the 10 studies with an immediate posttest were contrasted to the four studies that included delayed posttests. In the present set of studies, the mean weighted effect size for studies that tested children’s reading performance after a delay did not differ from that of studies in which children were tested immediately after the intervention.

4. Is the Use of Standardized Tests Related to Intervention Outcomes? There were 11 studies for which standardized measures were used, and three studies for which researcher-designed tests were used. Studies that included standardized measures yielded, on average, smaller effect sizes than did studies that used researcher-designed tests. This finding can be interpreted in two ways. On one side, the use of standardized tests typically produces smaller effect sizes, but may allow one to generalize findings. On another side, researcher-designed tests may be more sensitive to the changes that occur during the interventions.

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5. Is the Type of Reading Measure Related to Intervention Outcomes? The studies included a variety of reading measures. Preliminary analyses revealed that the Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell (1987) study was an outlier in this analysis, and it was consequently removed. Two of the remaining studies measured children’s early literacy exclusively, three studies assessed word reading exclusively, two tested reading comprehension exclusively, and six studies included a combination of these measures. In the present set of studies, the mean weighted effect size across the sets of studies that included different types of measures did not differ from each other.

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6. Is the Publication Year of the Study Related to Intervention Outcomes? The studies were divided into two levels: recent and older studies. There were eight studies that were published between 1990 and 2001 and there were six studies that were published between 1970 and 1989. Older studies reported, on average, larger effects than did recent studies. This finding, however, was due to the presence of the two Shared Reading studies in the more recent set, and it was no longer significant once these two studies were removed. This suggests that year of publication was not a moderator for the entire set of studies.

7. Is the Country in which the Study Was Conducted Related to Intervention Outcomes? The studies were divided into two levels: those that were conducted in the United States and those that were not. Eight studies were conducted in the US, and six others were conducted in England, Australia, and New Zealand. There was no difference in the size of effects as a function of where the study was conducted.

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Summary Table of Statistical Results Table 4 summarizes the statistical findings of the section on study design characteristics. As indicated in the table, the attempts to explain the variability in study outcomes by grouping the studies that shared common design characteristics generally did not result in more homogeneous effect sizes. Hence, caution should be used in interpreting the results.

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Table 4. Tests for Study Characteristics

a The study by Vinograd-Bausell and Bausell (1987) was excluded because it was an outlier in this analysis. Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

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IMPLICATIONS The studies reviewed suggest that parents of children in kindergarten to grade 3 can help their children learn to read. Parents are most helpful when they are trained to teach specific skills to their child. Training parents on how to listen to their child read had a smaller effect on children’s reading acquisition, and training parents to read to their child did not affect reading acquisition. These findings are limited in two important ways. First and foremost, a limited number of studies were found that met the selection criteria. This lack of intervention research was most evident when examining the effect of shared reading. This was certainly disappointing given the widespread recommendations given to parents on how to help their children learn to read. Because of the limited number of studies available for examination, it was not possible to determine from the available data whether particular types of intervention approaches might be more or less effective for children with and without identified reading problems, for children from different SES backgrounds, or for older versus younger children. The second limitation of the present research synthesis is that combining the studies failed to produce homogeneous effect sizes. The attempts to explain this variability in terms of types of interventions, participant characteristics, or differences in study designs also failed. Hence, the findings must be interpreted with caution.

Should Educators Train Parents to Teach Their Children to Read? Yes. The studies included in the present report suggest that training parents to teach their child specific reading skills can have a large effect on children’s reading performance. The global effectiveness of parent teaching has been demonstrated in the present review, but the effectiveness of the different types of teaching interventions remains to be investigated. As described previously, the interventions differed in the nature of the instructional program as well as the skills that were taught. Educators will want to know what is the most effective way to train parents to teach their children reading skills. From the present review, it is unclear whether it is training parents to do focused exercises with their children or incorporating these exercises into a more global program of instruction that is more effective. It is also unclear whether it is best to design interventions that match closely the

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school curriculum, and what is the optimal proportion of new and familiar material to be included in the exercises. Answers to these questions await future research. In the meantime, educators could use some of the already existing programs and adapt them to their specific needs. Educators will also want to know what aspects of reading are most likely to be affected by parent teaching. Should the interventions focus on letter-sound knowledge with young children, on sound blending and word reading with beginning readers, and on more fluent word reading and comprehension with more advanced readers? Again, understanding what aspects of reading are most affected by parent teaching awaits future research.

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Should Educators Encourage Parents to Listen to Their Children Read? Yes. The finding that training parents to listen to their children read has an impact on children’s reading is consistent with the broad review conducted by Toomey (1993). Toomey’s literature review was broader than the present metaanalysis because he included unpublished manuscripts and book chapters in his review of research on parents listening to their children read. Nonetheless, both reviews point to the same conclusion: Encouraging and training parents to listen to their children read can be effective in promoting reading acquisition. Educators will want to know what is the most effective way to train parents to listen to their children read. Given the limited number of relevant studies that met the selection criteria for this report, and the variability among these studies, no conclusions can be drawn regarding the relative effectiveness of various listening approaches or combinations of approaches for enhancing young children’s literacy skills. For example, it is unclear whether it is more effective to provide children with corrective feedback to build accurate and efficient word reading skills, to encourage children to use context clues to aid comprehension, or to praise and read along with children to promote self-confidence and motivation. Evidence on the relative effectiveness of different approaches awaits further research. In the meantime, these aspects could be incorporated in any training program. It is the case that this type of intervention presupposes some level of reading fluency from the parents. How best to implement the training with parents who have poor literacy skills themselves remains to be investigated.

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Should Educators Encourage Parents to Read to Their Children? One of the most important findings here was the dearth of intervention research on parent reading with children in kindergarten to grade 3. Parents are often told that reading to their child is the best way to prepare the child to learn to read. Given the wide acceptance of this recommendation, one would expect it to have a strong research foundation. The present analysis, however, revealed very limited intervention research on the topic for this age group. Only two of the 14 studies reviewed were interventions where parents read to their child. Most disappointingly, the results of the two studies failed to find support for the idea that parent reading enhanced early literacy. In contrast to the present results, a meta-analysis conducted by Bus, van IJzendoorn, and Pellegrini (1995) showed that there was a statistically significant link between parent-child book reading at home and reading acquisition (with a child age range between 42 and 96 months). They reported moderate effect sizes between book reading and early literacy or reading achievement. That is, they reported combined effect sizes of 0.58 and 0.55 for early literacy (16 studies) and reading achievement (nine studies), respectively. In a similar vein, Scarborough and Dobrich (1994) reported a median correlation of 0.28 (seven studies) between parent- preschooler reading and reading achievement in grade school and a median correlation of 0.27 between shared reading and early literacy (eight studies). To reconcile the differences in conclusion between the present review and the other reviews, one has to consider the nature of the literature reviewed as well as the inclusion/exclusion of language measures. Bus and others as well as Scarborough and Dobrich reviewed many correlational studies. As discussed previously, the difficulty with correlations is that they do not allow one to make statements about causation, nor do they control for the possibility that the relation between the two key variables is due to their common relation with a third variable. For instance, recent research shows that the relations between the frequency and variability of book reading at home in kindergarten and reading comprehension in grade 3 can be explained by their common association to children’s vocabulary knowledge (see Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2002). The present review did not include correlational research or research with language outcomes, but focused exclusively on intervention studies that assessed the role of parent involvement in children’s reading. The findings of the two intervention studies that trained parents to read to their child did not support the idea that reading books to children promotes early literacy directly. It is possible, however, that the relation between book reading and reading achievement is

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indirect. Three examples of possible indirect relations that could be tested in intervention research are presented in the next paragraph. It is possible that training parents to read to their child enhances the child’s language, which, in time, may result in better reading comprehension. In addition, it is also possible that book reading increases children’s knowledge of literate discourse, which, in time, might facilitate reading (for example, Purcell-Gates, McIntyre, and Freppon, 1995). Finally, book reading in kindergarten might increase children’s motivation to read, which, in time, will result in more frequent and fluent reading for pleasure. In the meantime, reading books to children is an activity that should be encouraged, but educators will have to be careful about the claims they make for the benefits of parent book reading. Reading books to children can be encouraged because it is a wonderful sharing time, and it exposes children to ideas, concepts, and language that can be novel, more varied, and more complex than those introduced during parent-child conversations.

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CONCLUSION In the present meta-analysis, home teaching and parent listening enhanced children’s literacy skills. Although the two types of interventions produced positive effects, they did differ in efficacy as well as the resources required from educators. Specifically, home teaching was twice as effective in enhancing literacy than was parent listening to the child read aloud. Home teaching, however, necessitates more resources from educators. Asking parents to listen to their child read requires minimal resources from educators. Educators can send information about reading in a handout and provide parents with appropriate children’s books. Training parents to listen to their child read requires more resources because educators need to prepare and give workshops where parents will learn specific techniques. Once the techniques are acquired, however, parents are simply asked to apply them when they listen to their child read. Here again, educators provide parents with appropriate children’s books. Finally, training parents to teach their child with specific exercises and structured programs requires the most resources from educators because they need to design or select the exercises and programs, design or select suitable reading materials, and train parents. Educators, when deciding which type of intervention to implement, will have to weigh the differences in effectiveness across intervention type against the amount of resources needed to implement the intervention.

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FUTURE DIRECTIONS FOR RESEARCH There are still many questions left unanswered. Researchers will want to understand better what aspects of the interventions are responsible for the study outcomes. Many of these issues were discussed in the previous sections. For instance, what are the beginning reading skills that are most easily taught by parents? What is the optimal timing for parent teaching: before, during, or after specific skills are taught in school? What is the role of corrective feedback when parents listen to their child read? What are the types of children’s books that are most helpful? Is it the case that parent teaching is most effective in the beginning phases of reading, whereas listening to children read is most effective once children have acquired some reading fluency? How can these interventions be implemented with parents who have low literacy skills themselves? Some studies included in this review were difficult to analyze because they were written vaguely, making it difficult to understand what the researchers did and what they found. Moreover, 40% of the studies failed to report adequately the socioeconomic status of the families, 76% did not report the education level of the parents, and none assessed the literacy level of the parents. In addition, most studies did not provide enough precise information about the duration and/or type of supportive feedback given to parents. The results of the present review highlight the importance of collecting and reporting demographic information on the participating families and of providing complete descriptions of the intervention conducted, how the implementation was assessed, the measures used, and the means and standard deviations for each of the measures used. The results of the present review also highlight the importance of study quality because it affects the magnitude of the effect sizes. Four studies were excluded from the present synthesis because they did not include a control group. Moreover, 8% of the studies found were excluded because they did not provide sufficient information to calculate effect sizes. Consider also that 81% of the studies that included a control group did not administer an alternative treatment to the control families. Greater attention to study design quality and to reporting precisely the findings will allow researchers to have a greater impact on how best to help parents help their child learn to read.

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APPENDIX: STATISTICAL FORMULAS Effect size (ES) calculations: 1. Cohen’s d, where t is treatment group and c is control group, and sqrt = square root. Mt – Mc / (sqrt(((Nt – 1)*(SDt)2) + ((Nc – 1)*(SDc)2)) / ((Nt – 1)+(N c – 1))) 2. In the studies without means and standard deviations, Cohen’s d was obtained as follows: d equal Ns = 2t / sqrt (df error) d unequal Ns = t(Nt + Nc) / sqrt (df error) * sqrt (Nt*Nc) t = sqrt F (that is, t can be replaced with the square root of F) from p by using d = z (sqrt (1/Nt + 1/Nc)) Combining weighted effect sizes across studies, where weights acknowledge a study’s sample size: 1. Combining and weighting effect sizes were calculated according to formulas in Cooper and Hedges (1994, p. 268).

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d

combined = ∑(weightstudy * dstudy ) / (∑ weightstudy) weightstudy = 1 / variancestudy variancestudy = (Nt + Nc / Nt * Nc) + ((dstudy)2 / 2 (Nt + Nc)) variance d

combined = 1 / (∑ weightstudy) 2. Tests of homogeneity for entire set of studies and for each class, as well as 95% CIs were calculated according to Hasselblad and Hedges (1995, p. 172). X2 = ∑ weightstudy (dstudy – dcombined)2 with k-1 dfs. (k = number of studies) 95% CIs = mean weighted d ± 1.96 * sqrt (variance dcombined) 3. Tests for outliers were done by computing Q for entire number of studies removing one study at a time. If the study is an outlier, there should be a dramatic effect on Q with that study removed (Hedges & Olkin, 1985, p. 256).

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STUDY SUMMARIES The summaries are organized by intervention type. T = Treatment; C = Control Parents Read to Child Intervention

Reading measures

Participants Number

Characteristics

Results

Foster & Bitner (1998) Parents were encouraged to read aloud to their children daily. They were also instructed on appropriate reading practices such as how to read aloud effectively to their children, appropriate book choice, etc.

T: 19; C: 16

T~ C

Children were at-risk for future difficulty because of their low socioeconomic status.

An Observation Survey of Early Literacy Achievement (Clay, 1993)—alphabet

No information provided

Comprehensive Assessment Program

T~ C

No information provided

NFER (Reading Test A)—reading comprehension Young’s Group Reading

T~ C

Jordan, Snow, & Porche (2000) Parents engaged in scripted parent-child interactions and extended book-related discussions with their children around specified themes.

T: 177; C: 71

Parents Listen to Child Read Hannon (1987) Teachers encouraged parents to listen to their children read aloud to them up to five times per week and sent home handouts that outlined suggestions for reading.

T: 76; C: 81

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Participants

Intervention Number

Reading measures

Results

Characteristics

a

Leach & Siddall (1990) Study 1

T: Parents were trained to use the paired reading procedure. C: Parents listened to their child read and had received a brief summary of suggestions for helping their child read at home.

Neale:

T>C

T: 10; C: 10

Normal beginning readers participated. Their mean age was 5 years and 7 months.

T: 33; C: 21

Children had a deficit of Neale: more than 18 months in Accuracy & reading age and their Comprehension mean chronological age was 9 years and10 months.

T: 51; C: 86

The sample was multiracial and almost entirely working-class.

Pretest: Southgate Group Reading Test; Posttest: NFER Test A

T>C

T: 14; C: 28

Neale: Comprehension Children aged 8 to 9 years who were average (Accuracy results not or below average readers. used for lack of information necessary to compute ES).

T>C

Accuracy & Comprehension

Miller, Robson, & Bushell (1986) Parents were trained to use the paired reading procedure.

Accuracy: T>C Comprehension: ~C T~

Tizard, Schofield, & Hewison (1982) Parents listen to their child read. Researchers visited parents and children 3 times per term to observe the children reading to their in their homes 2… parents and to provide suggestions regarding good reading practice. Wilks & Clarke (1988) T: Parents were trained to increase the use of meaning, context, and phonic cues when listening to their child read. C: Mothers in the encouraged group received the same training as the trained mothers received in the first two hour-long sessions, but did not attend the third and fourth training sessions. Mothers in the control group received no training.

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Table (Contiued) Parents Teach Child to Read Intervention

Participants Number

Reading measures

Results

Characteristics

Faires, Nichols, & Rickelman (2000) Parents were trained with the Reading Recovery model (Clay, 1985). It included rereading two or more unfamiliar books, letter identification, writing a sentence or a story, reassembling a cut-up sentence or a story, and reading a new book.

T: 4; C: 4

No information provided Word recognition

T~ ~C

T: 20; C: 23

Children between the Woodcock: ages of 5 and 6 with no Word recognition & reported learning Word attack difficulties. Parents were highly educated and of middle-class socioeconomic status.

T>C

T: 10; C: 10

Normal beginning readers participated. Their mean age was 5 years and 7 months.

T>C

Kraft, Findlay, Major, Gilberts & Hofmeister (2001) Parents were trained to choose a suitable reading environment, teach lettersound correspondence and blending of letter sounds, and methods of error correction.

Leach & Siddall (1990) Study 2a T: Parent training was derived from Teach Your Child To Read in 100 Easy Lessons (TYCTOR, Englemann et al., 1983). C: Parents were trained to use the pause, prompt, praise technique when they listened to their child read. a

Neale: Accuracy & Comprehension

In the meta-analysis, the two conditions that were most intensive were assigned as treatments and the two remaining conditions were randomly assigned as control conditions.

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Parents Teach Child to Read Intervention

Participants Number

Reading measures Characteristics

Results

Mehran & White (1988) A parent-implemented tutoring program for struggling readers. The program, adapted from Reading Made Easy (Harrison, 1981), included basic procedures for teaching sounds and letters, basic sight words, blending of sounds, and decoding words. It provided tutoring techniques and suggestions for reading activities.

T: 38; C: 38

At-risk for reading difficulties; age 7; matched on a teacheradministered test of reading competence.

Woodcock-Johnson: composite

T~ C ~

T: 68; C: 80

Schools were located in a middle-class, suburban area.

Graphemic knowledge

T> C

Niedermeyer (1970) A parent-assisted learning program that gave classroomrelated practice to children at home. The program used practice exercises to learn to read one-syllable words, recognize and say beginning consonant sounds and vowel-consonant ending sounds, and blend previouslylearned beginning and ending sounds.

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Table (Continued) Searls, Lewis, & Morrow (1982) In the Parents as Tutors program, parents learned various methods of implementation such as games and reading activities, and they were given a detailed handbook about pre-reading skills and methods of teaching these skills. The intervention included the use of weekly calendars containing daily activities designed to reinforce reading skills taught at school.

T: 25; C: 25

Grade 1 students matched on pre-reading skills test scores, age, sex, race, and socioeconomic status.

MAT: composite

T> C

T: 67; C: 69

No information provided

Word recognition

T> C

Vinograd-Bausell & Bausell (1987) Parents implemented a home tutoring program requiring no direct parenteducator interaction. Parents received a package containing 20 word cards and instructions on how to use them.

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4. Contrasts between two sets of studies were computed with the formulas below where 1 and 2 refer to each set of studies, respectively (Hasselblad and Hedges, 1995, p. 174): z = (dcombined 1 – dcombined 2)/ sqrt(variance dcombined 1 + variance dcombined 2) 95% CI: (dcombined 1 – dcombined 2) ± 1.96 * sqrt(variance dcombined 1 + variance dcombined 2) Fail safe number (N) where k is the number of studies in the analysis (Mullen and Rosenthal, 1985, p. 53): N(p = .05) = (∑ zstudy / 1.645)2 – k where zstudy = rstudy * sqrt (Nt + Nc) and rstudy = dstudy / sqrt (dstudy2 + 4)

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REFERENCES Articles included in the meta-analyses are preceded by an asterisk. The Hewison (1988) study is a follow-up to the study by Tizard and others (1982). Bus, A. G., van IJzendoorn, M. H. (1999). Phonological awareness and early reading: A meta- analysis of experimental training studies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 403–414. Bus, A. G., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Pellegrini, A. D. (1995). Joint book reading makes for success in learning to read: A meta-analysis on intergenerational transmission of literacy. Review of Educational Research, 65, 1–21. Clay, M. (1985). The early detection of reading difficulties. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Cooper, H., & Hedges, L. V. (1994). The handbook of research synthesis. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Ebey, T. L., Marchand-Martella, N., Martella, R., & Nelson, J. R. (1999). Using parents as early reading instructors: A preliminary investigation. Effective School Practices, 17, 65–71. Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 250–287.

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Engelmann, S., Haddox, P., & Bruner, E. (1983). Teach your child to read in 100 easy lessons. New York: Simon & Schuster. Evans, M. A., Shaw, D., & Bell, M. (2000). Home literacy activities and their influence on early literacy skills. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 54, 65–75. *Faires, J., Nichols, W. D., & Rickelman, R. J. (2000). Effects of parental involvement in developing competent readers in first grade. Reading Psychology, 21, 195–215. Fantuzzo, J., Tighe, E., & Childs, S. (2000). Family Involvement Questionnaire: A multivariate assessment of family participation in early childhood education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 367–376. *Foster, S. M., & Bitner, T. R. (1998). A read-aloud project for at-risk kindergarten children and their parents. The Indiana Reading Journal, 30, 50–55. Fry, L. (1977). Remedial reading using parents as behaviour technicians. New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies, 12, 29–56. *Hannon, P. (1987). A study of the effects of parental involvement in the teaching of reading on children’s reading test performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 57, 56–72. Harrison, G. V. (1981). Reading made easy: A handbook for parents. Provo, UT: Metra Publishing Co. Hasselblad, V., & Hedges, L. V. (1995). Meta-analysis of screening and diagnostic tests. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 167–178. Heath, A. (1981). A paired reading programme edition 2. London: ILEA School Psychological Service. Hedges, L. V. (1982). Estimating effect size from a series of independent experiments. Psychological Bulletin, 92, 490–499. Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, O. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Hewison, J. (1988). The long term effectiveness of parental involvement in reading: A follow-up to the Haringey reading project. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 58, 184–190. Hill, N. E., & Craft, S. A. (2003). Parent-school involvement and school performance: Mediated pathways among socioeconomically comparable African American and Euro-American families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 74–83. *Jordan, G. E., Snow, C. E., & Porche, M. V. (2000). Project EASE: The effect of a family literacy project on kindergarten students’ early literacy skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 524–546.

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*Kraft, B. L., Findlay, P., Major, J., Gilberts, G., & Hofmeister, A. (2001). The association between a home reading program and young children’s early reading skill. Journal of Direct Instruction, 1, 117–136. *Leacha, D. J., & Siddall, S. W. (1990). Parental involvement in the teaching of reading: A comparison of hearing reading, paired reading, pause, prompt, praise, and direct instruction methods. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 349–355. Lopez, A., & Cole, C. L. (1999). Effects of a parent-implemented intervention on the academic readiness skills of five Puerto Rican kindergarten students in an urban school. School Psychology Review, 28, 439–447. *Mehran, M., & White, K. R. (1988). Parent tutoring as a supplement to compensatory education for first-grade children. Remedial and Special Education (RASE), 9, 35–41. *Miller, A., Robson, D., & Bushell, R. (1986). Parental participation in paired reading: A controlled study. Educational Psychology, 6, 277–284. Mudre, L. H., & McCormick, S. (1989). Effects of meaning-focused cues on underachieving readers’ context use, self-corrections, and literal comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 89–113. Mullen, B., & Rosenthal, R. (1985). BASIC meta-analysis: Procedures and programs. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum. *Niedermeyer, F. C. (1970). Parents teach kindergarten reading at home. The Elementary School Journal, 70, 438–445. Purcell-Gates, V., McIntyre E., & Freppon, P. A. (1995). Learning written storybook language in school: A comparison of low-SES children in skillsbased and whole language classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 659–685. Rosenthal, R. (1995). Writing meta-analysis reviews. Psychological Bulletin, 118, 183–192. Scarborough, H. S., & Dobrich, W. (1994). On the efficacy of reading to preschoolers. Developmental Review, 14, 245–302. *Searls, E., Lewis, M. B., & Morrow, Y. B. (1982). Parents as tutors—it works! Reading Psychology, 3, 117–129. Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A 5-year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73, 445–460.

a

The Leach and Siddall study included four conditions. The two most intensive conditions were labeled interventions and the remaining two were randomly assigned to each intervention. Hence, the study was divided into two independent studies in the present meta-analysis.

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Sénéchal, M., LeFevre, J., Smith-Chant, B. L., & Colton, K. (2000). On refining theoretical models of emergent literacy: The role of empirical evidence. Journal of School Psychology. 39, 439–460. *Tizard, J., Schofield, W. N., & Hewison, J. (1982). Collaboration between teachers and parents in assisting children’s reading. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, 1–15. Toomey, D. (1993). Parents hearing their children read: A review. Rethinking the lessons of the Haringey Project. Educational Research, 35, 223–236. Topping, K. J., & Lindsay, G. A. (1992). Paired reading: A review of the literature. Research Papers in Education, 7, 199–246. *Vinograd-Bausell, C. R., & Bausell, R. B. (1987). Home teaching of word recognition skills. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 20, 57–65. *Wilks, R. T. J., & Clarke, V. A. (1988). Training versus nontraining of mothers as home reading tutors. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 67, 135–142.

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In: Effects of Family Literacy Interventions… ISBN 978-1-60741-236-6 Editor: Ana Carolina Pena © 2009 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 3

A CHILD BECOMES A READER: PROVEN IDEAS FROM RESEARCH FOR PARENTS∗

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KINDERGARTEN THROUGH GRADE 3 National Institute for Literacy INTRODUCTION The road to becoming a reader begins the day a child is born and continues through the end of third grade. At that point, a child must read with ease and understanding to take advantage of the learning opportunities in fourth grade and beyond—in school and in life. Learning to read and write starts at home, long before children go to school. Very early, children begin to learn about the sounds of spoken language when they hear their family members talking, laughing, and singing, and when they respond to all of the sounds that fill their world. They begin to understand written language when they hear adults read stories to them and see adults reading newspapers, magazines, and books for themselves.

∗

This publication was produced under National Institute for Literacy Contract No. ED-00CO-0093 with RMC Research Corporation. Third edition, 2006.

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Mothers, fathers, grandparents, and caregivers, this booklet is for you. Your role in setting your child on the road to becoming a successful reader and writer does not end when she1 begins kindergarten.

This Booklet Contains • •

•

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•

A short summary of what scientific research says about how children learn to read and write Things you can do with your child at three different grade levels— kindergarten, first grade, and second and third grades—to help him become a reader, as well as what to look for in quality reading instruction at each grade level A list of helpful terms. Throughout the booklet, these terms appear in bold type Ideas for books to read and organizations to contact if you would like more help or information

Try a few activities from this booklet with your child. You don’t need special training or expensive materials. Just include the activities in the things you already do together every day. Make these activities part of the warm, loving relationship you are continuing to build with your child.

THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF READING AND WRITING2 From several decades of research, we have learned a lot about how children learn to read and write. This research tells us that to become more skilled and confident readers over time, children need lots of opportunities to: • •

Build spoken language by talking and listening Learn about print and books

1

To make this booklet easier to read, we sometimes refer to a child as “he” or “she.” However, all of the information about how children learn to read applies to both boys and girls. 2 The main source of information in this booklet is the report of the National Reading Panel, Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. This report, along with the other reports and books listed at the back of this booklet, offers more researchbased information about how children learn to read and write.

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A Child Becomes a Reader: Proven Ideas from Research for Parents • • • • • • • • •

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Learn about the sounds of spoken language (this is called phonological awareness) Learn about the letters of the alphabet Be read to and read on their own Learn and use letter-sound relationships (this is called phonics) and be able to recognize words when they see them Spell and write Develop their ability to read quickly and naturally (this is called fluency) Learn new words and build their knowledge of what words mean (this is called vocabulary) Build their knowledge of the world Build their ability to understand what they read (this is called comprehension)

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Talking and Listening Remember the old saying “children should be seen and not heard”? Research tells us that for children to become readers, they should listen and talk a lot. By the time children are one year old, they already know a lot about spoken language—talking and listening. They recognize some speech sounds. They know which sounds make the words that are important to them. They begin to imitate those sounds. Children learn all of this by listening to family members talk. Even “baby talk,” which exaggerates the sounds and rhythms of words, makes a contribution to children’s ability to understand language. Children who do not hear a lot of talk and who are not encouraged to talk themselves often have problems learning to read.

Print and Books Even though books don’t come with operating instructions, we use them in certain ways. We hold them right-side up. We turn the pages one at a time. We read lines of words starting at the left and moving to the right. Knowing about print and books and how they are used is called print awareness. Print awareness is an important part of knowing how to read and write. Children who know about print understand that the words they see in print and the words they speak and hear are related. They will use and see print a lot, even when they’re young—on signs and billboards, in alphabet books and storybooks,

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and in labels, magazines, and newspapers. They see family members use print, and they learn that print is all around them and that it is used for different purposes.

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Sounds in Spoken Language Some words rhyme. Sentences are made up of separate words. Words have parts called syllables. The words bag, ball, and bug all begin with the same sound. When a child begins to notice and understand these things, he is developing phonological awareness—the ability to hear and work with the sounds of spoken language. When a child also begins to understand that spoken words are made up of separate, small sounds, he is developing phonemic awareness. These individual sounds in spoken language are called phonemes. For example, the word big has three phonemes, /b/, /i/, and /g/.3 Children who have phonemic awareness can take spoken words apart sound by sound (the name for this is segmentation) and put together sounds to make words (the name for this is blending). Research shows that how easily children learn to read can depend on how much phonological and phonemic awareness they have.

The ABCs Singing the alphabet song is more than just a fun activity. Children who go to kindergarten already knowing the shapes and names of the letters of the alphabet, and how to write them, have a much easier time learning to read. Knowing the names and shapes of letters is sometimes called alphabetic knowledge.

Reading Aloud Reading aloud to children has been called the single most important activity for building the knowledge required for success in reading. Reading aloud, with children participating actively, helps children learn new words, learn more about 3

A letter between slash marks, /b/, shows the phoneme, or sound, that the letter represents, and not the name of the letter. For example, the letter b represents the sound /b/.

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the world, learn about written language, and see the connection between words that are spoken and words that are written.

Phonics and Word-Study Skills Phonics instruction helps beginning readers see the relationships between the sounds of spoken language and the letters of written language. Understanding these relationships gives children a tool that they can use to recognize familiar words quickly and to figure out words they haven’t seen before. Word-study instruction is the step that follows phonics instruction. It helps older children learn to apply their phonics knowledge and knowledge of word parts (such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words) as they read and write words. Rapid word recognition means that children spend less time struggling over words and have more time getting meaning from what they read, which, of course, is the real purpose for reading.

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Spelling and Writing Children learn more about how print works when they spell and write on their own. When they begin to write, children draw and scribble. Later, they use what they are learning about sounds and letters when they try to write words. This often is called invented, or developmental, spelling. Because invented spelling encourages children to think about the sounds in words and how the sounds are related to letters, it can help preschool and kindergarten children develop both as readers and writers. However, after kindergarten, children need well-organized, systematic lessons in spelling to help them become good spellers.

Fluency Fluency is the word for being able to read quickly and accurately. Fluent readers recognize words automatically. They are able to group words quickly to help them get the meaning of what they read. When fluent readers read aloud, they read smoothly and with expression. Their reading sounds natural, like speech. Readers who have not yet developed fluency read slowly, word by word. Sometimes, their oral reading is choppy and plodding. They may make a lot of mistakes.

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Most beginning readers do not read fluently. However, by the end of first grade, children should be reading their grade level books fluently.

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Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World Vocabulary is the name for words we must know in order to listen, speak, read, and write effectively. Time and again researchers have found strong connections between the size of children’s vocabularies, how well they comprehend what they read, and how well they do in school. Children who are poor readers often do not have the vocabulary knowledge they need to get meaning from what they read. Because reading is difficult for them, they cannot and do not read very much. As a result, they may not see new words in print often enough to learn them. Good readers read more, become better readers, and learn more words; poor readers read less, become poorer readers, and learn fewer words. Children learn vocabulary in two ways: indirectly, by hearing and seeing words as they listen, talk, and read; and directly by parents and teachers teaching them the meanings of certain words. Vocabulary and knowledge of the world are, of course, very closely tied together. Children who know something about the world are much better able to understand what they read about in school.

Comprehension Comprehension means getting meaning from what we read. It is the heart of reading. Research shows that knowledge of letter-sound relationships and comprehension go handin-hand. If children can sound out the words but don’t understand what they are reading, they’re not really reading. Children can build their comprehension by learning to use mental plans, or strategies, to get meaning as they read. These strategies include using what they already know to make sense of what they read, making predictions, paying attention to the way a reading selection is organized, creating mental pictures, asking questions, and summarizing.

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KINDERGARTEN What to Do at Home Talk Often with Your Child to Build Listening and Talking Skills 1. Talk with your child often...as you eat together, shop for groceries, walk to school, wait for a bus. As she gets ready for school, ask about the stories and poems she is reading and what projects she has in science or art time. Ask about friends and classmates (encourage her to use their names) and to describe the games they like to play together. Ask questions that will encourage her to talk, and not just give “yes” or “no ” answers. 2. Have your child use his imagination to make up and tell you stories. Ask questions that will encourage him to expand the stories.

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PARENT TALK “Why didn’t the dog just run away?” “Where did the boy live?” “What kind of eyes did the monster have?” 3. Have a conversation about recent family photographs. Ask your child to describe each picture: who is in it, what’s happening, and where the picture was taken. 4. Listen to your child’s questions patiently and answer them just as patiently. If you don’t know the answer to a question, work together to find one (look things up in a book or on the computer, for example). 5. Talk about books that you’ve read together. Ask your child about favorite parts and characters and answer his questions about events or characters. 6. Pay attention to how much TV your child is watching. Set aside “no TV” time each day and use that time to talk together. 7. Tell stories about your childhood. Make a story out of something that happened, such as a special birthday or a visit to a zoo or city.

Show Your Child How Books and Print Work 1. As you read with your child, have him point out such things as front and back covers and the title. Have him point out the names of authors and

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National Institute for Literacy illustrators and tell what those people do. Have him show you where you should start reading on a page. 2. Help your child make connections between print and pictures as you read. Have him find details in the pictures, then help her find and point to the words that name those details.

Focus Your Child’s Attention on the Sounds of Spoken Language 1. Sing or say nursery rhymes and songs. 2. Play word games. PARENT TALK “How many words can you say that rhyme with fox? With bill?”

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1. Read a story or poem and ask your child to listen for words that begin with the same sound. Have her say the words. Then have her say another word that begins with that sound. 2. As you read, stop and say a simple word. Have your child say the sounds in the word, write the letters for the sounds, and then read what she wrote. PARENT TALK “‘The dog is big.’ Big. Can you say the sounds in big? Now can you write the letters for the sounds? Good. Now read the word to me.”

Have Your Child Identify and Name the Letters of the Alphabet 1. Point out letters and have your child name them. 2. Make an alphabet book with your child. Have her draw pictures or cut pictures from magazines or use old photos. Paste each picture into the book. With your child, write the first letter of the word that stands for the object or person in the picture (for example, B for bird, M for milk, and so on).

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Support What Your Child Is Learning in School about the Relationship Between Letters and Sounds 1. Point out labels, boxes, newspapers, magazines, and signs that display words with letter-sound relationships that your child is learning in kindergarten. 2. Listen to your child read words and books from school. Be patient and listen as your child practices. Let your child know you are proud of what he is learning.

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Encourage your child to spell and write 1. When your child is writing, encourage her to spell words by using what she knows about sounds and letters. 2. Encourage your child to write notes, e-mails, and letters to family members and friends. You may have your child tell you the message for you to write and include with her original work. 3. Have your child create his own picture book made with his own drawings or with pictures that he cuts from magazines. Help him to label the pictures. Include pictures that illustrate the new words he is learning. Help Your Child Build Vocabulary, Knowledge of the World, and Comprehension 1. As you read aloud, pause from time to time to ask him about the meaning of the book. Help him make connections between his life and what’s happening in the book. Explain new ideas and words to him. Encourage your child to ask questions about the book. Ask him to retell the story, or to tell in his own words what the book was about. PARENT TALK “What was your favorite part of the story? Why did you like it?” “What new things did you learn from this book?” “Why do you think Sam got lost? Sam said he wanted to explore the forest. Explore means he wanted to find out what was in the forest.” 2. Use and repeat important words such as names of buildings, parks, zoos, cities, and other places that you visit.

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National Institute for Literacy 3. Help your child develop an interest in the world. Read to her from your magazines and newspapers, as well as from informational (nonfiction) children’s books. Help her to explore ideas and interests by using appropriate web sites

What to Look for in Kindergarten Classrooms In effective kindergarten classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that focuses on:

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Developing Talking and Listening Abilities The teacher shows children appropriate ways to talk and listen, ask and answer questions, and give and follow directions. The children talk with teachers and classmates about what they have read and heard. They retell stories that they have heard read aloud. They make up and tell their own stories. They may pretend to be characters in play centers. “Let’s play restaurant!” “I like this book. It’s about snakes!” “I’ll be the princess, and you be the prince.”

Teaching about Books and Print The teacher shows children how books should be handled, how they are read from front to back, from the top to the bottom of a page, and from left to right on a page. He talks about the various kinds of print in the classroom, including their meaning and purpose. The children enjoy books and reading. They see lots of print around them being used in many ways. They are curious about the print and eager to learn what it means. “What does this word say?” “You’re supposed to write your name on your folder.” “See that list over there? I know those color names!”

Teaching about the Alphabet The teacher helps children learn the names and shapes of all the letters of the alphabet and encourages the children to play with letters and to write using letters.

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The children listen to the teacher read them an alphabet book, then sing the alphabet song. Some children play with plastic letters, while others say the letters as they write their own names.

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“That’s M! M is the first letter in my name.” “I’m going to find all the e’s on this page.” “This is my favorite ABC book.”

Teaching the Sounds of Spoken Language The teacher provides explicit instruction in phonological awareness and phonemic awareness. The teacher has children put together sounds (blending) to make words and break words into separate sounds (segmentation). As the children write, he promotes phonemic awareness by encouraging them to use what they know about the sounds that make up words. The children have fun with the sounds of words. Early in the year, they tell which words in a story rhyme; they may make up their own nonsense rhymes. A little later in the year, they listen for the beginning sounds of the words in a poem. They also may clap out the number of syllables in their names and in words. Late in the year, they put together and take apart the separate sounds in words. They begin to relate sounds to letters and to write the letters for the sounds that they hear. Phonemic Awareness What blending and segmentation look like Phoneme blending: Teachers say a word phoneme by phoneme, then have the children repeat the sequence of phonemes and combine the phonemes to say the word. Teacher: /s/ /u/ /n/ Children: /s/ /u/ /n/; sun. Phoneme segmentation: Teachers say a word, then have the children break it into its separate phonemes, saying each one as they tap out or count it. Teacher: Slim Children: /s/ /l/ /i/ /m/. Teacher: How many sounds are in slim? Children: Four sounds.

Teaching Phonics The teacher uses explicit instruction to teach children a set of the most useful letter- sound relationships.

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The children read easy books that contain words with the letter-sound relationships they are learning. They are also writing the relationships they know in words, sentences, messages, and their own stories

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Developing Spelling and Writing The teacher has children practice their new writing skills in groups with other children and at learning centers. She makes spelling development a part of writing activities. The children depending on the time of the year, scribble, draw, label pictures, and use their growing knowledge of sounds and letters to write messages. They are becoming aware of correct spellings for some words, especially their names. Building Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World The teacher talks with the children about important new words and ideas as she reads aloud. She helps them connect the new words to their own knowledge and experiences. She discusses words that are most important for understanding the reading selection. She emphasizes words that the children are likely to see and use often and teaches children the meaning of new words over an extended period of time. She thinks about the content of the books that she reads to the children and chooses books that build on and expand children’s knowledge. The children learn lots of new words and like to share their new words with their families. They see the teacher’s enthusiasm for words and enjoy playing with words and language. They use words that are important to their schoolwork, such as the names for colors, shapes, and numbers. They explore new ideas and learn new words. “This is the picture I drew today. It’s an octopus. I’ll show you—it has eight legs!” “We learned about circles today. This plate is a circle.”

Building Comprehension The teacher reads aloud to children often and discusses books before, during, and after reading. She reads many different kinds of books, including “makebelieve” (fiction), “real” (nonfiction), and poetry. She shows children how good readers get meaning from what they read. The children listen to and understand what is read to them. They answer the teacher’s questions. They make connections between what they already know and what they are reading about. They talk about what they learned from nonfiction

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books they have read, and they retell or act out important events in stories. They identify the characters, settings, and events in stories. “I learned that you can’t see across the ocean!” “I have a cat that looks just like the cat in that story!” “I want to be the Little Red Hen!”

What Children Should Be Able to Do by the End of Kindergarten

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The following is a list of some accomplishments that you can expect of your child by the end of kindergarten. This list is based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember, though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules. If you have concerns about your child’s reading development, talk to his teacher.

Books and Print By the end of kindergarten, a child: • • • • •

Knows the parts of a book and how books are held and read Identifies a book’s title and understands what authors and illustrators do Follows print from left to right and from top to bottom of a page when stories are read aloud Understands the relationship between print and pictures Understands that the message of most books is in the print and not the pictures

The Alphabet By the end of kindergarten, a child: • •

Recognizes the shapes and names of all the letters in the alphabet (both uppercase and lowercase letters) Writes many uppercase and lowercase letters on his own

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Understands that spoken words are made up of separate sounds Recognizes and makes rhymes Identifies words that have the same beginning sound Puts together, or blends, spoken sounds into simple words

Phonics and Word Recognition By the end of kindergarten, a child: • • •

Knows a number of letter-sound relationships Understands that the order of letters in a written word represents the order of sounds in a spoken word Recognizes some common words on sight, such as a, the, I, said, you, is, are

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Reading By the end of kindergarten, a child: • • • • • •

Listens carefully to books read aloud Asks and answers questions about stories Uses what he already knows to help him understand a story Predicts what will happen in a story based on pictures or information in the story Retells and/or acts out stories Knows the difference between “made-up” (fiction) and “real” (nonfiction) books and the difference between stories and poems

Spelling and Writing By the end of kindergarten, a child: • • • •

Uses phonemic awareness and letter knowledge to spell and write words Begins to spell some words correctly Writes his own first and last name and the first names of some friends, classmates, or family members Writes some letters and words as they are said to her

Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World By the end of kindergarten, a child: •

Plays with and is curious about words and language

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Uses new words in her own speech Knows and uses words that are important to school work, such as the names for colors, shapes, and numbers Knows and uses words that are important to daily life, such as street names and addresses and names for community workers

FIRST GRADE What to Do at Home The Top Three • •

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•

Talk often with your child to build listening and talking skills. Read to and with your child—often. Talk to him about the words and ideas in books. Ask your child’s teacher how you can help your child practice at home what he is learning at school. If your child needs help with developing phonemic awareness or identifying and naming letters of the alphabet, read the suggestions in the kindergarten section of this booklet. Remember that these two skills are very important in helping children learn to read and write.

Support What Your Child Is Learning in School about Relationships between Letters and Sounds • • •

•

Listen to your child read books from school. Be patient as your child practices. Let him know you are proud of his reading. Say the sounds of letters and ask your child to write the letter or letters that represent the sound. Ask your child to point out the letter-sound relationships he is learning in all of the things you are reading together—books, calendars, labels, magazines, and newspapers. Play word games. On cards, write words that contain the letter-sound relationships he is learning at school. Take turns choosing a card and blending the sounds to make the word. Then use the word in a sentence.

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Encourage Your Child to Spell and Write • •

•

•

Say a word your child knows and have him repeat the word. Then help him write the word the way he hears it. Write a word on paper and cut the letters apart (or use plastic or foam letters). Mix the letters and have your child spell a word by putting the letters in order. As you are reading with your child, point out words that have similar spellings, such as hop and pop. Ask him to write similar words, for example, top, mop, and cop. Encourage your child to write often—for example, letters and thank-you notes, simple stories, and grocery lists.

Help Your Child Build Vocabulary, Knowledge of the World, and Comprehension

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• •

•

When you read together, stop now and then to talk about the meaning of the book. Help her make connections between what’s happening in the book and her own life and experiences, or to other books you’ve read together. Ask her questions so that she talks about the information in a nonfiction book, or about the characters or events of a fiction book. Encourage your child to ask questions. Ask her to explain what the book was about, in her own words. Before you come to the end of a story, ask your child to predict what might happen next or how the story will end. Talk about new words and ideas that your child has read or heard. Ask her to make up sentences with the new words or use the words in other situations. Help her to find out more about new ideas by using appropriate web sites. Read magazines and newspapers together. Get him interested in what’s happening in other parts of the world.

What to Look for in First Grade Classrooms In effective first grade classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that focuses on:

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Developing Talking and Listening Abilities The teacher helps children use language that is appropriate for different audiences and purposes. The children use speaking and listening for many purposes, including getting and giving information, giving opinions, and talking with teachers and classmates. They talk about what has been read to them or what they have read. They retell stores that they have heard read aloud. They make up and tell stories based on their own experiences. They use the more formal language expected at school, such as complete sentences

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Teaching about Books and Print The teacher reads aloud to the children often, sharing many different types of books and other print materials. She shows her enthusiasm for reading and her eagerness for the children to learn to read. As she reads, she shows the parts of print such as the beginnings and endings of sentences, new paragraphs, and different punctuation marks. The children are excited about being read to and about learning to read. They recognize the titles of books and ask the teacher to read their favorites. They spend part of the day looking at books or pretend reading books of their choice. Teaching about the alphabet The teacher makes sure that children can recognize and name all of the letters of the alphabet, both uppercase and lowercase. The children can quickly name the letters of the alphabet in order and recognize all letters. They use their knowledge of letters when they write Teaching Phonemic Awareness The teacher provides explicit instruction in phonemic awareness. She shows the children how to do phonemic awareness activities and helps them with feedback. The activities are short and fun. (See the next page for examples of each activity.) The children practice a lot with phonemes. For example, they clap out the sounds they hear in words (segmentation), put sounds together to make words (blending), add or drop sounds from words (phoneme addition and deletion), and replace sounds in words (phoneme substitution). Teaching Phonics and Word Recognition The teacher explicitly teaches the children letter-sound relationships in a clear and useful sequence. The teacher also teaches children irregular words they will Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

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see and read often, but that do not follow the letter-sound relationships they are learning. These are often called sight words—words such as said, is, was, are. The children learn to blend sounds to read words—first one-syllable words and, later, words with more than one syllable. They read easy books that include the letter-sound relationships they are learning as well as sight words that they have been taught. They recognize and figure out the meaning of compound words (words made of two words put together, such as background). They practice writing the letter-sound relationships in words, sentences, messages, and their own stories. Phonemic Awareness Awareness activities that you may see in first grade classrooms

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Phoneme deletion: Children recognize the word that remains when you take away a phoneme. Teacher: What is space without the /s/? Children: space without the /s/ is pace. Phoneme addition: Children make a new word by adding a phoneme to a word. Teacher: What word do you have if you add /p/ to the beginning of lace? Children: Place. Phoneme substitution: Children substitute one phoneme for another to make a new word. Teacher: The word is rag. Change /g/ to /n/. What’s the new word? Children: Ran.

Developing Spelling and Writing The teacher provides opportunities for children to practice writing skills independently in both whole group and learning center settings. She makes spelling a part of writing activities. She helps children begin to think through their writing efforts—planning, writing drafts, and revising. The children use writing more and more as a way to communicate ideas. They begin to organize their writing by planning, writing a draft copy, and editing it. They continue to use some invented spelling, but are learning the correct spellings of most of the words that they write.

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Phonemic Instruction Although there are several different approaches to teaching phonics, here are some activities that you are likely to see in first grade classrooms. •

•

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•

•

Children sort out objects and pictures by the beginning sounds they have studied such as /b/, /c/, and /t/. They put the objects in baskets labeled with the beginning letter. “I have a turtle. It goes in the T basket.” “This cup goes in the C basket.” The teacher teaches the -ing spelling pattern and sounds, pointing outing words in books. The children look for examples of -ing words in books in the classroom library. “I found singing!” “This book has wing!” They copy the words on index cards and add them to the word wall under the heading “-ing words.” The teacher helps children use plastic letters to spell out words containing sounds they have studied. She starts with two letter words and moves on to longer words. “Find two letters and make the word in. Now add one letter to make the word pin. Now add a letter to make the word spin. Using those same letters, change the word to pins.” The teacher reads a poem written on chart paper to the class, pointing to each word as he reads. When he’s done, he invites children to circle the words beginning with the /p/ sound, saying the word as they circle it.

Building Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World The teacher talks with the children about important new vocabulary words and helps them relate the new words to their own knowledge and experience. He makes a point of using new words in classroom discussions. He urges the children to use these words when they talk and write. The children talk about the meanings of words and use new words when they talk and write. They begin to recognize words that are alike (synonyms) and words that are opposite (antonyms). They also begin to recognize the roles of different words in sentences—words that name (nouns) and words that show action (verbs). They understand that the language they use in school is more formal than the language they use at home and with friends.

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Building Comprehension The teacher reads aloud to children often and discusses books with them before, during, and after reading. The teacher listens to children read aloud, corrects their errors, and asks them questions about what they are reading. He shows children how to use mental plans, or strategies, to get meaning from what they read. The children read aloud with accuracy and show that they understand what they’re reading. They read books (fiction, nonfiction, and poetry) that are appropriate for the time in the school year. They make connections between what they already know and what they are reading. They pay attention to their reading and recognize when something doesn’t make sense. They summarize and discuss what they read with classmates and their teacher. They choose to read on their own and enjoy reading

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What Children Should Be Able to Do by the End of First Grade The following is a list of some accomplishments you can expect of your child by the end of first grade. This list is based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember, though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and-fast rules. If you have concerns or questions about your child’s reading development, talk to his teacher.

Books and Print By the end of first grade, a child: • • • •

•

Knows the difference between letters and words Knows that there are spaces between words in print Knows that print represents spoken language and contains meaning Knows some of the parts of print, such as the beginnings and endings of sentences, where paragraphs begin and end, and different punctuation marks Begins to understand why people read—to learn and enjoy

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The Alphabet By the end of first grade, a child: • • • • • • • • • • •

Can recognize and name all of the letters of the alphabet Sounds in spoken language By the end of first grade, a child: Can count the number of syllables in a word Can put together and break apart the sounds of most one-syllable words Phonics and word recognition By the end of first grade, a child: Can show how spoken words are represented by written letters that are arranged in a specific order Can read one-syllable words using what he knows about phonics Uses phonics to sound out words he doesn’t know Can recognize some irregularly spelled words, such as have, said, you, and are

Reading

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By the end of first grade, a child: • • • • • • • •

Reads aloud first grade books and understands what they mean Can tell when he is having problems understanding what he is reading Reads and understands simple written instructions Predicts what will happen next in a story Discusses what she already knows about topics of books she is reading Can ask questions (how, why, what if?) about books she is reading Can describe, in his own words, what he has learned from a book he is reading Can give a reason for why he is reading a book (to be entertained, to follow directions, to learn about a nonfiction topic, for example)

Spelling and Writing By the end of first grade, a child: • • • •

Uses invented (or developmental) spelling to try to spell words on his own Understands that there is a correct way to spell words Uses simple punctuation marks and capital letters Writes for different purposes—stories, explanations, letters, lists

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Writes things for others to read (by thinking of ideas, writing draft copies, and revising drafts)

Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World By the end of first grade, a child: • • • • •

Uses language with more control (such as speaking in complete sentences) Understands that the language used in school is more formal than the language used at home and with friends Talks about the meaning of words and uses new words when he speaks and writes Begins to see that some words mean the same thing (synonyms) and some words have opposite meanings (antonyms) Begins to recognize that words play different roles in sentences (for example, some words—nouns—name things and some words—verbs— show action)

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SECOND AND THIRD GRADES What To Do At Home The Top Three • • •

Talk often with your child to build listening and speaking skills. Read to and with your child—often. Talk to her about the words and ideas in books. Encourage your child to read on her own. Ask your child’s teacher how you can help your child practice at home what she is learning at school.

Use Reading Opportunities to Help Your Child Develop Fluency 1. Listen to your child read books that he has brought home from school. Be patient as your child practices reading. Let him know that you are proud of his reading.

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2. If your child is not a very fluent reader (that is, she reads slowly and makes lots of mistakes), ask her to reread a paragraph or page a few times.

Find Opportunities for Your Child to Spell and Write 1. Encourage your child to write often—for example, letters and thank-you notes to relatives and friends, simple stories, e-mails, and items for the grocery list. 2. Help your child learn the correct spellings of words.

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Find Opportunities to Help Your Child Develop Vocabulary, Knowledge of the World, and Comprehension 1. Talk about new words that your child has read or heard. Ask her to make up sentences with the new words or use the words in other situations. 2. Help your child use the dictionary or thesaurus to check on the meanings of new words she reads or hears. 3. Help your child become aware of prefixes, suffixes, and root words. Point them out in books you are reading together or in print materials around the house. Ask her to think of other words related to the words you are discussing PARENT TALK “Can you think of any other words that have the word move in them?” (Some possible answers are moveable, movement, moving, and moved.) “Here’s the word disappear. What other words do you know that start with dis-?” (Some possible answers are disappoint, disagree, and disbelieve.) 4. Show your child how to use context—the sentences, words, and pictures around an unfamiliar word—to figure out the word’s meaning. PARENT TALK Read a line from a book, such as this line from Eric Carle’s Pancakes, Pancakes! “Take a sickle and cut as much wheat as the donkey

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National Institute for Literacy can carry.” Then ask a question, such as “Look at the picture of Jack cutting the wheat. What is he using? That’s right, it’s a sickle. A sickle is a tool for cutting wheat and other kinds of grain.” 5. As you read a book with your child, stop now and then to talk to her about the meaning of the book. Help her relate the experiences or events in the book to experiences or events in her life or to other books you have read together. Ask her questions that encourage her to talk about the information in a nonfiction book, or about the characters or events of a fiction book. Encourage your child to ask questions. Ask her to tell in her own words what the book was about.

What to Look for in Second and Third Grade Classrooms

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In effective second and third grade classrooms, you will see literacy instruction that focuses on:

Promoting Reading Accuracy The teacher helps children continue to use their knowledge of phonics to sound out and pronounce new words. The teacher helps children recognize simple, common spelling patterns in words. She also helps children learn the spellings and meanings of word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. The children become more able to read words accurately by using their knowledge of phonics. They use the other words in a sentence (the context) to figure out the pronunciations and meanings of new words. Building Fluency The teacher reads aloud to children, modeling fluent reading. She makes sure that children are working on developing fluency and monitors their progress. By listening to children read aloud, or by sometimes timing children’s reading rates, the teacher ensures that children are becoming fluent readers. The children are becoming more fluent readers by reading, reading, reading. They are improving their oral reading fluency by rereading selections aloud

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Fluency Instruction In second and third grade classrooms, effective instruction will include some of the following activities for building fluency. •

• •

•

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Teachers listen to individual children read aloud and provide assistance and encouragement as they repeatedly read until they are fluent. Teachers read aloud and children read along as a group. The children repeat the reading until they are fluent. In a listening center, children read along in their books as they listen to a fluent reader read a book on an audiotape. The children read with the tape until they can read the book without support. Pairs of children read paragraphs from a book to each other, taking turns and assisting each other until they can read the paragraphs fluently. Teachers time children as they read aloud paragraphs or pages of a selection. They also note children’s reading errors.

Teaching Spelling and Writing The teacher teaches some common spelling patterns. He encourages children to write in many different forms, such as letters, stories, poetry, reviews, directions, and reports. He helps children prepare for and plan their writing. He teaches them how to revise, edit, and refine what they have written and helps them write using a computer. The children write often, and for different audiences and purposes. They correctly spell previously studied words. When they spell new words, they represent all of the sounds in the words. In their writing, the children use figurative language, dialogue, and vivid descriptions. They read their writing to others and discuss one another’s writing, offering helpful suggestions. Developing Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World The teacher is excited about words and shows students that they have a personal interest in learning new and intriguing words. He tries to develop children’s awareness of and interest in words, their meanings, and their power. As the teacher reads aloud to children, he discusses some of the important new words in the book. He relates new words to words the children already know and to their experiences. The teacher encourages children to read a lot, both in school and

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outside of school. He encourages them to explore topics that interest them and to use a variety of sources of information, including the Internet. The children are interested in learning new words and are eager to share new vocabulary at school and at home. They are learning how to figure out the meanings of unknown words by using word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words. They are able to use different parts of speech correctly, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They read a lot on their own, and explore topics independently, often using computers. Vocabulary Instruction In second and third grade classrooms, effective instruction will include both specific word instruction and instruction in word learning strategies. Specific word instruction Teachers teach specific words from selections the students are about to read. These words are important for the students to know in order to understand what they will read. • Teachers use the new words over an extended period of time. • The children see, hear, and work with the words in many ways and in various contexts.

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•

Word learning strategies Teachers show children how to use the dictionary and thesaurus to learn about the meanings of words. Teachers show how some words have more than one definition, and they teach children how to find the right definition for their particular situation. • Teachers teach children how to use word parts (prefixes, suffixes, and root words) to determine the meaning of unknown words. • Teachers provide instruction in how to use the meanings of known words in a reading selection (context) to figure out the meaning of unknown words.

•

Increasing Comprehension The teacher guides children’s understanding of what they are reading by discussing selections with them before, during, and after reading. The teacher shows children how to use simple strategies to get meaning from what they read. The children read many different kinds of books, both with the teacher’s guidance and on their own. They offer answers to “how,” “why,” and “what-if”

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questions, and read to find the answers to their own questions. They compare and contrast characters and events across stories. They explain and describe new information in their own words. They also interpret information from diagrams, charts, and graphs. In second and third grades, children improve their word-recognition and word-study skills and develop fluency—their ability to read quickly and accurately. These years also are the time to extend comprehension and vocabulary knowledge and to refine writing and spelling skills. It is critical that children are up to “reading speed” by the end of third grade. Children who fail to make good progress in reading by the time they enter fourth grade are likely to have trouble in the upper grades and to drop out of school before graduating. The following are lists of some accomplishments that you can expect of your child by the end of second and third grade. These lists are based on research in the fields of reading, early childhood education, and child development. Remember, though, that children don’t develop and learn at the same pace and in the same way. Your child may be more advanced or need more help than others in her age group. You are, of course, the best judge of your child’s abilities and needs. You should take the accomplishments as guidelines and not as hard-and- fast rules. If you have concerns or questions about your child’s reading development, talk to his teacher.

What Children Should Be Able to Do by the End of Second Grade Phonics And Word Recognition By the end of second grade, a child: • • • •

Can read a large number of regularly spelled one- and two-syllable words Figures out how to read a large number of words with more than two syllables Uses knowledge of phonics to sound out unfamiliar words Accurately reads many sight words

Reading By the end of second grade, a child: •

Reads and understands a variety of second grade level fiction and nonfiction books

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Knows how to read for specific purposes and to seek answers to specific questions Answers “how,” “why,” and “what-if” questions Interprets information from diagrams, charts, and graphs Recalls information, main ideas, and details after reading Compares and connects information read in different books and articles Takes part in creative responses to stories, such as dramatizations of stories and oral presentations

• • • • •

Reading Comprehension Instruction

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Quality instruction includes teaching children strategies that they can use to get meaning from the materials they read. These comprehension strategies include being aware of how well they comprehend a selection, using graphic organizers, answering questions, asking questions, recognizing the way stories are organized, and summarizing. To teach comprehension strategies, teachers first demonstrate the strategy, tell why it is important, and how, when, and where to use it. Then the children practice the strategy until they are able to use it on their own. Here are some examples of strategy instruction: •

•

To help children understand and remember what they read, a teacher presents a diagram called a “story map” that shows the structure, or organization, of simple stories. (See the story map example on the next page.) She and the children talk about the story they have just read—its setting (where it takes place), the characters, the problems the characters face, the different events in the story, the resolutions of the characters’ problems, and the theme or moral of the story. As they talk, the teacher fills in the story map. After several lessons with their teacher, the children are able to complete story maps on their own. To help children better understand and remember what they have read, a teacher teaches them how to ask themselves “main idea” questions about what they are reading. The class has just finished reading a selection about redwood trees in an informational book. The teacher gives the children several examples of main idea questions and contrasts them with detail questions. He points out that the main idea questions often start with “why” or “how.” Then, under his guidance, the children practice asking main idea questions about several more selections in the book.

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To help children understand, learn from, and remember the information in their social studies textbook, a teacher helps them learn how to write a summary. She demonstrates how to write a summary of one of the sections in the chapter they are reading. She shows them how to make use of the section headings and the topic sentences of each paragraph. She then shows the children how to eliminate details. Under her direction, the children work together to write summaries of several sections of a chapter in their social studies textbook. In subsequent lessons the children write summaries of the chapters in their science book. The teacher provides feedback so that children include the important parts of the chapters in their summaries. A Story Map for “The Three Little Pigs”

Setting

A make-believe time and place

Characters

Mother pig, three little pigs, big bad wolf

Problem or Goal

The three little pigs are ready to move out of their mother’s house and live on their own.

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Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Event 4

The first little pig builds a house of straw. The big bad wolf blows the house down. The second little pig builds a house of sticks. The big bad wolf blows the house down. The third little pig builds a house of bricks. The big bad wolf cannot blow the house down. The big bad wolf runs away or is killed (depending on version).

Solution

The three little pigs live happily ever after in the safe brick house.

Theme or Moral

Hard work pays off in the end.

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Spelling and Writing By the end of second grade, a child: • • • • • • • •

Pays attention to how words are spelled Correctly spells words he has studied Spells a word the way it sounds if she doesn’t know how to spell it Writes for many different purposes Writes different types of compositions (for example, stories, reports, and letters) Makes good judgments about what to include in her writing Takes part in writing conferences and then revises and edits what he has written Pays attention to the mechanics of writing (for example, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation) in the final versions of compositions

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Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World By the end of second grade, a child: • • • • • • •

Wants to learn new words and share those words at school and home Uses clues from the context to figure out what words mean Uses knowledge of word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words to figure out word meanings Increases vocabulary through the use of synonyms and antonyms Can use different parts of speech correctly, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs Learns more new words through independent reading Explores and investigates topics of interest on her own

What Children Should Be Able to Do by the End of Third Grade Phonics and Word Recognition By the end of third grade, a child: •

Uses phonics knowledge and word parts (prefixes, roots, suffixes) to figure out how to pronounce words she doesn’t recognize

Reading By the end of third grade, a child: Effects of Family Literacy Interventions on Children's Acquisition of Reading, Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated, 2009.

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Reads with fluency Reads a variety of third grade level texts (for example, story books, informational books, magazine articles, computer screens) with fluency and comprehension Reads longer stories and chapter books independently Summarizes major points from both fiction and nonfiction books Identifies and then discusses specific words or phrases that interfere with comprehension Discusses the themes or messages of stories Asks “how,” “why,” and “what-if” questions Distinguishes cause from effect, fact from opinion, and main ideas from supporting details Uses information gathered and his own reasoning to evaluate the explanations and opinions he reads about Understands and reads graphics and charts Uses context clues to get meaning from what she reads

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Spelling and Writing By the end of third grade, a child: • • • • • •

Correctly spells previously studied words Independently reviews her own written work for errors in spelling, capitalization, and punctuation Begins to use literary words and sentences in his writing, such as figurative language Combines information in compositions from a variety of sources, including books, articles, and computer information With assistance from teachers and classmates, edits and revises her compositions to make them easier to read and understand Discusses her own writing with other children and responds helpfully to the writing of other children

Vocabulary and Knowledge of the World By the end of third grade, a child: • • •

Wants to learn and share new words at school and at home Uses clues from context to figure out word meanings Uses her knowledge of word parts such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words to figure out word meanings

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National Institute for Literacy • • • • •

Increases his vocabulary through the use of synonyms and antonyms Is able to use different parts of speech correctly, including nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs Develops her vocabulary and knowledge through independent reading Explores and investigates topics of interest on his own Uses a variety of sources to find information, including computers

SOME HELPFUL TERMS TO KNOW Teachers and day care providers might use these terms when talking to you about how your child is learning to read. Some of them are used in this booklet. • •

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alphabetic knowledge—Knowing the names and shapes of the letters of the alphabet. alphabetic principle—The understanding that written letters represent sounds. For example, the word big has three sounds and three letters. big books—Oversized books that allow for the sharing of print and illustrations with a group of children. blending—Putting together individual sounds to make spoken words. comprehension—The ability to understand and gain meaning from what has been read. decodable books—Books that are made up of words that contain only the letter-sound relationships that the children are learning, along with a few words that are taught as sight words. decode—The ability to recognize and read words by translating the letters into speech sounds to determine the word’s pronunciation and meaning. developmental spelling—The use of letter-sound relationship information to attempt to write words. emergent literacy—The view that literacy learning begins at birth and is encouraged through participation with adults in meaningful reading and writing activities. environmental print—Print that is a part of everyday life, such as signs, billboards, labels, and business logos. experimental writing—Efforts by young children to experiment with writing by creating pretend and real letters and by organizing scribbles and marks on paper. explicit instruction—Direct, structured, systematic teaching of a task.

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fluency—The ability to read text accurately and quickly and with expression and comprehension. graphic organizers—Diagrams that visually represent the organization and relationships of ideas in a text. invented spelling—See developmental spelling. irregular words—Frequently used words that don’t follow the lettersound relationship rules that children are learning. leveled books—Books that have been assigned a particular level (usually a number or letter, such as Level 1 or Level B) intended to indicate how difficult the book is for children to read. literacy—Includes all the activities involved in speaking, listening, reading, writing, and appreciating both spoken and written language. phonemes—The smallest parts of spoken language that combine to form words. For example, the word hit is made up of three phonemes (/h/ /i/ /t/) and differs by one phoneme from the words pit, hip, and hot. phonemic awareness—The ability to hear and identify the individual sounds in spoken words. phonics—The relationship between the sounds of spoken words and the individual letters or groups of letters that represent those sounds in written words. phonological awareness—The understanding that spoken language is made up of individual and separate sounds. Phonological awareness activities can involve work with rhymes, words, sentences, syllables, and phonemes. predictable books—Books that have repeated words or sentences, rhymes, or other patterns. prefix—A word part such as re-, un-, or pre- that is added to the beginning of a root word to form a new word with a new meaning. pretend reading—Children’s attempts to “read” a book before they have learned to read. Usually children pretend read a familiar book that they have practically memorized. print awareness—Knowing about print and books and how they are used. root word—A word or word part to which a prefix or suffix is added. segmentation—Taking spoken words apart sound by sound. sight words—Words that a reader recognizes without having to sound them out. Some sight words are “irregular,” or have letter-sound relationships that are uncommon. Some examples of sight words are you, are, have, and said.

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suffix—A word part such as -ness, -able, or -erthat is added to the end of a root word to form a new word with a new meaning. syllable—A word part that contains a vowel or, in spoken language, a vowel sound (event, news-pa-per, pret-ty). vocabulary—The words we must know in order to communicate effectively. Oral vocabulary refers to words that we use in speaking or recognize in listening. Reading vocabulary refers to words we recognize or use in print. word walls—Word-study and vocabulary words that are posted on the classroom wall so all children can easily see them. Usually, word walls are arranged alphabetically, with words starting with a certain letter listed under that letter for easy location. word recognition—The ability to identify printed words and to translate them into their corresponding sounds quickly and accurately so as to figure out their meanings.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, R. C., Hiebert, E. H., Scott, J. A., & Wilkinson, I. A. G. (1985). Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. Champaign, IL: Center for the Study of Reading; Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. Dickinson, D. K., & Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young Children Learning at Home and School. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co. Gopnik, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & Kuhl, P. K. (2000). The Scientist in the Crib. New York: Harper Perennial. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

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RESOURCES FOR PARENTS AND CAREGIVERS The following web sites can provide you with useful information about learning to read. The Partnership for Reading. www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading National Parent Information Network (NPIN). www.npin.org National Institute for Literacy (NIFL). www.nifl.gov No Child Left Behind web site describes the current education law and how it affects K-3 schools, parents, and children. www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.html Reading Rockets offers activities and ideas for building your child’s reading skills at home. www.readingrockets.org/families PBS Parents can help parents learn how children become readers and writers by helping them develop by talking, reading, and writing together every day. www.pbs.org/parents/readinglanguage The White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans offers resources on helping the language development of infants and young children. www.yesican.gov/earlychildhood/index.html The American Federation of Teachers web site offers pages for parents on building strong partnerships with schools. www.aft.org/parents/index.htm The National Education Association web site contains information on parent involvement in literacy and other topics. www.nea.org/parents/index.html Parents as Teachers National Center suggests ways for parents to interact with their children to develop early literacy. www.parentsasteachers.org

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INDEX

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A ABC, 84 academic, 23, 70 accuracy, 95 achievement, 23, 24, 30, 55, 56 administration, 34 administrators, 23 adult, 8, 10 adults, 1, 16, 73, 109 African American, 69 age, 2, 9, 14, 33, 55, 65, 66, 87, 95, 103 aid, 54 air, 32 alternative, 27, 59 American Federation of Teachers, 19, 113 animals, 14 application, 31 assessment, 26, 69 assignment, 27, 34 Australia, 51 awareness, 3, 4, 5, 17, 26, 30, 68, 75, 76, 77, 84, 88, 89, 92, 101, 110, 111

B babies, 8 behavioral sciences, 68 benefits, 24, 57 bias, 27, 32, 37

birth, 2, 6, 16, 109 blends, 88 boys, 2, 74 buildings, 83

C cardboard, 8 caregivers, 2, 74 caretaker, 8 category b, 46 category d, 28 causality, 27, 30 causation, 56 child development, 9, 14, 87, 95, 103 childhood, 9, 14, 19, 69, 80, 87, 95, 103 children, ix, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 33, 36, 38, 39, 42, 43, 46, 47, 49, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 65, 68, 70, 71, 73, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113 classification, 26 classroom, 13, 14, 23, 24, 48, 65, 84, 93, 94, 111 classrooms, 13, 71, 83, 91, 93, 100, 102 coding, 33, 35 Collaboration, 71 colors, 14, 86, 89

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Index

combined effect, 32, 55 common signs, 12 communication, 23 community, 89 competence, 65 comprehension, 26, 54, 55, 70, 75, 79, 103, 104, 107, 109, 110 computing, 60 confidence, 38, 45 confidence interval, 38, 45 confidence intervals, 38, 45 control, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 43, 48, 49, 56, 58, 59, 64, 97 control condition, 36, 64 control group, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 36, 38, 48, 49, 58, 59 correlation, 27, 55 correlation coefficient, 27 correlations, 56 cues, 42, 70 curriculum, 30, 54

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D database, 29, 36 decisions, 25 decoding, 30, 43, 65 definition, 26, 102 degrees of freedom, 36 delivery, 33 desire, 39 detection, 68 deviation, 35 discourse, 56 distribution, 32, 37, 38 donkey, 99 draft, 93, 97 duration, 22, 33, 44, 58

E ears, 6 eating, 11 education, 17, 19, 70, 71, 112, 113

educators, 35, 54, 57 encouragement, 100 England, 51 enthusiasm, 7, 86, 91 environment, 23, 30, 39 ERIC, 30 Euro, 69 exclusion, 28, 31, 56 experimental design, 27, 28, 30, 48 expert, iv external validity, 27 eyes, 6, 80

F failure, 24 family, 1, 3, 4, 9, 29, 30, 69, 70, 73, 75, 76, 80, 82, 88 family literacy, 30, 70 family members, 1, 3, 4, 73, 75, 76, 82, 88 feedback, 22, 25, 33, 39, 44, 54, 58, 92, 105 fidelity, 34 freedom, 36 fundraising, 23

G games, 2, 6, 12, 13, 14, 66, 80, 81, 90 gauge, 35, 45 gifts, 12 girls, 2, 74 grades, 26, 40, 46, 74, 103 grain, 99 grandparents, 2, 74 grouping, 45, 47, 51 groups, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 48, 49, 85, 110 guidance, 103, 104 guidelines, 10, 15, 87, 95, 103

H hands, 7

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Index Head Start, 19 hearing, 6, 7, 9, 70, 71, 79 heart, 79 hip, 17, 110 Hispanic, 18, 113 homework, 24 homogeneity, 28, 37, 60 homogenous, 28 hypothesis, 30, 32

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I identification, 30, 42 imagination, 80 implementation, 58, 66 inclusion, 37, 56 income, 34, 40, 47 independence, 36 Indiana, 69 infants, 5, 18, 113 Infants, 5, 8 inspection, 36, 43 instruction, 13, 53, 68, 70, 74, 77, 83, 84, 85, 91, 92, 100, 102, 104, 110 instructors, 68 intensity, 33 interaction, 67 interactions, 23, 39, 61 intergenerational, 68 interpretation, 35 intervention, ix, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 66, 70 interviews, 44

J judge, 9, 15, 87, 95, 103

K kindergarten, 1, 5, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 40, 46, 52, 55, 56, 69, 70, 74, 77, 78, 82, 83, 87, 88, 89

95 kindergarten children, 47, 69, 78

L language, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 26, 56, 57, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 86, 89, 91, 95, 96, 97, 101, 108, 110, 111, 113 language development, 18, 26, 113 language skills, 26 laughing, 1, 73 law, 18, 112 learning, 2, 3, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 24, 28, 30, 65, 68, 73, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 85, 89, 90, 92, 93, 98, 101, 102, 109, 110, 112 limitation, 53 listening, 3, 15, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 39, 54, 57, 58, 75, 89, 91, 98, 100, 110, 111 literacy, ix, 3, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 34, 41, 43, 46, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 68, 70, 71, 83, 91, 100, 109, 110, 113 location, 111 London, 69 longitudinal study, 71 love, 7, 8, 9, 24

M magazines, 2, 4, 13, 74, 76, 81, 82, 83, 90, 91 maturation, 28 meanings, 10, 14, 79, 94, 97, 98, 100, 101, 102, 107, 108, 111 measures, 26, 28, 29, 34, 36, 50, 56, 58, 61, 65 median, 37, 55 messages, 16, 85, 93, 107 meta-analysis, 29, 31, 54, 55, 57, 64, 68, 69, 70, 71 milk, 6, 82 modeling, 100 models, 71 moderators, 28, 33, 38

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Index

mothers, 71 motivation, 27, 55, 56 movement, 99 multivariate, 69

N naming, 12, 14, 89 National Association for the Education of Young Children, 19 National Education Association, 19, 113 natural, 78 New York, iii, v, 18, 68, 112 New Zealand, 51, 69 newspapers, 1, 4, 13, 74, 76, 82, 83, 90, 91 No Child Left Behind, 18, 112 noise, 7 normal, 28, 33, 40, 47

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O octopus, 86 operator, 31 oral, 15, 78, 100, 104 oral presentations, 104 organization, 104, 110 organizations, 2, 74 outliers, 37, 60

P paired reading, 25, 39, 69, 70 paper, 13, 16, 90, 93, 110 parent involvement, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 38, 39, 46, 47, 56, 113 parental involvement, 23, 24, 68, 69 parent-child, ix, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 30, 39, 55, 57, 61 parents, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 33, 34, 39, 42, 43, 44, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 62, 66, 68, 69, 71, 79, 112, 113 partnerships, 19, 113

pathways, 69 peer, 29, 32 peers, 32 performance, 23, 36, 49, 53, 69 personal, 101 phonemes, 4, 17, 76, 85, 92, 110 phonological, 3, 4, 5, 17, 30, 75, 76, 77, 84, 110 photographs, 80 pig, 105, 106 pigs, 105, 106 planning, 23, 93 plastic, 8, 13, 84, 90, 93 play, 13, 80, 83, 84, 97 pleasure, 7, 56 poor, 55, 79 poor readers, 79 population, 37 power, 68, 101 preschool, 10, 13, 16, 42, 78 preschool children, 42 preschoolers, 71 probability, 32 program, 42, 53, 55, 65, 66, 67, 70 promote, 24, 35, 55 pronunciation, 109 property, iv PsycINFO, 30 Puerto Rican, 70

R race, 66 random, 34 range, 44, 47, 55 reading, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 38, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 65, 66, 68, 69, 70, 71, 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 84, 86, 87, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112 reading comprehension, 26, 27, 30, 34, 41, 50, 56, 62

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Index reading difficulties, 22, 33, 47, 65, 68 reading skills, 18, 29, 33, 42, 53, 54, 58, 66, 112 reasoning, 108 recognition, 26, 30, 67, 71, 78, 96, 103, 111 reconcile, 56 refining, 71 regular, 10 relationship, 2, 16, 74, 87, 109, 110 relationships, 75, 77, 79, 82, 85, 88, 90, 92, 109, 110, 111 relatives, 98 relevance, 35 reliability, 34 replication, 32 research, ix, 2, 3, 9, 14, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 53, 54, 55, 56, 68, 74, 75, 87, 95, 103 Research and Development, 71 research design, 27 researchers, 1, 22, 26, 33, 39, 58, 59, 79 resources, ix, 18, 19, 22, 35, 57, 113 restaurant, 83 rhythms, 3, 6, 8, 75 risk, 24, 33, 40, 47, 61, 65, 69 routines, 24

S sales, 12 sample, 29, 34, 40, 49, 59 scheduling, 23 school, 1, 2, 18, 19, 23, 24, 30, 39, 42, 54, 56, 58, 66, 69, 70, 71, 73, 79, 80, 82, 89, 90, 91, 95, 97, 98, 101, 102, 103, 107, 108, 112, 113 school performance, 69 school work, 89 scores, 37 search, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32 searches, 30, 31 segmentation, 5, 17, 77, 84, 85, 92, 111 self-confidence, 55

97 sentences, 6, 10, 11, 15, 17, 42, 85, 91, 93, 94, 96, 97, 98, 99, 105, 108, 110 series, 15, 69 services, iv SES, 40, 53, 71 sex, 66 sharing, 16, 57, 91, 109 signs, 4, 12, 13, 15, 16, 76, 82, 109 similarity, 28 sites, 18, 83, 91, 112 skills, 13, 18, 22, 24, 26, 27, 29, 33, 42, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 66, 68, 70, 71, 85, 89, 93, 98, 103, 112 snakes, 83 socioeconomic, 22, 29, 34, 47, 58, 61, 66 socioeconomic status, 29, 47, 58, 61, 66 sounds, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 14, 15, 16, 17, 26, 30, 42, 43, 65, 73, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 84, 85, 88, 90, 92, 93, 96, 101, 106, 109, 110, 111 speech, 3, 75, 78, 89, 102, 107, 108, 109 speech sounds, 3, 75, 109 speed, 103 spelling, 16, 26, 30, 78, 85, 93, 97, 100, 101, 103, 106, 108, 109, 110 spin, 93 standard deviation, 22, 34, 35, 36, 38, 58, 59 statistics, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37 strategies, 79, 95, 102, 103, 104 strength, 23, 27 students, 66, 70, 101, 102 substitution, 92, 93 suburban, 65 summaries, 32, 34, 61, 105 supply, 6 synthesis, 24, 25, 28, 32, 53, 58, 68

T teachers, 2, 13, 14, 16, 23, 39, 71, 79, 83, 91, 104, 108 teaching, 25, 43, 53, 54, 57, 58, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 79, 93, 104, 110 technicians, 69

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Index

telephone, 44 television, 15 test scores, 66 thesaurus, 98, 102 thinking, 97 time, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 24, 25, 37, 39, 40, 56, 57, 60, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 82, 85, 86, 95, 100, 102, 103, 105 timing, 34, 49, 58, 100 title, 81, 87 toddlers, 5 traffic, 12 training, 2, 28, 33, 43, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 68, 74 transcription, 34 transmission, 68 trees, 104 turtle, 93 tutoring, 30, 65, 67, 70

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United States, 51

variable, 27, 38, 45, 56 variables, 27, 28, 43, 56 variance, 37, 59, 60 variation, 33 vein, 55 vocabulary, 17, 26, 27, 39, 56, 75, 79, 94, 102, 103, 107, 108, 111 voice, 6

W watches, 12 weakness, 23 wear, 8 web sites, 18, 83, 91, 112 wheat, 99 White House, 18, 113 wood, 13 word meanings, 107, 108 word recognition, 26, 30, 71, 78, 96, 111 workers, 89 writing, 10, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 24, 43, 82, 85, 92, 93, 97, 101, 103, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112

V Y vacuum, 11 validity, 27 values, 35, 36 variability, 27, 28, 29, 37, 38, 43, 45, 47, 51, 53, 54, 56

yield, 26, 31 younger children, 53

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