Early Medieval Crafts and Production in Ireland, AD 400–1100: The Evidence from Rural Settlements 9781407313580, 9781407343211

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BAR S2707 2015 KERR ET AL EARLY MEDIEVAL CRAFTS AND PRODUCTION IN IRELAND, AD 400–1100

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Early Medieval Crafts and Production in Ireland, AD 400–1100: The Evidence from Rural Settlements Thomas R. Kerr Maureen Doyle Matthew Seaver Finbar McCormick Aidan O’Sullivan

BAR International Series 2707 2015 27/02/2015 15:10:35

Early Medieval Crafts and Production in Ireland, AD 400–1100: The Evidence from Rural Settlements Thomas R. Kerr Maureen Doyle Matthew Seaver Finbar McCormick Aidan O’Sullivan

BAR International Series 2707 2015

ISBN 9781407313580 paperback ISBN 9781407343211 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407313580 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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Table of Contents

List of Maps, Tables and Figures ....................................................................................................................... iv Foreword ........................................................................................................................................................... xiii Section One: Early Medieval Crafts and Production in Ireland, AD 400–1100: A Brief Overview .......... 1 By Thomas R. Kerr, Finbar McCormick and Aidan O’Sullivan Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1

Section Two: Early Medieval Craft-Working ............................................................................................... 22 By Matthew Seaver, Lorcan Harney and Aidan O’Sullivan Chapter 2: Early Medieval Iron-Working .......................................................................................................... 22 Chapter 3: Early Medieval Non-Ferrous Metalworking ................................................................................... 37 Chapter 4: Early Medieval Glass, Enamel and Millefiori-Working .................................................................. 48 Chapter 5: Early Medieval Bone, Antler and Horn-Working ........................................................................... 52 Chapter 6: Early Medieval Stone-Working ....................................................................................................... 57 Appendix: Tables for Section Two .................................................................................................................

62

Section Three: Early Medieval Crafts and the Manufacture and Use of Dress and Ornament ............... 88 By Maureen Doyle Chapter 7: Early Medieval Dress and Ornament ............................................................................................... 88 Chapter 8: Dress and Ornament Manufacturing on Early Medieval Rural Settlement Sites ........................... 102

Section Four: Gazetteer of Industrial Activity on Early Medieval Rural Secular Sites .......................... 124 Compiled by Thomas R. Kerr, Maureen Doyle and Matthew Seaver Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................... 699

iii

List of Maps, Tables and Figures Maps Map 1.1: Map 1.2: Map 1.3a: Map 1.3b: Map 1.4: Map 1.5: Map 1.6: Map 1.7: Map 1.8: Map 1.9: Map 1.10: Map 1.11: Map 1.12: Map 2.1: Map 3.1: Map 4.1: Map 5.1: Map 6.1 Map 8.1:

Sites that produced evidence for iron-working .............................................................................. 5 Sites that produced evidence for cloth-working ............................................................................ 6 Sites that produced evidence for pottery-working ........................................................................ 7 Sites that produced evidence for pottery-working ....................................................................... 8 Sites that produced evidence for leather-working ........................................................................ 10 Sites that produced evidence for wood-working ......................................................................... 11 Sites that produced evidence for stone-working ......................................................................... 12 Sites that produced evidence for bronze-working ....................................................................... 14 Sites that produced evidence for glass-working ........................................................................... 15 Sites that produced evidence for antler-working ......................................................................... 17 Sites that produced evidence for bone-working .......................................................................... 18 Geological evidence for shale and distribution of shale-working sites ...................................... 19 Iron-bearing rocks and known areas of bog iron ore (after Scott 1991), raised bogs and iron-production sites ............................................................................................................................................. 20 Evidence for iron-working on early medieval sites in Ireland .................................................... 24 Distribution of sites with early medieval non-ferrous metal-working ........................................ 39 Distribution of sites with evidence for working glass, enamel and millefiori .............................. 49 Evidence for early medieval bone, horn and antler manufacturing ............................................. 53 Early medieval settlements with evidence for stone-working in Ireland ...................................... 58 Evidence for textile-working in early medieval Ireland .............................................................. 104

Tables Table 2.1: Table 2.2: Table 2.3 Table 7.1: Table 7.2: Table 7.3: Table 7.4: Table 7.5: Table 7.6: Table 8.1: Table 8.2: Table 8.3: Table 8.4: Table 8.5: Table 8.6: Table 8.7: Table 8.8: Table 8.9: Table 8.10: Table 8.11: Table 8.12: Table A.1: Table A.2: Table A.3: Table A.4: Table A.5: Table A.6: Table A.7: Table A.8:

Recently excavated sites with smelting furnaces, number of furnaces, example of furnace dimensions and context ............................................................................................................................................ 27 Examples of sites with smithing hearths, number of smithing hearths, specific example with dimensions and its context .............................................................................................................................. 29 Examples of structures associated with metalworking indicating site name, overall quantity of metallurgical debris, site type, structural context and reference ................................................. 33 Sites producing just a single type of personal ornament ............................................................ 92 Sites with multiple ornament types and quantities ...................................................................... 93 Sites with multiple brooches ....................................................................................................... 94 Sites with more than ten pins, showing materials used ............................................................... 96 Sites with pendants (number and material) ................................................................................ 97 Sites with large quantities of beads ............................................................................................. 98 Sites with large quantities of spindle whorls .............................................................................. 107 Examples of rural secular sites with ‘loom weights’ ................................................................. 108 Examples of rural settlement sites with possible weaving tablets ............................................ 108 Examples of sites producing pronged-and-socketed objects ...................................................... 109 Examples of sites where needles have been found, showing materials .................................... 110 Examples of sites with evidence for iron shears .......................................................................... 111 Sites with iron ornaments and evidence of manufacturing ........................................................... 114 Sites with copper-alloy ornaments and evidence of non-ferrous manufacturing ........................ 117 Distribution of glass bracelets (adapted from Doyle 2010) ........................................................ 117 Sites with glass beads and evidence of glass working ............................................................... 118 Sites with bone ornaments and evidence for bone working ....................................................... 119 The four stages of textile working – summary of evidence ....................................................... 123 Evidence for iron-working from early medieval sites ................................................................. 70 Evidence for non-ferrous metal-working from early medieval sites .............................................. 74 Evidence for glass-working from early medieval sites ............................................................ 75 Evidence for antler-working from early medieval sites ............................................................. 75 Evidence for bone-working from early medieval sites ................................................................. 77 Evidence for shale/lignite-working from early medieval sites .................................................... 77 Evidence for amber-working from early medieval sites ............................................................. 77 Evidence for stone-working from early medieval sites ............................................................... 78 iv

Table A.9: Table A.10: Table A.11: Table A.12: Table A.13:

Evidence for leather-working from early medieval sites ................................................................ Evidence for wood-working from early medieval sites ................................................................ Evidence for textile-working from early medieval sites .................................................................. Evidence for pottery-making (souterrain ware) from early medieval sites .................................... Evidence for pottery-making (non-souterrain ware?) from early medieval sites ............................

78 79 81 87 87

Figures [note: figure numbers preceded by G refer to figures in the Gazetteer in Section Four] Fig. 1.1: Fig. 1.2: Fig. 1.3: Fig. 1.4: Fig. 1.5: Fig. 1.6: Fig. 1.7: Fig. 1.8: Fig. 1.9: Fig. 1.10: Fig. 1.11: Fig. 3.1: Fig. 3.2: Fig. 3.3: Fig. 3.4: Fig. 3.5: Fig. 5.1: Fig. 7.1: Fig. 7.2: Fig. 7.3: Fig. 7.4: Fig. 7.5: Fig. 7.6: Fig. 7.7: Fig. 7.8: Fig. 7.9: Fig. 7.10: Fig. 8.1: Fig. 8.2: Fig. 8.3: Fig. 8.4: Fig. 8.5: Fig. 8.6: Fig. G.1: Fig. G.2: Fig. G.3: Fig. G.4: Fig. G.5: Fig. G.6: Fig. G.7: Fig. G.8: Fig. G.9: Fig. G.10: Fig. G.11: Fig. G.12: Fig. G.13: Fig. G.14:

Percentages of sites in gazetteer with evidence for iron-working .................................................... 3 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for iron-working ............................................. 3 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for cloth-working ........................................... 4 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for pottery-working ........................................ 4 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for leather-working ........................................ 8 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for wood-working .......................................... 9 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for stone-working .......................................... 9 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for bronze-working ........................................ 13 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for glass-working .......................................... 13 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for antler-working ......................................... 16 Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for bone-working .......................................... 16 Crucibles found on different types of early medieval settlement (N=64) ...................................... 40 Moulds on different types of Irish early medieval settlements (N=22) .......................................... 41 Settlement sites (Non-ecclesiastical) with moderate levels of clay moulds, crucibles or ingots and stone moulds ............................................................................................................................................ 46 Stone ingot moulds, bronze ingots and silver ingots from a range of settlement sites, with Armagh included for contrast ....................................................................................................................... 46 Settlements with clay moulds, crucibles and stone moulds. Armagh, Kilgobbin and Dunmisk included as ecclesiastical sites for comparison ................................................................................................ 47 Evidence for bone objects from recently excavated sites alongside settlements ranked within Comber’s survey (2008, 95): Rathgurreen (ranked average), Carraig Aille I, Cahercommaun, Garryduff, Ballinderry II (ranked extensive) and Ballyfounder (ranked minimal) ............................................................. 56 Breakdown of the 216 sites with personal ornaments by site type ................................................ 92 Brooches by site types (40 sites; no brooches were found in sites consisting only of souterrains) 95 Geographical distribution of sites with brooches (by modern province) ...................................... 95 Pins by site types (152 sites) ........................................................................................................ 96 Number of sites with pins in the three main materials ................................................................. 97 Beads by site types (136 sites) ....................................................................................................... 98 Geographical distribution of sites with beads (by modern province) (total sites: 136) ................. 99 Distribution of sites with beads in the four main materials across site types ................................ 99 Bracelets by site types (108 sites) ................................................................................................ 100 Distribution of the three main bracelet materials over site types .............................................. 101 The four textile-working processes by site type ........................................................................... 105 Regional distribution of sites with spinning evidence, by modern province (total sites: 84) ....... 106 Regional distribution of sites with evidence for weaving, by modern province (total sites: 58) .. 109 Regional distribution of sites with evidence for sewing (total sites: 52) ...................................... 112 Sites with iron ornaments and evidence of iron-working: number for each site type ................... 115 Number of sites by site types, with bone ornaments and evidence for bone working ................... 120 Excavated areas at Aghadegnan (after Carroll 1991 & 1993) ...................................................... 127 Plan and section of souterrain at Aird (after Wright 1964, fig. 2) ............................................... 130 Early medieval Phase 1 at Altanagh (after Williams 1986, 54) ................................................... 131 Plan of Antiville (after Waterman 1971, 67) ............................................................................... 133 Plan of Phase II house at Antiville (after Waterman 1971, 71) .................................................. 133 Iron three-pronged fork from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 8, no. 1) ............................... 134 Decorated bone comb from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 8, no. 3) ................................. 134 Souterrain ware – undecorated vessel from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 6) ................. 134 Pivot stone, mortar, or lamp from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 9, no. 2) ...................... 134 Plan of excavated area at Ardcloon (after Rynne 1956, 203) .................................................... 135 Bronze pin from Ardcloon (after Rynne 1956, fig. 6, A) .......................................................... 135 Plan of Augherskea (after Baker 2007a) ................................................................................... 139 Plan of thirteenth-century features at Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 1) ................... 143 Souterrain ware sherds from Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 6) ................................ 143 v

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Quernstone from Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 10) ................................................ 144 Bronze pins from Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 8) ................................................... 144 Zoomorphic bronze brooches from Ballinderry II (after Hencken 1942, figs 12 & 15) ........... 150 Plan of palisaded enclosure and roundhouse at Ballintemple (after IAWU 2004) ................... 152 Plan of enclosure at Ballyaghagan (after Proudfoot 1958, 19) ................................................. 154 Souterrain ware from Ballyaghagan (after Evans 1950, fig. 7) ................................................ 154 Iron knife from Ballyaghagan (after Evans 1950, fig. 6) ......................................................... 154 Plan of enclosure boundaries and cashel at Ballyaghagan (after McSparron 2011) ................ 156 Plan of souterrain at Ballyarra (after Fahy 1953, 56) .............................................................. 157 Plan of enclosures at Ballybrit (after Waddell 1971, 74) ......................................................... 160 Site plan of enclosure at Ballybrolly showing internal stone-built ‘figure-of-eight’ structure (after Lynn 1983a, fig. 1) ............................................................................................................................ 161 Plan of Ballycasey More (after O’Neill 2003) ....................................................................... 162 Plan of Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, plate 1) .......................................... 164 Bronze horse harness from Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, figs. 5 & 6) ....... 164 Bronze pins from Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, fig. 5) ............................ 165 E-ware fragments from Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, fig. 12) .................. 166 Plan of site at Ballyegan showing areas excavated (after Byrne 1991, 7) ............................... 168 Iron knives from Ballyegan (after Byrne 1991) ...................................................................... 168 Iron ploughshare from Ballyegan (after Byrne 1991) ............................................................ 169 Unfinished quernstone from Ballyegan (after Byrne 1991) ................................................... 169 Excavation of Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1958a, 40) ....................................................... 170 House at Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1958a, 41) .............................................................. 170 Bone objects from Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1983a, fig. 8) .......................................... 171 Bronze pin and lignite/jet spindle whorl (or bead?) and bracelet from Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1983a, fig. 8) .......................................................................................................................... 171 Plan of excavations at Ballyhenry 1 (after Lynn 1983b, fig. 3) ............................................ 173 Plan of pre-enclosure phase at Ballyhenry 2 (after Lynn 1983b, 78) .................................... 173 Plan of Ballylacky (after Flanagan 1962) .............................................................................. 177 Plan of Phase 2 house at Ballylacky (after Flanagan 1962) .................................................. 177 Plan of Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, 104) ............................................................ 180 Glass beads from Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, fig. 9) ....................................... 181 Souterrain ware from Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, fig.8) .................................. 181 Lignite/shale bracelets from Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, fig. 9) ......................... 181 Souterrain ware sherds from Ballymacrea (after Flanagan 1966, fig. 2) .............................. 183 Plan of excavated features at Ballynakelly (after McCarthy 2011) ....................................... 187 Plan of enclosure group at Ballypalady (after Waterman 1972, Fig. 1) ............................... 189 Plan of interior of Ballypalady 2 (after Waterman 1972, 32) ............................................... 189 Glass beads from Ballypalady (after Waterman 1972, fig. 6) .............................................. 189 Bronze pin from Ballypalady (after Waterman 1972, fig. 6) ............................................... 189 Plan of enclosure at Ballytromery (after Dunlop 2012) ....................................................... 195 Plan of unenclosed roundhouse 150m southeast of enclosure at Ballytromery (after Dunlop 2012) 195 Plan of enclosures at Ballyutoag (after Williams 1984, 39) ................................................... 197 Plan of enclosure at Ballyvass (after Clark & Doyle 2011) ................................................. 199 Silvered/tinned-bronze drinking horn terminal mount from Ballyvass (after Clark & Doyle 2011) 200 Stone discs from Ballyvass (after Clark & Doyle 2011) ..................................................... 200 Plan of Ballywee (after Lynn 1988a, 33) .............................................................................. 202 Plan of entrance and structures at Ballywillwill I (after Waterman & Collins 1952, 76) ...... 204 Souterrain ware from Ballywillwill I (after Waterman & Collins 1952, fig. 7) .................... 205 Souterrain ware from Ballywillwill II (after Waterman & Collins 1952, fig. 9) .................. 205 Stone spindle whorl from Ballywillwill I (after Waterman & Collins 1952, fig. 7) ............. 205 Plan of enclosure and features at Banduff (after Lane 1999) ................................................ 208 Plan of Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2007) .......................................................... 211 Sheep/goat leather fragments from Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2009a) ............. 211 Turned alder bowl from Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2009a) .............................. 212 Sandstone loom weight from Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2009a) ...................... 212 Ringditch and trivallate rath at Baunogephlure (after Stafford & McLoughlin 2011) .......... 216 Plan of excavated areas at Béal Ború (after O’Kelly 1962, fig. 4) ....................................... 217 Plan of House 1 at Beginish (after O’Kelly 1956, 164) ....................................................... 219 Bone, antler and ivory (?) objects from Beginish (after O’Kelly 1956, figs 3 & 4) ............ 220 Plan of excavated features at Bettystown (after Murphy 2008a) ........................................ 222 Plan of house at Big Glebe (after Lynn 1988c, 42) .............................................................. 224 vi

Fig. G.75: Fig. G.76: Fig. G.77: Fig. G.78: Fig. G.79: Fig. G.80: Fig. G.81: Fig. G.82: Fig. G.83: Fig. G.84: Fig. G.85: Fig. G.86: Fig. G.87: Fig. G.88: Fig. G.89: Fig. G.90: Fig. G.91: Fig. G.92: Fig. G.93: Fig. G.94: Fig. G.95: Fig. G.96: Fig. G.97: Fig. G.98: Fig. G.99: Fig. G.100: Fig. G.101: Fig. G.102: Fig. G.103: Fig. G.104: Fig. G.105: Fig. G.106: Fig. G.107: Fig. G.108: Fig. G.109: Fig. G.110: Fig. G.111: Fig. G.112: Fig. G.113: Fig. G.114: Fig. G.115: Fig. G.116: Fig. G.117: Fig. G.118: Fig. G.119: Fig. G.120: Fig. G.121: Fig. G.122: Fig. G.123: Fig. G.124: Fig. G.125: Fig. G.126: Fig. G.127: Fig. G.128: Fig. G.129: Fig. G.130: Fig. G.131: Fig. G.132: Fig. G.133: Fig. G.134:

Stone-revetted ramp at Big Glebe (photo courtesy of T.E. McNeill, QUB) ........................ 224 Souterrain ware from Bighouse (after Evans 1945, fig. 7) ................................................... 226 Enclosure at Boho (after Proudfoot 1953a, facing 44) ....................................................... 229 Plan of Bowling Green (after Fanning 1970, 7) ................................................................. 231 Plan of features at Boyerstown (after Clarke 2009) .......................................................... 234 Plan of Bray Head – houses, kilns and possible mill site (after Mitchell et al 1998, 47) .... 238 Plan of early medieval cluster of Houses 1-9 (after Mitchell et al 1998, 53) ...................... 238 Plan of excavation at Brigown (after O’Callaghan 2003) ................................................... 240 Site plan of excavations at Brokerstown (after Dunlop 2009) ........................................... 243 Aerial photograph of enclosure complex at Brokerstown (after Dunlop 2009) ............... 243 In situ souterrain ware from Brokerstown (after Dunlop 2009) ........................................ 243 Plan of Cahercommaun (after Hencken 1938, 4) ................................................................ 245 Plan of enclosure, house and field boundaries at Cahircalla More (after Taylor 2006) .... 249 Souterrain ware from Camus (after May & May 1945, fig. 2) .......................................... 252 Iron knife and decorated bolster from Cappydonnell Big (after Coughlan 2011b) ........... 253 Copper twisted-wire bracelet from Caraun More (after Seaver & Conran 2009) ............. 254 Plan of excavations at Caraun More (after Seaver & Conran 2009) ................................. 254 Excavations at Carn (after Brannon 1982, fig. 1) ............................................................... 256 Plan of excavated features at Carnmore West (after Sutton 2011) ................................... 260 Iron spearhead from Carnmore West (after Sutton 2011) ................................................. 260 Decorated quernstone from Carnmore West (after Sutton 2011) ................................... 260 Iron objects from Carraig Aille I (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 21) ................................... 262 Bone objects from Carraig Aille I (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, figs 13 & 14) ...................... 263 Glass beads from Carraig Aille I (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 19) ................................... 263 Bronze drinking-horn terminal from Carraig Aille II (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 8) ...... 264 Plan of primary phase at Carrigillihy (later phase dashed) (after O’Kelly 1951–52b, Fig. 2) 268 Plan of enclosure at Carrowkeel (after Walsh and Zajac 2004) ......................................... 273 Finds from Carrowkeel (after Zajac 2011) ........................................................................ 274 Enclosures at Castlefarm (after O’Connell 2006, 19) ........................................................ 276 Plan of enclosure at Castlegar (after Zajac and Scully 2004, 25) ..................................... 279 Glass bracelet from Castlegar (after Zajac and Scully 2004) ............................................ 280 Plan of excavations at Castleskreen (after Dickinson and Waterman 1959, 68) ............... 281 Plan of cemetery at Cherrywood (after Ó Néill 2006, 68) .................................................. 283 Plan of Scandinavian settlement at Cherrywood (after Ó Néill 2006, 71, 75) ................. 283 Plan and section of Clanrolla (after Neill 2009) ................................................................ 286 Bone objects from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, fig. 2) ......................... 288 Iron wood-working (?) gouge from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, fig. 3) 288 Stone disc and spindle whorls from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, figs 2 & 3) 288 Inscribed stone discs from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, figs 2 & 4) ..... 288 Excavation plan of Clogher (after Bonner 2001, 19) ...................................................... 289 Plan of cave at Cloghermore showing excavated areas (after Connolly et al 2005, 10) ... 292 Plan of D-shaped enclosure and entrance shaft showing areas excavated at Cloghermore (after Connolly et al 2005, 6) .................................................................................................................... 293 Souterrain ware from Cloghorr (after Harper 1972b, fig. 2) ............................................ 296 Plan of Cloghorr souterrain (after Harper 1972b) ............................................................ 296 Excavation at Cloncowan (after Baker 2007b, 321) ........................................................ 297 Inscribed rotary quernstone fragment from Clonmoney West (after Murphy & O’Neill 2001) 300 Copper-alloy ring pin from Clonmoney West (after Murphy & O’Neill 2001) ............... 300 Bivallate rath at Cloonaghboy (after Gillespie 2011a) .................................................... 301 Plan of Coarhabeg clochán (after Hayden 1994, 24) ....................................................... 305 PRSW sherd from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a) .................................................... 309 Stone loom weight from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a) .......................................... 309 Phases at Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a, fig. 13) ....................................................... 310 Bronze ringpin and twisted necklace from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a, plate 97) 310 Antler and bone objects from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a) ................................... 310 Enclosures at Colp West (after Clarke & Murphy 2001) ................................................. 311 Enclosures at Conva (after Doody 2008) .......................................................................... 313 Plan of enclosures at Coolaholloga (after Murphy & Clarke 2001) ................................... 316 Excavated features from Coonagh West (after Taylor 2007, 76) ...................................... 319 Penannular brooches from Coonagh West (after Taylor 2007) ........................................ 320 Pottery, mould and crucibles from Corraneary (after Davies 1942, fig. 5) ....................... 323 vii

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Early medieval structures (dark) at Corrstown. Other structures are Bronze Age (after Ginn & Rathbone 2011) ................................................................................................................................. 324 Plan of house and souterrain at Craig Hill (after Waterman 1956a, 88) ........................ 326 Bronze ring pin from Craig Hill (after Waterman 1956a, fig. 2) .................................... 326 Plan and section of excavation at raised rath in Raholp (after Collins 1959a, fig. 1) ... 327 Plan of Craigywarren crannog (after Coffey 1906, plate VI) ......................................... 328 Bronze objects from Craigywarren (after Coffey 1906, plate VIII) ................................. 328 Crucible from Craigywarren (after Coffey 1906, plate IX) ............................................ 329 Leatherwork from Craigywarren (after Coffey 1906, plate (IX) .................................... 329 Excavated features in Croom East 1 (after Shee Twohig 1977, 31) ................................. 330 Finds from Croom East (after Shee Twohig 1977) ........................................................ 331 Excavated area at Crossnacreevy (after Harper 1973–74, 33 & 34) .............................. 333 Greisen stone lamp (from Mourne Mts) from Crossnacreevy (after Harper 1973–74, fig. 6) 334 Plan of multi-phase settlement at Curraheen (after Danaher 2011) .................................. 335 Southern Group of enclosures at Cush (after Ó Ríordáin 1940, plate XIV) ................... 337 Glass beads from Cush (after Ó Ríordáin 1940, fig. 35) ................................................ 340 Bone plaque and comb from Cush (after Ó Ríordáin 1940, fig. 38) ................................ 340 Plan of excavations at Dalkey Island (after Liversage 1968, fig. 2) .................................. 341 Copper-alloy brooch-pin from Deer Park Farms (after Lynn & McDowell 2011) .......... 343 Crucible with copper residue from Deer Park Farms (after Lynn & McDowell 2011) ... 344 Glass beads from Deer Park Farms (after Lynn & McDowell 2011) .............................. 344 Plan of enclosure at Derrinsallagh 3 (after Lennon 2009) ................................................. 348 Iron knives from Derrinsallagh 3 (after Lennon 2009) .................................................... 349 Rotary quernstone from Derrinsallagh 3 (after Lennon 2009) ......................................... 349 Plan of excavations at Derry More in 2000, showing location of features (after Halpin 2000) 350 Smithing features from Dollas Lower (after Grogan et al 2007) ..................................... 353 Plan of excavated features at Donacarney Great (after Rathbone & O’Reilly 2008) ...... 354 Mould for bronze brooch from Dooey, and reproduction drawing of brooch type (after Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, fig. 7) .......................................................................................................... 355 Carved antler pieces from Dooey (after Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, fig. 8) ................... 356 Plan of house at Doonloughan (after Murray & McCormick 2012) ................................. 357 Plan of excavation at Doonmore (after Childe 1938, fig. 1) ........................................... 359 Lignite/shale cores from Doonmore (after Childe 1938, fig. 8) ..................................... 359 Decorated quernstone from Doras (after McDowell 1987, fig. 8) ................................. 360 Plan of early medieval house at Doras (after McDowell 1987, fig. 3) ............................ 360 Early medieval enclosures at Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) .............................. 364 Iron bill-hook from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) ............................................. 365 Blue glass bead from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) ........................................... 365 Copper-alloy pins from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) ....................................... 366 Lignite bracelets from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) ........................................ 366 Souterrain ware sherds from Downview Park (after Davison 1964, fig. 2) ................... 367 Plan and section of souterrains at Downview Park (after Davison 1964, fig. 1) ............ 367 Souterrain ware from Dressogagh (after Collins 1966, fig. 4) ....................................... 368 Plan of Dressogagh (after Collins 1966, 118) ................................................................ 368 ‘Figure-of-eight’ house at Dressogagh (after Collins 1966, 120) ................................... 368 Plan of Dromore ring-work (after Collins 1968, fig. 2) .................................................. 371 Photograph of House 3 at Dromore, looking north (after Collins 1968, plate V) .......... 371 Souterrain ware from Dromore (after Collins 1968, fig. 6) ........................................... 372 Plan of Phase 1 house at Dromthacker (after Cleary 2008, 24) ..................................... 373 Phase 2 structures at Dromthacker (after Cleary 2008, 32) ........................................... 373 Unenclosed house at Drumadonnell (after McSparron 2001, 49) ................................ 375 Souterrain ware ‘cup’ from Phase II at Drumadoon (after McSparron & Williams 2009, plate V) 378 Bell shrine from Drumadoon (after McSparron & Williams 2009, plate A.II) ............... 378 Plan of main enclosure at Dun Emer, Lusk (after Giacometti 2007b) ............................ 380 Plan of Dunbeg promontory fort (after Barry 1981, 301) ............................................... 386 Plan of rampart and fort interior at Dunbeg (after Barry 1981, 302) ............................. 386 Plan and section of Dunbeg (after Inskeep & Proudfoot 1957) ..................................... 388 Plan of Dundrum (after Waterman 1951, fig. 1) ............................................................. 392 Structures in south part of bailey at Duneight (after Waterman 1963b, 66) .................. 393 Excavated area at Dunmisk (after Ivens 1988, 28) ......................................................... 394 Rectangular timber structure (church?) at Dunmisk (after Ivens 1989, 60) .................. 394 Glass objects from Dunmisk (after Henderson 1988b, fig. 1) ........................................ 394 viii

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Plan of Dunnyneill Island (after McCormick & Macdonald 2003, 15) ......................... Plan of phases at Faughart Lower (after Bowen 2008, 11) ............................................ Plan of early medieval occupation phases at Feerwore (after Raftery 1944, facing 52) Iron bell and clapper from Feerwore (after Raftery 1944, fig. 3) ................................. Bone knife handle and ‘toggle’? from Feerwore (after Raftery 1944, fig. 4) .................. Souterrain at Galgorm (after Evans 1946, fig. 3) ............................................................ Plan of Garranes (after Ó Ríordáin 1942) ....................................................................... Phocaean Red Slip Ware (A-ware) from Garranes (after Ó Ríordáin 1942, fig. 23) ...... Iron knives from Garranes (after Ó Ríordáin 1942, fig. 9) ............................................. Plan of enclosures at Garretstown (after Rathbone 2009) .............................................. E-ware sherds from Garretstown (after Rathbone 2009) ............................................... Plan of excavation at Garryduff I (after O’Kelly 1963, plate III) ................................ Gold bird from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 1 and Plate VIII) .......................... Bronze ringpins from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 2) ........................................ Glass beads from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 13) .............................................. Crucibles from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 21) ................................................ Medieval bone comb from Garrynamona (after Rynne 1964, fig. 8) ............................ Plan of Garrynamona (after Rynne 1964, plate XLVII) ................................................. Areas 2 and 3, Gortnahoon (after O’Carroll & Péterváry 2009) ..................................... Bronze stick pin from kiln at Gortnahoon (after O’Carroll & Péterváry 2009) .............. Plan of excavated features at Gortybrigane (after Clark & Long 2010) ......................... Post-built structure at Grange West (Settlement 2) (after Burenhult 1984, 89) ............. Excavated areas of Grange enclosure (after Ó Ríordáin 1949b, Fig. 2) ........................ Bronze brooch and pin from Gransha (after Lynn 1985a, figs 3 & 4) ........................... Section of Gransha showing phases (after Lynn 1988b, 39) ........................................ E-ware sherd, and reconstructed E-ware pot, from Gransha (after Lynn 1985a, fig. 3) Shale motif pieces from Gransha (after Lynn 1985a, fig. 4) .......................................... Plan of rath excavation in interior of star fort at Hillsborough (after Gaskell-Brown 1978, fig. 1) Excavated areas of Island MacHugh (after Davies 1950 and Ivens & Simpson 1986) Excavations at Kilcloghans (after McKinstry 2008) ..................................................... Plan of phases excavated at Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008) ........................................... Bone pins and antler gaming piece from Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008, plate 5) ......... Clay mould and crucibles from Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008, fig. 9) .......................... Stone, metal and glass finds from Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008, fig. 10) .................... Plan of Kilgreany Cave (after Dowd 2002) ................................................................... Plan of Killanully (after Mount 1995, 124) ................................................................... Plan of Killarn (after Boal & Moffitt 1959) .................................................................. Plan of excavated areas at Killederdadrum (after Manning 1984, 241) ........................ Sherd of E-ware from Killederdadrum (after Manning 1984, fig. 10) .......................... Antler (left) and stone spindle whorls from Killickaweeny (after Walsh 2008, Illus. 3.10) Decorated antler comb from Killickaweeny (after Walsh 2008, Illus. 3.10) .................. Plan and section of souterrain at Killyglen (after Waterman 1968, fig. 1) ..................... Excavated area at Killyliss (after Ivens 1984a, 12) ........................................................ Hut-site and latrine at Killyliss (after Ivens 1984a, 23) .................................................. Section through ditch at Killyliss, showing find location of wicker fence (after Ivens 1984a, 21) Plan of excavations at Kilree 3 (after Coughlan 2009a) ............................................... Iron anvil from Kilree 3 (after Coughlan 2009a) ............................................................. Copper vessel rim from Kilree 3 (after Coughlan 2009a) ............................................... Plan of Kilscobin (after Kavanagh 2007) ....................................................................... Glass beads from Kiltrough (after Gallagher 2011) ....................................................... Plan of excavations at Knockadrina (after Coughlan 2009b) ......................................... Souterrain ware ‘urns’ from Knockaholet (after Lawlor 1935, 171) ............................. Plan of Phase 1 at Site II, Knockea showing sequences of huts (A-K) (after O’Kelly 1967, 85) Finds from Knockea (after O’Kelly 1967) ..................................................................... Finds from Knockea (after O’Kelly 1967) ..................................................................... Excavated Areas at Knowth Site M (after Stout & Stout 2008, 8) ................................. Anglo-Saxon gilt mount from Knowth Site M (after Stout & Stout 2008) .................. Hiberno-Norse strap end from Knowth Site M (after Stout & Stout 2008) ................... Plan of promontory fort and rectangular enclosure at Knoxspark (after Mount 2002, 105) Glass beads from Lagore (after Hencken 1950, fig. 65) ................................................. Plan of Phase I house at Langford Lodge, Gartree (after Waterman 1963a, 47) ............. Glass bracelet from Langford Lodge (after Waterman 1963a, fig. 7) ............................. ix

397 402 404 404 404 408 410 411 411 412 412 414 416 416 416 416 417 418 426 427 428 432 434 436 436 437 437 441 443 447 448 448 449 450 451 453 455 460 461 464 464 465 466 466 466 469 469 469 470 471 473 474 475 476 477 481 482 483 484 487 491 491

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Plan of excavations at Larrybane, Knocksoghey (after Proudfoot and Wilson 1961–62, 92) 492 Plan of Leacanabuaile stone fort (after O’Sullivan and Sheehan 1996) .......................... 493 Plan of Leggetsrath, Blanchfieldsland (after Lennon 2005) ............................................ 495 Plan of excavations at Letterkeen (after Ó Ríordáin & Mac Dermott 1951–52, Plate XVIII) 497 Features near entrance at Letterkeen (after Ó Ríordáin & Mac Dermott 1951–52, Plate XIX) 498 Plan of Lisdoo (after Brannon 1981–82, 54) ................................................................... 501 Section of bank and inner ditch, and location of skeleton in ‘souterrain’ (after Brannon 1981–82, 56) 501 Finds from Lisdoo (after Brannon 1981–82, fig. 3) ....................................................... 502 Plan of Lisduggan 1 and 2 (after Twohig 1990, plan 1) ............................................... 504 Plan of excavated area at Lislackagh (after Walsh 1995, 8) ......................................... 505 Roundhouses at Lislackagh (after Walsh 1993) ............................................................. 505 Structures and iron-working areas at Lisleagh I (after Monk 1988) .............................. 507 Blue glass beads from Lisleagh I (after Monk 1988) ..................................................... 508 Plan of Lisleagh II (after Monk 1993a) ........................................................................... 511 Plan of Lisnagade Fort and Lisnagade 2 (after Proudfoot 1953b) .................................. 514 Plan of interior of Lisnagun (after O’Sullivan et al 1998, 38) ......................................... 516 Detailed plan of houses at Lissachiggel (after Davies 1939, 217) .................................. 520 Plan of excavated area at Lissue (after Bersu 1947, 34) ................................................. 521 Slate trial piece from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 11) .................................................. 522 Wooden vessels from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 14) ................................................. 522 Wooden churn from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 13) ................................................... 522 Souterrain ware from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 12) .................................................. 522 Aerial photograph of Loher (after O'Sullivan & Sheehan 1996) ....................................... 523 Bone combs from Loughbown 1 (after Bower 2009a, fig. 18 & plates 15a & 15b) ......... 529 Copper-alloy ring pin from Loughbown 1 (after Bower 2009a, fig. 19 & plate 16a) ....... 529 Plan of Enclosure KK019-040 at Loughboy (after Cotter 1999) ................................... 532 Tuyères from Lowpark (after Gillespie 2011b) ................................................................ 536 Lignite bracelets and glass bead from Lowpark (after Gillespie 2011b) .......................... 536 Outline plan of Magheraboy (after O’Neill 2005) ........................................................... 539 Plan of souterrain at Magheramenagh (after May 1955) .................................................. 541 Plan of features at Marlhill (after Molloy 2009) ................................................................ 544 Plan of gullies and kilns at Marlhill (after Moriarty 2007) .............................................. 546 Plan of Marshes Upper 3 & 4 (after Gowen 1992, 57) ...................................................... 552 Plan of Marshes Upper 4 (after Gowen 1992, 76) ............................................................. 552 Prehistoric and early medieval structures beneath the keep at Maynooth Castle (after Hayden 2000) 554 Phase 1 roundhouse at Jordanstown (photo courtesy of N. Crothers) ............................... 556 Plan of excavated areas at Moathill (after Giacometti 2007a) .......................................... 560 Plan of excavations at Moylederg Island, Lough Eske (after Davies 1946, fig. 2) .......... 568 Miscellaneous finds from Moylederg (after Davies 1946, fig. 3) .................................. 568 Plan of excavated area at Moyne (after Manning 1987, 46) ............................................. 573 Bone and antler objects from Moyne (after Manning 1987, fig. 10) ................................ 573 Excavated features at Mullaghbane (after Harper 1972a, 38) .......................................... 575 Plan of Narraghmore (after Fanning 1972, 170) ............................................................... 577 Plan of excavated areas at Newcastle 2 (after O’Hara 2008b) ......................................... 580 Plan of furnace complex area at Newcastle 2 (after O’Hara 2008b) ................................ 580 Plan of kiln area at Newcastle 2 (after O’Hara 2008) ...................................................... 580 Plan of excavated features at Newtown A (after Coyne 2005, 53) .................................. 582 Souterrain at Newtownbalregan (after Roycroft 2005, 73) .............................................. 584 Plan of Oldcourt (after Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961, fig. 2) ........................................ 590 Iron objects from Oldcourt (after Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961) ................................. 591 Bronzed iron bell from Oldcourt (after Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961) ......................... 591 Cashel and cemetery at Owenbristy (after Lehane & Delaney 2010) ............................. 593 Iron torc from Owenbristy (after Lehane & Delaney 2010) ........................................... 593 Excavated areas in Midleton ‘Cave C’ (after Coleman 1941–42, fig. 2) ....................... 596 Features at Parknahown (after O’Neill 2007, 134) .......................................................... 600 Plan of structures at Platin (after Lynch 2002) .............................................................. 603 Plan of Pollardstown (after Fanning 1973–74, 252) ....................................................... 605 Plan of excavated areas at Raheennamadra (after Stenberger 1966, plate II) ................... 609 Plan of excavated area at Raheens I (after Lennon 1993, 76) ......................................... 611 Plan of some of the houses and souterrains at Raheens II (after Lennon 1994, 52) ........ 613 Plan of interior of Rathbeg (after Warhurst 1969, 95) ..................................................... 616 Excavated area at Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, 141, 158–9) ................................. 617 x

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Iron triskele object from Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, fig. 13) ................................ 617 Bronze objects from Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, fig. 9) ........................................ 618 Iron pins from Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, fig. 11) .................................................... 618 House at Rathmorrissy (after Jones 2010, 49) ..................................................................... 619 Plan of Phase 1 at Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, 73) .................................................... 620 Plan of Phase 2 at Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, 79) .................................................... 620 Spindle whorls from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, figs 23 & 25) .............................. 621 Bronze objects from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, fig. 28) ......................................... 621 Bone pins from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, fig. 25) ................................................ 622 Souterrain ware from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, fig. 19) ....................................... 622 Plan of enclosures at Ratoath (after Wallace 2010) ............................................................ 628 Plan of Raystown (after Seaver 2006, 77) ........................................................................... 631 Bone, glass and lignite finds from Raystown (after Seaver 2010, 276) ............................... 632 Rinnaraw cashel (after Comber 2006, 86) ........................................................................... 635 Plan of enclosures at Rochfort Demesne (after Channing 2007, 113) ................................. 637 Lignite bracelets from Roestown (after O’Hara 2009d, 69) ................................................ 639 Phases from Roestown (after O’Hara 2007, 145) ............................................................... 640 Bone comb fragments from Roestown (after O’Hara 2009d, 82) ..................................... 641 Phase I at Rosepark (after Carroll 2008, 24) ....................................................................... 642 Phase II at Rosepark (after Carroll 2008, 30) ...................................................................... 643 Phase III at Rosepark (after Carroll 2008, 52) .................................................................. 643 Spindle whorl/loom weight from Rosepark (after Carroll 2008) ..................................... 644 Objects from Sallymount (after Clark & Long 2009) ........................................................ 645 Enclosures at Sallymount (after Clark & Long 2009) ......................................................... 647 Plan of Seacash (after Lynn 1978b, 57) .............................................................................. 648 Souterrain ware from Seacash (after Lynn 1978b, fig. 8) ................................................... 649 Stone hones, rubbing stone and grinding stone from Seacash (after Lynn 1978b, figs 8 & 9) 649 Plan of interior of enclosure at Shane’s Castle Park (after Warhurst 1971, 60) ................ 651 Plan of features at Skahanagh North (after Murphy 2006) ................................................ 654 Plan of Sluggary showing areas excavated (after Shee Twohig 2000, 4) ........................... 656 Iron knives from Sluggary (after Shee Twohig 2000) ........................................................ 657 Bronze and bone objects from Sluggary (after Shee Twohig 2000) ................................. 657 Finds from Spittle Ballee (after Waterman 1958b, plate VI) .............................................. 659 Plan of St. Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney (after O’Kelly 1951–52a, fig. 4) ................................. 662 Plan of features at Steeple Road, Antrim (after Anon. 2011) .............................................. 664 Bronze ringed pin from Steeple Road (after Anon. 2011) ................................................... 664 Lignite bead/pendant from Steeple Road (after Anon. 2011) ............................................. 664 Plan of souterrain at Tateetra (after Collins et al 2011) ...................................................... 666 Souterrain ware sherds from Terryhoogan (after McSparron 2007, plates 1–3) ................ 667 Circular gully at Terryhoogan (after McSparron 2004, 18) ............................................... 667 Plan of ‘The Spectacles’ (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, plate XII) ............................................ 669 Objects from ‘The Spectacles’ (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 22) .................................... 670 Plan of Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, plate IV) .................................... 671 Iron knives and sickle from Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, plate XIX) 671 Bone comb and button from Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, plate XIX) 672 Bronze pin and brooch from Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, fig. 6) ....... 672 Plan of enclosure at Treanbaun (after Pérez 2009) ........................................................... 674 Plan of enclosure and souterrain at Tullahedy (after Murphy & Clarke 2001) ................. 676 Early medieval ditches excavated near the raised rath at Tullykevin (after Sloan 2008) 678 Corn-drying kiln at Tulsk (after Brady 2008) ................................................................ 679 Summary of 2004 excavation at Tulsk (after Brady & Gibson 2005, 71) ......................... 679 Enclosure at Uisneach (after Macalister & Praeger 1928) .................................................. 682 Quernstones, jet bracelets, bone scoop, spindle whorl and honestone from Uisneach (after Macalister & Praeger 1928, plate XVII) ................................................................................................ 683 Excavation at White Fort cashel, Drumaroad (after Waterman 1956b, 74) .................... 685 Excavation of Phase 2 house at White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, 78) ........................ 685 Souterrain ware from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 8) .................................. 686 Iron coulter from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 9) .......................................... 686 Small finds from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 10) ........................................ 686 Quernstones from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 11) ....................................... 686 Aerial photograph of Woodstown showing outline of longphort (after Russell 2003, pl. 46) 690 Plan of souterrain (ANT 007:021) at Bushmills Distillery (after Keery 2012b) ............. 692 xi

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Plan of early medieval features at Bushmills (after Keery 2012c) ................................. In situ souterrain ware pot from Bushmills Distillery (after Keery 2012c) .................. Plan of excavated features at Dunsilly (after Keery 2012a) ............................................... Plan of early medieval activity at Gortnahown (after Kiely & O’Donoghue 2011) ....... Iron knives from Gortnahown (after Kiely & O’Donoghue 2011) .................................... Brazing shroud with fabric imprint from Gortnahown (after Kiely & O’Donoghue 2011)

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Foreword over 300 secular sites, and contains substantial tables outlining the evidence for craft activity, as well as the types of artefacts recovered from the site. Much of the evidence for industrial activity in the gazetteer is derived from reports which have not been fully published, i.e. the large body of ‘grey literature’ that has emerged during the last two decades.

This monograph is based on original research carried out by the Early Medieval Archaeology Project (EMAP) in Ireland, which was funded under the Heritage Council of Ireland’s Irish National Strategic Archaeological Research (INSTAR) programme, 2008–2013. EMAP seeks to investigate and analyse the history, character and results of early medieval archaeological excavations in Ireland, to explore what this evidence reveals about society in early Ireland, AD 400–1100, and to communicate this to a wide audience. The project’s website, www.emap.ie, provides further information and resources.

The investigation of industrial activity shows that certain early medieval secular site-types produced more evidence than others. It also suggests that there was a hierarchy of industrial activity, with perceived high-status sites producing more prestigious materials – such as nonferrous metals or glass. There is also a suggestion of a degree of regional patterning, most clearly indicated by the distribution of shale-working sites, but also possibly influential in the location of iron-working sites. The findings indicate that secular sites played a substantial role in early medieval craft and industry, a fact that is often overlooked due to a focus on the production-levels of ‘monastic towns’, and latterly, Hiberno-Norse settlements.

This monograph deals with the archaeological evidence for crafts and production activity on rural settlements in early medieval Ireland (and so not on Viking towns, which in many cases remain to be published in terms of artefacts and crafts). Similarly, although the Tables of data from excavated sites provided below often include information from ecclesiastical or church settlements, which will also be the subject of a future PhD by one of the EMAP team (Lorcan Harney), by and large, most of our discussion will be based on secular settlements, however defined. This monograph is directly based on a report compiled and written in 2012, largely based on evidence available up to that time; some minor updating, bibliographical changes and other edits were undertaken in preparation for publication, but the research largely remains as it was in the 2012 report. The first section of the monograph provides a general overview, including general distribution maps and histograms. The archaeological evidence for industrial activity is covered in fuller detail in sections two and three.

The authors would like to thank all those excavators and specialists whose reports are referred to prior to their final publication. The following are thanked for drawing our attention to relevant sites, and for providing access to excavation and specialist reports: Edward Bourke, Lisa Coyle, James Eogan, Ann Frykler, Lorcan Harney, Susan Lyons, Jerry O’Sullivan, Orlaith Egan, Rónán Swan, Richard O’Brien, Gill Plunkett, Martin Reid, Matthew Seaver, Michael Stanley and Scott Timpany. EMAP’s research activities and our writing of reports and publications could not have been achieved without the help of many people down through the years, and this goes for this book on early medieval farming too. Far from being too numerous to mention, we would like to acknowledge the assistance of the following archaeologists, environmental specialists and companies and apologise fulsomely if anyone has been accidentally overlooked. We would like to thank, as part of all of EMAP’s work, the following: Ömi Akeret (CRDS Ltd); Fiona Beglane (Institute of Technology, Sligo); Nóra Bermingham (TVAS Archaeology); Niall Brady (Adco); Catherine Boner (ACS Ltd); Nik Bower (Eachtra); Gerry Breen (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Thaddeus Breen (Valerie J. Keeley Ltd); Lydia Cagney (ACS Ltd); Miriam Carroll (Valerie J. Keeley Ltd); Judith Carroll (Judith Carroll & Co Ltd); John Carrott (Palaeoecology Research Services); Beth Cassidy (ADS Ltd); Lyndsey Clarke (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Allister Clarke (ACS Ltd); Linda Clarke (ACS Ltd); Richard Clutterbuck (CRDS); Sarah Cobain (ACS Ltd); Charlotte Coles (ACS Ltd); Sheelagh Conran (CRDS Ltd); Malachy Conway (National Trust, formerly ACS Ltd); Claire Cotter (AML Ltd); Eamonn Cotter (AML Ltd); Tim Coughlan (IAC Ltd); Frank Coyne (Aegis); Norman Crothers (ADS Ltd);

Section Two, largely prepared by Matthew Seaver and based on earlier EMAP analyses by Lorcan Harney and Aidan O’Sullivan, examines the evidence in greater depth for specific industrial activity, namely iron-working, nonferrous metal-working, glass-working, and antler/boneworking. This is accompanied by comprehensive tables outlining the site evidence for the major industrial activities. Section Three, prepared by Maureen Doyle, and in some aspects inspired by her own previous PhD (Doyle 2010), looks at dress and personal ornament. An initial discussion of the range of elements within dress and ornament focuses on the different types of artefact. Thus ‘pins’, whether made of bone, antler, bronze or iron, are discussed together since they performed a similar function. In relation to the production of items of dress, however, the focus is on the different materials used, with separate discussion, for example, of items made of glass, bone or metals, as well as the production of textiles for clothing. Finally, Section Four consists of a site gazetteer of industrial activity in early medieval Ireland. This includes xiii

Photos Jones (Glasgow University); Stuart Rathbone (ACS Ltd); Fiona Reilly (Valerie J. Keeley Ltd); Stuart Reilly (ACS Ltd); Ian Russell (ACS Ltd); Rory Sherlock (Sheila Lane Ltd); Brian Sloan (Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork, QUB); Rachel Sloane (ACS Ltd); John Soderberg (University of Minnesota); Lena Strid (Oxford Archaeology Ltd); Claudia Tommasino Suérez (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Bruce Sutton (Valerie J. Keely Ltd); Kate Taylor (TVAS Archaeology); Martha Tierney (Eachtra); John Tierney (Eachtra); Alys Vaughan-Williams (Valerie J. Keeley Ltd); Claire Walsh (Archaeological Projects Ltd); Gerry Walsh (Mayo County Council); Auli Tourunen (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Fintan Walsh (IAC Ltd); Brendon Wilkins (Headland Archaeology); Tim Young (GeoArch); and Suzanne Zajac (Mayo County Council), as well as Neil Carlin, Ann Connon, John Channing, Margaret Gowen, Margaret Murphy and Paul Stevens.

Abi Cryerhall (Margaret Gowen and Co.); Ed Danaher (NRA, formerly of ACS Ltd); Finn Delaney (Eachtra); Shane Delaney (IAC Ltd); Mary Dillon (CRDS Ltd); Marion Dowd (Sligo Institute of Technology); Tara Doyle (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Colin Dunlop (NAC Ltd); Ruth Elliot (Eachtra); Neil Fairburn (Eachtra); Martin Fitzpatrick (Archaeological Consultancy Ltd); Claire Foley (NIEA); Haley Foster (ACS Ltd); Val Fryer (TVAS Archaeology); Jonny Geber (IAC Ltd); Vicky Ginn (NIEA formerly of ACS Ltd); Antoine Giacometti (Arch-Tech Ltd); Richard Gillespie (Mayo County Council); Caitríona Gleeson (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Allan Hall (Palaeoecology Research Services); Eoin Halpin (ADS Ltd); Sara Halwas (Margaret Gowen and Co. Ltd); Sheila Hamilton-Dyer (Bournemouth University); Colum Hardy (Valerie J. Keeley Ltd); SarahJane Haston (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Alan Hayden (Archaeological Projects Ltd); Linda Hegarty (Eachtra); Mary Henry (Archaeological Services Ltd); Graham Hull (TVAS Archaeology); Neil Jackman (Valerie J. Keely Ltd); Tom Janes (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Deborah Jaques (Palaeoecology Research Services); Richard Jennings (IAC Ltd); Penny Johnston (Eachtra); Carlton Jones (Margaret Gowen and Co.); John Kavanagh (ICON Archaeology); Valerie J. Keeley (VJK); Martin Keery (Gahan and Long Ltd); Gearoid Kelleher (ACS Ltd); Agnes Kerrigan (Mayo County Council); Jacinta Kiely (Eachtra); Alison Kyle (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Dane Lalonde (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Susan Lalonde (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Sheila Lane (Sheila Lane Ltd); John Lehane (Eachtra); Anne Marie Lennon (AML Ltd); Stephen Linnane (ACS Ltd); Patricia Long (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Camilla Lotqvist (Moore Archaeological and Environmental Services Ltd); Patricia Lynch (Arch-Tech Ltd); Rob Lynch (IAC Ltd); Susan Lyons (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Philip Macdonald (Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork, QUB); Margaret McCarthy (Eachtra); Tori McMorran (Eachtra); Catherine McLoughlin (Stafford McLoughlin Archaeology); Siobhain McNamara (ACS Ltd); Melanie McQuade (Margaret Gowen and Co.); Cormac McSparron (Centre for Archaeological Fieldwork, QUB); Emma Miller (Valerie J. Keeley Ltd); Bernice Molloy (Margaret Gowen and Co.); Colm Moloney (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Caitríona Moore (Valerie J. Keely Ltd); Colm Moriarty (Margaret Gowen and Co.); Jonathan Monteith (Valerie J. Keeling Ltd); Richard Morkan (ACS Ltd); Gerry Mullins (CRDS/Eachtra); Donald Murphy (ACS Ltd); Deirdre Murphy (ACS Ltd); Niamh O’Callaghan (Eachtra); Finola O’Carroll (CRDS); Aidan O’Connell (ACS Ltd, now Archer Heritage); Lorna O’Donnell (Margaret Gowen and Co. Ltd, now UCD School of Archaeology); Julianna O’Donoghue (Eachtra); Mícheál Ó Droma (Valerie J. Keeley); Cóilín Ó Drisceoil (Kilkenny Archaeology Ltd); Robert O’Hara (ACS Ltd, now Archer Heritage Ltd); Méabh O’Hare (ACS Ltd); Tara O’Neill (ACS Ltd); Eileen O’Reilly (Margaret Gowen and Co., now UCD School of Archaeology); Oliver O’Reilly (ACS Ltd); E. Eoin O’Sullivan (Margaret Gowen and Co.); Tamas Péterváry (CRDS Ltd); Albína Hulda Pálsdóttir (Headland Archaeology Ltd); Muňiz Pérez (CRDS Ltd); Effie

We would also like to thank our many colleagues from universities, higher education and research institutes in Ireland and abroad, who generously supported EMAP. We would in particular like to thank Edel Bhreathnach (The Discovery Programme); Colin Breen and Tom McErlean (University of Ulster, Coleraine); Billy O’Brien, Rose Cleary, Mick Monk, Barra Ó Donnabháin, Tomás Ó Carragáin, Colin Rynne, and John Sheehan (University College Cork); Gabriel Cooney, Tadhg O’Keeffe, Muiris O’Sullivan, Stephen Davis, Alan Peatfield, Helen Lewis, Graeme Warren, Ron Pinhasi, Rob Sands, Conor McDermott and Angela McAteer (University College Dublin); Joanna Brück (formerly UCD, now University of Bristol); Marion Dowd, Chris Read, Sam Moore, Fiona Beglane and Shirley Markey (Sligo Institute of Technology); Stephen Harrison (TCD); Emily Murray and Colm Donnelly (Queen’s University Belfast); Conor Newman, Elizabeth Fitzpatrick and Michelle Comber (University College Galway); Chris Loveluck (University of Nottingham); Helena Hamerow and David Griffiths (University of Oxford); Stephen Driscoll (University of Glasgow); Gabor Thomas (University of Reading); Simon Gilmour (Society of Antiquaries of Scotland); Gareth Davies (Trent and Peak Archaeology); Chris Lowe (Headland Archaeology); Mark Redknapp (National Museum of Wales); Sally Foster (University of Glasgow); and John Barber and Anne Crone (AOC Scotland). We also thank the staff of the research and financial administration units of both University College Dublin and Queens University Belfast for their practical support to the project over the years. We would also like to thank the staff of several government institutions who have supported the project in diverse ways, or have offered their help or advice, including: Raghnall Ó Floinn, Pat Wallace, Eamonn P. Kelly, Andy Halpin, Mary Cahill and Fiona Reilly (National Museum of Ireland); Brian Duffy, Ed Bourke, Ann Lynch, Con Manning and Chris Corlett (National Monuments Service, Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht). We also thank Gail Pollock, Rosemary McConkey, John O’Keeffe, Maybeleine Gormley and Claire Foley (Northern Ireland Environment Agency) and xiv

Over the years, the Early Medieval Archaeology Project team in UCD and QUB has included a range of Irish archaeologists, site directors, archaeological researchers, archaeological scientists, and associated PhD scholars and Postdoctoral Fellows. We would like to thank them all for all our various discussions and invaluable help in the research, writing and production of this book. We thank the EMAP team members in particular; Conor McDermott, Rob Sands, Rob O’Hara, Maureen Doyle, Jonathan Kinsella, Meriel McClatchie and Matthew Seaver, and we also additionally thank the other members of the Early Medieval and Viking Age Research Group at UCD: Eileen Reilly, Denise Keating, Sharon GreeneDouglas, Terry O’Hagan, Susan Curran, Margaret Williams, Brian Dolan, Rebecca Boyd, Tríona Nicholl, Louise Nugent, Brendan O’Neill and Paul Stevens. We would also like to acknowledge the support of EMAP’s International Expert Group, who have variously advised or helped the project over the years: Martin Carver, Nancy Edwards, Stephen Driscoll, David Griffiths, Mick Monk, John Bradley, Chris Corlett, Niall Brady, Brian Lacey, Betty O'Brien, Stephen Mandal, Finola O'Carroll, Tomás Ó Carragáin and Ronan Swan. We would also thank Betty O’Brien, Ian Doyle, Gabriel Cooney, Emily Murray, Tríona Nicholl, Maureen Doyle, Mary B. Deevy, Ronan Swan, Terry O’Hagan, Stephen Harrison, Amanda Kelly and Brian Dolan.

Christine Baker of the Institute of Archaeologists of Ireland. The archaeological staff of the National Roads Authority were also hugely helpful to EMAP, providing us with a range of resources, unpublished reports and publications; we thank in particular Ronan Swan, Mary B. Deevy, James Eogan, Michael MacDonagh, Jerry O’Sullivan, Niall Roycroft and Noel Dunne. We would especially wish to gratefully acknowledge the following for their help in sourcing images and giving their permissions for their use in various EMAP publications: Ian Doyle (The Heritage Council); Tony Roche and Con Brogan (Photographic Unit, National Monuments Service, Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht); Gail Pollock and Rosemary McConkey (Northern Ireland Environment Agency); Noel Dunne, Mary B. Deevy, Michael Stanley, James Eogan, Jerry O’Sullivan, Michael MacDonagh, Martin Jones, Paul O’Keeffe and Bernice Kelly (NRA); Alan Hayden and Conor McHale (Archaeological Projects Ltd); Richard Gillespie (Mayo County Council); Linzi Simpson; Matthew Stout (St Patrick’s College, Drumcondra); Finola O’Carroll (CRDS); Michelle Comber (Department of Archaeology, NUI Galway); John Tierney and Finn Delaney (Eachtra); Frank Coyne (Aegis Archaeology); Fintan Walsh (Irish Archaeological Consultancy); Rob O’Hara and Aidan O’Connell (Archer Heritage Ltd); Valerie J. Keeley (VJK Ltd); Kate Taylor, Nora Bermingham and Aisling Mulcahy (TVAS Ireland Ltd); Deirdre Murphy (ACS); Daniel Tietzsch-Tyler; Colin Rynne, John Sheehan and Tomás Ó Carragáin (UCC); Claire Walsh; Jenny White Marshall; Grellan D. Rourke; Ciara McCarthy; Neil Jackman; Rob Sands, Conor McDermott and Matt Seaver (UCD School of Archaeology) and Libby Mulqueeny (Queens University Belfast).

This monograph was originally prepared in 2012, and was edited and formatted for publication in 2014, with minimal updating, by Maureen Doyle. The Early Medieval Archaeology Project was supported by the Heritage Council under the Irish National Strategic Archaeological Research (INSTAR) Programme funded by the National Monuments Service of the Department of Arts, Heritage and the Gaeltacht.

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Section One: Early medieval crafts and production in Ireland, AD 400–1100: A Brief Overview By Thomas R. Kerr, Finbar McCormick and Aidan O’Sullivan

Chapter 1: Introduction very difficult to distinguish between a site which is solely ‘secular’ and one which is solely ‘religious’ in nature. While Conleth Manning’s excavations at Moyne, Co. Mayo (Manning 1987) and Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary (Manning 1984) argued that certain ecclesiastical sites may have originated as secular enclosures, this was partially based on the development of graveyards at these sites. It is now increasingly clear that a formal burial ground at an early medieval site does not necessarily constitute a change in function to a church site, nor can it be taken to imply the presence of a church on site. Rather, it seems that burial beside and alongside the living was a regular practice through much of Ireland until at least the eighth or ninth century. The industrial activity and associated finds from obviously ecclesiastical sites such as Armagh, Clonmacnoise or Reask have not been discussed here in detail; however, similar activity from the pre-ecclesiastical phases on possible church sites, such as Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone (Ivens 1989) or Kilgobbin, Co. Dublin (Bolger 2008) has been included. Similarly, the findings from settlement-cemetery sites have been included, but, where possible, these have been restricted to occupation evidence and have not included grave-goods associated with burials.

The early medieval period in Ireland, AD 400–1100, was a time of significant social, ideological, technological and economic changes, and the archaeological evidence from that time is rich and rewarding (O’Sullivan et al 2014). Interpretations of the landscapes of early medieval Ireland have changed over the decades, driven partly by the changing trends of scholarship, and partly by new discoveries within the archaeological record. While the predominantly rural focus of life in Ireland and the evidence for settlement and agriculture during the latter part of the first millennium AD has been well discussed, the impact of crafts and production – the making of things – on the everyday life of the inhabitants of the countryside has had less coverage. It is clear that Ireland’s Viking towns were centres of craft production, partly for domestic uses, but also for farflung networks of trade and exchange (e.g. Wallace 1987). The role of native rural settlements in craft production has typically been less well studied, and most models of interpretation would centre on ideas of selfsufficiency or on lordly patronage of specialist craftworkers. It is clear that the church was heavily involved in craft and production, and in particular the socalled ‘monastic towns’ (sensu Doherty 1985; Valante 1998; Swift 1998) may have had a major role in technological innovation and production of objects for distribution. Recent excavations on the ecclesiastical site of Clonfad, Co. Westmeath (Stevens and Channing 2012) and Armoy, Co. Antrim (Nelis et al 2007), for example, revealed large-scale production of specialised metal-work (e.g. bells), and 1,300 pieces of shale-working debitage, respectively. However, the role of the church in production and exchange is a subject that will require much closer attention, especially now that the diversity of the evidence has been recognised (see O’Sullivan et al 2014).

After eight or nine decades of systematic archaeology in Ireland, there are noticeable changes in the way in which craft-working and small finds have been recorded. Early excavation reports, such as those by S.P. Ó Ríordáin of University College Cork, or H.O’N. Hencken of the Harvard Archaeological Mission, tended to focus heavily on the finds recovered from sites. This artefact-heavy approach was a product of the contemporary archaeological tradition, which was dominated by typologies. By identifying specific artefacts to a sub-type level, it was possible to work out relative, or even absolute, chronologies for these various sites. The development of radiocarbon dating, however, shifted the focus away from artefacts to ecofacts and other material which could be sampled for the dating process. Archaeology in Ireland had also shifted away from multiseason excavation on a headline site, towards an attempt to understand the wider archaeological landscape. This led to attempts to create settlement models, by examining the location of sites in relation to the local topography and to each other, and was also associated with palaeoecological studies which tried to understand the ancient environment and climate. A mixture of preservation issues and the generally aceramic nature of the larger part of the island during the early medieval

This monograph, therefore, while it will include evidence from ecclesiastical or church settlements (particularly in the Tables of data presented below), will particularly examine the nature and organisation of craft production on rural secular occupation sites. It is admitted that it is not always easy to distinguish between early medieval ‘secular’ and ‘ecclesiastical’ sites and it has become increasingly blurred as a result of the excavation boom of the early 2000s. The discovery of numerous cemeterysettlements/settlement-cemeteries/secular cemeteries, such as Johnstown, Co. Meath (Clarke and Carlin 2008) or Raystown, Co. Meath (Seaver 2010) during roadworks in the first decade of the twenty-first century makes it 1

possible to cross-examine this data on a chronological basis. Although large numbers of radiocarbon dates have been produced from the charcoal associated with ironworking, these tend to produce a rather broad, and thus undiagnostic, dating spread. Very few dates or dateable material have been produced for the other craftworking industries.

period meant that such studies could add value to excavation reports far beyond that available from the description of yet another blue glass bead or corroded knife blade. As a result of this change in focus, artefact studies (and the concomitant study of craft and industry) became increasingly marginalised in report publications. Where once papers consisted largely of descriptions of finds (for example, over 60% of Ó Ríordáin’s paper on the Lough Gur excavations (1949a) dealt with the finds), the appendices now were filled with animal bone reports, human bone reports and radiocarbon dates.

The gazetteer incorporates two major tables for each site: one looking at the evidence for industrial activity, and the other listing the small finds recovered from the site. While certain aspects of industrial activity, such as metal smelting or ore processing, leave obvious physical remains which may be identified archaeologically, other processes are far more impermanent in their nature. These may, however, be identified by the presence of certain craft-specific tools or other objects within the small finds. The most obvious of these is cloth-working, which may be identified by iron shears (for clipping sheep or goats to produce the woollen fibre), spindle whorls (for turning the wool into yarn) and loom weights (for turning the yarn into cloth). As such the table on industrial activity is sub-divided into columns for ‘Direct’ evidence (such as iron slag) and ‘Indirect’ evidence (such as spindle whorls).

The sheer volume of material produced from the National Roads Authority excavations, however, meant that artefact studies became both increasingly viable and necessary. Many of these specialists were employees of the excavating company, and thus their reports were limited in scale and scope to those sites excavated by that specific company. Others were external experts recruited for a specific contract, who may have had no previous experience of Irish archaeological material. These factors mean that there is a danger that certain regional patterns may be the product of the preferences, experiences or expectations of the post-excavation process, rather than reflecting any ‘actual’ pattern. One of the clearest examples of this possible bias is the identification of isolated early medieval charcoal production pits in Co. Meath along the route of the M3 (e.g. Kenny 2010). This cluster should not be taken to imply that this area held a virtual monopoly over charcoal production, but rather that the post-excavation team interpreted the data in such a manner.

A column is also included for dating evidence. The radiocarbon-dated evidence largely comes from charcoal residue within furnaces, but there are also certain objects which have been dated based on their typology. Radiocarbon dates have been calibrated to two sigma under IntCal09 using Calib611, and results of above 85% probability have been highlighted in bold.

Another clear example of the issues met when dealing with specialist reports produced over a long period of time is the problem with the identification of perforated stone discs as loom weights or spindle whorls. Although both objects are associated with the working of cloth, they come from different ends of the process, with spindle whorls associated with yarn production, and loom weights associated with turning the yarn into cloth. While small discs are generally interpreted as spindle whorls and large ones as loom weights, it is clearly possible that large spindle whorls and small loom weights may have existed.

It was possible to compare the prevalence of industrial activity on various site types. While it is generally quite obvious what constitutes a ‘crannog’, a ‘rath’ or a ‘cashel’, there are a large number of less clearly-defined site types, specifically the ‘settlement-cemetery’ or ‘noncircular enclosure’ (sensu Kinsella 2010). ‘Settlementcemeteries’ and ‘non-circular enclosures’ share similar characteristics and have been clustered together when producing the statistics. It is also clear that some sites are rather mutable and may actually be described as different site types throughout their occupation history – for example, the change of a ‘rath’ to a ‘raised rath’. There also exist a large number of sites which have been clustered as ‘other’, including cave sites, isolated house sites, and sand-dune sites. The statistics based on the various site types should thus be seen more as a general trend rather than a definitive statement.

Overview of monograph This monograph consists of two major sections:– A discussion of craft-working and insights into the production of personal, domestic and industrial artefacts; and – A gazetteer of over 300 sites outlining the evidence for industrial activity on these sites.

Examining the prevalence of activity simply by listing the numbers of various site types may lead to rather skewed results. Figure 1.1, for example, shows the percentages of site types on which iron working was found against the total numbers of sites included in the gazetteer. While one-third of all iron-working sites are univallate raths, this partially reflects the fact that univallate raths are by far the most numerous early medieval site type excavated. A more useful way of examining the prevalence of a particular industrial activity is to look at what percentage

The discussion chapters deal with the prevalence of industry and craft-working across the island in a synthetic manner. These examine both broad themes and general trends in industrial activity. While it was possible to look at the geographic spread of sites (distribution maps were produced for the various examined industrial types, such as iron-working or pottery-making), it was not deemed 2

of the various site types had evidence for it. Thus Figure 1.2 includes the same data as Figure 1.1, but represented as a percentage of the individual site type. While over 50% of univallate raths show evidence for iron working, this is no longer the dominant iron-working site type, but rather is part of a general trend that indicates that over

50% of most early medieval site types were involved in iron working. By applying this method, it is clear that some forms of industrial activity were conducted regularly on all types of sites, regardless of social standing or geographical location (Figs. 1.2–1.4; Maps 1.1–1.3).

Fig. 1.1: Percentages of sites in gazetteer with evidence for iron-working

Fig. 1.2: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for iron-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

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Fig. 1.3: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for cloth-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

Fig. 1.4: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for pottery-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer) It is also clear that, taking into account preservation bias on crannogs, certain craft activities were carried out on a small number of sites, but still without any apparent preference for social class (Figs. 1.5–1.7; Maps 1.4–1.6).

monograph, for example, show evidence for perceived ‘high-status’ industrial activity, such as non-ferrous metal-working and glass working (Figs. 1.8–1.9; Maps 1.7–1.8). It is equally clear that a tiny percentage of the perceived high-status multivallate sites showed evidence for bone-working, an occupation associated in the early Irish laws with one of the lowest ranked individuals (Kelly 1988, 61–63) (Figs. 1.10–1.11; Maps 1.9–1.10).

Certain site types, however, appear to be more strongly associated with certain industrial practices than others. A high percentage of the crannogs included in this 4

Map 1.1: Sites that produced evidence for iron-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.2: Sites that produced evidence for cloth-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.3a: Sites that produced evidence for pottery-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry). See Map 1.3b for inset.

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Map 1.3b: Sites that produced evidence for pottery-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

Fig. 1.5: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for leather-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

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Fig. 1.6: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for wood-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

Fig. 1.7: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for stone-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

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Map 1.4: Sites that produced evidence for leather-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.5: Sites that produced evidence for wood-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.6: Sites that produced evidence for stone-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Fig. 1.8: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for bronze-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

Fig. 1.9: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for glass-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

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Map 1.7: Sites that produced evidence for bronze-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.8: Sites that produced potential evidence for glass-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Fig. 1.10: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for antler-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

Fig. 1.11: Percentages of site types in gazetteer with evidence for bone-working (figures above columns indicate the number of sites in gazetteer)

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Map 1.9: Sites that produced evidence for antler-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.10: Sites that produced evidence for bone-working (numbers relate to gazetteer entry) It was also possible to plot the distribution of manufacturing sites against raw materials – specifically areas where the geology included shales, and those areas with raised bogs (sources of bog iron ores at the fringes)

and iron-bearing rocks (Maps 1.11–1.12). These, unsurprisingly, show a close match-up between the production sites and the distribution of the raw materials.

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Map 1.11: Geological evidence for shale and distribution of shale-working sites (numbers relate to gazetteer entry)

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Map 1.12: Iron-bearing rocks and known areas of bog iron ore (after Scott 1991), raised bogs and iron-production sites

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which have produced large numbers of good quality dates, it appears that often industrial activity is either dated by bulk charcoal (thus providing an unsatisfactory date), or by artefact typology. Without a good and reliable typology it is impossible to identify chronological trends in production. An attempt has been made in Section 3 to consider the individuals who wore and/or produced certain ornaments. There is, however, still a temptation to present production and artefacts as ends in themselves, divorced from the people who made/commissioned/used them. Further work is therefore still required to understand what role industrial activity played in early medieval Irish society, and how it affected those who were intimately involved in the production processes. Once that is done, and even while it is being done, we will also need to consider how people made their own worlds, using raw materials, skills, knowledge and technological processes to make, use and discard the objects in their lives.

Conclusion A substantial amount of new archaeological evidence for crafts and production activity in early medieval Ireland has been discovered during excavations in recent years. These excavations have produced data that will enable a more cohesive overview of craft-working and production in Ireland during this time period, by highlighting the role of the smaller secular sites. The identification of charcoal production pits, for example, augments our understanding of smelting from this period, but also adds further insights into contemporary environments and landmanagement. While this monograph has collated data from over 300 early medieval sites, and has produced comprehensive tables and distribution maps on industrial production, there are still a number of outstanding issues for future research. The most clearly pressing issue is a lack of good chronology for much of the production activity. In contrast to cereal-drying kilns, for example,

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Section Two: Early Medieval Craft-Working By Matthew Seaver, Lorcan Harney and Aidan O’Sullivan system for reciprocation through render and clientship presents many challenges in theorising about how they worked (Moreland 2010, 75–115). The mechanisms for acquiring or maintaining objects have not been discussed here, nor has the question of who carried out the various production steps, or whether tasks/knowledge were jealously guarded by a sub-set of society. Such issues remain open to interpretation, and further work is necessary in order to more fully understand the way in which industrial activity helped shape early medieval Irish society.

Introduction This section will examine various forms of early medieval crafts and industrial activity in greater detail. This will consist of individual chapters on specific materials, e.g. iron-working, non-ferrous metal-working, etc., which will be accompanied by a series of tables outlining the types of material found on various sites (see Appendix). Although dealt with separately here, the range of different crafts cannot be completely separated from their interlinked social and economic context. The place of crafts in a social and economic world with a complex

Chapter 2: Early Medieval Iron-Working synthesis work on the cultural context of metallurgical production has also been produced in recent years which has taken into consideration some of the recentlyexcavated material (Williams 2010; Dolan 2012). It is important to acknowledge that distinguishing different stages of the archaeometallurgical process is only really possible through macro and micro examination of the residues by a specialist with reference to documented collections from experimental work. It also requires very detailed recording of the structures and features involved. For this reason, many earlier excavations could represent the results of a range of processes. This chapter presents an outline of the process of iron working, the archaeological evidence for it and a discussion of how it was integrated into early medieval Irish society.

Introduction Brian Scott (1991, 109), in his detailed overview, examined the evidence for iron working from its introduction during the early Iron Age until the end of the early medieval period. He was one of the first to examine in detail the potential evidence for smelting, smithing and mining and the artefacts and technology used behind these processes. Both Scott (1991, 157) and Edwards (1990, 86) highlighted that previous metallurgical studies on early medieval sites often failed to make a distinction between smithing and smelting furnaces, or failed to collect slag in a systematic way. Knowledge of early medieval Irish iron working has recently been advanced by the published work of archaeologists examining the results of excavations on settlement sites on a national basis (Comber 2008). The significant number of excavations of early medieval settlements during the recent economic boom increasingly included specialist contributions on industrial residues. This led to increased awareness of the importance of sampling for these purposes. The metallurgical evidence from recent excavation schemes has allowed discursive chapters by archaeologists and archaeometallurgists on regional patterns of metalworking (e.g. Carlin 2008). These discussions were informed by a small group of archaeometallurgists who have produced significant quantities of specialist reports on assemblages from a variety of early medieval site types (e.g. Photos-Jones 2008a–d; Photos-Jones et al 2011; Young 2003; 2006a–c; 2008a–b; 2009a–e; 2010; 2011a–b; 2012; Wallace and Anguilano 2010a–c). These are available within ‘grey’ literature final reports, published volumes and a significant range of evaluations and reports some of which are available online (e.g. http://www.sasaa.co.uk/sasaa%20projects.htm and http://www.geoarch.co.uk/). This reporting is usually a two-stage process with assessment of the assemblage and, if it is merited, recommendations for scientific analysis which involves thin-sectioning of samples. Postgraduate

Iron artefacts on Irish early medieval sites This study found that iron artefacts were present on 173 of the 317 settlement sites within the gazetteer, and are the most frequently found object class (Map 2.1). The durable nature of this material meant that it was used to produce a wide range of common tools, equipment and other objects. These typically included knives, awls, chisels, hammers, punches, axes, saws and tongs. Agricultural tools included sickles, shears, bill-hooks, plough-socks and plough shares. Ornate objects of personal adornment were nearly always produced in copper-alloy or silver though simple pins and penannular brooches could be occasionally manufactured in iron, but these were rarely lavishly decorated. Military artefacts were manufactured in iron and included swords, spearheads, arrow-heads, shield bosses and the famous slave collar from Lagore (Hencken 1950, 115–7). Other objects of iron included tweezers, ladles, horse harnesses, buckles, keys and barrel-padlocks, bells and the ubiquitous iron nail (Comber 2008, 112–3). While many of these objects were functional, they also had symbolic power. For example, iron knives could be deeply personal objects, sometimes with decorated bone handles and used 22

least five sites in the gazetteer as well as at Randalstown (Wood-Martin 1886) and Nendrum (Lawlor 1925, 143; Bourke 2007, 407) (see Appendix). Iron hammer-heads have been found on at least three sites in the gazetteer as well as at Killyvilla (D'Arcy 1897a, 220) and Scandinavian Dublin (McGrail 1993, 167). Comber (2008, 118) has suggested that hammer-stones and wooden mallets may have fulfilled similar iron-working functions, and the former are known from at least fifteen sites (see Appendix). In contrast, wooden mallets only survive in wetland contexts at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 163), Ballinderry I (Hencken 1936, 172) and Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 60).

for a wide range of tasks, and were occasionally buried with people. Although iron objects are a very common find on early medieval settlements, they are frequently severely corroded and without the support of X-ray techniques, it is often very difficult to establish their precise size, shape and use as well as details about their construction and decoration (Edwards 1990, 88). Metallographic Analysis of Artefacts The archaeometallurgical examination of early medieval iron artefacts from sites rarely takes place in conjunction with the analysis of residues. A number of key studies have taken place and have looked at the evidence for the hardness and durability of the objects produced. Making steel required a high-carbon alloy which required heating to a critical temperature and then quenching in water to produce steel. Crucially this cutting edge was very sharp but susceptible to breaking. Phosphoric iron typical of that produced from bogs naturally became hardened as it was worked. Rapid cooling in water did not harden the object (Photos-Jones 2008a, 255–265). Scott used chemical and metallographic techniques to examine early medieval iron artefacts from a range of Irish sites. He found that they had significant variations in carbon content and noted techniques such as quenching and welding (Comber 2008, 120). At Killickaweeny, work by Photos-Jones (2008b, 53–54) demonstrated the craft of the blacksmith in producing objects such as an iron knife and a chisel. She concluded that while the knife may have been imported, the chisel had the ‘fingerprint’ of being made on site. The chisel analysed was made with phosphoric iron with an even carbon content and indicated the smith chose an appropriate bloom for manufacturing, based on the object’s intended use. A knife from Johnstown was also studied. The hilt and the blade were found to be made from two different blooms containing phosphoric iron. It was a low-carbon alloy which matched the slag samples from the site (PhotosJones 2008a, 262). A study of the fifteen iron artefacts from Deer Park Farms found that two objects had successfully quenched and tempered steel within a knife and an axe which had also been looked at by Scott (Hall 2011, 304–14). An awl was made from medium-carbon steel. While other knives had low carbon content they would still have provided serviceable cutting edges. The Deer Park Farms objects could have been made by seasonal smiths with limited knowledge of carbonisation or highly skilled smiths who deliberately made harderwearing but not fully hardened objects (ibid., 314).

Other tools used in the final forging process included iron chisels and punches. Iron chisels are known from at least 25 sites in the gazetteer, as well as Craigywarren (Coffey 1906, 115), Moylarg (Buick 1893, 32) and Moyne (Manning 1987, 54) (see Appendix). Files, whetstones and grindstones were used for sharpening, shaping and smoothing iron and metal tools, blades, points and other objects. Their association with metalworking sites can be seen at Lowpark, with rotary grindstones and a hone sharpening-stone (Higgins 2010, 2). Iron files are difficult to identify due to the poor preservation of iron, but possible examples are known from Scandinavian Waterford (Scully 1997, 469) and Woodstown (O'Brien et al 2005, 70). Archaeological evidence for early medieval iron manufacturing Archaeological evidence for the production of iron comes from a range of sources. Heavily-scorched pits representing the remains of furnaces or hearths are frequently found. The archaeological residues of the ironworking process come in the form of slags, metallurgical ceramics, fuel waste, vitrified fuel ash and ore (PhotosJones et al 2011, clxi). These can be found within a variety of features on settlement sites, such as ditches and pits, or more directly as dumps of industrial waste or within heavily-scorched features associated with iron production representing different kinds of hearths and furnaces. Direct evidence for iron working at some stage in the process comes from a total of 199 out of 317 settlement sites (Map 2.1; see Appendix). Previous syntheses noted 49 sites with evidence for iron working, which included five ecclesiastical sites not considered in this monograph (Comber 2008, 181). At many earlier excavations, iron slag and other metallurgical residues were described but were difficult to quantify. Comber originally classified evidence for iron working as average, minimal or extensive. Metallurgical residues and features can be found in association with structural remains, storage and refuse pits and ancillary working areas. Investigative techniques to better understand these processes on site include consultation with specialists, extensive sampling of metallurgical residues, and magnetic and/or phosphate survey of soils. The last can include the systematic use of a magnet around hearths, pits and other features. Laboratory processes include analysis of metallurgical residues, studies of fuel sources

Metal-working toolkit Tools such as hammers, tongs, files and punches were all used in the final stages of iron working but could also be utilised for several other different crafts. However, there is a relative absence of these iron-working tools on early medieval settlement sites, but this could be due to the fact that the iron-smiths had the capacity to manufacture their own tools and therefore to recycle them when broken (Carlin 2008, 109). Iron metal-working tongs – variously described as pincers or pliers – have been found on at 23

and scientific analysis of selected artefacts. Experimental work is also very important in trying to understand the archaeological evidence, and there has been a number of important recent studies of early medieval Irish iron

technology (see, for example, Stevens 2010; http://www.geoarch.co.uk/experimental/bell.html; and http://www.seandalaiocht.com/1/post/2010/11/smelt2010-full-video-in-hd.html).

Map 2.1: Evidence for iron-working on early medieval sites in Ireland (numbers refer to the gazetteer)

24

found on other sites but was not recognised as such by the excavators (Scott 1991, 154).

Raw materials The principal source of iron in early medieval Ireland is believed to be bog iron ore (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 70), a deposit formed under wet conditions when iron-bearing surface waters meet organic material (Tylecote 1986, 125). Bog iron ore and bog iron slag have been found at the rath complex of Cush (Ó Ríordáin 1940, 154), the rath at Mullaghbane (Spence 1972, 43) and at Reask (Fanning 1981). Bog ore has been found at St Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney and at Lough Faughan (Scott 1991, 151) and at Clonfad (Stevens 2007, 42). The importance of specialist analysis of such samples and their context is demonstrated by the Clonfad sample, which may have resulted from secondary mineralisation of archaeometallurgical residue on the side of a stream (Young 2009a, 25). There are therefore many factors to take into account when considering ore samples. PhotosJones (2008a, 186) concluded that the high manganese content in iron ore fragments found on excavated sites on the border of Counties Kildare and Meath, for example at Killickaweeny and Johnstown, most likely indicated that the fragments came from bog ore; and possible bog iron ore was identified from Lough Island Reevy, Co. Down (Gaffikin and Davies 1938, 202). Iron ore has been collected from the bogs around Clonmacnoise and is believed to have been used for iron working at the site (King 2009, 342). Iron-bearing minerals, such as limonite, have been identified in Cork at Garryduff (O'Kelly 1963, 103) and Oldcourt (Murphy and Ó Cuileanáin 1961, 90), and ironstone nodules were found at Nendrum, Co. Down (Lawlor 1925, 140).

Charcoal Production The iron-smelting process required charcoal production and the eighth-century law tract, Críth Gablach, listed ‘a sack of charcoal for irons’ as one of the household possessions of the mruigfer-class farmer (Scott 1991, 100). Charcoal could be produced in either traditional earth-dug pit kilns or mound kilns where wood was allowed to slowly smoulder and carbonise in an oxygenlimited environment (Kenny 2010, 13–14). Control over the amount of oxygen within the pit allowed the wood to burn more slowly than in the open air, and thus produce better charcoal. The most common early medieval form of charcoal kiln was the charcoal production pit, though evidence for mound kilns tends not to survive as well (ibid., 105–6). Charcoal production pits consisted of earth-cut charcoal-filled pit features, circular, oval or rectangular in shape, with evidence for in situ burning on their sides and bases. A total of 61 charcoal production sites were identified in a recent survey. Thirty-two of these were radiocarbon dated to the early medieval period, of which the majority belong to the period between A.D. 800 and 1200. Typical rectangular pits were 2m–3m in length and 1.2m in width, while circular examples were 1.4m in diameter by 0.33m in depth. These consisted of small pits in which timbers may have been placed against a central vertical post, covered by straw, bracken and layers of earth and turf (ibid., 89). This vertical post was then removed and the resultant hole filled with charcoal and carefully ignited. The wood was then effectively roasted for several days as the water and other impurities were allowed to evaporate without the wood actually burning. Finally, the fire was allowed to die, the kiln was dismantled and the charcoal extracted (ibid., 91). Experimental work has replicated these features in recent years using these methods (http://charcoal.seandalaiocht.com/). While there has been no synthesis of charcoal specialist reports, oak appears to dominate as a chosen species. This factor evidently influences the outcome of radiocarbon dates. Other species were also used: at Killickaweeny 1, ash was used in a furnace (ibid., 101), while at Laughanstown a rectangular pit contained charred hazel roundwoods dated to A.D. 1020–1190 (2σ) (Seaver 2011, 273). Many of these sites were discovered isolated from settlement enclosures, sometimes close to features such as field boundaries, and were also occasionally close to features related to iron production (Hull and Taylor 2007, 25–26; Carlin 2008, 88). The current survey shows that while this was often the case, charcoal production pits were not exclusively distant from settlements but have also been found within or close to enclosures at Balriggan, Raystown, Gortnahown 2 and Castlefarm, all of which produced varying quantities of metallurgical residues (S. Delaney 2011; Seaver 2006; 2010; Young 2009b; O’Connell and Clark 2009).

There is no archaeological evidence for the mining of iron ores in early medieval Ireland, and it is possible that these ore-working areas have been destroyed by turfcutting or later bedrock mining (Comber 2008, 239). Early Irish law makes reference to the mining of iron, for example, the laws of distraint (Cethairslicht Athabálae) referred to penalties for the illegal digging of someone else’s silver mine or excavating iron or copper ore from his cliff (Kelly 1988, 105). The extracted ore was then dressed, washed, winnowed and crushed with only the most iron-rich pieces retained for smelting (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 70). The large quantity of iron ore from Garryduff (O'Kelly 1963, 103) suggested to the excavator that it was derived from nearby ore-bearing surface outcrops. The site also provided evidence for the roasting of ores; this process involved the transformation of carbonate and sulphide ores into oxides, the latter of which was more easily reduced in a smelting furnace (Comber 2008, 240). Four large stones with concave surfaces at a palisaded enclosure at Lowpark specialising in ironsmithing may have been used for crushing iron ore (Gillespie 2006:1466) and a large slab with a basin in a smelting area at Gallen Priory (Kendrick 1939, 5) was interpreted as having a similar function. The potential significance of bullaun stones at ecclesiastical sites, hollows in bedrock and other possible mortars for the crushing of ore at a number of sites has been highlighted in recent years (Dolan 2009). It is likely that iron ore was 25

the interpretation of iron-working debris (Scott 1991, 162–63; Carlin 2008, 93).

Furnaces and hearths The charcoal could be used in the multiple stages required to covert the ore into iron bloom, subsequently into material suitable for smithing, and finally to make and repair objects. All of these metallurgical processes require intense heat and the control of temperature through restricting or introducing oxygen. There is a large group of archaeological features which suggest ferrous metallurgy. From the gazetteer, 57 out of 317 sites were described as having furnaces or hearths with metallurgical residues, with some sites having multiple examples. The difficulty arises in determining which stage of the process is represented by each feature. The dimensions and character of features can help in determining whether they were hearths or furnaces. More precise indication of their purpose can usually only be determined by examining the feature itself along with the metallurgical remains, and even then there can be considerable ambiguity.

The furnace was charged with fuel and preheated. When it was hot, mixtures of combustible organic material such as charcoal and iron ore were fed into the shaft and blasts of air were pumped in using the bellows. Initial reduction of ore took place at 800°C high up in the furnace, to slag liquidation at over 1,000°C near the base (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 70). During this process, the iron ore was reduced to form an iron bloom (a spongy mass of metallic iron mixed with slag impurities) and liquid waste slag. The latter ran into the basal pit to form distinctive bowl-shaped blocks of slag, known as ‘furnace-bottoms’. The raw ‘bloom’ remained within the shaft above ground level near the blow-hole of the bellows and required further refinement, reheating and hammering in a smithing hearth to remove excess slag and impurities. The bloom was removed through either the top of the shaft or the breaking of its clay superstructure (Carlin 2008, 93). These non-slag-tapping shaft furnaces were superior to bowl furnaces as they increase the carbon content of the iron and produce greater amounts of it (Photos-Jones 2008a, 233).

Smelting Furnaces The primary stage of iron working is to convert the ore into a useable form, which involves smelting in a furnace. It is difficult to reconstruct the original form and superstructure of early medieval smelting furnaces because these rarely survived above ground as they were dismantled to remove the iron bloom. It was thought that the simple bowl furnace was the only type used in Ireland during this period (Scott 1991, 159), and these have been identified as shallow hemispherical burnt depressions in the ground (Edwards 1990, 87). These ‘bowl furnaces’ may have contained a low, clay, domed superstructure, which would result in the discovery of metallurgical ceramic material from the fired lining within the residues.

Evidence for the unrefined ‘bloom’ produced in smelting furnaces rarely survives, though examples have been identified at Hardwood 3, Co. Meath (Carlin 2008, 101), Lough Faughan crannóg (Collins 1955, 71) and Borris (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 80–82). The most common evidence for iron working comprises the waste slag, produced in the smelting, bloom-smithing and orging processes (Scott 1991, 151). Microscopic analysis of the slag can inform about the iron-working process and whether smelting or smithing occurred in a particular context. It is theoretically possible to differentiate between the slag mainly created in ‘bowl’ furnaces or slag-pit furnaces and the tapped shaft furnaces. The tapped slag from shaft furnaces has a ‘characteristic drop like surface texture’ (Photos-Jones 2008a, 193) while the non-tapped slag, characteristic of the slag-pit bowl furnace, tends to form into rounded ‘furnace bottoms’. The liquid slag that sank to the base of the basal pits formed distinctive bowl-shaped ‘furnace bottoms’ when it solidified. These ‘bowl’ furnace bottoms can easily be confused with the ‘smithing hearth bottoms’. In general these are differentiated on the basis of size, with the larger being from the smelting process (Scott 1991, 155– 60). On this basis Scott re-identified the furnace bottoms from Ballyvourney as representing smithing rather than smelting activity, and thought that the same applied to the material from Garranes (ibid., 161–2). He also cast doubt on the identification of ‘furnace bottoms’ on several other sites. ‘Furnace bottoms’ are a very common find and were frequently broken up when the furnace was dismantled. If non-tapping shaft furnaces are used they do not produce large furnace bottoms (Young 2011b, 10). Furnace bottoms are defined as large plano-convex cakes of slag larger than 0.15m in diameter and weighing more than 4–5kg (Photos-Jones et al 2010, lxvii).

Both Mytum (1992, 231) and Young (2003, 1–4) have suggested that smelting in early medieval Ireland occurred within more efficient non-slag-tapping shaft furnaces, known interchangeably as slag-pit furnaces or low-shaft furnaces. Dowd and Fairburn in their analysis of a later medieval slag-tapping furnace at Farranstack suggested that evidence for shaft furnaces may extend their use into the early medieval period (Dowd and Fairburn 2005). This argument was followed by Carlin (2008, 92) in his analysis of the M4 metallurgical features. These non-tapping slag furnaces comprised a low cylindrical clay shaft 1m–2m in height, with walls 0.2m thick, built over a basal pit which preserved the hollow hemispherical bowl in the ground (ibid., 92; Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 70). The shaft is defined as a ratio of 2:1 of the height of the furnace to the width of the furnace (Photos-Jones et al 2011, clxxxiv). The clay materials used in these shafts are unlikely to survive as they were distant from the heat and therefore did not become vitrified, and were also susceptible to erosion by the rain (Young 2003, 1). The sides of the chimney may have contained clay blocks with tubular openings or tuyères to allow blasts of air into the furnace using a bellows to reach the high temperatures necessary for smelting. Tuyères were also used in smithing hearths and non-ferrous metal-working, thus sometimes complicating 26

bloom (ibid.). However, it should also be noted that simple ‘bowl’ furnaces may also have contained low clay domed covers which could have greatly increased their efficiency (Comber 2008, 116–7). It is also likely that fragments of clay superstructures have been found but have not been identified as such, and items described as ‘furnace linings’ may have as easily formed part of a uperstructure (ibid., 117). A few ambiguous fragments of possible clay superstructures have been noted by Comber (ibid.) at Garryduff, Letterkeen and Rathgurreen. A growing number of smelting furnace sites also contained tuyères, for example at Carrigoran and Dunlo, and this may suggest they were used in primary smelting or that bloom smithing occurred alongside (Young 2010, 3).

Site reports using the term ‘furnace bottoms’ have been recorded at 35 sites within the gazetteer in varying quantities, with Garryduff 1 and St Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney, producing by far the greatest number (O’Kelly 1963; 1951–52a). Archaeological evidence for smelting furnaces There was archaeological evidence for early medieval Irish smelting furnaces at 11 older sites reviewed by Comber (2008, 115–7). This included sites with multiple furnaces such as Garranes and Altanagh, as well as an example at Reask (Ó Ríordáin 1942; Williams 1986). A range of thirteen more recently excavated sites within the gazetteer (Section Four), where specialist reports were available, have produced at least 40 features described as smelting furnaces with accompanying assemblages of metallurgical residues.

There is also significant evidence of smelting from analysis of metallurgical debris on sites which do not have excavated furnaces. A good example of an isolated smelting site including a very large dump of slag found at Cloonafinneala, Co. Kerry (up to 520kg of metallurgical remains of which approximately 5% was sampled). It had no evidence for bloom refining and appears to be related to primary smelting which appears to be fifth/sixth century AD in date (Young 2012, 4). This site was close to woodland and sources of ore and included a charcoal production pit. At a range of other sites which did not have excavated furnaces, the smelting slag was a small component of the overall metallurgical remains which otherwise related to smithing, for example at the univallate settlement at Sallymount (Clark and Long 2009). Frequently sites without excavated furnaces or specialist metallurgical reports indicate the presence of furnace bottoms, for example the cemetery and settlement at Knoxspark which records eight (Mount 2010, 208). Without indications of size and further analysis it is difficult to say if these resulted from smelting.

Recently-excavated furnaces show a relatively restricted range of dimensions, generally between 0.4m–0.7m with a depth of 0.1m–0.2m (Table 2.1). Measuring them accurately can be difficult as the red scorched area or reduced natural clay around the bowl can be interpreted as a clay lining and removed by the excavator, thus enlarging the feature (Young 2009a, 6). Most of the sites in Table 2.1, and those discussed by Comber (2008, 115– 124), had evidence for other metalworking processes such as bloom refinement and other forms of smithing. Many were also within or on the periphery of enclosures which contained other habitation evidence. More isolated furnaces are also found, for example Hardwood 2 & 3, Towlaght 1 and Newcastle 2, found along the route of the M4 in counties Meath and Kildare (Carlin 2008, 94). The remains of vitrified clay fragments were found in several furnaces at Johnstown 1, Killickaweeny 1, Newcastle 2 and Rossan 3 and were interpreted as the probable walls of these clay shafts which were broken to remove the Site

No.

F.

Iron waste

Smelting furnace

Context

Other activity

Site date

Ref.

Johnstown

11

558

2,000kg

0.6 x 0.63 x 0.11m

Cemetery settlement

Bloomsmithing/ blacksmithing

C5thC17th

Photos-Jones 2008a

Killickaweeny

6

561

86kg

0.4 x 0.19m

Univallate enclosure

Bloomsmithing/ blacksmithing

C7thC10th

Photos-Jones 2008b

Derrinsallagh 3

4

819

60kg

0.45 x 0.40 x 0.22m

Univallate enclosure

Bloom refining

C7thC10th

Young 2008a

Gortnahown 2

3

548

158kg

0.48 x 0.46 x 0.26m

Univallate enclosure -

Smithing, bell manufacture

C5thC7th

Young 2009b

Carrigoran

2

767

30.4kg

0.5m x 0.11

Stone enclosures

Blacksmithing

C9thC11th

Young 2006c

Dunlo

2

5

12.3kg

0.56 x 0.53

Isolated

Bloomsmithing

Young 2010

Lisanisk

2

537

827.8kg

0.94 x 0.79 x 0.39m

Bivallate enclosure

Bloomsmithing

C10thC11th C7thC10th

Photos-Jones et al 2010

Table 2.1: Recently excavated sites with smelting furnaces, number of furnaces, example of furnace dimensions and context

27

Carlin (2008, 93, 107) has suggested that there may have been a progressive shift from slag-pit furnaces (low-shaft furnaces) to slag-tapping furnaces in places where smelting was reliant on solid rock ores. Slag-tapping furnaces were much more efficient as they allowed the slag to flow outside the structure, and were the dominant form in Roman Britain and for much of the early medieval period in both Britain and Europe. However, they appear never to have been built in early medieval Ireland where bog ore was the dominant source of iron, and this might suggest a link between the smelting of bog ores and the non-slag-tapping furnace types (ibid., 93). The earliest definitive Irish evidence for tapping-slag furnaces seemed to be a number of sites dating to between the eleventh and thirteenth century (Dowd and Fairburn 2005, 115–21). Photos-Jones (2008a, 233) has noted that despite the intensity of iron-ore processing (2,000kg of early bloomer slag) at Johnstown 1, there was no attempt to progress from bowl furnace to tapped-shaftfurnace technology. Indeed, up until 2006 there was no published unequivocal evidence for the use of shaft furnaces in early medieval Ireland (Photos-Jones et al 2011, cxxi). Some recent excavations do suggest more complex structures existed, although the exact furnace technology used appears to be unclear. The excavators at Knockbrack, Co. Kerry conclude that a tapping-slag furnace was present at an early date. This structure had a stone base and a clay lining, and while Late Iron Age dates were obtained from oak within, a second sample of hazel was dated to A.D. 570–670. This would allow for removal of furnace waste without dismantling. Young (2009a, 234) concludes that this structure must at least have had a furnace arch for the clearance of waste and bloom. At Woodstown 6, the Viking settlement in Co. Waterford, the remains of a shaft furnace over a broader hollow were uncovered with what was possibly a frontal furnace arch (Young 2006b, 1). It was within a ditch and possibly contained within a stake-built area and made from burnt clay 0.55m in diameter. It may have subsequently been used as a smithing hearth. At Milltown, Co. Kilkenny, a complex and large scorched feature associated with smelting was found within a circular structure dated to the seventh to ninth century. This feature was interpreted as either a truncated furnace which was rebuilt several times in the same place or a furnace built on the ground surface from which hot material was removed through a frontal arch (Young 2009e, 4).

Smithing

Secondary working of Iron – Bloom Processing

However, primary smithing may have been undertaken at the smelting site and the furnace pit was occasionally used as a hearth. Iron smelting furnaces inside Structure G at Reask appear to have been deliberately dismantled, but later re-used for iron smithing or copper-alloy melting (Fanning 1981, 108–10). Some smithing hearths may have had low clay superstructures which would have contained blow-holes for connecting bellows. Some sites have revealed the remains of smithing hearths which had been discarded. A flat stone with slag and clay adhering was identified as the base of a smithing hearth within the enclosure ditch at Parknahown, Co. Laois (Young 2009c, 6).

Secondary smithing (blacksmithing) or forging was then undertaken on the billet to produce or repair metal objects. The metal was heated in a hearth before hand tools and an anvil were used to shape it into the desired object form (Carlin 2008, 94). A range of smithing processes could be undertaken from forging, to plate or bar, artefact manufacture and repair (Young 2010, 8.1). Iron-smithing can be carried out in most places, even at a domestic hearth, and does not require a purpose-built structure (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 71). Evidence for all these processes can be present in the form of features such as smithing hearths, ceramic tuyères, metallurgical smithing waste and other features such as anvils and a range of artefacts used in the manufacturing process. A total of 15 settlements with 51 smithing hearths, which had available specialist reports, have been recorded within the gazetteer. The morphology of smithing hearths is becoming clearer through a wide range of recently-excavated examples (Table 2.2). In commenting on smithing hearths, Young notes that sub-rectangular or circular hearths of 0.8m in diameter would be small for blacksmithing, but that bloom-smithing may not have required the same size (Young 2008a, 4). He notes that bloomsmithing hearths are poorly known. In a discussion of 23 Irish smithing hearths, mostly of early medieval date, he suggests that they vary from equidimensional in plan through to having a long axis up to 1.5 times the short axis (Young 2009b, 236). A number of smithing hearths were discovered along the route of the M4 at Rossan 4, Hardwood 3 and Newcastle 2, and the majority of these had a distinctive rectangular plan with steep sides and a flat base. Most of these smithing hearths were 1m–1.6m long and 0.1m– 0.4m deep and were used for bloom-smithing, i.e. the refining of iron bloom into billet (Carlin 2008, 100). Photos-Jones (2008a, 194) states that hearths associated with metallurgical waste of 1.2m–2.5m in size cannot be associated with smelting and must have been used for smithing. She suggests that the hearths identified at Killickaweeny and Johnstown were associated with the bloom-smithing process. Some sites such as Twomileborris had evidence for up to six smithing hearths of different dates, one of which was located close to a large consolidated iron bloom (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 81).

Once the smelting was completed, the iron ‘bloom’ produced in the furnace was refined in a bloom-smithing (primary-smithing) process which involved reheating it in a hearth and hammering it in a molten state on an anvil to remove excess slag and other impurities and to consolidate the iron prior to shaping. This was an important necessary step as the furnace did not achieve high enough temperatures to completely remove the slag and other impurities. A block of wrought iron referred to as the stock or billet was produced in this process. 28

Site

No.

F

Iron waste

Smithing Hearth

Context

Other activity

Site Date

Ref

Lowpark

11

C580

1,360kg

Univallate enclosure

Smithing

560–640

Lowpark

11

C320

1,360kg

Univallate enclosure

Smithing

650–770

Borris

6

C879

142.74kg

Univallate enclosures

Smithing

673–856

Borris

6

C882

142.74kg

Univallate enclosures

Smithing

717–887

Johnstown

5

C695

2,000kg

Cemetery settlement

Smelting

C11th/12 th

Killickaweeny

5

C426

86kg

Univallate enclosure

Smelting

C9th– 10th

Castlefarm

3

C943

75.6kg

Cemetery settlement

Smithing

565–666

Loughbown 1

3

C89

130kg

Univallate enclosure

Smithing

1047 – 1257

Gortnahown

2

C545

158kg

Univallate enclosure

Smelting

C5th– C6th

Wallace & Anguilano 2010c Wallace & Anguilano 2010c Wallace & Anguilano 2010a Wallace & Anguilano 2010a PhotosJones 2008a PhotosJones 2008b O' Connell & Clark 2009 Kearns in Bower 2009a Young 2009b

Sallymount

2

C435

265kg

0.9 x 0.55; 0.8 x 0.62 x 0.14 1.1 x 0.63 x 0.15 m 0.4 x 0.38 x 0.12 m 1.32 x 0.4 x 0.2 m 1.2 x 2.2 x 0.33 m 1.17 x 0.56 x 0.39 m 0.99 x 0.96 x 0.13 m 0.6 x 0.39 x 0.2 m 1.40 x 0.60 x 0.30 m 0.57 x 0.43 x 0.15 m

Univallate enclosure

Smithing

C7th– C8th

Clark & Long 2009

Table 2.2: Examples of sites with smithing hearths, number of smithing hearths, specific example with dimensions and its context. Two-sigma radiocarbon dates are noted for the feature or associated contexts if available. known as smithing slag lumps are also regularly found (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 76).

Stone-lined smithing hearths were found at Gortnahown 2 and Park 1(Young 2011b, 124). The latter was at the base of one hollow within a figure-of-eight structure and was associated with hammerscale.

Analysis of the huge assemblage of metallurgical residues from Clonfad indicated that the refining of bloom produced larger smithing hearth cakes which may have originally have been classified as the product of smelting (Young 2009a, 8.1). This view was based on chemical analysis of the cakes and would mean that many earlier assemblages interpreted as the result of smelting would have to be looked at again. The analysis suggests that at Clonfad residues for smelting were minimal and that this must have taken place elsewhere. Other specialists do not believe that bloom-smithing creates large cakes of slag and would attribute them to smelting (Photos-Jones et al 2010, lxvii). The evidence from sites such as Johnstown 1 can be viewed in terms of a large quantity of bloomsmithing carried out alongside smelting (Photos-Jones 2008a).

Smithing hearths cannot be definitively identified without analysis of associated metallurgical residues. Many sites do not have smithing hearths within the excavated area but analysis of metallurgical residue suggests smithing was carried out at that site. This monograph identifies at least 16 sites within the sample which did not have a hearth but where archaeometallurgical analysis indicated smithing. The occurrence of smithing on a site can be indicated by the presence of particular types of metallurgical waste. The slag would accumulate at the base of the pit to form the distinctive plano-convex lumps of waste, known either as hearth bottoms or cakes (Carlin 2008, 94). The size and chemical composition of these can indicate what kind of smithing process was being carried out. Smithing hearth cakes from refining are generally heavier than those generated by secondary smithing but this can vary (Wallace and Anguilano 2010a, 5). Smithing hearth cakes are generally bun- or palm-sized (Photos-Jones et al 2010, lxvii). In addition, amorphous smaller fragments

Micro metallurgical debris known as hammerscale is an important indicator of smithing. This is an oxidised film of metal produced as bloom is hammered and indicates the presence of the anvil (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 71). Different types of smithing produce different shapes, and flakes are thicker during bloom-smithing and thinner where artefacts are being forged (Young 2012, 3). 29

have been recorded at seven other sites in the gazetteer as well as in a recent excavation at Dunlo (Young 2010). The most significant example from Lowpark had a bowlshaped depression on one side and a small circular depression, which in turn contained a square socket, on the other, which is likely to be for an iron anvil (Higgins 2010, 3–4). It is possible that large flat stones were generally utilised as anvils in this period and many of these have probably been overlooked during excavations (Comber 2008, 118). Possible iron equivalents have also been noted at Cloghermore cave (Connolly et al 2005, 217), the crannógs at Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942) and Randalstown (Wood-Martin 1886, 168), Garryduff I (O'Kelly 1963, 56–7) and the ecclesiastical site at Kiltera (Macalister 1935, 5). The most recently found iron anvil was located in the chamber of a souterrain at Kilree where deposits were dated to A.D. 692–772 (Coughlan 2010b, 17). The evidence for a cemented smithing pan that formed on the floor surrounding the hearth and anvil from the trampling of iron residues into the ground by the smith and his assistants can also indicate the presence of an iron-smithing workshop (Carlin 2008, 110). Such evidence was discovered at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 233) and Garranes, where a dense black metallurgical layer was found associated with a scatter of post-holes and a stone setting (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 86–7).

Evidence for ‘hammerscale’ has been identified at at least nine sites within the gazetteer, including within structures at Killickaweeny and Sallymount (Photos-Jones 2008b, 22–23; Clark and Long 2009, 46). Given that this material is highly mobile after its deposition, its presence has to be viewed alongside other evidence. The remains of a building close to a smithing site could contain hammerscale even if it was not directly associated with metallurgy. Bellows and tuyères were used in iron working as well as in non-ferrous metalworking. They are thought by many specialists to have been used in smithing and smelting (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 71). It has also been suggested that they were only employed in smithing hearths although their occurrence in the remains of furnaces requires further investigation (Young 2010). The bellows rarely survive but clay tuyère fragments are frequently identified. Examples of these – used in either ferrous or non-ferrous metal-working – have been recorded at 36 sites within the gazetteer in varying quantities and states of preservation. Comber (2008, 117) notes three types: small clay tubes, larger clay tubes and perforated conical disks perhaps designed to protect bellows. Some commentators prefer the term air-pipes as tuyère is used to describe nineteenth-century blastfurnace technology (Photos-Jones et al 2010, cxxvii). Excavations in recent years have found relatively intact examples at Clonfad, where they were typically 140mm across and 26mm in diameter (Young 2009a, 8.1), while at Lowpark they were 140mm–150mm in diameter with an inner bore width of 25mm (Wallace and Anguilano 2010c, 9–10). The large quantities of vitrified clay fragments at Lowpark and pieces of tuyères found indicate substantial well-insulated smithing hearths with clay wall superstructures and blow holes (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 75). At Lisanisk, four complete examples were found which were built in coil form, with the blowhole possibly made by wrapping around a wooden block, and then air dried rather than fired (Photos-Jones et al 2010, lxxxix). It was suggested that an extra layer of clay and straw would be added to the block to increase porosity. Other complete examples are known but not recorded in detail from Ballycasey More (O’Neill 2003). There is evidence that stones were used to strengthen the sides of the hearth underneath the tuyère as at Clonfad (Young 2009a, 15). At this site a distinctive type of slag was identified as resulting from close association with the tuyère. This was termed the protuyère tongue and developed on the lower edge of the tuyère (ibid.). These long tuyères were fed to the centre of a wide hearth for smithing.

Contexts of iron working Aside from mining and charcoal-production, the four separate processes involved in iron working were ore processing (roasting), smelting, bloom-smithing and forging. The dynamics and settlement context of these processes are still poorly understood. It has been suggested that primary iron production took place in peripheral locations close to woodland and fuel and timber sources (Carlin 2008, 108). There are now frequent isolated sites where metallurgical residues suggest smelting and bloom-smithing, such as those in county Meath on the M4 (see smelting above for examples). Other linear schemes have revealed many more such sites, including Aghamore (Byrne 2007), Dollas Lower (Dowling and Taylor 2007), Kiltenan south (Dennehy 2007) and Ennisnag (Jennings 2008). Some of these are located close to woodland and bog, with several including charcoal-making pits. More recently examples have been excavated at Dunlo, Co. Galway and Ballinglanna North and Cloonafinneela, both in Co. Kerry (Young 2010; 2011a; 2012, 2). These may represent specialised bloom-smithing and/or smelting sites. The apparent absence of secondary smithing, i.e. the forging/blacksmithing of objects, was contrasted with evidence from settlements like Clonfad which was primarily engaged in bloom-smithing and artefact production.

A growing number of anvils have been identified on Irish early medieval settlements. A stone-built clay-lined smithing hearth was found at Clogher hillfort associated with two ‘bowl’ furnaces and a flat rectangular limestone block, interpreted as an anvil (Edwards 1990, 88). Another large stone with a flat working surface was found in close proximity to an iron-working furnace at Rathgurreen and was identified as having a similar function (Comber 2008, 118). Other possible stone anvils

It could be suggested that these ‘isolated’ industrial features may represent evidence for ‘itinerant’ ironworkers (Comber 2008, 124). However, Carlin (2008, 107) has suggested instead that they were more likely the product of local farmer-ironsmiths exploiting their surrounding natural resources, probably on a seasonal 30

activity at sites engaged in smithing, for example at Lowpark (ibid.), where it was likely to be a continual occupation for those living there, and Parknahown (Young 2009c), where it was probably far more sporadic (see levels of iron-working below).

basis. Although they are mentioned in the story Cath Maige Tuired, itinerant smiths appear to be a rarity in many small-scale societies (Hall 2011, 313). It could also be the case that these represented places where specialised ironworkers produced bloom for use in larger workshops at settlement sites.

There is growing evidence for smithing workshops at early medieval settlement sites. Some of this iron working appears to have been practised in the open, while other iron workshops were possibly partially open, flimsy structures. Often the only surviving evidence for a possible iron workshop or forge may consist of a furnace or hearth, iron-working tools (e.g. tongs, hammers, anvils, punches, and chisels), smelting and smithing slags, hammerscale, cemented smithing pans and shelterlike structures for the smith (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 109).

The crannog at Bofeenaun could be regarded as an ‘isolated’ specialised iron-working site (O'Sullivan 1998, 122) as it produced evidence primarily for the processing and smelting of iron ore. Two iron-smelting furnaces, furnace lining fragments and a large volume of slag were recovered and the only finds consisted of two crushing stones or stone mortars (for the ore), a saddle quern, a hammer stone, an iron spade and two gouge-type tools (Lawless 1992, 14–21). There was no structural or occupational evidence, except for a revetment palisade and an area of stone paving (ibid.). Bofeenaun was located in an apparently marginal landscape and it has been suggested that ‘crannogs like Bofeenaun should be interpreted as the island workshops of blacksmiths, seen as semi-mythical personages in early medieval mythology on the edge of society’ (O'Sullivan and Van de Noort 2007, 74) which were visited periodically by local farmers to meet their subsistence needs.

Comber (2008, 121) has noted that the early stages of iron working (e.g. smelting and bloom-smithing) were undertaken away from domestic structures to protect the occupants from the fumes and hazards of the work. It should be noted, however, that there are examples of furnaces within structures, for example at Milltown (Young 2009e, 4). There is evidence that iron working was undertaken in the enclosing ditches at Johnstown (Clarke and Carlin 2008, 57), Petitswood (Channing 1992:179), Rathgurreen (Comber 2008, 181), Lowpark (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 74–75; 2010c), Clogher (Scott 1991, 160) and Woodstown (O'Brien and Russell 2005, 75). In some monasteries, there is also evidence that iron working was confined to the periphery of the sites, as indicated by the presence of material within the enclosure ditches at Tallaght (O’Brien 1990:043), Butterfield (Carroll 1997:184), Tullylish (Ivens 1987, 60– 1) and Clonfad (Stevens 2010, 91). This evidence might suggest that the smith was seeking the shelter of the enclosing bank, especially as it appears that iron smelting may have primarily been an outdoor activity (Comber 2008, 121).

In most cases, the primary iron-working activities may have been undertaken close to the ore and fuel resources. It is usually thought that the smelted bloom was then transported to the workshops on nearby settlement sites and was then reheated and refined (bloom-smithing) to produce iron ingot bars. These could then either be forged into artefacts (blacksmithing) on the site or may have been traded further afield where this activity could have taken place (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 84). It has also been suggested that iron may have been moved as consolidated bloom rather than ingot bars to sites for smithing (Young 2009a, 234). A reference within the law tracts indicates that significant quantities of bloom were part of the renders due as part of contracts (Comber 2008, 122).

A range of settlements appear to have had specialised smithing workshops. The palisaded enclosure at Lowpark produced four smithing workshops dating from the sixth to the tenth centuries AD. Three of the iron-working areas were within sunken sub-rectangular structures – both inside and outside the enclosing palisade – and the fourth workshop was located within a partly silted-up enclosure ditch. The site produced 1,364.5kg of metallurgical waste in the form of iron slag and smithing slag cakes and it was suggested that four large stones with concave surfaces were used for crushing ore (Gillespie 2006:1466; Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 75– 80). At Lisanisk, a bivallate settlement enclosure, the metallurgical remains of smithing and bloom-smithing (827kg) dominate the excavated remains, although smelting did take place (Coughlan 2010a; Photos-Jones et al 2010). This took place in two separate sunken areas within the ditches, with post-holes and a large charred wooden beam indicating windbreaks and work surfaces dated to the late seventh to ninth century AD. The multivallate rath at Lisleagh II produced 1,000kg of

The complication with this model is that there is a range of settlements at different scales which clearly have evidence for smelting, i.e. primary iron processing as well secondary bloom-smithing and artefact production, such as Borris (Wallace and Anguilano 2010a), Johnstown (Photos-Jones 2008a), Killickaweeny (Photos-Jones 2008b) and Gortnahown 2 (Young 2009b). Therefore, these sites were producing some of their own bloom and not processing it at outlying isolated bloomeries. The key difference appears to be the degree to which smelting took place in proportion to bloom-smithing and forging/blacksmithing. At places like Johnstown and Lisanisk, whoever engaged in iron-working directly sourced the ore, smelted and forged the metal. In other cases such as Lowpark (Wallace and Anguilano 2010c), where all the activity seems to be related to smithing, they must have sought bloom from other sites, perhaps the specialised examples found in isolated areas. In the latter case they may have sourced and processed it along with charcoal within kin lands. There also hierarchies of 31

metallurgical waste (Monk 1988; 1995), and it has been identified as another upper tier iron-smelting specialist site (Scott 1991, 101).

the southeast area, but the main domestic hut was centrally located (Collins 1966). Another possible example of a workshop was at Ballyvollen, which produced 170kg of iron slag, three tuyères, a few sherds of souterrain ware as well as a possible irregular-shaped structure in the southern area (Williams 1985b, 96–101). The site was identified as a specialist iron-working area, rather than a domestic site (Scott 1991, 101), despite the fact that Ballyvollen did not produce any actual evidence for furnaces. It is unclear if this site was enclosed. The industrial area appears to have coincided with a circular cropmark; however, excavations failed to locate any evidence for an enclosing ditch or bank.

Deerfin, with five smithing hearths, structures and manufacturing of iron objects may also have specialised in iron working, although details of the levels and nature of metallurgical waste and features and radiocarbon dates were unavailable (Bratt 1975:04). A further settlement at Milltown, Co. Kilkenny contained a circular structure with an internal pit which appears to be the remains of a smelting furnace (Young 2009e, 1). Relatively small quantities of metallurgical residue indicate smithing and smelting. This appears to be an unenclosed settlement with further structures, kilns and rectilinear fields dating to the ninth/tenth century (Gaimster et al 2006).

On most sites, iron working tended to be an outdoor activity. Possible windbreaks were found in the metalworking areas at Killickaweeny (Walsh 2008, 40–2) and Ahanaglogh (Tierney and Elliot 2009, 101). However, iron working appears to have taken place within actual structures at Lowpark (above), Reask (Fanning 1981, 106–8), Church Island (O’Kelly 1958, 69) and at least eight other structures (Table 2.3). A further example may be within the figure-of-eight house at Ballynavenooragh stone fort which contained a feature described as a ‘small furnace’ (Gibbons 1997:228). The majority of these structures were sited within the enclosure itself. It is possible that iron working occurred after the houses became derelict, as was the case at Illaunloughan where the church was later used for iron working (Marshall and Walsh 2005, 46). Tierney and Elliot (2009, 105), however, suggest that iron working was best undertaken indoors in more sheltered, darkened locations where it was easier ‘to judge the flame colour of the smelting furnace and the colour of the metal when it is heated for smithing’.

Further very significant evidence comes from Gortnahown 2, Co. Cork (158kg) where a univallate settlement contained a series of iron smithing hearths and smelting furnaces close to a series of structures (Young 2009b). A further oval structure contained two furnaces and two hearths dated to the late sixth to seventh century AD. The remains of brazing shrouds from the production of iron bells were found within the assemblage. This constitutes the earliest Irish evidence for bell manufacture. One had evidence for the wrapping of the wet clay shrouds in textiles in the production phase. Brazing involved adding a copper-alloy coating to the bells to provide a smoother finish. These bells are smaller than those found at Clonfad, and may be similar to those worn by livestock. An enclosed settlement at Borris produced evidence for small-scale primary and secondary iron-smithing activities. An assemblage of 142.74kg of iron slag was recovered from a metalworking area including two furnaces and three smithing hearths (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 80–82). The assemblage primarily consisted of iron-smithing slag in the form of smithing hearth cakes, slag lumps and hammerscale, while fragments of furnace lining, a possible tuyère and a rare loaf-shaped piece of iron bloom were also found (ibid. 80–1). A large sunken area 6.8m in length and 6.3m in width may have been associated with the working of metal with a chisel, with a whetstone, a hammerstone and a lens of smithing waste indicating an area which might have been used for the post-smithing work (Wallace and Anguilano 2010a, 3). This work took place in several different areas over the life of the settlement.

At Nendrum, there was evidence for ferrous and nonferrous metal-working from the ‘hut circles’ within the middle enclosure (Bourke 2007, 407, 419; McErlean 2007, 374–8) and outside the enclosures close to the site of the horizontal mills (McErlean and Crothers 2007a, 68; 2007c, 110). This confirmed Ryan’s (1988, 45) conclusion that monastic metal-working was kept well away from the sacred centres of these sites. There was abundant evidence for iron smelting and smithing in various areas at Clonmacnoise in the form of slag, furnace bottoms and furnace material (King 2009, 341– 3). However, only one definite small bowl-shaped furnace or smithing hearth has yet been found, at the base of an esker in a sheltered position outside the monastic enclosure to the southwest of the site (Ó Floinn and King 1998, 130–1). It appears, however, that the area to the west and northwest of the ecclesiastical buildings within the monastic enclosure was dedicated to iron-working. A layer of furnace waste, iron slag and tuyère fragments was found to the west of the site (Manning 1989:078) and a vast quantity of dumped iron-working material containing slag, furnace bottoms, smithing cakes and tuyère fragments was found to the northwest of this. All parts of the iron-working process were evident, indicating

At Killickaweeny, there were two areas of iron-working: one some distance from the dwellings in a separate annex, and the second separated from the dwellings by an internal division (Walsh 2008, 28). The evidence for ironworking (86kg of slag) was much more limited than the nearby site at Johnstown, but the presence of smelting and smithing slags, along with hammerscale, indicate that all phases of processing occurred there (ibid., 40–2). Evidence for the location of iron-working at Dressogagh showed that the furnace, slag and charcoal were found in 32

This can be compared with the evidence from Clonfad. Here excavations produced evidence for a highlyspecialised iron-smithing area (with up to 1,500kg of smithing waste), dating to between the sixth and ninth centuries AD, adjacent to a stream on the eastern side of the multivallate enclosed site (Stevens 2006, 10; 2007; 2010, 89–94; Young 2009a). The earliest metalworking activity dated to the fifth and sixth century and included a 1.5 tonne dump of slag residue from large-scale ironsmithing, including brazing shroud fragments (vitrified clay pieces) used in the brazing process during the manufacture of wrought-iron hand-bells. Iron working continued in the seventh and eighth century and the backfilled enclosing ditches produced evidence for metal scrap, ingots, ceramic crucible fragments, smithing hearth cakes, tuyères, stone casting moulds and ferrous and copper-alloy tools and objects (Stevens 2010, 91). The majority of the evidence related to primary and secondary smithing waste with evidence for smelting almost completely absent (ibid., 93). At Dooey, a sandhills site which contained an enclosure with burials appears to have had an emphasis on craftworking including iron production (Ó Ríordáin and Rynne 1961). There has been no specialist analysis of the metallurgical evidence but the scale of the iron-working is evidenced by the presence of 120 iron knives. The site may have been used as a beach-market for traders moving down the North Atlantic seaways between northwest Ireland and Scotland (O'Sullivan and Breen 2007, 119). While the link between burials and iron-working has been emphasised in recent studies (Williams 2010), there can be no simple equation between iron-working and sites with settlement and burials. Sites such as Owenbristy, which was in use for 600 years and which was fully excavated, had minimal levels of smithing slag while enclosed familial burial grounds like Collierstown also had tiny quantities (Lehane and Delaney 2010, 47; O’Hara 2009a, 6).

that these activities (smelting and smithing) were probably undertaken close to the excavated area (King 2009, 341–3). A series of sites were associated with burial, settlement and different stages of iron production. At Johnstown 1, the settlement was primarily associated with the smelting and processing of bog ore (smelting pits and bowl furnaces) but the discovery of smithing hearths also indicates the forging and repair of iron objects. The site produced some 2,000kg of metallurgical waste, though this activity continued intermittently for a thousand years from A.D. 500–1500. Most of the smelting pits were located outside the enclosure or within the enclosure ditches where much of the slag was dumped (Clarke and Carlin 2008, 74–5). Where iron working was undertaken within the enclosure, it was located in the western areas where there were fewer burials (ibid., 74). The specialist viewed the levels of waste produced and number of hearths as indicative of relatively poor and inefficient levels of skill in ferrous metalworking (Photos-Jones 2008a). At Carrigatogher Harding, an enclosed settlement with a cemetery was sited close to a stream directed through the eastern part of the enclosure with extensive deposits (750kg) of iron slag, charcoal and a tuyère (Taylor 2010, 289, 292). Possible furnaces were found in the outer enclosure to the south of the cemetery enclosure (ibid.). Likewise at Balriggan, an extensive spread of burnt stone and charcoal was associated with bloomery iron smelting and smithing (113.5kg) in the northwest of the enclosure containing the burials (Photos-Jones et al 2011, cliii). This was associated with features such as pits and post-holes and gullies and was in close proximity to a stream. The proximity and incorporation of the stream may have been connected with metallurgical processes among other things.

Site

Site Type

Structure

Reference

Ballyvourney, ‘St Gobnet’s’

Residue weight Large amounts

Other

O’Kelly 1951– 52a, 32–5

Cahircalla More

13kg

Univallate settlement

Carrigatogher Harding Gortnahown

750kg 158kg

Killickaweeny

86kg

Mackney

12kg

Milltown

3kg

Cemetery/ Settlement Univallate enclosure Univallate enclosure Univallate enclosure Unenclosed

Successive circular and rectangular structures with internal smelting furnace, charcoal, crucibles Circular building with internal pits containing large amounts of slag and charcoal, whet stones, chisel, anvil stone Rectangular building with slag

Sallymount

265kg

Univallate enclosure

Circular building containing smithing hearth Rectangular structure containing hammerscale close to metalworking area Post-holes around smelting furnaces Circular building containing smelting furnace Rectangular building with smithing hearth, hammerscale

Taylor 2006 Taylor 2010, 288 Young 2009b Walsh 2008, 40–2 Delaney 2009, 44 Young 2009e, 1 Clark & Long 2009

Table 2.3 Examples of structures associated with metalworking indicating site name, overall quantity of metallurgical debris, site type, structural context and reference.

33

although there is a growing number of sites with assemblages over 1,000kg (Wallace and Anguilano 2010b, 73), perhaps indicative of specialised ironworking sites. However, it is often difficult to determine the duration of the iron-working activity at some sites (e.g. Johnstown), while the extent of the excavated area on different sites and the size of the sample of metallurgical debris taken can vary considerably, skewing our perception of the character of iron working at these places. Comber (2008, 123–4) recognised 14 sites with extensive evidence for iron working and 37 with average evidence. The weight of iron slag from early medieval sites can give a very rough indicator of the scale of such activities and was readily available for 60 sites within the gazetteer. This obviously represents accumulated weight over periods of time and has to take into account that some processes may produce more residues than others. Nonetheless, it gives an indication of the range and scale of work.

Several types of craftwork have been identified in Scandinavian Dublin but, despite extensive excavation, iron-working areas have yet to be identified. Wallace (2004, 833) has speculated that ‘the great fires that were so essential for the smith and his forge almost certainly meant that they had to be located at some distance from the town’, outside the defences. Evidence for ironworking has, however, been found within a building in Peter Street in twelfth-century Waterford (Scully and McCutcheon 1997, 104). Levels of iron-working Scott (1991, 101) described five levels of iron-working on Irish sites: specialist smelting and bloom-smithing sites, occasional smelting and smithing sites, sites forging artefacts from imported stock for local and wider communities, and sites engaging in occasional artefact repair and production. In discussing the iron-working evidence from the M4, Carlin (2008, 108–10) suggested three levels of ferrous metallurgy. Carlin’s first level saw local farmers undertaking iron-working at a very low, non-specialist subsistence level. It was probably imperative for small self-sufficient farmsteads to possess a basic knowledge of the technology to repair iron artefacts (Edwards 1990, 86; Mytum 1992, 235). His second and third levels were high-status ecclesiastical and secular sites which patronised blacksmiths alongside other specialist craftsmen (Carlin 2008, 109–111). A number of royal sites, such as Lagore (Hencken 1950), Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942) and possibly Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993), have been described as specialist metalworking centres which probably employed skilled craftsmen in return for food and raw materials. Large monastic centres such as Clonfad, Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Nendrum also clearly supported craftsmen engaged in specialist iron-, metal- and glass-production.

A total of 148 sites had no ferrous metallurgical residue. While many of these could be a result of the extent of excavation or what excavators chose to record in older reports, it is a sizeable percentage of the sample. It is striking that some very large excavated settlements have revealed very little iron-working debris. Eighteen of the sites in the gazetteer had 10kg of metallurgical residue or less. This includes sites such as Baronstown (Linnane and Kinsella 2009b), Dowdstown (Cagney and O’Hara 2009) and long-lived enclosed cemeteries such as Owenbristy (Tierney and Delaney 2011) and Collierstown (O’Hara 2009b). Some of these sites had very large excavated areas. This would suggest that iron-working on these sites occurred very infrequently and their inhabitants either carried out smelting and smithing at other locations or went to smiths at other settlements. Twenty-eight sites had between 10kg and 100kg of metallurgical residue. This included massive complexes like Roestown 2 (10kg; O’Hara 2009c), univallate settlements like Mackney (46kg; Delaney 2009, 44), the cemetery and settlement at Ratoath (73kg; Wallace 2010), and the univallate settlement and workshop at Killickaweeny (86kg; Walsh 2008).

Other theories have been advanced about the organisation of early medieval iron-working. Mytum (1992, 234) interpreted the evidence of the law tracts as meaning that smiths worked in permanent forges for a surrounding community of farmers, and argued that each túath had one head blacksmith who was a major figure in the territory at these sites. However, Carlin (2008, 111) has criticised this model, noting that the archaeological evidence is not consistent with this centralised approach, but is instead replete with ‘isolated’ iron-working features such as those along the M4 and ‘examples of highquality, small-scale, localised ‘do-it-yourself’ smithing that was being undertaken by independent farmers’. The focus of the early literary sources on high-status sites might explain why these sources failed to account for, or mention the importance of, the iron-working activities at smaller, ordinary farmsteads in early medieval Ireland.

Six sites had between 100kg and 200kg of metallurgical residue. This included sites with multiple metalworking areas like Borris (142kg; Wallace and Anguilano 2010a), univallate enclosures with workshops like Gortnahown 2 (158kg; Young 2009b) and settlements with cemeteries like Parknahown (100kg; Young 2009c) and Balriggan (113kg; Photos-Jones et al 2011). Three sites had between 250kg and 500kg of metallurgical residue. These comprised the univallate settlement and smithy at Sallymount (265kg; Clark and Long 2009), the Viking settlement at Woodstown with both smelting and smithing (272kg; Young 2009d) and the royal site at Knowth (341kg; Eogan 1977). Six settlements in the gazetteer contained 500kg or more of metallurgical residue. These were settlements with cemeteries at Johnstown (2,200kg; Photos-Jones 2008a) and Carrigatogher Harding (750kg; Taylor 2010), the

Although knowledge of the basics of iron-working was probably widespread in early medieval society, excavations have revealed considerable variability in the extent and character of evidence at various forms of settlements. The slag assemblages from most excavated early medieval sites typically range from 30–200kg 34

range of activities probably under the control of local family church communities. The presence of master smiths at ecclesiastical sites is noted in the founding story of the early monastery of Brigown (Carroll 2005). The founding saint of the monastery, Fanahan, is said to have named the site in honour of the seven master smiths who worked there and it has also been noted that the name Brigown was written in the Book of Lismore as ‘Brigobh-unn’ which can be translated as ‘bree’ or hill of the smith (‘gobha’) (ibid.). Limited excavation 400m away uncovered several pits and linear features outside the partial outline of an enclosure ditch which contained large quantities of dumped or waste charcoal and slag. One small bowl-shaped pit with evidence for in situ burning was found in the interior of the enclosure and was interpreted as a possible pit-furnace used for iron smelting. In light of this historical evidence, it is possible that the enclosure was occupied by a group of smiths who lived independently of, but in close proximity to and under the supervision of, the nearby monastery.

multivallate and univallate enclosures at Lisleagh 1 and 2 (1,000kg and 800kg; Monk 1995), Lisanisk (827kg; Coughlan 2010a) and the univallate enclosure at Lowpark (1,360kg; Wallace and Anguilano 2010c). Clearly sites like Garryduff (O’Kelly 1963), Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942) and St Gobnet’s (O’Kelly 1951–52a) are likely to fit somewhere at the upper end of this scale given the number of furnace bottoms from each and the suggested minimum weight for these. Ecclesiastical sites like Clonfad also belong at the top of this range (1,500kg) along with Clonmacnoise (Young 2009a). There is clearly no simple equation to be made between the type or perceived status of a site and the scale of iron working carried out within it. It is very difficult to estimate how much activity archaeometallurgical waste represents. Any assemblage can only indicate the minimum of activity on that site. Young gives the example of Parknahown, a cemetery and settlement which operated over approximately six centuries, which produced 100kg of waste representing a minimum of a single smelting episode and 150 smithing sessions, although activity is likely to be considerably higher (Young 2009c, 3). Likewise at Killickaweeny, PhotosJones (2008b, 53) commented that the 86kg of metallurgical waste generated sometime within a possible one-hundred year time span could not have been seen as industry but as part of the annual calendar of activities for a farming community. Clearly chronology is an important part of this analysis. While the extensive metalworking at Lisanisk (seventh to ninth century AD) can be dated to periods throughout the site’s occupation, the bulk of metalworking at settlements like Kilree 3 and Loughbown 1 took place in the tenth to twelfth century at a time when the ditches had silted up and the overall level of settlement is unclear (Coughlan 2010b, 34; Bower 2009a, 17). Therefore, to have a properly nuanced understanding of levels of metalworking over time we need a synthesis of accurately dated iron-working features.

A significant range of sites had their own smithing capabilities within purpose-built buildings, but ironworking was unlikely to be the mainstay of activity at the site. This could include places such as Sallymount (Clark and Long 2009) and Gortnahown 2 (Young 2009b). Communities from a significant range of sites only occasionally hosted smithing activities on site. There is clearly a debate as to whether these people engaged in smithing themselves as part of seasonal activities or hosted a number of smiths who travelled the túath, perhaps from their own workshops, repairing and making objects. Clearly maintenance of tools was represented on many sites by whetstones but this does not necessarily imply manufacture (Comber 2008, 119). The selfsufficiency argument for early medieval settlements may be stretched too far given the archaeological evidence for a large range of sites with low levels of ferrous metallurgy or none at all. Smelting, charcoal-making and bloomery sites outside settlements fitted somewhere in this hierarchy.

The results of recent excavations clearly suggest that specialised iron -working was carried out at a range of levels. While the traditional high-status sites such as Lagore, Garranes or Knowth clearly had high levels of iron working and therefore possibly smiths under patronage, others such as Moynagh Lough did not, focussing instead on non-ferrous metallurgy. On many high-status sites, itinerant craftsmen may have worked for most of the year, but perhaps only a few high-status secular and ecclesiastical settlements had the economic and political capacity to support permanent workshops of specialised iron- and metal-workers. Specialised workshops like Lisanisk, Lowpark and Lisleagh were clearly related to resident smiths who lived within enclosures of different sizes and individual histories but clearly not materially wealthy relative to places like Garranes. They may themselves have been under the patronage of a secular or ecclesiastical lord. Similarly, it might be suggested that places like Johnstown 1 or Carrigatogher Harding may have acted, like Clonfad, as places where smelting and bloom-smithing were part of a

Some archaeometallurgists have also developed schemes indicating different levels of iron-working activity. While they do not neatly equate with arguments about the position of metalworking in the law tracts, they do provide important criteria for ranking activity. Young uses the size of smithing hearth cakes to place sites within four broad categories (Young 2011a, 127–128). His first category comprises sites which are primarily engaged in producing and repairing artefacts, citing the example of the univallate settlement at Moathill, Navan. This type of site had smithing hearth cakes of less than 0.6kg with 90% weighing less than 1kg. The second group comprised those where smithing and smelting took place, which includes sites such as Gortnahown 2, Parknahown 5 and Woodstown 6. These had fewer of the small smithing hearth cakes and more of the larger types. A third category comprised sites showing a wide range of practices from raw bloom to smithing and finished artefacts, such as Clonfad and Clonmacnoise. His final group were sites which were specialised bloomery sites, 35

and construction of furnaces. The identification of workshops and associated structures and residues is demonstrating the range of such sites outside of the traditional ‘high-status’ sites. It further indicates that there were a range of sites where people engaged in specialist ferrous metallurgy as a key part of their daily lives. Analysis of residues from metallurgical remains, even where there were no furnaces or smithing hearths within the excavated area, is helping provide a better picture of the type of iron working practised at a range of settlement sites. A more contextual understanding of the date and nature of iron-working sites is necessary as ferrous metallurgy at many of the sites within the sample may only have taken place once or twice over long spans of occupation. Through collection of this data, we are reaching a better understanding of the variety of sites engaged in metallurgy; however, there is still a need for greater clarity on the procurement, economy and production of iron on settlement sites during the period.

including some of the isolated examples such as Ballinglanna North 1. These had very large smithing hearth cakes which were typically above 1kg. It would seem quite likely that other archaeometallurgists who have different views on the size of smithing hearth cakes and the type of iron-working they represent may see alternative ranges and levels of use. Conclusion This review shows the scale and variety in evidence for early medieval Irish ferrous metallurgy. The routine involvement of specialists has meant that archaeologists have greater awareness of the potential of metallurgy in early medieval archaeology. It also means that there is greater recording and sampling of metallurgical residues and features. However, there is still considerable disagreement over the stage of process demonstrated by different metallurgical residues and over the technology

36

Chapter 3: Early Medieval Non-Ferrous Metalworking Metallographic analysis of non-ferrous objects has occasionally been undertaken in Ireland. Scientific analysis of silver from ingots, arm rings and other objects in Ireland and hoards from Wales, England and Scotland was undertaken (Kruse and Tate 1992, 295–328). This indicated some similarities in chemical composition between hoards in Ireland and other regions, and advocated the potential of examining lead isotopes to provenance the source of the silver. While this technique has had huge success in examining the significance of the Ross Island copper mine in Bronze Age metal-working (O’Brien 2004), its potential to identify origins for early medieval metal sources in Ireland is yet to be achieved. Other objects have been investigated because of their unusual character. An as-yet unpublished scientific examination of a copper alloy neck-ring found with a burial at Ratoath, Co. Meath was undertaken to assess its origin (Wallace 2010, 306). Given the distinct nature of the burial and the object, this sought to assess the external influences on the site. Larger-scale studies of these types or routine analysis of a sample of objects from excavated sites have been seen as a very useful future direction for understanding non-ferrous metallurgy as well as aspects of economy and society (Bayley et al 2008, 14–15).

Introduction The evidence for non-ferrous metal-working has recently been reviewed by Craddock (1990) and Comber (2004; 2008, 133–49) and an earlier review of metal-working from monasteries was produced by Ryan (1988). The non-ferrous metals in early medieval Ireland comprised copper-alloy, lead, tin, silver and gold and were almost exclusively used in the production of luxury items. In the early medieval period, copper-alloy was usually in the form of either bronze or gunmetal, which was an alloy of copper and tin with lead added to improve its casting qualities (Edwards 1990, 90). Some of the best known early medieval non-ferrous metal objects consisted of copper-alloy pins, brooches, latchets, buckles, strap-ends, rings and studs (Doyle infra, Section 3) as well as bowls, wooden buckets or reliquaries covered in copper-alloy sheets. The ninth century witnessed the beginning of a decline in Irish fine-metal working as non-ferrous metal objects became coarser and plainer, with amber replacing the use of millefiori and enamel and both filigree and kerbschnitt disappearing (Comber 2008, 134–35). Dublin’s, and indeed Ireland’s, first and only definite preNorman mint was established in AD 997. The silver pennies it produced were based on the English Æthelraed series and found their way all over Europe between AD 997 and about AD 1040. After this period, the Dublin silver pennies declined in weight and legibility, suggesting a more localised distribution (Wallace 2004, 837–9).

Raw materials, processes, manufacturing Although a wide variety of objects were made of copperalloy, there is substantially less evidence for the production of copper-alloy than for iron. The first stage involved sourcing metal ores from their primary contexts. Copper ore has been found at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 240–41), and lead ore has only been noted at Ardcloon (Rynne 1956, 208). Smelting slag containing copper has been found at Cooltubbrid East, Co. Waterford along with a copper smelting hearth which the excavator identified as ‘experimental copper-smelting’ (Tierney 2009, 208). The recent discovery of two early medieval smelting furnace pits at the Ross Island copper mines is the first evidence for the extraction and processing of copper ores from their source in this period (O'Brien 2004). Three slag deposits were radiocarbon dated to the late sixth/early seventh century. The possible remains of clay tuyères and furnace wall materials were also found (ibid.). There was no evidence for moulds or crucible remains indicative of metal casting, and this suggests that Ross Island was a primary processing site. The meagre evidence appears to suggest that the processing of copper ore is more likely to have taken place at its source and the results transported in the form of ingots or cakes to settlement sites. Bronze or copper ingots are found on at least seven settlement sites, as well as at Cathedral Hill, Armagh and Clonmacnoise (Ryan 1988, 43; King 2009, 341–43).

Excavations during the recent economic boom, as well as consideration of older sites, have revealed the extent of evidence for non-ferrous metal-working on Irish early medieval settlements. Non-ferrous artefacts were found at 159 of 317 sites within the gazetteer, which did not include ecclesiastical or urban sites (Map 3.1). A total of 62 of the 317 sites were identified as containing direct evidence for non-ferrous metal working (see Appendix). Ten of these settlements had no evidence for ferrous metal-working, while the remainder had varying amounts of evidence for this craft as well. Comber (2008, 149) had originally identified 37 settlement sites and eight ecclesiastical sites with evidence for non-ferrous metalworking. In comparison to iron working, relatively few of the sites have had specialist input from an archaeometallurgist. Experimental work has significant potential to add to our understanding, and while much of the Irish literature has been concerned with Bronze Age metallurgy (Ó Faoláin 2004), there have been a number of Irish attempts to replicate copper-alloy early medieval objects (see http://www.umha-aois.com/ua-site/2010-kdennett.htm). Archaeological evidence for non-ferrous metal-working comes in the form of rare indications of extraction and smelting, processed materials like ingots, artefacts such as crucibles and moulds, and rare residues such as slag.

Smelting is the process whereby copper and other base metals such as tin were extracted from their ores. The process involved a furnace which was heated up to very 37

high temperatures by the use of bellows or blow-pipes and produced some waste slag, though not in the same quantities as iron smelting. Crucibles may have been used as part of ‘the initial reduction of ore minerals in a controlled smelting process’ as well as ‘in the refining and alloying of metal and in the casting of final metal’ at later stages in the process (Comber 2008, 139). After smelting, the copper may have been purified by melting it in a clay crucible and stirring it. Two lumps of metallic tin have also been found at Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 100–2). The smelted tin may have been added at this stage to form bronze and the metal was then ready to be cast in stone or, more frequently, clay moulds (Edwards 1990, 90).

of waste, slag and ore were also associated with nonferrous metal-working. Most raw copper-alloy would appear to have arrived on settlements pre-processed, in the form of copper-alloy ingots such as those found on at least seven sites, as well as Downpatrick (Ryan 1988, 43) and Moylarg (Craddock 1990, 174). These are found on well-known high-status settlements and ecclesiastical sites along with sites which had moderate levels of evidence for non-ferrous metal-working like Castlefarm (O’Connell and Clark 2009, 14) and Deer Park Farms (Bayley 2011, 346–251). Bar-shaped ingots are the most common form and typically measure between 5cm and 10cm and 1cm in thickness (Comber 2008, 135). These could have been used as convenient forms for storage or trade, or could either have been hammered out on an anvil to form sheets of metal or melted down in crucibles for pouring into clay moulds, from which various objects could be cast.

Non-ferrous metal-working furnaces can be difficult to interpret when all that survives is a spread of burnt clay and charcoal, and it can be easy to confuse this evidence with domestic hearths (Comber 2008, 135). Early medieval furnaces were typically of a primitive bowl type and could have been used for smelting or re-melting a range of metals and alloys (ibid., 139). A metal-working area on the west side of Moynagh Lough crannog produced a bowl-shaped furnace associated with five clay-nozzle fragments, 67 crucible sherds, three heating tray fragments, an antler motif and over 600 clay mould fragments and one kilogram of slag (Bradley 1993, 77– 80). The excavator believed that it was used for melting copper rather than smelting copper, on the basis that there was very little slag on the site (ibid.), though Comber (2008, 138) has cautioned that ‘a relatively pure ore does not produce a large amount of slag, while the melting of smelted and refined metal should produce very little’. A furnace at Movilla Abbey may also have been used for melting as it was found in association with crucibles and scrap copper alloy (Ivens 1984b, 77). Iron slag was definitely identified on the site (Yates 1983, 62), but it is less clear whether there was copper slag as well, so it is difficult to establish if it was used for the smelting of metal ores. De Paor (1970:06) described the discovery of a ‘bronze working furnace’ at Inishcealtra. It was described as a scorched hollow with a clay dome associated with large quantities of ‘cupric’ slag (de Paor 1997, 62). No crucible or mould fragments are listed in association with the structure and the slag has not as yet been examined by a specialist. Copper globules, two copper fragments and a bar ingot were found at Castlefarm, Co. Meath but were not further reported on (O’Connell and Clark 2009, 52). A small fragment of slag from the melting of a zinc-based copper alloy was also found at Dunnyneill Island in association with crucibles (Young 2006a).

Crucibles Crucibles are commonly found on early medieval settlements but were importantly specific to non-ferrous metal-working. A total of 55 settlements of the 62 sites with evidence for non-ferrous metal-working within the gazetteer had evidence for crucibles and in 37 cases this was the only evidence for this type of craft (Fig. 3.1; Appendix). Comber’s analysis of ringforts and contemporary settlements identified 21 settlement sites with crucibles, along with a further eight ecclesiastical sites. Estimating the number of crucibles per site is difficult as they are often given in publications as sherds or fragments rather than a minimum number of individual vessels. Therefore the numbers represented by fragments depends on the degree of fragmentation. This is in addition to those found at ecclesiastical sites such as Reask, Movilla Abbey and Clonmacnoise, along with multiple locations in Armagh (Comber 2008). Crucibles from Armagh and Moynagh Lough bear the mark of tongs used to handle them. Many of these may have been represented by small numbers of sherds. The sites with no evidence for ferrous metal-working which contained crucibles had no excavated furnaces, suggesting they could have been used in conjunction with domestic hearths. Most crucibles were made of clay though stone examples are also known. Several different types have been identified (Laing 2006, 115–7): the most common type was small with triangular mouths (pyramidal type) though deeper, bag-shaped and shallow, round-bottomed and flat-bottomed crucibles are also known (Edwards 1990, 90). Some details are available on the manufacture of these objects. A total of 26 sherds were found at Clonfad, all pyramidal in form (Young 2009a, 8.1). They were made from clay with an organic temper, possibly hair.

Tuyère fragments can be used to indicate the presence of metal-working furnaces and many examples have already been described. Metal ingots, crucibles, clay and stone moulds, heating trays, motif-pieces, scrap-metal, lumps

38

Map 3.1: Distribution of sites with early medieval non-ferrous metal-working (numbers refer to the gazetteer)

39

Fig. 3.1: Crucibles found on different types of early medieval settlement (N=64) Ũ Many crucibles have an internal glassy glaze, created 2011, 348). Scott (1991, 3), however, suggests that when the hot contents, combined with silicates and crucibles may have occasionally been used in iron alumina in the wall of the vessel, cool rapidly (Wallace working at this time. Indeed, pyramidal crucibles from 2009, 9). Relatively little Irish work has been undertaken sites such as Clonfad and Gortnahown 2 indicate that on the analysis of the glazes and residues apparent on copper alloy was used in the brazing process and on both crucibles since the initial overview of the subject by Moss sites crucibles were found which may be linked to the (1927), although the subject has recently been finishing of iron objects (Young 2009a; 2009b). summarised (Comber 2004, 33–6; 2008, 139–41). The most extensive study on crucible residue remains is that Heating trays for Lagore (Hencken 1950, 237–9). While a few of the There has been some discussion of the possible uses of crucibles revealed iron residue but not copper, most ‘heating trays’, ‘hot-plates’ or ‘cupels’ which are tended to show traces of iron along with copper (ibid.). sometimes found associated with crucibles at various Hencken, however, concluded that the traces of iron sites such as Woodstown (Young 2006b, 3–4; 2008b, 2), ‘would have come into the crucibles as impurities in the Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 134–9), Knowth (Eogan crudely smelted copper’ (ibid., 239). 1977, 74), Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993, 75–9) and Lagore (Craddock 1990, 185). These objects are The use of Scanning Electron Microscopes and X-Ray produced out of fired clay and were utilized for heating Fluorescence is allowing more detailed analysis of objects that could not be directly placed into a fire or crucible sherds. Analysis at Coonagh West revealed that furnace. Comber (2008, 140) has suggested that they the crucible had added quartz to strengthen the walls, and were most useful ‘during the final fabrication of an contained copper and tin alloy along with traces of zinc, object, enabling the melting of solder during filigree silver and gold (Wallace 2009, 8). Assessment of a application or the evaporation of mercury during gilding’. crucible from Moynagh Lough revealed copper alloyed The majority of identifiable crucible fragments from with tin, as did a pyramidal example from Borris Kilgobbin were of this type and thin-section analysis (Wallace and Anguilano 2010a, 22). Residues of metal revealed that they were used for assaying silver (Bolger were found in the interior of a bronze-working crucible 2008, 99). Two open heating trays from Deer Park Farms from Lagore and crucibles and heating trays with suggested that they had been used to heat copper and tin significant residues of copper, silver and smaller amounts (Bayley 2011, 348). It is further suggested that heating of gold have been found at Knowth (Barton-Murray and plates were also used in the production of enamel (see Bayley 2012, 527) and Clonmacnoise (King 2009, 338). Chapter 4). Examination of the assemblage from Analysis of a lidded crucible from Deer Park Farms Dunnyneill led Young to suggest that a sub-group exists showed the presence of copper, tin and lead (Bayley within flat-bottomed crucibles (Young 2006a, 1–9). He 40

distinguished between dish-like vessels and flat-bottomed vessels which on analysis had high levels of lead and silver and variable amounts of copper. While the differing use of these vessels is not entirely clear, it has been suggested that they are likely to have been used to assay silver. In this process, small pieces of silver would be melted along with a larger amount of lead, producing a refined metal button in the middle of the vessel which would leave a circular scar (Young 2006a). The scar resulting from the removal of this button has been interpreted in the past as demonstrating that these vessels were crucible stands. Assessment of the dish-like crucibles from Dunnyneill indicated they were used for assaying silver with high levels of lead present (ibid., 3).

settlement sites are represented by very small numbers of moulds (fewer than eight). These are predominantly highstatus raths, crannogs and ecclesiastical sites or settlements with burials (Fig. 3.2).

Moulds Both stone and clay moulds were used in early medieval Ireland, though the latter were more popular and easier to shape than their stone equivalents. Stone moulds were most commonly used to produce bar- or oblong-shaped ingots. These were easily carved into a stone block and may have often been manufactured in ‘open’ stone moulds, though bivalve examples are also known. Many stone blocks have multiple moulds for ingots. One of the examples from Knowth had a cruciform carved into one of the mould bases (Barton-Murray and Bayley 2012, 527). A copper-alloy ingot from Garranes actually fitted into an ingot mould found at the site (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 100, 108–9), while a soapstone ingot-mould from High Street, Dublin, contained a matrix for casting Thor’s hammer symbols (Ó Ríordáin 1984, 137). Other stone ingot moulds are known from various sites, including Lagore (Hencken 1950, 170–1), Moynagh Lough (Craddock 1990, 182), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 65), Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 108–9), Roestown (O'Hara 2009c, 62), Clonmacnoise (King 2009, 343), Cathedral Hill, Armagh (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 125), Clonfad (Stevens 2007, 43; 2010, 91), Temple Bar West in Scandinavian Dublin (Simpson 1999, 33) and Faughart Lower (Schuster and Jones 2012). A stone mould for dress-pins was recorded at Caherconnell cashel (Hull and Comber 2008, 31) and a possible stone mould for casting small rings was found at Reask (Fanning 1981, 126), while possible mould for pewter bowls was found at Woodstown 6 (O'Brien and Russell 2005, 119).

Fig. 3.2: Moulds on different types of Irish early medieval settlements (N=22) Motif-pieces Stone, antler, bone and occasionally wooden motif-pieces are frequently found in metal-working areas. These are generally regarded as trial-pieces used for practising patterns prior to reproducing them on metalwork, or for circulating designs. Motif-pieces have been recorded at several sites (see O'Meadhra 1987; 1997); these include seven ecclesiastical sites, one enclosure with burial and settlement, three high-status crannogs or settlements, the Hiberno-Norse towns at Dublin and Waterford and four other settlements (see Appendix). Scrap metal Scrap metal has been found on a large number of sites and presumably was destined for recycling and remelting; this is likely one of the reasons for the presence of stone ingot moulds on several sites. The importance of scrap and recycling is shown most strikingly by the metalworker’s hoard from Shanmullagh on the River Blackwater (Bourke 1998, 30), which contained a collection of cut-up pieces of ecclesiastical objects. It is possible that some of the decorated bronze scrap found at Clonmacnoise (King 2009, 343) may also have come from ecclesiastical objects. Filings from non-ferrous metal at Deer Park Farms may have been placed in a clay ‘package’ for melting, which allowed for maximum reuse of resources (Bayley 2011, 348).

Clay moulds were used for producing finer objects such as ringed-pins and penannular brooches (Doyle infra, Section 3). It appears that only bivalve or ‘two-piece’ clay moulds were used to produce these (Comber 2008, 141). However, most of these are in a fragmentary state as they were usually broken in order to extract the casting. Once the cast objects were removed from their moulds, they were finished by filing away the rough edges and polishing. They were then ready for assembly and for further decoration such as millefiori, enamel or the insertion of glass or amber studs (Edwards 1990, 91). Clay moulds associated with metal-working activity are known from at least 15 settlements and nine ecclesiastical sites (see Appendix; O'Connor 2005). They are highly friable and therefore easily broken, a factor which may contribute to their discovery and distribution. Most of the

Precious Metals Gold and silver were also used in ornamental metalworking. Gold was very scarce and was used sparingly in the form of leaf, gilding, filigree and granulation. There is almost no archaeological evidence for gold-working in early medieval Ireland as it was too precious a commodity to be wasted or discarded. Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993) and Movilla Abbey (Ivens 1984b, 95) 41

Russell 2005, 119–22). Tin was also vital as the principal alloy for use with copper in the production of bronze. The mechanics of the sourcing of tin are unknown and it is often thought that the majority of it was imported through contacts with south-western Britain. Qualitative chemical analysis of non-ferrous artefacts has a considerable role to play in determining the origins of raw materials, the types of alloys and techniques used in the production of metals. A study of metalwork in the ‘Celtic West’ showed that bronze continued to be used in Ireland up to the tenth century when Hiberno-Norse metalworkers introduced the production of brass as a significant copper alloy (Craddock et al 2001).

have produced tiny fragments of gold filigree wire, and a gold ingot was also found at the former site. Clogher produced a gold rubbing stone, perhaps used for gold leaf, and a crucible with a gold residue dating from the sixth to eighth century (Craddock 1990, 209–10). Evidence for gold-working was also present at Knowth (Barton-Murray and Bayley 2012, 526–33) and Clonmacnoise (Ó Floinn and King 1998, 123). The outer face of the twisted gold fragment from the latter site was flattened as if gripped by pincers or tongs (ibid., 123). At Lowpark a folded piece of filigree gold was found within a pit and although there is no evidence for non-ferrous metal-working on site, it is likely to have been intended for re-cycling (Gillespie 2010, 166–167).

Metal-working tools Silver was an important currency within early Irish law tracts and was suitable as payment for specified fines (Kelly 1988, 115). Some have suggested that the term cerd refers to a silversmith as distinct from a coppersmith (ibid., 63). There is little evidence for silver-working though surviving objects indicate that the metal became more common during the eighth century. However, it was the coming of the Vikings in the ninth century that brought a massive influx of imported silver into Ireland in the form of objects and coin and bullion hoards (Edwards 1990, 92). Sources of silver of the pre-Viking Age remain to be identified though native ores may have been exploited. Apart from the traces of silver recorded in crucibles and heating trays (see above), evidence primarily comes in the form of silver objects. A silver hoard from Carraig Aille II contained ingots and fragments cut from silver bracelets, which may indicate that it was probably a stock-pile intended for use in the production of luxury items on the site (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 62–4). A silver ingot and four nodules of silver-melt debris were recovered in the topsoil soil at the HibernoScandinavian longphort at Woodstown, indicating that silver was being worked/smelted and exchanged at the site (O'Brien and Russell 2005, 119). The site also produced over thirty-six pieces of hack silver, most of them hacked ingots, from the top soil (ibid., 122). Silvered-bronze clippings were associated with the burial and settlement site at Knoxspark, which appears to have had Hiberno-Norse activity (Mount 2010, 209; Kelly 2009). Excavations at Faughart Lower, within a series of enclosures used for settlement and burial, found a stone ingot-mould, and a matching silver ingot indicates the possibility of silver working on site (Schuster and Jones 2012). Silver ingots were also found at Carraig Aille 1 (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 89–91), Feltrim Hill (Hartnett and Eogan 1964) and 200m from the settlement at Cherrywood which had a range of Hiberno-Norse objects (Ó Néill 2012).

A wide range of tools was utilised in the later stages of the fabrication of metal objects. An iron anvil with a very small working space and a spike projecting from its base is known from Garryduff (O’Kelly 1963, 56–7) and may have been used in the working of highly ornate items. Various other tools such as iron awls, punches, chisels, files, stone and iron-hammer-heads, bronze tweezers and styli, and whetstones used for sharpening metal objects are known from various sites and may have been used in these final stages of metal-working (Comber 2008, 144). An iron stake used in the beating of sheet metal was recovered from a metal-working area (1) at Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993, 76) and three tiny needles of bronze were interpreted as possible compass points at Kilpatrick (Swan 1995). The contexts of non-ferrous metal-working Evidence for fine metal-working is clearly present on a significant number of different types of early medieval sites, although the greatest evidence is generally confined to ecclesiastical and high-status secular sites. Bronze and copper-alloy working has been identified at a range of ecclesiastical sites, from small western monasteries (e.g. Reask and Illaunloughan) to established important centres such as Armagh, Downpatrick, Clonmacnoise, Nendrum and Movilla. Fine metal-working can be regarded as a consistent feature of the large monasteries (Ryan 1988). Some enclosure sites with settlement and burials, such as Dooey (Ó Ríordáin and Rynne 1961, 61–62) and Dunmisk (Ivens 1989, 28–36) also seem to have been important in fine metal-working, with evidence for the making of brooches and other objects. This evidence can be paralleled with material from high-status settlement enclosures and crannogs such as Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942), Lagore (Hencken 1950, 234–41) and Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993, 77–80). At least eight other crannogs have revealed significant numbers of crucibles, clay moulds and ingot moulds (see Appendix).

Lead and tin Lead was important for alloying with other metals, but little is known about the sourcing of this metal in the early medieval period. Lead models for objects were found at the crannogs of Lagore and Moylarg (Comber 1997, 107). Small lead bars have been found on a number of sites including Glebe, Ratoath and Woodstown 6 (Seaver 2011, 150; Wallace 2010, 304; O’Brien and

Excavations within enclosed settlements indicate that metal-working was usually undertaken within the enclosure but away from habitation areas or ecclesiastical buildings, reflecting concerns about the toxic and flammable character of the activity while exploiting the shelter and security afforded by the enclosing elements 42

crucibles and slate motif-pieces. The waste clay moulds and crucibles from these activities had been dumped into the adjacent ditch (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 157– 9; Edwards 1990). The copper-alloy working area at Garranes was located against the bank on the south side of the interior of the rath (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 140–1). Small lumps of tin, crucibles, clay and stone moulds, unfinished copper-alloy objects, waste from the casting process and glass-working evidence was found in a black layer in this area. A stone foundation arc of a hut was also found in this area and though it was in a fragmentary condition, it may have been associated with the metalworking activity (ibid., 86).

(Comber 2008, 146). The location of craftworking within enclosed settlements generally depends on the size of the site (ibid.) but both activities can be found together in the same areas at smaller sites such as Reask (Fanning 1981, 89) as well as some larger sites such as Nendrum (McErlean 2007, 378), Kilpatrick (Swan 1994/95, 8–11) and Woodstown (O’Brien and Russell 2005, 119). However, the early documentary sources indicate a clear distinction between blacksmiths and craftsmen involved in working bronze and other precious metals (Scott 1991, 184). This is supported by the evidence on most large settlement sites, where there is clear evidence for a physical separation between both activities (Comber 2008, 146–8). For instance, the bronze-working area at Knowth was found in the southern half of the site but the iron-working evidence was found in the northern portion (Eogan 1977, 73–4), while the northeast quadrant at Dunmisk was used for non-ferrous and glass-working with iron-working undertaken in the southwest area (Ivens 1989, 57–8).

The metal-working at Moynagh Lough took place in two separate areas on either side of a centrally-located timber roundhouse (Bradley 1993, 76). One area contained mould fragments, crucibles, motif-pieces and an iron tool and the second comprised a bowl-shaped furnace, two surfaced areas and metal-working debris. A random posthole scatter perhaps represented the remains of a screen which sheltered a spread of burnt clay close by (ibid., 79) and another pebbled area may have operated as a stacking area for the moulds as they cooled. A circular structure at Roestown was interpreted as a possible metallurgy workshop as it produced a crucible fragment, while other metal-working artefacts such as an ingot mould and bone motif-piece were found in the backfilled deposits of enclosure (1) immediately to the west of this structure (O’Hara 2009d, 66). The structure was located immediately outside the main enclosure (1) and was dated to the seventh century (ibid., 58–61). Unlike ironworking evidence, there is considerable bronze-working in Scandinavian Dublin. One site at High Street produced trial-pieces, baked-clay crucible-fragments, slag and vitreous material in association with a workshop-hearth (Ó Ríordáin 1971, 76). A number of hearths and a deep deposit of vitrified burnt clay with slag dumped in a heap were excavated at Upper Exchange Street/Copper Alley. Small paved areas were set beside a number of hearths and were interpreted as platforms for anvils (Simpson 1999, 30). Small quantities of tin ore have also been found within the town (Wallace 1987, 217), implying the manufacture of bronze from its constituent parts.

Bronze-working appears to have been undertaken in the open air, mostly in sheltered locations in enclosure ditches or near enclosing banks as evidenced at Woodstown and Cathedral Hill, Armagh. Sometimes the metal-working may have been partially enclosed by wooden shelters as indicated at Kilpatrick (Swan 1994/95, 8–9) and Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993, 79). However, it was also practised indoors at Reask (Fanning 1981, 89), and appears to have been associated with wooden or stone structures at Cathedral Hill, Armagh (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984), Illaunloughan (Marshall and Walsh 2005), Tullylish (Ivens 1987), Iniscealtra (de Paor 1974:0009), Nendrum (McErlean 2007), Letterkeen (Ó Ríordáin and Mac Dermott 1952, 114) and Roestown (O’Hara 2007, 149). In contrast to iron-working, non-ferrous metallurgy was clearly undertaken within Scandinavian Dublin (Wallace 1987). Specialist craftspeople of different kinds were involved in non-ferrous metal-working. The word umaige is used to distinguish the coppersmith in the law tracts, while cerd could refer to a silversmith (Kelly 1988, 63). Archaeological evidence of their place of work is found on numerous sites. On early medieval settlements, locations of metal-working workshops usually consist of structural remains in association with finds of slag, crucibles and moulds and other metal-working material (Comber 2008, 138–9). Several secular and ecclesiastical sites have produced evidence for the various processes involved in copper and copper-alloy working. Examples include Garranes, Garryduff I, Clogher, Roestown, Lagore, Moynagh Lough, Armagh (Cathedral Hill), Clonmacnoise, Illaunloughan, Nendrum and Movilla Abbey. An excavated portion of the ditch which may have enclosed the summit of Cathedral Hill in Armagh revealed considerable metal- and glass-working debris. The remains of four large post-holes were interpreted as forming part of a workshop structure immediately inside the ditch. This area had been burnt twice: the lower clay floor produced evidence for glass- and enamel-working and the upper layer contained various finds such as

Woodstown produced considerable manufacturing evidence for iron, copper alloy, silver, glass and perhaps lead. A sheltered portion of one of the enclosing ditch terminals at the northern end was used for metal-working (iron, lead, silver, copper and copper-alloy). The main feature consisted of a smithing hearth/furnace with a chimney structure set around a central firing area which produced in situ metal-working (O’Brien and Russell 2005, 119). One furnace fill was radiocarbon-dated to between the early fifth and early seventh century, although subsequent re-evaluation suggests that the feature may be contemporary with the remainder of the Hiberno-Norse material (S.H. Harrison, pers. comm.). The furnace was sealed when a deposit containing waste and finished artefacts, dating to the seventh century, were dumped into the ditch (O’Brien and Russell 2005, 119). A furnace outside the enclosing ditch was also possibly 43

(Lawlor 1925, 142). The stone rectangular house (No. 8), described as ‘the monastic school’, produced the most interesting finds including 30 slate motif-pieces, four iron styli for use on wax tablets, four short knife blades, probably for bone and wood-carving, approximately 13 stone discs, 16 bone beads and one bronze and one iron needle (ibid., 144–49). However, McErlean (2007, 376) cautioned that this building might be much later than the adjacent roundhouses in the middle enclosure and that many of these artefacts may relate to an occupation layer below this building. Other finds from within and around these buildings included lumps of iron slag, a copperalloy ingot, clay moulds, stone crucible stands and crucibles with nodules of bronze droppings (Bourke 2007, 407, 419) suggesting ferrous and non-ferrous metal-working in the area (McErlean 2007, 378).

used for the smelting of lead or silver. Three post-holes around the circumference may have supported a claylined shaft. The recovery of a tiny lead weight from the oxidised clay of the furnace indicates that it may have been used for smelting lead or silver ingots, or possibly the forging of lead weights. The discovery of 208 pan lead weights across the site would support this suggestion (ibid., 122). A sod-walled hut (C) on the southern edge and most exposed location of the monastic island at Illaunloughan appears to have been used as a non-ferrous workshop, though it is uncertain if this was its primary function (Marshall and Walsh 2005, 16–21). An area of metalworking debris covered the hut and revealed evidence for the designing and casting of copper-/bronze-alloy brooches and pins as well as over 80 fragments of clay moulds, crucibles, part of a tuyère and a carved bone motif-piece. Hut C was the earliest structure on the site and dated to the mid seventh/mid eighth centuries. A small single-celled sub-circular clochán (Hut G) in the northwest sector of the monastery at Reask produced evidence for both iron- and non-ferrous working (Fanning 1981, 97–8, 108–10). The hut contained two internal pits which appear to have been initially used for smelting iron ore, before being infilled and re-used as a large hearth. Finds from these features included a substantial quantity of slag, clay lining, tuyère pieces and crucible fragments. The basal courses of the primary enclosure wall were tied in with the surviving courses of Hut (G) and indicate that both were roughly contemporary and were one of the earliest structures built at the monastery.

Levels of metal-working There is no apparent difference between the wealth and range of metal items being manufactured on high-status secular and ecclesiastical sites, and finds and mould evidence indicates that pins and brooches were the most common type of metal artefact produced on both sites (Doyle infra, Section 3). Although religious items such as metal chalices and crosiers were also undoubtedly manufactured on ecclesiastical sites, these were mostly composite in nature and were formed largely of sheet metal, ornamented with separate panels (Comber 2008, 147). Comber (ibid., 148–9) has divided the metal-working evidence from early medieval settlements into three general levels of activity. A number of high-status secular and ecclesiastical settlements such as Carraig Aille, Garranes, Lagore, Moynagh Lough, Clogher, Clonmacnoise, Armagh, Dunmisk and Dooey have revealed large quantities of metal-working waste and finished items which may indicate the activities of a resident highly-trained cerd working in a permanent workshop. This term could denote a silversmith or a goldsmith (Kelly 1988, 63). In contrast, other sites such as Lissue, Seacash, Rathmullan, Raheennamadra and Tullylish have produced minimal or low-levels of metalworking evidence. It is likely that many of these smaller sites, such as Reask, had to rely on the talents of their own communities or perhaps the seasonal work of an itinerant metalworker.

A timber-built workshop defined by stone packed postholes and settings was cut into a ditch surrounding the monastery at Tullylish (Ivens 1987, 60–1). A deposit of industrial debris accumulated while the structure was in use and a large hearth, hot-plates and mould fragments were found near these remains. Evidence for a forging area, two iron-smelting furnaces and non-ferrous metalworking material and equipment were found in the southern sector of Kilpatrick monastery and lay south of, and almost contiguous to, the footing trench of a house or shelter (Swan 1994/95, 8–11). Two areas in the ‘New Graveyard’ to the east of the ecclesiastical buildings at Clonmacnoise produced evidence for copper-alloy working (King 2009, 432–43). A deep layer of burnt clay and charcoal in the south side of the ‘New Graveyard’ produced crucibles, moulds, scraps of metal and a greenstained cattle rib while another area produced a small circular hearth surrounded by over 1m of red clay containing charcoal, broken moulds, crucibles as well as a cache of scrap-metal objects and two fragments of gauge bronze wire nearby.

As with the evidence for ferrous metal-working, there is an even larger range of sites with no evidence for nonferrous metal-working. While this is clearly sometimes the result of the scale of investigation, extensive excavations such as Raystown (Seaver 2010), Baronstown (Linnane 2009) and Dowdstown (Cagney et al 2009) produced no evidence for non-ferrous metal working. These communities must have engaged with other local centres to provide the copper-alloy objects found on these sites. Excavations and research in recent years has added to the evidence summarised by Comber (2008) and others. The greatest level of additional evidence pertains to sites at the lowest levels of non-

At Nendrum, there was evidence for ferrous and nonferrous metal-working from the ‘hut circles’ in the southwestern sector of the middle enclosure (Bourke 2007, 407, 419). A roughly horse-shoe shaped platform (No. 5) was labelled the bronze foundry or brazier’s workshop as the finds from inside and around this house included ‘innumerable fragments of crucibles for bronze-working’ 44

numbers of crucibles were found were all likely to have had higher levels of non-ferrous metal-working. Some of these sites clearly had relatively small excavated areas and their true position in a scale of non-ferrous metalworking relative to some of the others is unclear. These serve to emphasis the role of communities on some crannogs in fine metal-working. At the highest end of the spectrum, there are clear differences in the numbers of moulds, crucibles and crucible fragments which could, in the case of Armagh, result from the extent of excavation or could reflect genuine differences in manufacturing of cast, as opposed to composite, objects (Fig. 3.4). It is equally striking how Knowth produced relatively little evidence for non-ferrous metal-working when compared to other important centres of power (Barton-Murray and Bayley 2012). While Lagore produced much greater numbers of crucibles than Knowth, the numbers of clay moulds from both is very low in comparison to Moynagh Lough and Garranes (Fig. 3.5). By way of an urban contrast, the excavations in Viking Dublin revealed 1,700 crucibles or fragments thereof and large numbers of ingot moulds, mostly copper-alloy but with lead, gold, pewter and silver examples (Bayley 2005). Interestingly, there were small numbers of ‘scrappy’ clay moulds. Once again, this could have been an issue of preservation of moulds, or other techniques used to construct objects at that particular workshop.

ferrous metallurgy. Evidence for the minimal level of non-ferrous metal working can be seen in the numbers of crucibles present. Twenty-four of the settlements with crucibles had just two or fewer, with many of them only having a single example or fragment. Sites such as Roestown (O’Hara 2009c) and Deer Park farms (Bayley 2011) hint that there may have been an intermediate level of non-ferrous metallurgy with a small workshop occasionally used for this practice. Both sites have fragments of a small range of crucibles of different types (three and four respectively), trial pieces and ingots but no moulds (Fig. 3.3). Other specialist uses of bronze in the iron-working process are also coming to light. The possibility of the use of crucibles in brazing iron objects, as may have been the case with bell production at Clonfad (Young 2009a) and Gortnahown 2 (Young 2009b), suggests that this practice may have been more widespread. Both of these sites incorporate ceramic brazing shrouds with fabric impressions, which also indicates that closer attention needs to be paid to firedclay fragments on early medieval sites. Interestingly, enigmatic clay fragments with fabric impressions were also found at Cathedral Hill, Armagh and were termed crucibles at the time (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 147–148). A fragment of a clay wrap probably used in the brazing of iron objects was recently recognised at Deer Park farms (Bayley 2011, 348). To this range of more recent sites we can add the coastal and estuarine sites which may have had specialised purposes in assaying silver and other metals such as Dunnyneill (McCormick and Macdonald 2004, 8; Young 2006a), along with the Viking trading/settlement site at Woodstown 6 (Young 2006b).

Conclusion Non-ferrous metal-working clearly had an impact on economy and society. The making of important liturgical, ritual or symbolic objects tied secular and ecclesiastical lords together. The manufacture of such objects would have a price throughout society in the levels of tribute required to procure raw materials and produce them. At lower levels, the production and wearing of copper-alloy pins and brooches and other objects was a widespread and important practice (Doyle infra, Section 3). Given the limited distribution of moulds despite the extensive excavations of recent decades, it seems likely that their production and acquisition was tightly controlled. The frequently found crucibles on many sites which have no other non-ferrous evidence suggest that craftsmen must have travelled to settlements. They must in turn have had access to sources of raw materials or scrap metal and the networks that controlled them.

At the upper end of the scale are sites which clearly have evidence for many different stages of non-ferrous metalworking including moulds, crucibles and raw materials. In this regard new sites have, to date, added little to Comber’s list of extensive evidence. Excavations at Kilgobbin (Bolger 2008) have indicated another prominent ecclesiastical site with extensive manufacturing evidence, and there are three further older sites at Kilpatrick (Swan 1994/95, 5), Kiltiernan (Waddell and Clyne 1995, 195–196) and Iniscealtra (Ryan 1988, 44). Crannog sites like Moylarg (Buick 1894, 315–331), Corranneary (Davies 1942, 27–28) and Lough Faughan (Collins 1955, 58–74) where both moulds and significant

45

Fig. 3.3: Settlement sites (Non-ecclesiastical) with moderate levels of clay moulds, crucibles or ingots and stone moulds

Fig. 3.4: Stone ingot moulds, bronze ingots and silver ingots from a range of settlement sites, with Armagh included for contrast

46

Fig. 3.5: Settlements with clay moulds, crucibles and stone moulds. Armagh, Kilgobbin and Dunmisk included as ecclesiastical sites for comparison

47

Chapter 4: Early Medieval Glass, Enamel and Millefiori-Working toggle beads were also known. The polychrome glass beads could be decorated with twisted cables, spiralled knobs, spots or insets of millefiori (Edwards 1990, 94). A Viking necklace of 71 glass beads was found hidden inside a cave at Glencurran and a number of its beads were segmented and foil-covered, similar to examples recovered from Kilmainham and the trading site at Birka, Sweden (Dowd 2007, 39). Glass beads and bangles have been recorded at numerous settlements and their quantities, distribution and types are considered in Doyle infra, Section 3.

Introduction Vitreous materials such as glass, enamel and millefiori were closely associated with metal-working, and along with amber were often used as settings for decorating metalwork, particularly copper-alloy but occasionally iron, in early medieval Ireland. In the earlier part of the early medieval period, insets of millefiori and red enamel were used to decorate penannular brooches, hand-pins and latchets (Doyle infra, Section 3). More complex metal objects decorated with multi-coloured enamel and glass studs appeared in the eighth century but amber settings became more common on brooches and other artefacts after this period (Comber 2008, 126). It has been noted that glass-working or glass-workers are not mentioned in any of the early Irish literary sources which may indicate either ‘a limited industry or the production of glass etc. by other artisans, primarily the fine metalworker’ (ibid., 131).

Raw materials, processes, manufacturing There is evidence for the working of glass, enamel and millefiori at early medieval settlements in the form of tools, scrap vessel fragments – probably intended for reuse, remnants of glass-working rods or canes and clay moulds (Map 4.1; Appendix). Enamel and glass-working required much of the same equipment as metalworking, such as hearths, crucibles and tongs. The furnaces used in metalworking could have also been utilised for glassworking, especially as enamel, millefiori and glass ornament were frequently applied to metal artefacts (Comber 2008, 128). Iron ladles have been recovered on a number of sites such as Ballinderry I (Hencken 1936, 137, 172), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 46), and Lagore and Garryduff (Craddock 1990, 204). The latter two sites have produced evidence of glass-working which might suggest that these were used for melting glass (ibid.).

Glass Artefacts There is no evidence that glass vessels were produced from raw materials in Ireland. It has long been thought that glass-working in Ireland comprised the recycling of old scrap glass or cullet (Harden 1956, 151–2), although at sites such as Dunmisk, glass-working was clearly carried out. However, closer inspection has revealed that these small pieces presumed to be scrap glass or cullet at Garranes, Ballycatteen, Carraig Aille II, Dalkey and Lagore were in fact fragments of vessels such as beakers and palm cups imported into Ireland. Fragments of vessel glass were also found at the site of an emporium at Dunnyneill Island and belonged to vessels from the Anglo-Saxon (seventh or eighth century) and Mediterranean (fifth or sixth century) world (McCormick and Macdonald 2010, 52–3). It is likely, then, that glass mostly reached sites in Ireland as complete ‘luxury item’ glass vessels (Edwards 1990, 92; Bourke 1994, 180; Campbell 2007; Comber 2008, 127). These vessels were naturally very fragile and had a very short life-span, and when they broke the glass was often simply recycled. Intact early medieval glass vessels rarely survive. Two complete phials of yellowish or yellow-green glass were recovered from a seventh-century context at Moynagh Lough (Bourke 1994, 168), and a similar phial was recovered from an undated context in a souterrain at Mullaroe (Harden 1956, 154).

Glass-working rods or canes have been found at Movilla Abbey (Henderson 1984, 100), at Cathedral Hill, Upper English Street (Crothers 1999, 63) and Scotch Street (Lynn 1988f, 82), all in Armagh city, as well as at Dunmisk (Henderson 1988b, 116–17), Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1990–91, 29), Ballycatteen (Ó Ríordáin and Hartnett 1943, 26) and Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 121). Small lumps of glass at Lagore and Movilla Abbey have been interpreted as glass spilled while in a molten state (Comber 2008, 128). There is limited evidence for unfinished glass objects on early medieval Irish settlements. Glass beads are a common find on settlements but there is meagre evidence for workshops related to bead-making. Bead-making was possibly identified at Garryduff I in the form of two small glass blobs with possible partial perforations (O'Kelly 1963, 72, 77). Henderson (1984, 98) has suggested that two fragments of twisted green glass rods at Movilla Abbey may have been produced during the production of glass beads. A small amount of blue glass was found in a small mould for multi-coloured glass studs at Lagore and indicates the manufacture of these objects at this site (Hencken 1950, 132). A glass piece from Cahercommaun contained the traces of two perforations. The object was slightly curved and may represent a glass bracelet damaged in its production (Hencken 1938, 39). A now lost clay mould at Nendrum is said to have contained a

Glass has also been discovered in the form of studs, beads and artefacts described variously as bangles, bracelets or armlets, and these all appear to have been manufactured in Ireland. Many glass beads have been recovered from Lagore (Hencken 1950, 132–45) and these provide considerable information about the variety of plain and polychrome glass beads in early medieval Ireland. Small dark blue beads constituted most of the plain examples but melon-shaped, tubular, segmented, dumb-bell or 48

matrix for either a glass or metal stud (Bourke 2007, 407, 419). Some crucibles at Clonmacnoise appear to have been used for glass-working and at least two droplets of green glass could indicate that it was worked in the ‘New Graveyard’ (King 2009, 344).

with a layer of charcoal covering the area. One of these hearths contained pieces of glass-working remains and produced a radiocarbon date ranging from the late sixth to late ninth century, from the charcoal spread (Henderson 1988b, 115). The glass-working remains included ‘a broken glass stud, a melted drop of glass, fragments of ribbed blue rod, small fragments of dirty (discarded) green glass, and remnants from the manufacture of a cable-bead and of glass-bearing crucibles’ (ibid.).

The glass-working at Dunmisk was concentrated in the northeast quadrant of the site (Ivens 1989, 57). Several hearths were uncovered in this area and were associated

Map 4.1: Sites with claimed evidence for working glass, enamel and millefiori (numbers refer to the gazetteer) Ѯ

49

In some of the very few studies on the subject, Henderson (1988a; 1988b) has investigated the technological and scientific aspect of glass-working and its organisation in early medieval Ireland in the context of his discussion of the evidence from Dunmisk. On the basis of glass residues on crucibles at Dunmisk, he established (1988b, 120–23) that glass was not only worked but also manufactured from its constituent components at this early medieval Irish site. He noted that the crucible residues were composed of raw materials, particularly silica and tin oxide, which were used in glass-making. Bronze- and glass-working were found in the same part of the site (Ivens 1989, 57), and it is likely that similar crucible types were used for both. Further analysis of crucible residues from other sites is needed to provide more information on the manufacturing process. Recent scientific analysis of red enamel from Ireland and Britain suggests that it was made using re-used metallurgical slag or copper-making waste reheated in a crucible rather than as a result of the glass-making process. The blocks of enamel found from Kilmessan and Tara are now thought to be of earlier origin and the results of a different technical process (Stapleton, Freestone and Bowman 1999).

At the longphort at Woodstown, a sub-rectangular structure defined by a slot-trench (10.44m by 7.1m at its greatest extent) was uncovered in the south-western field (Russell et al 2007, 67–71, 80–2) and contained a number of floor surfaces and a possible western entrance. Two external metalled pathways appear to have led to additional structures to the west. A considerable quantity of crucibles, hone stones, a tuyère fragment and rotary sharpening/polishing stones indicate an industrial function for this structure and there was evidence – glass beads, droplets and slag – that glass was worked in the immediate area, and probably within the structure itself (ibid., 71). Wallace (1984, 124) has also suggested that the production of glass beads was undertaken in Scandinavian Dublin as solidified hemispherical-shaped glass drops have been identified on house floors. Enamel also circulated in the form of lumps and rods. The enamel was ground into a fine powder with the use of a mortar and pestle and the powder was then fused onto the metal object by firing in a clay crucible or heating tray. A flame directed on the surface of the object would effect an adhesion between the metal and enamel and create a smooth, durable, vitreous coating. Once cooled, the enamel was finished by polishing with an abrasive (Bateson 1981, 87ff; Harden 1984). A stick of opaque-yellow enamel was found at Cathedral Hill, Armagh (Harden 1984, 136) and other blocks of enamel are known from Moynagh Lough (Craddock 1990, 201) and in a stray find from between Tara and Kilmessan (ibid.). Garranes produced several pieces of decayed enamel and two fragments of crucibles with droplets of red enamel still attached (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 121). Clay crucibles were recovered from Craigywarren crannóg and some of these had red vitreous matter on their surface which was possibly the remains of melted enamel (Coffey 1906, 116). Several metal objects were found within a souterrain at Mullagharlin/Haggardstown near Dundalk and one of these contained traces of enamel (McLoughlin 1999:610).

Contexts of glass-working Although evidence for glass-making is limited (Henderson 1988b), evidence for glass-working has been found on a growing number of ecclesiastical sites including Movilla Abbey (Henderson 1984, 98–9), Dunmisk (Ivens 1989, 57) and Cathedral Hill (Harden 1984, 135) and Scotch Street (Lynn and McDowell 1988b, 60–1), both in Armagh. Most of the evidence comprised glass rods, globules, scrap and occasionally crucibles. Comber (2008, 131) has noted that where concentrations of glass-working evidence occur together, it was usually undertaken in industrial quarters away from domestic structures. The craft was also spatially and functionally associated with fine metal-working, using much of the same equipment, tools and structural features.

Millefiori was produced by fusing several different coloured glass canes or rods together to form a pattern. These were rolled and drawn out to form a single long thin rod, preserving the pattern, while they were still hot and pliable. A thin slice was then cut off the end of the rod and was either fused directly into a metal object (similar to enamelling) or was laid in a bed of enamel that was held in position when fused to the metal (Edwards 1990, 93). Rods of millefiori have been found at Lagore, Garranes and Scotch Street, Armagh (Craddock 1990, 202–3). Two fragments of a blue glass cane at Lagore could indicate the manufacture of millefiori rods, though they may have also been used for glass insets or for ornamenting beads (Hencken 1950, 132). A small millefiori rod with a blue-and-white chequer pattern was also found and confirms that the decoration of metalwork with millefiori was definitely taking place at the site (Edwards 1990, 93). One decorated millefiori rod at Garranes was found in situ inside a copper-alloy tube which securely held the glass while slices were cut off (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 120).

Both crafts have been found together at a number of sites. The glass and non-ferrous metalworking at Dunmisk were concentrated in the northeast quadrant of the site, but iron working was found primarily in the southwestern area. The furnaces used in metal-working were probably employed in the working of vitreous materials and both crafts have been found together just inside the southern quadrant of Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 86), in the eastern section at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 234) and the southern side of Cathedral Hill, Armagh (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 111). Fine metal-working and enamelling were undertaken together on the southern side of the Neolithic passage-tomb at Knowth and on the west of the slope of the site (Eogan 1977, 74). The principal area consisted of a roughly circular area of charcoal, c. 1.7m in diameter, against and spreading out from a small rectangular stone set on edge (0.3m in length and 0.12m in height) that may have provided some form of shelter 50

produced the most evidence, with the latter site producing tools, beads, armlets, cullet, studs and their moulds, millefiori remains and melted lumps and fragment of glass. In conclusion, however the evidence for glassworking remains equivocal in an Irish context, and Brendan O’Neill’s experimental archaeological investigations at UCD Centre for Experimental Archaeology and Ancient Technologies have questioned the veracity of some of the claimed evidence for glass production (Brendan O’Neill pers comm: more research is clearly needed.

for the fire. Finds consisted of two complete heating trays and a fragment of another, and parts of clay crucibles. Levels of glass-working Comber (2008, 131–2) has noted that this craftwork can be divided into three standard levels of activity. A number of sites such as Seacash, Lissue and Rathbeg produced minimal evidence for this craft, perhaps indicating the use and occasional repair of finished glass artefacts such as beads and bangles. The most extensive evidence has been found at Lagore, Moynagh Lough, Garryduff and Dunmisk. Garryduff and Lagore have

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Chapter 5: Early Medieval Bone, Antler and Horn-Working rather than antler. These are known at a number of rural sites including Knowth (Eogan 1974, 100–2) and the Scandinavian towns (Edwards 1990, 85; Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski, forthcoming). Combs would have been an obligatory personal item as hair appears to have been worn long by both men and women (Edwards 1990, 85–6). It has also been suggested that short single-sided combs and some bone pins may have been used as hair ornaments (Lucas 1965, 101–2).

Introduction Skeletal materials in the form of bone, antler and horn were widely used in the early medieval period to produce domestic, personal and craft-working objects. Items of bone included spindle whorls, needles, beads, pins, knife handles and motif-pieces; antler was also used for knife handles and combs, and evidence for the working of horn comes in the form of drinking horns (Edwards 1990, 83). Bone is a by-product of animal husbandry and was therefore readily available when required, but antler tines were gathered when red deer shed their antlers in the woods in the late winter and early spring. Both bone- and antler-working are frequently found in the same sites and may have been undertaken in conjunction with each other (ibid.). The early literary sources suggest that the worker of skeletal material did not hold a very high social position. The Uraicecht Becc mentions a craftsperson, identified as a ‘wool-comber’ by MacNeill (1923) but a ‘comb-maker’ by Kelly (1988, 63), with an honour price of just half a sét. The tools used by these bone- and antler-workers were probably similar to those used in woodworking, and included axes and saws for cutting, hammers, knives, draw-knives, punches, chisels, gouges, awls, lathes and drills for effecting the incised or carved decoration and abrasives for the polishing of the completed object.

Bone and antler gaming pieces and dice were recorded at numerous sites, including Parknahown (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2009e, 290), Dowdstown (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2009d, 4), Lagore (Hencken 1950, 196) and Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 55). Bone and antler were also widely employed to produce cylindrical handles for tanged knives and other similar implements, and such evidence has been discovered at numerous sites, including Coonagh West (Taylor 2007, 78), Rathgurreen (Comber 2002, 176), Rathmullan (Lynn 1981–82, 138), Cathedral Hill, Armagh (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 127–8) and Lagore (Hencken 1950, 196). Beads, buttons, needles and motif-pieces were produced from bone and antler. Drinking horns rarely survive but their presence is indicated by metal attachments such as those found at Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993, 76), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 45), and Carraig Aille II (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 64–7). A recent spectacular silver example was found at Ballyvass, Co. Kildare (Clark and Doyle 2011).

Artefacts A total of 113 sites within the gazetteer produced evidence for bone artefacts, with 34 having antler objects. At least 71 sites had direct evidence for the manufacture of bone objects while a further 20 had direct indications of antler working. The most common bone and antler objects comprise pins and bone combs, and a wide diversity of polished and shaped pins, with decorated heads and occasionally decorated shanks, has been noted. The wearing and use of bone pins is discussed in Section 3.

There is growing evidence for cut-bone hollow cylinders, particularly in Scandinavian urban and rural contexts, which have sometimes been regarded as by-products of bone- and antler-working. However, these were often highly polished and sometimes show evidence of friction with hairs, strings and fibres, and it has been suggested they should be regarded as artefacts in their own right (Sheehan et al 2001, 106). Examples have been found at Dalkey Island (Liversage 1968, 116, 225), Beginish Island (Sheehan et al 2001, 105), Illaunloughan (Marshall and Walsh 2005, 188), Kells (Byrne 1988:57), Nendrum (Bourke 2007, 414–5), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 53) and in the Scandinavian towns of Dublin (Bourke 2007, 414, 421), Waterford (Hurley 1997a, 685) and Cork (Kelleher 2002:0291). The excavations in Waterford have produced a wide variety of bone and antler artefacts, including casket mounts, gaming-pieces, spindle whorls, needles, needle-cases, pin-beaters, pins, handles, toggles, drinking horns, tuning pegs, a flute and whistle – all of which were recovered primarily from ditch fills, house floors and associated backyards, and pits of twelfth- and early thirteenth-century date (Hurley 1997a, 652–5).

A wide variety of bone combs are known and a scheme for the different types was outlined by Dunlevy (1988) and summarised by Laing (2006, 83–4). A collection of intact antler combs from Lagore (Hencken 1950, 184–90) demonstrates the different types available in pre-Viking Ireland and includes a small one-piece, single-sided comb with rounded back and simple ring-and-dot ornament and a number of single- and double-sided composite combs frequently decorated with ring-and-dot motifs or more occasionally complex fret, spiral or interlace designs (Edwards 1990, 84–5). In the Viking Age, Scandinavian types become more prevalent and primarily comprised long single-sided composite combs, sometimes in bone

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Map 5.1: Evidence for early medieval bone, horn and antler manufacturing (numbers refer to the gazetteer) At least 106 examples of an artefact known as a socketed longbone point have been recovered from Irish early medieval sites (Mullins 2007, 35). Known variously as scoops or gouges, they were interpreted as socketed bone spearheads based on international comparisons (ibid., 57). Bone was also used for sword pommels, as seen in the early example made from whalebone at Collierstown (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2009a). A bone stamp was recovered from Roestown and may have been used to stamp leather (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2009b, 7).

Raw materials, processes, manufacturing Bone Large quantities of animal bone are regularly recovered from early medieval settlements and much would have been easily accessible and suitable for bone-working. In fact, the waterlogged conditions at Lagore preserved 50,000lbs of animal bone (Hencken 1950, 241), indicating that large midden heaps and butchery areas 53

National School to the southwest of Clonmacnoise (Ó Floinn and King 1998, 124; Donald Murphy 2003, 2). The coastal site at Dooey produced a large quantity of antler waste in the form of cut, sawn and partly-worked tines. Incomplete lathe-turned bone spindle whorls and bone pins were also found at various stages of manufacture, comprising partially-shaped bones from which the pins were worked, roughed-out pins, and pins which had yet to be polished (Ó Ríordáin and Rynne 1961, 61; Edwards 1990, 83).

developed within settlements. However, as bone is an organic material, actual evidence for the working of this raw material survives only in a small number of sites in the form of unfinished and completed objects and antler and bone off-cuts. It is likely that some objects such as pig-fibula pins could be produced with relatively little skill though others such as antler combs and decorated pins would have required much more expertise and were probably the work of semi-professionals (MacGregor 1985, 55–72; Edwards 1990, 84). The evidence for the manufacture and use of bone and antler pins was discussed in an as-yet unpublished doctoral thesis (Boyle 2009). Though bone was occasionally used for combs, antler was the preferred option since it was more durable and pliable. Evidence for the various stages in the manufacture of antler combs, indicated by the presence of cut antler-tines, flat rectangular blanks and finished artefacts, along with perforated bone discs or buttons, was found at Clonfad, particularly from the fills of the outer enclosure ditch (Stevens 2007, 43; 2010, 91). Similar evidence for the production of bone buttons or discs was found at Raystown, while other evidence also included a small number of antler tines, bone combs, toggles and two knife handles (Seaver 2010, 277).

Numerous other ‘rural’ sites have produced evidence for antler off-cuts, waste fragments (including tines) and worked pieces, including at least 34 other sites (see Appendix). Many of these sites have revealed small numbers of fragments; however, significant assemblages have been found at places like Castlefarm, where twenty fragments were found in a range of contexts (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2009c, 1–4) and Killoteran, with 27 fragments (Owen 2011, 79). This can be contrasted with sites like Deer Park Farms with six fragments (Hurl 2011, 258) and Raystown with four fragments (Seaver 2010, 275–6). While no waste antler was found at Killickaweeny, two antler picks were found within the ditch and an antler spindle whorl was also found on site (Walsh 2008, 48–49). In Scandinavian Dublin, antler workshops were located on High Street as well as Christchurch Place. Antler combs were made on an industrial scale and many motif pieces were found in this area (Murray 1983, 54; Wallace 1984, 123–4). The excavations at Christchurch Place, for example, produced evidence for comb making in the form of antler waste and unfinished tooth plates, while single-sided decorated combs and one example of a double-sided comb – possibly made of whale bone – were also found (Ó Ríordáin 1971, 75; 1974:0014). In Scandinavian Waterford, quantities of antler and bone waste including modified antler tines and horn cores were recovered from late eleventh- and twelfth-century deposits in the defensive ditches and extra-mural dumping areas (Hurley 1997a, 650). Concentrations of antler tines and off-cuts were uncovered in two house plots at the western end of Peter Street in association with comb-making materials (Hurley 1997b, 898; 1997a, 681). In Scandinavian Cork, a fragment of modified antler tine was recovered from a later twelfth-century layer inside a sill-beam house at Hanover Street (Cleary and Hurley 2003, 344). A range of artefacts, including bone combs from 11–13 Washington Street (ibid., 335) and 40–48 South Main Street/Old Post Office Lane (Ní Loingsigh 2003:0225), and cut-bone hollow cylinders from Hanover Street (Cleary 2003, 38) and Washington Street (Kelleher 2002:0291), indicate twelfth-century bone-production elsewhere. Similar evidence for the working of antler and bone, in the form of finished and unfinished articles such as combs, was forthcoming in Wexford (Bourke 1995, 36).

Antler Fragments from composite bone or antler combs, and a roughed-out incomplete bone pin and the remains of a finished polished bone pin, were recovered from a midden at Illaunloughan (Marshall and Walsh 2005, 185– 7). Evidence for bone-working at Roestown consisted of roughly-shaped and finished bone pins and other objects and four partially-complete bone combs (O'Hara 2007; 2009d, 69, 81), mostly from the enclosure ditches, and bone combs and various pieces of worked antler, including a knife handle with ring-and-dot decoration, were found in similar contexts at Castlefarm (O'Connell 2009, 47, 54). At Johnstown I, animal bone was used to fashion seven pins, two unfinished pin shafts, two combs, a bead and a sewing needle (Clarke 2010, 69). Two roughly-worked bone pieces – probably in the process of being worked into spearheads from marrow-scoops – were recorded at Raheennamadra (Stenberger 1966, 47– 8) and a polished or worked bone piece, possibly used as a scoop or knife, was found at Bowling Green (Fanning 1970, 16). Evidence for the manufacture of antler knife handles has been identified at Cathedral Hill, Armagh (GaskellBrown and Harper 1984, 125–8) and comprised two partially-smoothed handles, some smoothed and undecorated and others with cross-hatching or ring-anddot ornamented motifs (Edwards 1990, 86). Fragments of sawn antler indicative of comb-making were also uncovered in the Scotch Street excavations in the same city (Lynn and McDowell 1988b, 60). In the ‘New Graveyard’ at Clonmacnoise, excavations uncovered an abandoned well filled with antler waste, including shavings, partly-sawn fragments and cut antler points, indicating the presence of an antler workshop in the vicinity (King 2009, 339). Cut antler pieces were also uncovered in two different areas near St. Ciaran’s

Ivory/whale-bone There is less evidence for horn- or ivory-working. A ram horn-core, cleanly chopped at its base, was retrieved from the millpond of mill 2 at Nendrum and it is likely that the 54

cache of bone blanks was dumped in a disused millrace distant from the main settlement (Seaver 2010). Likewise sawn antler tines were dumped within deposits in a disused mill race as was the case at the mill at Killoteran (ibid., 36; Owen 2011, 75). The incomplete and finished bone and antler pins and composite combs at Illaunloughan were recovered from a midden outside a hut (D) on the southwestern side of the small island, away from the ecclesiastical structures (Marshall and Walsh 2005, 149–51, 186–7). There is evidence that particular buildings and areas along streets in Scandinavian Dublin (High Street and Christchurch Place) and Waterford (Peter Street) were specialising in bone-working. These buildings in the latter site were close to the ramparts on the periphery of the city and it appears that large quantities of antler and bone waste from the habitation deposits may have been dumped within and outside the nearby enclosing fosses (Hurley 1997a, 653). Comber (2008, 94) has suggested that the bone and antler may have been retrieved from butchery areas or midden heaps within settlements but the actual final working and completion of the bone or antler artefacts may have been undertaken away from these unpleasant places. At Cahercommaun, Hencken (1938, 67–9) noted that most of the evidence for comb-working and a range of bone and antler artefacts (spindle whorls, spear-heads, pins, points) were found in the northeast quadrant in ‘the part of the fort occupied by its owners’ though most worked fragments of bone and antler and the primary ironworking features were found in the southwest quadrant area described by the excavator as ‘a poor area’.

horn had been removed from its core for some form of industrial processing (Murphy 2007, 270–1). The partially cut and broken tip of a sheep or goat horn was recovered at Knowth (Eogan 1974, 103); a perforated and polished boar’s tusk was found at Rathgurreen (Comber 2002, 174); sawn antler off-cuts and chopped cattle horncore were noted at the ecclesiastical enclosure at Moyne (McCormick 1987); an unfinished horn handle was discovered at the settlement/cemetery at Johnstown I (Clarke 2010, 69); and a number of knife handles, made of horn, were identified at Moylarg (Buick 1894, 324). A bracelet made of three joined pieces of boar’s tuck was recorded at Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 56). Horn cores were recovered from late eleventh- and twelfthcentury contexts in Scandinavian Waterford (Hurley 1997a, 650), and Scandinavian Wexford produced evidence for worked goat horn-cores (Bourke 1995, 36). A collection of walrus ivory pins (including the butchered skull of a walrus) at Essex Street West/Lower Exchange Street (Simpson 1999, 26) and walrus skull fragments at Fishamble Street (Wallace 1987, 216) may indicate ivory-working in Scandinavian Dublin, and a piece of walrus ivory decorated on its outer surface with a series of incised concentric circles and a central perforation was found at Cloghermore Cave (Connolly et al 2005, 189). At Inishkea North, the shoulder blade of a whale was found outside the door of a structure (House C, Site 2) and bore numerous cut-marks suggesting its use as a chopping block (Henry 1945, 136). A roughly oval whalebone disc with perforations was found in a nearby structure (House A, Site 2) and two cut-ribs of whale were identified on either side of the door of another structure (House A, Site, 3) (Henry 1952). A whalebone sword handle was found at Collierstown (O’Hara 2009b), and a whalebone plaque was recovered from the rural Viking site at Cherrywood (Ó Néill 2006). A perforated whale tooth was found at Knowth Site M and another at Lough Faughan crannóg (Stout and Stout 2008, 64; Collins 1955); and part of the vertebra of a whale was recorded at Downpatrick, where it found a final use as a slab in an early medieval pavement (Brannon 1988, 63).

Levels of bone-, antler- and horn-working Evidence for bone- and antler-working has been found across a range of sites, both ecclesiastical and secular (Comber 2008, 95). With the exception of comb-making, bone-working does not appear to have been a specialist activity requiring much expertise, and many people may have had the capacity to produce artefacts such as pigfibula pins, beads and needles on a subsistence basis. Quantifying how much of a craft this represents at any one time is difficult, as many of the sites have different periods of occupation. Likewise, while many bone objects were made on site, others were clearly imported – for example, a bone comb of Scottish origin at Castlefarm (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2009c, 7). Equally, there are problems with terminology when comparing different artefacts such as pins and needles. Comber (2008, 94–95) used the presence of finished artefacts, bone-working tools and unfinished artefacts on ringforts, crannogs, monastic and miscellaneous sites to determine the scale of craftworking with bone. She identified five settlements with extensive evidence for bone working: Cahercommaun, Garryduff, Nendrum, Ballinderry 2 and Carraig Aille (ibid., 95). Eight had average evidence, while twenty-three sites had minimal evidence.

Contexts of bone-, antler- and horn-working As bone and antler are organic materials, Comber (2008, 94) has noted that it is difficult to identify craft-working areas due to the relatively few known workshops or concentrations of working debris (unfinished artefacts and waste) within early medieval settlements. She has suggested that bone- or antler-working was not undertaken on a large-scale, nor confined to any particular designated areas within a settlement (ibid.). Much of the evidence for bone- and antler-working (waste and unfinished objects) was found within enclosure ditches as at Clonfad, Armagh and Roestown and Scandinavian Waterford, or disposed in a well close to a workshop area to the east of the monastic buildings at Clonmacnoise. At Raystown, the working of pig fibulae for needles largely took place in one area to the north of the cemetery close to a number of souterrains, while a

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Roestown Raystown Rathgurreen Parcnahown Killickaweeny Johnstown Garryduff Dowdstown Deerpark Farms Castlefarm Cahercommaun Carraig Aille 1 Baronstown Ballinderry II Ballyfounder

Antler Waste Waste bone Pins Bone awls Pig Fibulae pins/needles Knife Handles Bone comb Pointed, socketed objects Needles Beads Spindle whorls 0

50

100

150

200

250

Fig. 5.1: Evidence for bone objects from recently excavated sites alongside settlements ranked within Comber’s survey (2008, 95): Rathgurreen (ranked average), Carraig Aille I, Cahercommaun, Garryduff, Ballinderry II (ranked extensive) and Ballyfounder (ranked minimal) A brief look at a sample of recently-excavated sites which were extensively excavated indicates the numbers and types of bone artefacts present (Fig. 5.1). Sites like Carraig Aille and Cahercommaun, while both ranked by Comber as having extensive bone-working evidence, clearly have considerable differences in the range and scale of objects made and used over time. Garryduff had a relatively low number of objects but was ranked as having extensive bone-working because it had iron tools and unfinished bone objects. Recently- and extensivelyexcavated sites like Castlefarm would certainly belong alongside or even above Carraig Aille in terms of significance. Raystown and Deer Park Farms would seem to have produced approximately-equivalent quantities on a lower scale. The latter sites had a similar range of objects such as an emphasis on pig fibulae pins and needles, small numbers of spindle whorls, bone combs and bone handles. Rath complexes like Baronstown and Dowdstown seem to have had low levels of bone objects. Many ecclesiastical sites appear to have also specialised in bone- and antler-working, and there is much evidence from Armagh, Clonfad, Clonmacnoise, Iniscealtra,

Moyne and smaller monasteries like Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry. Actual archaeological evidence for antler-working on an industrial scale has been confined to urban Dublin and Waterford. In Dublin, large deposits of antler waste were found in Viking levels in High Street and Christchurch Place (Anon. 1973, 15). The Waterford deposits dated to the late eleventh and twelfth centuries. While it might be assumed that the antler for these workshops would have been acquired from their rural hinterland, the presence of roe deer amongst the Waterford assemblage suggests that at least some of the antler was imported (McCormick 1997, 837). There is a growing number of qualitative specialist studies of animal bone from a significant number of individual settlement sites. Combined with fine-tuned dating of archaeological contexts, osteological analysis has the potential to inform large-scale quantitative studies which should change our understanding of the exploitation and exchange of animal bone, horn and antler in early medieval Ireland.

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Chapter 6: Early Medieval Stone-Working towers appearing in the tenth century but becoming more common in the eleventh and twelfth century (O'Keeffe 2003, 72; Ó Carragáin 2005, 138; Manning 2009, 277). On both ecclesiastical and secular sites, rectangular houses, often constructed using low drystone walls or kerbs of boulders on edge, became common from the tenth century (Lynn 1994, 92; O'Sullivan 2008, 231–2; O'Sullivan and Nicholl 2011). The main use of souterrains also appears to have occurred in the last quarter of the first millennium and the first century or two of the second millennium AD (Clinton 2001, 95). The various schools of stone-carved high crosses date mainly from the later eighth to tenth century, with a further revival during the twelfth century (Edwards 1990, 164–8) and sculpted cross-slabs also became more prevalent at the turn of the second millennium. The evidence for over 700 carved cross-slabs, six high crosses and a large collection of domestic and religious stone artefacts at Clonmacnoise would indicate that some of the larger monasteries supported a number of highly-skilled master masons and apprentices in this period (King 2009, 339– 41).

Introduction As one of the most basic raw materials, stone was widely exploited in early medieval Ireland. A range of stones was used, including granite, limestone and sandstone as well as chert, flint, jet and lignite. The latter two may have been imported into Ireland, though there are extensive deposits of lignite in county Antrim and around Lough Neagh (Comber 2008, 59). Stone was utilised as a building material for houses, walls, souterrains and other structures and for the manufacture of a wide range of objects such as querns, mill-stones, bullauns, gravemarkers, whet-stones, spindle whorls, lamps and beads throughout the early medieval period. The earliest sources make no reference to specialised stone-masons, stone-cutters and sculptors. However, the evolution of the sáer from primarily describing a carpenter in the earliest, original eighth-century texts of the Uraicecht Becc into a stone mason in later texts and other sources, indicates the increasing importance of the stone sculptor around the turn of the first millennium AD (MacLean 1995, 125, 129). While the technical ability was probably available to most people to manufacture simple everyday domestic items, the sculptors and masons who carved the high crosses and supervised the construction of stone structures must have been highly experienced. A range of tools such as stone axes, hammer-stones, iron hammers and wooden mallets used in conjunction with chisels, punches and wedges were part of the stone mason’s toolkit, and Comber (2008, 63) has discussed the finds of these tools at early medieval settlement sites. Ornament could also be inscribed on stone monuments such as the carved high crosses, stone lamps and quern stones. Iron dividers were found at Garryduff (O'Kelly 1963, 47) and these may have been used as a form of compass for achieving such decoration (Comber 2008, 64).

Artefacts A total of 158 settlements within the gazetteer had evidence for the use of stone artefacts, while 99 were associated with objects of lignite. 35 sites had evidence for the working or manufacture of stone artefacts while only seven were associated with the working of lignite. Stone was widely used in the manufacture of equipment used in contemporary early medieval crafts, such as moulds and motif-pieces. Metal objects were often finished and sharpened using whet-stones/hone-stones and grind-stones (Comber 2008, 60). Whetstones are one of the most common early medieval artefacts and have been recorded on the majority of excavated early medieval domestic sites (O'Connor 1991). These can vary greatly in size, with some consisting of narrow pebbles or stones, barely worked but smoothed through use, while others were more carefully shaped, rectangular objects with a perforation at the top to hold a copper-alloy ring for suspension, perhaps at the waist (Edwards 1990, 96). Most sites have produced a few fragments of whetstones though considerable numbers are known from a small number of excavated sites such as Garranes (25), Carraig Aille (107), Garryduff I (125), Cahercommaun (524), Ballinderry II (192) and Scandinavian Waterford (over 234) (O'Connor 1991, 45–6; McCutcheon 1997, 410).

Building material As a building material, stone appears to have been most widely exploited towards the turn of the first millennium AD on both secular and ecclesiastical sites. The drystone corbelled clocháns and oratories were among the earliest stone-built structures which had appeared by at least the eighth or ninth century (Marshall and Walsh 2005, 103– 24). These were probably contemporary with a small set of mortared shrine chapels such as Temple Ciaran at Clonmacnoise that emerged in the same period (Ó Carragáin 2003, 132), with masonry churches and round

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Map 6.1 Early medieval settlements with evidence for stone-working in Ireland (numbers refer to the gazetteer) sandstone which appears to have been intended as a small grindstone, though broken during the course of its manufacture, was recorded at Beginish (O’Kelly 1956, 181). Pounding or rubbing stones are also common finds and 36 of these were recorded at Cahercommaun (Hencken 1938, 58). Rounded stone pebbles are also found and an example from Garryduff I bore ‘one striated flattened face due to abrasive rubbing on another stone’ (O'Kelly 1963, 88).

Grindstones are circular stones with a central perforation for rotation on a wooden axle which have been noted at Ballinderry I (Hencken 1936, 147, Fig. 15A), Lagore (Hencken 1950, 173), Seacash (Lynn 1978b, 67, 69), Gragan West (Cotter 1990), Killickaweeny (Walsh 2008, 47–8), Carraig Aille I and II (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 86, 100), Ballyegan (Byrne 1991, 28), Knowth (Eogan 1974, 110), Nendrum (Bourke 2007, 416, 421), Killederdadrum (Manning 1984, 258), Raystown (Seaver 2010, 277), Woodstown (O'Brien et al 2005, 62) and Scandinavian Waterford (McCutcheon 1997, 421). A fragment of 58

lignite bracelets and waste discs with perforations – where they were held on the lathe – have been recorded at Cathedral Hill, Armagh (Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 136–7) with the same site also producing evidence for a jet bracelet decorated with rectilinear ornament and two small fragments of a lathe-turned bowl decorated with a spiral pattern (Edwards 1990, 96). Excavations elsewhere in the same city produced hundreds of fragments of lignite from armlet manufacture at 50–56 Scotch Street (Lynn and McDowell 1988b, 60) and unfinished lignite objects at English Street (Crothers 1999, 63, 66).

Stone was also used to produce spindle whorls, loomweights, and linen- or leather-smoothers for leather and textile production, as well as other multi-purpose objects such as hammerstones and axeheads (Comber 2008, 61). The ubiquity of flint and chert flakes, scrapers, blades, cores, points and strike-a-lights on early medieval settlement enclosures, crannógs and ecclesiastical sites (ibid., 66–67) indicates that they were worked on the sites and should not all be considered residual prehistoric deposits. It is possible that some of these flint and chert implements may have formed part of larger objects such as lathe cutting-tools or drills (ibid., 61). A wear on a flint point from Reask (Fanning 1981, 138) suggests it functioned as a boring implement. The upland settlement at Ballyutoag produced a large quantity of flint nodules and fragments and evidence for platform cores, indicative of early medieval flint knapping (Williams 1984, 41–6).

Amber was used to produce beads, studs and other decorative features on brooches and other metal objects. While 27 sites in the gazetteer had amber artefacts, only four settlements had any evidence for their manufacture. It would be tempting to interpret the presence of amber in Ireland as either evidence for Viking trading, or even as evidence for Hiberno-Norse settlement. The vast majority of the amber found in Ireland comes from the excavations at Fishamble Street in Dublin – over 4,000 pieces were recovered from workshops in this area (Wallace 1987, 215) – and this may represent the source of much of the rest of the amber found in Ireland. In recent years, evidence for craftsmanship with amber was found at the Hiberno-Norse settlement at Woodstown (McNamara 2005). However, amber – mostly in the form of beads – has been found on rural sites such as Lagore (Hencken 1950, 150–1), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 13, 51), Ballycatteen (Ó Ríordáin and Hartnett 1943, 27), Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 121), Garryduff I (O'Kelly 1963, 77–8), Carraig Aille (Ó Ríordáin 1949a), Cahercommaun (Hencken 1938, 40), Lough Faughan (Collins 1955, 65) and Nendrum (Bourke 1997, 415), and many of these sites (particularly their early phases) may pre-date the arrival of the Vikings. It must, therefore, be assumed that there was some low-level importation of amber into Ireland from the Baltic area before AD 800, but this may have been accomplished through middlemen in Saxon England. Amber-working evidence in rural Ireland is indicated by hundreds of chips of amber at Scotch Street, Armagh (Lynn and McDowell 1988b, 60) and a small quantity of amber chips and an amber bead at Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1993, 80). There was also possible amber-working evidence at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 150–1) where a number of finished and possibly unfinished amber beads and studs were also found. At Rathtinaun a number of amber fragments were found (Raftery 1957), while the rath at Lisduggan had an unworked piece of amber (Twohig 1990). Amber appears to have become popular as decorative settings on brooches and other metal artefacts from after the eighth century and replaced the more ornate and intricate polychrome glass studs in this period (Comber 2008, 126).

Jet, lignite and shale were widely used for the production of early medieval bracelets, rings and pendants. The several stages in the production of hand-carved jet/lignite bracelets or rings have been discussed by Ivens (1987). The first step involved identifying a suitable slab or nodule of raw lignite and trimming it into a disc shape, somewhat larger and thicker than the desired endproduct. The interior or central core was then removed by cutting a V-shaped groove with a narrow chisel on either side of the disc before the bracelet was finally finished by smoothing and polishing (Edwards 1990, 96). Un-worked jet lumps have been found at Fishamble Street, Dublin (Wallace 1987, 215–6). These were sourced near Whitby, in Yorkshire (ibid.), and it is possible that this may represent the origin of most Irish jet pieces. Much of the evidence for lignite bracelet production is present in the form of the disc-shaped central waste cores which have been recorded at Oldcourt (Murphy and Ó Cuileanáin 1961, 84–7), Ballybrolly (Lynn 1983a, 50), Cahercommaun (Hencken 1938, 40–2) and Feltrim Hill (Hartnett and Eogan 1964, 28–9). Other partially-worked lignite bracelets have been noted at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 150), ‘Lislear’ rath (Simpson 1987:46) and Tullylish (Ivens 1987, 108–9) and may indicate manufacture of the objects at these sites. Parts of thirteen lignite objects were found at Blackchurch, Co. Kildare and were thought by the excavator to represent a manufacturing site (Anon. 2006). Excavations at Armoy church produced evidence for a specialised lignite working or dump area outside a largely infilled ecclesiastical enclosure ditch (Nelis 2005:007). The truncated remains of a number of structures were recovered in association with several hundred fragments of lignite, entirely comprised of cores or bracelet centres and broken bracelets which related to the final stages of bracelet production. There were no finished pieces and no lignite was recovered that was unrelated to the final stage of completion of curated rough-outs. Evidence for partly finished lignite bracelets, waste cores from the production of the bracelets, fragments of finished bracelets, beads and one gaming piece was recorded at Clonmacnoise (King 2009, 341). Some bracelets could also be manufactured and finished on a lathe and unfinished

Porphyry has been found on a number of Irish sites and has been discussed by Lynn (1984). All examples were green in colour, and were sourced to Greece, with the exception of a single piece of red porphyry from Armagh sourced to Egypt (ibid., 19). Lynn noted that fragments 59

Lagore (Hencken 1950, 176–77) and Garryduff I (O'Kelly 1963, 88–89, 91) and these most likely represent a common early medieval game known as hnefatafl ‘King’s table’ in Norse or fidchell in Irish. A second type of game known as merels was also identified at Roestown and at Borris (Riddler and Trzaska-Nartowski 2010, 200– 201). It can be paralleled with an example from a ninthcentury horizon at Fishamble Street, Dublin (O'Hara 2009d, 73). These incised stone boards were probably the belongings of the lower classes, with ornately-decorated carved examples such as the tenth-century wooden board game from Ballinderry I part of the material culture of the lordly classes (ibid., 72).

have been found at the ecclesiastical sites of Armagh, Downpatrick, Movilla Abbey and Kilteel. Generally, they were found in contexts that post-dated AD 1000. Since Lynn’s survey, further examples of green porphyry have been found at Clonmacnoise (King 1992), Derrynaflan (Ó Floinn 1985:53), and Christchurch Place, Dublin (Wallace 1987, 220). Porphyry is found almost exclusively on ecclesiastical sites (with the exception of Fishamble Street, Dublin (ibid.)), suggesting that it was imported for the beautification of the church, or possibly for inclusion in portable altars. Slate was also possibly utilised as a building material in early medieval Ireland. Several hundred perforated slates of shale were found at Ballycatteen and it was suggested that they may have formed part of a pegged slate roof, possibly for one of the site’s souterrains (Ó Ríordáin and Hartnett 1943, 31–3; Comber 2008, 62). Soapstone (steatite) vessels are known from a number of sites at Beginish and Scandinavian Dublin (Wallace 1987, 218); part of a steatite ring was recorded at Dalkey Island promontory fort (Liversage 1968, 117) and the habitation sites at Inishkea North produced soapstone spindle whorls (Henry 1951a, 75). The presence of soapstone vessels, walrus ivory (available only in the Arctic Circle) and amber (Baltic area) indicates that trade was maintained with Scandinavia and the Scottish islands, particularly in the Viking-Age period.

Contexts of stone-working Very few early medieval sites have produced actual evidence for the sourcing and working of stone. Raw stone was abundant and waste is often difficult to identify (Comber 2008, 65). Generally, local sources of rock were exploited. Chlorite was used at a site on Inishkea North and it was widely available on the island’s shoreline. Some work has been done in identifying the provenance of millstones and quern stones on sites in counties Down and Wicklow. The stones at Nendrum have been traced to the upper reaches of Bloody Bridge River, in the Mourne Mountains, in south county Down (Meighan 2007, 205); a quernstone from Ballynarry rath has also been traced to the Mourne Mountains (Davison 1961–62, 73); and one of the millstones from Rathmullan was sourced to Scrabo Hill, in north county Down (Lynn 1981–82, 136). These stones were quarried and transported across different polities, suggesting that some form of mutual exchange was involved in their procurement, rather than the compulsion of the local secular or religious authority.

Stone was also widely employed to produce a range of other domestic artefacts, including spindle whorls, querns, mortars and pestles and lamps. Spindle whorls are commonly found and evidence for unfinished examples at Carraig Aille II (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 86), Cush (Ó Ríordáin 1940, 158), Garranes (Ó Ríordáin 1942), Castleskreen II (Dickinson and Waterman 1959, 80), Garryduff I (O'Kelly 1963, 89) and Rathmullan (Lynn 1981–82) can suggest on-site manufacture of these objects. A few chlorite spindle whorls were found at Inishkea North and appear to have been discarded when they split during the drilling of the central perforations (Henry 1952, 172) and incompletely-perforated stone spindle whorls were recorded at Cahercommaun (Hencken 1938, 43–4). At Reask, a stone spindle whorl was apparently discarded or lost before use, as the marks of the boring tools in the hour-glass perforation, and the marks of the polisher, were still evident (Fanning 1981, 125). Rotary querns are commonly found and consist of two roughly circular stones, the upper of which is rotated atop the lower by a wooden handle inserted in the top stone. Larger stones were used in mills and provided the same function as their smaller, manual counterparts (Comber 2008, 61). They were often made of materials such as granite which required sourcing and transport over considerable distance. Some sites such as Lagore (Hencken 1950, 174), Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1982– 83, 28; 1994–95, 160, 165), Lisnagun (O'Sullivan et al 1998, 52), Holywood (Proudfoot 1959, 105), Ballyegan (Byrne 1991, 28) and Knowth (Eogan 1977, 74) have produced evidence for unfinished quernstones.

Corlett (2010) has identified a number of unfinished and broken hand- and water-powered millstones in the granite-rich upland area of west Wicklow, and suggests that this particular area may have supplied millstones to the Leinster region in the early medieval period. These millstones provide important information about the sequence of steps involved in their manufacture from the extraction and fashioning of rough-outs at the outcrop, to the perforation of the central hole and finally the dressing of the grinding surfaces. Corlett has observed that millstones at Kilbeg, Ballynasculloge Upper and Knocknadroose appear to have been manufactured at the source of the granite outcrop itself and not at their intended destinations. This corroborates a passage in Cogitosus’ Life of Brigid which describes the sourcing of millstone for the monastic site of Kildare at the summit of a mountain (Connolly and Picard 1987, 24–5) and recounts how they selected a big stone on the summit: ‘And cutting it all the way round, they fashioned it into a circular and perforated millstone’. Unable to bring the stone down from the summit, they decided to topple it down the slope and through the intercession of St. Brigid, it landed at the base of the mountain without one single fragment breaking off. However in other cases, unfinished millstones appear to be associated with settlement enclosures and ecclesiastical sites and may

Stone gaming boards have been noted at Movilla Abbey (Yates 1983, 62–3), Roestown (O'Hara 2009d, 73), 60

Very few sites have produced evidence for actual stoneworking and therefore it is difficult to identify different levels of craft activity (Comber 2008, 65–7). The occupants of all settlements probably had the technical ability to produce a range of simple domestic stone tools and implements such as whetstones. Evidence for the production of semi-luxury lignite or jet bracelets has been found at fewer sites and it appears that many sites such as Cahercommaun may have been exporting these objects and may represent internal trading centres (ibid., 159). The sheer number of quernstones from Moynagh Lough (e.g. Bradley 1982–83, 28), Lagore (43 quern fragments; Hencken 1950, 173–5), Cahercommaun (37 fragments; Hencken 1938, 59–60) and the cashels at Carraig Aille I (12 fragments) and II (41 fragments) (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 83–6, 94, 100) may indicate that these items were exported from these sites. Lawlor (1925, 18) also reported ‘a great many fragments of querns’ at Nendrum but only one of these is now identifiable (Bourke 1997, 416, 421). Evidence for ‘specialist’ stone-working is primarily found on higher-status sites, particularly monasteries, where groups of highly-skilled master masons and apprentices were undoubtedly responsible for the manufacture and construction of highly sophisticated and elaborate stone crosses, grave-slabs and buildings.

represent on-site manufacture, though it is possible that they were brought to these places as rough-outs which were fashioned into a basic form at the source (Corlett 2010, 19). It is difficult to identify stone-working areas at settlements as evidence for this craft is rarely found. At Inishkea North, there was evidence for the working of lumps of chlorite inside a timber structure (also used for dye-production) to the northwest of an early monastery, not far from an area of metalworking (Henry 1952, 172; Comber 2008, 62, 64). Comber (ibid., 64) has noted that stone-working was a noisy activity and may have been undertaken away from the domestic area for this reason. Approximately 30 stone motif-pieces were recovered from a rectangular building termed the ‘school’ on the southwest side of the middle enclosure at Nendrum (Lawlor 1925, 143–4; Bourke 2007, 409, 420). At Cahercommaun, 50 of the 53 fragments of lignite rings and lignite discs were identified in the northwest quadrant – the same area which contained the largest quantity of domestic objects, tools and weapons – while the primary iron-working evidence was found in the southeast area and the highest concentration of querns in the southwest of the site (Hencken 1938, 67–9).

61

APPENDIX: Tables for Section Two Site Aghadegnan, Co. Longford

Site type Univallate Rath

Aghaloo, Rousky, Co. Tyrone

Ecclesiastical

Aghavea, Co. Fermanagh Ahanaglogh, Co. Waterford

Ecclesiastical

Bowl Furnaces

Other; Hearths

3 Furnaces, 3 smithing hearths A.D. 660–990 (2 Σ)

Altanagh, Co. Tyrone Ardcloon, Co. Mayo Armagh: English Street, Co. Armagh Armoy, Co. Antrim Augherskea, Co. Meath Balgatheran, Co. Louth Ballinderry I, Co. Offaly Ballyaghagan 1, Co. Antrim Ballyarra, Co. Cork Ballybrit, Co. Galway Ballycasey, Co. Clare Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Ballyduff, Co. Antrim

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Ecclesiastical

10 Furnaces

Ballyfounder, Co. Down Ballyhamage, Co. Antrim Ballyhenry, Co. Antrim Ballyhill Lower, Co. Antrim Ballymacash, Co. Antrim Ballymacrea, Co. Antrim Ballynagallagh, Co. Limerick Ballynakelly, Co. Dublin Ballyrea, Co. Armagh Ballyrenan, Co. Down

Metalworking features ‘Two phases of ironworking’; 1 metalworking hearth

None excavated

Ecclesiastical Settlement/ cemetery Univallate Enclosure Crannog

hearth-bottoms

Univallate Rath Souterrain

1 hearth with ‘smelting debris’

Univallate Rath Univallate Enclosure Multivallate Rath Multivallate Rath (bivallate) Raised Rath

None

Residue/Artefacts Iron Slag

References Carroll 1991:091

Slag, smithing hearth cakes and hammerscale and a hearth ceramic (lining or tuyère) Slag

Carver 2007, 85–86; Young 2007, 94–96

45kg slag, anvil stone; smithing waste; furnace bottoms, tuyère fragments Iron slag, hammerscale, 6 furnace bottoms Iron slag

Ó Baoill 2000:0352; Anon. 2000, 4 Tierney & Elliot 2009

Williams 1986, 51–58 Rynne 1956, 208

Slag; tuyères

Crothers 1999, 64, 69, 77

Slag

Nelis 2005:007

Iron slag, charcoal fuel

Baker 2010, 6–7

Iron slag

Chapple 2000:0638

Iron slag; Iron anvil found at Ballinderry 2 Iron slag

Hencken 1936, 161

Iron slag

Fahy 1953, 58

Iron slag

Waddell 1971, 79

Iron slag, tuyère fragments 13.64kg Iron slag, furnace bottoms Iron cinders

O’Neill 2002:0079 Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, 30 Avery 1970:01

Iron slag, Iron chisel

Waterman 1958a, 49

Iron slag

Crothers 2003:0004

Ore – haematite

Scott 1991, 154

Iron ore

Williams 1985:02

Slag

Jope & Ivens 1998

Iron slag

Flanagan 1966 Cleary 2006

Scott 1991, 221

Univallate enclosure and Souterrain Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Other; unenclosed Univallate Rath Non-circular enclosure Souterrain

Iron smelting slag (65 kg), furnace bottom Iron slag

McCarthy 2011

Iron slag

Crothers 1992:004

Rath

Iron slag

MacManus 1997:074

62

Ballyvollen, Co. Antrim Ballywee, Co. Antrim Balriggan, Co. Louth

Rath

Settlement/ Cemetery

Industrial area, iron ore roasting oven

Baronstown, Co. Meath Béal Ború, Co. Clare Beginish, Co. Kerry Big Glebe, Co. Londonderry Bighouse, Co. Antrim Bofeenaun, Co. Mayo

Non-circular enclosure Univallate Rath House site

Furnace lining

Crannog

Possible furnace

Boho, Co. Fermanagh Borris, Co. Tipperary

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath with earlier enclosures Non-circular enclosure Multivallate Rath Univallate Rath Souterrain

2 hearths, one with iron slag 6 smithing hearths; 2 smelting furnaces, sunken smithing areas

Boyerstown, Co. Meath Brigown, Co. Cork Brokerstown, Co. Antrim Bushmills Distillery, Co. Antrim Butterfield, Co. Dublin Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Cahergal, Co. Kerry Caherlehillan, Co. Kerry Cahircalla More, Co. Clare Calliaghstown, Co. Meath Camus, Co. Londonderry Caraun More, Co. Galway Carn, Co. Fermanagh Carnmore West, Co. Galway Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Carrigatogher Harding, Co. Tipperary Carrigoran, Co. Clare Carrowkeel,

Iron slag (170kg), 3 tuyères, Iron punch Iron slag

Williams 1985b, 96–99; Scott 1991, 221 Scott 1991, 221

113.5kg slag, fragments of furnace wall “probable remains of shaft”, Iron punch Iron slag (3.36kg), Smithing Iron slag

Delaney & Roycroft 2003, 19; Delaney 2010, 97–8

O’Kelly 1962

Slag, tuyère

O’Kelly 1956, 182

Raised rath

Iron slag

Scott 1991, 222

Souterrain

Iron slag

Evans 1945

Iron slag (74kg), hammerstones, Iron chisel Iron slag

O’Sullivan 1998, 122

Settlement

Linnane 2009

Proudfoot 1953a, 55

Iron slag (143kg), tuyères, hammerscale

Ó Droma 2006:1933; Wallace & Anguilano 2010a

Iron slag (2.43kg), Smithing Iron slag

Clarke 2009 O’Callaghan 2003

Iron slag

Dunlop 2009

Iron slag

Keery 2012b; 2012c

Ecclesiastical

Iron slag

Carroll 1997:184

Cashel

Iron slag

Hencken 1938, 54–5

Cashel

Iron slag and tuyère

Manning 1990:067

Ecclesiastical

Iron slag

Sheehan 1996:165

Iron slag (16.6kg), stone anvil, lump iron ore haematite, Iron chisel Iron slag (0.168kg), Furnace lining

Taylor 2004; 2004:0141; 2006; Hull & Taylor 2005, 38–9 Reilly et al 2008

Possible furnace/ metallurgical hearth

Univallate Rath

Four smithing hearths

Non-circular

Furnace lining

Ecclesiastical?

Furnace

Univallate Rath Cashel

Bowl furnaces

Cashel

Furnace lining

May 1958 Iron slag

Seaver & Conran 2009

Iron slag

Brannon 1982, 64 Sutton 2008; 2011

Cashel

0.14kg Iron dense slag from smelting Iron slag, Iron punch

Cashel

Iron slag, Iron chisel

Ó Ríordáin 1949a

Ó Ríordáin 1949a

Multivallate

2 metallurgical hearths/furnaces

750kg iron slag; tuyère

Taylor 2010

Cashel

2 smithing hearths, 1 furnace

30.4kg Iron slag

Reilly 2000

Iron slag

Walsh & Zajac 2004

Univallate

63

Co. Mayo Castlefarm, Co. Meath Cavanapole, Co. Armagh Chapelizod, Co. Dublin Cherrywood, Co. Dublin Church Island, Co. Kerry Clogher, Co. Tyrone

Rath Settlement/ cemetery Univallate Rath Ecclesiastical

Clogher, Co. Kerry Cloghermore Cave, Co. Kerry Clonfad, Co. Westmeath

Settlement/ cemetery Cave and burials Ecclesiastical

Clonfeacle, Co. Tyrone Clonmacnoise (New Graveyard), Co. Offaly Clonmacnoise (Visitors centre), Co. Offaly Clonmacnoise (National School), Co. Offaly Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly Cloonafinneala, Co. Kerry

Ecclesiastical

Cloongownagh, Co. Roscommon Collierstown, Co. Meath Colp West, Co. Meath Conva, Co. Cork Coolagh, Co. Galway Coolaholloga, Co. Tipperary Coolcran, Co. Fermanagh

Univallate Rath Settlement/ cemetery Non-circular enclosure Enclosures

Cooltubbrid, Co. Waterford Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Corcagh Demesne, Co. Dublin Croom East, Co. Limerick Curraheen, Co. Cork Cush, Co. Limerick Dalkey Island,

Hearths

Settlement/ cemetery? Ecclesiastical Multivallate

Three smithing hearths

75.6kg smithing slag, tuyère Iron slag

O’Connell 2006; 2009; O’Connell & Clark 2009 Crothers 1996:015

Furnace and smithing hearth

Slag

Walsh 2002:0492

Iron slag (small fragments) Iron slag, hammerstones

Ó Néill 1999; 2006

Pit furnace/ smithing furnace Two smelting furnaces, 1 stone & clay lined smithing hearth. Flat ‘anvil’ stone 1 metallurgical hearth/furnace

Smithing hearths/furnaces

Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical

Bowl furnace

Early medieval bridge Isolated smelting site

Iron slag

O’Kelly 1958, 69; Scott 1991, 167 Warner 1971:032; 1972:031; 1973:033; 1973; 1974:037; 1975:035; 1979; 2000 Collins & Coyne 2007

Iron slag, Iron anvil

Connolly et al 2005

1,500kg slag from bloom smithing; clay brazing shrouds Iron slag, possible tuyère fragment Slag; furnace bottoms.

Stevens 2006, 11; 2007, 42; 2010, 85–94

Iron slag

McHugh et al 2004, 61–63 King 1992, 13–14; 1993:187

Iron slag, tuyère fragments

Manning 1989:078

Iron slag (4kg), tuyère, furnace bottom

Ó Floinn & King 1998, 130–32

Iron slag

O’Sullivan & Boland 1997:447 Young 2012

520kg iron slag (sample) smelting and bloomsmithing Iron slag

Furnace bottoms; 15kg iron slag Smithing slag (2.25kg)

Lennon & Henry 2000; 2001 O’Hara 2008a; 2009a; 2009b Clarke & Murphy 2001; Murphy 2011 Doody 1992:021; 2008, 602–05 Hardy 2008

Iron slag

Murphy & Clarke 2001

Furnace bottoms; iron slag (large quantity), tuyères 7kg Bloomery slag

Williams 1985a, 71, 77 Tierney 2009, 107

Univallate Rath Settlement and burials

Iron slag

Taylor 2007, 77

Iron slag

Carroll 2001: 340

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Univallate Raths 4, 6 & 7 Promontory

Iron slag; furnace bottom

Shee Twohig 1977, 32

Iron slag

Danaher 2011

7.25kg Iron Slag

Ó Ríordáin 1940, 83

Slag; tuyère

Liversage 1968, 135–6.

Iron slag (0.588kg) Furnace bottom

Iron slag

Cashel

Univallate Rath

3 Iron-working furnaces – 1 with stake-built structure 2 furnaces – size suggests shaft furnace

Iron smelting pit

64

Co. Dublin Danesfort, Co. Kilkenny Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Deerfin, Co. Antrim Derrinsallagh 3, Co. Laois

fort Isolated pits

1 furnace

Iron slag (Large quantity)

Jennings 2008

Raised rath

1 smithing hearth

Rath

5 Iron-working hearths

38kg Iron slag, mostly smithing; tuyère Large quantity iron slag

Scott 1991, 221; Lynn & McDowell 2011 Bratt 1975:04

Rath

Four smelting furnaces and two possible smithing hearths

Iron slag (60kg+)

Lennon 2009

Derryhowlaght East, Co. Fermanagh Derryloran, Co. Tyrone Dollas Lower, Co. Limerick Dooey, Co. Donegal Doonmore, Co. Antrim Doras, Co. Tyrone Dowdstown, Co. Meath Downview Park, Belfast, Co. Antrim Dressogagh, Co. Armagh Dromore, Co. Antrim Dromthacker, Co. Kerry Drumnakill, Co. Antrim Drumnakill, Co. Antrim Dun Emer, Lusk, Co. Dublin Dún Eoghanachta, Inis Mór, Co. Galway Dunbell 5, Co. Kilkenny Dunbell 6, Co. Kilkenny Dunlo, Co. Galway

Crannog

Iron slag

Williams 1993:105

Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone Dunnyneill, Co. Down

Burial and settlement Island trading post

Dunsilly, Co. Antrim Dunsilly 2, Co. Antrim Ennisnag, Co. Kilkenny Farrest, Co. Tyrone Faughart Lower, Co. Louth Feerwore, Co.

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Metal-working area and ditch Univallate Rath Settlement/ cemetery Univallate

Ecclesiastical

Smelting furnace?

Slag

MacManus 2003:1843

Isolated metalworking site Sandhills site, industrial Rath

Bowl furnace

Iron slag; hammerscale Iron slag, Iron chisel, Iron tongs Iron bloom

Dowling & Taylor 2007

Ecclesiastical Non-circular enclosure Souterrains Multivallate Rath Raised rath

Iron slag 1.31kg iron slag, smithing

Furnace lining

1 Smelting hearth

Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, 61 Childe 1938

Slag

McDowell 1987, 153 Cagney et al 2009; Cagney & O’Hara 2009 Collins et al 1964, 127

Large quantity iron slag

Collins 1966, 119

Iron slag

Scott 1991, 221

Univallate Rath Souterrain

Iron slag

Cleary 2008

Iron slag & tuyère

Evans 1945, 26

Sand hill site

Slag

Evans 1945, 26

Non-circular enclosure Stone fort

Bloomery slag (6kg) Iron slag

Giacometti 2007b; 2011 Cotter 1995:117

Iron slag

Cassidy 1991, 19

Iron slag

Foley 1972

Slag; Smithing (8.8kg); Smelting (0.256kg). Possible stone anvil, hammerscale, tuyères Slag, tuyère

O’Driscoll 2009:394; Young 2010

16kg Iron slag (smithing), Furnace lining,

McCormick and Macdonald 2004, 8; 2010, 53. McNeill 1991–92, 105.

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Industrial site

Furnace (ironworking?) 2 smithing hearths, 2 smelting furnaces

Furnace bottom Possible workshop

Keery 2012a Iron slag (large quantity), Furnace bottoms Iron bloom and slag, Furnace bottoms 19.04kg Iron slag, Smithing Hearth bottoms Iron slag

65

Ivens 1989, 55

Jennings 2008 Lynn 1983c Buckley & McConway 2010, 51–52 Raftery 1944

Galway Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin Galgorm, Co. Antrim Gallen Priory, Co. Offaly Garranes, Co. Cork

Rath Cashel

Iron slag

Souterrain

Iron slag

Hartnett & Eogan 1964, 27 Evans 1946, 82–83

Ecclesiastical

Slag; ‘ore crushing basin’

Kendrick 1939, 5

Multivallate Rath

Ó Ríordáin 1942, 105– 7; Scott 1991, 162

Garretstown, Co. Meath Garryduff, Co. Cork

Non-circular enclosure Univallate Rath

Iron slag (Large quantity); furnace bottoms, Iron tongs Iron slag (small quantity)

Garrynamona, Co. Clare Glebe, Co. Dublin Gortnahoon, Co. Galway Gortnahown, Co. Cork

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Sunken stone structures Univallate Rath

Gortybrigane, Co. Tipperary Gragan West, Co. Clare Grange West, Co. Sligo Grange, Co. Limerick Griffinstown, Co. Meath Haggardstown, Co. Louth

Rath

Hardwood II, Co. Meath

Industrial site

Charcoal production pits

Bowl furnace (C033) (possible)

Hardwood III, Co. Meath Harristown, Co. Louth Iniscealtra, Co. Clare Inishkea North, Co. Mayo Island MacHugh, Co. Tyrone Johnstown I, Co. Meath

Industrial Site

3 bloom smithing hearths

Iron slag, unworked bloom Iron slag

Settlement/ cemetery

13 smelting furnaces, 5 smithing hearths

Keeloguesbeg, Co. Galway Kells, Townparks, Co. Meath Kilgobbin, Stepaside, Co. Dublin Kilkieran,

Ecclesiastical?

Bowl furnace

7 metallurgical hearths/furnaces

44 Furnace bottoms; ore, large quantity slag, 8 tuyères, iron anvil, iron hammer head, Iron chisel Iron slag 5.2kg Iron slag, smithing and bloom smithing Iron slag (28kg)

2 smithing hearths, 2 smelting furnaces, charcoal pits, circular workshop 1 Smithing hearth?

Mound Isolated houses Univallate Rath Industrial site

1 smithing hearth, Charcoal pit

Industrial site

Univallate Rath? Ecclesiastical

Smelting slag (37kg), Smithing slag (79kg), Clay shrouds for bells, hammerstones Iron slag (11kg), hammerscale, tuyères Iron slag – date uncertain

Rathbone 2009 O’Kelly 1963, 99–103

Rynne 1964 Seaver 2011 O’Carroll & Péterváry 2009. Kiely & O’Donoghue 2011 Clark & Long 2010 Cotter 1988:04

Iron slag

Burenhult 1984

Iron slag, hammerstones

Ó Ríordáin 1949b, 133

3.74kg smithing slag, furnace bottom Iron slag

Linnane 2008

Iron reduction pits

Campbell 1994:180; McConway 1995:220; McLoughlin 1999:610; Moore 2001:858; O'Carroll 1999:544; Walsh 2002:1348 Murphy 2002:1465; 2008b, 7; Carlin 2008, 88 Murphy 2008c Murphy 1994:181 de Paor 1970:06

Ecclesiastical?

Iron slag

Scott 1991, 167

Crannog

Iron slag

Davies 1950, 44

2,200kg Iron slag; artefacts made on site, tuyères, Iron chisel and punch Iron slag

Clarke & Carlin 2008, 73–75; Photos-Jones 2008a Tierney 2001:519

Ecclesiastical

Slag; furnace bottom?

Ecclesiastical

Iron slag, smelting and smithing

Byrne 1987:41; 1988:57 Larsson 2004:0645; Bolger 2008

Ecclesiastical

Iron slag

Hurley 1988, 131

66

Co. Kilkenny Kill St Lawrence, Co. Waterford Killanully, Co. Cork Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Killickaweeny (I), Co. Meath

Ecclesiastical

Slag

O’Connell 2004, 49

Rath

Iron slag (large quantity), tuyère, iron ore Iron slag

Mount 1995, 138–40, 146 Manning 1984

86kg smelting/smithing slags, hammerscale, tuyères, unfinished iron object, iron chisel Furnace bottoms; slag

Walsh 2008, 40–44; Photos-Jones 2008b Stevens 1998:615

Univallate Rath Enclosure

5 smithing hearths, 5 smelting furnaces in two separate areas

Killoran, Co. Tipperary Kilpatrick, Corbetstown, Co. Westmeath Kilree, Co. Kilkenny

Ecclesiastical

Iron-working area

Ecclesiastical

Forging area, furnaces

Tuyères, slag, Iron chisel and punch

Swan 1994/95, 8–11; Scott 1991, 158–63

Multivallate

3 smithing hearths

Coughlan 2009a; 2011a

Kiltenan South, Co. Limerick Kiltera, Co. Kilkenny Kiltiernan, Co. Galway Kiltrough, Co. Meath Knockadrina, Co. Kilkenny Knockea, Co. Limerick Knowth, Co. Meath Knowth ‘M’, Co. Meath Knoxspark, Co. Sligo

Isolated metalworking site Ecclesiastical?

Bowl furnace

29.5kg Iron slag, smithing and smelting. Iron anvil in souterrain Slag

Dennehy 2007

Possible furnace

Slag, iron anvil

Macalister 1935, 5

Ecclesiastical

Slag (unstratified)

Rath complex

1.2kg Iron slag

Waddell & Clyne 1995, 180 Gallagher 2011

Univallate Rath Cemetery?

Iron slag

Labbamolaga Middle, Co. Cork Lagore, Co. Meath

Ecclesiastical

Lahard, Co. Kerry

Univallate Rath Promontory fort Cashel

Larrybane, Co. Antrim Leacanabuaile, Co. Kerry Leggetsrath, Co. Kilkenny Liathmore, Co. Tipperary Lisanisk, Co. Monaghan

Enclosed settlement Settlement/ cemetery Promontory fort

Crannog

Iron slag Furnaces

341kg Iron Slag Iron slag Iron slag (40kg), Eight complete furnace bottoms Iron slag

Smithing hearths

Iron slag & tuyère fragments. Iron hammer head, Iron chisel Iron slag

Multivallate Rath Ecclesiastical Multivallate Rath Rath

Lisleagh I, Co. Cork Lisleagh II, Co. Cork Lisnagade (2), Co. Down Lisnagun, Co. Cork

Multivallate

Furnace bottoms

Univallate Rath Multivallate Rath Univallate Rath

Iron-working area, bowl furnace

Cleary 1995:035; Cleary 2000, 37–41 Hencken 1950; Lynn 1985–86 Connolly 1994:127

Iron slag, hammerstones

Ó Ríordáin & Foy 1941, 93 Lennon 2005; 2006a; 2006b; 2011 Leask & Macalister 1946 Coughlan 2011c

826.6kg Iron slag, 3 furnace bottoms, tuyère fragments, hammerscale Furnace bottoms; smelted, but un-forged, iron. Iron slag (1,000kg) Iron slag (800kg) Slag Iron slag, hammerstones

67

Mount 2002; 2010

Childe 1936, 192

Iron slag

Lislackagh, Co. Mayo

Eogan 1977, 73–74; Scott 1991, 161 Stout & Stout 2008

Iron slag

Iron slag

2 smelting furnaces, 1 smithing hearth. Two separate sunken areas Iron-smelting pit furnace

Coughlan 2009b; 2011a; Eogan 2011 O’Kelly 1967, 93

Walsh 1992:146; 1995, 8 Monk 1993b Monk 1991:026; Scott 1991, 160–63 Proudfoot 1961, 106 O’Sullivan et al 1998, 54

Lissue, Co. Antrim Lough Faughan, Co. Down Lough Island Reevy, Co. Down Loughbown 1, Co. Galway Loughboy, Co. Kilkenny Loughlackagh, Co. Roscommon Lowpark, Co. Mayo Mackney, Co. Galway Maghera, Co. Down

Univallate Rath Crannog

Metallurgical hearth/furnace

Crannog

Bersu 1947, 50

Bog ore, iron slag and iron blooms Iron slag

Collins 1955, 75

Multivallate

3 smithing hearths

Iron slag (130kg)

Gaffikin & Davies 1938, 202 Bower 2009a

Settlement/ Cemetery Souterrain

Iron-working hearth

Iron slag

Cotter, E. 1999

Iron slag

Lavelle 1994:202

Univallate Rath & Palisaded enclosure Univallate Rath Ecclesiastical

11 smithing hearths in four iron-processing workshops

Iron slag (1,360kg), smithing, tuyères, anvil stone, Hammerscale

Gillespie 2011b

1 furnace and 2 smithing hearths

Iron slag (42kg), anvil stone Iron-working debris, slag, tuyères (context not stated) Iron slag

Delaney 2009

Reilly 1999:130

Iron slag

Keeley 1991:126

Iron slag (14.5kg), bloom smelting waste, hammerstones Iron slag (large quantity); tuyère

Gowen 1992

Magheramenagh, Co. Londonderry Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Marshes Upper, Co. Louth

Souterrain Settlement and cemetery Enclosure complex

Furnace (ironworking?) Furnace bottoms

Meadowbank Rath, Jordanstown, Co. Antrim Moathill 1, Co. Meath Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Movilla, Co. Down Moyle Big, Co. Carlow Moylederg, Co. Donegal Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Moyne, Co. Mayo

Raised rath

1 metallurgical hearth

Enclosure complex Settlement/ Cemetery

1 metallurgical hearth

Moyvalley (2), Co. Meath Mullaghbane, Co. Tyrone

Iron slag

Hamlin 2008, 308; Lynn 1980–84:0086

Halpin & Crothers 1995:007

Iron slag (15kg), smithing waste, tuyère Iron slag, Iron punch, Iron chisel

Giacometti 2007a

Ecclesiastical Industrial site

Iron slag Iron slag

Crannog

Iron slag, tuyère

Yates 1983, 62 Hughes 2006:195; Kyle et al 2009 Davies 1946, 98

Iron slag, Iron tongs

Bradley 2011

Iron slag

Manning 1987

Slag

Carlin 2008, 88 Harper 1972a, 43 Fanning 1972

Crannog

Iron-working furnace

1 metallurgical hearth

Univallate Rath Occupation Univallate Rath

Conway 1999

Narraghmore, Co. Kildare Nendrum, Co. Down (Watermill) Nendrum, Co. Down

Multivallate

Iron slag (large quantity from bog ore), furnace bottom Iron slag

Ecclesiastical

Iron slag; tuyère

Bourke 2007, 407

Ecclesiastical

Iron slag; ironstone nodules, Iron tongs

Nevinstown, Co. Meath Newcastle (2), Co. Meath

Souterrain

Bloomery hearth

Iron slag and bloom

Bourke 2007, 407; Scott 1991, 154; Lawlor 1925, 136 Cahill 1977/79:059

Industrial site

Bowl furnace, oval slag pit and spread

Iron slag (11.267kg), furnace bottoms

Newtownlow, Co. Westmeath Ninch, Co. Meath Oldcourt,

Crannog

Metallurgical hearth

Iron slag

O’Hara 2002:1499; 2008b; Photos-Jones 2008d; Carlin 2008, 88 Scott 1991, 223

Iron slag Iron ore (limonite); iron

McConway 2002; 2010 Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin

Enclosures Univallate

68

Co. Cork

Rath

Owenbristy, Co. Galway Park, Co. Tipperary

Settlement/ cemetery Enclosure

Parknahown, Co. Laois Peter Street, Waterford Platin, Co. Meath

Settlement Cemetery Urban – mid12th century Open settlement, structures Univallate Rath Multivallate

Discarded stone smithing hearth base Possible furnace

Settlement/ Cemetery Multivallate Rath

Iron-smelting furnace

Poulacapple, Co. Clare Raheens I, Co. Cork Rampark, Co. Louth Rathgurreen, Co. Galway Rathmullan, Co. Down Ratoath, Co. Meath Raystown, Co. Meath Reask, Co. Kerry Ringmackilroy, Co. Down Rinnaraw, Co. Donegal Roestown, Co. Meath Rosepark, Balrothery, Co. Dublin Rossan (4), Co. Meath Sallymount, Co. Limerick Shallon 1, Co. Meath Sheephouse 2, Co. Meath Shane’s Castle, Co. Antrim Simonstown, Co. Meath Skellig Michael, Co. Kerry Sluggary, Co. Limerick Sroove, Co. Sligo Stranure, Co. Offaly St. Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney, Co.

slag (large quantity), 1 complete & 8 fragments furnace bottom, Iron chisel Iron slag (5kg) 1 smelting furnace

1.6kg Iron slag; tuyères Iron slag

2 Bowl furnaces

Raised rath Enclosure, cemetery, field systems Settlement and Cemetery Ecclesiastical

Smelting and smithing furnace

Rath Cashel

Iron slag (12.8kg) smithing and smelting, hammerscale 100kg Iron slag, smithing and smelting Iron slag; hammerscale

Large amounts of charcoal Iron slag

Enclosure complex Enclosures

Lehane & Delaney 2010 Mullins 2011 O’Neill 2010, 251 Scully & McCutcheon 1997, 104 Lynch 2000:0774; 2001:1022; 2002; Conway 2001:1019 Reynolds 1972:0030 Lennon 1993 Campbell 2004:1122

23kg Iron slag, furnace bottoms, tuyère, Possible anvil stone Iron slag (possible)

Comber 2002, 153, 170

73kg Iron-smithing slag

Wallace 2010, 301, 303, 304

10kg Iron slag, furnace hearth bottoms, charcoal pits, Iron chisel and punch Iron slag, hammerstones

Seaver 2005b; 2006; 2010

Iron slag Pit within possible leanto structure

1961, 90

Scott 1991, 222

Fanning 1981, 105–10; Scott 1991, 168–70 Crothers 1992:037

30kg Iron slag, furnace bottom, tuyère? Iron slag (10.35kg), stone anvil Iron slag

Comber 2006, 103 O’Hara 2007, 2009c; 2009d Carroll 2008, 98

Hearth

Smithing hearth

0.331kg Iron slag

Carlin 2008, 88

Univallate enclosure with annexes Isolated metalworking site

Smithing hearths, Rectangular structure

Iron slag (265kg), furnace bottoms, hammerscale, tuyère

Clark & Long 2009

Univallate Rath Univallate Rath Ecclesiastical

Furnace and pit A.D. 240–540 (2Σ)

Smelting activity

Bivallate Rath Crannog Ecclesiastical

1 smithing hearth

House site/ Ecclesiastical

Bloomery hearth in structure; pits

69

Russell 2001:1052 0.13kg Iron slag

Moore 2001:1055

Iron slag

Warhurst 1971, 63

Large quantity iron slag

Kelly 1975:33

Slag

Scott 1991, 222

4 Furnace bottoms

Shee Twohig 2000, 12

Slag, possible anvil stone Iron slag; furnace bottoms Iron slag, tuyères, 57 furnace bottoms, 12

Fredengren 2002, 237 Delany 2001:1104 O’Kelly 1951–52a, 32– 35; Scott 1991, 154

Cork Tallaght, Co. Dublin Terryhoogan, Co. Armagh The Spectacles, Co. Limerick Towlaght, Co. Meath Treanbaun, Co. Galway Tullahedy, Co. Tipperary Tullykevin, Co. Down Tullylish, Co. Down Turnarobert, Co. Antrim Urney, Co. Tyrone Whiterath, Co. Louth Woodstown, Co. Waterford

Ecclesiastical

fragments clay furnace covers; bog ore Iron slag

O’Brien 1990:043

House site

Iron slag

McSparron 2007, 121

Cashel

Iron slag

Ó Ríordáin 1949a

No iron slag found

Carlin 2008, 88

Iron slag

Pérez 2009

Iron slag

Murphy & Clarke 2001

Iron slag

Sloan 2008

Tuyères (possible); slag

Hearth, pits

Bowl-shaped scorched hearth

Settlement and Cemetery Univallate Rath Raised rath Ecclesiastical Souterrain

Furnace bottom

Ivens 1987, 72, 76, 104–6 Williams 1991:011

Rath Souterrain

Slag Iron slag

Scott 1971:034 Ó Drisceoil 2000:0721

272kg Iron Slag Furnace bottom; slag, tuyère, Iron punch, Iron files

Russell 2003:1915; O’Brien & Russell 2005, 119–22

Viking settlement

Hearth, furnaces?

1 smelting furnace with possible frontal arch

Table A.1: Evidence for iron-working from early medieval sites Site

Site type

Ardcloon, Co. Mayo Armagh: Cathedral Hill, Co. Armagh

Univallate Rath

Artefacts

Reference

Lead ore

Rynne 1956, 208

Slag, 7 ingot moulds, 6 clay moulds and 45 fragments, 52 triangular and 9 flat crucibles and 7 others , tuyères, scrap bronze, motif pieces 6 Crucible fragments

Gaskell-Brown & Harper 1984, 119, 124–51

Armagh: English Street Co. Armagh Armagh: Scotch Street, Co. Armagh Augherskea, Co. Meath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly

Ecclesiastical

Crothers 1999, 63, 67

Ecclesiastical

1 tiny crucible fragment, copper wire

Lynn 1988f, 82; Lynn & McDowell 1988b, 60

Cemetery and settlement Crannog

2 crucible fragments

Baker 2007a Hencken 1942, 50–51, 65– 66

Enclosures

43 crucible fragments, 8 clay moulds, stone ingot mould, motif piece Clay mould

Ballycasey More, Co Clare Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Ballyduff, Co. Antrim Ballynagallagh, Co. Limerick Ballywee, Co. Antrim Balriggan, Co. Louth Baronstown, Co. Meath Béal Ború, Co. Clare

Multivallate Rath

9 crucible fragments

Multivallate Rath

1 crucible fragment

Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, 35 Avery 1970:01

Univallate Enclosure Enclosure

Clay mould

Cleary 2006

Bronze-smelting crucibles 1 crucible fragment

Lynn 1988a; Crothers 1994 Delaney 2010

single unphased copper alloy globule Motif piece

Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella 2007 O’Kelly 1962, 8–9

Ecclesiastical

Metal-working features Hearth/furnace? Workshop area and hearths

Settlement/ cemetery Multivallate Enclosure Earthwork

70

O’Neill 2002:0079; 2003

Borris, Co Tipperary Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Castlefarm, Co. Meath Castle Skreen (2), Co. Down. Cathair Fionnúrach, Co. Kerry

Univallate enclosure and annexes Cashel Settlement/ cemetery Univallate Rath Cashel

Cathedral Hill, Downpatrick, Co. Down Cavanapole, Co. Armagh Cherryhound, Co. Dublin Cherrywood, Co. Dublin Clea Lakes, Co. Down Clogher, Co. Tyrone

Ecclesiastical

Cloghermore, Co. Kerry

Cave

Clonfad, Co. Westmeath

Ecclesiastical

Clonmacnoise (New Graveyard), Co. Offaly

Ecclesiastical

Clonmacnoise (National School), Co. Offaly Coolagh, Co. Galway Cooltubbrid, Co. Waterford Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Corranneary, Co. Cavan Craigywarren, Co. Antrim Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin

Ecclesiastical

Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim

Raised rath

Dooey, Co. Donegal

Settlement/ Cemetery

Dublin:

Urban

Possible anvil stone, furnace pit (metal not stated)

Univallate Rath Industrial Cemetery and Settlement Crannog Rath within earlier hill-fort

Wallace and Anguilano 2010a, 22

3 crucibles, 50 fragments and a silver ingot Copper globules and ingot 1 Pyramidal crucible and fragments 1 Crucible

Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 91–92

2 hearths, 1 with stone base

Rath Crannog Crannog Promontory fort

71

O’Connell & Clark 2009; O’Connell 2009 Dickinson & Waterman 1959, 75–76 Gibbons 1994:116; 1997:228

Mould and crucible fragments, bronze ingots, molten lead splashed Crucible fragments, tuyère Crucibles, fragments of copper and copper alloy Silver Ingot

Ó Néill 2012

Two crucible fragments

Collins & Proudfoot 1959

Crucibles (including ten flat-bottomed), gold rubbing stone, lead pin, unfinished bronze brooch 1 stone vessel/crucible

Warner 1973, 10; 1979, 37; Youngs 1990, 186–7, 195, 198

Non-ferrous coating of iron bells; crucibles; stone and clay bell shrouds Crucibles, slag, moulds, tuyères, bronze off-cuts including decorated scrap, stone ingot moulds, motif pieces. Iron punch Crucible, clay mould, copper-alloy ingot, gold scrap

Cashel Industrial

1 pyramidal crucible

Ryan 1988, 43 Crothers 1996:015 McGowan 2004:0483

Connolly 2000; Connolly & Coyne 2000; Connolly et al 2005 Stevens 2006, 10

King 2009, 341–3; 1990:097; 1992:157; 1993:187; 1994:197; 1995:240; 1996:324; 1997:448; 1998:548 Ó Floinn & King 1998, 123–4

2 Crucibles

Hardy 2008

7kg slag with copper particles 1 Crucible

Tierney 2009, 108

Five crucibles; two mould fragments Two crucible fragments (enamel residues) Bronze ingot, 40 crucible fragments (residues of copper and tin), clay from copper smelting Fragments of four crucibles, clay ‘wrap’, clay ‘package’, copperalloy ingot Crucibles, moulds, motif piece, iron tongs, hammerhead Crucibles

Davies 1942, 27–8

Taylor 2007, 77

Coffey 1906 Liversage 1968, 91, 186

Lynn & McDowell 2011; Bayley 2011 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, 61 Ó Ríordáin 1974:0014

Christchurch Place, Co. Dublin Dublin: High Street & Christchurch Place, Co. Dublin Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone

Urban

Metal-working hearths and furnaces

Anon 1973, 14–15; Fanning 1994, 114–23; Ó Ríordáin 1971:16; 1974:0014; 1975:15 Ivens 1989, 28–36, 54–55

McNeill 1991–92, 104

Dunnyneill, Co. Down

Island trading post

Dunsilly, Co. Antrim Dunsilly 2, Co. Antrim Faughart Lower, Co. Louth Feerwore, Co. Galway Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin Garranes, Co. Cork

Raised Rath

145 sherds crucibles, 258 clay moulds, tuyères, slag Dish-like cupel fragment, 2 flat-bottomed crucible fragments, fragment of copper slag 10 crucible fragments

Univallate Rath

Stone crucible

Keery 2012a

Settlement/ Cemetery Rath

1 crucible, silver ingot, stone ingot mould 1 pyramidal crucible

Buckley & McConway 2010; Bowen 2008 Raftery 1944

Cashel

Silver ingot

Hartnett & Eogan 1964

Multivallate Rath

Workshop debris area

Ó Ríordáin 1942, 86, 93, 98, 107–09, 121–22, 134–39

Garryduff, Co. Cork

Univallate Rath

Paving and hearth?

Glebe, Co. Dublin Gortnahown, Co. Cork

Univallate ringfort

Unfinished brooch and pin, lumps of tin, 30 clay moulds, 4 stone object moulds, 4 stone ingot moulds, 39 complete and 2,500 sherds crucibles, tuyères 3 complete crucibles, 24 fragments, ‘blow pipe’, 9 stone trial pieces Pyramidal crucible

Young 2009b

Grannagh, Co. Galway Gransha, Co. Down Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry Iniscealtra, Co. Clare

Inauguration site?

Brazing shrouds, bronze/copper-alloy slag, 3 sherds of crucible (2 pyramidal) Crucible

Island MacHugh, Co. Tyrone Kilgobbin, Stepaside, Co. Dublin Kilpatrick, Corbetstown, Co. Westmeath Kiltiernan, Co. Galway Knockea, Co. Limerick

Ecclesiastical

Knowth,

Settlement/ Cemetery

Crucibles, heating trays, moulds, unfinished bronze pins

Univallate rath

Raised rath

McCormick & Macdonald 2004, 8

O’Kelly 1963, 95–9 Seaver 2011

Rynne 1971:18

Moulds, motif pieces, crucible Motif piece, moulds, tuyère, Iron punch Motif-piece

Ryan 1988, 44

Crannog

Crucibles

Davies 1950, 44

Ecclesiastical

Crucibles – 7 fragments flat-bottomed, 5 indeterminable; slags (type not stated), clay mould Mould, crucible, iron punch

Bolger 2004:0647; 2008

Crucibles, slag?, hammerstones 1 Crucible

Waddell & Clyne 1995, 195– 6 O'Kelly 1967

Fragments of 10

Eogan 1977, 74;

Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical

Copper-working area and furnace

Ecclesiastical

Non-ferrousand iron-working in same area None

Raised settlement and adjacent cemetery Enclosed

Metal-working

72

Lynn 1985a, 88 Marshall & Walsh 2005, 19

Swan 1994/95, 5

Co. Meath

settlement

Knoxspark, Co. Sligo Lagore, Co. Meath

Promontory fort

Letterkeen, Co. Mayo.

Univallate Rath

Lisdoo, Co. Fermanagh Lisduggan (2), Co. Cork Lisleagh I, Co. Cork Lissue, Co. Antrim Lough Faughan, Co. Down

Univallate Rath

Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Movilla, Co. Down Moylarg, Co. Antrim Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath

Settlement/ Cemetery Settlement/ Cemetery

Nendrum, Co. Down

Ecclesiastical

Newtownlow, Co. Westmeath Parknahown, Co. Laois Platin, Co. Meath

Crannog

Raheennamadra Co. Limerick Rathgurreen, Co. Galway Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Rathmullan, Co. Down Ratoath, Co. Meath Reask, Co. Kerry

Univallate Rath

hearth

crucibles (one for gold work), 3 heating trays, 2 stone ingot moulds, 1 two-part clay mould. Scrap metal, lead disc, crozier fragment Silvered bronze clippings

Barton-Murray and Bayley 2012

263 Crucibles (including fragments), motif pieces, 2 clay moulds, 6 stone ingot moulds, tuyères, copper ore, copper wire, lead model for ringed pin 1 base and small crucible fragments, heavily burnt and glazed clay

Hencken 1950, 126, 170–3, 240–1; Comber 2004, 137– 78; 1997

Brannon 1981–82, 57

Univallate Rath

6 fragments of at least 2 crucibles 1 fragment crucible

Multivallate

Bronze-working debris

Monk 1988; 1993b

Univallate Rath

Slate trial-piece

Bersu 1947; 1948

Crannog

1 pyramidal crucible and fragments of others (traces of copper & tin), 1 clay mould, copper slag 3 fragments crucibles

Collins 1955, 58–9, 66, 74

Slag

Conway 1999, 39

Crucibles, scrap copper alloy, slag 7 crucibles, lead ring, bronze ingot, clay mould 5 complete and 117 sherds crucibles, 600 clay moulds, 1kg copper slag, 3 motif pieces, tuyère, clipped and hammered gold, gold wire, bronze ingot Crucibles, ingot, bronze nodules, clay mould, motif pieces Crucible fragments

Ivens 1984b, 77–8, 93; Yates 1983, 61 Buick 1893; 1894

1 crucible fragment

O’Neill 2007; 2008; 2009

Pyramidal crucible, tuyère fragments, 1 clay mould 1 crucible

Lynch 2000:0774; Young and Kearns 2010, 1–10

Crannog

Ecclesiastical

Burnt spread associated with possible stone structure

Possible furnace base

Crannog Crannog

Two metalworking areas and furnace

Settlement/ Cemetery Occupation site

Bivallate Rath

Ironworking furnace

Raised rath

23 fragments crucibles, tuyère? Crucibles and mould fragments 1 crucible fragment

Settlement/ Cemetery Ecclesiastical

Slag, 1 crucible/heating tray, lead ingot Crucibles, slag, furnace

Crannog

Metal-working

73

Mount 2002; 2010

Ó Ríordáin & Mac Dermott 1951–52, 114

Twohig 1990, 19

Keeley 1990:113; 1991:126

Bradley 1982–83, 24–8; 1993, 79–80; 1994–95, 160– 66; Youngs 1989, 178–84

Bourke 2007, 406–11 Bourke 1985:058; 1986:078

Stenberger 1966, 49 Comber 2002, 171 Comber 2008, 131 Lynn 1981–82, 145 Wallace 2004:1324 Fanning 1981, 105–10, 117–

areas, furnaces Roestown 2, Co. Meath

Enclosures

Sluggary, Co. Limerick St Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney, Co. Cork Tullylish, Co. Down Woodstown, Co. Waterford

Bivallate Rath House (wooden phase); house site/ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical Viking Settlement

bottoms, tuyères 3 crucible fragments of pyramidal & flat-bottomed type, 1 stone ingot mould, bone trial pieces Possible clay mould 2 crucibles with copper residue, lengths of bronze wire Crucibles, moulds, tuyères tuyère, 65 fragments of crucibles, slag, lead/silver ingots, 1 bronze ingot, silver casting waste

Hearth, furnaces? Hearths/ furnaces

20 O’Hara 2007, 149

Shee Twohig 1974:0029 O’Kelly 1951–52a Ivens 1987, 72, 76, 104–06 Russell 2003:1915; O’Brien & Russell 2005, 119–22

Table A.2: Evidence for non-ferrous metal-working from early medieval sites

Site Armagh: Cathedral Hill, Co. Armagh Armagh: English Street, Co. Armagh Armagh: Scotch Street, Co. Armagh Augherskea, Co. Meath Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Cahercommaun, Co. Clare

Site type Ecclesiastical

Evidence Enamel and glass rods

Ecclesiastical

Glass rods

Reference Gaskell-Brown & Harper 1984, 122, 135 Crothers 1999, 63

Ecclesiastical

Glass bead manufacturing waste

Lynn & McDowell 1988b, 60

Settlement/ cemetery Rath

Evidence not stated

Baker 2010, 18

Blue glass rod, scrap of Roman or sub-Roman glass Fragment of bangle with traces of two perforations – possibly broken during manufacture; hammerstones Flattened teardrop-shaped piece of glass, glass vessel fragments – scrap?; Hammerstones Enamel deposit on crucible

Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, 26; Bourke 1994, 196 Hencken 1938, 39

A failed glass stud, failed glass beads, monochrome glass rods, reticella rods, scrap glass, glassmaking crucible fragments for making opaque yellow glass. Millefiori glass rod, millefiori glass attached to bronze tube, several small pieces of glass vessel – scrap? Lumps of enamel that had cooled after being molten Blob of blue glass; glass vessel fragment – scrap? Melted glass bead, hammerstones Crucibles with enamel residue

Henderson 1988b, 115–17, 122

Eogan 1977, 74 Hencken 1950, 127–30, 132

Rath Crannog

Enamel working crucibles? Moulds for glass studs, blue glass rods, millefiori glass rod, scrap glass? Roman or post-Roman Unfinished glass bead Glass vessel fragment – scrap?

Multivallate

Vitreous material

Keeley 1990:113; 1991:126

Settlement/ cemetery Ecclesiastical Crannog

Fragment of a blue glass rod

Conway 1999, 39

Glass rods, glass globules Lump of yellow enamel

Ivens 1984b, 100 Bradley 1987:39

Cashel

Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick

Cashel

Craigywarren, Co. Antrim Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone

Crannog

Garranes, Co. Cork

Rath

Garryduff, Co. Cork

Rath

Gragan West, Co. Clare Island MacHugh, Co. Tyrone Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath Lislackagh, Co. Mayo Lough Faughan, Co. Down Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Movilla, Co. Down Moynagh Lough,

Settlement/ cemetery

Crannog Settlement site Crannog

74

Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 91, 102 Coffey 1906

Ó Ríordáin 1942, 118–19, 121

O’Kelly 1963, 77 Cotter 1990 Ivens & Simpson 1986

Walsh 1993 Collins 1955, 63

Co. Meath Roestown, Co. Meath Woodstown, Co. Waterford

Enclosure Longphort

Crucible with glazed residue Molten glass droplets

O’Hara 2007; 2009c; 2009d Russell et al 2007

Table A.3: Evidence for glass-working from early medieval sites

Site name Armagh: Cathedral Hill, Co. Armagh Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballyarra, Co. Cork Baronstown, Co. Meath

Evidence Sawn antler waste Antler points 15 fragments of worked antler Three pieces of worked antler Worked antler mount

Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Antler off-cuts Antler waste

Clonfad, Co. Westmeath Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly Collierstown, Co. Meath Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Cormac’s Chapel, Cashel, Co. Tipperary Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Derrynaflan, Co. Tipperary Dooey, Co. Donegal Doonloughan, Co. Galway Dublin: High Street/Christchurch Place, Co. Dublin Dún Eoghanachta, Inis Mór, Co. Galway Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry Inishcealtra, Co. Clare Kilgreany, Co. Waterford Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Kilpatrick, Co. Westmeath Knowth, Co. Meath Lisleagh I, Co. Cork Lough Faughan, Co. Down Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Moyne, Co. Mayo

Bone off-cuts Antler off-cuts Antler waste Antler cores Traces of antler-working

Oughtymore, Co. Londonderry Parknahown, Co. Laois Rathgurreen, Co. Galway Raystown, Co. Meath Roestown, Co. Meath Tullahedy, Co. Tipperary Uisneach, Co. Westmeath Waterford: Peter’s Street, Co. Waterford

Antler off-cuts Cut antler Worked/un-worked antler Worked antler Antler-comb blanks and waste

Reference McCormick & Murray 2007, 196 Hencken 1936 Hencken 1942 Fahy 1953 Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella 2007 Hencken 1938, 63 O’Connell 2009; O’Connell & Clark 2009; Riddler & Trzaska-Nartowski 2009c Stevens 2006, 11; 2010 McCormick & Murray 2007, 217 O’Hara 2009a Taylor 2007 Hodkinson 1994, 171

Antler waste fragments

McCormick & Murray 2007, 221 Ó Floinn 1986:70 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961 Murray & McCormick 2012 Anon 1973, 15; Ó Ríordáin 1974:0014 McCormick & Murray 2007, 237

Antler waste Comb blanks Worked antler Worked antler 25 fragments of antler Discarded portions of antler Cut and polished antler fragments Deer antler fragments Antler waste Antler tines and burrs

McCormick & Murray 2007, 239. de Paor 1971:10 Movius 1935 Manning 1984 Walsh 2005; 2008 Swan 1994/95, 6 Eogan 2012 Monk 1988; 1993b McCormick & Murray 2007, 251 Conway 1999, 39

Cut pieces of antler Sawn antler off-cuts; chopped cattle horn-core Antler ring and spindle whorl Antler waste/unfinished knife handle Antler off-cuts Antler off-cuts Comb blanks, Antler bone handle Cut antler Cut antler Large deposits of antler waste

Bradley 2011 McCormick & Murray 2007, 261 Mallory & Woodman 1984 O’Neill 2007; 2008; 2009 McCormick & Murray 2007, 265 Seaver 2010 O’Hara 2007, 148 Murphy & Clarke 2001 Macalister & Praeger 1928 McCormick 1997, 837–8; Hurley 1997a, 651–3

Table A.4: Evidence for antler-working from early medieval sites Site name Athlumney, Co. Meath Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballyegan, Co. Kerry Ballyvass, Co. Kildare Baronstown, Co. Meath

Evidence Bone pins Bone pins Bone pins Bone gouge Cut bone waste Incomplete bone comb; bone pins

75

Reference Jones 1999 Hencken 1936 Hencken 1942 Byrne 1991 Clark & Doyle 2011 Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella

Beginish, Co. Kerry Boho, Co. Fermanagh Borris, Co. Tipperary Bowling Green, Co. Tipperary Boyerstown, Co. Meath Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Caraun More, Co. Galway Carnmore West, Co. Galway Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Carrowkeel, Co. Mayo Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Three bone points Bone pin Bone point Bone needle Polished un-worked bone Worked bone pieces; 82 bone pins Bone toggles Bone peg Bone pins 5 unfinished bone pins Bone weaving tool Un-worked pig fibula; bone pin

Castleskreen, Co. Down Cherrywood, Co. Dublin Clea Lakes, Co. Down Cloghermore, Co. Kerry Cloncowan, Co. Meath Clonfad, Co. Westmeath Colp West, Co. Meath Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dooey, Co. Donegal

Bone pin Bone needle Bone pins Bone pins Bone pins Bone off-cuts Bone knife-handle rough-outs Horn cores Bone pins Bone knife-handles, large number of pig fibula and other bone pins Bone pins

Dowdstown, Co. Meath Dublin: Essex Street/Lower Exchange St., Co. Dublin Dublin: Fishamble Street, Co. Dublin Dublin: High Street/ Christchurch Place, Co. Dublin Dunbell Big 6, Co. Kilkenny Dunnyneill Island, Co. Down Feerwore, Co. Galway Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin Garryduff, Co. Cork Glebe, Co. Dublin Inishcealtra, Co. Clare Johnstown, Co. Meath Kilgobbin, Co. Dublin Kilgreany, Co. Waterford Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Killyliss, Co. Tyrone Knockea, Co. Limerick Knowth, Co. Meath

Butchered walrus-skull Walrus-skull fragment Antler-comb blanks and waste Bone pin Worked bone fragments

Lagore, Co. Meath Larrybane, Co. Antrim

Bone knife handles Bone pins Bone pins Bone pins Comb blanks Bone pins Bone pins Worked bone Bone pin Sawn bone waste Bone pins Cut and polished waste fragments; five strips of button waste Bone pins Pointed bone tool

Mackney, Co. Galway Marshes Upper, Co. Louth Meadowbank, Co. Antrim Moathill 1, Co. Meath Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Moyne, Co. Mayo Nevinstown, Co. Meath Ninch, Co. Meath Park North, Co. Cork Parknahown, Co. Laois Rahally, Co. Galway Raheennamadra, Co. Limerick Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Ratoath, Co. Meath

Bone toggles Bone handles Bone pins Bone pin Bone comb blanks Cut pieces of bone Chopped cattle horn-core Bone needles Bone peg Bone pins Bone pin Unfinished bone comb or handle Worked bones Bone pins Bone pins

76

2007 O’Kelly 1956 Proudfoot 1953a Ó Droma 2006:1933 Fanning 1970 Clarke 2009 Hencken 1938 Seaver & Conran 2009 Sutton 2008; 2011 Ó Ríordáin 1949a Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 83 Walsh & Zajac 2004; Zajac 2011 O’Connell & Clark 2009; O’Connell 2009 Dickinson & Waterman 1959 Ó Néill 1999, 2006 Collins & Proudfoot 1959 Connolly et al 2005 Baker 2007b; 2007c Stevens 2006, 11; 2010 Murphy 2011 Taylor 2007 Lynn & McDowell 2011 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961 Cagney et al 2009; Cagney & O’Hara 2009 Simpson 1997:124 Wallace 1987, 216 Anon 1973, 15; Ó Ríordáin 1974:0014 Foley 1972 McCormick et al 2002; McCormick & Macdonald 2003;2004 Raftery 1944 Hartnett & Eogan 1964 O’Kelly 1963 Seaver 2005a; 2007; 2011 de Paor 1971:10 Clarke & Carlin 2008 Bolger 2008 Movius 1935 Walsh 2005; 2008 Ivens 1984a, 29 O’Kelly 1967 Eogan 2012 Hencken 1950 Childe 1936; Proudfoot & Wilson 1961–62 Delaney 2009 Gowen 1992 Crothers 1995 Giacometti 2007a Conway 1999 Bradley 2011 McCormick & Murray 2007, 261 Cahill 1977/79:059 McConway 2002; 2010 Coleman 1941–42 O’Neill 2007 Mullins 2009b Stenberger 1966 Raftery undated Wallace 2010

Raystown, Co. Meath Roestown, Co. Meath Rosepark, Co. Dublin Sroove, Co. Sligo The Spectacles, Co. Limerick Tulsk, Co. Roscommon Uisneach, Co. Westmeath

Bone buttons, pig fibulae Comb blanks Bone points Bone pins Bone scoops/gouges Bone pins Bone pin

Seaver 2005b; 2006; 2010 O’Hara 2007, 148 Carroll 2008 Fredengren 1998; 2001; 2002 Ó Ríordáin 1949a Brady 2008 Macalister & Praeger 1928

Table A.5: Evidence for bone-working from early medieval sites

Site Armagh: Cathedral Hill, Co. Armagh Armagh: English Street, Co. Armagh Armagh: Scotch Street, Co. Armagh Armoy, Co. Antrim

Evidence Unfinished lignite bracelets, lignite central waste pieces Unfinished lignite objects and off-cuts

Reference Gaskell-Brown & Harper 1984, 136–7 Crothers 1999, 63, 66 Lynn & McDowell 1988b, 60

Enclosure Enclosures

Hundreds of fragments of lignite from armlet manufacture Lignite-working debris, broken bracelets and cores, rough-outs Lignite central waste pieces 13 fragments of lignite bracelets

Lynn 1983a, 50 Anon 2006

Cashel Enclosures Raised rath Urban

Pounding & polishing stones Un-finished jet objects Shale/lignite cores Un-worked nodules of lignite.

Hardy 2008 Ó Ríordáin 1940 Childe 1938 Wallace 1987, 215–16

Rath

Lignite fragments?

Cassidy 1990b

Cashel

Lignite central waste pieces

Galgorm, Co. Antrim Lagore, Co. Meath Lislear, Co. Tyrone Oldcourt, Co. Cork

Souterrain Crannog Rath Rath

Lignite remains – fuel? Lignite cone Unfinished lignite bracelet fragment Jet core

Tullylish, Co. Down

Ecclesiastical

Unfinished lignite rings

Hartnett & Eogan 1964, 28– 29 Evans 1946 Hencken 1950 Simpson 1987:46 Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961, 84 Ivens 1987, 107–08; 1988b

Ballybrolly, Co. Armagh Blackchurch, Co. Kildare Coolagh, Co. Galway Cush, Co. Limerick Doonmore, Co. Antrim Dublin: Fishamble Street, Co. Dublin Dunbell Big 5, Co. Kilkenny Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin

Site type Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical

Nelis 2005:007

Table A.6: Evidence for shale/lignite-working from early medieval sites

Site Armagh: Scotch Street, Co Armagh Dublin: Fishamble Street, Co. Dublin Lisduggan, Co. Cork Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Woodstown

Site type Ecclesiastical

Evidence Hundreds of chips of amber

Reference Lynn & McDowell 1988b, 60

Urban

Amber workshop

Wallace 1987, 215–16

Rath Crannog

Un-worked piece of amber Five amber chips

Twohig 1990 Bradley 2011

Crannog Longphort

Amber pieces Amber fragment

Raftery undated Russell et al 2007

Table A.7: Evidence for amber-working from early medieval sites

Site Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Ballyegan, Co. Kerry Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Barrees Valley, Co. Kerry Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick

Site type Crannog Multivallate Cashel Enclosures Hut

Evidence 192 whetstones 20 whetstones Unfinished quern stone Flint cores Stone discs

Reference Hencken 1942 Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943 Byrne 1991, 28 Williams 1984 O’Brien 2009

Cashel

Incompletely perforated stone spindle whorls; whetstones 55 whetstones

Hencken 1938, 41–44

Cashel

77

Ó Ríordáin 1949a

Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Castleskreen, Co. Down Clea Lakes, Co. Down Cush, Co. Limerick Dunalis, Co. Londonderry Garranes, Co. Cork Garryduff, Co. Cork Holywood, Co. Down Inishkea North, Co. Mayo Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath. Lisnagun, Co. Cork Lough Faughan, Co. Down Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Rathmullan, Co. Down Reask, Co. Kerry Rinnaraw, Co. Donegal St Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney, Co. Cork

Cashel Rath/motte

Unfinished spindle whorls & quern stones; 33 whetstones Unfinished spindle whorls.

Crannog Raths Souterrain

Whetstone rough-outs Unfinished spindle whorl Drill-holes in wall/ possible drill

Multivallate Rath Rath Ecclesiastical

25 whetstones, unfinished spindle whorls Unfinished spindle whorls Unfinished quern stone Spindle whorls broken during drilling. Chlorite waste. Quern stone fragments. Rough-outs for spindle whorls

Rath Raised

Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 86 Dickinson & Waterman 1959, 80 Collins & Proudfoot 1959 Ó Ríordáin 1940, 158 Lindsay 1934–35

Crannog Rath Crannog

Unfinished quern stones, grindstones and spindle whorls (3) Unfinished quern stone Unfinished quern stones/ stone settings 17+ whetstones

Crannog

Unfinished quern stones

Raised Ecclesiastical House House

Unfinished spindle whorls Spindle whorl discarded before use Perforated stones and stone discs 17 whetstones

Ó Ríordáin 1942 O’Kelly 1963, 89 Proudfoot 1959 Henry 1951a; 1952, 172 Manning 1984 Eogan 2012 Hencken 1950, 174 O’Sullivan et al 1998 Collins 1955 Bradley 1982–83, 28; 1994– 95, 160, 165 Lynn 1981–82 Fanning 1981, 125 Comber 2006 O’Kelly 1951–52a

Table A.8: Evidence for stone-working from early medieval sites

Site name Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballintemple, Co. Offaly Baronstown, Co. Meath

Evidence 250+ leather fragments Leather fragments Three fragments of sheep/goat leather

Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Leather fragment Shoe leather

Craigywarren, Co. Antrim Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dooey, Co. Donegal Dublin: High Street, Co. Dublin Kilcloghans, Co. Galway Killyliss, Co. Tyrone Lagore, Co. Meath

Shoe leather Wooden lasts, leather shoe fragments Leather-working tools Leather waste layer (1m thick) Pronged leather-working tool? Leather shoe fragments leather scraps and shoe last

Lissue, Co. Antrim Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Seacash, Co. Antrim Sroove, Co. Sligo

Leather shoe Leather-working tool Leather shoe Leather shoes Leather scrap Large numbers of smooth white stones – perhaps used to stretch leather Dump of leather scraps and off-cuts

Waterford: Insula North, Co. Waterford

Reference Hencken 1942 IAWU 2004 Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella 2007 Hencken 1938 O’Connell & Clark 2009; O’Connell 2009 Coffey 1906 Neill 2011 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961 Anon. 1973, 16 McKinstry 2008 Ivens 1984a Hencken 1950, 157, 165, 167, 181 Bersu 1947; 1948 Keeley 1990:113; 1991:126 Bradley 2011 Raftery undated Lynn 1978b, 67, 69 Fredengren 1998; 2001; 2002 McCutcheon & Hurley 1997, 161

Table A.9: Evidence for leather-working from early medieval sites Site name Antiville, Co. Antrim Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Baronstown, Co. Meath Cahercommaun, Co. Clare

Evidence Yew stave-built vessels Wooden mallet Yew stave manufacture; blackthorn handle; hazel withies Drawknives (wood-working tool)

78

Reference Waterman 1971 Hencken 1942 Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella 2007 Hencken 1938

Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Saw Saw Cooper’s tool

Clea Lakes, Co. Down Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dooey, Co. Donegal Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin Garryduff, Co. Cork Johnstown, Co. Meath Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath

Iron gouge used in wood-turning Wood-working tools Wood-working tools Wood-working tools Saws Wooden objects Axe Wooden vessels Augurs Cone-shaped lathe turning wasters, rough out bowl, shoe last Yew stave-built vessels

Larrybane, Co. Antrim Lissue, Co. Antrim Lough Faughan, Co. Down Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Raystown, Co. Meath Roestown, Co. Meath Sluggary, Co. Limerick Spittle Ballee, Co. Down Woodstown, Co. Waterford

Ó Ríordáin 1949a Ó Ríordáin 1949a O’Connell & Clark 2009; O’Connell 2009 Collins & Proudfoot 1959 Lynn & McDowell 2011 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961 Hartnett & Eogan 1964 O’Kelly 1963 Clarke & Carlin 2008 Manning 1984 Walsh 2005; 2008 Eogan 2012 Hencken 1950, 157, 165, 167, 181 Childe 1936; Proudfoot & Wilson 1961–62 55–45 ,7491 usreB

Waste fragments of oak and birch from wood-turning Thatcher’s tool (?); lathe-turned bowl Wood-working tools

Collins 1955 Conway 1999

Cut-marked timbers Iron awl Possible saw Pulley wheel for wood drill? Wood-working tools

Seaver 2005b; 2006b 2010 O’Hara 2007, 148 Shee Twohig 2000 Waterman 1958b Russell et al 2007

Table A.10: Evidence for wood-working from early medieval sites Site name Aghadegnan, Co. Longford Athlumney, Co. Meath Ballynarry, Co. Down Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballyaghagan, Co. Antrim Ballybrolly, Co. Armagh Ballycasey More, Co. Clare Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Ballyfounder, Co. Down Ballymacash, Co. Antrim Ballynakelly, Co. Dublin Ballyvass, Co. Kildare Ballywee, Co. Antrim Ballywillwill, Co. Down Balriggan, Co. Louth Baronstown, Co. Meath Beginish, Co. Kerry Boho, Co. Fermanagh Bowling Green, Co. Tipperary. Boyerstown, Co. Meath Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Caherlehillan, Co. Kerry Carn, Co. Fermanagh Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Carrigatogher (Harding), Co. Tipperary

Evidence Loom weight Spindle whorl Possible spindle whorl Stone spindle whorls? (3) Bone (6) and stone (4) spindle whorls; five spindles; loom weight Smoothing stone; loom weight; pinbeater (2) Stone spindle whorl (1) Weaving plaque Stone spindle whorl (1) Stone spindle whorls Stone spindle whorl (1) Loom weight Bone weaving tools Spindle whorl Stone whorl (1) Spindle whorl Spindle whorl, pin-beater, and loom weight Bone pin beaters? Madder seeds – dye Stone whorl (1) Flax seed; loom weight Spindle whorls of stone, antler and bone (55); pin-beaters (20) Spindle whorls Bone spindle whorl (1) Bone spindle whorls (12), stone whorls (10); pin-beaters (16) Bone spindle whorls (12), stone whorls (14) ; pin-beaters (8) Spindle whorl

79

Reference Carroll 1991; 1992; 1993 Jones 1999 Davison 1961–62 Hencken 1936, 146–47 Hencken 1942, 55, 64 Proudfoot 1958, 30–1 Lynn 1983a, 62–3 O’Neill 2003 Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, 31 Waterman 1958a, 49 Jope & Ivens 1998, 120 McCarthy 2011 Clark & Doyle 2011 Lynn 1988a Waterman & Collins 1952, 81 Delaney 2003:1226; 2010 Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella 2007 O’Kelly 1956 Proudfoot 1953a Fanning 1970, 14–15 Clarke 2009 Hencken 1938, 43–4 Sheehan 1993:118; 2009 Brannon 1982, 63 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 83, 86, 94, 99– 100 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 83 Taylor 2010

Carrowkeel, Co. Mayo Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Spindle whorl and weaving tool (?) Flax seeds, retting ponds, rubbing stone, loom weight, spindle whorls Loom weight, spindle whorl Stone whorl (1) Stone spindle whorls (Phase 2) (5 – three unfinished) Spindle whorl Stone whorl (1) Stone whorls (2); loom weight; linensmoother Spindle whorls Spindle whorl Spindle whorls

Walsh & Zajac 2004; Zajac 2011 O’Connell & Clark 2009; O’Connell 2009 Zajac & Scully 2004 Dickinson & Waterman 1960, 72 Dickinson & Waterman 1959, 79–80

Hayden 1994:119 Murphy 2011 Taylor 2007 Coffey 1906 Ó Ríordáin 1940, 158 Liversage 1968 Lynn & McDowell 2011

Dooey, Co. Donegal

Stone spindle whorls Rubbing stone? Spindle whorl Spindle whorl, loom weight Stone whorls (4), loom weights (2) Spindle whorl Spindle whorls, shears, leather weaving tablet Spindle whorls, Nucella lapillus shells

Doonloughan, Co. Galway Dowdstown, Co. Meath

Nucella lapillus shells Loom weights, spindle whorls

Downpatrick, Co. Down Dressogagh, Co. Armagh Drumaroad, White Fort, Co. Down Drumadoon, Co. Antrim Dublin: High Street/Winetavern Street, Co. Dublin

Possible spindle-whorl Bone spindle whorl (1) Stone spindle whorl (1) Flax seeds Spindle whorls

Murray & McCormick 2012 Cagney et al 2009; Cagney & O’Hara 2009 Proudfoot 1954 Collins 1966, 125–26 Waterman 1956b, 86 McSparron & Williams 2009 Ó Ríordáin 1970:17

Dublin: Christchurch Place, Co. Dublin Dunbeg, Co. Kerry Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone Dunsilly, Co. Antrim Farrandreg, Co. Louth Faughart Lower, Co. Louth Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin

Weaving tablets and bone spindle whorls Spindle whorl Spindle whorl Stone spindle whorls (2) Bone needles Spindle whorls Stone spindle whorls (2); pin-beaters (5) Spindle whorl Stone spindle whorls (3) and loom weights? (3) Spindle whorls (27 stone and 1 bone) including unfinished stone spindle whorls Spindle whorl Spindle whorl Loom weight Spindle whorls, loom weights, iron needle Spindle whorl (1) Bone spindle whorl Spindle whorls (number unspecified) Loom weight Stone spindle whorls (3) Bone (1) and stone (1) spindle whorls Stone spindle whorl Pronged cloth-making tool Spindle whorl, needle Spindle whorl Iron shears

Castlegar, Co. Mayo Castleskreen (I), Co. Down Castleskreen (II), Co. Down Cherrywood, Co. Dublin Church Island, Co. Kerry Clea Lakes, Co. Down Cloghermore, Co. Kerry Cloncowan, Co. Meath Clonmacnoise (New Graveyard), Co. Offaly Coarhabeg, Co. Kerry Colp West, Co. Meath Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Craigywarren, Co. Antrim Cush, Co. Limerick Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim

Frenchgrove, Co. Mayo Garranes, Co. Cork Garryduff, Co. Cork Glebe, Co. Dublin Glencurran, Co. Clare Gortybrigane, Co. Tipperary Gragan West, Co. Clare Grange, Co. Limerick Grannagh, Co. Galway Gransha, Co. Down Haggardstown, Co. Louth Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry Inishkea North, Co. Mayo Kells, Co. Meath Kilcloghans, Co. Galway Kilgobbin, Co. Dublin Kilgreany, Co. Waterford Killanully, Co. Cork

80

Ó Néill 1999; 2006 O’Kelly 1958, 113 Collins & Proudfoot 1959, 98 Connolly et al 2005 Baker 2007b; 2007c King 2009, 341

Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961

Ó Ríordáin 1974:0014 Barry 1981 Ivens 1989 McNeill 1991–92, 105 Murphy 1998:463 Bowen 2008 Hartnett & Eogan 1964, 32 McDermott 1998:488 Ó Ríordáin 1942, 111 O’Kelly 1963, 89–90 Seaver 2005a; 2007; 2011 Dowd 2004; 2005; 2007 Clark & Long 2010 Cotter 1990 Ó Ríordáin 1949b, 133 Rynne 1971:18 Lynn 1985a, 88 McLoughlin 1999:610 Marshall & Walsh 2005, 193 Henry 1945, 136, 139 Byrne 1988:57 McKinstry 2008 Bolger 2008 Movius 1935 Mount 1995

Killealy, Co. Antrim Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Kilscobin, Co. Tipperary Knockea, Co. Limerick Knowth (M), Co. Meath Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath Leacanabuaile, Co. Kerry Leggetsrath, Co. Kilkenny Lisduggan (I), Co. Cork Lisleagh II, Co. Cork Lismahon, Co. Down Lisnagun, Co. Cork Lissachiggel, Co. Louth Lough Faughan, Co. Down Loughbown 1, Co. Galway Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Marshes Upper, Co. Louth Millockstown, Co. Louth Mount Offaly, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Moyne, Co. Mayo Narraghmore, Co. Kildare Nendrum, Co. Down Nevinstown, Co. Meath Newtownlow, Co. Westmeath Ninch, Co. Meath Oughtymore, Co. Londonderry Owenbristy, Co. Galway Park North, Co. Cork Parknahown, Co. Laois Raheennamadra, Co. Limerick Raheens II, Co. Cork Rathbeg, Co. Antrim Rathgurreen, Co. Galway Rathmullan, Co. Down Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Ratoath, Co. Meath Raystown, Co. Meath Rinnaraw, Co. Donegal Rochfort Demesne, Co. Westmeath Roestown, Co. Meath Rosepark, Co. Dublin Sallymount, Co. Limerick Seacash, Co. Antrim Sluggary, Co. Limerick Smithstown, Co. Meath Spittle Ballee, Co. Down Sroove, Co. Sligo St Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney, Co. Cork ‘The Spectacles’, Co. Limerick Treanbaun, Co. Galway Uisneach, Co. Westmeath White Fort, Drumaroad, Co. Down Woodstown, Co. Waterford

Loom weight Stone spindle whorls (2) Antler (1) and stone (1) whorls Spindle whorl Iron needle Spindle whorl – material unstated (1) Spindle whorls Stone (8) and bone spindle whorls (20); spindles (10); loom weights (2); pinbeaters (16); textile Stone spindle whorl (1), loom weight (1) Bones needles, loom weight Stone spindle whorls Flax seeds Stone spindle whorls (6) Flax seeds Stone spindle whorl (1) Stone spindle whorls (4); loom weights (2); spindle Bone weaving tool Leather scorer/weaving tool Spindle whorl Stone spindle whorl (1) Spindle whorls, bone pin-beaters and iron shears Spindle whorls Shears Stone spindle whorl (1) Spindle whorls Needles Spindle whorls Needles Antler spindle whorl (1) Spindle whorl, loom weight Spindle whorl, needle Bone weaving implement Pin-beaters (2) Spindle whorls? Stone spindle whorl? (1) Nucella lapillus shells Stone spindle whorls (8) and possible loom weights (2) Spindle whorls Spindle whorls, rubbing stones Bone spindle whorl Loom weights? Needles Shears, knitting needle?, spindle whorl, loom weight Spindle whorl/loom weight, needle Spindle whorl, needle Stone spindle whorl (1) Iron needles Bone spindle whorl Stone spindle whorl (1) Needle Spindle whorl Stone spindle whorls (3); pin-beaters (2) Bone spindle whorl Stone spindle whorl (1); pin-beater (1) Spindle whorl (1) Fishing weight/spindle whorl

Table A.11: Evidence for textile-working from early medieval sites 81

Harper 1970:03 Manning 1984, 258 Walsh 2008, 44 Kavanagh 2007 O’Kelly 1967 Stout & Stout 2008, 65, 111 Eogan 1991, 120 Hencken 1950, 175, 194 Ó Ríordáin & Foy 1941, 93 Lennon 2006b; 2011 Twohig 1990, 17 Monk 1993a; 1995; 1998 Waterman 1959a, 164 O’Sullivan et al 1998 Davies 1939, 225 Collins 1955, 68 Bower 2009a Keeley 1990:113; 1991:126 Gowen 1992 Manning 1986, 160 Conway 1999, 39 Bradley 1994–95, 162 Manning 1987 Fanning 1972, 175–6 Lawlor 1925, 140 Cahill 1977/79:059 Bourke 1985:058, 1986:078 McConway 2002; 2010 Mallory & Woodman 1984, 53–54 Lehane & Delaney 2010 Coleman 1941–42 O’Neill 2007; 2008; 2009 Stenberger 1966 Lennon 1994 Warhurst 1969, 96–97 Comber 2002 Lynn 1981–82, 132–34 Raftery undated Wallace 2004:1324; 2010 Seaver 2004:1334; 2010 Comber 2006 Channing 2007 O’Hara 2007; 2009c; 2009d Carroll 2008 Clark & Long 2009 Lynn 1978b, 67, 69 Shee Twohig 2000 Gowen 1988:055 Waterman 1958b, 63 Fredengren 1998; 2001; 2002 O’Kelly 1951–52a, 31 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 106 Lehane et al 2010 Macalister & Praeger 1928, 117 Waterman 1956b McNamara 2005, 126–27

Townland/Site Name Aghavea, Co. Fermanagh

Site Type Ecclesiastical

Aird, Co. Antrim

Souterrain

Antiville, Co. Antrim Antrim (Civic Offices), Co. Antrim Ardee (28 Castle Street), Co. Louth Armagh: Abbey Street, Co. Armagh Armagh: Cathedral Hill, Co. Armagh Armagh: English Street/ Abbey Street, Co. Armagh Armagh: English Street/ Market Square, Co. Armagh Armagh: Market Street, Co. Armagh Armagh: 16 Scotch Street, Co. Armagh Armagh City: 46-48 Scotch Street, Corporation td., Co. Armagh Armagh: Upper English St., Co. Armagh Armoy, Glebe, Co. Antrim Aughnamullan, Co. Antrim Ballintemple, Co. Londonderry Ballintoy: Park Cave, Co. Antrim Ballintoy: ‘Potter’s Cave’, Co. Antrim Ballyaghagan, Shaneen Park, Co. Antrim Ballybarrack, Co. Louth

Souterrain

Ballyboley, Co. Antrim Ballybrolly, Co. Armagh Ballyfounder, Co. Down Ballygalley Hill, Co. Antrim Ballygalley, Co. Antrim Ballygolan, Co. Antrim Ballygortgarve, Co. Antrim Ballyhamage, Co. Antrim Ballyhenry I, Co. Antrim Ballyhenry II, Co. Antrim Ballyhill Lower, Co. Antrim Ballykennedy, Co. Antrim Ballykennedy, Co. Antrim Ballyknock, Co. Armagh Ballylessant, Farrell’s Fort, Co. Down

Reference Ó Baoill 2000:0352; Anon. 2000 Collins et al 1964, 121–23

Habitation Site Rath

Comments Early Christian coarse domestic pottery Three sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Near medieval towerhouse Ecclesiastical

Sherd of ‘early medieval pottery’ Sherds of souterrain ware

O’Carroll 2002:1284

Ecclesiastical

Six sherds of souterrain ware

Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical

15 sherds of souterrain ware; 28 sherds of misc early Christian and medieval wares Sherds of souterrain ware

Lynn 1990:006

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Gilmore 1998:008

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Lynn 1977–79:0010

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

McDowell 1980–84:0035; Lynn 1988f, 82

Ecclesiastical

30 sherds of souterrain ware

Gahan 1999, 70–3, 78

Ecclesiastical Habitation Site?

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of cordoned souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware

Ó Néill 2004:0008 McSparron 2000:0021

Waterman 1971, 71–72 MacManus 2003:0001

Lynn 1977–79:0009 Gaskell-Brown & Harper 1984, 143–44 Hurl 2003; Gahan 2003, 110–112

May & Cooper 1939, 88

Cave Habitation

Jackson 1933, 230–32

Cave Habitation

Jackson 1934; 1938

Rath Souterrain

Thousands of sherds of souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware

Souterrain and settlement Enclosure Rath Rath

Large portions of several souterrain-ware vessels Five sherds of souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Souterrain and habitation Rath Rath Enclosure and Souterrain Rath Rath Rath Rath Rath Rath

Early Christian pottery

Lynn 1983a, 50 Waterman 1958a, 46–47 Trump 1958, 218; Collins 1978, 23. Farrimond 2002:0004

‘Crannog ware’ Sherd of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Bigger 1901, 196 Lynn 1978c, 75–77 Crothers 2003:0004

745 sherds of souterrain ware 201 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware 17 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Lynn 1983b, 73–75 Lynn 1983b, 85 Williams 1985:02 Brannon 1980, 69 Lawlor 1916, 47–48 (Unpublished) Woodman (Pers. Comm.) Collins 1970:13

Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware

82

Evans 1950, 22–3; Proudfoot 1958, 23–8. Kelly 1977–79:0052; Gosling 1991, 244–6; McCormick & Crone 2000, 560 Lynn 1977–79:0001

Ballymacash, Co. Antrim

Rath Rath

Over 3,000 sherds of souterrain ware Quantity of souterrain ware

Jope 1966, 134; Jope & Ivens 1998, 114–17 Warner 1973:0010

Ballymacpeake Upper, Co. Londonderry Ballymacrea Lower, Co. Antrim Ballymurphy, Co. Antrim Ballynarry, Co. Down Ballynoe, Co. Antrim

Sandhills site

Sherds of souterrain ware

Flanagan 1966

Rath Rath Enclosure

Lynn 1977–79:0003 Davison 1961–62, 62–65 Lynn 1980, 36

Ballyvollen, Co. Antrim Ballywee, Co. Antrim Ballywillwill I, Co. Down

Linear Ditch Rath with souterrain Motte Rath Upland huts and field systems Habitation Site? Rath with souterrain Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware 209 sherds of souterrain ware Over 50 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware 229 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of bucket-shaped pots

Ballywillwill II, Co. Down

Rath

Sherds of bucket-shaped pots

Balriggan 1, Co. Louth

Settlement/Cemetery

Over 800 sherds of souterrain ware

Belfast: Malone, Co. Antrim Belfast: Mount Royal, Co. Antrim Belfast: Stranmillis, Co. Antrim Belfast: Town Parks td. Castle Street, Co. Antrim Big Glebe, Co. Londonderry

Habitation site Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware Several dozen sherds of souterrain ware.

Williams 1985b, 91–102 Lynn 1988a, 32–35 Waterman & Collins 1952, 78–79 Waterman & Collins 1952, 78–79 Delaney 2002:1291, 2002:1295; 2003:1226; 2010, 98; Roycroft 2005, 77 Quinn 1930, 48 Evans 1952, 86

Ballyrea, Co. Armagh Ballyrickardmore, Co. Antrim Ballyroney, Co. Down Ballyshanaghill, Co. Antrim Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim

Rath (?) destroyed

Crothers 1992:004 Lawlor 1916, 47 Waterman 1955, 99 Halpin 1991:003 Williams 1984, 40–46

Woodman (Pers. Comm.)

Mound

Possible piece of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Brannon 1980–84:0007

Hut Site Souterrain Mound

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Series of pits Pit

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of ‘early medieval pottery’ Over 200 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Delaney 2003:1272; Roycroft 2005, 80 Lynn 1980–84:0086

Bratt & Lynn 1976:012; Lynn 1988c Evans 1945, 26 Lawlor 1916, 40 Crothers 1998:004

Bighouse, Co. Antrim Boghead, Co. Antrim British and Seacash, Co. Antrim Camus, Co. Londonderry Carlingford (Back Lane), Co. Louth Carn More, Faughart, Co. Louth Carnacavill, Maghera, Co. Down Carnalbanagh East, Co. Down Carnmoney, Co. Antrim

Enclosure

Sherds of souterrain ware

Brannon 1979, 31–33

Rath

Avery 1970:01

Carnreagh, Co. Down

Habitation Site

Carrigrohane, Co. Cork Carryduff, Queen’s Fort, Co. Down Cashel (td.?), Co. Antrim

Ringfort Rath

‘Quantity of pottery’ in stratified contexts ‘Several sherds of early Christian pottery’ Sherd of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Castle Skreen I, Co. Down

Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware

Castle Skreen II, Co. Down

Rath

402 sherds of souterrain ware

Cavanapole, Co. Armagh Cherryhound, Co. Dublin

Ditch Industrial Site

Sherd of souterrain ware Possible sherd of souterrain ware

Clanrolla, Co. Armagh

Rath

Clea Lakes, Co. Down

Crannog

Rath and souterrain

‘Tumulus’

61 sherds of souterrain ware

83

May & May 1945 Moore 1998:419

Large 2003:445 Moloney 2003:0188 Jope 1966, 154–55; Lynn 1981–82, 169 Grainger Coll., Ulster Museum (unpublished) Dickinson & Waterman 1960, 71 Dickinson & Waterman 1959, 74–75 Crothers 1996:015 McGowan 2004:0483 Chart 1940, 61; Waterman 1959a, 165 Collins & Proudfoot 1959, 95

Cloughorr, Co. Antrim Coleraine, Co. Londonderry

Souterrain ?

Ten sherds of souterrain ware

Coleraine: Cross Lane, Co. Londonderry Coleraine: Mount Sandel, Co. Londonderry Coleraine: Stone Row, Co. Londonderry Coney Island, Co. Antrim Connor (Rectory Field), Co. Antrim Cormeen, Co. Meath

?

Sherds of souterrain ware

Mesolithic site

Sherds of souterrain ware

?

Sherds of souterrain ware

Woodman 1974:0011; 1976:15 Gahan 1993:036

Habitation Site Ecclesiastical Site

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Addyman 1965, 87–89, 98 Brannon 1986:02

Rath and souterrain

Sherds of souterrain ware

Rath and souterrain House and souterrain Crannog Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

McConway & Halpin 1992:150 Conway 2002:0387 Waterman 1956a, 91

Five sherds of souterrain ware Much souterrain ware

Rath

700 sherds of souterrain ware

Coffey 1906, 116 Harper 1971:12; 1973–74, 36–37 Lynn & McDowell 1988a, 7

Bronze Age Burials

Sherds of souterrain ware

Wiggins 2000, 59–61

Ecclesiastical Site Crannog Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware

Waterman 1967, 64 Reeves 1859, 149 Halpin 2000:0025; Long 2001:022 N.M.I. Reg. No. 1938:9215

Corrstown, Co. Londonderry Craighill, Co. Antrim Craigywarren, Co. Antrim Crossnacreevy, Co. Down Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Demesne, Church Bay, Rathlin Island, Co. Antrim Derry, Co. Down Derryhollagh, Co. Antrim Derrymore, Co. Armagh Donaghadee Vicinity, Co. Down Donaghmore A, Co. Louth Donegore, Co. Antrim Doonmore, Co. Antrim

?

Doras, Co. Tyrone Dowdallshill, Co. Louth Dowdallshill, Co. Louth

Ecclesiastical Rectangular Fosse Pit

Downpatrick: Cathedral Hill, Co. Down Downpatrick: Cathedral Hill, Co. Down Downpatrick: Cathedral Hill, Co. Down Downpatrick: Cathedral Hill, Co. Down Downpatrick: Cathedral Hill, Co. Down Downpatrick: Cathedral Hill, Co. Down Downview Park West, Co. Antrim Dressogagh, Co. Armagh Drogheda: Peter Street, Co. Louth Dromiskin, Co. Louth

Souterrain Souterrain Hillfort?

Harper 1972b, 59–61 (Unpublished) Ex Grainger Coll. U.M. Reg. No. K 18. 3943 Brannon 1977–79:0018

Gosling 1991, 244–46 Lawlor 1916, 41 Childe 1938, 130–32; Armit 2008, 6 McDowell 1987, 151 Channing 1994:169 O’Neill 2004:1080

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of probable souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of possible souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Brannon 1986:19

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Brannon 1997:071

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Halpin 1998:115

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Ó Baoill 1992:034

Ecclesiastical

Two sherds of souterrain ware

Ó Baoill 1994:040

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Proudfoot 1954; 1956

3 Souterrains

209 sherds of souterrain ware

Collins et al 1964, 126–27

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of ‘early medieval pottery’ Sherds of souterrain ware

Collins 1966, 123–24 Murphy 1995:200

Dromore, Co. Down

Rath Pre-medieval wall (Pottery Scatter) Souterrain and settlement ‘Cave’ (Souterrain?)

Dromore, Co. Antrim Drumadonnell, Co. Down Drumadoon, Co. Antrim

Rath Habitation Site Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Drumaheglis Marina, Co. Antrim Drumaroad, White Fort,

Ditch

Sherds of ‘early medieval pottery’ Sherds of souterrain ware

House and

84

Halpin 1988:45 N.M.I. Reg. Nos. WK. 459– 533 Collins 1968, 64–65 McSparron 2001, 48 McSparron & Williams 2004, 11; 2009, A35–A49. Anon. 2003:007 Waterman 1956b, 83–84

Co. Down Drumena, Co. Down Dunalis, Co. Londonderry Dunbeg, Co. Down Dundrum Castle, Co. Down

souterrain within cashel Cashel and souterrain Souterrain Hillfort

Berry 1926–27 50 sherds of souterrain ware

Dundrum Site I, Co. Down

Pre-castle Occupation Sandhills Habitation

Dundrum Site VI, Co. Down

Sandhills Habitation

Dundrum, Co. Down Dundrum, Site IV, Co. Down Dundrum, Site V, Co. Down Duneight, Co. Down Dunnyneill Island, Co. Down

? Sandhills Habitation Sandhills Habitation Earthworks Island trading post

Dunsilly, Co. Antrim

Rath

Farrandreg, Co. Louth Farrandreg, Co. Louth

Souterrain and pits Souterrain

Farranfad, Piper’s Fort, Co. Down Finkiltagh, Co. Antrim Galgorm, Co. Antrim Gartree, Langford Lodge, Co. Antrim Glengormley, Co. Antrim Glenloughan, Co. Down Gortgrib, Co. Down

Rath

198 sherds of souterrain ware 50 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of Souterrain Ware Large assemblage of cordoned souterrain ware 420 sherds of souterrain ware in stratified contexts excluding post-medieval ones Sherds of souterrain ware 19 souterrain ware sherds and remains of souterrain ware vessel Sherds of souterrain ware

Rath Souterrain Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Williams 1973:0003 Evans 1946, 83 Waterman 1963a, 51–52

Rath Rath Habitation site

Brannon 1986:05 Proudfoot 1961, 106 Warner & Delaney 1970:14

Ecclesiastical Site

Sherds of souterrain ware Possible souterrain ware A vessel of ‘souterrain ware’ and several further sherds of this ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Sandhills

Sherds of souterrain ware

Gormley 2004a

Rath

Considerable quantity of souterrain ware Two sherds of souterrain ware

Lynn 1985a, 81–90

Grange of Mallusk, Co. Antrim Grangemore, Co. Londonderry Gransha, Co. Down Greencastle, Co. Down

Sherds of souterrain ware

Lindsay 1934–35 Inskeep & Proudfoot 1957, 111–12 Waterman 1951, 25–26

Around 200 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware – some cordoned

Haggardstown, Co. Louth

Pre-castle occupation Ditch

Haggardstown, Co. Louth Hillsborough, Co. Down

Metalworking Site Rath

Holywood, Croft Road, Co. Down Inch (Abbey), Co. Down Inch/Ballyrenan, Co. Down

Rath

Jordanstown, Meadowbank, Co. Antrim Kilcoo (parish of), Co. Down Killarn, Co. Down Killegar, Co. Wicklow

Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware

Souterrain Rath Ecclesiastical site

Kilroot, Co. Antrim

Ecclesiastical site

Sherds of souterrain ware One sherd of souterrain ware 7 sherds of possible souterrain ware One sherd of souterrain ware

Killyliss, Co. Tyrone

Rath

30 sherds of souterrain ware

Ecclesiastical Site Rath, multi-period landscape

Souterrain ware sherd; undated pottery sherd in nearby souterrain Coarse early medieval pottery Sherds of souterrain ware Over 150 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

85

Collins 1952, 10–12 Collins 1952, 19 N.M.I. Reg. No. 1939:703 Collins 1959b, 11 Collins 1959b, 11 Waterman 1963b, 72–74 McCormick & Macdonald 2004; 2010, 53 McNeill 1991–92, 100–04 Bolger 2000:0674 Murphy 1998, 271–75 Waterman 1959b

Crothers 1997

Gaskell-Brown 1979, 57–60; Lynn 1977–79:0032 Moore 2001:858; McKeown 2003, 272 Walsh 2002:1348 Gaskell-Brown & Brannon 1978, 83–87 Proudfoot 1959, 105; Dunlop 2004:0436 Brannon 1980–84:0083 MacManus 1997:074; 1998:114; McQuillan 1999:151 Halpin & Crothers 1995:007 Lawlor 1916, 45 Boal & Moffit 1959, 110 Raftery 1941, 306–08 Ó Néill 2003:0016; McCormick & Macdonald 2003:0017 Ivens 1984a, 24

Kilmore, Co. Armagh

Ecclesiastical site

Kilmoyle, Co. Antrim

?

Knock Dhu, Co. Antrim Knockans South, Rathlin Island, Co. Antrim Larrybane, Co. Antrim

Souterrain Late Neolithic

Lisanisk 1, Co. Monaghan

Pit near rath

Lisleitrim, Co. Armagh Lismahon, Co. Down Lisnacrogher, Co. Antrim Lisnagade II, Co. Down Lisnalinchy, Co. Antrim Lisnaskea, Lisdoo Fort, Co. Fermanagh Lissue, Co. Antrim Lissue, Co. Antrim

Crannog Rath Crannog Rath Habitation site Rath

Lough Faughan, Co. Down

Crannog

Magheramenagh, Co. Londonderry Magheramenagh, Co. Londonderry Markstown, Co. Antrim Marshes Upper 1, Co. Louth

Promontory Fort

Sherds of souterrain ware Possible souterrain ware sherds Sherds of souterrain ware Sherd of possible souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware 4 sherds of souterrain ware Possible souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware One sherd of souterrain ware

Crothers 2002:0034 N.M.I. Reg. Nos. Wk. 53 R. 139 Lawlor 1916, 33 Conway 1994:008 Childe 1936, 188–91; Proudfoot & Wilson 1961– 62, 97–103 Coughlan 2003:1489 Collins (Pers. Comm.) Waterman 1959a, 157–58 Wakeman 1891, 675 Proudfoot 1961, 106 Gilmore 2003:0020 Brannon 1981–82, 55–57 Bersu 1947, 51–52; 1948 Gahan 2000:0018

Souterrain

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of decorated souterrain ware Over 200 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Souterrain

Sherds of souterrain ware

Reilly 1999:130

Sherds of souterrain ware Over 55 sherds of souterrain ware 50 sherds of souterrain ware Over 100 sherds of souterrain ware 15 sherds of souterrain ware

McSparron 2001:0014 Gosling 1980–84:0137; Buteaux 1985:40 Gosling 1980–84:0138 Gowen 1992, 103

Marshes Upper 6, Co. Louth

Habitation site Souterrain and settlement Souterrain 5 souterrains and enclosures Enclosure and souterrain Souterrain

Marshes Upper, Co. Louth

Habitation site

Sherds of souterrain ware

Middle Division, Co. Antrim

Prehistoric burnt mound Shell midden Ecclesiastical

Several sherds of souterrain ware Two sherds of souterrain ware Two body sherds souterrain ware Sherd of possible souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Marshes Upper 2, Co. Louth Marshes Upper 3-4, Co. Louth Marshes Upper 5, Co. Louth

Minnis North, Co. Antrim Moneydorragh More, Kilhorne, Co. Down Mooretown North, Swords, Co. Dublin Movilla Abbey, Co. Down

Rath Pits

Considerable quantities of souterrain ware ?

Enclosure Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware

Moyadam, Co. Antrim Moylarg, Co. Antrim

Souterrain Crannóg

One sherd of souterrain ware

Moyle Big, Co. Carlow Mullagh, Co. Cavan

Pits and ditches Ecclesiastical

Mullagharlin/Haggardstown, Co. Louth Nendrum, Co. Down

Souterrain and ditch Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware Three sherds of ‘early medieval pottery’ Several sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Newtownbalregan, Co. Louth Old Town Deer Park, Bellaghy Bawn, Co. Londonderry Oughtymore, Co. Londonderry Poleglass, Co. Antrim

Rath and souterrain

32 sherds of souterrain ware

Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware

Sandhills

20 sherds of souterrain ware

Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware

86

Collins 1955, 55–57 Gilmore 2000:0163

McCormick & Crone 2000, 555–60 McCormick & Crone 2000, 560 Mossop 2002:1335; 2002:1341 Crothers 1996:011 Simpson et al 1993, 117 Macdonald & McIlreavy 2007, 112 Halliday 2004:0651 Yates 1983, 61, 65; Ivens 1984b, 83–86. Evans 1946, 79–80 Buick 1893, 42–43; 1894, 328 Kyle et al 2009, 79 Russell 2005:127 McLoughlin 1999:610 Lawlor 1925; McErlean & Crothers 2007a, 369–70 Bayley 2003:1286; Roycroft 2005, 75 Hurl 1995:042 Mallory & Woodman 1984, 53 Harper 1971:06

Portbraddan, Co. Antrim Portmuck, Islandmagee, Co. Antrim Raholp (Craigaphuile I), Co. Down Raholp, Co. Down Rampark, Co. Louth

Cave habitation Pottery scatter (premedieval rural site) Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware 3 sherds of souterrain ware

May 1943, 51–55 Gormley 2004b, 87, 112

Sherds of souterrain ware

Collins 1959a, 91

Few sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Neill 1989:020 Campbell 2004:1122

Rathbeg, Co. Antrim Rathmullan, Co. Down Ringmackilroy, Co. Down Sallagh Fort, Co. Antrim Seacash, Co. Antrim

Ecclesiastical Cemetery and souterrains Rath Raised rath Rath Rath and souterrain Rath

Warhurst 1969, 96–7 Lynn 1981–82, 119–24 Crothers 1992:037 Davies 1938, 33 Lynn 1978b, 65–7

Seafin, Co. Down Shane’s Castle, Co. Antrim

Rath? (Pre-Motte) Rath

Solar, Co. Antrim

Ecclesiastical

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware 2,885 sherds of souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware Substantial quantity of souterrain ware 161 sherds of souterrain ware

Spittle Quarter, Co. Down St Peter’s, Balrothery, Co. Dublin Tateetra, Co. Louth

Souterrain Ecclesiastical Site

Sherd of souterrain ware 3 sherds of souterrain ware

Souterrain

Terryhoogan, Co. Armagh Tray, Haughey’s Fort, Co. Armagh Tullaghgarley, Co. Antrim Tully, Co. Antrim Tullylish, Co. Down Turnarobert, Co. Antrim Urney, Co. Tyrone Wattstown, Soldiers’ Hill, Co. Londonderry Whiterath, Site 1, Co. Louth Whiterath, Site 2, Co. Louth

Habitation Site Bronze Age enclosure Souterrain Raised rath Ecclesiastical Souterrain Rath Habitation site

Over 1,000 sherds of souterrain ware 500 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of ‘early Christian pottery’ Sherd of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware Sherd of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

McQuillan & Long 1999:018 Harper 1970:03 Ivens 1987, 87–95 Williams 1991:011 Scott 1970:034 Stevens 2004:0375

Near Rath (Site 2) Rath

Sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of souterrain ware

Ó Drisceoil 2000:0720 Ó Drisceoil 2000:0721

Waterman 1955, 86, 94 Warhurst 1971, 62–3 Hurl 2002; Sandes 2002, 62–3. Brannon 1990:028; 1990 Murphy 2002:0472 Roycroft 2005, 76–77, 80; Hayes 2006, 57 McSparron 2007, 124–9 Mallory 1995:010

Table A.12: Evidence for pottery-making (souterrain ware) from early medieval sites Townland/Site Name Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Ballyeagh, Co. Kerry Ballygerry, Co. Wexford Killegar, Co. Wexford Lagore, Co. Meath Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Reask, Co. Kerry

Site Type Rath Sandhills Habitation site Ecclesiastical Crannog Crannog Ecclesiastical

Comments Single piece of dark red pottery with inclusions Sherds of inferior quality red pottery – local attempts to copy imported Roman wares 28 sherds of Pottery which shared some similarities to the souterrain ware tradition Seven sherds of red pottery, possibly Iron Age Sherd of black, coarse ware Sherds of ‘a coil-built pottery vessel of poorly fired white clay’ 100 sherds of pottery – a light porous grass-tempered type; and a heavier type containing grits

Table A.13: Evidence for pottery-making (non-souterrain ware?) from early medieval sites

87

Reference Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, 37 Ó Ríordáin 1947, 66 Henry 2004:1789 Raftery 1941, 306–8 Hencken 1950, 126 Bradley 1991, 18 Fanning 1981, 112

Section Three: Early Medieval Crafts and the Manufacture and Use of Dress and Ornament By Maureen Doyle This section explores what people in early medieval Ireland wore – clothing, accessories and ornaments – and examines the evidence from the sites detailed in the gazetteer in Section Four for both the presence of these dress items, and for their manufacture. Chapter 7 considers what was worn in this period, and our sources for reconstructing the costume; and analyses the most common artefacts found, with reference to

their location and other details. Chapter 8 then considers the evidence for the crafts involved in making clothing and ornaments; this deals primarily with textile working, but includes brief assessments of working in other materials (metals, leather, glass, bone, jet/lignite) insofar as they relate specifically to personal ornaments. A broader consideration of these latter crafts was given in Section 2.

Chapter 7: Early Medieval Dress and Ornament grey and brown, and commoners’ sons may wear clothes of yellow, black, white or dun-colour. Similarly, noble children are permitted to wear silver brooches, while lower grades are restricted to lesser metals (Ní Chonaill 2008, 14). While this law is specific to children in fosterage, similar restrictions may have been proposed for adults of the relevant ranks, at least in principle. Whether such sumptuary dictats actually operated in practice, they may ‘reflect a general truth that the higher ranks wore more colourful clothing than those of lower rank’ (Kelly 1997, 263). The Annals of the Four Masters include an early entry which supports this idea, suggesting that status was displayed through the number of colours worn: ‘one colour in the clothes of slaves; two in the clothes of soldiers; three in the clothes of goodly heroes, or young lords of territories; six in the clothes of ollavs; seven in the clothes of kings and queens’ (O’Donovan 1848–51, i, 45).

Dress in early medieval Ireland was based around the main garments of the léine or tunic, the brat or cloak, the ionar (a type of jacket) and trousers or breeches (Dunlevy 1999). With the exception of the latter, the same garments were generally worn by both men and women; variations in length, quality and embellishment (embroidery, colour, etc.) provided the main distinguishing features of this basic costume. The basic garments were also accompanied by accessories, including shoes and belts. Few headdresses are known, other than caps and scarves from Viking Dublin, made of wool and silk. A wide range of ornaments was also used. Some, such as brooches and pins, were in the first instance functional, being used to fasten garments, especially the brat, although they also offered the opportunity for display. Others, such as bracelets, rings and beads, were more purely decorative. Taken together they offer an insight into the overall costume, and what information it was used to convey to society in terms of statements of age, gender or status.

Quantities of garments are occasionally referred to; in Crith Gablach, the mruigfer (landman) and his wife are described as having four costumes each among their possessions (MacNeill 1923, 291). There is also an implication of dress being differentiated for various purposes; costumes for special occasions are suggested, including the festival garment of a king, mentioned in Bretha im Fhuillema Gell (Kelly 1988, 166). A mention in a late legal gloss of the contents of a queen’s work bag including a veil (Atkinson 1901, 383) hints at a possible secular use of such headdresses, although most evidence for veils occurs in religious texts, with reference to nuns. Quantities of garments, including tunics and a variety of cloaks, are also listed among the stipends and rents exchanged between kings and their underlings in Lebor na Cert (The Book of Rights) (Dillon 1962).

Literary evidence Contemporary literature, including the law tracts, sagas, saints’ Lives and other documents, gives considerable information on dress. The basic garments are taken for granted, and it is the details of the tunics and cloaks – colour, fabric, decoration, and how they are worn – which is the focus of attention. In Táin Bó Cuailnge, for example, varying lengths of tunic (to the knee, or to the feet) are described (O’Rahilly 1976, 125, 183). The extent to which we can rely on these texts varies; the law tracts, for example, dating originally from the seventh to eighth century but incorporating later glosses and corruptions (Kelly 1988, 1, 225–6, 232), are largely normative in nature, setting out what people of particular social ranks were entitled – or expected – to wear. Thus, for example, a late gloss on the law on fosterage prescribes different colours of clothes to be worn by children based on their fathers’ social rank: the sons of kings may wear purple and blue, the sons of lords red,

Sagas offer a broader view of dress and ornament, including descriptions of richly-coloured clothing, fine fabrics, and elaborate ornaments of gold and silver set with jewels. These details also extend to accessories; in The Wooing of Becfhola, for example, the beautiful 88

on their use by lords and heads of families may obscure the potential use of brooches of varying kinds, materials and intrinsic values across a broader swathe of society. Saints’ Lives and other religious texts also occasionally mention brooches; for example, in one story Samthann is said to have taken a brooch from her mantle (Gwynn and Purton 1911, 150–1). One of the Lives of Brigid, Bethu Brigte, records the use of a brooch as a pledge, and also notes the use of the brooch by various people of different status and gender (Ó hAodha 1978, 34).

woman met by Diarmuid son of Aed Slane, king of Tara, wears ‘two blunt shoes of white bronze, two gems of precious stones in them…’ (Cross and Slover 1969, 533). Much of this, however, must be considered in the light of literary conventions: being largely written for an aristocratic audience (Ní Bhrolcháin 2009, 42) and usually dealing with the exploits of kings, heroes and other high-status individuals, it is not surprising that rich garments and ornaments are portrayed. More mundane items also appear, usually worn by churls or low-status persons, for example in Cath Maige Tuired, the Dagda wears shoes made of horsehide ‘with the hair outside’ (Gray 1982, 47).

Some other texts broaden the range of ornaments referred to. In Lebor na Cert, brooches, bracelets and rings are all mentioned as forming part of kingly gifts, suggesting their symbolic as well as functional use (Dillon 1962). Sagas refer to brooches and to other forms of ornament, mostly pins but also occasionally neck ornaments and arm-rings. Many of the heroes in Táin Bó Cuailnge wear elaborate brooches (e.g. O’Rahilly 1976, 221–3), and in the same tale Queen Medb offers brooches and bracelets as inducements to Fer Diad (ibid., 196–8); in Cath Maige Tuired, the king of the Fomoire wears ‘five circlets of gold around his neck’ (Gray 1982, 27).

Saints’ Lives might not be expected to include much detail of dress, but they contain some interesting details of what holy people might wear; references to animal skin clothes, and a focus on white as an appropriate colour, both have biblical echoes. An extract from the Rule of Ailbe, which states what a monk’s clothing should not be, also suggests what secular alternatives were in use: ‘His feet should always be shod, but fringes of red leather are not to be worn. His clothing is to be without blue, red, or any kind of ornamentation’ (Ó Maidin 1996, 19).

Pictorial evidence Illuminated manuscripts provide one source of images of how people dressed, although the restricted nature of those depicted – mainly saints, Biblical figures and clerics – limits the social spread: few secular figures are included, and those which are shown are most likely of high status, so the reality and range of early medieval Irish costume is uncertain. Similarly, images on metalwork, such as shrines, are also subject to religious context and conventions, which affect the costumes shown. Stone carving, mainly but not exclusively on high crosses, is the third source of images. The scriptural crosses of the ninth century and later contain a wealth of figures, although most are small in size and limited in detail. Again, Biblical and ecclesiastical figures dominate, although a number of scenes have been interpreted as depicting contemporary secular figures. Most of the people shown in all three media are male; FitzGerald (1991, 78) estimated that just two per cent of figures were female. Children, too, are significantly under-represented, and again the focus is on Biblical figures.

In terms of specific textiles, reference is made to garments of wool, linen and silk. Woollen cloaks are a common feature, and are worn by most types of characters; linen is occasionally mentioned in hagiography, especially in relation to shrouds (e.g. Connolly 1989, 30); references to silken garments appear from the ninth/tenth century in tales such as Togail Bruidne Ui Derga (Dillon 1994, 25) and Tocmharc Becfhola (Whitfield 2006, 2), and increase (along with the range of figures shown wearing silk) by the twelfth century, when Cogadh Gaedhil re Gallaibh also refers to the presence of ‘silk-clad young women’ in HibernoNorse Limerick (Todd 1867, 79). Decoration of textiles, including embroidery, is implied by occasional references to embroideresses and their valuable needles in the law racts (Kelly 1988, 78), and in saga descriptions such as the tunics with red embroidery mentioned in the Táin (O’Rahilly 1976, 125–6). While different types of ornaments are mentioned in texts, the main focus, especially in the law tracts, is on brooches and their use to symbolise status. In Críth Gablach, for example, the aire desa is said to have clothdelg n-ungae, ‘a precious brooch of an ounce’ (MacNeill 1923, 297), which probably refers to its worth in silver rather than its weight (Kelly 1988, 114). The laws also refer to the method of wearing brooches: the seventh/eighth-century law tract Bretha Étgid exempted a man from liability for injuring another with the pin of his brooch provided he wore it properly, on the shoulder; a woman, however, was supposed to wear her brooch on her breast (Ó Floinn 2001, 1; Kelly 1988, 150). These legal references, while limited, provide some important clues as to the use and meaning of brooches in early medieval Ireland – not least the fact that they were worn by both men and women. The apparent focus, however,

Apart from the various conventions used in depiction, the media themselves have certain restrictions. Manuscripts offer the greatest potential for detail, including colour, although given the blue hair of St John the Evangelist in the St. Gall Gospel Book, this need not be wholly realistic. Although the uneven chronological distribution of the various sources, and the limited coverage of gender, age and social roles, offer an incomplete picture of the period, the iconographical evidence nevertheless shows evidence for the costume of at least some segments of society. Details of dress depicted include different lengths of tunic, worn with cloaks which are sometimes fastened 89

with brooches. One panel on the early tenth-century West Cross at Clonmacnoise depicts two men, usually interpreted as chieftains, wearing ankle-length léine, belted at the waist, with a brat held in place at the shoulder by a brooch. A second panel contains a secular figure, possibly that of King Flann mac Máel Sechnaill, wearing a shorter knee-length tunic, and an ecclesiastic dressed in an ankle-length robe and an outer garment. The hems of the robe and tunic appear to be decorated, perhaps with tablet-woven borders (Edwards 1990, 83– 4). Other figures from carved stone crosses indicate that some men may have worn short, tight, knee-length trews (these also appear in the Book of Kells) while the Scandinavians appear to have preferred trousers (McClintock 1950, 1–3, 11–4; Edwards 1990, 83). The depiction of the Virgin Mary in a long cloak and tunic in the Book of Kells may suggest that women were expected to dress in this fashion, although her particular status and the general absence of female figures from contemporary images limit the information which can be deduced in this regard. Manuscripts in particular offer evidence for shoes and boots, notably in the Books of Durrow, Dimma, Moling and MacDurnan’s Gospels; some figures, however, are depicted as barefoot.

1950), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 57–8) and Island MacHugh (Davies 1950). Another small assemblage came from water-logged layers of a raised rath at Deer Park Farms (Wincott Heckett 2011, 354–61). Two tiny fragments, probably of wool cloth, were found at Knowth (FitzGerald 2012, 552, 557), and some fragments of charred linen were found in a kiln at Ballyvass (Clark and Doyle 2011). In addition, a single fragment of woollen cloth survived in a burial at Church Island, Co. Kerry (O'Kelly 1958, 92, 112). By far the largest single nonurban assemblage, consisting of 77 fragments, was found at Lagore, dating mainly to the initial occupation period (Start 1950, 204–5). Most of the textiles from rural sites are of plain tabby weave, but occasional twill-woven textiles occur, including one finely-woven piece from Lagore, possibly dyed with madder, which was interpreted as of Viking manufacture (Edwards 1990, 82). There is also one twill fragment from Island MacHugh (Davies 1950), and the fragment from Church Island is also of twill (O’Kelly 1958, 135). For the most part, however, twill weaves occur in Dublin and Waterford. Decorative textiles include a fringed tablet-woven piece from Lagore (Start 1950) which echoes some of the borders on garments which are implied in the iconographic sources.

The only ornaments which appear in images are brooches. In the Book of Kells, the Virgin wears a lozenge-shaped brooch on her right shoulder (although this may be a symbol of the Word of God rather than an actual brooch (Richardson 1984, 32, 45)). Brooches are depicted on a number of high crosses, including a penannular brooch in the panel of the Arrest (or Mocking) of Christ on Muireadach’s Cross, Monasterboice (Harbison 1999, 136), and two penannular brooches on the Baptism scene on the Broken Cross at Kells (Allen 1904, 225). Two figures on the Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnoise each have a circular brooch on one shoulder (Crawford 1980, 76). An interesting representation of a brooch occurs on a caryatid at White Island, Co. Fermanagh (Harbison 1999, 136); this brooch appears to be worn as an ornament rather than a fastener, and its pin points downwards, contrary to the legal text noted above. Some brooches also appear on metalwork figures, including possible cross-in-circle disc brooches on the shoulders of an ecclesiastic on the Corp Naomh bell shrine (Johnson 2005, 306) and similarly on a twelfth-century figure of an ecclesiastic (Wallace and Ó Floinn 2002, 224).

Most of the textiles mentioned above were made of wool, or occasionally hair; only a few small fragments of cloth made of vegetable fibres (probably linen) have been found, at Deer Park Farms (Wincott Heckett 2011) and Ballyvass (Clark and Doyle 2011). Urban contexts have provided a wider range of textiles; over 200 fragments of textiles, cordage, basketry and raw fibres were found in the excavation of houses, ditches and cess/rubbish pits in Hiberno-Scandinavian Waterford (Wincott Heckett 1997, 743). These included fragments of woven cloth of silk, wool and linen in a wide range of qualities and weaves; a variety of cordage materials; knotted silk mesh filets; tablet-woven hair fibres and felted wads (ibid.). The excavations in Hiberno-Scandinavian Dublin likewise produced a variety of textiles, comprising over 2,000 pieces. These included 41 woollen and 27 silk textiles (of tabby-weave fabric) from Fishamble Street and John’s Lane, many of which were identified as fragments of head-coverings, caps, scarves and bands dating from the early tenth to late twelfth century (Wincott Heckett 2003, 1). Silk weaving on looms was not established in northwest Europe till the end of the medieval period (Wincott Heckett 1997, 753), so the evidence from the Irish towns might indicate links with trading networks which stretched as far as the Silk Road to China. The distribution and nature of the remains are insufficient to offer a broad view of dress across society, but confirm the use of both wool and linen; silk, however, has not been found outside of Dublin and Waterford.

Material evidence of dress and ornament Garments The very limited amount of textile remains makes it difficult to verify the assertions of the texts regarding garments. Of 317 sites in the gazetteer, only six produced actual textiles. This scarcity must be contrary to the original distribution, and is primarily a result of limited preservation. For the most part, preservation due to water-logging means that textiles come either from the urban sites of Dublin (Wincott Heckett 2003), Waterford (Wincott Heckett 1997, 743–9) and Cork (Wincott Heckett 2010), or from crannógs such as Lagore (Start

Some of the textiles from Dublin have been identified as head-coverings in the form of caps or scarves (Wincott Heckett 2003), but there is little evidence from rural sites of such items. The small size of most of the rural fragments limits the possibility of reconstructing garments, although occasional details of hems and other 90

Raheennamadra (Stenberger 1966, 44) and Cherrywood (Ó Néill 2006, 69)), where they have sometimes been interpreted as indicating intrusive, possibly Anglo-Saxon, elements (Ó Floinn 2002, 176; O’Brien 1999, 179–84). Twenty-seven sites in the gazetteer produced one or more buckles; most sites had just one or two examples, although some are recorded simply as ‘plural’; Ballinderry I and Lagore each have three buckles, Cahercommaun possibly four (one bronze fragment, three possible iron), and Knowth nine (six iron and three bronze). Both copper alloy and iron are used in making buckles; most are quite plain (and often incomplete), but Lagore produced a highly-decorated bronze example from an unstratified context (Hencken 1950, 66 and fig 11, 323) while Ballywee has a silvered bronze example (Lynn 1988a). It is interesting to note that the larger quantities of these finds come from the traditional ‘highstatus’ (even royal) sites such as Lagore, Knowth and Cahercommaun, although the general scarcity might suggest this was not a widespread ornament. This may confirm the sense that this is an unusual item, perhaps adopted only by a minority (although further examination of distribution and chronology would be needed to assess this possibility), or may suggest that belts could have been fastened in other ways.

stitching are found, including a finely-worked hem and decorative stitching on one fragment from Lagore, and a skilful darn on another (Edwards 1990, 83). A small number of textiles offer evidence for the colours used in dress. As noted above, one pink textile from Lagore may have been dyed with madder, and analysis of a red textile from Deer Park Farms indicated the probable use of wild madder or bedstraw (Wincott Heckett 2011, 356). Analysis of textiles from Dublin showed the use in a few cases of imported madder R. Tinctorum, probable woad, and lichen purple (Wincott Heckett 2003, 128); madder and lichen purple were also found in textiles from Waterford, along with yellow weld and the use of tannins and barks to enhance natural brown colours (Wincott Heckett 1997, 747–750, 761). Apart from the textiles, occasional remains of animal or plant sources used for dyestuffs occur; these are discussed in Chapter 8 in the context of textile working. One site, Deer Park Farms, produced both dyed cloth and raw dyestuffs; however, the dyes involved were different (red from madder and blue from woad respectively). Accessories Leather shoes are preserved mainly in waterlogged conditions, and while complete examples occasionally occur, much of the artefactual evidence consists of fragments which may represent shoes, belts, garments or other items such as bags and satchels. A range of types of shoes was identified by Lucas (1956), who catalogued five types, of which the first four may date to the early medieval period. Both one-piece and composite shoes are known, the former at times elaborately decorated. Only fourteen of the sites in the gazetteer produced leather remains which may reflect shoes; sites with definite shoes (uppers, soles, heels, etc.) include Ballinderry II (two Lucas Type 1), Craigywarren (two Type 1 also), Deer Park Farms, Moynagh Lough, Lissue and Rathtinaun (three Type 1). Large quantities of leather (268 fragments) including shoes were also found at Lagore.

Ornaments A broad range of ornaments is known from early medieval Ireland, not all of which come from excavated contexts or settlement sites. Personal ornaments are by their nature small, portable objects; as such it might be expected that they could be easily transported, traded or exchanged over distances. As noted above, only some of these items appear in the literary or pictorial sources; archaeological evidence provides significant additional information on the types and details, and potentially how they were used. However, it has also been noted that the artefactual evidence does not always support the literary descriptions, perhaps because of the use of specific conventions in the written texts; the precious metals in descriptions of brooches and pins in the Táin, for example, are in inverse proportion to those found in the artefactual evidence (Mallory 1986).

As with textiles, the preservation conditions required for leather, and the fragmentary nature of most of the surviving remains, limit the potential for discussion of the original distribution of these artefacts. Six of the fourteen sites with leather remains are crannogs, but more localised waterlogging can occur in other site types, for example in ditches; the small sample size makes it futile to generalise about the extent of shoe-wearing, either in terms of geographical distribution or site types.

The distribution of personal ornaments is fairly wide, with examples occurring in 216 of the 317 sites in the gazetteer. The absence of personal ornaments from almost one-third of the total sites surveyed might perhaps reflect the extent of the excavations, or the nature of the sites; ornaments were found at only seven of 22 souterrain sites, for example, while all of the cemeterysettlement sites surveyed had some personal ornaments. But all of the site types are represented among those producing ornaments (Fig. 7.1).

Fragments of leather might also represent the remains of belts, although the possibility of woven textile belts having been used must also be considered. The more usual evidence for belts occurs in the form of buckles. These are a relatively rare find on excavated sites, although some have been found in burials (e.g.

91

Fig. 7.1: Breakdown of the 216 sites with personal ornaments by site type The contexts of the personal ornaments vary across the sites; for the most part excavated examples on settlement sites are not directly in contexts which suggest their use – occurring in ditches or pits, or as unstratified finds. One notable exception is Deer Park Farms, where several of the ornaments (including a brooch and several beads) were found not only within the houses, but in some cases in the bedding areas, allowing them to be considered directly in connection with the inhabitants and their daily lives (Lynn and McDowell 2011, 333). The degree of preservation on this site allows such associations to be made, which may not be apparent in other excavations.

Ornament type Brooch Pin

Number of sites 1 36

Buckle Bead

1 16

Bracelet

12

Other

2

Ornaments in burials are rare, but occasional examples may suggest dressed burials, or allow associations to be made between specific items and people, in terms of gender, age or other aspects of identity. The range of ornaments found on different sites varies widely; many sites have just a single type, such as a pin or a bead, but others have multiple types and examples. Some 70 sites produced just a single ornament type (see Table 7.1), often represented by just a single item; the most common ornament type among these sites was the pin, followed by beads and bracelets.

Site names Kilree 3 Ardcloon; Ballynarry; Ballyarra; Ballykennedy; Ballynakelly; Ballyroney; Banduff; Baunoguephlure; Béal Ború; Beginish; Big Glebe; Boho; Boyerstown; Cahircalla More; Carnalbanagh East; Cavanapole; Clonmoney West; Cloonaghboy; Craig Hill; Deerfin; Dromiskin; Farrandreg; Gortnahoon; Holywood; Kilcloghans; Killederdadrum; Killyglen; Knockadrina; Leacanabuaile; Lisdoo; Loughbown 1; Marlhill 2; Moyne; Rathmorrissy; Sallymount; Sluggary Pollardstown Balgatheran; Ballyduff; Ballyshanaghill; Barrees Valley; Coarhabeg; Cross; Crossnacreevy; Dromthacker; Lisnagade 2; Lisnagun; Loher; Maynooth Castle; Rathbeg; Shane’s Castle; Sheephouse; Treanbaun Ballyrenan; Carnmore West; Carrigillihy; Cloongownagh; Coolcran; Dressogagh; Island MacHugh; Killarn; Killyliss; Langford Lodge; Oughtymore; Rinnaraw Croom East (ring); Poulacapple (amber button)

Table 7.1: Sites producing just a single type of personal ornament 92

Site Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballycatteen, Co. Cork Ballywee, Co. Antrim Baronstown, Co. Meath Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Castlefarm, Co. Meath Castleskreen, Co. Down Clogher, Co. Tyrone Cush, Co. Limerick

Type Crannog

Brooch 2

Pins 28

Beads 1

Bracelets 5

Buckles 3

Other

Crannog

4+

27

30

3

Multivallate

1

3+

3

1

Non-circular Non-circular

Plural Plural

Plural 1

Fragments 1

1

2

Cashel

3

98

17

52

4

Cashel

2

89

29

37

2 pendants 1 ring 2 rings

Settlementcemetery Univallate

2

81

6

8

4 rings

1

1

2

1

Multivallate Non-circular

plural 1

1 3

1 8

1 Plural

Other

1

10

4

Fragments

Pendant, head-ring 3 rings

Raised

1

62

89

23

4 rings

Other Non-circular

Plural 1

c.100 11

Plural 1

Fragments

71+

10

17

Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dooey, Co. Donegal Dowdstown 2, Co. Meath Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin Feerwore, Co. Galway Garranes, Co. Cork Garryduff, Co. Cork

Univallate

Plural

1

1

Multivallate Univallate

1

3 35+

12 29

2

Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath

Raised Crannog

3 10

223 221

89 161

84 116

Lough Faughan, Co. Down Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Owenbristy, Co. Galway Parknahown, Co. Laois Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Raystown, Co. Meath Roestown 2, Co. Meath Uisneach, Co. Westmeath

Crannog

1

Plural

8

2

Crannog

2

23

plural

22

Settlementcemetery Settlementcemetery Crannog

1

2

4

2

2

Torc

2

16+

16+

Fragments

1

2

26+

9+

5+

Necklace fragment? Rings

Non-circular

29

8

4

2

Ring

Non-circular

67+

14+

7

1

4

1

Cashel

Other

2

14

Plural 1

2 rings 1 ring

9 3

4 rings, earrings? Ring? 2 pendants, plural rings 5 rings 6 rings, 1 pendant Ring & pendant 2 rings

1 ring

Table 7.2: Sites with multiple ornament types and quantities attention. Issues which may complicate the distribution include the presence of some ornaments in burials – such as a torc in a male burial at Owenbristy (Lehane and Delaney 2010, 35), beads and other items in both child and adult female burials at Parknahown (O’Neill 2010, 256–7), and a blue glass bead in an infant burial at Raystown (Seaver 2010, 271). In addition, evidence for manufacturing at Dooey and Clogher (see Chapter 8) may also confuse the issue as to whether items found on site were made and/or used there.

At the other end of the scale, a number of sites have a broad range of ornament types. Table 7.2, based on sites in the gazetteer, highlights a number of issues. First, while some sites have exceptional quantities of ornaments, the range of types present even in smaller numbers may be of interest. Given that so many sites produce just one type of personal ornament, the presence of four or more ornament types on these 29 sites is interesting. The distinction between sites with range but not overall quantity, and those with both, needs further 93

example. Of the 216 sites which produced personal ornaments in this survey, just 40 sites produced brooches. Of these, 23 sites had just a single brooch, while the others ranged from two to ten brooches, with some unspecified plurals (see Table 7.3). In terms of brooch types, only limited details are available in some cases, but most appear to be penannular brooches, with rare disc brooches (one apiece) found at Lagore and Togherstown (Hencken 1950, 67; Macalister and Praeger 1931, 79–80). An interesting feature is the discovery of a bird-headed penannular brooch at each of the sites of Lagore (Hencken 1950, 61), Moynagh Lough (Bradley 1994–95, 166), Baronstown (Linnane and Kinsella 2007, 59) and Parknahown (O’Neill 2007, 136, 138); this type is often seen as influenced by Anglo-Saxon designs, but was probably mediated through Dunadd in Scotland (Lane and Campbell 2000, 106, 239; Ó Floinn 2009, 245).

Brooches Brooches are frequently the most decorative of early medieval ornaments; they are also the most commonly depicted in texts and images. Several different types occur, with different chronological spreads. Zoomorphic penannular brooches are generally dated from the fifth to seventh centuries AD, and the later annular/pseudopenannular types to the eighth and ninth centuries; bossed penannular and ‘thistle’ brooches are both found mainly in the ninth/tenth-century period, while kite brooches occur from this point in time through to the twelfth century. Disc brooches are extremely rare, at least until tenth/eleventh-century Hiberno-Scandinavian Dublin. Some types may overlap in reports with ringed-pins, notably the eighth/ninth-century ‘brooch pin’ (Youngs 1989, 214); some call these ring brooches (Laing 2006, 154; Fanning 1994, 5), but this term may cause confusion with the later medieval ring brooches (see Deevy 1998).

While crannogs account for five of the seventeen sites listed below, brooches are well distributed across all site types (see Fig. 7.2 for distribution across all forty sites). The geographical distribution is also broad (Fig. 7.3); differences in the proportions across the modern provinces may be related to the extent of excavation, rather than original presence.

Brooches of different materials are known, ranging from just two gold examples to the more common use of silver or copper alloy, with also some iron and (later) pewter examples. While some of these brooches are further ornamented with gilding or tinning, enamel, glass or amber studs, others are relatively plain, although cast or incised ornament may add to the decorative effect.

Copper alloy is the most common material used in excavated brooches. Twenty-eight of the sites had brooches of copper alloy only, and four had iron only (Altanagh, Ballyegan, Feerwore and Rathgurreen). Five sites had brooches of both materials (Dooey, Lagore, Millockstown, Uisneach and Rathtinaun). As noted in Table 7.3, several sites with two or more brooches saw the use of both copper alloy and iron in these ornaments, indicating access to multiple metals in many cases.

A difficulty in discussing the use and distribution of brooches is that significant numbers in collections derive from old/stray finds, and are therefore lacking in context. Many of the most elaborate and best-known brooches, including the ‘Tara’ brooch, fall into this category, and it can be difficult to trace their original context (see Whitfield 1974). Certain types of brooch are more affected by this than others; no thistle or bossed penannular brooches have been found in excavations, for Site Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Baronstown, Co. Meath Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Site type Crannog Non-circular Cashel Cemetery/ settlement Multivallate Univallate Multivallate

Brooch 2 2 2 2

Materials 1 silver, 1 copper alloy 2 copper alloy 2 copper alloy (1 gilded) 2 copper alloy

Reference Hencken 1936, 144, 154 Linnane & Kinsella 2009a, iv Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 69 O’Connell & Clark 2009, 38

2 2 2

Warner 1973 Taylor 2007, 78 Manning 1986, 154, 157

2 2

Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Uisneach, Co. Westmeath

Crannog Cemetery/ settlement Crannog Other

2 copper alloy 2 copper alloy 1 copper alloy, 1 iron (fragment) 2 copper alloy 2 copper alloy

2 2

1 copper alloy, 1 iron 1 copper alloy, 1 iron

Cahercommaun, Co. Clare

Cashel

3

Knowth, Co. Meath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Lagore, Co. Meath

Raised Crannog Crannog

3 4 10

1 silver, 1 copper alloy, 1 iron 3 copper alloy 4 copper alloy 8 copper alloy, 2 iron

Raftery undated Macalister & Praeger 1928, 119, 121 Hencken 1938, 27–34

Dooey, Co. Donegal Feerwore, Co. Galway

Other Univallate

Plural plural

Copper alloy & iron Iron

Clogher, Co. Tyrone Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Millockstown, Co. Louth Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Parknahown, Co. Laois

Table 7.3: Sites with multiple brooches 94

Bradley 2011, 16 O’Neill 2007, 136

Eogan 2012, 258–70 Hencken 1942, 34–42 Hencken 1950, 59–64, 99– 100 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961 Raftery 1944, 34–5, 39, 41

Fig. 7.2: Brooches by site types (40 sites; no brooches were found in sites consisting only of souterrains) Pins were found on 152 of the 216 sites which produced personal ornaments. Of these, 63 sites produced just a single pin; 66 had between two and ten pins; and 23 had more than ten pins (see Table 7.4). Distribution across different site types is indicated in Fig. 7.4. Copper alloy was the most widely represented material for pins: 128 sites had copper alloy pins, either alone or with other materials, and of these, 66 had copper alloy pins only. A total of 63 sites produced iron pins; nine of these had only iron pins, the rest had other materials also. Fifty-four sites produced bone pins, of which just seven had bone pins only (Boho, Castleskreen, Dunbell Big 6, Moathill 1, Owenbristy, Park North and Ratoath; of these only Boho has no other ornaments). Just one site (Lagore) produced a silver pin. No site produced only wooden pins, but a small number (five) had wooden examples among their pin assemblages. Four of these were crannogs – Ballinderry I, Ballinderry II, Lagore and Rathtinaun – and the fifth a waterlogged raised rath (Deer Park Farms), so preservation conditions may be a key element here, although it does not explain their absence from other crannogs. Twenty-four sites had pins of three different materials, namely copper alloy, iron and bone; these were Cahercommaun, Carraig Aille I, Carraig Aille II, Castlefarm, Cloghermore, Dalkey Island, Dooey, Dowdstown, Faughart Lower, Feltrim Hill, Garryduff, Johnstown, Kilgobbin, Kilgreany, Killickaweeny, Lough Faughan, Meadowbank, Moynagh Lough, Parknahown, Raystown, Rosepark, The Spectacles, Tulsk and Uisneach). Seven sites had four materials; of these Deer Park Farms, Ballinderry I, Ballinderry II and Rathtinaun

Fig. 7.3: Geographical distribution of sites with brooches (by modern province) Pins Pins have been called ‘the universal metal dress-fastener’ of early medieval Ireland, and were probably used as such by most of the population (Youngs 1989, 22; Edwards 1990, 141). Many different types are known, several of which overlap chronologically; some types dating back into the Iron Age, including Omega pins, ibex-headed pins and projecting ring-headed pins, also occur occasionally on early medieval sites. The vast majority of pins, however, fall into two main categories of ring-headed pins and stick pins. Pins are generally less decorative than brooches, being smaller in surface area, but may still display high-quality workmanship and skilled craft in their making. A broader range of material is used in pins than for brooches – not only the various metals, but also significant quantities of bone/antler and, in a few cases, wood (the scarcity of which may be linked to preservation conditions). 95

had copper alloy, iron, bone and wood; Knowth had iron, bronze, bone and gunmetal; Baronstown, Rathmullan Lower and Roestown 2 had bone, iron, bronze and antler (not always counted separately from bone in reports). As noted in Table 7.4, Lagore alone had pins of five different materials, as well as the second-highest overall number. The different materials used in pins (copper alloy, iron and bone/antler) occur on all site types (Fig. 7.5). Copper alloy, as the most common material, dominates most site types, although this trend is reversed at cashels, where Site Dowdstown Killickaweeny Carraig Aille I Uisneach Cloghermore Parknahown Newtownlow Rathmullan Lower Moynagh Lough Rathtinaun Ballinderry II Ballinderry I Raystown Garryduff Deer Park Farms Roestown 2 Feltrim Hill Castlefarm Carraig Aille II Cahercommaun Dooey Lagore Knowth

Total 11 11 13 14 15 At least 16 20 21 23 At least 26 27 28 29 At least 37 62 At least 67 At least 73 81 89 98 c. 100 221 223

Copper alloy 5 1 5 4 6 13 20 3 7 9+ 10 17 11 15 5 32 Plural 27 19 5 c. 50 31 145

more sites have iron pins than copper-alloy pins; in addition, the number of cemetery-settlement sites with iron pins is equal to that with copper alloy pins. Whether this reflects issues relating to these types of sites in general, or the specific examples examined in this monograph, is unclear, but may warrant further examination.

Iron 3 6 5 9 1 1

Bone/antler 3 4 3 1 8 Plural

1 4 2 1 2 12 20 14 8 23 15 31 11 plural 12 25

17 12 12+ 9 6 6 Plural 36 27+ 48 17 39 82 plural 164 51

Table 7.4: Sites with more than ten pins, showing materials used

Fig. 7.4: Pins by site types (152 sites) 96

Wood

Other

3+ 7 3 7

22 iron-&-copper alloy

13

1 silver 2 leaded gunmetal

Fig. 7.5: Number of sites with pins in the three main materials interpreted as necklaces (although the former might have been worn in the hair rather than on the neck, while the latter has also been interpreted as a pater noster). Other possibilities include sewing beads to adorn clothing, as evidenced at Birka in Sweden (Ewing 2006, 65) or threading them on the rings of pins, as in an old find from Lagore (Hencken 1950, 72 and fig. 14A). Of more interest is the range of materials used in beads; while glass beads are the most colourful, and most plentiful, comprising around 72% of the total number of beads, around 15% of beads are of bone, with amber accounting for some 9%, with smaller quantities made of stone, jet/lignite/shale, faience/ceramic, clay, wood, lead, silver, gold and carnelian (Doyle 2010).

Neck ornaments and beads Very few metal neck ornaments occur on the sites examined; an iron torc was found in a male burial at Owenbristy (Lehane and Delaney 2010, 35), a fragmentary twisted copper-alloy necklet came from a ditch in the cemetery at Collierstown 1 (O’Hara 2009a, 12) and a copper-alloy neck-ring accompanied a female burial at Ratoath (Wallace 2010, 305). Parknahown also produced a bronze ‘necklace fragment’, also called a bead (O’Neill 2009). Pendants are slightly more common, as shown in Table 7.5. There is far more evidence for neck ornament in the form of beads made in various materials. It is of course an assumption that beads were worn in the form of necklaces, as was common in other contemporary societies (Anglo-Saxon England, Scandinavia), but only a couple of Irish early medieval burials – Parknahown (O’Neill 2008) and Killeany (Wiggins 2006; 2006:1172) – have provided evidence of beads in the neck area of female skeletons which can with confidence be Site Ballynagallagh Cahercommaun Carraig Aille I Cloncowan Cush Garryduff Knowth Site M Knoxspark Lagore Lough Faughan Newtownlow

County Limerick Clare Limerick Meath Limerick Cork Meath Sligo Meath Down Westmeath

Of the 216 sites with personal ornaments, 136 produced one or more beads. Fifty-one of these produced just a single bead, but others had larger quantities – in some cases considerably larger, as shown in Table 7.6. All site types produced beads (Fig. 7.6), and the geographical distribution includes all four modern provinces (Fig. 7.7).

Number and material 1 lignite 1 antler & 1 bone 1 stone 1 bone (fragment) 1 stone (sandstone) 2 stone (shale) 1 sperm whale ivory 1 copper alloy 1 amber 1 sperm whale ivory 1 jet cross

Table 7.5: Sites with pendants (number and material) 97

Reference Cleary 2006, 30 Hencken 1938, 41 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 101 Baker 2007c, 71 Ó Ríordáin 1940, 164 O’Kelly 1963, 86 Stout & Stout 2008 Mount 2010, 208 Hencken 1950, 151 Collins 1955, 63 Kerr et al 2010, 713

Fig. 7.6: Beads by site types (136 sites) Site Lagore, Co. Meath

Site type Crannog

Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Knowth, Co. Meath

Raised

Glencurran, Co. Clare Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Garryduff, Co. Cork Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Parknahown, Co. Laois Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Whiterath 2, Co. Louth Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Cloghermore, Co. Kerry Roestown, Co. Meath Garranes, Co. Cork Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo Dooey, Co. Donegal

Beads 161 (136 glass, 1 lignite, 2 shale, 16 amber, 6 bone) 89 (86 glass, 3 amber)

Reference Hencken 1950, 132–45, 150–1, 170, 175, 196 Lynn & McDowell 2011, 330–9 Barton-Murray 2012, 244–7, 251–6

Other

89 (48 glass, 6 stone, 6 amber, 29 bone) 69 glass

Dowd 2005

Crannog

30 (14 glass & 16 amber)

Hencken 1942, 13, 51–2

Univallate

29 (28 glass, 1 amber)

O’Kelly 1963, 70–2, 74–8

Cashel

29 (25 glass, 2 bone, 1 stone, 1 jet)

Cemetery/ settlement Cashel

At least 17 (15 glass, bone plural)

Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 83, 87, 89–91, 95 O’Neill 2009

Raised

Multivallate

17 (6 glass, 1 lignite, 3 shale, 5 bone, 2 antler) 16 (14 bone, 2 amber)

Ó Drisceoil 2000:0721

Crannog

At least 15 (at least 14 glass, 1 amber)

Bradley 2011, 16, 22, 25–6

Other

14 (3 glass, 1 stone, 6 amber, 1 ivory, 3 bone) 13 (12 glass, 1 amber)

Connolly et al 2005 O’Hara 2009c

12 (10 glass, 2 amber)

Ó Ríordáin 1942, 116–8, 121

At least 10 (2 glass, 1 lead, 1 clay, amber plural, stone plural, bone plural) At least 10 glass

Raftery undated

Noncircular Multivallate Crannog Other

Table 7.6: Sites with large quantities of beads 98

Hencken 1938, 38–41

Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961

As previously noted, beads occur in burials at Parknahown (and also at Raystown, where quantities were smaller); this is also the case at Cloghermore. The necklace of 69 Viking Age beads from Glencurran may also be a variation from the more usual site assemblages. Leaving these aside, the range of site types with large numbers of beads is dominated by crannogs (four sites), with two examples each of cashels, raised and multivallate raths; it is also notable that several of these sites are those traditionally regarded as high-status or even royal sites (Lagore, Knowth), although the high standing of Deer Park Farms in the table, equalling Knowth and indeed exceeding it in terms of glass beads, despite being interpreted as just the home of a mruigfer, broadens our appreciation of the complex picture of early medieval society. Given the small sample in the table, it is also interesting that a reasonable geographical spread is indicated.

Fig. 7.7: Geographical distribution of sites with beads (by modern province) (total sites: 136) Bracelets Bracelets were made from a range of materials including jet, lignite, shale, stone, antler and boar tusk, as well as glass, copper alloy, gold and silver. The last two are more representative of the Viking Age, but appear to reflect some of the descriptions found in contemporary texts. The most common type, those made from fossil wood (covering jet, lignite, and varieties of coal and shale) are found throughout the period from prehistory to the Norman era (Lanigan 1964, 60). The main use of glass bracelets, however, falls between the late seventh and the ninth century (Carroll 2001, 101, 105).

Glass is the most common material found in beads, featuring on 122 sites, but other materials noted include amber (23 sites), bone (18 sites), stone (14 sites), jet/lignite (seven sites), clay (five sites), bronze (two sites – Lisleagh and Parknahown – although the identification as beads as opposed to fragments of other items is not certain), ivory (two sites), and rock crystal, lead, antler and faience (one site each). As with the larger quantities above, there is a broad spread across site types, as shown in Fig. 7.8, which sets out the four main materials used in beads.

Fig. 7.8: Distribution of sites with beads in the four main materials, across site types

99

Fig. 7.9: Bracelets by site types (108 sites) Of 216 sites with personal ornaments, 108 sites produced one or more bracelets; these are broken down by site type in Fig. 7.9. In most cases, bracelets are represented only by fragments, making it difficult to quantify how many of the ornaments were originally present. The most common material is jet/lignite (or variations thereof e.g. shale), appearing on some 93 sites (mostly alone, but sometimes in combination with other materials). Glass bracelets occur on 24 sites, stone bracelets on six sites (Ballinderry I, Carraig Aille II, Castlefarm, Coolcran, Raystown and Rinnaraw), and copper-alloy bracelets on ten sites (Ballinderry II, Baronstown, Caraun More, Clogher (Co. Tyrone), Craigywarren, Knowth (two bracelets), Lagore (two examples), Marlinstown, Moathill 1 and Rathtinaun (plural)). A fragment of a silver bracelet was also found at Lagore. The range of materials used is added to by six bracelets made of petrified wood at Deer Park Farms, perhaps a localised version of the lignite or stone bracelets (though this site did have lignite bracelets also); and a boar’s tusk bracelet at Ballinderry II.

bracelets occur around the modern county Meath (see Chapter 8). Eight sites have three or more materials among their assemblages of bracelets; the combinations involved include glass, lignite and stone at Ballinderry I, Castlefarm and Carraig Aille II; glass, copper alloy and lignite at Rathtinaun and Knowth; glass, boar tusk and copper alloy at Ballinderry II; glass, lignite and petrified wood at Deer Park Farms; and silver, copper alloy, glass and lignite at Lagore. These ranges suggest access to materials but also perhaps multiple meanings; glass or metal ornaments, for example, are often considered as high-status materials, but in several cases (including ‘royal’ sites such as Knowth and Lagore) are found in combination with more common, mundane materials, which often make up the bulk of the assemblages. Rings Rings are also occasionally noted, although it is not always clear from reports whether these are definitely finger-rings or are rings from pins or brooches which have become detached from their pins. Thirty-four sites produced one or more rings. Most of these are metal rings, most frequently of copper alloy (23 sites); however, two sites produced iron rings, and one site each had silver and tinned rings. Non-metal rings include examples in amber, lignite/shale, glass and stone. Among the larger assemblages and mixes of material are Castlefarm and Deer Park Farms with four copper-alloy rings apiece; Lagore, with five copper-alloy rings and one of amber; Knowth with jet and amber rings; Dalkey Island, with rings of glass, stone and lignite; Feerwore, with three copper-alloy rings and one of glass; and Dunsilly, with rings of lignite and stone.

The dominance of jet/lignite bracelets across all site types is shown in Fig. 7.10, along with the distribution of glass and copper alloy bracelets. The smaller quantities of the latter types may hinder the analysis, but their spread across a number of site types is notable. It is also interesting that crannog sites have a relatively more even representation of both the more common jet/lignite and the rarer glass and copper-alloy bracelets. The waterlogged nature of these sites would not be a factor in the preservation of these particular materials, so perhaps this relates to other aspects of the sites, such as status. In terms of geographical distribution, jet/lignite bracelets are widespread; and a significant proportion of the glass

100

Fig. 7.10: Distribution of the three main bracelet materials over site types

101

Chapter 8: Dress and Ornament Manufacturing on Rural Settlement Sites products (Kelly 1988, 61–3). Yet some areas are conspicuous by their absence, notably in relation to female crafts. No honour-prices are given in the law tracts for practitioners in the areas of spinning, weaving or sewing, although some references to embroidery and the use of needles as pledges suggest a degree of recognition of the skill involved; thus, in Bretha im Fhuillema Gell it is said that ‘the woman who embroiders earns more profit even than queens’ (ibid., 78). MacNeill (1923) translated a craftsperson in the law-tracts as a ‘wool-comber’ but Kelly (1988) identified this individual instead as a ‘comb-maker’. If Kelly is correct, this indicates that spinners and weavers were not mentioned in any of the early law tracts, suggesting that these tasks may have been purely domestic activities. Yet textiles are a fundamental material for many areas of society, not just dress. The silence of the texts might occlude the presence of female craftworkers on many settlement sites, or induce us to overlook their evidence. However, Triad 76 includes ‘the hand of a skilled woman’, alongside those of ‘a good carpenter’ and ‘a good smith’ as the ‘Three hands that are best in the world’ (Meyer 1906, 11) – so there was some recognition of this importance (as this immediately follows another Triad referring to thread, we can assume some textile reference here). Similarly, the law tract Bretha Crólige refers to a ‘woman of profitable handicraft’ who is entitled to have three judges assess her maintenance; this term is glossed as ‘a woman who does profitable work with her hand, e.g. an embroideress and women who perform steeping and dressing [of flax], &c.’ (Binchy 1938, 27).

In looking at dress and ornament, we often focus on the finished products – the textile remnants which hint at the material, cut and colour of clothing; the brooches, beads, bracelets and other ornaments lost or hidden or otherwise left behind and subsequently discovered by the excavators. But while these may indicate the use of these items by people on a particular site, they may not speak to their place of manufacture. For that, the evidence required relates to the process of manufacture – the tools used to process, spin and weave wool or flax into thread and cloth; the furnaces, moulds, crucibles and other prerequisites of metal- or glass-working; the waste products of bone- or lignite-working, occurring as waste cores, shavings, offcuts, etc. The amount and range of such evidence from individual sites may help to clarify whether the people who lived there were self-sufficient in their dress requirements, or whether they acquired some items from elsewhere; evidence of larger-scale, more specialised working in particular materials or ornament types may suggest provisioning for a larger social group, or supply of markets or trading areas. Occasional references suggest this latter sense of manufacturing for distribution or trade beyond the site of production, but also with dress and ornaments being brought in from elsewhere. Thus, for example, cloaks were exported from Ireland to Cambridge in the tenth century (Fairweather 2005, 130), while the ‘great market of foreigners’ at the fair of Carmun sold gold and fine clothing (Kelly 1997, 459). This section focuses primarily on the manufacture of textiles – presumably largely used in clothing – and also briefly addresses the manufacture of various types of ornaments (see Section 2 for more detail on crafts in the materials involved here). Depending on the nature and material of the object, we might expect a degree of specialisation/centralisation in their manufacture. This applies particularly to the more elaborate metal brooches and pins, evidence for the making of which often occurs on high-status secular or ecclesiastical sites. It has been suggested that it was the wealth, prestige or power of the inhabitants of these sites which allowed them to control the resources for manufacture, including the services of the craftworkers. For some crafts, however, a degree of self-sufficiency in production might be expected on ordinary settlement sites. This may particularly be the case in relation to bone-working (although the more technically-demanding antler-working should not be absorbed into this), where the raw materials and tools required to make a plain dress pin would be readily available to all.

Textiles Textiles were used for many practical purposes in early medieval Ireland including clothing, carrying bags, packaging, sail-cloths, fishing, trapping nets and other load-bearing resources such as ropes. While this chapter deals specifically with clothing, some extant textiles may reflect other uses of cloth. Some of these are urban; coarse tabby-weave cloth from a late eleventh-century context from a site at South Main Street, Cork City appears to have been treated with resin tar and may have been used either as a tarpaulin to protect merchandise transported by land or sea or could have been applied as a form of waterproofing to damaged planks of a ship (Wincott Heckett 2010, 562). Similar evidence of caulking the seams of boats with fibrous materials was found at Fishamble Street, Dublin (McGrail 1993, 87; Wincott Heckett 2010, 559). Linen fragments from a cereal-drying kiln at Ballyvass may reflect the use of textiles as a base on which to lay the grain, or might suggest the use of sacks (Clark and Doyle 2011).

These issues of specialisation or common skills have implications in terms of contemporary recognition and valuation of craftworkers. Written texts suggest particular crafts were valued in early medieval Irish society, with their exponents being awarded high honour-prices in recognition of their skill and the importance of their

The manufacture of textiles is strongly associated with women in the written texts. Tools and items related to spinning, weaving and sewing are listed in the law tracts as the possessions of women (Kelly 1997, 451). The role 102

of pin beaters), Mullins (2007, 53–4) favoured the interpretation of socketed longbone points in general as spearheads. This highlights the potential for simple tools, in particular, to be variously interpreted, which may affect the quantity of evidence recognised as relating to particular crafts/functions, including textile working.

of women, and the importance of textile-working, is also highlighted in the ninth-century Triads, where ‘the slender thread over the hand of a skilled woman’ is one of the ‘three slender things that best support the world’ (Meyer 1906, 11). Women are also associated with sheep, which in the seventh-century Audacht Morainn were valued for their fleece which was used ‘for the garments of the people’ (Kelly 1997, 67). This association with sheep and wool also appears in Cáin Lánamna, where the division of property in a divorce gave a wife one-sixth of any fleeces, but one-third of combed wool and half of any woven cloth – implying that it was her labour which processed the fleece to thread and textile (ibid., 449). Similar proportions apply in the division of flax, again rising from one-sixth of the flax in sheaves to increased shares of the processed fibres and finished cloth (ibid.).

FitzGerald also suggested that small iron spikes found on a number of sites might be teeth from wool combs or heckles, i.e. the surviving parts of tools used in the initial processing of wool or flax (the wooden handles or boards on which the spikes were mounted not having survived) (FitzGerald 2000, i, 53). Again, this potentially increases the material evidence for craft-working on early medieval sites, causing us to reconsider our initial assumptions. In this re-interpretation of evidence, for example, the site of Cahercommaun offers not just a large quantity of spindle whorls, but also potentially the tools of flax heckling, wool combing, sewing and weaving, all of which may have been carried out on the site. There may be considerably more evidence existing for such crafts than previously recognised, and further specialised work is required to re-assess the situation.

While actual textile remains are scarce, the methods of processing from raw materials to finished cloth offer several opportunities for evidence of manufacture to be discerned. In most cases, this evidence will be of an indirect nature. Short of finding cloth in situ on a loom, thread on a spindle, or a needle and thread in an unfinished seam, we must extrapolate from the indirect evidence that these processes were undertaken on a site. This evidence ranges from raw or partially-processed materials (flax fibres, seeds, pollen; wool and fleece) to the tools associated with various processes. These tools include heckling and carding implements and tools used in the initial processing of the materials; spindle whorls, distaffs and spindles used in spinning thread; loomweights, pin beaters, weaving tablets, weaving tensioners and other weaving tools; and needles and shears used for cutting and sewing finished cloth.

As Map 8.1 shows, the distribution of this proxy evidence for textile working is considerable. It is relatively rare to find a site containing evidence for all stages of the process; however, material preservation plays a role in this regard. While stone and metal artefacts, and to a lesser extent bone, are reasonably well preserved in most conditions, wooden items are usually only preserved in waterlogged conditions; this limits our appreciation of the use of this material in the artefacts of cloth and clothing manufacture, and may skew our picture of the location and distribution of this work. Nevertheless, 120 sites in the gazetteer provide evidence for textile working.

There are issues in relation to the identification of artefacts/tools as relating to textile working. One example involves iron pronged/socketed items, which are variously attributed to either textile or leather working. Hencken suggested examples from Cahercommaun might be weaving combs (Hencken 1938, 53), but Stenberger (1966, 46) described them as a type ‘sometimes called “leather-scorers”’, an interpretation followed by Johnson (1999). Maria FitzGerald in her research into early Irish textile working (FitzGerald 2000) suggested that they might have been used for carding/combing wool prior to spinning. Bone pins or points are also open to a range of interpretations, ranging from scoops to spearheads to weaving tools, the last being favoured by Crowfoot (1945, 158), MacGregor (1985, 188) and Hodkinson (1987, 49–50), among others. While some bone implements may have served as weft-beaters or other weaving-related tools (and some examples from Carraig Aille II would meet Hoffmann’s (1964, 320) description

The evidence does not necessarily imply that all stages of textile manufacture were carried out on all of these sites; different stages, from processing of raw materials to spinning to weaving, may have been separated and carried out at different site-types or by different groups of people. Of the 120 sites, three sites had dye evidence only (Boho, Doonloughan and Rathgurreen), with no other evidence for textile working. Seventeen sites have evidence for preparation (mainly fibres/sources and processing); 84 have spinning evidence (primarily whorls); 58 have weaving evidence; and 52 have sewing evidence (needles and shears) (see Fig. 8.1). There are 197 sites with no evidence of textile working – not even a single tool – and it is unknown whether this is related to issues of survival/extent of excavation, or to a genuine absence of this craft on those sites.

103

Map 8.1: Evidence for textile-working in early medieval Ireland (numbers refer to the gazetteer)

104

Fig. 8.1: The four textile-working processes by site type process of being carded, and also animal hair which was being spun or twisted into thread (ibid., 207). Plant materials including flax and possibly nettle could also provide fibres for textiles; surviving bolls and seeds of flax may suggest the manufacture of linen (although flax seeds could also be cultivated for their oil). Flax seeds have been identified at a range of sites including Deer Park Farms (Kenward and Allison 1994, 93), Carraig Aille II (Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 110) and Lisleagh II (Monk 1995, 113), as well as at Ballyegan, Boyerstown 3, Castlefarm, Collierstown, Drumadoon, Lisnagun, and Millockstown (McCormick et al 2011). The additional survival of flax capsules and pollen at Deer Park Farms strengthens the evidence for flax cultivation and processing there (Wincott Heckett 2011, 360). Cultivated flax seeds have also been recorded in Scandinavian Waterford (Tierney 1997, 888–93) and Wexford (Bourke 1995, 36), suggesting that these were imported into the towns before being worked into fibres for spinning. While no nettle-fibre textiles have been found, the possibility of the use of this material, as in other contemporary societies, was noted (Proudfoot 1958, 30), and recent evidence from the retting wells at Castlefarm supports this idea (O’Connell and Clark 2009, 25).

Some interesting points arise from looking at the site types involved in each stage of textile working. In general, most site types have evidence for all four stages, with the exception of souterrain sites, where evidence for both preparation and weaving are absent. Those souterrain sites which have spinning and sewing tools may reflect the portability, or perhaps storage, of these tools rather than these processes being carried out there. No evidence for the preparatory stage occurred in the ‘other’ group of sites. While evidence for spinning was more widespread, and generally surpassed the evidence for other stages on most site types, it is interesting that non-circular sites had more evidence for weaving than for spinning. Raw materials Evidence for the raw materials to produce the known wool, linen and silk textiles may be sought. In the case of silk, this was produced from silkworm cocoons which were not available in early medieval Ireland, so this raw material (if not also the finished textile) must have been imported. Wool, however, was widely available, as evidenced by the presence of sheep, whose bones are frequent finds on many excavated sites (McCormick et al 2011). Although wool might have been clipped from sheep using iron shears, which occur on a number of sites (see Table 8.6), it has been argued that Irish shears are generally too small for this purpose, so wool would instead have been plucked from the sheep (FitzGerald 2012, 553). Animal hair, probably from goats, was also used and some textile fragments from Lagore were made from a mixture of both (Start 1950). The wool or hair needed to be carefully cleaned and combed to draw the fibres parallel to one another prior to spinning; rare survivals at Lagore included pieces of wool fleece in the

Processing tools The range of tools associated with the manufacture of clothing includes some relating to the preparatory phases of processing the raw material: wool combs or carders, and tools for heckling or scutching flax. Flax was sown in March or April and was harvested five or six months later before the seeds had fully ripened. The plants were then dried and the seeds removed by pulling the heads through a coarse comb. Following this, the plants were immersed in water (retting) to soften the fibres before being dried, 105

beaten and twisted into hanks in preparation for spinning (Edwards 1990, 81; Laing 2006, 91). Flat wooden beaters, possibly used for flax, have been recorded at Lagore and Ballinderry I and II (Laing 2006, 91). Maria FitzGerald (2000, iii, 289–90, 296–8) identified two wooden scutching knives at each of the crannógs of Lagore and Ballinderry I, suggesting the processing of flax for linen. She also suggested that iron spikes – one each at Carraig Aille II, Garryduff I and Cahercommaun (ibid., ii, 19–21) and two at Knowth (FitzGerald 2012, 553) – were possibly heckle teeth, which would originally have been set into wooden handles. Such wooden parts would only survive in waterlogged conditions, and it has been suggested that slotted wooden beams found at Deer Park Farms could have formed the base of heckling posts for flax processing (Wincott Heckett 2011, 360). Possible wool carding combs were identified in the reinterpretation of material from Ballinderry I crannóg (Johnson 1999, 44, 46), and potential wool comb teeth have been found at Cahercommaun, Carraig Aille I and II, Garryduff, Lagore and Millockstown (FitzGerald 2000, v, 739–43, 745–51).

the crannog of Moylarg, Co. Antrim (Buick 1893, 34). A wooden forked stick or distaff was used to hold the unspun fibres, keeping them untangled and therefore easing the process of spinning; very rare potential examples of wooden distaffs were found at Lough Faughan, Lagore, Ballinderry II (Patterson 1955, 81–2) and Waterford, and possible bone distaffs have been identified at Deer Park Farms (Wincott Heckett 2011, 364) and Raystown (Seaver 2010, 277). Spindle whorls are a far more frequent find, occurring on 84 of the sites in the gazetteer; these whorls could be manufactured from stone (soft sandstones, shales and chlorite) or bone (the rounded heads of ox femora) and also occasionally of antler and possibly wood (Edwards 1990, 81). A number of lead pan weights with central perforations recorded from Woodstown may also have functioned as whorls (O'Brien et al 2005, 71). Whorls were generally discshaped or hemispherical, but bone and antler examples with a characteristic bowl-shape may have been turned on a lathe. One possible lathe-turned decorated antler whorl and a disc-shaped stone example were found at Killickaweeny, dating from the eighth to tenth century (Walsh 2008, 48).

Overall, however, evidence for these preparatory stages is rare, being largely predicated on survival and identification; only seventeen sites in the gazetteer provide such evidence. In addition to the tools noted above, evidence for the processing of raw materials has been included in this figure. This includes partiallyprocessed wool fleece at Lagore, and retting wells at Castlefarm, as noted above, and a total of ten sites with flax seeds or other parts. Three of these sites (Drumadoon, Lisnagun and Lisleagh), however, had no other evidence for textile working.

Of the sites with spindle whorls/other spinning equipment, 46 produced just a single whorl, leaving 38 sites with larger quantities. Most of these were still relatively small, but larger numbers occurred at the sites in Table 8.1. Such quantities may suggest possible concentrations of spinning, or periods in which this process was carried out intensively (see Cotter 1999, 71 regarding Cahercommaun). It might also reflect the making of these tools, as some sites, notably Cahercommaun, Garryduff I and Knowth, also produced evidence for the manufacture of stone spindle whorls, usually in the form of roughouts, unfinished examples and those broken during the drilling of the central perforated hole.

The limited number of sites makes it difficult to draw conclusions about the extent and distribution of such preparatory work, which of necessity must have been carried out prior to further processing. The geographical distribution shows no sites in Connacht, with eight in Leinster (Louth, Meath, Offaly and Westmeath), seven in Munster (Clare, Cork, Kerry and Limerick) and two in Ulster (Antrim). This cannot accurately reflect early medieval practices, but rather issues of excavation locations, preservation (for wooden tools in particular), and correct identification of parts of composite tools.

The distribution of sites with spinning evidence is more widespread than that for preparation; the types of sites involved are included in Fig. 8.1, while Fig. 8.2 shows the distribution by modern province.

Spinning tools The next step for both animal or vegetable fibres involved hand-spinning them into thread using a long wooden spike (spindle) and small circular-shaped, centrallyperforated objects known as spindle whorls (see O'Brien 2010). Spindles were usually made from wood, and therefore rarely survive, although examples have been identified in waterlogged sites at Deer Park Farms (Earwood 1993, 135), Lagore (Hencken 1950, 162), Ballinderry II (Hencken 1942, 60), Winetavern Street, Dublin (Wincott Heckett 2003, 89) and Waterford (Hurley and McCutcheon 1997, 588–9). A wooden spindle with a sandstone whorl still in place was found at

Fig. 8.2: Regional distribution of sites with spinning evidence, by modern province (total sites: 84)

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Site Deer Park Farms Woodstown 6 Kilgreany Rathmullan Lower Garryduff Carraig Aille I Knowth

Number of whorls 8 At least 10 11 At least 12 19 22 22

Ballinderry II Lagore Carraig Aille II Cahercommaun

22 27 33 62

Materials 4 stone, 4 wood 8 possible lead, plural stone 10 bone, 1 stone 10 stone, plural antler 18 stone, 1 bone 12 bone, 10 stone 15 stone, 4 bone, 2 lead, 1 clay 16 stone, 6 bone 15 bone, 11 shale, 1 wood 18 stone, 15 bone 48 bone, 13 stone, 1 antler

Other spinning tools Possible bone distaff ------------5 wooden spindles & 2 distaffs 10 wooden spindles & 2 distaffs -----

Table 8.1: Sites with large quantities of spindle whorls weights was recorded by the excavator as a mace head as it was ‘too well-finished’ to be a loom weight (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 111, 114). O’Brien (2010, 23) has also noted the possibility that some of the large perforated discs classified as loom weights might be functional spindle whorls. Notwithstanding such debates/ uncertainties, we can assume that cloth was woven on at least some settlement sites.

Weaving tools The next step involved weaving the spun threads together to form a fabric. While small tools survive, there is an absence of larger equipment such as looms. Other than the possible cross-beam of a light loom from Dublin Castle (Lynch and Manning 2001), and the possibility that a mortised timber from Lough Faughan might have been part of a loom frame (Collins 1955, 67), loom weights provide the best evidence for this important weaving apparatus. These stone weights with an hourglass-shaped perforation in the centre have been identified in the archaeological literature and imply the use of vertical warp-weighted looms in early medieval Ireland (Edwards 1990, 81). The weights would have held the vertical warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads or yarns. Hodkinson (1987, 49–50) compiled a catalogue of these objects; he noted, however, that with upwards of 20 loom weights required for a single warp-weighted loom (based on comparisons with Anglo-Saxon England), the scarcity of loom weights in Ireland, and the lack of complete collections from individual sites, did not seem to indicate the presence of these looms (ibid., 47; see also Table 8.2). He suggested instead that the early Irish used a different type of loom, and that the so-called ‘loom weights’ were used for another purpose such as sinkers for nets or lines (ibid., 48). Wincott Heckett (2003, 98–99) has also noted that possible ‘loom weights’ were found at Fishamble Street and John’s Lane in Dublin, but these were of a shape and material unlike weights which are generally accepted as forming part of looms in the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian world. She concurred with Hodkinson that it is unlikely that ‘wool fabrics were woven on the large warp-weighted vertical loom that was in general use in north-western Europe at least from the migration period (c. A.D. 350–800) until the end of the Viking Age’ (ibid.).

The specific craft of tablet (or card) weaving is also attested, with finds of tablets from six sites (see Table 8.3). These tablets, which could be made of wood, bone, stone, leather or metal, contain a number of holes through which warp threads were passed; the rotation of different tablets while the weft was threaded produced decorative patterned braids. While most tablets were square, like the example with worn holes from Rathtinaun crannog (Raftery undated), a possible triangular example with three perforations was identified at Lagore (Hencken 1950, 195–6). As with loom weights, multiple tablets would be used for decorative braids; however, the rural sites produced just one example each. Larger quantities occur on some urban sites, however; six wooden tablets were excavated at Fishamble Street and five bone tablets at High Street, Dublin (Pritchard 1988, 151), with additional examples at Christchurch Place, Dublin (Ó Ríordáin 1973:0017; 1974:0014), and Bride Street, Wexford (Bourke 1995, 35). As with other textiles, surviving examples of the braids thus produced are limited. Two fragments of tablet-woven braid – one fringed and the other with a raised chevron pattern – were found at Lagore (Start 1950, 214–7). The Lagore braids were made of wool and hair, but more elaborate braids of wool, silver and gold thread and silk were found at Christchurch Place, Fishamble Street, High Street and John’s Lane, Dublin (Pritchard 1988). It should be noted, however, that tablet-weaving could also be used to produce starting bands for loom-woven textiles (Wincott Heckett 2011, 362), so decorative braids need not be assumed.

As Table 8.2 shows, most sites have produced only one or two possible loom weights, and no complete sets of weights are known. The only possible exception is Rinnaraw, where ten perforated stones might be loom weights (Comber 2006, 102). However, there are issues over the correct identification of loom weights; in many cases, such perforated stones might also serve as net sinkers or thatch weights (see e.g. Collins 1955, 69; FitzGerald 2012, 558), while at Garranes, one of the

Other implements connected with weaving include pinbeaters, made of thin rods of wood or of bones (metatarsals or tibia) with tapering ends; these tools could have been used to compact the weft threads in either a vertical warp-weighted loom or weaving tablets. Possible bone beater-pins have been recorded at various sites 107

including Carraig Aille, Shaneen Park, Ballyaghagan and Raheennamadra (Hodkinson 1987, 49–50); Raystown (Seaver 2010, 277); Castlefarm (O’Connell 2009, 51); Clonfad (Stevens 2007, 43); Mount Offaly (Conway 1999); Scandinavian Dublin (Wincott Heckett 2003, 98) and Waterford (Scully 1997, 470). An antler single-ended pin-beater associated with the use of the two-beam vertical loom was recorded at Cloghermore cave (Connolly et al 2005, 109), and was dated to the tenth– twelfth century based on similarities to items from Coppergate, York. A possible pin-beater or spindle from the foundation layer of the millpond of mill 2 at Nendrum Name Aghadegnan, Co. Longford Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Ballyaghagan, Co. Antrim Ballynakelly/Rathcreedan, Co. Dublin Baronstown, Co. Meath Blackchurch, Co. Kildare Castlefarm, Co. Meath Castlegar, Co. Mayo Collierstown 1, Co. Meath Cush, Co. Limerick Dowdstown 2, Co. Meath Garranes, Co. Cork Gragan West, Co. Clare Johnstown 1, Co Meath Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath Leacanabuaile, Co. Kerry Leggetsrath West, Co. Kilkenny Lough Faughan, Co. Down Marshes Upper, Co. Louth Millockstown, Co. Louth Mullagharlin/Haggardstown, Co. Louth Mullingar, Co. Westmeath Rinnaraw, Co. Donegal

finds its closest parallel with the largest of three examples from Deer Park Farms (Earwood 1993, 134–6; 2007, 231–2). Wooden weaving swords, used for beating up the weft threads, were found at Littleton Bog (Edwards 1990, 82), and at High Street, Dublin (Ó Ríordáin 1984, 137; Wincott Heckett 2003, 90). An iron flat-shaped weaver’s sword was also recovered from the floor of a sunken building in Olaf Street in Scandinavian Waterford (Hurley 1997a, 670). Six possible tenterhooks for stretching woollen cloth after it was woven were found at Knowth (FitzGerald 2012, 560–1).

Site type Univallate Crannog Univallate Non-circular

Quantity 1 2 1 1

Reference Carroll 1993 Hencken 1942, 65 Proudfoot 1958, 30 McCarthy 2007:431

Non-circular Medieval industrial Cemetery/ settlement Univallate Cemetery/ settlement Non-circular Non-circular Multivallate Raised Cemetery/ settlement Raised Crannog Cashel Multivallate Crannog Non-circular Multivallate Non-circular

1 1 (lignite) 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 2 or more 2 3 (possible) 1 1 2 1 (flint nodule) 1 1

Linnane & Kinsella 2009a, 8 Duffy 2003:880 O’Connell & Clark 2009, 72 Zajac & Scully 2004, 27 Stirland 2009 Ó Ríordáin 1940, 158 Cagney et al 2009, 6 Ó Ríordáin 1942, 111, 114 Cotter 1988:04 Clarke & Carlin 2008 FitzGerald 2012, 558 Hencken 1950, 177 Ó Ríordáin & Foy 1941, 93 Lennon 2006b, 49 Collins 1955, 69 Gowen 1992 Manning 1986, 160 McLoughlin 1999:610

Rural industrial Other

Reed 2000:1017 Comber 2006, 102

Keeley 1985:26 Lehane et al 2010, 146 Harper 1970:03

Roestown, Co Meath

Non-circular

Rosepark, Balrothery, Co. Dublin Scholarstown, Co. Dublin Treanbaun, Co. Galway Tully, Co. Antrim

Non-circular

1 1 (unfinished); 10 possible 1 (unfinished, possibly broken during production) 1

Ringfort Cemetery/ settlement Ringfort

1 1 1

O’Hara 2009c, 42 Carroll 2008, 53

Table 8.2: Examples of rural secular sites with ‘loom weights’

Name Ballycasey More, Co. Clare Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Knowth, Co. Meath Lagore, Co. Meath Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo

Site type Univallate Raised Univallate Raised Crannog Crannog

Number 1 (bone) 1 (leather) 1 (stone) 1 (bone) 1 (bone) 1 (bone)

Table 8.3: Examples of rural settlement sites with possible weaving tablets

108

Reference O’Neill 2003 Wincott Heckett 2011, 361 Manning 1984, 257 FitzGerald 2012, 559 Hencken 1950, 195–6 Raftery undated

Site Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Cherrywood, Co. Dublin Dooey, Co. Donegal Garryduff, Co. Cork Gransha, Co. Down Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Lagore, Co. Meath Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath

Site type Crannog Cashel Cashel Cashel Other Other Univallate Raised Univallate Crannog Multivallate

Movilla Abbey, Co. Down Raheennamadra, Co. Limerick Raystown, Co. Meath The Spectacles, Co. Limerick

Ecclesiastical Univallate Non-circular Cashel

Quantity 1 2 2 4 2 3 10 1 2 1 1 (described as a leather scorer) 1 1 1 2 fastened together

Reference Hencken 1936, 140 Hencken 1938, 53 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 98 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 78 Ó Néill 2006, 81 Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, 62 O’Kelly 1963, 49–50 Lynn 1985a, 88 Walsh 2008, 45–6, 49 Hencken 1950, 120 Keeley 1991:126 Yates 1983, 62 Stenberger 1966, 46 Seaver 2010, 276 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 103

Table 8.4: Examples of sites producing pronged-and-socketed objects (Ballyvass) had multiple tools (and also surviving textile); Ballyaghagan had both a loom weight and rubbing stones, while the remainder had just a single type of tool: loom weights at Aghadegnan, Ballynakelly, Gortybrigane, Haggardstown, Killealy and Rinnaraw, pin-beaters at Beginish and Loughbown 1, rubbing stones at Colp West and socketed/pronged items at Kilcloghans and Marlinstown (in both cases, these were originally identified as relating to leather-working). This underlines the importance of the recognition and correct identification of artefacts as relating to particular crafts and uses. The case of loom weights is perhaps the most obvious example: 34 sites in all produced one or more loom weights (not all of them certain), but 23 of these had no other weaving-related tools.

Wool textiles were finished after weaving by a process called ‘fulling’, to thicken them and to eliminate oils, dirt, and other impurities. This involved two processes – scouring and milling (thickening). The first stage, ‘scouring’, involved cleaning the greasy wool by steeping it in cold water with detergent in the form of stale human urine or vegetable ash and trampling upon it to release the natural grease or lanolin. The next stage involved the thickening of the cloth by matting the fibres together to increase its strength and waterproofing (felting). When this was completed, water was used to rinse out the foulsmelling liquor used during this cleansing process. The process often caused the cloth to shrink and therefore after the ‘fulling’ was complete, the wet cloth was often attached with tenterhooks to a frame known as a tenter to stretch the cloth. Tenterhooks have been noted at Knowth (FitzGerald 2012, 560–1) and in Scandinavian Waterford (Scully 1997, 486). Other possible artefacts relating to these processes might include the wooden trough and wicker frames from Deer Park Farms (Wincott Heckett 2011, 363). Linen (and possibly nettle) cloth was finished by smoothing with a polished stone. Examples of these have been recorded at Ballyaghagan (Proudfoot 1958, 30), Clea Lakes (Collins and Proudfoot 1959, 98) and Millockstown (Manning 1986, 161). A potash glass linen smoother was recorded within a Type 1 mid eleventh- to early twelfth-century building in the Insula North, Waterford City (Bourke 1997, 389), and similar evidence has been found in pre-Norman Dublin (Bourke 1987). Two glass linen smoothers were also found at Ballinderry I crannog (Johnson 1999, 68). The presence of polishing stones may again be a matter of identification; it has been suggested that the many Neolithic polished stone axes found at Deer Park Farms might have been used for this purpose (Wincott Heckett 2011, 362).

Fig. 8.3: Regional distribution of sites with evidence for weaving, by modern province (total sites: 58) Sewing tools The final stage in processing textiles involved sewing pieces of cloth together with needle and thread to make garments and other items. The early written sources indicate that women were expected to be experts at spinning, weaving, sewing and embroidery (Kelly 1997, 449). In addition to basic sewing, embroidery was regarded as an occupation of high-status women (ibid., 451), and was one of the skills taught to noble-born girls in fosterage, along with sewing and cutting cloth (ibid., 452). While the presence of needles made of copper

Using a combination of the various tools noted above, a total of 58 sites produced evidence for weaving being carried out. The geographical distribution is given in Fig. 8.3. Forty-five sites had evidence for other textileworking processes also, leaving thirteen sites with evidence for weaving only. Of these thirteen, just one 109

perforation are more clearly indicative of a needle, particularly for fine work.

alloy, iron or bone may provide evidence for these tasks at early medieval sites (Table 8.5), it is not possible to distinguish the type of use made of these tools, e.g. whether for mundane or elaborate needlework, although the finer, copper-alloy needles might be more suited for the latter. Furthermore, even the identification as a needle may be subject, particularly where bone is used as the raw material; ‘bone pins/needles’ is a frequent entry on finds lists, but the distinction is rarely followed up. It can be argued that in some cases where the perforated end of the item is widely splayed, it would be unlikely to have served as a needle other than for very coarse fabrics, as otherwise the broad end would have damaged or torn the weave of the cloth. Straight or tapering ends beyond the

Site

Site type

Baronstown, Co. Meath

Non-circular

Bowling Green, Co. Tipperary Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Univallate

A range of other equipment used in sewing has also been identified, including decorated needle cases at Winetavern Street in Scandinavian Dublin (Ó Ríordáin 1971), Clonmacnoise (King 2009, 343–4) and Knowth (FitzGerald 2012, 563). Other finds included 'sacking' needles and a wooden case for shears used in the cutting of fine cloth at 1–3 High Street in Dublin City (Murtagh 1989:034). Shears are a relatively common find (see Table 8.6), and as previously noted are more likely to be used in this stage of textile processing rather than sheepshearing.

Copperalloy P

Iron P

Bone P P

Cashel

P

Cherrywood, Co. Dublin Clonmacnoise, Co. Offaly

Monastic

P

Corbally, Co. Kildare

Cemetery/ settlement Raised

P

Farrandreg, Co. Louth Garryduff I, Co. Cork Gragan West, Co. Clare Johnstown 1, Co. Meath Kells, Co. Meath Kilgreany Cave, Co. Waterford Killegland, Ashbourne, Co. Meath Knowth, Co. Meath Leggetsrath, Co. Kilkenny Millockstown, Co. Louth Moone, Co. Kildare Nendrum, Co. Down Nevinstown, Co. Meath Ninch, Co. Meath Parknahown 5, Co. Laois Park North, Co. Cork Randalstown, Co. Meath Ratoath, Co. Meath

P

O'Connell 2009, 51 P

P

Non-circular Souterrain Univallate Raised Cemetery/ settlement Monastic environs Other

P

P P

Byrne 1987:41 Dowd 2002, 87

P P P P P

Raised Multivallate Multivallate Monastic Monastic

P

Kavanagh 2006:1499 P

P P

P P P

Raised Non-circular Cemetery/ settlement Other Church/well Non-circular

Ó Néill & Coughlan 2010, 242–3 Ó Floinn & King 1998, 124; King 2009, 339 Coyne 2010, 83 Lynn & McDowell 2011, 281; Hurl 2011, 259; Cagney & O'Hara 2009, 132 Murphy 1998:463 O'Kelly 1963, 40 Cotter 1988:04 Clarke 2010, 69

P

Medieval

Linnane & Kinsella 2009a, 115 Fanning 1970, 16 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 97

Cemetery/ settlement Other

Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dowdstown 2, Co. Meath

Reference

P P P P P P

FitzGerald 2012, 561 Lennon 2006a; 2006b Manning 1986, 159 Hackett 2008 Lawlor 1925, 149; Bourke 2007, 407, 419 Cahill 1977/79:059 McConway 2001:1007 O'Neill 2010, 256 Coleman 1941–42, 71 Kelly 1976:020 Wallace 2010, 305

Table 8.5: Examples of sites where needles have been found, showing materials (P=present)

110

Name Armagh, Co. Armagh

Site type Monastic

Reference Gaskell-Brown and Harper 1984, 128

Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly Cahercommaun, Co. Clare Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Cloghermore cave, Co. Kerry Clonfad, Co. Westmeath Corbally, Co. Kildare Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dowdstown 2, Co. Meath Garranes, Co. Cork Garryduff I, Co. Cork Illaunloughan, Co. Kerry Killanully, Co. Cork, Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Kilgobbin, Co. Dublin Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Lagore, Co. Meath Lough Faughan, Co. Down Moylarg, Co. Antrim Moyne, Co. Mayo Nevinstown, Co. Meath Waterford, Co. Waterford

Crannog Cashel Cashel Other Monastic Cemetery Raised Non-circular Multivallate Univallate Monastic Univallate Univallate Multivallate Univallate Crannog Crannog Crannog Univallate Raised Urban, Hiberno-Scandinavian

Hencken 1942, 46 Hencken 1938, 48 Ó Ríordáin 1949a, 77 Connolly et al 2005, 212–3 Stevens 2006, 11 Coyne 2010, 83 Lynn 1988d, 47 Cagney and O’Hara 2009, 130 Ó Ríordáin 1942, 102 O’Kelly 1963, 44 Marshall and Walsh 2005, 181 Mount 1995, 139 Manning 1984, 254 Bolger 2004:0647 Walsh 2008, 45 Hencken 1950, 112–3 Collins 1955, 61 Buick 1893, 36 Manning 1987, 54 Cahill 1977/79:059 Scully 1997, 458–9

Table 8.6: Examples of sites with evidence for iron shears Castlefarm (at least ten needles), Lagore (fourteen) and Knowth (34); interestingly, all of these sites are located in county Meath, but it is unclear whether this represents a concentration of this craftwork or more extensive excavations in this area. Only five of the sites with needles have no other evidence for textile processes: these are Knockea and Sluggary (where the iron needles could be pins), Ninch and Sroove with bone needles only, and Rochfort Demesne with iron, bronze and bone needles.

Slotted-and-pointed iron tools have been found at Raystown (Seaver 2010, 276), Killickaweeny (Walsh 2008, 46, 50), Oldcourt (Murphy and Ó Cuileanáin 1961, 88), Cahercommaun (Hencken 1938, 52–53), Gransha (Lynn 1985a, 88), Lagore (where one was dated to the eighth century; Hencken 1950, 118) and Dún Eoghanachta (Cotter 1995:117). Edwards (1990, 88) has suggested that these tools may have been used for weaving rush matting. Rush seeds were found in the basal fill of the well at Killickaweeny and it was suggested that the slotted-and-pointed iron tool recovered at the site may have been used in coiled basketry, with the rush or reed passed through the slot and the pointed end used to bring it around and between the coils (Walsh 2008, 50).

The presence of these tools show that various stages of processing, perhaps to the final making of cloth and its formation into garments (suggested especially by needles), occurred on particular sites. It is important to note that the processes could be separate: spinning could be practised in- or outdoors, and accordingly, its tools need not be restricted to settlement sites (O’Brien 2010, 16). Weaving, in contrast, would be a more stationary craft, at least insofar as large wooden looms were concerned. As Hodkinson (1987) points out, however, evidence for these is limited, and the possibility of the use of back-beam looms, together with the definite evidence for tablet weaving, offers a degree of mobility/flexibility in the location of these crafts, which again might reduce the evidence found on settlements.

In all, 52 sites produced tools related to sewing and cutting of cloth, potentially for the manufacture of garments; a breakdown of the geographical distribution of theses given in Fig. 8.4. Ten of these sites had evidence for this process only: three sites with just shears (Grange West, Killanully and Moyne), one with both needles and shears (Nevinstown), and six with needles only (Farrandreg, Knockea, Ninch, Rochfort Demesne, Sluggary and Sroove). Breaking down the tools, twentyone sites in all produced shears (complete or fragmentary); Grange West, Killanully and Moyne had no other textile-related evidence, which could suggest alternative uses for these tools. Sites with multiple shears include Cahercommaun with five pairs, Lagore with six and Garryduff with seven; were all of these for textile working, and if so, do the quantities imply significant presence of the craft/workers?

Contexts of textile-working It is possible that activities such as spinning and weaving were undertaken within or immediately adjacent to domestic structures, as these tasks were clean and relatively odourless. In contrast, it has been suggested that as dye-production was a dirty process, it was probably located in the industrial quarters away from the domestic area (Comber 2008, 108). However, it is interesting in this regard that one of the sites with evidence for dog-whelk dyes, Dooey, also had evidence

Forty-five sites in all produced needles; just a single needle was recorded at 23 of these, leaving 22 sites with two or more needles. Significant quantities were found at 111

(ibid., 265). The texts also suggest that there were taboos against the presence of men during the process of dyeing, confirming that textile production was strongly the task of women in early Irish society (ibid., 449–50). Of 317 sites in the gazetteer, however, just five provided evidence of the presence (and presumably processing) of materials used as dyestuffs, namely dog-whelk (Dooey, Doonloughan and Rathgurreen), woad (Deer Park Farms) and madder (Boho); many dyes obtained from vegetation would not, however, leave recognisable evidence. Madder seeds were found at Boho (Morrison 1953); traces of cultivated madder were found in an E-ware pot from Teeshan crannóg (Ó Ríordáin 1979, 30); and woad pods were discovered at Deer Park Farms (Lynn 1989, 197).

for spinning, weaving and sewing on site. Deer Park Farms (with evidence for woad plants) also showed evidence for textile production from initial processing to finishing stages.

Much of the evidence for dyestuffs comes primarily from coastal sites, and involves a species of shellfish known as dog-whelk (Nucella lapillus); this species contains a liquid which, when exposed to the sun, turns purplish-red (Edwards 1990, 82). Several shell-midden sites at Doonloughan (McCormick and Murray 1997; Murray and McCormick 2012), Dog’s Bay, Roundstone (O'Rourke 1945, 117) and Culfin, Lettergesh, Co. Galway (McCormick and Murray 2006), as well as Dooey (Ó Ríordáin and Rynne 1961, 61), and various settlement enclosures such as Raheens II (Lennon 1994, 59), Rathgurreen (Comber 2002, 181) and Rathmullan (Lynn 1981–82, 81), have produced evidence for broken dog-whelk shells. Rathgurreen and Dooey contained several shallow and deep pits which may have been used in dye manufacture (Comber 2008, 101), and a flat stone object at Rathgurreen was stained red on its flat surfaces (Comber 2002, 181). The best evidence for the extraction of dye from dog-whelks was identified at Inishkea North, where a structure formed of timber and stone (House A, Site 3) was interpreted as a dye production workshop (Henry 1952, 177). The building measured c.7.3m by 6m with an entrance at the eastern end and was probably made of wattle walls set on stone footings. On the west side was an annex, defined by upright stone slabs, in which was a pit; nearby was a pile of dog-whelk shells. A hearth was found in the centre of the structure and a large stone-lined pit was located to the north-west of it. It was suggested that the dye may have been extracted by crushing the live shellfish in the pit before steeping them with salt and boiling the mixture for a long time (to reduce the amount of liquid) with pot-boilers (many of which were found on site). This dye-production may have been associated with textile-working as the site also produced evidence for the manufacture of chlorite spindle whorls (Edwards 1990, 83).

Fig. 8.4: Regional distribution of sites with evidence for sewing, by modern province (total sites: 52) Proudfoot (1961) argued that weaving was an important element in the economy, but Comber (2008, 110) has queried this, arguing that the evidence instead suggests that not all sites were engaged in these activities, with only a select number supplying textiles to other sites in the early medieval period. This would appear to be borne out by the examination above, but further work is needed at the local level to identify particular networks of production and supply. In some instances where tools of textile working have been found in cemeteries or burials, these may not indicate crafts actually carried out at the site, but rather grave goods consisting of the personal possessions of those interred there. Examples of this include Cloghermore Cave, Co. Kerry, where spindle whorls were included among apparent grave goods and also with pyre remains (Connolly et al 2005) and Ratoath, where a needle was found in a juvenile’s burial (Wallace 2010, 305); broader examples of such finds from cemeteries, but not directly associated with individual burials, include Cloncowan II (Baker 2007c, 71, 128–9). While such cases may be of use in looking at the gender of craftworkers, or indicating a person’s perceived social role and the importance of this particular aspect of their life and work, it is more difficult to link them specifically with textile working in the immediate area. Dyestuffs The production of dye could also be regarded as evidence relating to cloth manufacture, although the activities need not have taken place on the same site. The early texts provide information about bleaching and dyeing and indicate that the juices of plants such as blackberries or lichens may have been used in this process. One plant source mentioned several times in the texts is woad, which provides both blue and pink dyes; the laws indicate that women were responsible for woad processing (Kelly 1997, 266), and its status may be implied by the reference to the queen of Tara owning a garden of woad plants

There is limited other evidence for dye-processing; it was suggested that a broken shale disc found at Lagore might have been used for grinding/mixing colours (Hencken 1950, 177), and possible pigment-grinding stones were identified at Lough Faughan (Collins 1955, 69), but whether these definitely relate to the dyeing of textiles is uncertain.

112

involves different processes from iron-working, at least insofar as the stage of actually fashioning a brooch or pin is concerned, but much of the evidence for furnaces or hearths would be similar, and residues or slags would be needed to identify the metal worked there. Other crafts were involved in the production of ornaments: bone/antler working would have resulted in the bone pins which occur so frequently; lignite- and (less frequently) stone-working was involved in making bracelets, pendants and even rings; glass-working produced colourful beads and bangles. While specific tools may relate to different materials, in some cases there is potential for overlap – knives used for bone working might also serve to carve wood; lathes could be used in wood-working or for making lignite bracelets. Often, it is the evidence of waste material (lignite cores left over from the making of bracelets, bone and antler waste) or indeed the preparatory material (bone motif- or trialpieces) which may be the most telling evidence for what was made at a particular site.

Leather working – shoes and belts Accessories such as shoes and belts are also evidence of dress, and may be represented again either by surviving specimens or by evidence of leather-working. The larger scale processing or tanning of leather may in some cases be a more specialised, semi-industrial undertaking, but the cutting, shaping and at times decoration of leather – as seen in several instances in relation to shoes – could be carried out at individual settlement sites. Of 317 sites in the gazetteer, just fourteen produced evidence of leather fragments and/or possible leather working. In some cases the remains included shoes or parts of shoes, recognisable by shape/form; sites involved included Ballinderry II, Castlefarm, Craigywarren, Deer Park Farms (Neill 2011, 368–73), Lagore, Lissue, Moynagh Lough and Rathtinaun, with possible shoes from Baronstown (Nicholl 2009, 2) and Seacash (Lynn 1978b, 69). Leather-working tools might include shears, knives and awls; of these, the shears already referred to in relation to textile working could have been used for this craft also. Four sites with leather remains also produced shears, namely Ballinderry II, Cahercommaun, Deer Park Farms and Lagore. It has also been suggested that the socketed-and-pronged items referred to above might have been used for leather-working/scoring; while this is uncertain, the presence of such tools might potentially suggest leather-working at Dooey, Marlinstown and Kilcloghans, although no leather remains survived there. Artefacts definitely related to the manufacture/repair of shoes on site include shoe lasts; two wooden examples have been excavated, one from Lagore (Hencken 1950, 10, 170) and the other from Deer Park Farms (Neill 1991; 2011, 373).

This variety of materials implies a range of crafts involved; metal pins, being part of the process of metal smelting/casting or forging, often involving moulds and other specialised equipment, are more easily seen as the produce of a skilled craftworker rather than a subsistencelevel craft. Bone and wood, however, especially the simpler forms with less decoration, such as the common pig-fibula pins, might be argued as open to being crafted by anyone who had access to the raw material and a simple knife or other such tool. On that basis, the presence of such simple forms in easily-obtainable material might be considered as evidence of their manufacture and use on a site by its inhabitants, even if no obvious evidence of working in that material survives. Iron-working As noted above, iron is used for a considerable number of ornaments, including brooches, pins and buckles. Not all sites with iron ornaments have evidence of iron working; those which do are set out in Table 8.7. In terms of site types, the breakdown of sites with both ornaments and iron working is given in Fig. 8.5. While most of these site types include sites with ornaments but no evidence for iron-working, it may be significant that all eight cashels, and all seven non-circular sites, which produced iron ornaments also had evidence of iron working.

Other dress accessories produced from leather working include belts; an interesting speculation would be whether the leather part of the belt would be made at a separate site from the metal buckles/strap ends – would the metal fittings perhaps have been ‘bought in’ to fit a home-made leather belt? Ornaments The best evidence for manufacture of ornaments lies in the tools and other paraphernalia of working the particular material involved; only occasionally do unfinished/incomplete articles appear. Metal working may have produced several types of ornaments; moulds, unfinished or waste examples may clarify this. Should the types of ornament found on a site not match the manufacturing evidence, this might simply result from the portable nature of these small items, or might suggest perhaps a circulation or exchange of ornaments between people in different locations. Indeed, the difficulty in matching ornaments to sites is exacerbated by the amount of non-excavated ornaments, or stray finds, which lack site-specific contexts. Non-ferrous metal-working

Actual evidence for the manufacture of iron ornaments is limited, with most of the iron-working evidence relating to earlier stages in the processing of the metal. Most iron items would be forged rather than made in moulds, which also limits the potential evidence for specific ornaments. However, it has been suggested that iron ringed pins were being produced at Deerfin (Bratt 1975:04), while the considerable amount of iron-working at Dooey probably included the manufacture of brooches, pins and buckles (Ó Ríordáin and Rynne 1961, 61–2).

113

Site Aghadegnan Ballinderry I Ballyarra Baronstown Cahercommaun

Site type Univallate Crannog Souterrain Non-circular Cashel

Ornaments 1 pin 2 pins, 1 buckle 1 pin Pins 11 pins, 3 possible buckles

Manufacturing evidence Slag Iron-working refuse Slag & furnace bottom Slag & possible furnace lining Smelting slag

Cahircalla More Caraun More Carraig Aille I Carraig Aille II Castlefarm

Univallate Univallate Cashel Cashel Cemetery/ settlement Other Cemetery/ settlement Non-circular Other Raised

bronze pin with iron shank Pin 5 pins 31 pins 15 pins, plus 22 pins mixing iron & bronze Pin Pin

Slag, 4 smithing hearths, mini-anvil Slag & bowl furnaces Slag Slag 3 smithing hearths, smelting slag

Pin Ring-headed pin 14 pins (1 with blue glass head)

Slag Slag, tuyère Slag (some smelting but mostly smithing), tuyère fragments

Pins brooches, pins & buckles 3 pins Pin Pin Pins

5 industrial hearths Slag Slag & furnace lining Slag Slag & furnace Slag

23 pins 20 pins

Slag 44 furnace bottoms, 1 furnace, ore, 8 tuyère fragments, slag, anvil 11 smelting furnaces, 5 smithing hearths, tuyère fragments, slag Slag – smelting & smithing Ore, tuyère, kiln lining Slag – mostly smelting but some smithing Slag Furnace bottoms & tuyère Furnaces/hearths, smelting slag & mixed slag, smithing cakes, tuyère Slag, tuyère fragments, smithing hearths Slag Slag, furnace bottoms, tuyère fragments Slag & bowl furnace Slag Slag Slag & tuyère fragments Iron-working furnace & slag

Cherrywood Collierstown I Cush Dalkey Island Deer Park Farms Deerfin Dooey Dowdstown 2 Dún Eoghanachta Dunbell Big 5 Faughart Lower Feltrim Hill Garryduff Johnstown

Cashel Other Non-circular Cashel Univallate Cemetery/ settlement Cashel Univallate

Kilgobbin Killanully Killickaweeny

Cemetery/ settlement Multivallate Univallate Univallate

Pins 1 pin 6 pins

Knockadrina Knockea Knowth

Univallate Raised Raised

1 pin 1 pin (or needle) 27 pins, 6 buckles

Lagore

Crannog

12 pins

Leacanabuaile Lisleagh I

Cashel Multivallate

1 pin 1 pin

Lisleagh II Lough Faughan Loughbown 1 Meadowbank Mount Offaly

1 pin Pins Pin Pins 2 buckles

Rathgurreen Raystown Roestown 2 Rosepark Sallymount

Univallate Crannog Multivallate Raised Cemetery/ settlement Crannog Univallate Cemetery/ settlement Multivallate Non-circular Non-circular Non-circular Non-circular

brooch & pin 12 pins, 1 buckle 8 pins Possible pin, 1 buckle 2 pin shanks

Sluggary Sroove The Spectacles

Multivallate Crannog Cashel

Pins 1 pin 1 pin

Moynagh Lough Moyne Parknahown

2 pins

4 pins Pin 1 pin, 1 buckle

Table 8.7: Sites with iron ornaments and evidence of manufacturing

114

Slag Slag

Furnaces & slag Slag Iron-working residue, principally smithing but also smelting Slag & tuyères Slag Smithing slag, stone anvil Slag & furnace clay Slag, smelting slag, smithing hearths, furnace lining, hammerscale 4 furnace bottoms, 1 piece of slag Bowl furnace Slag

Fig. 8.5: Sites with iron ornaments and evidence of iron-working: number for each site type noted at Dooey (Ó Ríordáin and Rynne 1961, 62); evidence included quantities of both complete and fragmentary clay moulds, including one for a penannular brooch (ibid., Fig. 7). Finished personal ornaments from the site include around fifty bronze pins, along with brooches and buckles. At Lough Faughan, a clay mould for a flat-headed pin was found (Collins 1955, 59), although this type does not correspond with the actual pin found on site. The multivallate site of Clogher has been identified as a brooch factory, with two specific types of zoomorphic penannular brooches apparently being manufactured there, one of them by an individual craftsman (Kilbride-Jones 1980, 63). In addition to manufacturing evidence, the site has been proposed as the centre for dissemination of these particular brooch types (ibid., 66).

Non-ferrous metalworking While crucible residues and other traces are a useful indication of metals worked on site, mould fragments are a key part of the evidence for the manufacture of particular types of ornaments. Stone moulds occasionally provide such hints, for example a complete mould for ‘dress-pins’ from Caherconnell (O’Sullivan et al 2010, 118). Clay mould fragments, broken open after casting to release the ornaments, may occasionally provide sufficient detail to allow brooch or pin types to be identified, which might potentially reflect the ornaments also found on site. Sheet-metal working, however, can also be used for ornaments; this was the method used for the bird-headed brooches from Lagore and Moynagh Lough (see below). While evidence for non-ferrous metal working occurs on forty-four sites which also produced personal ornaments (see Table 8.8), it is rarely possible to directly link the process and products. The possibility that ornaments found on these sites could have been made there remains, but is not conclusive. Some sites, however, have more convincing evidence for the manufacture of dress ornaments. At Garranes, both stone and clay moulds for casting pins and rings were found (Ó Ríordáin 1942, 110, 123–4), while a copper-alloy pin was noted as being fresh from casting (ibid., 95). Evidence from Lagore included an unstratified mould for a ring-headed pin and a mould fragment showing part of a large ring, possibly for a brooch (Hencken 1950, 126, fig. 60 nos. 1517 & 872). The manufacture of copper-alloy ornaments was also

Significant evidence for metal-working was found at Moynagh Lough, including fragments of clay moulds, with at least three made for casting brooches (Bradley 1991, 20). One of these showed a bird’s head terminal (Bradley 1994–95, 166); while the bird-headed penannular brooch found on the site was made of sheet metal, rather than cast (Ó Floinn 2009, 243–5), the mould might indicate the manufacture of such brooches here. While just seven examples of this brooch type are known (see Ó Floinn 2009, which does not include Baronstown), the small cluster in Meath (Lagore, Baronstown and Moynagh Lough), together with the evidence of the mould, might suggest a centralised location for the manufacture and dissemination of these brooches.

115

Site Ballinderry II

Site type Crannog

Ornaments 3 zoomorphic & 1 penannular brooch, 10 pins (1 enamelled), 1 bracelet, 2 rings Ring pin penannular brooch, handpin, 2 ringed pins, other pins ringed pins & silvered bronze buckle 2 pin shafts 2 brooches, 1 pin, 1 bracelet gilt bronze & bronze brooches, 19 pins, 1 ring

Ballycasey More Ballycatteen

Univallate Multivallate

Ballywee Balriggan Baronstown Carraig Aille II

Non-circular Non-circular Non-circular Cashel

Castlefarm Castleskreen Cavanapole Clea Lakes Clogher

Cemetery/ settlement Univallate Univallate Crannog Multivallate

2 brooches, 22 pins (with iron), 26 pins, 1 silvered bronze pin, 4 rings Possible brooch 1 ring pin 2 pins brooch, fragments of penannular brooches, handpin, bracelet

Cloghermore Coonagh West Dalkey Island

Other Univallate Other

6 pins, buckle fragments Pair of brooches and some pins penannular brooch, pins

Deer Park Farms Dooey

Raised Other

1 brooch, 5 pins, 4 rings Brooches, pins, buckles

Dunmisk

Univallate

Ringpin

Dunnyneill Island Faughart Lower

penannular brooch, 1 pin Pins

Feerwore Garranes

Other Cemetery/ settlement Univallate Multivallate

Garryduff Gransha Kilgobbin Knowth

Univallate Raised Multivallate Raised

Knoxspark

Other

15 pins, rings penannular brooch, spiral ring pin 3 pins 3 brooches, 145 pins, 3 buckles, 2 bracelets 2 pin stems, 1 pendant

Lagore

Crannog

Letterkeen Lisduggan North Lisleagh I Lissue Lough Faughan Marlinstown Moynagh Lough

Univallate Univallate Multivallate Univallate Crannog Multivallate Crannog

Newtownlow Parknahown Platin Raheennamadra Rathgurreen Rathtinaun

Crannog Cemetery/ settlement Multivallate Univallate Multivallate Crannog

Ratoath

Non-circular

pin & rings penannular brooch, 3 pins, possible ring

8 brooches, 31 pins, 3 buckles, 2 bracelets, 5 rings Pin Buckle pin (with iron), buckle & bead Pin (with iron) penannular brooch, 1 pin bracelet & ring 2 brooches, 7 pins, 2 rings 20 pins 2 brooches, 13 pins, 1 bead/necklace fragment 1 ringed pin Pin Pin (with iron) 1 brooch, at least 9 pins, bracelets, rings brooch & neck-ring

116

Manufacturing evidence 43 fragments of crucibles, 8 clay moulds, shale trial piece Clay mould Clay crucible fragments Crucibles Crucible fragment Copper alloy waste 3 crucibles & many fragments of same, some with green indicating copper working Copper globules & ingot Crucibles Crucible fragments 2 crucibles with bronze stains “Brooch factory” – quantities of brooch fragments – bronze bracelet as possible scrap? Crucible Crucible fragment Crucible fragments, lump of copper slag, copper ingot Crucible sherds, possible copper ingot Crucibles; complete & fragmentary clay moulds, including 1 for penannular brooch Hundreds of clay mould fragments, crucible sherds Crucible fragment; copper fragments Crucible Crucible fragment Bronze casting fragment; clay & stone moulds for pins & rings; bronze pin (in fragments) fresh from casting; 39 crucibles & 2,500 fragments Complete & fragmentary crucibles Motif pieces 4 crucibles, 2 clay moulds, copper slag One 2-piece clay mould Clipped fragments of silvered bronze Moulds; molten bronze; 263 crucibles/fragments Crucibles Crucible fragment Bronze-working debris Slate motif piece Crucibles, copper slag, clay mould Crucible fragments Crucible fragments; 600+ mould fragments, including 3 brooch moulds Crucible fragments Crucible fragment Crucible fragments Crucible Crucibles Crucibles Crucible sherd

Roestown 2

Non-circular

32 pin fragments, 1 buckle

Woodstown

Other

Pin

Crucible fragments, copper alloy residue, bone motif pieces Crucible fragments

Table 8.8: Sites with copper-alloy ornaments and evidence of non-ferrous manufacturing In three of the sites in Table 8.8 – Cloghermore, Ratoath and Woodstown – the copper-alloy ornaments were found in burial contexts; at Cloghermore, the crucible also was found with human remains. At that last site at least, the evidence might suggest that one of the deceased interred in the cave was a metal-worker, rather than that metalworking was being carried out on site. In the case of Ratoath, the copper-alloy neck-ring has been identified as an Anglo-Saxon type which may have been imported to the site (O’Brien 2009).

Glass beads are more common than bangles, and a number of sites with these ornaments also have suggestions of glass working (see Table 8.10). In some cases, the link between the ornaments and craft evidence is tenuous; at Lagore, for example, while millefiori rods and glass stud moulds were found, the excavator noted there was no direct evidence for the manufacture of beads, although it was possible (Hencken 1950, 12). More conclusive evidence takes the form of unfinished or failed beads, examples of which occurred at Dunmisk, Gragan West, Lislackagh and Moynagh Lough.

While the focus here is primarily on copper alloy, other sites produced evidence of gold and silver working; few of these sites produced ornaments made of these metals, but the possibility of their use in embellishing copperalloy ornaments should be borne in mind. Knowth had crucible evidence for both gold and silverworking, while a gold ingot at Moynagh Lough suggests this metal was being used there.

Province Leinster

County Louth Meath Westmeath Offaly Dublin Kildare Wicklow Kilkenny Longford

Glass-working The centralised manufacture of various glass ornaments has been suggested, particularly in relation to the glass bangles, which may originally have been developed and produced in the kingdom of Brega, under royal patronage operating from the sites of Lagore, Knowth and Moynagh Lough (Carroll 2001, 107). One study showed that over half of all glass bangles were found in county Meath (ibid., 103; see Table 8.9 for update), with significant quantities from these high-status sites in particular. Two of these sites – Lagore and Moynagh Lough – are among the four sites with glass bracelets which also have evidence for glass working; the others are Garryduff and Island MacHugh. The evidence from the first two sites, both crannogs, is primarily in the form of glass stud moulds and glass rods, with an unfinished glass bead at Moynagh Lough; Garryduff produced a blob of molten glass, and Island MacHugh enamel residues in crucibles. While there was no direct evidence for the manufacture of glass bracelets there, the excavator of Lagore suggested it was probable (Hencken 1950, 12); such manufacture need not leave specific traces (see Carroll 2001, 103 for the process).

Ulster Antrim Down Derry Tyrone Monaghan Connacht Mayo Sligo Munster Cork Clare Limerick Ireland only TOTALS

Sites 15 1 6 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 13 6 4 1 1 1 4 3 1 4 1 1 2 1 37

Bracelets 46 1 29 1 7 3 1 2 1 1 17 7 7 1 1 1 5 4 1 5 1 2 2 1 74

Table 8.9: Distribution of glass bracelets by modern provinces/counties (adapted from Doyle 2010)

Site Ballycatteen

Site type Multivallate

Glass beads 2 blue

Ballyhenry

Univallate

3 (2 blue & 1 green)

Dunmisk

Univallate

Plural

Garranes

Multivallate

10 (1 black & white, 3 blue, 1 bluish-green, 1 red & yellow, 1 red, 1 yellow, 1 black, 1 not specified)

117

Glass working evidence glass rod (blue with white patches disc of pale green glass – accidentally re-melted 6 crucibles with glass residue, failed blue glass stud, failed glass beads, glass rods, scrap glass 3 glass rods, millefiori rod in bronze tube & 2 other millefiori pieces, glass vessel fragments

Garryduff

Univallate

Gragan West Lagore

Raised Crannog

Lislackagh Moynagh Lough Roestown 2

Univallate Crannog Non-circular

Woodstown

Other

28 (14 blue, 3 yellow, 2 green, 2 polychrome, 1 clear & yellow, 1 clear/brownish, 1 clear, 1 green & yellow, 1 red & yellow, 2 unspecified) 1 yellow 136 (78 blue, 10 white, 4 yellow, 2 khaki, 5 green, 1 blue-green, 1 red & white, 11 blue & white, 2 yellow & green, 1 green & black, 3 clear & yellow, 2 grey & yellow, 2 red, 1 blue & yellow, 4 polychrome, 1 amber, 1 black, 1 clear, others unspecified) 5 (4 blue & 1 yellow) Plural (including 3 blue and 1 white & yellow) 12 (6 blue, 3 blue-green, 2 yellow, 1 yellowgreen) 2 (1 blue, 1 clear)

Blob of molten glass melted glass bead glass stud moulds, plain & millefiori glass rods

possibly unfinished glass bead glass rods, unfinished bead crucible with glazed residue molten glass droplets

Table 8.10: Sites with glass beads and evidence of glass working Lignite/jet/shale working A small number of sites have produced both ornaments in jet/lignite/shale and also evidence for the working of these materials. The main evidence for the manufacture of bracelets is usually interpreted as occurring in the form of the central cores removed in the process (Childe 1938, 133). Six shale cores and four bracelet fragments were found at Doonmore (ibid., 133). Oldcourt produced one jet core and three bracelet fragments (Murphy and Ó Cuileanáin 1961). Feltrim Hill produced a waste jet disc, a number of bracelet fragments and two jet beads (Hartnett and Eogan 1964, 31). However, two jet-like rough-outs from Knowth, which appear very similar to those from other sites, have recently been argued as ‘unlikely to be the residual cores’ of bracelets, but rather rough discs brought to the site for finishing into artefacts (Johnson 2012, 735). Indeed, it has been suggested that these rough-outs might have been used on site as gaming pieces (ibid., 230), suggesting that apparent waste products might have been useful items, rather than simply debris. For other evidence, fragments of bracelets may represent manufacture or may simply be broken ornaments; occasionally some are identified as having been broken in the course of manufacture, as at Cush (Ó Ríordáin 1940, 151).

found (Seaver 2007), many are quite plain, notably those made from pig fibulae. It has been noted that pig-fibula pins ‘could have been manufactured with relatively little skill’ but ‘decorated pins were the work of professionals’ (Edwards 1990, 84), while ‘simple objects of stone, bone and wood’ would have been made ‘by those who needed them’ (Mytum 1992, 211). The law tracts do not specify bone-working as a craft; the nearest equivalent is the comb-maker, whose honour price, at half a sét, is significantly below that of any metal-worker (Kelly 1988, 63). However, comb-making might be considered a more skilled task, requiring both specialised equipment and experience (Hinton 2006, 160). Even still, the perceived low status of the comb-maker is reflected in a late ninthcentury Triad which noted ‘Three things that constitute a comb-maker: racing a hound in contending for a bone; straightening a ram’s horn by his breath, without fire; chanting upon a dunghill so that all antlers and bones and horns that are below come to the top’ (Meyer 1906, 17). By extension, the bone-worker making pins, beads or other items would not seem to have had a social value, perhaps supporting the idea of individual, domestic manufacture. These suggestions of a possible self-sufficiency in the manufacture of such plain items may reflect not just the finished items, but also the simple tools required for their manufacture – a knife or other blade – and the ubiquity of the raw material on most sites. This in turn may limit the potential to find evidence of their manufacture; carving a small piece of bone into a pin would be a mobile craft, not necessarily one restricted to a particular structure or area, and hence evidence might be dispersed and difficult to find and identify in excavations. This may explain the reliance on indirect evidence (bone ornaments and other finished bone items such as spindle whorls or combs) to suggest bone-working on the sites surveyed. If this does imply an unspecialised craft, it is interesting that some high-status sites, such as Lagore and Knowth, are included amongst the sites indicating bone-working (although the latter does have more direct evidence). Overall, direct evidence for bone-working is rarer, including unfinished bone pins at Moyne, as well as examples of worked and unworked, polished or cut bones (see Table 8.11).

It is also interesting to look at sites which have evidence for working in these materials but no finished ornaments, such as Ballybrolly, which has a lignite core but no bracelets – indeed no personal ornaments at all. Another issue requiring further attention is the need for exact analysis of the jet/lignite/shale, which is often identified simply on appearance rather than a scientific basis; this would help to show if locally-available material is being used, which might support the idea of local manufacture, or if either the material or the finished artefact is imported/traded from farther afield. Bone-working Bone pins are among the simplest of personal ornaments, in many cases being simple forms with limited modification and no decoration. While there have been some elaborately-carved examples of bone pins, for example from Lagore, where one was anthropomorphic in form (Hencken 1950, 193, fig. 105), and Glebe, where a zoomorphic pin in the shape of a horse’s head was 118

Site Athlumney Ballinderry I Ballinderry II Ballyvass Baronstown Boho Boyerstown Cahercommaun

Site type Souterrain Crannog Crannog Univallate Non-circular Cashel Non-circular Cashel

Carraig Aille I Carraig Aille II Carrigoran Castlefarm Castleskreen Clea Lakes Cloghermore Cloncowan Deer Park Farms Dooey Dowdstown Dunbell Big 6 Feltrim Hill Garryduff Glebe

Cashel Cashel Univallate Cemetery/settlement Univallate Crannog Other Cemetery/settlement Raised Other Non-circular Univallate Cashel Univallate Univallate

Bone ornaments 2 pins, 1 bead 6 pins 9 pins Pins 2 pins Pin Pins 82 pins, 5 beads, 1 pendant 3 pins 39 pins, 2 beads Bead 17 pins Pin 4 pins 8 pins, 3 beads 2 pins, fragment pendant 36 pins Pins 3 pins Pin 48 pins, 3 beads Pins Pin & bead

Johnstown Kilgobbin Kilgreany Killickaweeny Knockea Knowth

Cemetery/settlement Multivallate Other Univallate Raised Raised

5 pins 2 pins Pin 4 pins Pins 51 pins, 29 beads

Lagore Meadowbank Moathill 1 Moynagh Lough Moyne Ninch Park North Parknahown Rathtinaun

Crannog Raised Non-circular Crannog Univallate Non-circular Other Cemetery/settlement Crannog

Ratoath Raystown

Non-circular Non-circular

Roestown 2 Rosepark Sroove The Spectacles Tulsk Uisneach

Non-circular Non-circular Crannog Cashel Raised Other

164 pins, 6 beads Pins Pin 12 pins Pins (unfinished) Pins 2 pins Pins & beads At least 12 pins, plural beads Pins 6 pins, 1 bead, plural ‘buttons’ 25 pins Pin Pins, 2 beads Pin Pins Pin

Table 8.11: Sites with bone ornaments and evidence for bone working

119

Bone working Indirect Indirect Indirect Bone cut-off waste Indirect Indirect Polished unworked bone Worked pieces of bone Indirect Indirect Indirect Unworked pig fibulae Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect Bone-working evidence Indirect Indirect Indirect Decorated cattle & pig bones

Indirect Worked bone Indirect Cut & polished waste fragments; 5 strips of button/bead waste Indirect Indirect Indirect Cut pieces of bone Unfinished pins Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect Bone ‘buttons’ Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect Indirect

Fig. 8.6: Number of sites by site types, with bone ornaments and evidence for bone working Site

Site type

Aghadegnan, Co. Longford

Univallate

Athlumney, Co. Meath

Souterrain

Preparation

Spinning

Weaving P

P

Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Ballinderry II, Co. Offaly

Crannog

P

Crannog

P

Ballyaghagan, Co. Antrim

Univallate

P

Ballycasey More, Co. Clare Ballycatteen, Co. Cork

Univallate

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Ballyegan, Co. Kerry

Cashel

P

P P

Ballymacash, Co. Antrim

Univallate

Ballynakelly, Co. Dublin

Non-circular

P

Ballyvass, Co. Kildare

Univallate

P

Ballywee, Co. Antrim

Non-circular

P

Ballywillwill, Co. Down

Multivallate

P

Balriggan, Co. Louth

Non-circular

P

P

Baronstown, Co. Meath

Non-circular

P

P

Beginish, Co. Kerry

Other Cashel

Bowling Green, Co. Tipperary Boyerstown, Co. Meath

Univallate Non-circular

P

P

Multivallate

Boho, Co. Fermanagh

Sewing/cutting

P

P P P

120

P P

P

Cahercommaun, Co. Clare

Cashel

Carn, Co. Fermanagh

Cashel

Carraig Aille I, Co. Limerick Carraig Aille II, Co. Limerick Carrigatogher, Co. Tipperary Carrowkeel, Co. Mayo

Cashel

P

Cashel

P

Castlefarm, Co. Meath

Settlement/cemetery

Castlegar, Co. Mayo

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Settlement/cemetery

P

Univallate

P

P

P

P

Univallate

P

P

Castleskreen, Co. Down

Univallate

P

Cherrywood, Co. Dublin

Other

P

P

Clea Lakes, Co. Down

Crannog

P

P

Cloghermore, Co. Kerry

Other

P

P

Cloncowan, Co. Meath

Settlement/cemetery

P

Coarhabeg, Co. Kerry

Other

P

Collierstown 1, Co. Meath

Settlement/cemetery

Colp West, Co. Meath

Non-circular

Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Craigywarren, Co. Antrim

Univallate

P

Crannog

P

P

Cush, Co. Limerick

Non-circular

P

P

Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin

Other

P

Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Dooey, Co. Donegal

Raised

Doonloughan, Co. Galway

Other

Dowdstown 2, Co. Meath

P

P

P

P P P

P P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Non-circular

P

P

P

Dressogagh, Co. Armagh

Multivallate

P

Drumadoon, Co. Antrim

Raised

Dunbeg Fort, Co. Kerry

Cashel

P

Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone

Univallate

P

Dunnyneill Island, Co. Down Dunsilly, Co. Antrim

Other

P

Raised

P

Farrandreg, Co. Louth

Souterrain

Faughart Lower, Co. Louth

Settlement/cemetery

P

Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin

Cashel

P

Garranes, Co. Cork

Multivallate

P

P

P

Garryduff, Co. Cork

Univallate

P

P

P

Glebe, Co. Dublin

Univallate

P

Glencurran, Co. Clare

Other

P

Gortybrigane, Co. Tipperary Gragan West, Co. Clare

Univallate Raised

P

Grange, Co. Limerick

Univallate

P

Other

Grange West, Co. Sligo

Other

Haggardstown 1, Co. Louth Island MacHugh, Co.

Non-circular

P

P

P

P

P? P

P P

P

Crannog

121

Tyrone Johnstown, Co. Meath

Settlement/cemetery

P

P

Kilcloghans, Co. Galway

Univallate

P

Kilgobbin, Co. Dublin

Multivallate

P

P

Kilgreany, Co. Waterford

Other

P

P

Killanully, Co. Cork

Univallate

Killealy, Co. Antrim

Raised

Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare

Univallate

P

P?

P

Univallate

P

P

P

Kilscobin, Co. Tipperary

Univallate

P

Knockea, Co. Limerick

Raised

P P

P P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Knowth, Co. Meath

Raised

Knowth Site M, Co. Meath

Settlement/cemetery

Lagore, Co. Meath

Crannog

Leacanabuaile, Co. Kerry

Cashel

Leggetsrath, Co. Kilkenny

Multivallate

Lisduggan North, Co. Cork

Univallate

Lisleagh II, Co. Cork

Univallate

Lismahon, Co. Down

Raised

Lisnagun, Co. Cork

Univallate

Lissachiggel, Co. Louth

Cashel

P

Lough Faughan, Co. Down

Crannog

P

Loughbown 1, Co. Galway

Multivallate

P

Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Marshes Upper, Co. Louth

Multivallate

P?

Millockstown, Co. Louth

Multivallate

Mount Offaly, Co. Dublin

P P

P

P

P

P

P P P P

P

P

P

P

P

P

Settlement/cemetery

P

P

P

Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Moyne, Co. Mayo

Crannog

P

Narraghmore, Co. Kildare

Multivallate

Nevinstown, Co. Meath

Raised

Newtownlow, Co. Westmeath Ninch, Co. Meath

Crannog

Non-circular P

P

Univallate P

P P P

Non-circular

Oughtymore, Co. Londonderry Owenbristy, Co. Galway

Other

P

Settlement/cemetery

P

Park North, Co. Cork

Other

P

Parknahown, Co. Laois

Settlement/cemetery

Raheens II, Co. Cork

Univallate

Rathgurreen, Co. Galway

Multivallate

Rathmullan Lower, Co. Down Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo

Raised

P

Crannog

P

Ratoath, Co. Meath

Non-circular

Raystown, Co. Meath

Non-circular

P P P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

P

122

Rinnaraw, Co. Donegal

Other

P

Rochfort Demesne, Co. Westmeath Roestown 2, Co. Meath

Multivallate

P

Non-circular

P

P

P

Rosepark, Balrothery, Co. Dublin Sallymount, Co. Limerick

Non-circular

P

P

P

Non-circular

P

Seacash, Co. Antrim

Univallate

P

Sluggary, Co. Limerick

Multivallate

Smithstown, Co. Meath

Souterrain

P

Spittle Ballee, Co. Down

Univallate

P

Sroove, Co. Sligo

Crannog

St Gobnet's, Ballyvourney, Co. Cork The Spectacles, Co. Limerick Treanbaun, Co. Galway

Univallate

P

Cashel

P

P

Settlement/cemetery

P

P

Uisneach, Co. Westmeath

Other

P

White Fort, Co. Down

Cashel

P

Woodstown 6, Co. Waterford

Other

P

P P

P

Table 8.12: The four stages of textile working – summary of evidence (P=present)

123

P P

P

Section Four: Gazetteer of Industrial Activity on Early Medieval Rural Secular Sites Compiled by Thomas R. Kerr, Maureen Doyle and Matthew Seaver Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52

Site Name Aghadegnan Ahanaglogh Aird Altanagh Antiville Ardcloon Athlumney Augherskea, Knockmark Balgatheran Ballynarry Ballinderry I Ballinderry II Ballintemple Ballyaghagan 1 Ballyaghagan 2 Ballyarra Ballyboley Ballybrit Ballybrolly Ballycasey More Ballycatteen Fort Ballyduff Ballyegan Ballyfounder Ballyhamage Ballyhenry Ballyhill Lower Ballykennedy Ballylacky ‘Farrell’s Fort’, Ballylesson ‘Ballymacash’ Ballymacpeake Upper Ballymacrea Ballymurphy Ballynagallagh Ballynakelly Ballypalady Ballyrea Ballyrenan Ballyroney Ballyshanaghill Ballytromery Ballyutoag Ballyvass Ballyvollen Ballywee Ballywillwill Balriggan Banduff Baronstown Barrees Valley Baunogephlure

Page 127 129 130 131 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 149 152 154 156 157 159 160 161 162 164 167 168 170 172 173 175 176 177 179 180 182 183 184 185 187 189 191 192 193 194 195 197 199 201 202 204 206 208 210 214 216

Number 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 124

Site Name ‘Béal Ború’ Beginish ‘Bellaghy Bawn’ Bettystown Big Glebe Bighouse Bofeenaun ‘Boho’ Borris Bowling Green Boyerstown Bray Head, Valentia Island Brigown British ‘Brokerstown’ ‘Cahercommaun Fort’ ‘Cahergal’ Cahircalla More Calliaghstown Camus Cappydonnell Big Caraun More Carn Carnalbanagh East Carnmore West Carnreagh ‘Carraig Aille I’ ‘Carraig Aille II’ Carrigatogher (Harding) Carrigillihy Carrigoran Carrigrohane Carrowkeel Carryduff (‘Queen’s Fort’) Castlefarm Castlegar Castleskreen Cavanapole Cherrywood (Site 18) Clanrolla ‘Clea Lakes’ Clogher (Tyrone) Clogher, Lixnaw (Kerry) Cloghermore Cloghorr Cloncowan Clonmoney West Cloonaghboy Cloongownagh Coarhabeg Collierstown 1 Colp West

Page 217 219 221 222 224 226 227 229 230 231 233 236 240 242 243 245 248 249 251 252 253 254 256 257 258 261 262 264 266 268 270 272 273 275 276 279 281 282 283 286 287 289 291 292 296 297 299 301 303 305 307 311

Number 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162

Site Name Conva Coolagh Coolaholloga Coolcran Cooltubbrid Coonagh West Corcagh Demesne Cormeen Corraneary Corrstown ‘Craig Hill’ ‘Craigaphuile’ Craigywarren Croom East Cross Crossnacreevy Curraheen Cush Dalkey Island Deer Park Farms Deerfin Derrinsallagh 3 Derry More Derryhowlaght East Dollas Lower Donacarney Great Dooey Doonloughan ‘Doonmore’ Doras Dowdallshill Dowdstown 2 ‘Downview Park West’ Dressogagh Dromiskin Dromore (Glarryford Rath) Dromthacker Drumadonnell Drumadoon Drumaheglis ‘Dun Emer’, Lusk Dún Eoghanachta Dunalis Upper ‘Dunbeg Fort’ Dunbeg Dunbell Big (5) Dunbell Big (6) Dundrum Duneight Dunmisk ‘Dunnyneill Island’ Dunsilly Ennisnag Farrandreg Farrest Faughart Lower ‘Feerwore Rath’ Feltrim Hill

Page 313 314 316 317 318 319 321 322 323 324 326 327 328 330 332 333 335 337 341 343 347 348 350 351 353 354 355 357 359 360 362 363 367 368 370 371 373 375 377 379 380 382 384 385 388 389 391 392 393 394 396 398 399 400 401 402 404 406

Number 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 125

Site Name Finkiltagh Galgorm Garranes (‘Lisnacaheragh’) Garretstown Garryduff I & II Garrynamona Glebe (Site 43) ‘Glencurran Cave’ Glengormley Glenloughan Gortgrib Gortnahoon Gortybrigane (Site 2) Gragan West ‘Grange West’ Grange Gransha Haggardstown Harristown ‘Hillsborough Fort’ Holywood Island MacHugh Johnstown 1 Kilcloghans ‘St Gobban’, Kilgobbin Kilgreany Killanully Killarn Killealy ‘Killederdadrum’ Killickaweeny Killyglen Killyliss Kilree 3 Kilscobin Kiltrough Knockadrina/Stonecarthy West Knockaholet Knockea Knowth Knowth Site M Knoxspark Lagore Lahard ‘Langford Lodge’ ‘Larrybane’ ‘Leacanabuaile’ ‘Leggetsrath’ Letterkeen Lisanisk ‘Lisdoo’ Lisduggan North 1, 2 & 3 Lislackagh Lisleagh I Lisleagh II Lismahon Lisnagade ‘Lisnagun’

Page 407 408 409 412 414 417 419 421 423 424 425 426 428 430 432 434 436 438 440 441 442 443 444 447 448 451 453 455 457 459 462 465 466 468 470 471 472 474 475 478 481 484 486 489 491 492 493 495 497 499 501 503 505 507 510 513 514 516

Number 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278

Site Name Lisnalinchy ‘Lissachiggel’ Lissue Loher Lough Faughan crannog Lough Island Reevy Loughbown (1) Loughbown (2) Loughboy Loughlackagh Lowpark Mackney Magheraboy Magheramenagh Markstown Marlhill 1 Marlhill 2 (Site 150.3) Marlinstown Marshes Upper ‘Maynooth Castle’ ‘Meadowbank’ Millockstown Moathill 1 Moathill 2 & 3 Mooretown North ‘Mount Offaly’, Cabinteely Moyle Big Moylederg Island Moynagh Lough Moyne Mullaghbane Narraghmore Nevinstown Newcastle 2 Newtown Newtownbalregan Newtownlow Ninch, Laytown Oldcourt Oughtymore Owenbristy Park North Park Parknahown Platin Poleglass Pollardstown Poulacapple Rahally Raheennamadra Raheens I Raheens II Rampark Rathbeg Rathgurreen Rathmorrissy Rathmullan Lower ‘Rathtinaun’

Number 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313

Page 518 519 521 523 525 527 528 530 532 534 535 537 539 541 543 544 546 548 550 554 556 558 560 562 563 565 567 568 570 573 575 577 579 580 582 584 586 588 590 592 593 596 598 600 602 604 605 606 607 609 611 613 615 616 617 619 620 623

314 315 316 317

126

Site Name Ratoath Raystown Ringmackilroy Rinnaraw Rochfort Demesne Roestown 2 Rosepark, Balrothery Sallymount Seacash Shallon 3 Shane’s Castle Park Sheephouse 2 Simonstown Skahanagh North Sluggary Smithstown Spittle Ballee Sroove ‘St Gobnet’s House’, Ballyvourney Steeple Road, Antrim Tateetra Terryhoogan The ‘Spectacles’, Lough Gur Togherstown Treanbaun Tullaghgarley Tullahedy Tullykevin Tulsk Turnarobert ‘Uisneach’ Urney ‘White Fort’, Drumaroad Whiterath Woodstown 6 ADDENDUM Bushmills Distillery Dunlo Dunsilly Gortnahown 2

Page 626 630 634 635 637 639 642 645 648 650 651 652 653 654 656 658 659 660 662 664 666 667 669 671 673 675 676 678 679 681 682 684 685 687 688 691 694 695 697

upper fill of the earlier palisade trench. Radiocarbon dates from these contexts (see below) suggest a late fifth/early sixth-century date for this phase of occupation. There is also evidence, in the form of a possible ‘ore-roasting pit’, charcoal and slag, for ironworking being carried on in the interior of the later banked-and-ditched enclosure.

Aghadegnan, Co. Longford Grid Ref: N13387688 (21338/27688) SMR No: LF013-013 References: Carroll 1991, 1992, 1993. The site consisted of a large earthwork (61m in external diameter) set on a natural hillock in a boggy hinterland. Almost the whole of the area, to be destroyed by the construction of a by-pass, was archaeologically excavated, although the archaeological features in the interior of the enclosure had been severely damaged by later potato cultivation.

There are no definite dates for the construction of the banked-and-ditched enclosure, although radiocarbon dates from bone under the bank, and wood from the ditch give some idea of its occupation (see below). Excavation revealed the ditch to be around 6m wide at the top, and, on average 1.6m deep. Although over 500 post-holes were discovered on site, no internal structures can be definitively associated with this phase of occupation. There was evidence for a roundhouse in the interior (approximately 5.6m in internal diameter) which may have been rebuilt at least once, but this structure could equally have been associated with the unenclosed settlement which existed pre-palisade trench.

Excavation revealed a number of phases of enclosure on the site. The earliest phase included a roundhouse, defined by a double arc of post-holes (although these probably represent consecutive phases of single-post-built roundhouses). This building was cut by a trench, approximately 0.9m in depth. The trench also cut through a clay horizon which sealed a small circular post-built structure, about 2.2m in diameter, which was interpreted as an animal pen. A radiocarbon date from this structure suggests an occupation date in the fourth to sixth century (see below). The trench enclosed an area similar in size to that formed by the earthwork, and stratigraphically predated it, a conclusion supported by the radiocarbon dates. Patches of packing stones and re-deposited clays were interpreted as representing the post-holes for a wooden palisade associated with this trench.

A waterlogged area of the enclosure ditch revealed evidence for wooden slats (one of which was radiocarbon dated to the seventh/eighth century) which may have functioned as a lining for the ditch, but series of stonepacked post-emplacements found in the ditch suggest that a more substantial feature, such as a revetment or fence, may have been present. Only a few finds were recovered from the site. A fragment of a cross-engraved stone was found in the lower layers of the bank (which would have been obtained from the upper layer of the ditch cut), and a possible iron-headed pin was found in a similar context in another cutting.

The palisade trench was later in-filled, but prior to the construction of the banked-and-ditched enclosure there appears to have been some ironworking activity on site. A series of post-holes outlined a circular structure which was associated with charcoal spreads, and may represent a workshop; and charcoal and iron slag were found in the

Fig. G.1: Excavated areas at Aghadegnan (after Carroll 1991 & 1993)

127

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3451 UB-3452 UB-3453

Context Bone from basal layer of bank Charcoal from iron working in enclosure interior Charcoal from post-hole in enclosure interior

14C

UB-3454

Charcoal from iron-working area on top of palisade trench fill Charcoal from burning near iron-working area on top of palisade trench fill Charcoal at ditch edge Wooden slat from ditch ‘revetment’

1551±33 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 577–661 A.D. 877–1033 A.D. 1324–1345; A.D. 1393–1444 A.D. 425–580

1475±21 BP

A.D. 552–637

1289±32 BP 1270±21 BP

A.D. 659–778 A.D. 676–776

1552±49 BP

A.D. 410–606

UB-3461

Charcoal from iron-working area on top of palisade trench fill Charcoal from ‘pen’ cut by palisade trench

1597±71 BP

UB-3468

Bone from base of ditch

1191±30 BP

A.D. 259–285; A.D. 288–292; A.D. 322–607 A.D. 720–741; A.D. 769–897; A.D. 922–943

UB-3455 UB-3456 UB-3458 UB-3459

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Date 1421±32 BP 1073±45 BP 516±32 BP

Radiocarbon Dates Two phases – 5th/6th C / 10th C

Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron pin

Dates

Quernstone Whetstone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

128

Ahanaglogh, Co. Waterford Grid Ref: 23795/10463 SMR No: N/A Reference: Johnston et al 2009.

Area 16 revealed features rich in charcoal and slag, with associated structural evidence. During excavation, it was immediately obvious that most of the features had functioned as metal-working pits, similar in nature to pits found to the east in nearby Area 11. Structural evidence around the pits suggested a superstructure in some cases, suggesting that these pits were used as smithing furnaces, as did the presence of tempered clay with slag attached. Rows of stake-holes near other pits suggest possible windbreaks. Other structural evidence apparently was not associated with the pits directly and there may have been a shelter or hut of some sort on the site. A keyholeshaped kiln was also revealed in Area 16. This feature was backfilled with sediments rich in iron-slag, and was morphologically similar to medieval corn-drying kilns (although dated to the eleventh/twelfth century).

Two areas of iron-working were located in the townland of Ahanaglogh, Co. Waterford, during pre-construction work on the route of the N25. Area 11 revealed a series of boundary ditches and extensive earlier evidence for iron production in the form of bowl furnaces and waste dump deposits. Further evidence for windshields, fencing and a possible shelter of some sort was also unearthed. The iron production has been tentatively dated to the thirteenth century AD as a result of a single medieval pottery sherd recovered from a secure context within a furnace waste pit. Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-170156

Context Charred material from cereal kiln (Area 16)

14C

Beta-170157

Charred material from furnace (Area 16)

1220±80 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Tuyère fragments Anvil stone 45kg iron slag 3+ bowl furnaces

Date 940±60 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 995–1009; A.D. 1010–1216 A.D. 663–972 Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects Bronze/copper fragments

‘Small finds’ Table 129

Dates

Aird, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: C95054396 (29505/44396) SMR No.: ANT 003:033 Reference: Wright 1964 The souterrain was discovered in 1917, but was not fully investigated or measured until a systematic survey of souterrains in county Antrim was undertaken in 1963. Three fragments of pottery were recovered from the venthole of Chamber D, all of which were identified as souterrain ware.

Fig. G.2: Plan and section of souterrain at Aird (after Wright 1964, fig. 2) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

130

containing slag and a large deposit of iron slag were discovered in a defined area. A series of stake-holes in the bottom of one of these furnaces may have had a structural purpose; and another line of stake-holes close to the furnaces may represent a wind-break or similar structure. The bowl furnaces were associated with a sandstone flagged pavement. Several sherds of souterrain ware were also found in association with this furnace, as well as a blue-glass bead and a perforated jet object.

Altanagh, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H62256933 (26225/36933) SMR No: TYR 044:045 Reference: Williams 1986. The site consisted of a megalithic structure set within an earthen-banked enclosure on top of a hill. An unlicensed excavation was undertaken on the site in 1977 by the local school, and this uncovered Bronze Age and Neolithic burials associated with the megalith. Further excavation was undertaken by the Department of the Environment and uncovered more prehistoric funerary evidence, as well settlement evidence from the early medieval period.

The later phase of early medieval occupation appears to have occupied the same area as the first phase. The site was covered by a cobbled surface and a possible low stony bank, with no external ditch. Six possible furnace bottoms and a group of four bowl furnaces were discovered in this phase, again associated with a stone pavement. Artefacts included an iron sword – rarely found on early medieval sites – which was found associated with the bank, and other iron objects (including a penannular brooch), which were found in association with the ironworking area.

The early medieval occupation occurred in two identifiable phases. The earliest phase was marked by an area of occupation debris (24m by 18m) which appears to have been contained within the banked enclosure. Considerable evidence for ironworking was recovered from this phase – five bowl furnaces, a rectangular pit Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J. R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2564

Context Charcoal in vicinity of bowl furnaces in later phase

14C

UB-2565

Charcoal in bowl furnace from early phase

1585±70 BP

Fig. G.3: Early medieval Phase 1 at Altanagh (after Williams 1986, 54)

131

Date 1475±60 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 433–495; A.D. 504–524; A.D. 525–658 A.D. 262–278; A.D. 328–618

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Ten bowl furnaces Six furnace bottoms Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron sword Iron penannular brooch Blue glass bead Souterrain ware Perforated jet object

‘Small finds’ Table

132

Dates

Antiville, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D39130328 (33913/40328) SMR No: ANT 040:042 Reference: Waterman 1971. A souterrain was discovered during work on a golf course, and upon further excavation this was found to have been associated with a stone-built rectangular house. Both sites have subsequently been destroyed by roadworks. The habitation site was defined by a largely destroyed bank and a ditch, enclosing an area approximately 25.5m in diameter. The ditch was 4.5m wide, but only 0.45m deep on the east side, ranging to 0.75m deep on the north side. Three phases of occupation were evident within this enclosure. The first phase appears to have ended with the burning of a structure, evidenced by a mass of burnt clay. In Phase II a rectangular dry-stone-wall built dwelling, with rounded corners, was erected. The south wall was shared between the house and the souterrain passage. The dwelling was partially paved, and a hearth was located west-of-centre. Bones, charcoal, sherds of souterrain ware, and flints were recovered from the floor of this building. The souterrain was entered through the southwest corner of the Phase II house. It contained a jumble of animal bones, the staves and bases of several wooden vessels (preserved in peat), and the skeleton of a young human male.

Fig. G.4: Plan of Antiville (after Waterman 1971, 67)

In Phase III, the floor of the Phase II house was deliberately covered in peat to a depth of 0.22m, and a hearth was set into the floor. The original structural timbers appear to have been retained, but the original entrance was blocked by a possible corn-drying kiln, and a new entrance was opened up. Animal bones, sherds of souterrain ware, a broken lignite bracelet, and flints were discovered on this secondary floor. A sample of charcoal from this layer was radiocarbon dated to 1220±45 BP.

Fig. G.5: Plan of Phase II house at Antiville (after Waterman 1971, 71) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-589

14C

Context Charcoal in floor deposit

Date 1220±45 BP

133

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 678–895; A.D. 927–935

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Yew vessels

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron forked implement Bronze ring-head pin

Dates

Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Sandstone rotary quernstone Yew vessels Decorated bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.6: Iron three-pronged fork from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 8, no. 1)

Fig. G.8: Souterrain ware – undecorated vessel from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 6)

Fig. G.7: Decorated bone comb from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 8, no. 3)

Fig. G.9: Pivot stone, mortar, or lamp from Antiville (after Waterman 1971, fig. 9, no. 2) 134

Ardcloon, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: M26879737 (126877/297373) SMR No: MA070-072 Reference: Rynne 1956. The site consists of a bank-and-ditched enclosure set on the summit of a hill, and was threatened with destruction through a farm improvement scheme. The diameter of the site to the outer edge of the ditch was 58m, enclosing a central area of 40m–45m in diameter. Excavation revealed that the lower layers of the bank were constructed from the up-cast of the ditch, and that the remainder of the bank was built up from material from elsewhere. The inner face of the bank was supported by a stone revetment, and a deposit of stones in the bottom of the ditch was interpreted as remains of a revetment for the outer face of the bank. The ditch appears to have been allowed to gradually silt up, although in the western stretch it was used as a dump for material from the interior of the site including animal bone and iron slag.

Fig. G.10: Plan of excavated area at Ardcloon (after Rynne 1956, 203)

There was little structural evidence in the interior. Two hearths were identified, and a bronze pin found from one of these provided the only diagnostic dating evidence from the site. A number of possible post-holes were also identified (including one which contained two sherds of Beaker pottery), but no structural pattern could be discerned. The only other finds of significance from this site included an iron knife blade and four pieces of unrefined lead ore.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Fig. G.11: Bronze pin from Ardcloon (after Rynne 1956, fig. 6, A)

Indirect Evidence

Unprocessed lead ore

Industrial Processing Table

135

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife Bronze pin

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

136

A potential fourth souterrain was identified but not excavated. The exposed section revealed a dry-stone wall that was three courses high. It is likely this represented the outside souterrain passage wall.

Athlumney, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N881336669 (288133/266695) SMR No: ME025-049 References: O’Sullivan 1997:424; Jones 1999; 1999:701; Clinton 2000; Harrison 2001; Downham 2003/04.

Two hearths and a shallow ditch were associated with an occupation layer that had not been disturbed by the quarry. Several large ditches were also discovered. All contained charcoal and/or animal bone. They appeared to represent multi-phase activity at the site because they did not form an integrated pattern that would suggest a single-phase enclosure.

Four souterrains on the high east bank of the River Boyne, and a Scandinavian burial, are recorded in close proximity within the townland of Athlumney, Co. Meath. Two souterrains were identified within a quarry at Athlumney in a field above the flood-plain of the River Boyne. Subsequent test excavation in 1997 found that no archaeological features were associated with them within the areas investigated. Further excavation, in advance of the construction of a business park in 1999, revealed another two souterrains, an overlying occupation layer and several large ditches in the area.

Finds were limited and included two bone pins, a glass bead, fragments of lignite bracelets, a bone bead, a few lithic flakes and some metal items. Carbonised remains of both domestic (oats, barley, rye and wheat) and wild plants were recovered. A Scandinavian presence is suggested in Athlumney by a horse skeleton that was found with a collection of horse furnishings and some human bones (Harrison 2001, 72). Downham (2003/04) suggests that the burial may be linked to the base at Rossnaree. However, it is more likely that the burial – accompanied by a mount, a bridlebit, four bronze-plated iron rings and seven decorated plaques – belonged to a settlement, possibly a longphort site, at Athlumney on the eastern bank of the River Boyne (Clinton 2000, 386–8). Clinton (ibid., 388) interprets the burial as being female which would imply a more permanent type of settlement, while Harrison (2001, 65, 72) believes that the presence of a large amount of horse bones indicates the ritual deposition of a male with a horse burial. Either way, it is more likely that this burial occurred in an area – where the rivers Blackwater and Boyne merge – that featured some form of Scandinavian settlement in the ninth century.

Souterrain 1 was truncated by the quarry and survived as a short section of passage and a small portion of a circular chamber. Souterrain 2 – which was preserved in good condition – had a ramped entrance, two right-angled left-hand turns in a gradually descending passage, a drop-creep, another short section of passage and a T-junction with a passage that terminated at each end in a beehive-shaped chamber. The entrance to the souterrain was deliberately blocked with a fill of midden material and stones. Only the top stones of Souterrain 3 were exposed and it was not excavated. The portion exposed was a 6.5m length of straight passage.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Bone pins

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

137

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Corroded items

Dates

Glass bead Fragment of lignite bracelet Spindle whorl Two bone pins Bone bead

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

138

Area 1 and the remainder in Area 2. Many of the graves were cut and truncated by other interments which resulted in significant deposits of disarticulated bone. The majority of burials were extended and aligned west-east. The only finds associated with the burials included a shroud pin and an iron nail.

Augherskea, Knockmark, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N91675166 (291678/251668) SMR No: ME043-049 References: Baker 2007a; 2010. Excavation in advance of the gas pipeline to the west at Augherskea, Knockmark, revealed a cemetery that was bounded by settlement evidence to the west and agricultural features to the east. The extent of excavation included an area measuring 100m east-west by 20m which formed the pipeline corridor.

Two separate areas, that were indicative of settlement, were located immediately west of the cemetery. The northern area consisted of a series of inter-cutting drains and gullies. Artefacts from this area included a ringed pin, a decorated bone comb fragment and a blue glass bead. The southern area included a series of inter-cutting pits and gullies. Agricultural activity was apparent to the east of the burial ground and consisted of a series of drainage ditches and gullies which were cut by cultivation furrows. A fragment of a lignite bracelet was the only find recovered from the furrows.

The burial ground was enclosed on its eastern side by a U-shaped ditch, which was 2.3m wide and 0.9m deep, and by intersecting ditches to the west that resulted in a maximum east-west dimension of approximately 63m. The northern and southern enclosure ditches were identified through geophysical survey and indicated an enclosure measuring approximately 65m north-south.

A total of 80 artefacts were recovered at Augherskea although half were un-stratified due to the truncated nature of the site.

One hundred and eighty-seven burials were revealed in two excavated areas. Eighty-six burials were identified in

Fig. G.12: Plan of Augherskea (after Baker 2007a)

139

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Three fragments of smithing bottoms Clay crucible

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Unsupported reference in Baker 2010, 18

Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Ringed pin

Dates

Blue glass bead Fragment of lignite bracelet

Decorated bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

140

contained charcoal, burnt clay and a blue glass bead fragment. A post-hole associated with the hearth also produced burnt bone and a quartz crystal. The chronological relationship between the two ditches is unclear but the L-shaped ditch may have demarcated an internal division within the enclosure, possibly to separate industrial and agricultural activities.

Balgatheran, Co. Louth Grid Ref: O04977886 (304970/278860) SMR No: N/A Reference: Chapple 2000:0638. Balgatheran, excavated in advance of the Northern Motorway north of Drogheda, was a potential early medieval enclosure complex that incorporated an enclosure with large internal ditch and an associated field enclosure. A number of structures and a kiln were also identified. Earlier activity was revealed, including prehistoric pits and post-holes, and the late medieval period was represented by a number of possible structures. The site was situated on the southern face of a low hill in open pastureland, at 98m OD, and the surrounding countryside was visible in all directions. The relationship and chronology of the archaeological features will not be fully resolved until radiocarbon dates and the final report are available.

A rectangular structure, possibly related to industrial activity, was located centrally within the site and measured 7m by 2m. It was defined by a series of nine post-holes, laid out in a rectangular plan, and one of the post-holes produced a small quantity of iron slag and a number of worked iron fragments. A series of fifteen stake-holes, to the south-west of the structure, may have formed a potential post-and-wattle wall, possibly over a number of phases, while a gravelled surface was identified on the south-eastern side of the building. Two drip gullies were aligned alongside the building and a number of pits were also associated with the structure. A possible hut structure was situated to the north of the L-shaped ditch. It consisted of two separate, short, arcing gullies that potentially formed a 4m-diameter structure. Two post-holes were cut into the base of one of the gullies and this may have been a structure related to agricultural activity. Its small size and the lack of a hearth and domestic items suggest that this was not a dwelling.

A portion of a curvilinear enclosure ditch was revealed for 40m in the excavated area and averaged 3m in width and 2m in depth. The ditch was re-cut on at least three occasions and the enclosure had a projected diameter of 70m. Only part of the enclosure was excavated but settlement evidence was lacking in terms of artefacts from the ditch and dwellings within the enclosure. Either evidence for habitation is located outside the road-take or this enclosure, more probably, was constructed for industrial or agricultural purposes. The latter interpretation is supported by the presence of an industrial building and hut site (see below).

A possible field enclosure, which was stratigraphically later than the final re-cut of the L-shaped ditch, was located 5m east of the hut. The curvilinear ditch formed a sub-oval enclosure measuring 21m north-south by 18m east-west. No artefacts were uncovered from the ditch fill so it may have functioned as an animal enclosure.

A large L-shaped ditch, 3m wide and 1.5m deep, was identified 21m south of the settlement enclosure ditch and ran for 39m across the excavated area. Iron slag, flint fragments and burnt bone were identified in the primary fill and a secondary phase of activity, concentrated at the western terminal, contained large quantities of iron slag as well as residual flints and a single piece of a shattered rotary quern-stone. A small stone-lined hearth was discovered in the ditch, at the eastern end, and it Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

A stone-lined oval kiln, with a short linear opening to the west, was located approximately 50m north of the main enclosure. Its fills contained high amounts of burnt clay and charcoal and an upper deposit produced a blue glass bead. This may have been a cereal-drying kiln, based on its shape and the lack of obvious industrial residues such as iron slag.

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

141

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Blue glass bead

Quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

142

Ballynarry, Co. Down Grid Ref: J5674044930 (35674/34493) SMR No: DOW 038:017 Reference: Davison 1961–62. The site consists of a mound, 15m across and between 3.5m and 4.5m high, surrounded by a ditch 4.5m wide. The mound was excavated as part of the on-going survey of Co. Down. Although occupation layers from the upper part of the mound were found to belong to the AngloNorman period, the earlier phases belonged to a univallate rath, followed by a raised rath. Phase I: This appears to have been a univallate rath, although later modification of the site means that there is no indication of either ditch or bank. A ‘house platform’ belongs to this phase of occupation. Fig. G.13: Plan of thirteenth-century features at Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 1)

Phase II: The second major constructional phase on this site is marked by its conversion from a flat platform into a rath some 21m in diameter, with a clay rampart 3m broad rising to a crest 0.3m above the surrounding ground surface; the dimensions of the ditch postulated for this phase are unknown. Although no traces were found of a peripheral palisade along the crest of the rampart, such may once have existed. Phase III: The occupation layer from this phase covers the western half of the site, but occurs only intermittently in the eastern part. Occupation is mainly represented by a central hearth, and metalled pathways, including a defined entranceway. The layout of the pathways presumably indicates the presence of peripherally- rather than centrally-sited structures, which were not identified archaeologically.

Fig. G.14: Souterrain ware sherds from Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 6)

The bronze pin and souterrain pottery were largely unstratified, but seem to belong to Phase III.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

143

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Bronze pins 209 sherds of souterrain ware Mourne granite quernstone Spindle whorl

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small Finds’ Table

Fig. G.16: Bronze pins from Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 8) Fig. G.15: Quernstone from Ballynarry (after Davison 1961–62, fig. 10)

144

Ballinderry I, Co. Westmeath Grid Ref: N19884262 (219884/242620) SMR No: WM030-118 References: Hencken 1933; 1936; Lynn 1985–86; Newman 1986; Johnson 1999; O’Sullivan 2003.

Hencken interpreted this raft-like platform (and the associated layer of peat, brushwood, animal bone and ash spreads which covered it) as the foundation for a subsequent large horseshoe-shaped structure and, indeed, the entire crannog. This horseshoe-shaped structure was interpreted as the earliest house (House 1) for which the crannog was built. A large hearth was in use at its centre. The finds from the layers apparently comprising the floor of House 1 included a fine iron Viking sword, its handle decorated with silver and its blade inscribed with the letters VLFBEHRT. This sword is of a type produced in the ninth century in the Rhineland and exported throughout Europe; a yew bow, a type of weapon more typical of Viking warfare tactics than Irish, was also found on site. There were some objects found at this level, but outside the house, which included an iron plough coulter, iron rings, objects of leather, lignite, bone and antler. There were also some wooden buckets and lathe-turned bowls.

The early medieval crannog of Ballinderry no. 1, Co. Westmeath produced occupation evidence for the tenth and eleventh centuries AD, with intermittent activity on the site until the seventeenth century. The crannog survived as a large weed-covered hillock, measuring 33m by 20m, at the north-west end of an original lake that formerly lay between glacial moraines (close to the Eiscir Ríada routeway across the midlands). At the time of its investigation this had been drained to marshy and boggy land. The discovery of a Viking sword in 1928 had brought it to the attention of Adolf Mahr of the National Museum. The site was excavated by the Harvard expedition in 1932, and has since been the subject of various important re-interpretations.

Hencken believed that, after a brief period of occupation, House I sank into the lakebed sediments and was covered by more layers of peat and brushwood. He believed that two further houses (Houses II and III, probably one house in reality) were then constructed at one corner of the site, but the central hearth continued in use. Finds from these layers included a Viking silver kite-shaped brooch, bronze pins, iron chain links, a millstone, bone comb fragments, a wooden dug-out boat and wooden tubs and hoops. The only find from the floor of House II was an iron knife. House III produced a bronze pin, a bone needle and a wooden dugout boat. Finds from the central hearth included a bronze penannular brooch and pin, and bone, iron, glass, wood and antler objects. The wooden quay structure outside the crannog produced an iron woodworking axe and a wooden tub.

Hencken’s interpretation of Ballinderry No. 1 Hencken interpreted the site as a large circular crannog built on a large raft-like central foundation, with phases of an internal plank palisade and an outer pile palisade, with a large entrance, a wooden quay and a series of three houses, the earliest of which occupied most of the island. He believed that the archaeological evidence represented two main phases of occupation, in the latter part of the tenth century and through the eleventh century. The rectangular raft-like structure of thick oak logs which lay in the centre of the site, he took to be the foundation layer. It measured 6m square and was constructed of heavy logs laid directly on the lake-bed, probably during a dry period. The platform had raised sides and pegs driven deeply into the clays. The raft was enclosed by small posts describing a circular structure and timbers were laid radiating out from the centre. Many of these timbers had complex joints and peg-holes, suggesting they derived from a re-used wooden structure. Most of the artefacts associated with the raft structure can be dated to the tenth or early eleventh century AD. The finds from the lowest layers, associated with the raft structure, included two iron socketed and riveted Viking spearheads, an iron bill-hook with a decorated socket, some nails, hones, a decorated bone comb plate, some wooden implements, a paddle and a large wooden tub. There was also a small carved and dowelled wooden ‘knee’, possibly from a plank-built boat. Finds from the next layers, also apparently below House 1, included a tenth-century bronze ring-headed pin, iron knives, some decorated wooden vessels, a possible wooden motif-piece and a possible pack-saddle. The most spectacular find was an ornately carved, yew-wood gaming board, decorated in a style now thought to reflect both HibernoScandinavian and Anglo-Scandinavian styles (although it was probably made in Dublin). This gaming board probably dates to the tenth century. A Viking battle axe was found outside the crannog and may have dated from these earliest layers. Human remains are also known from the site.

The excavator believed that House II and House III then fell out of use and were covered with a layer of clay; some planks on this surface may indicate the construction of a fourth house (House IV). There were two hearths and ash spreads at this level. Finds from these strata included various objects, such as bronze pins, buckles, querns, and a large iron side-axe or hewing axe (probably of a medieval date), hones, bone combs and pins, and objects of wood and leather. The site was covered by a layer of gravel and another deep layer of soil. A hearth was found in this top layer, with finds of coins indicating seventeenth-century occupation. Ballinderry crannog No. 1 produced an interesting range of seventeenth-century objects, such as pottery, several coins dating to about 1690, a brass button, glass linen-smoothers, lead bullets (some of which were probably being made there) and several fragments of clay pipes. There was also a range of metal and organic finds from un-stratified deposits outside the palisade, the most important of which were a tenth-century copper-alloy hanging lamp and an array of wooden objects.

145

spearheads, an iron Viking sword, an iron Viking battle axe, two glass linen-smoothers and an iron strike-a-light. There was also a collection of objects that could be described as Hiberno-Scandinavian (with good parallels from tenth-century Dublin), including a decorated yewwood gaming board, motif pieces, a kite brooch, ringed pins, a hanging lamp, a wooden zoomorphic terminal and a copper-alloy strap end. Interestingly, the artefacts could be interpreted as both male (i.e. weaponry) and female (i.e. carding comb, linen smoothers) in character.

Lynn’s re-interpretation Chris Lynn’s stratigraphical and structural reinterpretations of the early phases of the site indicated that it comprised two crannogs. In his opinion, Hencken’s ‘House 1’ was itself the primary crannog (Lynn’s ‘Crannog 1’), defined by the horseshoe-plan area of timbers strengthened by small piles with a smaller, roughly circular wicker house (Hencken’s ‘hearth surround’) measuring 5m in diameter. The horseshoe timbers were actually the open-air decking around the circular house. Lynn believed that the outer pile palisade derived from a later period of occupation and was not contemporary with this early crannog. This later period of occupation involved the construction of a second, larger crannog (Lynn’s ‘Crannog 2’) directly over ‘Crannog 1’. ‘Crannog 2’ had a larger palisade and two rectangular houses built near the edge of the site while a large openair ash spread accumulated across the centre (although Newman interpreted this as a house floor). This enlargement could have come about shortly after the construction of ‘Crannog 1’.

Phase 2 – Primary crannog (early to mid eleventh century AD) Phase 2 sees the building and occupation of a ‘classic’ but modestly-sized crannog, with a circular palisade (15m diameter), a house and a surrounding timber decking. A deposit of sterile, black peat was laid over the previous occupation. At the centre of the crannog was a mediumsized, circular house (House 1), measuring 5m in diameter, constructed of vertical posts with a possible entrance facing towards the south. The house floor was a brushwood layer, with a wattle screen and a thin layer of clay suggesting that it was renewed. The house was surrounded by (and eccentrically placed within) a penannular area of timbers laid concentrically to it. This appears to have been a timber walkway or decking around the house (15m in diameter). Human bones were found in the substructure of Phase 2.

Newman’s and Johnson’s re-interpretations Newman came to a similar conclusion through his reanalysis of the site and the typological characteristics of its finds. He also proposed House 1 was itself a crannog and that the circular hearth was a roundhouse. In his opinion, the crannog had a pile palisade, which was later reinforced by a plank palisade, at the same time as which one entrance was blocked up. Ruth Johnson has also carried out a detailed re-evaluation of the early layers of the site and has re-examined the finds, particularly in terms of their stratigraphical context. Ballinderry No. 1 will now be summarised in terms of its likely sequence of development.

Finds from the substructure of Phase 2 included copperalloy pin fragments, a plain-ringed, loop-headed pin, two tanged knives, a stone hone, a leather shoe, a pig-fibula pin, a decorated wooden motif piece, stave-built vessels, a wooden ladle, a boat fragment (probably a knee from a dugout boat) and a paddle. Finds from the occupation layer of Phase 2 included a copper-alloy strip, a wooden tub, an iron plough coulter, a socketed-and-pronged tool (probably used for leather working), two iron rings, a lignite bracelet fragment, a double-sided bone comb and a leather off-cut. Finds from the earliest phase of the house included a plain, copper-alloy, penannular brooch (tenthcentury type), a bronze pin, hones, an antler tip and a blue glass bracelet. Finds from the intermediate phase of the house included a silver kite-shaped brooch, three ringed pins, two bone combs, a millstone, hones and wooden containers. Finds from the final phase of the house included an iron spearhead and a single-sided comb.

Phase 1 – Pre-crannog occupation (late tenth century AD) Phase 1 saw the building of a rectangular log platform (6m by 6m), defined at its edges by a circular palisade (7m in diameter) of posts. This earliest occupation was built on the lake gyttas at a time when lake levels were low, possibly during a dry period. The rectangular platform was constructed of planks and beams laid in a rectilinear and radial fashion, with up to seven layers of peat and brushwood, consisting of a likely habitation deposit of accumulated bones and peats. It had a raised edge, of horizontal beams. There was a possible entrance to the north, represented by a gap in the post ring. There were two superimposed hearths (layers of grey clay and charcoal). It is possible that this was actually a rectangular house, as the timbers were quite complex and skilfully worked, perhaps similar to timber houses in Hiberno-Scandinavian Dublin. There were enormous quantities of animal bone on the site. Finds from this phase included two socketed spearheads, a decorated iron bill-hook, an iron tub hoop, an iron staple, nails, knifeblade fragment, metalworking detritus, two stone hones, a decorated comb, wooden vessels, wooden carding comb and two wooden paddles. There was an assemblage of artefacts that were of a distinctively Viking character, including a Viking long bow, two iron Viking

Phase 3 – Primary crannog (mid eleventh century AD) Phase 3 sees the construction of an enlarged crannog, with a massive pile palisade (26m by 32m), a defined entrance to the southeast, a quay and a brushwood floor. The internal area of the crannog saw the deposition of a sterile peat layer over the whole area, burying the previous, abandoned house. A wattle screen was laid down and the site was enlarged to the east with layers of peat and brushwood. Indeed, the crannog was prone to slumping towards the east and many more layers were added there. The entrance was quite elaborate, with a passageway of posts lining the entrance area on either side. There was also a gatepost with a bar-hole to the southwest, indicating the use of a gate. 146

the pile palisade was in need of repair, particularly on the eastern side of the site (where the piles were tilting dramatically). Finds from this phase included (Hencken’s group 2, 3, 4) an iron knife, a crutch-headed ringed pin, a boat fragment, a bone pin and a wooden tub. It is also possible that a bronze hanging lamp was lost outside the palisade at this stage.

Phase 4 – Reconditioning of site (mid to late eleventh century AD) Phase 4 saw the reconditioning of the crannog, with the use of two houses, the repair of the palisade, the blocking of the entrance and the growing importance of the quay (suggesting that the crannog was now surrounded by water). The interior of the site was levelled off with peat and branches. There were various hearths within the site which have been interpreted as the floor of houses. There was a large, centrally-placed ‘hearth’ of ashes that developed in two stages. This could have been a rectangular house floor. There were also two hearths at the northeast edge of the site (Hencken’s House II and House III), with rectilinear plank floors and fireplaces. An oak plank palisade was inserted in those places where

Phase5 – Site abandonment (late eleventh century AD) Phase 5 sees the abandonment of the crannog, with a dark humus developing over the late hearths. There was a layer of gravel over this, which was succeeded by a thick superficial layer. There was some transitory activity on the site in the late middle ages, with a thirteenth-century axe-head deposited outside the crannog near the quay.

Phase I Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron-working refuse

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Antler point Needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two Viking spearheads Viking sword Bill hook Two iron knives Plough coulter Socketed tool Two bronze pins Bronze strip

Lignite bracelet Three honestones Seven stave-built vessels Bone combs Bone needle Antler point Leather fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

147

Dates

Phase II Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone pins Antler points Needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Three links of iron chain Iron knives Iron pins Iron axe Kite-shaped silver brooch 15 bronze pins Bronze penannular brooch Bronze buckle Bronze awls Bronze scabbard tip Bronze mountings Bronze hanging lamp Glass bracelet Clay bead Lignite bracelet 24 honestones Perforated stone disc Seven quernstones Two millstones Stone disc Greenstone bracelet Wooden bowls Stave-built vessels Nine bone combs Two bone needles Two bone discs Six bone pins Four antler points Four antler pegs Leather fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

148

Dates

spindle whorls, a saddle quern, stone rubbers, wooden artefacts and leather. Three human skulls were found in the black layer beneath the wooden structures. While Hencken suggested that there were eight or nine pots amongst the three hundred plus sherds, Newman’s recent examination of the rim profiles indicates that there may have been as many as seventeen pottery vessels. Late Bronze Age finds are also known from several places in the immediate vicinity of the site. A hoard of bronze objects (including a socketed, looped spearhead, two socketed gouges, a socketed and tanged chisel, a socketed knife and three large rings) was found in 1944 at 2.5m depth in peat, possibly in Moyvoughly bog. A late Bronze Age cup-headed pin and a bronze ring were also found, possibly in association with cremated bone, from a site 400m to the north of Ballinderry 2. Various other items of late Bronze Age date including tools, weaponry and ornaments have also been reported from the site in the NMI files, although some of these may have been deliberately mis-provenanced so as to increase their value.

‘Ballinderry II’ (Ballynahinch td), Co. Offaly Grid Ref: N21663886 (221665/238869) SMR No: OF001-001 References: Hencken 1942; Newman 1986; 1997; 2002; Wilde 1857; Graves 1883-84; Ffrench 1902. The Bronze Age and early medieval crannog of Ballinderry No. 2, Co. Offaly was situated in a marshy bog, on the Offaly/Westmeath border. The site was excavated by the Harvard expedition in 1933, but had been known since the nineteenth century, when it was dug into by treasure hunters and antiquarians searching for objects. The site has since been the subject of significant and complex structural and chronological reinterpretations, which will be summarised below. These re-interpretations indicate that the site was first used as a late Bronze Age platform, perhaps with a ritual function (Phase 1). The early medieval site history included a sixth-century pre-crannog occupation phase (Phase 2) and a ninth-century crannog (Phase 3). The early medieval site was initially located on a naturally raised area in either shallow water or marshy, swampy ground, which progressively became wetter, becoming an open lake by the end of the early Middle Ages.

Phase 2 – early medieval pre-crannog occupation phase (sixth century AD) In the Phase 2 occupation (according to Newman’s reinterpretation), probably dating to the late sixth century AD, the site had an early medieval occupation surface apparently used as an open-air site used for cooking, bathing and the processing of antler and deer bone, potentially associated with aristocratic red deer hunting. The occupation surface was on the lake marls, overlying the late Bronze Age site. There were also 11 circular wicker structures, clustered in groups, consisting of circular baskets, 1m–2.2m in diameter and 0.95m in height, set into the ground. There was also an ‘outer hearth’ on a small rise, with logs at the base, with stone, gravel, sand and ashes filling the pit. This pre-occupation surface produced a large amount of red deer bone (up to 30% of the site assemblage), consisting of at least 27 individuals, with eruption of antlers on skulls indicating that they had been killed in the winter. Chronologically diagnostic finds from Phase 2 included a copper-alloy pin (sixth/seventh-century date), sherds of E-ware (sixth–mid seventh century) and a zoomorphic penannular brooch (sixth-century date, found under timber floor of later crannog). The outer hearth produced gaming pieces, bone dice, glass beads and a bronze drinking-horn terminal. Finds from beneath the later crannog’s house floor included the bronze penannular brooch, a bronze armlet with twisted inlay, bone objects, whetstones, rubbing stones and a Type 3 penannular brooch.

Phase 1 – Late Bronze Age site In Phase 1, Hencken proposed that the late Bronze Age settlement had a single large rectangular structure, several post clusters, a stone and brushwood feature and a number of circular wicker structures in a thin black deposit of lake muds. The finds from the Bronze Age lake settlement included bronze and stone artefacts and the sherds of several pottery vessels. The animal bone from the site included cattle, pig, sheep/goat, horse, red deer, badger, otter, crane, wild duck and cat. The site was then partially covered by a subsequent layer of white marl, prior to its use in the early Middle Ages. However, Newman suggests, on the basis of a complex reinterpretation of the site stratigraphy, that the stone and brushwood feature and the circular wicker structures are later, intrusive features which derive from an early medieval (sixth century AD) pre-crannog occupation horizon. He also suggests that a second, substantial rectangular wooden structure can be traced in the gridlike alignment, spacing and orientation of posts at the opposite side of the site. Indeed, the majority of the late Bronze Age finds (i.e. most of the coarse ware pottery, all the amber beads and lignite bracelets) came from this area, suggesting it also was an area of intense activity around a former structure. This second timber structure may have rotted away or alternatively, was disassembled, possibly because the wooden beams were better preserved on this higher part of the site (a knoll) and could be re-used elsewhere.

Phase 3 – early medieval crannog (ninth century AD) In the Phase 3 occupation (dating to the ninth century), there was an early medieval crannog ‘proper’, with extensive evidence for domestic and industrial activity. The early medieval crannog had a palisade with an entrance, a laid surface of stone and brushwood and some evidence for internal houses, although these were badly disturbed by nineteenth-century treasure hunting and antiquarian diggings.

Newman’s significant re-interpretation implies that the late Bronze Age lake settlement had two substantial wooden structures, a possible pathway linking them, with the build-up on the site of an occupation layer. Finds from the site included bronze knives, awls, a flesh hook and a possible sunflower pin shaft. Other finds included 149

and wooden troughs. There were also fragments of eight rotary querns and two whole lower stones from querns. Swords were found outside the palisade, spearheads were recovered from the lake muds and there was also an iron shield boss. Intriguingly, there were also some modern forgeries from the site, inspired by antiquarian interest in it in the nineteenth century and the presence of an iron ladle, iron anvil and a soldering iron suggests that some were even being produced on the site.

The early medieval crannog (22m by 15m) was built of a stone and brushwood layer laid onto a small natural knoll at the centre of the crannog, with layers of peat, brushwood and general fill and debris making up the body of the mound. This stone and brushwood layer was defined at its edges by small stakes driven into the soft lake marls. The internal area was densely piled with smaller posts to consolidate the marshy ground. The crannog had a well-preserved timber floor on the southern side where there was a large hearth with several layers of ashes. The crannog was enclosed by an ‘inner palisade’ of a dense concentration of stakes and posts encircling the site, the tops of which lay below the level of the crannog’s internal timber floor, implying that it was a revetment rather than a high enclosing fence. There was also an ‘outer palisade’ of oak posts with a possible berm outside it. The palisade was only partly surviving in the northern side, but it probably had an entrance or gate to the northeast, defined by two posts driven to 1.5m depth. Although generally considered a later feature, a brushwood track-way to the southeast may have been part of the early medieval crannog. The crannog’s internal area had a timber floor of horizontal oak and ash posts in the southeast quadrant. This was probably the floor of a house, but its plan has been lost due to nineteenth-century disturbance. The timbers had been freshly cut and were not re-used, and were laid in four layers of logs, crisscrossing each other. Packed between the timbers were deposits of cut peat and brushwood. There were also numerous bones in this area, particularly between the inner and outer palisades, suggesting that this was the location of the site’s midden.

The early medieval crannog at Ballinderry crannog No. 2 was probably occupied by fairly wealthy inhabitants in both its sixth-century and ninth-century phases – people who had access to high-status metalwork, glass and amber and were themselves engaging in a small amount of metalworking, woodworking and perhaps textile production. The crannog may not have been reconstructed many times before its abandonment. The economy of the site was reconstructed from the faunal assemblages. There were several rotary querns, suggesting the importance of tillage and arable crops. A large assemblage of cattle bone was taken to indicate the importance of grazing; pig and horse bones were also plentiful. There may have been some limited hunting of wild animals, but there seems to have been relatively little exploitation of wildfowl or fish.

Animal bones on the site were primarily found immediately outside the crannog palisade, where there was an enormous accumulation of food bones and chips and fragments of wood, particularly abundant on the east and south sides of the site. There were also huge quantities of bone inside the palisade, while a refuse pit was filled with bones and gravel (where there were also flint blades, arrowhead, and scrapers). Elsewhere the natural lake muds were covered with a dark clay and thin layer of brushwood, in which animal bone was common. The animal bone was primarily of cattle (90%), with smaller amounts of pig, horse (some broken) and small amounts of hare, rabbit, badger, otter, dog and cat. There were also bones of jay, heron, duck, pintail duck, tufted duck, goose and fowl. The early medieval crannog at Ballinderry No. 2 produced a large number of finds. A dugout boat was found beside the house area, between the inner and outer palisades. The site also produced such high-status items as penannular brooches (ninth-century types), two ringed pins (ninth/tenth-century date) and stick pins. There were also many items of personal adornment, including beads, bone combs, pins and bone cylinders (and some bone gaming pieces). Clothing included leather shoes and textiles, found outside the palisade. Tools or agricultural equipment included knives, shears and spade (found outside the palisade), wooden spindles, mallets and wedges, as well as wooden buckets, lathe-turned vessels

Fig. G.17: Zoomorphic bronze brooches from Ballinderry II (after Hencken 1942, figs 12 & 15) 150

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

43 fragments of crucibles Eight clay moulds Two stone ingot moulds Shale trial piece

192 whetstones Wooden mallet Pins 15 fragments of worked antler 250+ leather fragments Spindle Spindle whorls Textiles

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood

Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Five iron knives Iron shears Iron sword Three iron spearheads Iron shield boss Iron ringpin Three bronze zoomorphic brooches Bronze penannular brooch Enamelled pin Two bronze ringed pins Seven bronze stick pins Two bronze rings Bronze terminal of drinking horn 14 glass beads Sherd of Arretine ware Six sherds of E ware Lignite bracelet Rotary querns 13 stone discs 192 whetstones 14 amber beads Wooden spindles Wooden mallet and wedges 18 fragments of stave-built vessels 15+ lathe-turned vessels Four bone combs Bone pins Bone cylinders Spindle whorls Boar tusk bracelet Knife handles 25 antler points 20 fragments of leather shoes Two fragments of textiles

‘Small finds’ Table

151

Dates

Ballintemple, Co. Offaly Grid Ref: N50662158 (250669/221581) SMR No: N/A Reference: IAWU 2004. A sub-circular enclosure was exposed on the field surface during peat cutting. This was defined by an outer palisade of (predominantly) single posts, and a gap in the northeastern side may represent the original site entrance. Brushwood rods appear to have been interwoven around these posts, creating a wattle wall. A second line of posts was located about 1m inside the outer palisade. A large hearth was located at the centre of the enclosure. This was associated with fragments of burnt stone and burnt bone. Approximately 60 vertical posts at the northern and south-western corners of the hearth would appear to represent structural features; and a wooden flooring of interlocked roundwood extended on three sides of the hearth. The hearth and its surrounding features appear to be defined by two arcs of stakes, possibly representing the double-wall of a wicker-built roundhouse. A radiocarbon date taken from the charcoal in the heath would suggest an early medieval date for this structure.

Fig. G.18: Plan of palisaded enclosure and roundhouse at Ballintemple (after IAWU 2004)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Wk-13754

14C

Context Charcoal from hearth

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1456±39 BP

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Leather fragments

Industrial Processing Table

152

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 544–653

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Three fragments of stone disc Two whetstones

Two fragments of leather

‘Small finds’ Table

153

Ballyaghagan 1, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J32337844 (33233/37844) SMR No: ANT 056:054 References: Evans 1950; Proudfoot 1958. A souterrain was uncovered during construction of a housing estate. The souterrain was located within the much-truncated vestiges of an enclosure, the surviving ditch portion of which had been re-cut as a retting pond for flax. The souterrain consisted of three chambers linked by short passages. Little cultural material was recovered from this excavation. Sherds of souterrain-ware were discovered in the souterrain and the lowest occupation layer of the enclosure; and two pieces of worked bone (possibly spearheads?) were discovered in the souterrain. A supplemental excavation was undertaken two years after Evan’s earlier investigation. Thousands of sherds of souterrain-ware were recovered from the primary occupation layer, as well as a bronze ring-pin, two iron knives, and a fragment of a jet/lignite bracelet. A bronze buckle was found in the interface between this occupation layer and an upper clay deposit. Bones from domestic animals were also recovered: 85% cattle; 14% pig; 1% sheep/goats. The skeleton of an adult human male was also discovered in the course of this excavation. It was found in association with souterrain ware, but was not necessarily synchronous with the pottery.

Fig. G.20: Souterrain ware from Ballyaghagan (after Evans 1950, fig. 7)

Fig. G.21: Iron knife from Ballyaghagan (after Evans 1950, fig. 6) Fig. G.19: Plan of enclosure at Ballyaghagan (after Proudfoot 1958, 19)

154

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Hearth with smelting debris

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Linen weaving? – smoothing stone and loom weight

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two iron knives Iron nails Bronze ring pin Bronze buckle Souterrain ware Lignite (jet?) bracelet fragment Loom weight Smoothing stone Three hone stones Wooden staves Two bone points/spears?

‘Small finds’ Table

155

Dates

Ballyaghagan 2, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J32260 79230 (332260/379230) SMR No: N/A Reference: McSparron 2011. A series of banks was uncovered by aerial photography near to Mac Airt’s Fort, a prehistoric promontory fort. An excavation trench through one of these anomalies uncovered the remains of the earthen bank with gullies on either side. Finds from the fill of the uphill gully consisted of 63 sherds of souterrain ware, a sherd of Neolithic pottery, and some worked flint.

Fig. G.22: Plan of enclosure boundaries and cashel at Ballyaghagan (after McSparron 2011) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

63 souterrain ware sherds

‘Small finds’ Table

156

animal bone was uncovered within it and had been ‘obviously split to facilitate extraction at the marrow’. A bronze ring pin, iron pin, sandstone hone, three waste flint flakes and three pieces of worked deer antler, as well as a small quantity of iron slag and one furnace bottom, were recovered within the habitation refuse. Fragmentary remains of two young human infants were also recovered within the habitation refuse of the souterrain.

Ballyarra, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W85029166 (185021/091665) SMR No: CO045-055 Reference: Fahy 1953. A souterrain, apparently unroofed and uncompleted, was discovered in an extensive gravel deposit, 30m from the bank of the River Bride, by workmen quarrying gravel. There was no surface indication of any associated enclosure or related structures, but the souterrain appears to have been deliberately in-filled with habitation refuse.

The souterrain appears to have been deliberately filled with refuse, suggesting either that its roof had been removed to facilitate this activity or that the roof of the structure had never been put in place. There was no evidence that the roof of the souterrain had collapsed into the chamber at any stage or had been removed by work associated with the quarrying. The absence of any form of lining around the deep entrance pit may suggest that the souterrain was never completed, as without such supports and steps it would have been very difficult to access and exit the structure.

The souterrain was single-chambered, with poorly-built walls. Its entrance was originally through an oval pit (1.8m by 2.1m and 2.2m deep), not protected with either a stone or wooden revetment. The entrance pit was relatively undisturbed except for some collapse on its southern side. It had evidence for three layers of habitation refuse alternating with spreads of gravel which had apparently collapsed from the sides of the pit. There was no evidence for a deep layer of collapse on the floor of the pit from the un-revetted gravel sides of the structure, suggesting that there had not been a lengthy period of disuse before the habitation refuse was dumped inside the structure. It was suggested that the spreads of gravel in the habitation refuse indicated short pauses in the dumping process. Two pieces of worked antler and animal bone were recovered in these habitation fills in the entrance pit. The oval pit entrance led into a collapsed chamber whose approximate internal dimensions were 2.5m in length, 1m in width and 1.95m in depth. Habitation refuse was discovered on the floor of the chamber and had a maximum depth of 70cm at the northern wall. Some

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnace bottom

Fig. G.23: Plan of souterrain at Ballyarra (after Fahy 1953, 56)

Indirect Evidence

Three pieces of worked antler

Industrial Processing Table

157

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron pin Bronze ring-pin

Sandstone hone Waste flint flakes

Three pieces of worked antler

‘Small finds’ Table

158

Dates

associated with the souterrain as indicated by the occupation layer and cobbling. The entire length of the souterrain, which was relatively simple in design, was emptied of fallen lintels, modern fill and, near the entrance chute, some early medieval-period debris including large portions of several souterrain-ware vessels. The surface excavation proved somewhat disappointing as the scatter of cobbling, occupation material and a hearth revealed within the restricted area available for excavation failed to resolve into a definite structural arrangement but sufficient survived to indicate that there was an above-ground habitation at the souterrain.

Ballyboley, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D382032 (33820/40320) SMR No: ANT 040:032 Reference: Lynn 1977-79:0001. Mechanical clearance of a farm garden in the summer of 1977 exposed parts of a hitherto unknown souterrain. A section of the machine trench showed traces of an intact occupation layer with paving 20cm below the adjacent surface. There was no trace of an encircling rath and none was shown on the earliest OS map, so a small excavation was mounted to see if there was any surface structure

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

159

for the main enclosure either, although a number of finds were recovered from this area including post-medieval pottery, a fragment of a whetstone, and an Iron Age bronze spear-butt (in the make-up of the enclosure bank).

Ballybrit, Co. Galway Grid Ref: F33642740 (133645/227406) SMR No: GA082-013001 Reference: Waddell 1971. The site consists of an enclosure set on an area of flat land. It averaged 56m in diameter, with a surrounding bank approximately 8m wide and 1m high. The site was partially destroyed during expansion of the racecourse at Ballybrit. Excavation revealed the corner of a stone-built rectangular building, and another rectangular house (12m by 6.5m) was indicated in the centre of the enclosure which was un-excavated. It was not possible to date these structures (the portion excavated was built directly onto the limestone bedrock), and they may post-date the primary occupation phase. A small semi-circular enclosure 25m to the west of the main enclosure was also excavated. With the exception of one sherd of postmedieval pottery, this enclosure revealed no evidence for human occupation. No occupation layer was identified Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.24: Plan of enclosures at Ballybrit (after Waddell 1971, 74)

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Whetstone

‘Small finds’ Table

160

Ballybrolly, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: H84184592 (28418/34592) SMR No: ARM 012:026 Reference: Lynn 1983a. A densely overgrown monument was noted in connection with the work of the Archaeological Survey of Co. Armagh in the late 1960s. The monument was not marked as an antiquity on the 1858 edition of the O.S. six-inch sheet, but was described as 'Abbey, site of' on the 1835 edition of the map. A trial trench (5.5m by 2.8m) was inserted across a positive feature in the interior in the late 1970s and uncovered a ‘wall’ feature of rounded boulders, faced internally and externally. No laid floor or charcoal deposit was encountered in association with this ‘figureof-eight’ structure. Several small finds were uncovered – including souterrain ware, a lignite core and an early medieval iron knife.

Fig. G.25: Site plan of enclosure at Ballybrolly showing internal stone-built ‘figure-of-eight’ structure (after Lynn 1983a, fig. 1) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware Lignite core

Stone spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Knife blade

Dates

Five sherds of souterrain ware Core of lignite bracelet Stone spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

161

quarrying in the 1960s, and it had been intensively farmed during the twentieth century. It is therefore possible that there were originally more burials here. The burial remains, which were in simple grave-cuts, were oriented east–west and in a very poor state of preservation; few skeletal bones remained. Fragments of a human skull were retrieved from the quarried area immediately to the south-east of the burials, which may be part of the third burial or the remnants of a fourth. No grave-goods were present. The burials were situated c.100m north-east of the early medieval enclosure and may have been associated with that phase.

Ballycasey More, Co. Clare Grid Ref: 14231/16310 SMR No: CE051-176 References: O’Neill 2002:0079; 2003. Two adjoined rectangular stone-and-earthen-bank enclosures were exposed prior to roadworks. A straight earth-and-stone bank also ran south-eastward away from the enclosures. The north-western enclosure (Enclosure I) measured 30m by 20m, and the south-western (Enclosure II) 30m by 30m. There was no eastern wall within Enclosure I, which may indicate the entranceway. The entrance to Enclosure II was through a gap in the walls at the southernmost point. Excavation of the banks revealed faced stone walls. Each wall was constructed of two lines of faced stone with a packing of rubble in the interior. The walls were not very substantial at the western extents of both enclosures as limestone cropped out at this point and both enclosures took advantage of this natural characteristic. Numerous spreads, pits and linear features were exposed within these two enclosures and in an area at their north-western extents. A bronze ring-pin was retrieved from the rubble of the wall of the southern enclosure. A number of pits excavated toward the north-western extent of Enclosure I and toward the eastern extent of Enclosure II contained a large quantity of iron slag. This metalworking phase appears to pre-date the construction of the enclosures, as re-deposited slag material had been incorporated in the construction of some of the walls. There is no conclusive evidence to establish a function for these enclosures. It is possible that they are animal pens, and they could relate to the early medieval enclosure less than 90m to the south.

Fig. G.26: Plan of Ballycasey More (after O’Neill 2003)

Two grave-cuts and the remains of a third burial (only femurs remained) were exposed toward the south-eastern extent of this phase. This area was badly disturbed by

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-178773 Beta-178774

Context Charcoal from iron working pit Fill of iron-working pit

Date 1300±60 BP 1220±60 BP

Beta-159635 Beta-178678

Animal bone from ditch cut Charcoal from occupation spread

1190±70 BP 1100±60 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 644–876 A.D. 669–899; A.D. 918–954; A.D. 957–961 A.D. 682–982 A.D. 778–1025

Beta-178769

Ditch re-cut

960±60 BP

A.D. 985–1213

162

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère Clay mould

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Weaving plaque Needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron blade Bronze ring pin Bronze fragment Blue glass bead Clay mould Perforated whetstone Whetstone Rubbing stones Quernstone Bone gouges Bone needle Bone weaving plaque Bone comb Antler gouge

‘Small finds’ Table

163

Dates

appear to have supported a gate 3.5m wide at the entrance of the middle enclosure. The innermost enclosure entrance was the most elaborate and consisted of two gates and the inner palisade. The outermost gate was 2.3m wide and was supported by two post-holes on each side. A palisade trench was revealed 1.8m inside the crest of the inner bank and encircled the site. The trench fill indicated that it held wooden posts. The inner gate was defined by two post-holes formed by deepening the palisade trench from its usual depth. It closed the 3.05m gap in the palisade wall and formed the final defence of the site. A palisade of uprights along the eastern side of the entrance was interpreted as the wall of a shelter which served as a guardhouse.

Ballycatteen Fort, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W58194591 (158198/045919) SMR No: CO124-034 Reference: Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943. A trivallate (or possibly quadrivallate) enclosure at Ballycatteen was excavated between 1940 and Easter 1942 by means of a Special Employment Scheme administered through the Commissioners of Public Works. The excavation uncovered three souterrains, a stone-built kiln and occupation surfaces defended by a complex of multiple gates and palisades at its southern entrance. The enclosure is located along the south-eastern end of a narrow ridge of land (61m OD), commanding considerable views across the surrounding countryside.

A thick black organic deposit – approximately 0.3m deep – was uncovered immediately inside the wooden palisade in the southwest quadrant of the site. It was the earliest and evidently most important habitation deposit. Nine of the twelve bronze finds from this site – including a penannular brooch and a collection of pins and rings – as well as a fragment of pale blue glass from a glass vessel, an amber bead, an iron ring and sixty sherds of imported pottery (largely E-ware) were recovered from beneath or inside this deposit. A glass rod fragment of blue glass, as well as a small bronze semi-spherical object (possibly part of a horse trapping), was recovered at the edge of the black deposit. A large bead of dark blue glass was found above the black deposit while a jet bracelet was recovered further north in the original ground surface just outside the black deposit. A few groups of stake-holes as well as two hearth-sites on the outskirts of the deposit in the southwest quadrant were identified, through none formed any structural plan.

Fig. G.27: Plan of Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, plate 1) The site has a total overall diameter of 119m and contains three concentric banks and ditches enclosing a circular space 61m in diameter. A low counterscarp bank (0.6m maximum height) survives along the southern and western perimeter and may represent a fourth, outer ditch. A section of the inner ditch was excavated and revealed that it was rock-cut and had a fill depth of about 1.4m. The total height of the present summits of the inner and middle banks over the bottom of the inner ditch was 4m and 3.35m respectively. The section did not uncover evidence for the remains of a wall-face on the banks though the presence of a number of large stones inside the ditch fills suggests that the bank may have been originally partially revetted with stone.

Fig. G.28: Bronze horse harness from Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, figs. 5 & 6) A stone-built kiln with twin compartments, or flues (2.75m by 1.07m), was located at the edge of this occupation layer. The flues had been sealed by laying slates horizontally over them and then sealing them with a layer of clay to make an air-tight covering. Comparisons were made between this structure and flaxdrying kilns in Ulster. A number of post-holes and twelve hearths were excavated in the centre and northern part of the site, but structural shape could not be inferred from these. In a few cases the amount of charcoal in the posthole and the blackening of the stones around it suggest that the building may have been destroyed by fire. A rock

The southern entrance to the site was substantially excavated and showed evidence for multiple gates and palisades. The outer enclosure entrance was destroyed by modern disturbance and only one definite rock-cut posthole was uncovered in this area. Two rock-cut post-holes 164

fragments of a bronze plate and a large quantity of animal bone were also recovered within this structure. Though early medieval finds were recovered in the habitation evidence at the centre of the site and inside the souterrains, the absence of E-ware pottery in both these contexts suggests that these structures were later in date than the black habitation deposit found immediately inside the palisade in the southwest quadrant.

hollow was utilized as the base of one hearth (V). Its fill consisted of powdered charcoal, bone fragments and some fragments of iron and slag. Though there was little depth of habitation material in this area, the scattered distribution of these features and the superimposition of hearths and post-holes over each other were suggestive of various short successive habitation phases. A number of early artefacts including fragments of two bronze pins, a glass bead and an iron chain were recovered in this area in the centre of the site.

Nine crucible fragments and a large quantity of iron slag (13.6kg), half from the early black organic deposit, were recovered from the site. Two large heavy pieces, one from beneath the black deposit and the other in the vicinity of a hearth in the centre of the site, were interpreted as furnace-bottoms and attest to the practice of iron smelting. Two quern fragments, a single spindle whorl, thirty pieces of flint and twenty whetstones were other finds recovered. A small quantity of un-burnt animal bone belonging to cattle and sheep (or goat) was recovered from the bottom of the palisade trench and in the lower layers of the souterrain fills.

Three dry-stone-built souterrains were excavated in the interior of the site. It was suggested that the souterrains were roofed with timber supporting a covering of stone roofing tiles, as no evidence for stone lintels was uncovered and evidence for a series of rock-cut postholes and recesses for wooden uprights was identified in Souterrain B. A large quantity of charcoal as well as fragments of thin shale was found in the fills of Souterrain A and B. It was suggested that the chambers in Souterrain C may not have been roofed and a large dump of limpet shells in one of its chamber fills hints at its use as a refuse pit. A medieval iron axe-head, three small

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working

Direct Evidence 30 lbs iron slag Nine clay crucible fragments

Indirect Evidence

Glass rod Spindle whorl; 20 whetstones

Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.29: Bronze pins from Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, fig. 5)

165

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal

Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object 23 iron objects Bronze horse harness Bronze hand-shaped pin Bronze penannular brooch Bronze bramble-headed pin Three broken bronze pins (various designs) Broken pin shaft (bronze with tin coating) Bronze ring Lead spinning top Two beads of blue glass Piece of curved glass Glass rod (blue) Nine clay crucible fragments 54 sherds of E-ware ‘Jet’ bracelet 20 whetstones Two rotary quernstones Spindle whorl Several hundred roof slates Amber bead

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table Fig. G.30: E-ware fragments from Ballycatteen (after Ó Ríordáin & Hartnett 1943, fig. 12)

166

a new structure built in the centre; this structure was also burnt.

Ballyduff, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J333845 (33330/38450) SMR No: ANT 052:057 Reference: Avery 1970:01.

Charcoal was recovered from both burnt structures of Period 2, and a quantity of pottery and animal bones, together with glass beads, bronze, shale and iron objects, was recovered stratified from each of the levels. This promises well for dating.

Three main periods of occupation were present: (1) pre-rath: gullies of uncertain date, of which partial plans were recovered; no finds associated. (2a) rath period A: inner bank and ditch built, and a deep gully in the centre of the rath, enclosing a circular area about 7m in diameter. A structure built within this area was later burnt. (2b) rath period B: inner bank heightened and ditch redug; outer bank and ditch possibly added now. Much of the interior was covered with a dumped layer of clay, and

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

(3) Post-rath: The interior was covered to a depth of 30cm by dumped clay, and the foundation-gully of a rectangular structure cut in to the surface of this. The date is obscure, since scraps of both thirteenth- and seventeenth-century pottery were recovered from this level.

Direct Evidence Iron cinders Crucible fragment

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects Bronze objects Glass beads Souterrain ware Shale objects

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

167

to the south and south-east of the cashel. The corn-drying kiln measured 2.6m long by 0.45m–0.26m wide and was connected to a roughly circular stone-lined drying chamber with an internal diameter of 0.8m; while the field boundaries survived to a maximum of 2m wide and 0.96m high. They were built of earth and stone and were similar to those excavated at ‘The Spectacles’, Lough Gur.

Ballyegan, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: Q966110 (09660/11100) SMR No: KE039-023 References: Byrne 1991; Brady 1987. The site was located in a generally low-lying field, 18.5m OD, with the ground falling slightly to the west and south. It had been almost completely levelled and was heavily disturbed in recent times. Excavation was required in advance of quarry development. This revealed the partial outline of the walls of a cashel, as well as associated internal structures and a souterrain. External features were also discovered, for example an external corn-drying kiln, animal corral and field boundaries.

A quantity of animal bone, four fragmented bone combs, a bone gouge, five iron knives, a possible awl and a fibula brooch fragment, a bronze strap fitting, two shale bracelet fragments, a stone spindle whorl, an unfinished rotary quernstone and a fragment of another, and a large quantity of hone-stones and other sharpening stones were recovered in various contexts on site.

The site was roughly sub-circular in plan and had internal dimensions of 30m by 35m. The basal remnants of the enclosure’s walls (2.4m wide) survived along the northern portion and consisted of a rubble core faced with blocks; no remnants of the southern portion survived. No evidence of a formal entrance was uncovered on the site, although it was suggested that the remains of a cobbled surface in the south-east area of the site may indicate the location of the entrance. The fragmentary remains of five possible structures were uncovered in the interior. Four were identified by the remains of truncated stake- and post-holes. The fifth was identified by the remains of a stone wall with an associated hearth. Extensive disturbance to the site in the 1970s made it impossible to establish any information about the size and shape of these structures. An L-shaped stone-lined souterrain containing two levels and linked to a natural cave was revealed inside the cashel. The remains of an articulated horse skeleton were recovered from collapsed material of one of its chambers, and a type of iron ploughshare dated to the tenth century (Brady 1987, 236) was recovered in the basal backfill layer of the souterrain passage. Two of the internal structures were truncated by the souterrain, while one of them post-dated its construction.

Fig. G.31: Plan of site at Ballyegan showing areas excavated (after Byrne 1991, 7)

A ‘key-hole’-shaped corn-drying kiln was uncovered to the north-west of the cashel; and the remains of two field boundaries and a possible animal corral were investigated

Fig. G.32: Iron knives from Ballyegan (after Byrne 1991) 168

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Unfinished quernstone

Honestones

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone gouge Flax seeds

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Five iron knives Iron awl Iron fibula brooch fragment Iron ploughshare Bronze strap fitting Pin shaft?

Dates

Two shale bracelet fragments Stone spindle whorl Quernstones Honestones Bone gouge Four antler combs

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.33: Iron ploughshare from Ballyegan (after Byrne 1991)

Fig. G.34: Unfinished quernstone from Ballyegan (after Byrne 1991)

169

Ballyfounder, Co. Down Grid Ref: J62074954 (36207/34954) SMR No: DOW 032:014 Reference: Waterman 1958a. The site, consisting of a 4m-high mound with a summit diameter of 23m, was excavated as part of the Archaeological Survey of Northern Ireland. Erosion by cattle prior to excavation revealed that the site had been largely constructed through the accumulation of occupation layers. A number of post-holes in the centre of the enclosure indicate the presence of a timber building, possibly circular in plan, and approximately 5.4m in diameter. A hearth and cooking pit were uncovered within this general area, as were associated finds of souterrain ware and some burnt bone. A second building, also possibly circular in plan, was uncovered to the south of the central structure. Fig. G.35: Excavation of Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1958a, 40)

Animal bone, mollusc shells, a bronze pin, part of a bone comb and souterrain ware were uncovered from these occupation layers. A fragment of E-ware pottery, from a bi-conical pot, was also discovered in the primary occupation layer, as were a fragmentary iron ploughshare, chisel and door-hinge. Four quernstones from the site were subject to thin-sectioning and were identified as coming from the Mourne Mountains. The site then appears to have been abandoned for a time (indicated by exposed, weathered soils) before being reused as the basis for an Anglo-Norman motte.

Fig. G36: House at Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1958a, 41) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Stone spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

170

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object

Dates

Bronze pin Souterrain ware Sherd of E-ware Lignite/jet bead Lignite/jet bracelet Four Mourne granite quernstones Stone spindle whorls

7th/8th C

Double-sided bone comb Bone knife handle Bone pin

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.37: Bone objects from Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1958a, fig. 8)

Fig. G.38: Bronze pin and lignite/jet spindle whorl (or bead?) and bracelet from Ballyfounder (after Waterman 1958a, fig. 8)

171

single souterrain-ware vessel and several struck flints were recovered from the ditch fill. Various other features were uncovered by topsoil-stripping, including a series of post-holes – three of which were cut by the ditch – and stake-holes, a large linear stone-filled feature containing traces of iron slag, a sub-rectangular pit and poorlypreserved traces of another possible enclosure to the east of the larger enclosure. The features uncovered in Area 2 at the south of the site consisted of five curvilinear ditches, two pits and a souterrain. The souterrain had been deliberately slighted and in-filled, probably in the medieval period.

Ballyhamage, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J25878937 (32587/38937) SMR No: N/A Reference: Crothers 2003:0004. Monitoring was conducted on the site of a proposed residential development. During the stripping, two areas of archaeological interest were exposed. Area 1 contained a sub-circular ditch, 15m south-west/north-east by 9.5m, which had been truncated by agricultural activity and had been cut by a trench for a modern drain. Fragments of a

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron-working residue

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

172

Radiocarbon Dates

Ballyhenry, Co. Antrim Grid Refs: J31228517 (33122/38517) & J31408470 (33140/38470) SMR No: ANT 051:035; ANT 051:036 References: Lynn 1983b; McCorry 1983. Two enclosures were excavated prior to the planned development of an industrial estate, which did not proceed. The excavation of the interior of Ballyhenry 1 (ANT 051:035) uncovered an enigmatic structure just inside the entranceway. This structure was indicated by the presence of a row of five small post-holes which were interpreted as either the wall of a (now non-existent) turfbuilt rectangular house which left no other remains, or perhaps as the ‘porch’ of a longer rectangular house which spanned the gateway. A possible circular structure in the centre of the enclosure was indicated by a curving gully and post-hole.

Fig. G.39: Plan of excavations at Ballyhenry 1 (after Lynn 1983b, fig. 3)

Ballyhenry 2 (ANT 051:036) was a platform enclosure (approximately 1m high at the centre), surrounded by a ditch (approximately 4m wide), an external bank (approximately 3.5m wide), and a further external ditch. Despite these substantial remains, few Early Medieval finds and internal structures were uncovered during excavation (e.g. just over 200 sherds of souterrain ware, and part of a glass bead). Evidence of earlier settlement (e.g. prehistoric pottery and flint) was found beneath the Early Medieval layers, and it is possible that the central mound may have originated in the Bronze Age. Radiocarbon dates were taken from the pre-enclosure structures and the enclosure ditches of Ballyhenry 2. Fig. G.40: Plan of pre-enclosure phase at Ballyhenry 2 (after Lynn 1983b, 78)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-943

Context Charcoal from Gully H

14C

UB-944

Charcoal from Pit ‘V’

2155±435 BP

UB-945

Bottom of inner ditch

1355±40 BP

UB-946

Midway up inner ditch

760±65 BP

UB-947

Bottom of outer ditch

1055±30 BP

Date 2065±70 BP

173

Cal. 2 Σ 353–293 B.C., 230–218 B.C., 213 B.C.–A.D. 77 1293 B.C.–A.D. 688; A.D. 754–756 A.D. 609–721; A.D. 741–770 A.D. 1053–1079; A.D. 1153–1320; A.D. 1350–1391 A.D. 897–921; A.D. 942–1024

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Haematite ore Disc of pale green glass – accidentally re-melted Souterrain ware (734 sherds Ballyhenry 1; 83 sherds Ballyhenry 2) Curved piece of scrap lignite bracelet (33mm long)

Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale

Object

Dates

Two blue glass beads One pale green glass bead Disc of pale green glass Souterrain Ware Half of lignite ring Fragment of lignite armlet

Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

174

Ballyhill Lower, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J223780 (32230/37800) SMR No: N/A Reference: Williams 1985:02.

the topsoil extended down to the subsoil for most of the area examined. Remnants of an occupation surface survived towards the southern area of the trench. Many sherds of souterrain ware, together with flint, burnt flint, burnt bone and charcoal, were recovered.

In advance of a farm lane being laid through the site a rectangular trench 65m by 5m was opened using a machine. It was found that the site had been extensively damaged within the interior by lazy-bed cultivation, and

Despite the almost sterile interior the rath is a visually impressive monument with a small souterrain built into the bank.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron-working residue

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

175

interpreted as drip gullies for circular houses (which have left no further remains). A bronze pin found in one of these gullies suggests a ninth-century date for this phase of occupation.

Ballykennedy, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J207767 (32070/37670) SMR No: ANT 059:026 Reference: Brannon 1980.

Phase 2: This is an intermediate phase between the primary and secondary occupation deposits. Sherds of souterrain ware were recovered from this deposit.

A univallate rath of approximately 45m diameter had been partially destroyed in previous road construction. Archaeological investigation undertaken in the raised interior of the site identified three phases of activity – two being occupation levels, the third being an intermediate period when the house platform was constructed.

Phase 3: The third phase in trench A comprised the physical definition of the house platform with associated occupation deposits. Although no structural remains were identified from this phase, a stone-built hearth suggests that such a structure would have existed. Souterrain ware sherds were also recovered from this phase of occupation.

Phase 1: The earliest horizon comprised a series of subcircular gullies cut into the clay subsoil. These were

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze pin

9th C?

Sherds of souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

176

Ballylacky, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J16356487 (31635/36487) SMR No: ANT 063:045 Reference: Flanagan 1962. The site consisted of a bivallate enclosure (approximately 35m in diameter) set in a low-lying and water-logged area. Excavation was required as the site was threatened with destruction under a farm improvement scheme. The enclosure was only partially excavated due to waterlogging in the interior and in the inner ditch. Three phases of occupation were identified, with the latter two at least belonging to the early medieval period. The earliest phase was represented by stretches of a timber-revetted ditch within the interior of the site. It was not possible to relate this smaller ditched enclosure to the surrounding banks and ditches, although the excavator suggests that these features may not necessarily be unconnected. Fig. G.41: Plan of Ballylacky (after Flanagan 1962)

The second phase was indicated by a rectangular stonebuilt house with rounded corners. An extensive spread of charcoal covered the central area of the house, but no other features survived. A layer of humus covering the Phase 2 house was identified as the final phase. No features were recorded from this phase, but a number of diagnostically early medieval artefacts were found (a glass bead, a fragment of lignite bracelet, a stone hone, and a number of pottery sherds). Souterrain ware sherds were found from all three phases; and an unidentified (imported?) sherd of ‘brick red’ ware with a ‘fine sandstone-like fabric’ was also recovered from the final phase.

Fig. G.42: Plan of Phase 2 house at Ballylacky (after Flanagan 1962) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

177

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bead Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Hone stone

‘Small finds’ Table

178

A very limited excavation was carried out on the east edge of this ring-work in April 1970. This was sufficient to show that there had been two periods of occupation, the second occurring after a heightening of the site by over one metre with clean boulder clay. There were few finds apart from a scatter of souterrain ware sherds in the later occupation levels.

‘Farrell’s Fort’, Ballylesson, Co. Down Grid Ref: J335661 (33350/36610) SMR No: DOW 009:040 Reference: Collins 1970:13.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

179

majority of which were souterrain ware – and none were attributable to the earlier phase. As well as the glass bead recovered from the house hearth, another glass bead (blue and white) was found in a gully associated with the house.

‘Ballymacash’ (Aghnahough? td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J23726629 (32372/36629) SMR No: ANT 064:026 Reference: Jope & Ivens 1998. An enclosure was excavated after permission had been granted to build an individual dwelling in its interior. This site has been putatively identified as ANT 064:026. The site had an internal diameter of 33.5m, with a bank, approximately 1.5m high, and an external ditch. Excavation showed that the site had been modified over two phases of occupation. The earlier phase site had a lower bank and evidence for a substantial square, timbered house. The enclosure bank was heightened during the second phase. Two periods of house construction were identified with this phase. The early second phase house was rectangular (approximately 6.1m2) with rounded corners. A ‘porch’ was later added to this structure. Sixteen sherds of souterrain ware, a fragment of an iron nail, and a glass bead were recovered from the hearth associated with the structure. The excavator suggested that this house was later replaced by a less substantial roundhouse, which may have re-used some of the structural timbers from the earlier rectangular building. Outhouses were also uncovered associated with the second phase of occupation. These consisted of a drying kiln, an oven, and a hearth (which revealed a number of souterrain ware sherds). Almost 4,000 sherds of pottery were uncovered from this site – the vast

Fig. G.43: Plan of Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, 104)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2624

Context Oak (post?) in floor of rectangular phase 2 house

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

14C

Date 905±75 BP

Indirect Evidence Slag-like material

Souterrain ware Three chips from bracelets

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

180

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1000–1001; A.D. 1013–1264

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Nail fragment

Dates

Two glass beads Approx. 4,000 sherds of souterrain ware Three chips from bracelets and two larger pieces Quernstone of Mourne granite Sandstone spindle whorl ‘Ball-like’ object Stave-built vessel

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.44: Glass beads from Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, fig. 9)

Fig. G.46: Lignite/shale bracelets from Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, fig. 9)

Fig. G.45: Souterrain ware from Ballymacash (after Jope & Ivens 1998, fig.8)

181

and could only roughly be traced through some of its length. No chambers or subsidiary passages were found. A quantity of souterrain ware was found on the floor of the entrance, the only part excavated, which sloped gently down from ground level. No remains of houses were noted on the bulldozed land surface.

Ballymacpeake Upper, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C928010 (29280/40100) SMR No: N/A Reference: Warner 1973:0010. A souterrain was uncovered during land clearance work. It had been unroofed and filled at some time in the past

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

182

Two early medieval occupation deposits were uncovered in the sandhills to the east of Portrush. Finds included flint flakes, sherds of pottery, animal bones and charcoal, and iron slag was recovered from a nearby third occupation deposit. One of the occupation deposits may have been associated with a ‘structure’ composed of basalt boulders.

Ballymacrea, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: C88364065 (28836/44065) SMR No: ANT 002:006 Reference: Flanagan 1966.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.47: Souterrain ware sherds from Ballymacrea (after Flanagan 1966, fig. 2)

183

the site lay in the fact that it was apparently the last intact example of approximately 20 such sites in the west Belfast area. The circumstances of the excavation were rendered particularly difficult because of civil disorder in the area and work had to be terminated suddenly after only two weeks. This was sufficient to show that the site was unexceptional though it produced many finds of souterrain ware, several glass beads and fragments of three lignite armlets from a much-disturbed superficial occupation surface. Scant structural traces were recovered and it is unlikely that prolonged excavation would have yielded more important evidence. There was no surrounding bank and the platform appeared to have been achieved by enclosing a slight knoll with a ditch and piling the upcast on the knoll.

Ballymurphy, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J29877422 (32987/37422) SMR No: ANT 060:036 Reference: Lynn 1977-79:0003. This ringfort was to be destroyed in the construction of an outer ring road near the west outskirts of Belfast. It comprised a low platform elevated c.1m. above the surrounding meadow and was approximately 35m in diameter. The entrance causeway across an indistinct, shallow ditch faced east towards the present city. The site lay at an altitude of 400ft. Approximately 200m to the south was another ringfort, recently partly levelled during the construction of a playing field. The main interest of

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Glass beads Souterrain ware Fragments of three lignite bracelets

‘Small finds’ Table

184

Ballynagallagh, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R644392 (16440/13920) SMR No: N/A References: Cleary 2006; Doody 1993; 2001.

A large double palisaded enclosure with an extrapolated perimeter of 380m post-dated the circular houses and north-south linear fence and track-way. The double palisade was identified as two parallel north-south linear slot-trenches (1.4m apart) with a number of large postholes cut into their base. Both palisades appear to have been contemporary and radiocarbon dates from the innermost places its construction between A.D. 765 and 897.

A large oval crop-mark enclosure was partially excavated at Ballynagallagh as part of a University College Cork research project and revealed occupational activity from the late sixth to twelfth century AD. The site consisted of an initial late sixth/seventh-century unenclosed settlement of circular houses, followed slightly later by a late seventh/eighth-century fence and track-way which preceded a late eighth/ninth-century double palisaded enclosure and part of an eleventh/twelfth-century enclosing ditch and track-way.

The final early medieval phase consisted of two trackways, a shallow ditch and pits. A north-south shallow ditch and an adjacent eastern metalled track-way were excavated at the southern end of the western perimeter enclosure. The ditch was U-shaped in profile and was 1.75m wide and 0.75m deep. Animal bone fragments were recovered from the lowest backfilled deposit. The metalled track-way was identified as a linear stony band (maximum of 3.3m by 9.25m) and animal bone from its upper level produced a two-sigma calibrated date of A.D. 1016–1179.

A relatively small area was excavated and comprised two trenches across the western and south-western enclosing elements, and a section of the enclosure interior. The site is situated south of Lough Gur on level ground on a ridge at the western edge of a former lake, now known as the Red Bog.

Another stone track-way (2.8m wide) defined on its western edge by a stone setting (0.5m–0.8m wide) was identified inside the enclosure. This stone spread postdated a partially excavated ditch feature (2.1m wide and over 0.75m deep). Animal bone from the fill of the pit/ditch produced a two-sigma calibrated date of A.D. 1032–1210 indicating that it was roughly contemporary with the stone spread. Another large undated pit (over 1m deep) contained a large quantity of animal bone suggesting that it was used as a dump in its final stages.

The earliest feature on the site consisted of a post-built circular house (I) with an estimated diameter of 8m. This returned a two-sigma calibrated date of A.D. 570–674 from animal bone inside a post-hole. The northern arc of a second post-built circular house (II) was excavated to its west and had an estimated diameter of 4.5m–5m. Its proximity to the other house might suggest that both are roughly contemporary. A north-south linear trench was excavated beside the large circular house and may have supported a light fence-like structure set in a stony bedding trench. A posthole from House I pre-dated the trench which returned a two-sigma calibrated date of A.D. 649–781 (highest probability), confirming that it was slightly later than the houses. Finds from this feature included chert, flint, a whetstone, stone axe fragment and a large quantity of animal bone (mostly cattle) interpreted as dump material from a nearby butchery site.

The artefacts from the site were limited to stone and metal and included whet-, rubber- and hone-stones, a clay bead, curved lignite bracelet, possible lignite pendant, iron rods, copper-alloy tube and a copper-alloy clip as well as a large flint and chert lithic assemblage. Evidence for iron/metalworking was indicated by a small quantity of iron slag (65g), a furnace bottom, a possible clay mould and two small fragments of fired clay, possibly from furnace lining.

A north-south stony track-way (2m wide) containing animal bone fragments, as well as chert and flint debitage, extended across the western end of trench 3. It was subsequently covered by another stony layer and may represent a re-metalling of the surface. The track pre-dated the phase II enclosure and produced a twosigma calibrated date of A.D. 661–772 which indicates that it was roughly contemporary with the linear feature.

Cattle dominated the large faunal assemblage at the site and were followed by sheep, pig, wild bird, dog, frog, cat, horse and wood mouse in descending order. Butchery marks and the evidence for complete carcasses from the three main livestock animals indicate that slaughtering and butchery were carried out within the confines of the enclosure. Barley was the preferred cereal crop followed by oats and wheat.

A number of pits (0.25m deep) containing quantities of animal bone and charcoal fragments were recorded to the east of the linear trench and may have also been used as refuse dumps. Two were stone-lined and may have been used initially as storage areas. Animal bone from one pit produced a two-sigma calibrated date of A.D. 682–905, indicating that it was roughly contemporary with or slightly later than the linear trench and north-south trackway.

The large palisaded enclosure at Ballynagallagh is quite unique in the Irish archaeological record as early medieval ‘ringforts’ or ‘ráths’ are generally much smaller (Stout 1997, 15). A partially-excavated oval-ditched enclosure (70m by 52m) at Killederdadrum, Co. Tipperary had evidence for internal circular structures, a deliberately backfilled ditch and a possible bank palisade, similar features to those found at Ballynagallagh. 185

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GrN-28572 GrN-28574

Context Animal bone from post-hole from circular house inside trench 3 Animal bone from a north-south linear trench inside trench 3

14C Date 1405±40 BP 1300±40 BP

GrN-23169

Animal bone from first stone track-way inside trench 3

1300±30 BP

GrN-28573

Animal bone from oval pit inside trench 3

1200±60 BP

GrN-23170

Animal bone from slot-trench of enclosing inner palisade inside trench 3

1200±35 BP

GrN-28570

Animal bone from upper level of track-way in trench 1

950±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 570–674 A.D. 649–781; A.D. 791–807 A.D. 661–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 682–905; A.D. 912–970 A.D. 693–748; A.D. 765–897; A.D. 922–941 A.D. 1016–1179

GrN-28571

Animal bone from partially-excavated pit/ditch in trench 2

910±40 BP

A.D. 1032–1210

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery

Direct Evidence 65kg smelting slag Clay mould

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Clay mould Clay bead

Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron objects Copper-alloy tube Clay bead Fragment of lignite bracelet Possible lignite pendant Whetstone Hone stones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

186

Dates

Ballynakelly, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: 29991/22862 SMR No: N/A Reference: McCarthy 2011. A series of early medieval enclosures, with accompanying domestic and agricultural features, was located prior to a residential development. The enclosure measured approximately 44m by 40m, and a radiocarbon date from the ditch in-fill suggested abandonment in the ninth/tenth century. Features in the interior included pits which contained animal bone, iron slag, and charcoal, one cereal-drying kiln (and a possible second kiln), and the possible remains of post-hole-defined structure. Fig. G.48: Plan of excavated features at Ballynakelly (after McCarthy 2011)

The outer enclosure had a diameter of 90m, and appears to have been subdivided into smaller field enclosures.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-7566 UB-7570

Context Human rib Oak charcoal from storage pit in interior

14C

UB-7569

Charcoal from Field C ditch

1271±31 BP

UB-7567

Hazel charcoal from interior ditch

1173±31 BP

UB-7570

Prunus charcoal from outer ditch

1130±29 BP

UB-7568

Hazel charcoal from recut of entrance

899±31 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Date 1597±33 BP 1327±32 BP

Indirect Evidence

Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table

187

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 401–543 A.D. 648–724; A.D. 739–771 A.D. 663–783; A.D. 789–813; A.D. 844–857 A.D. 775–901; A.D. 917–966 A.D. 783–788; A.D. 815–843; A.D. 859–988 A.D. 1040–1112; A.D. 1115–1212

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Five iron knives Iron plough coulter

Loom weight

‘Small finds’ Table

188

Dates

Ballypalady, Co. Antrim Grid Refs: J26537831 (32653/37831) & J26588733 (32658/38733) SMR No: ANT 051:015; ANT 051:016 Reference: Waterman 1972. The site consists of a cluster of enclosures: Ballypalady 2 (ANT 051:015), an approximately D-shaped trivallate enclosure, and Ballypalady 3 (ANT 051:016), a bivallate enclosure. The inner ditch of Ballypalady 2 had been subjected to at least two re-cuttings; and the ditches between the outer banks had also been re-cut. Two buildings – a circular house and a stone-and-timber rectangular structure – were uncovered in the interior. The circular post-built house was approximately 7m in diameter, but had no associated hearth or occupation debris, suggesting that the original floor surface had been lost. The stone-and-timber structure was interpreted as a byre; however, a large number of souterrain ware sherds, two glass beads and the stem of a bronze pin were found in the occupation debris associated with this building. It has been argued, on typological grounds, to be later than the circular house.

Fig. G.50: Plan of interior of Ballypalady 2 (after Waterman 1972, 32)

A series of storm-water gullies drained the surface of the interior. These contained patches of carbonised wood, an occasional sherd of souterrain ware and fragmentary animal teeth. The entrance to Ballypalady 3 was cobbled, and traces of a dry-stone walled structure were found within the interior. A few sherds of souterrain ware were recovered from between this structure and the inner face of the bank.

Fig. G.51: Glass beads from Ballypalady (after Waterman 1972, fig. 6)

Fig. G.49: Plan of enclosure group at Ballypalady (after Waterman 1972, fig. 1)

Fig. G.52: Bronze pin from Ballypalady (after Waterman 1972, fig. 6) 189

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze pin Two glass beads Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

190

period as evidenced by the discovery of souterrain ware in its upper fill (a charcoal sample from the lower fill was dated to the eighth century by radiocarbon dating). Cut into subsoil on the north side and partially into the upper fill of the ditch was a single extended inhumation burial of a child of approximately ten years of age. It was aligned east-west and contained no grave goods. This burial was radiocarbon-dated to the late sixteenth/early seventeenth century. Several gullies of varying depth and width were also discovered, the nature of which is difficult to interpret, but some would appear to be drainage gullies while others seem to be the result of agricultural activity.

Ballyrea, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: H844446 (28440/34460) SMR No: ARM 012:088 Reference: Crothers 1992:004. A small-scale rescue excavation was carried out at this site in advance of the construction of a staff car park and service entrance for the Navan Interpretative Centre. Nothing of any note was discovered during this exercise, although a previous excavation had found part of a blue glass bead and a fragmentary penannular brooch. Following the removal of the topsoil by mechanical excavator, the entire area was examined to check for any traces of archaeological activity. This excavation revealed that the main feature was a ditch with a maximum width of 3m and a maximum depth of 1m. It was not an enclosing ditch of a rath but rather a curvilinear, possibly boundary, ditch but still dating to the Early Christian

Finds recovered were mainly sherds of everted rim ware, mostly in situ, but some had been disturbed as a result of later agricultural activity. Several sherds of souterrain ware, slag, and residual flint flakes were also recovered. One fragment of a lignite bracelet, unfortunately unstratified, was recovered.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3603

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

14C

Context Bottom of ditch

Date 1241±31 BP

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 685–873

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Penannular brooch Blue glass bead Souterrain ware Fragments of lignite bracelet

‘Small finds’ Table 191

the bank in these two quadrants and is interpreted as a drainage channel. A fragment of a lignite bracelet was recovered from the top of this drainage channel. Internally a habitation layer that was uncovered during testing was found to survive only on the northern part of the site, producing a few sherds of early medieval pottery and sitting directly on top of the bedrock. When this layer and another more sandy, silty, contemporary layer were removed down to subsoil, a large number of post-holes, pits and stake-holes were uncovered.

Ballyrenan, Co. Down Grid Ref: J471462 (34710/34620) SMR No: DOW 030:037 Reference: MacManus 1997:074. An initial two-week testing revealed evidence of a ditched enclosure, 38m in diameter, with evidence of occupation in the form of a thin habitation layer and random pits and post-holes. The rath consisted of a subcircular ditch, with one definite entrance to the north-east and another possible one to the south-west. The ditch was 4m–5.5m wide and ranged from 0.95m to 1.85m in depth. The shape of the ditch varied between two forms. Where it was cut into bedrock there was a step on the inside edge, and where it was cut into the natural boulder clay it was V-shaped. Dating evidence came in the form of fragments of souterrain ware found in ditch deposits near both entranceways. The ditch encircled the bedrock outcrop to a point where this fell into a steep-sided dropoff some 1.5m–2m deep. It is assumed that at this point the outcrop was used as a natural defensive feature.

One definite rectangular structure survived in the form of two rows of substantial bedrock-cut double post-holes. The structure was situated on the highest part of the bedrock outcrop and measured approximately 9m in length and 5m in width, with an entrance to the southwest. The orientation was along the north-east/south-west axis of the rath. Inside the house, evidence of a hearth survived in the form of an area of heavy burning demarcated by a slot within which a charcoal-rich deposit with burnt bone was found. Evidence of cooking-pits survived around the southern and western end of the house in the form of burnt pits, one of which had evidence of a cooking facility around it in the form of stake-holes. To the south-east of the structure another circular hut structure c.3.5m in diameter survived in the form of post-holes and stake-holes. Other habitation evidence survived in the eastern quadrant of the site as a number of random post-holes.

The only evidence of a bank survived in the eastern and southern quadrants. In the eastern quadrant it consisted of a build-up of compact stony clay upcast material from the ditch, while in the southern quadrant it was a silt clay deposit over which a clayey stone rubble layer was spread. A stone-filled gully was cut into the inner edge of Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet

‘Small finds’ Table

192

up with the ditch which surrounds the motte; but the ditches have for the most part been filled and the enclosures, which stand above the general level of the surrounding fields, are now delimited merely by a scarp, which varies considerably in steepness. The ditch of the motte along the exposed flanks between the baileys is provided with a broad counterscarp bank.

Ballyroney, Co. Down Grid Ref: J21623948 (32162/33948) SMR No: DOW 035:031 Reference: Waterman 1955. The site at Ballyroney comprises a large motte, rising some 10m in height above the bottom of the broad ditch which encloses it, to which two separate baileys, roughly rectilinear in layout, are attached on the northwest and south. Both baileys were originally defended by a bank, of which but slight traces survive, and by a ditch, linking

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Excavations on the surface of the motte revealed early medieval activity in the guise of over 130 sherds of souterrain ware and a bronze pin.

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze pin Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

193

but inter-related structures were uncovered, all of which were circular and all of which were defined by a series of U-shaped gullies. The largest and earliest structure measured some 10m in diameter and the smallest a mere 5.5m. Many of the gullies produced charred wood, and sherds of souterrain ware were found in most. The most interesting feature uncovered was a gully which took the shape of a sickle. It was found to curve in an arc from north-east round to south-west, describing part of a circle of some 7m in diameter. However it then turned and ran in a south-westerly direction for a further 6m before disappearing under the baulk. During excavation it was hypothesized that this gully was constructed, at least in part, to drain water from the centre of the site; thus it was reasoned that it must head toward the entrance, the easiest access to the ditch. It did not, however, run towards the entrance associated with the earlier rath and therefore, without further evidence, must be seen to be associated with the later rath.

Ballyshanaghill, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J148758 (31480/37580) SMR No: ANT 059:006 References: Halpin 1990:002; 1991:003. The second season of excavations at Ballyshanaghill Rath took place in 1991. From these excavations it was clear that the rath was at least two-phased. The earlier bank was levelled and the ditch back-filled to allow for the construction of a bank along the line of the earlier ditch and a second ditch was cut some 5m outside the original. This effectively increased the overall diameter of the rath by 10m from 30m to its present 40m. There was no definitive proof of an entrance way; however in the trench which was cut through the bank and ditch to the south-west, the sections were most revealing. The earlier ditch appeared quite clearly in the section on the north side of the trench but was not present in the southern section, a mere 2m away. This suggests that the trench, by sheer good fortune, cut through the northern terminal of the earlier, inner ditch and by implication the entrance to the earlier rath. The latter ditch carried right across the trench implying that the entrances to the earlier and later raths were not coterminus.

Apart from the pottery, a small assemblage of worked stone was recovered, mostly in the form of flint but a large fragment of a rotary quern was also found. Two glass beads were discovered in the fills of separate gullies and finally, although the site was scanned, under supervision, by a metal detector which located a number of ferrous and non-ferrous 'blips', no metal objects of note were recovered.

There was strong evidence in the interior for a multiperiod, or at least multi-phased, site. At least five separate Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Two glass beads Souterrain ware Quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table 194

Ballytromery, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J15337567 (31533/37567) SMR No: ANT 059:007 Reference: Dunlop 2012. Archaeological investigation was required prior to the development of recreation grounds in Ballytromery townland at Crumlin, Co. Antrim. Two early medieval features were uncovered within the field – an enclosure with internal structures, and an unenclosed early medieval roundhouse. The enclosure (ANT059:007) was defined by a 40m-internal diameter ditch. The absence of internal features in close proximity to the ditch indicates that an internal bank had originally been present. There was evidence for two phases of activity in the interior of the rath. The first phase of occupation saw the construction of two roundhouses, one in the centre of the rath (6m in diameter) and one to the east of it (7m in diameter). Both houses were defined by a slot-trench and had entrance gaps to the west. Eleven large pits, contemporary with the first phase of occupation, may have had an industrial function (although no evidence for this was discovered). Radiocarbon dates suggest this phase occurred during the sixth/seventh century. The second phase of occupation on the site saw the construction of two post-defined roundhouses, one in the west of the rath (11m in diameter) and one to the east of it (10m in diameter). Radiocarbon dates suggest this occurred during the seventh/eighth century. An unenclosed circular house, 9m in diameter and defined by a shallow gully, was located 150m southeast of the enclosure. The house showed evidence for a substantial burning episode at the end of its life. This may indicate a deliberate and potentially ritualistic destruction of the house by its occupants or, considering the tribal society of the time, it may indicate the destruction of the house through an enemy attack. A radiocarbon determination obtained from charcoal found at the base of a post-hole returned a date of 1450±30 BP, which overlaps the first phase of rath occupation.

Fig. G.53: Plan of enclosure at Ballytromery (after Dunlop 2012)

Fig. G.54: Plan of unenclosed roundhouse 150m southeast of enclosure at Ballytromery (after Dunlop 2012)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-319153 Beta-319155

Context Charcoal from post-hole in external house Wood from Phase II

Date 1450±30 BP 1270±30 BP

Beta-320182

Charcoal from Phase I house drip trench

1460±30 BP

195

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 561–651 A.D. 664–782; A.D. 789–812; A.D. 845–856 A.D. 554–647

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Cereal grinding stone

‘Small finds’ Table

196

Ballyutoag, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J27387954 (32738/37954) SMR No: ANT 056:085 Reference: Williams 1984. Ballyutoag is a collection of early medieval houses contained within enclosure ditches in the uplands and above agriculturally-rich soils. Houses A and B within Enclosure 1 were studied and shown to have been occupied contemporaneously. The circular House A went through four phases of construction and rebuilding. These phases have been dated by radiocarbon from charcoal associated with the relevant period hearths. The radiocarbon dates for Phase 3 (UB-2594) and Phase 4 (UB-2596) fit comfortably with the evidence of finds and structural remains. These structures appear to have been built from the local basalt – the Phase 3 house had basalt door pillars, and the Phase 4 house had wall footings of basalt. Unfortunately the dates for phases 1 and 2 (UB2638 and UB-2637 respectively) are somewhat anomalous, and as a consequence the date for the earliest occupation of House A and the duration of its use is not entirely clear. The radiocarbon date (UB-2595) for the hearth in House B seems to indicate that this related closely with Phase 4 at House A, and the artefacts recovered were similar (seven sherds of souterrain ware, and nine flint fragments). No evidence for occupation was found in the excavation of House C. The landscape setting of the hut sites and low number of finds suggests that Ballyutoag was an upland early medieval transhumance settlement.

Fig. G.55: Plan of enclosures at Ballyutoag (after Williams 1984, 39)

Radiocarbon Dates Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2594 UB-2595

Context Charcoal – Top Clay Bank 29 Charcoal – Hearth 5

14C

UB-2596

Charcoal – Hearth F40

1230±70 BP

UB-2636

Charcoal – Hearth F38

1240±80 BP

UB-2637 UB-2638

Charcoal – Hearth 24 Charcoal – Hearth 8

1285±100 BP 1005±115 BP

Date 1370±80 BP 1175±55 BP

197

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 538–872 A.D. 693–748; A.D. 765–984 A.D. 662–900; A.D. 917–966 A.D. 654–904; A.D. 913–970 A.D. 594–975 A.D. 779–794; A.D. 800–1254

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware Flint cores

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Stem of bronze pin Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Flint blades

‘Small finds’ Table

198

section wall which may be the remnants of timber planks used to shore the sides of the trench. The souterrain seems to have been abandoned shortly after the construction of the ringfort and allowed to partially silt up before being reutilised for cereal‐processing, as indicated by the burnt remains of a timber‐built cereal‐dying kiln located at the northern end of the souterrain. Although there was no direct stratigraphic relationship between the ringfort and the souterrain, a radiocarbon date in the eighth/ninth century was returned from the cereal‐drying kiln established after the souterrain had been abandoned. A second cereal-drying kiln was located outside the ringfort enclosure, to the southwest.

Ballyvass, Co. Kildare Grid Ref: 276838/187799 SMR No: N/A References: Clark & Doyle 2011; Doyle 2008; 2009. The site was located during test-trenching prior to the construction of the N9/N10, which identified a curvilinear ditch, a linear ditch and two truncated corndrying kilns. Full archaeological resolution revealed the remains of a small metal‐working industry, a ring‐ditch and cremation burial, a large ringfort with associated souterrain, two cereal‐drying kilns, and numerous pits, post-holes and linear/curvilinear features. Late Iron Age and early medieval activity was represented by a ring‐ditch, an enclosure, a large souterrain and two cereal‐drying kilns, as well as numerous pits, post-holes and linear/curvilinear features. The ring‐ditch contained a cremation deposit recovered from one of the middle fills, and subsequent radiocarbon dating has indicated that the cremated bone was Late Iron Age in date – ranging from 60 cal BC‒cal AD 80 (2σ) (SUERC‐26270). Animal bone from the underlying deposit produced an early medieval date in the eighth/ninth century (SUERC‐29029), suggesting that the cremation burial had been disturbed during the early medieval period. The majority of features within the ringfort at Ballyvass contained significant quantities of charcoal, cereal grain and animal bone, as well as numerous domestic artefacts such as knives. There were, however, no discernible alignments between the numerous internal pits and postholes that could be interpreted as a structure. The most significant element within the interior of the ringfort was the remains of a large rectangular cut feature, which may represent the initial stages of a souterrain. The Ballyvass souterrain is likely to have been timber‐built, suggested by thin lines of vertical discolouration on the south‐facing

Fig. G.56: Plan of enclosure at Ballyvass (after Clark & Doyle 2011)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-243989 SUERC-29024

Context Charcoal Hazelnut shell

Date 1160±40 BP 1215±30 BP

Beta-243988

Bone

1280±40 BP

SUERC-29023

Humerus

1260±30 BP

SUERC-29029

Animal bone

1230±30 BP

199

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 775–979 A.D. 693–704; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–889 A.D. 658–783; A.D. 787–824; A.D. 841–861 A.D. 689–784; A.D. 787–825; A.D. 840–862 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–882

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone cut-off waste Bone weaving tools

Bone pins

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Five iron knives Socketed pronged tool Two iron heads 17 iron nails Bronze brooch-pin Copper-alloy fragments Copper-alloy bucket fittings Silvered/tinned-bronze drinking-horn terminal

Dates

8th/9th C

Lignite bracelet Quernstones fragment 11 whetstones Stone disc

Five bone weaving tools Bone pin Worked bone cylinders Class D1 bone comb Class E bone comb Class 1A bone comb Bone comb Worked antler cylinder Possible (linen?) sack found in kiln

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.58: Stone discs from Ballyvass (after Clark & Doyle 2011) Fig. G.57: Silvered/tinned-bronze drinking horn terminal mount from Ballyvass (after Clark & Doyle 2011)

200

were recovered. Although the artefactual remains suggested that the site had an industrial history, there was no structural evidence for burning or furnaces. A possible irregular-shaped structure was identified in the south of the excavation. It is suggested that this site may have been a specialist iron-working area, rather than a domestic site. Further investigation of the local area did not uncover any evidence for an enclosure bank or ditch.

Ballyvollen, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J13267281 (31326/37281) SMR No: ANT 058:040 Reference: Williams 1985b. A series of rescue excavations was undertaken to facilitate the development of an open-cast lignite mine. One excavation, in an area of level pasture which appears to coincide with a circular cropmark, uncovered evidence for occupation and industry. A few sherds of souterrain ware, a quantity of iron slag (170kg), and three tuyères

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2729 UB-2728

Context Charcoal from Trench 13, associated with souterrain ware Charcoal from F4 – possible furnace bottom

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 170 kg iron slag Three tuyères

14C

Date 1305±65 BP 1365±70 BP

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 632–884 A.D. 543–783; A.D. 788–814; A.D. 843–858

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

201

bronze pins; and a quern fragment. A silvered bronze buckle was recovered from the topsoil over the middle building at the rear of the complex. Radiocarbon dates from the site suggest a ninth/tenth-century occupation.

Ballywee, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J21858987 (32185/38987) SMR No: ANT 050:036 References: Lynn 1988a; Crothers 1994.

The site was tidied-up and consolidated in 1993/94, when further excavation work was carried out on the souterrain at the rear of the complex, and associated structures. Excavations around the souterrain uncovered a series of structures indicated by post-holes and associated hearths; and a number of charcoal-rich layers found in association with a nearby area of paving were interpreted as a possible metalworking area.

The site had been recorded as a ‘cyclopean fort’ on earlier maps, and was threatened with destruction under a farm improvement scheme. It is located in a boggy field, on an east-facing slope, just above the 150m contour line. Excavation quickly uncovered substantial remains of nine stone-built structures and three souterrains. The low banks (presumably the features identified as the ‘cyclopean fort’) would appear to have been constructed to divert run-off water away from the main settlement complex. Two of the buildings have intact floor plans. The building just inside the entranceway (House 1) is rectangular (7m by 4m) and is approached by a paved path. This structure has a central hearth and a partially paved interior; a souterrain is accessed through the west wall of the house. The souterrain is contained within a wide bank which has a boulder-built retaining wall, and it seems likely that the souterrain was constructed at ground level before being buried by the earthen mound. A possible workshop area was located just to the north of this souterrain mound. This was indicated by areas of burnt soil, charcoal and fragments of bronze-smelting crucibles. The other two souterrains on site would appear to have been associated with less well-preserved structures. A larger rectangular building (10m by 5m) was located at the rear of the complex. This structure had a paved path running through the centre of the building along its long axis, and this was in turn flanked by post-holes. This building does not appear to have been a domestic structure and it has been suggested that it may have been a warehouse. The possibility that the post-holes represent animal stalls was discussed, but disregarded on the basis of size.

Fig. G.59: Plan of Ballywee (after Lynn 1988a, 33)

Finds from House 1 were typical of early medieval sites – sherds of souterrain ware; iron objects; glass beads; Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-4228

Context Charcoal spread

14C

UB-4229

Charcoal – fill context 37

1063±51 BP

UB-4230 UB-4231

Charcoal – fill context 70 Charcoal – fill context 160

1259±52 BP 1186±25 BP

Date 1142±59 BP

202

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–1017 A.D. 830–837; A.D. 868–1046; A.D. 1091–1121; A.D. 1140–1148 A.D. 664–881 A.D. 773–896; A.D. 924–938

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Bronze-smelting crucibles

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates 9th/10th C

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects Bronze pins Silvered-bronze belt buckle Glass beads

Dates

Quern stone

9th/10th C

‘Small finds’ Table

203

9th/10th C 9th/10th C

Ballywillwill, Co. Down Grid Refs: J35184154 (33518/34154); (33558/34145) SMR Nos: DOW 036:025; DOW 036:024 Reference: Waterman & Collins 1952.

structural features were apparent. A number of sherds of souterrain ware were recovered from the site, suggesting it was contemporaneous with Ballywillwill I.

J35584145

The site consists of two counterscarp enclosures (Ballywillwill I (internal dimensions of 30m by 25.5m) and Ballywillwill II (36m)) located within 400m of each other. Both sites were set on the points of promontories of a drumlin ridge; and both were excavated in 1951 as part of the Archaeological Survey of Northern Ireland. The internal and external banks at Ballywillwill I both had stone revetments, and incorporated a well-defined gateway. Excavation revealed the presence of two shallow post-holes which would have held the gate posts. Excavation of the interior of Ballywillwill I revealed a complex of dry-stone-walled features, including a possible hut site, a souterrain, and an enigmatic passageway. A substantial amount of souterrain ware was found on site, as well as two fragments of corroded bronze and a stone spindle whorl.

Fig. G.60: Plan of entrance and structures at Ballywillwill I (after Waterman & Collins 1952, 76)

Excavation of Ballywillwill II revealed that the site had been severely truncated by lazy-bed cultivation and no

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-6676

14C

Context

Date 1171±32 BP

UB-6781

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

1181±35 BP

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Stone spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

204

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 774–903; A.D. 915–968 A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–902; A.D. 916–967

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Corroded bronze Souterrain ware Stone spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.62: Souterrain ware from Ballywillwill II (after Waterman & Collins 1952, fig. 9)

Fig. G.61: Souterrain ware from Ballywillwill I (after Waterman & Collins 1952, fig. 7)

Fig. G.63: Stone spindle whorl from Ballywillwill I (after Waterman & Collins 1952, fig. 7)

205

Balriggan, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J03651070 (303652/310708) SMR No: N/A References: Delaney 2003:1226; 2010; 2003:1286; Bowen 2008; Hayes 2006.

suggests that the structures were not dwellings and the four-post structure may potentially have been an elevated granary. However, the presence of personal items, animal bone and other artefacts related to habitation, from the enclosure ditch indicates that people lived here, but their homes did not survive archaeologically.

Bayley

The cemetery, measuring roughly 15m by 15m, was situated just north of the structures. It contained 47 grave cuts with a minimum of 25 individuals. The smaller number of skeletons, compared to grave cuts, was due to poor preservation of bone. The burials were generally extended west-east inhumations and the remains – represented by young children, sub-adults, young adults, adults and middle adults – suggests a family group. No infants or older adults were identified but this may relate to poor bone survival. The cemetery originally consisted of organised and structured graves, which were later disturbed by more randomly placed burials.

Balriggan, excavated in advance of the M1 motorway, was an extensive settlement-cemetery, agricultural and industrial complex. The site consisted of an inner enclosure (Enclosure A) with evidence for an outer enclosing ditch (Enclosure B). A small cemetery, two post-built structures and an industrial area were identified within Enclosure A. A number of radiating ditches and enclosures were situated in between the two ditches. Another large enclosure lay to the west (Enclosure C), and agricultural and industrial features were also present external to the enclosures including a cereal-drying kiln, charcoal-production kilns and a metalworking area. The site was situated within a basin-like depression in the landscape between 13m and 15m OD, and some of the surrounding areas consisted of bog and wetland. The site lay west of Dundalk Bay and close to a number of excavated contemporary settlements (Newtownbalregan (Bayley 2003; Roycroft 2005), Carn More (Delaney 2003; Roycroft 2005), Tateetra (Hayes 2006), and Faughart Lower (Bowen 2008)).

The north-eastern area within Enclosure A was used for industrial activities. This consisted of six large pits, some with related post-holes, which were sealed by an extensive spread of dark ash that contained souterrain ware and metallurgical waste. One of the pits, which also contained souterrain ware, was dated to A.D. 430–650. An iron punch, potentially used for metalworking, was also recovered from the spread of industrial debris. The absence of furnaces and iron slag in large quantities suggests that secondary forging rather than smelting activities occurred in this area. This is unsurprising as the latter would be too dangerous to undertake in the confines of a settlement enclosure, whereas many early medieval farmers might repair and produce domestic and agricultural implements in proximity to their dwellings.

Enclosure A was originally approximately 48m in diameter. It may have been C-shaped, and open on its eastern side, or a ditch to the east may represent the eastern part of a discontinuous enclosure that was open at its north-eastern and south-eastern sides. A probable millrace and horizontal watermill were evident at its south-eastern side. The former consisted of a series of raised partitions that created small, regular ponds, while a stone-built feature, which was fed by the millrace, probably represented a horizontal mill undercroft.

An outer ditch (Enclosure B) was identified approximately 19m west of the inner enclosure; it probably terminated at a former area of wetland to the north. The ditch appears to have silted naturally and few finds were retrieved from its fill, including one sherd of souterrain ware. The remains of a small animal, possibly a dog, were revealed in the basal layer although it may be from a re-deposited trample layer related to postmedieval activity. However, early medieval-dated dogs have been identified within ditches and pits at Roestown 2 (O’Hara 2007) and Lismullin 1 (O’Connell 2013) respectively, both in County Meath, and the animal at Balriggan may date to this period. A small pit, containing metallurgical waste, was also found within the ditch fill.

Enclosure A was approached by a parallel-ditched entrance at its south-western side and these ditches, like the enclosure, were re-cut on at least one occasion. No causeway was present in this area so the enclosure must have been entered by a bridge or temporary structure. The remodelling of the enclosure slightly altered its size as it measured 44m by 49m. Finds from the inner enclosure ditch included copper-alloy pins, glass beads, a spindle whorl and weights. Animal bone, including cattle, sheep/goat, deer, pig and horse, and fish bone were all identified. However, they were not retrieved in large quantities due to the poor preservation of bone at the site.

A number of features were identified within the area between the inner and outer enclosing ditches. These included the parallel-ditched entrance way (above), a Dshaped enclosure, a roughly square-shaped enclosure and possible gardens or plots. The first two may represent small animal enclosures or pens while the latter were possibly utilised for the growing of crops and vegetables. Artefacts from the ditches were limited to sherds of souterrain ware and a lignite bracelet.

A number of archaeological features were identified within the inner enclosure. A series of post-holes on the southern side formed two structures in plan. The first was a rectangular building, orientated east-west, which measured 5m by 4m. The cemetery was situated alongside and appeared to respect it, which suggests the building was built before the burial ground, or at least before a later phase of burial. The second structure was also post-built and measured approximately 2.7m by 2.6m. A lack of hearths and other domestic evidence

A large oval enclosure (Enclosure C) was situated to the 206

but included two bronze ringed-pin shafts, two lignite bracelet fragments, four blue and one red glass beads and a bone or ivory flat bead. Functional items were more numerous, including quernstone fragments, nearly 500 souterrain-ware sherds (a minimum of 87 vessels), spindle whorls, loom weights and a stone punch or awl.

west of Enclosures A and B. It measured 45m by 58m and had an entrance on its western side. The internal area was devoid of archaeological features and no artefacts are recorded from its ditch fills. Its position meant that it was visible to the occupants of the settlement-cemetery and, if contemporary, probably functioned as a livestock enclosure. A ‘figure-of-eight’-shaped cereal-drying kiln was located to the south of the enclosure and was dated to A.D. 60–250. This may date to the earliest activity on the site, and possibly the creation of the cemetery, as many similar settlement-cemetery sites originated as burial grounds in the late Iron Age.

Artefacts related to industry included stone tools such as hammers, pounders, hone stones and polishing stones. A large number of lithics were also identified, many probably produced and utilised during the settlement of the site as knives, sharpeners and strike-a-lights. A crucible fragment was found in association with the northern industrial area.

Further evidence for metalworking was present in the form of charcoal-production kilns to the west of Enclosure C and an industrial area, including a smelting furnace, to the north of Enclosure A. Both areas were safely away from the settlement core and represented primary activities related to the production of iron before secondary smithing could be undertaken.

Balriggan was a large multi-phase settlement-cemetery, agricultural and industrial complex that probably originated during the late Iron Age and was utilised until potentially the tenth century, based on the presence of souterrain ware. Burial and agricultural activities were probably the precursors for the expansion of the site into a larger settlement with associated fields and enclosures.

Artefacts indicative of settlement and industry were identified at Balriggan. Dress items were not abundant Material Iron-working

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron punch - smithing Two smelting furnaces 113.5kg iron slag Crucible fragment

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorls Loom weights

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron punch Bronze ring-pin shafts Four blue glass beads Red glass bead 500 souterrain-ware sherds Two lignite bracelet fragments Quernstone fragments Spindle whorls Loom weights Stone awl Honestones Polishing stones Ivory bead

‘Small finds’ Table 207

Dates

trenches. A spread of hard-packed small stones (1.6m by 0.4m, and 0.16m thick) lay on the shallow curve of the ditch on top of the boulder clay. The stones appear to have been deliberately packed tightly together to form a path outside the bank which may have been contemporary with the enclosure. Alternatively, they could form part of a lane which is depicted skirting the site on its north-eastern side on both the 1842 and 1950 Ordnance Survey maps.

Banduff, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W70427417 (17042/07417) SMR No: CO074:20 Reference: Lane 1999. Initial testing at a levelled enclosure at Banduff revealed evidence for an eighth/ninth-century enclosure ditch, a stone-revetted internal bank and associated trenches, deposits and surfaces. The site was located in the suburbs of Cork on the side of a fairly steep, south-facing slope.

A small irregularly-shaped charcoal spread (1.7m by 0.16m, and between 0.04m–0.11m thick) was exposed on the eastern side inside the northern arc of the ditch. A layer of re-deposited clay (0.15m–0.25m thick) overlay the spread at its northern end. A shallow trench (2.25m by 0.3m and 0.12m deep) contained brown, slightly burnt soil, possibly washed out from the charcoal spread. Another trench (2.4m by 0.3m and 0.08m deep) contained some medium-sized stones, two bone fragments and a narrow lens of charcoal (0.15m diameter by 0.04m thick).

Five trenches were excavated across the arc of the enclosing ditch. The top of the ditch was widest at the north (5m) and narrowest at the northwest side (3m). The ditch originally had a shallow (0.45m deep) U-shaped profile, which was re-cut in places to form a steep-sided U-shaped profile (1.3m deep). The re-cut ditch was significantly narrower than the earlier ditch, with a maximum width of 2.4m.

The recovery of the loop-headed ringed pin from the upper levels of the primary fill of the re-cut ditch indicates that the enclosure was occupied and altered during or before the eighth/ninth century. Associated with it may have been a stone revetted bank, material of which subsequently collapsed into the re-cut ditch at a certain point. A series of undated spreads and trenches were uncovered in the enclosure’s interior and a path lay immediately outside the enclosing bank.

The sequence of in-filling of the ditches was broadly similar. The primary fill of the re-cut ditch contained medium-sized stones which may represent the collapse of stone facing from the associated enclosing bank (the upper levels of which revealed an eighth/ninth-century bronze plain-ringed loop-headed pin). More recent fills of the re-cut ditch contained decomposed organic matter and field clearance stones. The enclosing bank was levelled in the 1970s, although its base could be determined as a convex curve (5.35m wide) along the inside of the ditch. A stone feature (1.96m by 0.6m) set into the boulder clay on the outer line of the bank appears to have formed the footing for a stone facing for the outer face of the bank. Another stone spread (1.2m by 1m) on the boulder clay inside and to the south of the base of the bank appears to have originally formed part of a stone facing for the inner face of the bank. There was nothing to indicate that the bank had been backfilled into the ditch.

Fig. G.64: Plan of enclosure and features at Banduff (after Lane 1999)

The other possible archaeological features on the site included a pathway, a charcoal spread, and a couple of Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table 208

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze ‘loop-headed’ ring pin

‘Small finds’ Table

209

Baronstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N94405936 (294401/259365) SMR No: N/A References: Linnane 2009; Linnane & Kinsella 2007; 2009a; 2009b.

the circular ditch at its south side but gradually diverged, moving northwards, along the east and western sides to eventually create a much larger enclosure which measured 70m west-east by 30m north-south. Therefore, Baronstown expanded in size within a few generations of its primary use.

Baronstown, excavated in advance of the M3 roadscheme, was a large early medieval enclosure complex. It appears to have functioned as a well-fortified farmstead in its early years but its importance gradually declined until its abandonment probably in the tenth or eleventh centuries. Artefacts were relatively scarce for a site of this scale but a successful mixed agricultural economy was evidenced by a large animal bone assemblage and the presence of a number of cereal-drying kilns. The site was located on the summit of a small hill – at 112m OD – and the ground sloped steeply down to the River Gabhra to the west and more gently to the north. This afforded the site a prominent position within the immediate landscape and resulted in commanding views to the north, east and west. The lower ground in these areas would have been subject to flooding prior to canalisation of the river.

The entrance into the circular and outer enclosure was located to the southeast. It consisted of linear cuts in the subsoil which extended from the internal edge of the inner ditch, across the area between the inner and outer ditches and beyond the outer edge of the latter ditch. It appears that large timbers were placed in the cuttings, which formed the base of a bridge. Successive layers of metalling were found in the area to the south of the outer ditch which reinforces the theory that a bridge was utilised here. A scatter of pits and post-holes in the vicinity of the bridge crossing may indicate the location of a timber gatehouse but the surviving features were too flimsy to attempt any form of accurate reconstruction. Of interest was the burial of a horse’s skull in a pit central to the internal edge of the bridge crossing; possibly a foundation deposit, revealing the continuation of pagan practices or at least demonstrating a continuation of past traditions or superstitions after the arrival of Christianity.

The first early medieval phase at Baronstown witnessed the construction of a circular enclosure which had an internal diameter of 40m. The enclosing ditch was on average 4m wide and 3m in depth and was re-cut on numerous occasions. The ditch became smaller after each re-cut and it appears its defensive role receded as the centuries passed. One of the primary ditch fills was dated to A.D. 540–654 while a later deposit returned a date of A.D. 880–1022 (see below). The radiocarbon dates, ditch re-cuts and finds assemblage indicate that the circular enclosure was in use across many centuries.

A complex sequence of dividing ditches and gullies, which created small plots, was situated to the north and west of the circular enclosure and mostly within the outer enclosure. Their stratigraphic relationships were difficult to determine and they were also, unfortunately, devoid of datable material and chronologically diagnostic artefacts. The ditches probably functioned as drainage channels and may also have demarcated vegetable and/or cereal plots. It is likely that they were related to the later expansion of the site when the outer enclosure was constructed.

Few features survived internally within the initial enclosure and this is likely due to many centuries of farming activity and truncation of the archaeological deposits. The most significant feature was a ‘C’-shaped enclosure with its open end to the north. It had an internal diameter of 14m and at its greatest extent was 2.8m wide and 0.93m deep. Two re-cuts were noted within the ditch fills and the primary fill was dated to A.D. 645–772. This suggests that the enclosure was constructed slightly later than the circular enclosure, but they would also have been in use contemporaneously for a considerable time. Its function remains unclear. It was too big to have acted as a drainage ditch, while it probably did not enclose a house as early medieval dwellings are not generally enclosed by such features and, when circular, they tend to be found near the middle of enclosures.

Further enclosure activity occurred to the north of the outer enclosure consisting of a northern annex and smaller ‘D’-shaped enclosure. The primary fill of the annex ditch was dated to A.D. 564–666 which is earlier than the dates from the outer enclosure. This could be interpreted as an anomaly because the annex ditch respected the outer enclosure. However, it is also possible that this was an external plot or field that was contemporary with the circular enclosure and it was subsequently cut by/appended onto the later outer enclosure. Two oval enclosures were revealed beyond the confines of the outer enclosure. The enclosure to the north – radiocarbon dated to A.D. 383–560 – was oval, with internal dimensions of 8.2m by 5.93m. Two lengths of curving ditch that formed an oval enclosure were situated to the south of the site. This had internal dimensions of 9m north-south by 8.2m east-west. A radiocarbon date of A.D. 530–648 was retrieved from the structure. A cerealdrying kiln was located in the latter and one of the enclosure’s gullies from the former contained charcoal, cereal grains, chaff from cultivated oats and barley as well as weed seeds. It is likely therefore that the enclosures were related to arable activity, such as cereal

An outer enclosure – that enclosed the circular enclosure – was dug at approximately the same time as the ‘C’shaped enclosure. Radiocarbon dates from its basal fills were slightly later than those of the circular enclosure and ranged from A.D. 687–895 to A.D. 684–887. Two ditch re-cuts were evident and, like the primary circular ditch, the ditch became smaller after each modification. A causewayed entrance was located at the west which faced the Gabhra River. The new enclosure was dug close to 210

processing, rather than features that enclosed or defined a dwelling. A total of 29 pits and depressions – many of which were hearths – had evidence of burning either through charcoal-rich fills or oxidisation of clays. Dated examples spanned the fourth until the twelfth centuries and it appears that the majority had a domestic rather than industrial function. The finds assemblage from Baronstown was small. Personal dress items included a ringed pin, nine bone pins, a bird-headed brooch (which dates to the seventh century), a glass bead, a composite bone comb fragment and a fragment of curved tubing from a bracelet. Functional items included iron blades, a needle, a spindle whorl, a spherical lead weight with broken iron attachment and various fragments of unidentifiable objects. Due to the waterlogged nature of the circular enclosure ditch, 308 wooden artefacts were recovered including bucket and barrel staves, a near-intact turned wooden bowl and an associated wooden scoop. The nature of the wooden artefacts, often broken or degraded, indicated that the inner enclosure ditch was used as a repository for domestic waste material. Iron slag was also present in a number of contexts although no metallurgical features were present. This suggests that much of the ironworking process occurred off-site but in proximity to the settlement. Animal bone occurred in large quantities at Baronstown. The three main domesticates of cattle, sheep/goat and pig dominated the faunal assemblage, and beef accounted for more than 80% of meat for all phases, with pig being the next most important meat source. No specialised dump areas (associated with activities such as primary butchery or craftwork) were observed. The assemblage would therefore seem to represent the domestic refuse of the site’s inhabitants.

Fig. G.65: Plan of Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2007)

Fig. G.66: Sheep/goat leather fragments from Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2009a)

211

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-252086

14C

Date 1460±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 540–654

1090±40 BP

A.D. 880–1022

1330±40 BP

A.D. 645–772

1210±40 BP

A.D. 687–895; A.D. 925–936 A.D. 684–887 A.D. 564–666

Beta-252088 Beta-252083

Context 1284: Animal bone from primary fill of circular enclosure ditch 1045: Animal bone from upper fill of circular enclosure ditch 2215: Animal bone from primary fill of ‘C’-shaped enclosure 1048: Animal bone from primary fill of outer enclosure ditch 3426: Hazel from fill of outer enclosure ditch 4094: Animal bone from primary fill of northern annex ditch 3017: Barley from fill of oval enclosure 1019: Animal bone from fill of oval structure

1600±40 BP 1490±40 BP

Beta-247021 Beta-247019

2292: Hazel from fill of hearth 2143: Charred oat grain from fill of hearth

940±40 BP 1610±40 BP

Beta-247022 Beta-247027

3421: Charred barley grain from fill of hearth 4163: Charred barley grain from fill of hearth

1230±40 BP 1660±40 BP

Beta-247014

1024: Charred barley grain from fill of cereal-drying kiln

1280±40 BP

Beta-247016 Beta-247017 Beta-247018 Beta-247020

1106: Charred barley grain from fill of cereal-drying kiln 1151: Ash from fill of kiln 1347: Charred barley grain from fill of kiln 2182: Maloideae from fill of kiln

1450±40 BP 1580±40 BP 1580±40 BP 1500±40 BP

Beta-247024 Beta-247026

3447: Hazel from fill of kiln 3563: Hazel from fill of kiln

1580±40 BP 1560±40 BP

Beta-247028

4202: Charred barley grain from fill of kiln

1640±40 BP

Beta-252084 Beta-252087 Beta-252085 Beta-247023 Beta-252091

1230±40 BP 1420±40 BP

A.D. 383–560 A.D. 436–489; A.D. 513–516; A.D. 530–648 A.D. 1019–1185 A.D. 349–368; A.D. 379–547 A.D. 684–887 A.D. 257–301; A.D. 317–443; A.D. 448–463; A.D. 483–532 A.D. 658–783; A.D. 787–824; A.D. 841–861 A.D. 547–655 A.D. 402–568 A.D. 402-568 A.D. 434–492; A.D. 508–519; A.D. 528–643 A.D. 402–568 A.D. 415–584; A.D. 590 A.D. 263–277; A.D. 330–537

Fig. G.68: Sandstone loom weight from Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2009a)

Fig. G.67: Turned alder bowl from Baronstown (after Linnane & Kinsella 2009a)

212

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working

Direct Evidence 3.36kg iron slag Furnace lining? Copper-alloy waste Furnace lining?

Indirect Evidence

Yew fragments – stave manufacture?

Blackthorn handle

Radiocarbon Dates

Hazel withies Incomplete tooth segment of bone comb Bone motif-piece Bone needles Two bone pins Bone pin-beater Bone spindle whorl Worked antler mount? Three fragments of sheep/goat leather? Bone spindle whorl Bone pin-beater Stone loom weight

Bone-working

Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood

Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object 15 iron knives Crutch-headed stick pins Disc-headed stick pins Ringpin Copper alloy penannular brooch Copper alloy zoomorphic brooch Copper alloy ring pin Copper alloy bracelet Blue glass bead Four whetstones Stone loom weight Turned wooden bowl & scoop (from Castlefarm?) 70+ yew barrel staves (Possible) blackthorn handle Hazel withies and pegs/dowels Incomplete tooth segment of bone comb Bone motif-piece Bone needles Two bone pins Bone pin-beater Bone spindle whorl Worked antler mount? Three fragments of sheep/goat leather

‘Small finds’ Table

213

Dates

a single orthostatic entrance. A series of stony sediment spreads dating to both the construction and the use of this monument was uncovered beneath the peat in the interior of the enclosure. No post-holes or other features were uncovered in its interior. A small number of finds were recovered from the site including early medieval dumbbell glass beads, stone discs and an iron point. A radiocarbon date of peat growth (800± 30 BP) indicates that the enclosure was abandoned c.AD 1200.

Barrees Valley, Co. Cork Grid Ref: V68004700 (06800/04700) SMR No: N/A Reference: O'Brien 2009. A research programme was conducted by UCG in the Barrees valley, north of Castletownbere in the Beara Peninsula of County Cork in 2002 which sought to examine the use of upland environments in late prehistoric Ireland. The excavated sites consisted of two fulachta fiadh, two adjacent standing stones and a hut – all dating to the Bronze Age – an early medieval enclosure and two hut sites and a late medieval charcoal or roasting kiln/pit.

Excavation on Site E revealed a circular hut foundation defined by a 0.8m–1.4m-wide collapsed wall of rough field stones with a 0.7m-wide entrance opening on the northern side. No interior features were found and the only find was an early medieval multi-coloured bead. Two small charcoal deposits were found underneath the wall stones and were radiocarbon-dated to 1380±40 BP (GrN-28303), consistent with a sixth to eighth-century A.D. date range for the bead.

The earliest excavated features consisted of two Bronze Age fulachta fiadh which produced radiocarbon dates of 3280±30 BP and 2820±35 BP. Two closely-set monoliths were excavated at Site H. Both were originally set upright in shallow subsoil pits and held in position with large packing stones. Quartz boulders, pebbles and deposits of cremated bone and charcoal were found in association with the monoliths. Charcoal, indicating fires adjacent to the western stone, was radiocarbon dated to 2830±30 BP indicating a late Bronze Age date (GrN-28306).

Excavations were also undertaken on Site F. It was a ‘D’shaped stone-walled enclosure built against the inner face of a large field wall. It measured 4.8m by 2.7m internally and was defined by a single narrow wall of rough field stones, which was originally up to 0.6m high. Two low transverse slabs on the south-east side mark the position of a 1.2m-wide entrance. No interior features were found, with the exception of a spread of charcoal over the floor. This was radiocarbon dated to 895±20 BP (GrN-28304), pointing to the use of this hut shelter in the eleventh or twelfth centuries AD. No finds were recovered.

Hut site (D) was in a collapsed state and was situated on level ground adjacent to a small stream. It proved to be a significant dwelling, rectangular in outline with rounded corners and measuring 6.7m (east-west) by 5.2m externally. The 1.2m–1.9m-wide earthen wall survives to a height of 0.35m–0.65m. The exterior of the wall was faced with a rough horizontal coursing of field stones. A horseshoe-shaped annexe was attached to the building and contained a hearth. Charcoal from the hearth was dated to 2465±20 BP, indicating a Bronze Age date for the house.

Site G consisted of an oval depression, measuring 4.4m by 3.3m by 0.3m deep, adjacent to a small stream. It was revealed as a steep-sided pit with a central depth of 0.55m which contained a waterlogged peaty fill with preserved branches and twigs, overlying a compact layer of charcoal. The layer of charcoal produced a radiocarbon date of 585±20 BP (GrN-28305), indicating a later medieval context. It was identified as a possible charcoal kiln or a large roasting pit. No artefacts were recovered.

A circular stone enclosure (A) measuring 17m in diameter was the initial focus of excavation. It was defined by a stone wall, 1.2m–1.5m wide, and contained Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Context From peat growth indicating abandonment of enclosure (Site A) Charcoal from hearth inside rectangular Hut (Site D)

14C

Date 800±30 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1185–1275

2465±20 BP

GrN-28303

Charcoal from underneath wall stone of circular hut (Site E)

1380±40 BP

GrN-28304

Charcoal spread over floor surface of a D-shaped stone wall enclosure/structure (Site F)

895±20 BP

756 B.C–684 B.C.; 669 B.C.–500 B.C.; 494 B.C.–486 B.C.; 463 B.C.–448 B.C.; 443 B.C.–416 B.C. A.D. 582–694; A.D. 704–705; A.D. 748–765 A.D. 1044–1100; A.D. 1119–1142; A.D. 1147–1212

Sample No. GrN-28301 GrN-28302

214

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Stone discs (Site A)

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron point (Site A) Dumb-bell glass beads (Site A) Blue glass bead (Site E) Tripartite glass bead (Site E) Stone discs (Site A)

‘Small finds’ Table

215

Dates

Baunogephlure, Co. Carlow Grid Ref: 281500/176900 SMR No: N/A Reference: Stafford & McLoughlin 2011. The site was uncovered during a hotel development on the grounds of a pre-existing golf course. Early activity on the site was marked by a prehistoric ringditch, and the early medieval activity was indicated by the presence of a trivallate rath. A medieval moated enclosure was constructed on the site during the AngloNorman/medieval period, and the cereal-drying kiln also post-dates the trivallate rath.

Fig. G.69: Ringditch and trivallate rath Baunogephlure (after Stafford & McLoughlin 2011)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Copper-alloy stickpin with glass bead top Copper-alloy stickpin with glass bead top

‘Small finds’ Table

216

at

‘Béal Ború’ (Ballyvally td), Co. Clare Grid Ref: R69607427 (169605/174270) SMR No: CL 045-031 Reference: O’Kelly 1962. Béal Ború is an impressive univallate enclosure subsequently remodelled during the Anglo-Norman period into an (apparently unfinished) motte. The site is situated on the apex of a steep-sided spur of gravel overlooking the River Shannon and the town of Killaloe. This position on the nose of a spur overlooking the channel afforded the inhabitants the ability to control an important crossing point as well as the river traffic itself. Approximately one-quarter of the site was investigated over a period of ten weeks in 1961. The recovery of two Hiberno-Scandinavian coins in sealed contexts suggests that the site was occupied during the eleventh century. The site may have continued to be occupied into the early twelfth century if an entry for AD 1116 in the Annals of the Four Masters reporting the destruction of the Boromha by Toirdealbhach Ua Conchobhair can be taken as applying to this particular site. It then was abandoned for a period before the present enormous bank and ditch was thrown up, completely masking the remains of the original enclosure bank and ditch. The overall diameter of this visible structure varies from between 70m–75m though the actual internal space is no more than 20m in diameter as the banks are as much as 17m thick at their base. The height of these banks varies from between 4m–6m above old ground level while the ditch has an approximate width of 10m and depth of 1m–2m.

Fig. G.70: Plan of excavated areas at Béal Ború (after O’Kelly 1962, fig. 4) The interior of the enclosure revealed a large number of post-holes, but most of these could not be interpreted as any structural plan. In a number of instances, groups of stake-holes occurred near or on both sides of burnt areas and were interpreted as supports for the suspension of cooking vessels over fires. Only one structure could be identified, a rectangular house towards the western side of the enclosure. It measured approximately 4m by 2.5m and was defined by posts with diameters of 0.2m–0.4m and depths of 0.2m–0.35m. The doorway was situated in the south-west corner and was defined by a possible protecting porch represented by two post-holes and a well-laid paved surface. The depth of habitation refuse stretching from the central hearth through the entrance and connecting with an extensive rubbish dump directly outside the door was suggestive of a relatively long period of occupation. A Hiberno-Scandinavian coin (c.AD 1070) was found beside the central hearth and a slate trial-piece was found in the habitation deposit covering the entrance passage of the building. A large burnt area marked by a thick layer of charcoal-flecked soil was identified outside the northeast corner of the building and seems to have been contemporary with it.

Cuttings through the secondary Anglo-Norman-period bank revealed the profiles of the primary early medieval enclosure bank and ditch as well as a possible earlier silted-up ditch and shallow trench. This silted-up ditch which had a width of 1.6m at its top and depth of 1.4m from present field-level was not pursued and yielded no archaeological finds. The shallow trench within the primary enclosure (width 1.5m and depth 0.35m) was also not pursued and yielded no finds though it had already silted up before the primary enclosure deposit was laid down. One sherd of possible prehistoric coarsetextured pottery was found below the habitation refuse of the primary enclosure, as well as a chert scraper found in gravel forming the bottom of the secondary ditch. These artefacts suggest an earlier period of activity on site.

A period of abandonment between the end of the primary period of activity and the beginning of the construction of the secondary feature was suggested by the presence of a turf layer that had formed over the whole surface of the original fort. The enormous secondary bank and ditch were next erected and involved the dumping of material inside and on the inner slopes of the primary bank to raise its width and height to its present form. The excavator suggested that the intention of the builders was not to create a larger enclosure but to build a motte-like structure or flat-topped mound, which would have been the result had they continued to deposit gravel from the ditch outside and tip it all around the inner bank slopes in

The bank of the primary enclosure had an internal stonewall revetment, and had a wooden palisade performing the same function on the outer face. The enclosure was evidently a well-built structure with a maximum height of 2m in its western section and having a thickness of 4.8m and 5.7m along its northern and western faces respectively. Though cuttings of the secondary ditch had removed much of the primary ditch, a short section of the original feature was observed outside the secondary entrance and it was estimated that its width was 4.5m and depth 2.5m below the original ground level. 217

the interior. The lack of any archaeological evidence associated with this secondary structure also supports the hypothesis that this feature was never completed.

piece, five bronze pins, a tanged stud, two hone-stones, some corroded iron objects and nails, two sherds of brownish-grey pottery and two Hiberno-Scandinavian silver coins dated to AD 1035 and 1070 respectively. Though no actual furnace was identified, evidence for small-scale ironworking on the site took the form of six small hemispherical lumps of slag.

There were few finds from the site belonging to the original enclosure, a fact partly explained by the inability of the excavators to investigate close to the inner faces of the bank on the sheltered west and south-west sides as well as the enormous size of the secondary structure engulfing it. The few finds consisted of a stone trial Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-7661

14C

Context

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1051±25 BP

Direct Evidence Six clumps of iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 899–919; A.D. 952–956; A.D. 961–1025

Radiocarbon Dates

Motif piece

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object 25 iron nails Five bronze pins Tanged stud

Dates

Two sherds of ‘brownish-grey’ pottery Stone trial piece Two hone stones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

218

Finds from near these buildings included a probable tenth-century soapstone bowl, a type of tenth-century ringed pin produced in Hiberno-Scandinavian Dublin, a hollow bone cylinder commonly found in HibernoScandinavian urban contexts, and a type of rotary whetstone found in the North Atlantic Scandinavian region.

Beginish, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V42587873 (042588/078739) SMR No: KE079-031 References: O’Kelly 1956; 1961; Sheehan et al 2001. Beginish is an island at the tip of the Iveragh Peninsula, connected to the nearby mainland by a sand bar at its south-eastern corner. An early medieval settlement, consisting of eight houses, fifteen cairns, eight animal shelters and two poorly-constructed structures lying within a network of low stone field walls, was identified at the eastern end of the island. The site may have originally been an unenclosed settlement, possibly associated with the monastery at Church Island, which was re-used as a maritime way-station by a HibernoScandinavian community.

The second Hiberno-Scandinavian settlement was at House 1, 300m distant from Houses 6 and 7, and was dated to the eleventh/early twelfth centuries. House 1 consisted of a sunken-floored drystone-built circular house (11m externally) with central hearth, with a smaller rectangular adjunct (4.5m by 3m internally) with its own hearth. It represented a unique mix of architectural concepts from the native Irish and Hiberno-Scandinavian urban building traditions.

An excavation in the early 1950s investigated two houses, a cairn and an animal shelter within this settlement. The excavator suggested two early medieval occupation phases, although he admitted the possibility that the distinction between primary and secondary phases may be inaccurate as not all of the structures could be stratigraphically related to each other due to soil and sand erosion. Two distinct Hiberno-Scandinavian settlements (a tenth-century one and an eleventh/early twelfthcentury one) have recently been identified within O’Kelly’s second phase. O’Kelly’s primary occupation phase consisted of five circular buildings (Houses 2, 3, 4, 5 and 8), fifteen cairns, six animal shelters and all but four of the field walls. The five circular houses appear to have been built directly on the turf surface of the original boulder clay and were marked only by the remnants of their foundation courses.

Fig. G.71: Plan of House 1 at Beginish (after O’Kelly 1956, 164)

Excavations at House 2 (6.5m in internal diameter) revealed a later structure within this building, which in turn appears to have been cannibalised for field walls. No internal hearths or habitation refuse were recovered within either structure. The primary field walls were formed of upright stones, one stone in thickness and were poorly preserved, surviving to a maximum height of 0.5m. They were all built directly on the original turf layer covering the boulder clay or on outcropping rock surfaces.

A lintel from the stone-lined eastern entrance bore a runic inscription dating to AD 1050 or perhaps later. Finds from the habitation deposits inside the main circular building included a polished bone or ivory cruciformheaded pin of Scandinavian character, an eleventh/ thirteenth-century bone comb, an eleventh/twelfthcentury bronze disc-headed pin of Scandinavian type, three bone points, an antler ring, four iron knives, a line sinker and two net sinkers.

The cairns were composed of small stones, resting on the original boulder clay. The excavated cairn yielded no finds and measured 3.5m in diameter and survived to a height of 0.5m. The cairns of field-stones were interpreted as possible evidence for a tillage economy in Phase I, a theory supported by the re-use of two quernstones in the walls of Phase II’s House 1.

O’Kelly’s secondary phase of occupation also comprised two animal shelters and four field-walls. One of these small animal shelters (2m by 1.2m internally) was excavated 50m to the north of House 1. The structure contained roughly-built low walls and revealed no evidence for any trace of fire or associated domestic activity. The secondary field walls differed from the earlier walls in that they were formed by a double line of upright stones.

After an accumulation of sand, the primary settlement appears to have been abandoned for a period of time before a Hiberno-Scandinavian settlement was built on the site. The earliest Hiberno-Scandinavian settlement was represented by two roughly rectangular structures (House 6 and House 7), dated to around the tenth century.

After another accumulation of sand, the secondary occupation phase appears to have ended for a period of time before a number of poorly-built, possibly latemedieval structures were erected over both rooms of 219

House 1. Finds from these structures included an iron knife of indeterminate type as well as animal bone, limpet, periwinkle and a fragment of an adult human jaw. Numerous lumps of iron slag as well as vitrified clay from the lining of a small furnace and some fragments of tuyères were recovered in a scatter of charcoal at the western end of the settlement. Middens of limpet and periwinkle were associated with almost every building on the site from both phases. Tillage appears to have been practised during the earliest occupation phase though a greater emphasis on stockraising during the second period was suggested by the recovery of cattle, pig and sheep bone from inside House 1; and fishing was also practised during the second period as indicated by fish bone and the net and line sinkers from House 1. Material Iron-working

Fig. G.72: Bone, antler and ivory (?) objects from Beginish (after O’Kelly 1956, figs 3 & 4)

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyères fragments

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Three bone points Bone pin beaters?

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Five iron knives Bronze pin

Three net sinkers/line sinkers Quernstones Grindstone Stone disc Ivory pin? Bone comb Three bone points/pin beaters Antler ring

‘Small finds’ Table

220

Dates

of the stone footings and angled doorway of the round tower, or flanker, were located. The ruined tower had been used as a rubbish dump in the early eighteenth century, after which the area was heavily landscaped and all but the lower courses of the brickwork framing the doorway being removed. The early seventeenth-century rampart, or gun platform, proved to have survived almost to full height, sealed within a larger, mid eighteenthcentury version, which was probably ornamental rather than military in intent. Faced with a bonded stone revetment wall (erected at the same time as the earthen rampart fill), the rampart was of one build with the first phase of a sallyport through the western bawn wall. The removal of mounds of brick rubble and up to 1m of garden soil on the site revealed most of the long-hidden inner face of the western bawn wall. This survived in almost perfect condition (in contrast to the exposed outer face), displaying high-quality English-bond brickwork. The wall, surviving in places to a height of over 3m, had developed an alarming outward lean and had parted from its stone foundations.

‘Bellaghy Bawn’ (Old Town Deer Park td), Bellaghy, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: H95349634 (29534/39634) SMR No: LDY 037:003 References: Brannon 1989:015; 1990:024; Hurl 1995:042. Bellaghy Bawn was the stronghold of the Plantation lands granted to the Vintners Company of London in the early seventeenth century. Excavations were mounted to locate, if possible, the lesser of two houses within the bawn courtyard, an adjoining round tower, or flanker, and a stone-faced rampart, or gun platform. Investigation of the house, recorded in 1622 as single-storey, 54ft long and 26ft broad, and brick-built, was initially hampered by a thicket of trees and shrubs which covered the western half of the bawn interior. With this mechanically cleared, manual excavation revealed the stone footings of a two-roomed structure, the rooms separated by a large H-plan fireplace. The southern room had a cobbled stone floor, and was possibly a kitchen/scullery. No trace of flooring survived in the northern room, but it may have been of timber, and the room is likely to have been a parlour. Basal courses of the brick superstructure survived, built to an original thickness of 2.5ft. Domestic artefacts were few, and it appears that the house was deliberately razed to ground level in the seventeenth century, while eighteenth/ nineteenth-century gardening on the site contributed further damage. At the northern end of the house, traces Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Excavation revealed that this had been caused by the founding of the wall over the relatively loose fill of an early medieval rath ditch. While several of his contemporaries had pragmatically remodelled such 'Danish forts' as seventeenth-century strongholds, it appears unlikely that Sir Baptist Jones, Vintners Company tenant and builder of Bellaghy Bawn, had been aware of the centuries-old settlement which had previously occupied the site.

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table 221

burial. Although these, associated with a central barrow, are a common feature of the Bronze Age, recent work has shown that they continue in use into the early medieval period. The early medieval date from this ditch may therefore come from when it was re-used as the location for a possible palisade.

Bettystown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 31564/27331 SMR No: ME021-010; ME021-014 References: Murphy 2008a; Eogan 1998:503. Excavations were undertaken prior to a building development. These uncovered a portion of an early medieval ring-ditch, a hearth with associated stake-holes, pits, post-holes and a series of linear features. A fragment of early medieval bone comb was found in one of the pits, and a cattle radius from the ring-ditch was dated c.A.D. 890–1030. The hearth is evidence for domestic activity on site. The two stake-holes beside it may have supported a roasting spit, and the surrounding post-holes, though not indicative of dwelling, may have served as a windbreak. Another possible windbreak may be represented by the curvilinear ditch located to the southwest of the hearth. The curvilinear feature at Bettystown appears to be rather difficult to classify. It enclosed an area approximately 15m in diameter, so would appear to be too large for a roundhouse; however, two post-holes and a slot-trench in the ditch, and the lack of a bank, suggests it was not a rath, or animal enclosure. As such the excavator interpreted it as a ring-ditch, possibly enclosing a central

Fig. G.73: Plan of excavated features at Bettystown (after Murphy 2008a)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. SUERC-17370

14C Date 1055±35 BP

Context Animal bone from ring-ditch

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

222

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 895–925; A.D. 939–1027

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bone comb fragment

‘Small finds’ Table

223

Big Glebe, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C76033405 (27603/43405) SMR No: LDY 002:003 References: Bratt & Lynn 1976:012; Lynn 1988c. The site consisted of a mound (20m diameter at the top and 7m high), set on a low ridge. The mound was enclosed within an oval ditch with a diameter of 70m at its widest point. Complete excavation of the site was required as it was to be destroyed under a farm improvement scheme. Prior to excavation the mound was assumed to have been an Anglo-Norman motte; however, upon excavation it was found that the site was of an earlier date. Excavation of the site revealed that the lower 5m or 6m of the mound had been constructed in one event. Evidence for this was found in the form of a large curving ramp revetted with stone, which was up to 3m in height.

Fig. G.74: Plan of house at Big Glebe (after Lynn 1988c, 42)

The original occupation layer was enclosed by a drystone wall of boulders around the edge of the mound top. The burnt outline of a wicker-walled roundhouse (7m in diameter) was located in the centre of the mound top. A smaller structure to the north of this house may have constituted the rear room of a ‘figure-of-eight’ house, but modern disturbance in the intervening area made this impossible to ascertain. The finds from the main structure consisted of sherds of souterrain ware, two bronze pins and a quernstone. Radiocarbon dates were obtained from the charcoal (see below). The mound was subsequently heightened again, using the earlier perimeter wall as a revetment. A souterrain was also excavated into the mound at this period. The structural remains from this phase were badly damaged by later cultivation, but there appeared to have been at least one sub-rectangular building which was either stone-built, or partially stone-built. Souterrain ware was also recovered from this phase of occupation.

Fig. G.75: Stone-revetted ramp at Big Glebe (photo courtesy of T.E. McNeill, QUB)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2151 UB-2152

Context Charcoal – wicker house Charcoal – wicker house

14C

UB-2153

Charcoal – wicker house

1290±40 BP

Date 945±30 BP 1130±45 BP

224

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1024–1157 A.D. 778–795; A.D. 796–994; A.D. 1009–1010 A.D. 653–783; A.D. 788–813; A.D. 844–857

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Two bronze pins Souterrain ware Quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

225

Bighouse, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D1951642442 (319516/442442) SMR No: ANT 005:019 Reference: Evans 1945. The hill of Drumnakill, where is located the foundations of the old church and a simple cross, is riddled with old dwelling-places crudely constructed in natural cavities. Quantities of rough potsherds of souterrain type have been recovered from these souterrains, along with iron slag. It is impossible to say what relationship there was between church and dwelling-site, though it is possible that they were contemporary.

Fig. G.76: Souterrain ware from Bighouse (after Evans 1945, fig. 7) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

226

Bofeenaun, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: G11290411 (111299/304116) SMR No: MA059-011 References: Lawless 1992; Moloney 1992:141; Keane 1995.

&

stones were densest near the palisade at the northeast side. There was no evidence for any house or hearth. There was a small amount of bone on the site, including cattle, horse and pig, along with some shed antler. There was some burnt bone, but this may have been as the result of industrial activity. Finds from the surface of the crannog included two stone mortars, a grinding stone, a hammer stone and two iron objects. The site was covered in a large quantity of iron slag, with at least 1,845 pieces identified during the survey. Scientific analysis of a sample (74kg) of iron slag indicated that it had been produced during primary iron production activities with such diagnostic forms as tapped slags and furnace lining fragments. There was evidence for ore processing, the smelting and bloom-smithing of iron and the forging of objects.

Keane

The early medieval crannog at Bofeenaun, Lough More, Co. Mayo is an interesting site, being an artificiallyconstructed islet with enclosing wooden palisade, yet its small size, form and on-site activities contrast with other, larger high-status sites. The crannog was located on the east shore of a small lake in a mountainous valley below Glen Nephin, Co, Mayo, an isolated location today which has little other archaeological evidence. The site was first discovered and recorded by local amateur archaeologists, Michael Flynn and Christy Lawless, and thereafter investigated by the Irish Archaeological Wetland Unit over a two-week period in October 1992. The crannog was only one of a number of archaeological sites then exposed on the lakeshore, which included two fulachta fiadh, eighteen linear wooden structures (interpreted as deer traps), a submerged pine forest, quarries and a natural spring which emits iron ores. The crannog was situated on a natural knoll or promontory of peat jutting out into the water. There was a substantial depth of peat (over 6m) under the site and it stood only 0.46m above the drained level of the lake. The crannog was situated 29m from the dryland shoreline, by a stretch of swampy ground, but a possible stone and wooden causeway may have provided access to the site. This causeway was constructed of an irregular, linear arrangement of stakes and slabs and may have been underwater at the time of the site’s use.

There was some evidence for the spatial organisation of iron working on the site. Most of the iron slag was concentrated in an arc, just off the peak of the knoll, at the northeast side of the crannog, and it avoided the palisade on the south side. The furnace linings were all found at the northern end, just to the west of the main concentration of slag or waste. The crannog at Lough More is highly unusual in that it appears to have been entirely an iron-working site. The only structural evidence is the palisade and stone paving while the only finds are related to ironworking. There are no traces of occupation structures or any other forms of domestic or industrial activity. The heavy concentration of slag, the presence of possible furnaces and the hollowed stones used as crushers suggest its inhabitants were smelting iron from the ores found in the nearby bogs. The present lake is coloured rusty red in the spring, and small quarries in the gravel ridge to the west end of the lake may be evidence for early open-cast mining. There is little other evidence for contemporary settlement in this immediate setting, although there are large numbers of ringforts and stone cashels in the landscape several miles to the northeast. Bofeenaun provides many contrasts with such larger sites as Moynagh Lough, Lagore and Ballinderry. It was entirely industrial in function, focused only on iron production from local ores. Furthermore, it seems to have been occupied only for a short duration, as there was little evidence for long-term occupation. It is also possible that it was not occupied at all, being only a work-site for people living elsewhere in the wider landscape. It confirms that not all crannogs were domestic occupations; many of the crannog cairns and small sites may also be industrial sites.

The crannog was oval in plan, measuring 14.6m by 11.8m. The edges of the site were defined by an enclosing wooden palisade of 82 vertical posts. This palisade was gapped and irregular and was typically constructed of a single row of roundwood oak, birch, hazel and willow posts (typically 0.12m–0.18m diameter), but there was a double row of posts facing the shoreline. The palisade posts were quite short (0.65m– 1m), suggesting that the palisade merely defined or revetted the edge of the mound, not standing to any great height or serving as a defensive feature. There may also have been a low bank of peat along the perimeter of the site, along its southern edge. A dendrochronological date of A.D. 804±9 was obtained from a single oak timber. The surface of the crannog was defined by a single layer of stone flags, which had been partly washed away. The

Dendrochronological Dates: Sample Oak Timber

Date A.D. 804±9

227

Material Iron-working

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 74kg smelting slag Smithing slag Furnace lining

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Ore processing

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

228

‘Boho’ (Carn td), Co. Fermanagh Grid Ref: H12814440 (21281/34440) SMR No: FER 210:030 Reference: Proudfoot 1953a. The site consists of a univallate enclosure (30m by 18m) set on the lower slopes of an escarpment. Excavation was required due to quarrying encroaching on the site. The site had earlier been disturbed by local ‘treasure hunters’. Excavation on the bank of the enclosure suggests that it was built over two phases – with an original gravel and turf bank, which may have been heightened by a stonefaced turf bank. Stone scatters in the centre of the enclosure were interpreted as representing hut-bases, presumably with turf walls which were strengthened by upright wooden posts (several post-holes were found along the lines of these wall footings). Two hearths were also excavated which may have been used for iron smelting, since iron slag was found on site. A round-backed tanged knife, a bone pin and fragments of a horseshoe were recovered from the site. The animal bones found on site were all of domestic animals – cattle (67%), pig (20%), sheep/goats (7.6%), horse (1.8%), domestic fowl (0.4%) – except for six bones of red deer (2.7%). Five carbonised seeds were recovered from one of the hearths, one of which was identified as madder (Rubia sp.). Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.77: Enclosure at Boho (after Proudfoot 1953a, facing 44)

Direct Evidence Iron slag in hearth

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone pin Madder seeds

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Tanged knife

Dates

Bone pin

‘Small finds’ Table 229

Borris, Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 219538/157496 SMR No: TI042–052 References: Ó Droma Anguilano 2010a; 2010b.

2006:1933;

Wallace

The next phase of activity was represented by the construction of a second smaller enclosure (Enclosure A) inside Enclosure B. This enclosure was circular and measured 32m in diameter. Numerous features were present in the interior of the enclosure, including postholes, shallow pits and a circular bowl furnace.

&

An Early Christian cemetery of nineteen individuals was identified within Enclosure B and to the south of Enclosure A. Burial was orientated east–west and it was thought to be a formal cemetery. A well-preserved copper-alloy ring pin of eighth/ninth-century date was found with one individual.

Excavation in advance of the construction of the M8/N8 road improvement revealed a multi-period settlement, mostly early medieval in date, with some prehistoric features. Three large enclosures (A, B and C) were situated on an east-facing slope overlooking the Black River. The earliest, Enclosure B, was sub-circular in shape, measuring 60m in diameter. The entrance consists of a causeway in the south-east, and was flanked by large post-holes thought to represent a defended gateway.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

To the east of the circular enclosures, a portion of a large sub-rectangular ditch (Enclosure C) was excavated. The ditch extends 28m north–south, and then runs 12m eastwest. The relationship of Enclosure C to Enclosures A and B is as yet unclear.

Direct Evidence 142.74 kg iron slag Six smithing hearths Pyramidal crucible

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone point

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Iron arrowheads Lead weight Copper-alloy ring pin

Whetstones Bone point

‘Small finds’ Table

230

Dates

supports for pots or other instruments. A number of shallow pits containing charcoal were also located around the hearth.

Bowling Green, Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: S13895920 (213893/159201) SMR No: TN041-041 Reference: Fanning 1970.

Re-deposited soil overlay the habitation deposit in the southeast quadrant and indicates that the original ground of this area was raised to provide a level internal surface. A bronze stick-pin, two medieval sherds and a seventeenth-century bronze skillet were recovered from this deposit; the latter could provide a terminal date for its deposition. Sherds of seventeenth/eighteenth-century wares and some iron objects were found within the humus layer and represent further early modern activity.

A large univallate enclosure at Bowling Green revealed a possible post-built rectangular structure, earthen hearth and pits as well as a small collection of early medieval finds. The enclosure had been interfered with by a bulldozer in 1969 and was excavated the following year in advance of a residential development. A number of cuttings were made across the enclosing bank and ditch as well as in the interior of the enclosure. Limited monitoring in 1997 exposed part of the south-eastern enclosure bank and ditch. The site was situated to the east of Thurles town, on a low ridge (117m OD) commanding good views of the Suir valley and surrounding countryside.

The majority of the finds were recovered within the black stony habitation deposit in the enclosure’s centre and south-eastern quadrant, and included an iron knife, iron horseshoe nail, iron rod, two hone-stones, one spindle whorl, one strike-a-light, a chert flake and a bone needle. A blue glass bead, comparable to a type recovered at Garryduff I, Co. Cork, and a small bronze buckle-tongue were recovered from the lowest habitation deposit. A large faunal assemblage was recovered from within the ditch fills and inside the habitation deposit and comprised cattle, pig and sheep as well as a small amount of horse.

The site was roughly circular in shape and had an internal diameter of 50m and an overall diameter of 70m. The low bank had been badly scarped by the bulldozer but appears to have been revetted with an external stone face along its northern and western perimeters. The enclosing ditch was 1.6m deep in the northern cutting. Excavations in 1997 identified that the southeastern perimeter of the ditch was V-shaped in profile and measured between 4.5m to over 6m in width and over 1m deep. Two iron knives were found in its upper fills in the eastern and western cuttings though no finds, apart from animal bone, were identified in the primary fill. A linear ditch (1.3m–2m in width) containing charcoal flecks and animal bone was identified outside the enclosure in 1997 and does not appear to have been associated with the enclosure. A number of post- and stake-holes, a probable hearth site, shallow pits and trenches as well as a small area of rough pebbling were uncovered in a black stony habitation deposit in the centre of the enclosure. Four large postholes were identified to the south-east of the centre of the site and may have supported the side- and end-walls of a rectangular structure.

Fig. G.78: Plan of Bowling Green (after Fanning 1970, 7)

The hearth was evident as a clearly-defined burnt area surrounding two charcoal pits containing animal bone. Stake-holes in the vicinity of the hearth may represent

231

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Needle Spindle whorl Needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Four iron knives Bronze buckle Bronze stick pin Bronze decorated strip Blue glass bead Two honestones Spindle whorl

Bone needle

‘Small finds’ Table

232

Dates

to grow and cultivate various crops. Enclosure 2 was subrectangular in shape. This enclosure and its associated ditches were more substantial than those associated with Enclosure 1. Finds recovered included metal fragments and slag. Two clusters of activity were identified: the first consisted of four pit features located within the southeastern extent of the enclosure. Stone, charcoal and cremated bone were recovered from three of these features. Three small stake-holes were associated with one of these pit features and it is likely that this feature functioned as a hearth, while it is likely that the other pit features functioned as refuse pits. The second cluster of activity was located south of the ditch that defined Enclosure 2 to the west and consisted of four irregularshaped pits. The function of this enclosure is also unclear. It would seem reasonable to suggest that it had a similar function to that of Enclosure 1, and thus it is likely that this enclosure was also used as a field system.

Boyerstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 283319/266223 SMR No: N/A Reference: Clarke 2009. The site consists of an early medieval farmscape, comprised of rath and associated enclosures. Three major phases have been identified. The earliest (Phase 1) consists of the rath, followed by the construction of the large, rectangular-shaped enclosure, Enclosure 1 (Phase 2). There appears to have been activity on site contemporary with the rath, but prior to the construction of Enclosure 1 since one of the ditches in the annex to the north of, and truncated by, Enclosure 1 returned a date of A.D. 436–649. There was little excavation done around the rath site, and thus Phase 3 focuses on the expansion, and possible subdivision, of Enclosure 1. This includes the small shallow, narrow, curvilinear enclosure annexed onto the northeast corner of Enclosure 1 and dated to A.D. 598–767. Phase 4 is marked by the construction of the more substantial enclosure, Enclosure 2, located to the east of Enclosure 1.

It is difficult to categorise Boyerstown 3 since the excavation concentrated on the portion of the site associated with agricultural activity. It has been concluded that the enclosures and associated ditches at Boyerstown 3 represent the remnants of contemporary and successive field systems. The regularity of shape and form noted in the construction of Enclosures 1 and 2 would suggest that they were for a particular function and may have been used for crop growth.

Enclosure 1 was located a significant distance from the possible rath, and may have functioned as a livestock enclosure associated with the rath. It is possible, however, that Enclosure 1 was used as a specialized garden of sorts Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No.

Context

14C

Beta-219006

Sheep tooth from linear ditch

1410±40 BP

A.D. 569–671

Beta-219007

Cattle tooth from curvilinear ditch

1370±40 BP

Beta-219008

Cattle tooth – Enclosure 2 ditch

1210±40 BP

Beta-219009 Beta-219210

Horse tibia – annex to Enclosure 1 Cattle radius – pre-Enclosure 1

1340±40 BP 1490±40 BP

A.D. 599–712; A.D. 746–767 A.D. 687–895; A.D. 925–936 A.D. 637–772 A.D. 436–489; A.D. 513–516; A.D. 530–648

Beta-247108

Maloideae charcoal – kiln

1220±40 BP

A.D. 685–892

Beta-247109

Oak charcoal – Structure 1

1300±40 BP

Beta-247395 Beta-241317

Charred barley – kiln Cattle mandible – circular enclosure

1420±40 BP 1300±40 BP

Beta-247211

Maloideae charcoal – primary fill of rath

1500±40 BP

A.D. 649–781; A.D. 791–807 A.D. 564–666 A.D. 649–781; A.D. 791–807 A.D. 434–492; A.D. 508–519; A.D. 528–643

Beta-247396

Charred barley grain – kiln

1270±40 BP

233

Date

Cal. 2 Σ

A.D. 662–828; A.D. 838–866

Fig. G.79: Plan of features at Boyerstown (after Clarke 2009) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 2.43kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Polished un-worked bone

One flax seed

Loom weight?

Industrial Processing Table

234

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Metal fragments Eight knife blades Bronze pin

Loom weight? Bone pins

‘Small finds’ Table

235

Dates

Bray Head, Valentia Island, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V31743121 (34174/73121) SMR No: KE-087--References: Mitchell et al 1998; Hayden 1993; 1998:267; 1999:324; 2000:0423; 2001:549.

House 3 appears to have been roughly circular in plan, measuring 7m–7.5m in diameter. It contained neatly-built dry-stone walls, between 1m and 1.2m wide, set into a trench. The basal stone of a rotary quern was recovered on top of the wall and it is unclear if it was placed there after the destruction of the building or originally incorporated into the wall. A stony layer of carbonized material (probably the final habitation of the structure) was uncovered in the interior beneath the stone collapse. An area of low terracing was uncovered to the south of Houses 2 and 3.

A rich agricultural palimpsest landscape of unenclosed early medieval houses and kilns, broad medieval furrowed fields with lynchets and a fifteenth to seventeenth-century house cluster probably associated with narrow ridge-and-furrow of roughly the same date was uncovered during a series of excavations on the southern slopes of Bray Head, the most westerly projection of Valentia Island, just off the southern tip of the Iveragh peninsula. The excavations were financed by grants from Trinity College Dublin (1993–95) and funding from the Department of the Environment (1997– 2001). The buildings and ridges and furrows pre-dated an early nineteenth century track and the banks aligned on it.

House 2 was uncovered beneath Houses 6 and 7, and was truncated at its southern end by House 4. The remains indicate a circular structure (3.4m–3.6m in diameter internally) composed of walls of large un-mortared stone (0.9m–0.95m thick). An annulus (0.8m–0.9m in width) appears to have originally encircled the structure and consisted of re-deposited boulder clay revetted by a stone facing set in a shallow trench. A layer of burnt material and stone was uncovered in the building’s interior, and a small spud stone was uncovered set into the floor on the inside of the north jamb of the doorway.

The early medieval complex comprised over 32 huts and structures, mainly in two house clusters. The group of best-preserved buildings at the west end – the ‘west settlement’ – has been briefly described by Westropp (1912), Henry (1957) and O’Sullivan and Sheehan (1996). The remaining structures across Bray Head (identified in Roman numerals) were identified during field-walking by the excavators beneath late-medieval cultivation furrows across the southern slopes, particularly at the eastern end – the ‘east settlement’.

House 4 was located in the centre of the excavated area and survived relatively intact though its southern half had been truncated by House 8. The house was roughly circular in shape and measured 6.2m by 5.4m internally. The walls of House 4 were built using a variety of methods involving conventional horizontal dry-stone masonry as well as the use of vertical-set slabs in narrow trenches which anchored cores of insulating sod, small stones and re-deposited sub-soil. A splayed door opening was located at the southeast side of the building and was originally defined by large upright slabs.

The early medieval excavated evidence (1993–99) comprised a group of eleven early medieval houses (111) and a corn-drying kiln on steeply sloping ground at the north-eastern end of an area of broad medieval ridge and furrows. The sites were situated within a large polygonal enclosure measuring 100m by 100m. Houses 1-9 were built in five clear phases with a noticeable shift from round/oval to rectangular buildings at the settlement. The excavation identified a progression through time from the use of vertically-set masonry to the use of horizontally-laid masonry at the base of the houses’ walls. Though no stratigraphic links could be established between the structures at the northern and southern ends, the buildings are described below in rough chronological order.

Various phases of activity were identified within House 4 with some pre-dating the structure. Two parallel stonelined drains extended from the house downslope and were dug before the walls and door entrance were built. A partially earth-cut souterrain was dug into the hillside and accessed from the north side of House 4. A large number of pits, post-holes, slots and lines of stake-holes were uncovered in the interior of House 4 and may have formed part of supports for a roof, internal partitions and possible structural elements, e.g. raised bedding or seating areas. Various occupation deposits and a secondary hearth were also excavated.

House 1 was located at the south-eastern side of the excavated area and appears to have been the earliest building of the group. It was oval in shape and measured at least 6.7m by 5m. Its walls measured between 0.9m and 1.1m in thickness, and were originally constructed by two lines of vertically-set stones set in trenches which retained a mass of sod and stone. The doorway was at the eastern end of the building. There was no trace of a laid flooring or internal hearth. A small piece of burnt animal bone and charcoal were recovered from the top surface of a thin layer of grey silty friable clay which overlay most of the interior. The finds occurred at the base of a layer of brown stony loam which overlay the robbed-out walls of the building.

House 6 was located at the north end of the excavated area and was partly truncated by House 7 at its southern and south-eastern sides. The house was roughly rectangular in shape (5.2m by 5.8m internally), and its walls appear to have been a mixture of conventional horizontally-laid dry-stone masonry and vertically-set slabs in its individual walls. Four small un-lined drains capped with flat stone flags were uncovered in the interior and exited the structure beneath the entrance. A series of occupation deposits and an internal hearth – identified as a deposit of ash – were excavated. Internal features consisted of a small number of post-holes, 236

containing a circular chamber (1m diameter) at its west side and a rectangular stone-lined passage at the southern end. The kiln overlay one of two excavated drains which would have kept the area of the possible drying chamber dry. Charcoal from one of the drains produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 934±110. Charcoal from the excavated kiln yielded a two-sigma radiocarbon date of A.D. 710–740 or 770–1220. Three cultivation furrows aligned north-south cut into the kiln. The excavated structure compared closely in plan and dimensions with a better-preserved kiln at the southern extent of the western settlement

scatters of stake-holes and two pits. A small deposit of fish bone and sea shells (limpets and periwinkles) was found among the collapsed rubble over the building. House 7 was located at the north end of the excavated area and partly cut House 6. Only its western and southwestern walls survived but trenches marking the line of the northern wall and an internal north-south aligned wall were uncovered. The building measured at least 4.6m by 4.3m, and its dry-stone walls (up to 0.8m wide) consisted of large slabs set upright at the base of the internal faces of the walls with horizontally-laid masonry completing the upper parts of the internal face as well as its external face. One un-lined drain capped with flat stone flags extended from the northwest corner of the building southwards for approximately 3.6m to a pit, probably intended to act as a sump. A pit outside the southwest corner of the building contained a fragment of a quernstone. A stone-capped drain extended on a northsouth line to the west of the building.

Houses 10 and 11 were revealed during excavations in 1999. They were poorly preserved circular structures (Hayden 1999:324). A circular house (IV) (3.5m in internal diameter) was excavated to the west of the cluster of houses (1-9) on sloping ground close to an area of marshy ground. Like Houses 1 and 4, its walls were constructed by two lines of vertically-set stones set in trenches which originally retained a mass of sod and stone. A paved pathway led to the door of the house at its south-eastern side. To the north (uphill) and east side of the house were a number of un-lined drains which diverted water downslope around the building. A series of internal features and occupation deposits were excavated. A stone-capped drain extended from a pit in the centre of the house to its wall trench. Associated with the pit were a post-hole and a number of small stake-holes. Charcoal from the base of a stone-lined hearth in a later occupation deposit produced a two-sigma radiocarbon date of A.D. 676–984.

House 8 was located at the centre west side of the excavated area and partly overlay House 9 at its southern end. Only part of its western and southern walls survived with the western end of the north wall evidenced by a trench cut into the hillside. The building measured 5.1m by 4.8m internally, and its walls were 0.7m–0.8m wide, built exclusively of horizontally-laid masonry. A sump and a series of unlined drains capped partly with flagstones were uncovered within the interior. A series of occupation deposits and internal features – pits, stakeholes and two hearths – were also excavated within the interior. A north-south un-lined drain was also excavated immediately outside the west side of the building.

The remains of another large, early medieval, stone circular house with a souterrain were uncovered 100m west of the early medieval complex of houses. The circular house was replaced by a sub-rectangular, bowsided building. The walls of the latter consisted of regularly-spaced large posts. It was suggested that the shape and construction of this house indicated a possible Scandinavian origin. The building was in turn overlain by the truncated remains of a medieval, rectangular, stonewalled house (Hayden 2000:0423).

House 5 was located at the southeast side of the excavated area. It overlay drains extending southwards from Houses 4 and 8 and was truncated by late medieval agricultural activity and possibly House 9. Most of the masonry of its walls had collapsed though the structure was probably rectangular in plan originally. The surviving section of the house measured 5m by 3m, and no finds or burnt material were recovered from the interior.

A medieval agricultural landscape (i.e. eleventh/fifteenth century) of broad ridges-and-furrows (up to 4m wide) was uncovered to the east of a possible medieval drainage channel along the southern slopes. The broad ridges-andfurrows were contained within eleven fields defined by large earthen and stone banks and all had developed lynchets varying from 1.3m to 2m at their lower ends. No medieval farmstead could be definitely associated with the broad ridges-and-furrows.

House 9 was located at the southwest side of the excavated area and was truncated by a small enclosure scarped into the hillside at its southern extent. Its internal dimensions were approximately 4.6m by 5m, and a doorway was located in the eastern wall flanked by large horizontally-laid blocks. Its walls, which survived to a maximum of 1.1m thick and 0.7m high, were built exclusively of horizontally-laid masonry. No laid floor survived and the interior was heavily disturbed by later cultivation. A possible drainage channel defined by a gully (1m–1.4m wide) was uncovered to the west of the house.

Two stone and earthen field banks were recorded to the south and southeast of the house cluster (1-11) and were built from a level under or within an old plough soil. The south-eastern field boundary formed the fourth side of the polygonal enclosure (A) surrounding the house cluster 19. Part of a quernstone and stone socket were recovered from the southern bank. The fields delimited by these

The much disturbed basal remains of a possible corndrying kiln were excavated within the large polygonal enclosure, approximately 15m to the north of the cluster of houses. It consisted of a rectangular block of masonry 237

banks contained broad ridge-and-furrows which cut through and overlay the early medieval houses and corndrying kiln. Charcoal from one of the furrows overlying the corn-drying kiln yielded a two-sigma radiocarbon date of A.D. 1292–1324 or A.D. 1332–1396. A series of other trenches were also excavated in various other fields on the southern slopes. The fifteenth- to seventeenth-century settlement comprised a 70m east-west ‘street’ of house platforms west of the early medieval house cluster. The house platforms – five rectangular (II-VI) and two circular (VIIVIII) structures – overlay the broad medieval ridges-andfurrow in fields B and C and also overlay and slighted the upper bank of Field B and extended west over the north bank of field C. The house cluster has been identified with a settlement marked as ‘Crompeol’ on the southwest corner of Valentia Island on the early seventeenth-century ‘Carew’ map of the area.

Fig. G.80: Plan of Bray Head – houses, kilns and possible mill site (after Mitchell et al 1998, 47)

The narrow ridge-and-furrow on the southern slopes overlay the broader cultivation furrows where they occur close together and were mainly concentrated to the west of the possible medieval drainage channel. They appear to have been worked for a short period between the fifteenth/seventeenth centuries and are probably roughly contemporary with the ‘Crompeol’ settlement. A possible mill site was uncovered 100m southwest of the ‘Crompeol’ settlement and radiocarbon dates indicate it was roughly contemporary with the ‘Crompeol’ settlement.

Fig. G.81: Plan of early medieval cluster of Houses 1-9 (after Mitchell et al 1998, 53) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table 238

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Two stone discs Broken whetstone Two rotary quernstones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

239

contained large quantities of charcoal and slag and may have been utilized for the dumping of waste or byproducts associated with metalworking. Charcoal and slag was relatively absent from those features to the west of the southern enclosing section. Several pits, linear features and a possible post-hole were excavated in the interior of the possible enclosure. There was no direct evidence for the process of metalworking inside the enclosure though two small pits displayed evidence for in situ burning. One small bowl-shaped pit with evidence for in situ burning was interpreted as a possible pitfurnace used for iron smelting.

Brigown, Co. Cork Grid Ref: R82301190 (18230/11190) SMR No: N/A Reference: O’Callaghan 2003. An excavation at Brigown in advance of a residential development partially revealed the western outer limits of a possible enclosure with extensive evidence for metalworking waste at its north-western end. Several other pits and linear features were also excavated in its interior and exterior, though most could not be stratigraphically linked to each other or to the larger enclosing ditches. The site is bordered on its southeastern side by a tributary of the Gradoge River and an early monastery (‘Brigown’) with a church and holy well. A round tower is located 400m to the north-west, and St. Finnchu’s stone, a large millstone (probably a horizontal mill runner stone), is located within the tributary of the Gradoge River close to the southern corner of the site. The Book of Lismore records the place-name ‘Bri-gobhunn’ translated by Joyce (1870, 34) as the ‘bree’ or hill of the smith (‘gobha’). Power attributes this name to St. Finnchu and states that it was named in honour of the seven master smiths who worked there. Interestingly, the excavation uncovered large quantities of metal slag.

The substantial quantity of slag and charcoal at the northwestern end of the site indicates that metalworking was undertaken on or in the vicinity of the enclosure; however, no diagnostic furnace bottoms, or tuyères fragments, were recovered from any of the excavated features within or outside the possible enclosure. There was no direct evidence for the occupation of the enclosure in the form of houses, structural features or hearths though such evidence might be located further east in the monument’s interior. No artefactual dating evidence was recovered and the excavated features were devoid of finds or faunal remains. The charcoal from the excavated features was too highly contaminated to provide a radiocarbon date though an early medieval date was suggested for the site.

Two large curving ditches, bisected by a large linear ditch, appear to have formed part of an enclosure. The curvature of the two ditches suggests that the dimensions of the original enclosure were quite substantial, possibly measuring 40m–50m in diameter. No evidence for an associated bank was uncovered though a curving field boundary was depicted in the First Edition OS map in the general area of the excavated ditch and may represent a portion of the bank. The main enclosure ditch (maximum dimensions of 17.8m in length, 2.3m in width and 1.5m in depth) included fills of charcoal and slag-rich deposits. This was bisected by a linear ditch (maximum dimensions of 3.5m wide and 1.33m deep), which was in turn cut by a shallow ditch. No finds or animal bone were recovered from any of these ditches. A curving linear trench was excavated in the southern half of the site, inside and parallel to the enclosing ditch. It was interpreted as a palisade trench, although no stakeholes and only one post-hole were recovered from its base. The northern end of the feature was cut by a ditch and there was no evidence for a continuation of the trench in the northern half of the site. A possible entrance feature was located at the south end of the site and was defined by the terminus of the southern ditch and a large shallow pit, 0.8m further east. The possible palisade trench terminated 1.2m south of the ditch terminal and may have formed part of a defended entrance feature. Several pits and linear features were located outside the enclosure ditches. Those pits and linear features to the west of the northern section of the enclosing ditch

Fig. G.82: Plan of excavation at Brigown (after O’Callaghan 2003) 240

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Possible smelting furnace

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

241

shown to be modern drains or the result of waterlogging. Two, however, revealed archaeological features. One was a mound, 45.2m in diameter and 1.2m high, containing three phases of occupation: the first phase was represented by post- and stake-holes, the second by a hearth and charcoal-rich soils containing souterrain ware, and the third by stone wall footings and more souterrain ware.

British, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J143806 (31430/38060) SMR No: ANT 055:135 Reference: Crothers 1998:004. An investigation was undertaken on suspected cropmarks within this archaeologically-rich area ahead of commercial development. Several suspected sites were

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

242

‘Brokerstown’ (Ballymacoss td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J23556509 (32355/36509) SMR No: ANT 068:007 Reference: Dunlop 2009. A possible enclosure had been identified by aerial photography in 1962, which necessitated archaeological monitoring of top-soil stripping prior to the construction of a housing development. A number of archaeological features were discovered during this process. The most significant consisted of a circular enclosure (35m in diameter) with an adjoining annex (25m by 16m), and associated field boundaries. The main enclosure was defined by a ditch (4m wide, and a maximum of 1.8m deep); no trace of a bank remained. The remains of a rectangular house were found within this enclosure. The east and west walls of this structure were defined by two parallel linear slot-trenches (6.5m long); and the southern wall had two linear slot-trenches (2.5m long) with an intervening gap. A large, stone-filled post-hole on the internal end of these slot-trenches indicated the presence of substantial door posts. Four other large post-holes, arranged in a square in the centre of the house, were used to support the roof. A hearth was located in the centre of the house, and this was surrounded by a series of stake-holes, which have been interpreted as a possible draught screen or temporary internal division. Another rectangular structure (3m by 4m) was located on the west side of this house. No connecting entranceway with the larger structure was identified, and it was suggested that this structure may have been entered through an external door. A drainage gully running through the smaller structure has led to the interpretation that this may have acted as an animal house.

Fig. G.83: Site plan of excavations at Brokerstown (after Dunlop 2009)

Fig. G.84: Aerial photograph of enclosure complex at Brokerstown (after Dunlop 2009)

The smaller enclosure was defined by a ditch (maximum dimensions of 2m wide and 1m deep). The main feature identified from this enclosure was a curvilinear ditch which enclosed an area 10m in diameter. It is possible that this represents the drip-gully of a destroyed roundhouse. Several large pits of unknown function were also discovered in this enclosure. Quantities of iron slag found in the ditch of this annex suggest that this enclosure may have had an industrial function. A putative third enclosure existed to the north of the annex. This was partially defined by a ditch (1m wide and 0.6m deep), and has been interpreted as having been unfinished. The decorated souterrain ware recovered from this ditch suggests that it was a later addition to the complex. Several early medieval field boundaries were identified around this enclosure, the longest of which ran for 120m; and two unenclosed early medieval houses, defined by a series of post-holes (5m by 5m), were discovered outside the enclosure complex.

Fig. G.85: In situ souterrain ware from Brokerstown (after Dunlop 2009)

243

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-9255

Context Charred oats from hearth of main enclosure house

14C

UB-9257

Charcoal from annex ditch

1272±22 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Date 1251±21 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 679–783; A.D. 788–821; A.D. 842–859 A.D. 674–776

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

244

the presence of two extensive layers of ash near one of the structures. Though a large collection of artefacts was recovered during the excavation, very few were actually stratified because of the extensive infilling of the site. A large iron hook, socketed iron knife and a decorated silver brooch (c.AD 800) found beside a human skull inside one of the souterrains were assigned to an early phase. Objects belonging to a later period included a single-edged sword, pronged-and-socketed tool, bone button and pieces of rotary and saddle querns. Tanged iron knives and pieces of rotary querns were found in both earlier and later deposits.

‘Cahercommaun Fort’ (Tullycommon td), Co. Clare Grid Ref: R28199649 (128190/196496) SMR No: N/A References: Hencken 1938; Ó Donnabháin 1980; Cotter 1999; Ó Floinn 1999. Cahercommaun is an inland cliff-top fort situated in the townland of Tullycommon. It comprises a roughly circular enclosure with two concentric stone walls, set on a cliff edge. Remains of a well-defined passageway giving access through the outer enclosure to the centre enclosure on the eastern side of the fort, as well as traces of radial walls and other structures and features, can be seen within and between the enclosing walls and in the surrounding fields. The site was excavated on two occasions – in 1934, and in 2003.

The Harvard excavators identified that the distribution of the stratified finds inside the inner enclosure revealed a number of patterns. The northeast quadrant produced the largest collection of finds, and was identified as the main occupation area. The northwest quadrant was second in importance, yielding vast quantities of animal bone, lignite rings, bronze studs, bone pins, tools, weapons and miscellaneous household objects. The southwest quadrant was identified as the kitchen and servants’ quarters since it produced very few finds except for three types of artefacts: querns, bone points and stone axes. The southeast quadrant of the enclosure was the poorest area, yielding only worked fragments of bone and antler as well as possible evidence for ironworking in one of the hearths.

The fort consists of three limestone walls with rubble cores. The two outer enclosing walls of the fort had diameters of 116m and 73.5m at their greatest points. The area between the first and third walls yielded no significant archaeological deposits and it was suggested that this area was intended primarily for agricultural use. The imposing inner wall surrounding the living quarters was higher and more massive than the two others, with a maximum thickness of 8.5m and height of 4.5m. Excavations in the interior uncovered a guard room, several irregular stone structures and hearths as well as two souterrains beneath a general deposit consisting of stones and black earth mixed with bits of charcoal and animal bone.

A vast quantity of animal bone (9,223lbs) was recovered inside the inner enclosure of the fort. Cattle were clearly an integral part of the economy at Cahercommaun with their bones accounting for 97% of the total. Sheep and goat accounted for 1%, pig at slightly less than 1% with the bones of horses and red deer making up the bulk of the remainder. Cereal processing also appears to have been practised and was evident in the form of a large collection of saddle and rotary quernstones and bill hooks. From the excavated stratigraphical evidence, it was suggested that both quern types ‘existed side by side, possibly for different kinds of milling’. A modest quantity of iron slag was also recovered scattered throughout the fort, mostly in un-stratified contexts though small cakes were identified in layers of ashes inside one of the souterrains and in a number of hearths inside the inner circular stone enclosure. Evidence for textile production can also be posited due to the relatively large collection of spindle whorls recovered. No pottery was identified though wooden vessels were at least present on the site as attested by the recovery of iron bucket-handles and two iron clamps of wooden bucket hoops like those recovered on Ballinderry Crannog No. 1.

Fig. G.86: Plan of Cahercommaun (after Hencken 1938, 4) The Harvard excavation found that the primary phase of occupation was between the eighth and tenth centuries AD. The excavation identified no evidence for the building of new structures or the abandonment of older ones in a secondary phase, suggesting that the primary phase of occupation of the fort may have been for not much more than a few generations. Two broadlycontemporary phases of occupation were suggested by

Chief amongst the large collection of iron, antler, bone and stone tools were a significant quantity of knives, iron axes, hooks, bill hooks, awls, shears, bone points, spears, needles, bone, antler and stone spindle whorls, hammerstones and whetstones, as well as three polished stone axes indicative of prehistoric activity. Personal ornamented objects included a decorated silver brooch, a 245

fragment of a small bronze penannular brooch with zoomorphic terminals, various bronze, iron and bone ringed and un-ringed pins, glass, amber, shale, lignite, bone and antler beads, glass bracelets, lignite rings and

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron smelting slag

bone combs. Other important miscellaneous items recovered included an iron bell, iron barrel padlock, doorhinge, iron bucket-handle, belt-buckles and a singleedged iron sword.

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Glass bangle – possibly broken in manufacture 52 fragments of lignite rings 524 whetstones Worked pieces Worked pieces

Drawknives 82 bone pins Leather fragment Iron shears Spindle whorls Rubbing stones Needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale

Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron pins Iron ringed pins 63 iron knives Iron axes Iron hooks Iron bill hooks Four iron shears Three drawknives Penannular brooch Iron sword Two iron awls Silver brooch Bronze penannular brooch Two bronze pins Bronze ringed pins Three bronze studs Five glass beads Two glass bracelets Lignite bead Three shale beads 52 fragments of lignite rings 13 stone spindle whorls Hammer-stones 524 whetstones Quernstones Six stone discs 36 rubbing stones Amber 82 bone pins Five bone beads Three bone combs 14 bone points

246

Dates

c. AD 800

Worked antler

Leather Cloth

20 bone spears One bone needle 41 bone spindle whorls Three bone buttons Three bone knife handles Two antler beads One antler spindle whorl 23 antler points One antler handle Four antler picks One antler peg Fragment of leather

‘Small finds’ Table

247

‘Cahergal’ (Kimego West td), Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V447805 (04470/08050) SMR No: KY079-024 Reference: Manning 1990:067.

A secondary straight wall was found along the north-east side built on top of a layer of stones collapsed from the wall on this side. It has a paved entrance at the south-east end flanked with upright stones and partly overlying an earlier doorway. The few finds uncovered included quern fragments, scraps of sheet bronze, iron slag and tuyère fragments.

Excavations on the interior of a cashel, prior to conservation, revealed a ruined central circular structure. The structure was found to average 6.7m in internal diameter with walls l.65m thick and opposing doorways.

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère fragment

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Sheet bronze

Quern fragment

‘Small finds’ Table

248

The ditched enclosure was an integral part of a large pattern of rectangular fields defined by five broadly linear ditches to the north and west. Trenches were excavated across the five ditches which measured between 0.5m– 1.2m wide and 0.25m–0.65m deep and contained generally steep sides and slightly concave bases.

Cahircalla More, Co. Clare Grid Ref: R32517553 (132511/175537) SMR No: N/A References: Hull 2003; Hull & Taylor 2005; 2007; Taylor 2004; 2006. An enclosure (internal diameter 38m by 37m) was identified at Cahircalla More during topsoil stripping in advance of road works in 2003, and was completely excavated in the following year. The site was located on a south-east-facing slope (33m OD), upslope from a wide expanse of bog. Prehistoric activity on site consisted of a single oval pit with cremated bone and several finds in secondary contexts – worked quartz fragments, struck chert and a small amount of possibly Late Bronze Age pottery from the plough soil as well as struck chert and a small amount of cremated bone from the early medieval field ditches. This latter evidence suggests that at least one prehistoric cremation burial on the site was disturbed by the subsequent early medieval activity. The enclosure ditch was 0.75m–1.53m wide and between 0.2m and 0.8m deep; post-medieval ploughing appears to have removed the enclosing banks. Various artefacts – a piece of the upper stone of a rotary quern, an iron tool (possibly a chisel), fragments of iron slag, four smithing hearth bottoms, animal bone and a number of cereal grains – were recovered from the ditch fill. Radiocarbon dating of a cattle limb bone from the ditch fill suggested that it had been in-filled during the sixth or seventh century (see below).

Fig. G.87: Plan of enclosure, house and field boundaries at Cahircalla More (after Taylor 2006) Finds from the ditch fills included a copper-alloy ring pin, whetstones, including a pin-sharpening stone, a small quantity of iron slag, animal bone fragments, a mini-anvil stone, oyster shell, and the above-mentioned prehistoric struck chert, worked quartz and cremated human bone. Cereal grain samples from the fill of two of the ditches produced radiocarbon dates ranging from the seventh to the twelfth century, indicating that these ditches may have been backfilled at different times. A pit (1.2m by 0.88m and 0.65m deep) excavated along the alignment of one of these early medieval field ditches contained a large assemblage of charred cereal grains and its primary fill was almost pure charcoal with evidence for in situ burning at its base. It was suggested that this pit was likely contemporary with the early medieval enclosure.

The remains of a small oval structure (internal dimensions of 6.3m by 4.4m) defined by three short lengths of curvilinear gully were excavated at the southern end of the enclosure. The gully segments were typically 0.65m wide and 0.4m deep and contained fills with large quantities of charcoal and iron slag as well as animal bone. A radiocarbon date obtained from a grain of cereal from the foundation slots produced a similar date to that produced for the ditch in-fill (see below). Two pits – 1.41m by 0.5m and 0.15m deep, and 1.19m by 0.75m and 0.3m deep – were excavated within this building. The fills of both pits were similar to those of the gully segments, producing large quantities of iron slag and charcoal as well as burnt mammal bone fragments and cereal grains. Another two early medieval pits were excavated within the enclosure. The pits – 0.5m by 0.7m and 0.43m deep, and 0.23m by 0.4m and 0.2m deep – also produced iron fragments, iron slag, burnt animal bone and cereal grains. Both pits were irregular-shaped and were interpreted as possible stone sockets in which domestic refuse collected. A bowl-shaped pit excavated outside the south-western side of the enclosure appears to have been dug to contain a broken saddle quern, and its fill contained a small quantity of cereal grains.

Smithing was the principal early medieval ironworking process. Analysis of the slag from the oval building indicates that smithing was being undertaken inside this structure. Smithing hearth bottoms – four from the enclosing ditch and two from the ploughsoil – and a minianvil stone from a field ditch were associated with this activity. A possible iron ore fragment was also recovered from the enclosure ditch and suggests that limited smelting may have also been undertaken on the site.

249

Cereal cultivation was also indicated by the two quernstones, field patterns and large quantity of grains,

particularly from oats and barley as well as rye, wheat and quantities of weed seeds.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-207730 Beta-211571

Context Charred cereal seeds from fill of field ditch Cattle limb bone from fill of enclosure ditch

Date 1000±40 BP 1470±40 BP

Beta-211572

Charred cereal seeds from foundation slot of oval structure Charred cereal seeds from fill of field ditch

1430±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 975–1155 A.D. 467–481; A.D. 534–655 A.D. 559–662

1250±40 BP

A.D. 674–874

Beta-211573

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 16.6kg iron slag Four smithing hearths Mini-anvil

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates 6th/7th C 6th/7th C

Pin-sharpening stone Iron ore fragment

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron chisel? Copper-alloy ring pin

Dates 6th/7th C

Rotary quern Whetstones Pin-sharpening stone

6th/7th C

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

250

the environmental evidence was quite poor. However, it would seem that this site was a ringfort settlement and radiocarbon dates suggest it was occupied between the late seventh and early twelfth centuries AD. It is argued that, taking into account the low level of finds and the marshy location, these features may represent livestock enclosures or the homes of members of the lower classes in the early medieval social hierarchy.

Calliaghstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 272314/274591 SMR No: N/A Reference: Reilly et al 2008. Two ringfort enclosures and a third annex were identified across two fields, divided by a stream, along with several pits, drains and gullies. There were very few artefacts and

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-247128

Context Oak charcoal

Date 1780±40 BP

Beta-247129 Beta-247130

Cherry-wood charcoal Hazel charcoal

990±40 BP 1270±40 BP

Beta-247131

Oak charcoal

1250±40 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 168g iron slag Furnace lining

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 130–349; A.D. 369–378 A.D. 986–1155 A.D. 662–828; A.D. 838–886 A.D. 674–874

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron fragments Copper-alloy ring Green-blue faience bead Fragment of lignite bracelet Stone bead

‘Small finds’ Table

251

Dates 10th–12th C

Camus, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C87162896 (28716/42896) SMR No.: LDY 007:022 References: May & May 1945; May 1958. An early monastic community was founded by St. Comgal at Camus, c.AD 580. The shaft of a high cross is the only upstanding early medieval feature on site, but a number of areas of archaeological interest were uncovered during road improvement schemes in the 1940s and 1950s. Four pits were uncovered to the north of the existing graveyard wall in the mid-1940s. Three of these only included dark earth and charcoal fragments, while the fourth also included pottery sherds, of a ‘type of vessel is common in caves, souterrains and sandhill sites of the Iron Age’, i.e. presumably souterrain ware.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.88: Souterrain ware from Camus (after May & May 1945, fig. 2) During further road works in 1958 a ‘communal furnace’ was uncovered. This consisted of a chamber, approximately 1.8m across at the base, surrounded by fire-treated stones and sand. Finds from the fill included cattle bones, charcoal, an iron nail and a sherd of glazed pottery. On the basis of the bones, this feature was interpreted as a ‘communal cooking centre’.

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence Furnace?

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware sherds

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

252

a rough quadrilateral. The entranceway seems to have incorporated defensive structures such as internal palisade trenches. Two possible structures were identified in the interior. Structure A had an associated hearth, and radiocarbon dates from associated contexts suggested occupation in the eighth/ninth century. Radiocarbon dates from Structure B suggest a slightly later occupation in the ninth/tenth century.

Cappydonnell Big, Co. Offaly Grid Ref: 22751/23724 SMR No: N/A References: Coughlan 2007; 2009c; 2011b. The site was located during construction of the N6 roadway. The early medieval enclosure took the shape of

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Seven iron knives

Dates

Glass beads Two fragments of lignite bracelet Honestones

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.89: Iron knife and decorated bolster from Cappydonnell Big (after Coughlan 2011b)

253

by the thirteenth century, this system of watercourses appears to have functioned in the early medieval period.

Caraun More, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 163612/225276 SMR No: N/A Reference: Seaver & Conran 2009.

Finds from the possible enclosure ditch included a bone toggle, an iron stick-pin, an iron fish-hook, a chert flake, and a twisted copper-wire bracelet. The stick-pin and bracelet within the upper deposits suggest that the ditch was constructed prior to the sixth century.

The site of Caraun More was uncovered during roadworks which revealed a multi-period site with features from the Bronze Age, the Iron Age, the early medieval period and the post-medieval period. These represent a range of domestic, agricultural and industrial activity. The majority of the evidence comes from the early/later medieval periods and these activities included crop production, cereal processing, the herding and slaughter of livestock, gathering of food stuffs, fishing and metal-working. The watercourses suggest an industrial aspect which in all likelihood represents milling activity. The early medieval archaeology is represented by two hearths which returned evidence for barley seeds and oat grains. A date of A.D. 432–617 was obtained from associated charcoal. A curvilinear enclosure ditch also appears to be early medieval in date and a cattle bone from the basal ditch silts produced a date of A.D. 595– 657. It is possible that this ditch represents the extent of an early medieval enclosure, but this was almost completely destroyed by a modern field boundary as well as by a system of watercourses which dominated the excavated area. These ditches were revetted with stone and have been interpreted as millraces for a mill complex possibly located downslope from the site. A date of A.D. 1263–1395 was returned for charcoal (blackthorn) from an upper deposit, and carbonised cereal grain from the kiln which truncated the watercourses has been dated to A.D. 1159–1293. Since these ditches were well silted-up

Fig. G.90: Copper twisted-wire bracelet from Caraun More (after Seaver & Conran 2009)

Fig. G.91: Plan of excavations at Caraun More (after Seaver & Conran 2009) 254

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. WK21339

Context Charcoal from hearth

14C

UBA-10319 Wk20205

Cattle bone from ditch Charcoal from upper fill of watercourse

1423±23 BP 678±42 BP

Beta-241007

Carbonised grain from kiln cut into watercourse

780±40 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1516±35 BP

Direct Evidence Iron slag Bowl furnaces

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 432–497; A.D. 502–617 A.D. 595–657 A.D. 1263–1328; A.D. 1341–1395 A.D. 1182–1284

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone toggles

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron stick-pin Iron blades Iron fish hooks Copper wire bracelet Lignite bracelet fragment

Bone toggles

‘Small finds’ Table

255

Dates

Carn, Co. Fermanagh Grid Ref: H2312063490 (223120/363490) SMR No: FER 154:046 Reference: Brannon 1982. The site consisted of a ‘D’-shaped stone-walled enclosure which was destroyed by quarrying. Excavation was undertaken pre-destruction on the line of the rubble bank and in the interior. Finds were scarce, but consisted of a couple of hammerstones, a small carved bone disc (interpreted as a spindle whorl), and a saddle-quern which appears to have been re-used in the wall. The spindle whorl is the only diagnostically early medieval artefact found on site. Quantities of iron slag were also recovered from the site, but were not stratigraphically secure.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Fig. G.92: Excavations at Carn (after Brannon 1982, fig. 1)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

256

area. Three ditches were uncovered during excavation in this area – a large ditch in the interior edge of Trench I; field boundary ditches at the exterior edge of trenches II and IV; and a shallow ditch (approx. 2m wide and 1m deep) running on the interior side of the field boundaries. Three stake-holes were found on the inner lip of the shallow ditch, although it was not possible to establish whether they were contemporary with it. Charcoal and ash deposits were found in the fill of this ditch, as well as numbers of souterrain ware sherds, suggesting some early medieval settlement. Petrological analysis of the pottery suggests that it was locally made, although the presence of sillimanite in one of the four studied samples suggests that the clay for this vessel may have originated in the Dunnamore area of mid-Tyrone.

Carnalbanagh East, Co. Down Grid Ref: J152604 (31520/36040) SMR No: DOW 013:013 References: Brannon 1979; McCorry 1979; Smith 1979. Housing development necessitated excavation at an ‘earthwork’, consisting of a central mound (approximately 36m in diameter), a broad, flat-bottomed ditch, varying in width from 8m to 17m, and a broad, flattened bank, averaging 24m in breadth. The site has since been re-classified as a ‘henge’. Excavation in the northwest quadrant of the site failed to locate any evidence for the existence of a bank in this

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware sherds

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze stud/pin head Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

257

Carnmore West, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 140817/227982 SMR No: N/A References: Sutton 2008; 2011.

A 2m-wide gap between the outer face of the cashel and the western wall of the annex would appear to have functioned as the original entrance to the complex. This gap was flanked by two post-holes, the fills of which returned very similar radiocarbon dates of A.D. 676– 869 and A.D. 688–883. The interior of the annex seems to have been disturbed by post-medieval ploughing.

Excavations were undertaken in the interior and vicinity of a cashel (55m in diameter) prior to roadworks. These uncovered an annex to the cashel that measured approximately 40m by 35m, and two cereal-drying kilns situated 30m to the west.

Two keyhole/dumbbell-shaped kilns, truncated by a large L-shaped kiln, were located to the west of the annex. These earlier kilns returned possibly contemporary dates of A.D. 687–881 and A.D. 665– 859. The later kiln had a drystone-built drying chamber and the flue was constructed with lintels and uprights of limestone. The remains of a circular structure were located around the later L-shaped kiln, with an entrance visible on the eastern side, adjacent to the firing chamber. Charcoal samples from this kiln produced dates of A.D. 1045–1258 and A.D. 1057–1156. Samples of grain taken from the flue of the later kiln, however, suggest an earlier date – A.D. 723–972 (UBA-7872), A.D. 657–865 (UBA-7870) and A.D. 641–770 (UBA-7868) – suggesting reworking of deposits associated with the earlier kilns.

The cashel walls were constructed using two rows of large limestone blocks with a rubble core, and two walls which extended into the cashel interior may have represented access to the walls or been the remains of demolished buildings. An entrance from the cashel into the annex was identified and was delimited by two post-holes cut into bedrock and a small uneven cobbled surface. Charcoal from one of these post-holes produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 576–655. A small number of randomly-distributed pits and postholes were excavated in the interior of the cashel. One of these appears to have been used as a grain storage pit and was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 710–889. A pitdrop entrance to a souterrain was also discovered, but since the souterrain extended beyond the road take, this feature was not fully excavated. Charcoal from the base of the silt layer in the souterrain returned a date of A.D. 665–859, and the souterrain appears to have been used as a grave for domestic animals in recent years, with the skeletons of a modern dog and equine located in the entrance. A rock-cut hearth was discovered immediately to the south of the souterrain. The hearth contained charcoal and animal bone, but appears to have been associated with no other features, except for its close proximity to the souterrain. Two samples from the hearth produced radiocarbon dates of A.D. 720–949 and A.D. 772–965.

A number of finds and samples were taken from the rubble collapse of the wall. The outer collapse contained two pieces of clay associated with metal production, a pre-tenth-century whittle-tanged knife and a ferrous spearhead most likely dated to the early medieval period. The spearhead was recovered from close to the base of the wall collapse, suggesting that it was most likely left here during the occupation of the enclosure. Two fragments of rotary quern were also found in the wall collapse. A fragment of grained black shale bracelet was uncovered from the entranceway between the cashel and the annex; and two knives recovered from the interior of the cashel probably dated between the tenth and fifteenth centuries.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-7684

Context Charcoal from post-hole C71 annex entrance

14C

UBA-7686

Charcoal from hearth C67

1188±31 BP

UBA-7687

Charcoal from hearth C67

1180±31 BP

UBA-7688

Charcoal from souterrain entrance

1268±31 BP

UBA-7689

Charcoal from truncated kiln

1274±32 BP

258

Date 1250±32 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 676–832; A.D. 836–869 A.D. 720–741; A.D. 769–899; A.D. 919–948 A.D. 772–900; A.D. 917–965 A.D. 665–783; A.D, 788–817; A.D. 843–859 A.D. 662–782; A.D. 789–812; A.D. 845–856

UBA-7872

Charcoal from later kiln flue

1175±40 BP

UBA-7871

Charcoal from later kiln chamber

864±35 BP

UBA-7870

Charcoal from early kiln chamber

1280±44 BP

UBA-7869

Charcoal from post-hole C81 annex entrance

1230±34 BP

UBA-7868

Charcoal from early kiln chamber

1340±34 BP

UBA-7867 UBA-7866 UBA-7865

Charcoal from truncated kiln chamber Charcoal from post-hole C85 in entranceway Charcoal from pit C125

1233±34 BP 1432±28 BP 1214±26 BP

UBA-7864

Charcoal from later kiln chamber

944±27 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag (bloom) Furnace lining

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–972 A.D. 1045–1095; A.D. 1119–1141; A.D. 1147–1258 A.D. 657–784; A.D. 786–828; A.D. 838–865 A.D. 688–754; A.D. 758–883 A.D. 641–723; A.D. 739–770 A.D. 687–881 A.D. 576–655 A.D. 710–746; A.D. 766–889 A.D. 1027–1156

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone peg

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife Iron spearhead

Dates

Fragment shale bracelet Four quernstone fragments

Bone peg

‘Small finds’ Table

259

Fig. G.93: Plan of excavated features at Carnmore West (after Sutton 2011)

Fig. G.95: Decorated quernstone from Carnmore West (after Sutton 2011) Fig. G.94: Iron spearhead from Carnmore West (after Sutton 2011) 260

intersecting each other. The area was extremely disturbed by modern agricultural activity. Several sherds of souterrain ware pottery were recovered. A former track/path, width c. 1m, also cut through Area 1.

Carnreagh, Co. Down Grid Ref: J25255903 (32525/35903) SMR No: N/A Reference: Large 2003:445.

Area 3 contained a number of circular features; one was a small hearth with several sherds of early medieval pottery. A flint scraper was also recovered.

Topsoil-stripping exposed three areas of potential archaeological interest. Area 1 contained a number of linear features of different widths crossing and

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

261

Several hearths were also identified in the western interior where no formal buildings survived. Here, the natural topography of rock hollows appears to have been used to form the walls of buildings for the enclosure occupants. These rock hollows appear to have been allowed to become filled in over time and were utilized as dumping places for refuse and large stones.

‘Carraig Aille I’ (Lough Gur td), Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R65284070 (165285/140703) SMR No: LI032-053001 Reference: Ó Ríordáin 1949a. Carraig Aille I, excavated as part of a University College Cork research dig, is a stone cashel with evidence for early medieval internal structures, hearths and finds as well as a considerable quantity of animal bone. The site was situated 40m from Carraig Aille II, on the most northern and highest point (120m OD) of a northwestsoutheast ridge of land overlooking the marsh of Knockadoon.

Nine pieces of bronze were found on site (including four pins and two rings); iron finds included four pins and nine rings, as well as ten knives, two three-pronged implements, two nails, a saw, a hook and a punch. Twenty-five combs, three bone pins, one bone point, twelve bone spindle whorls, twelve fragments of rotary quern stones, fifty-five whetstones, ten stone spindle whorls and six polished stone axes were also recovered. Pieces of two jet bracelets were found, as were three glass beads – one pink, the other two blue – and two small fragments of poor-quality amber.

Pre-cashel activity was indicated by a black habitation layer which ran under the western end of the enclosing wall. A series of rock hollows, utilized for habitation sites, was revealed in the west of the interior. The lowest occupation deposits in a number of these rock hollows overlay the black habitation layer but appear to also predate the enclosure. This habitation activity was interpreted as temporary shelters built just before and during the construction of the enclosure.

Two tons of animal bone were recovered from Carraig Aille I. Cattle bone comprised 90% of the total. The remainder was largely divided between sheep and pig though small numbers of red deer, cat, dog and other wild animals were also identified. Iron slag was also recovered and indicates on site iron-working.

The site enclosed an oval area approximately 43m in diameter. The stone walls vary in thickness from 3.3m to 4.2m, and appear to be faced with larger stone slabs, with a rubble core. The eastern entrance contained a possible wooden gate defined by a trench extending between two recesses on either side of the entrance passage. A posthole at the outer corner of the northern side of the entrance was interpreted as a possible gate-post of a light temporary outer gate. Portions of paving were identified mainly inside the enclosure walls on the south and south-east sides and immediately inside the trench in the entrance passage. A series of hearths and traces of rectangular houses were associated with these paved areas. A small structure (less than 1.2m square internally) was revealed just 2.1m inside the south-western corner of the entrance and was interpreted as a shelter for a single person – perhaps a sentry. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working

Fig. G.96: Iron objects from Carraig Aille I (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 21)

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

55 whetstones Saw Bone pins Spindle whorls

Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Needles Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table 262

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two complete ring pins and fragments ‘Hand’ pin Needles Nine rings Ten knives Saw Two 3-pronged tools Four possible bronze ring pins Tubular bronze ring Three glass beads One sherd brick-red pottery Two fragments of jet bracelet 12 fragments of quernstones 55 whetstones 10 stone spindle whorls Five bone discs Two fragments of amber

Dates

25 bone combs Three bone pins 16 bone ‘scoops’ Bone point 12 bone spindle whorls Antler handle

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.98: Glass beads from Carraig Aille I (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 19)

Fig. G.97: Bone objects from Carraig Aille I (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, figs 13 & 14)

263

site. A hoard of silver objects was found secreted into the inner face of the cashel wall, and a silver ingot was found in the rubble fill. Both have been interpreted as Viking artefacts. A number of bronze objects were also found including the terminal mount for a drinking-horn (also interpreted as Viking) as well as a collection of pins and a toilet implement.

‘Carraig Aille II’ (Lough Gur td), Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R65344064 (165345/140643) SMR No: LI032-053003 Reference: Ó Ríordáin 1949a. Carraig Aille II, excavated as part of a University College Cork research dig, is a stone cashel with evidence for intensive internal habitation (e.g. successive layers of structures, hearths and paved surfaces), as well as associated external houses and enclosures. The site was situated 40m from Carraig Aille I, on a ridge of land overlooking the marsh of Knockadoon with ground sloping rapidly to the east, gradually to the south and precipitously to the west.

Sixteen iron pins and fifty-four iron knives were found on site, as well as a plough-sock, shears, two chisels, two saws and two awls. Iron weapons were also recovered from the site – an axe-head; a javelin-head; one (possibly two) arrow-heads; three pointed sockets from spear shafts; and four objects with three or four prongs. Portions of twenty-two bone combs were found as were thirty-four bone pins and thirty-one bone and stone spindle whorls. Thirty-five portions of rotary quernstones, thirty-three whet-stones, twenty glass beads (varying in shade from light to dark blue), and fragments of jet and stone bracelets were among other finds recovered.

The site enclosed an area approximately 47m in diameter. The stone walls vary in thickness from 3.6m to 4.2m, and appear to be faced with larger stone slabs, with a rubble core. Steps were built into the inner wall face, presumably to allow access to a platform or terrace no longer extant. A black habitation refuse covered with a gravel floor was discovered at one point beneath the enclosure wall and was interpreted as reflecting temporary dwelling during the cashel’s construction.

Finds from the house sites outside the cashel included two bronze rings, a bronze imitation Roman coin, eight knives, two iron pins, four bone combs, six portions of rotary quernstones, eleven whet-stones, five bone and stone spindle whorls, a possible stone lamp, fragments of jet and blue glass bracelets and five glass beads.

The eastern entrance was defined by areas of paving and cobbling and contained a recess on either side of the entrance which may have supported a gate-structure. The area of paving began outside the entrance, continuing as a narrow causeway into the enclosure interior and was evidently a very early feature as it lay directly on the original rock surface.

Three complete crucibles and almost fifty fragments were found inside the cashel; several had green stains, presumably from copper-working (perhaps bronzemaking). A quantity of iron slag was also recovered inside one of the external rectangular structures indicating that both iron and metalworking were most likely practised on the site. Almost four tons of animal bone were recovered from Carraig Aille II, of which cattle accounted for 90% of the bulk followed by sheep, pig and to lesser extent red deer, cat, dog and other wild animals.

Successive layers of occupation debris, clay floors, hearths and multiple-phases of metalling were uncovered in the interior. The early houses on site appear to have been round or curvilinear in form, and were probably wooden framed. One of the roundhouses was evidently a very early feature as it pre-dated the paved causeway lying directly on the old ground surface. The later houses were stone built, using similar techniques to those used to create the cashel wall, and were also associated with hearths as well as large areas of stone paving. The best preserved house was paved inside and measured 6m internally, with walls 0.75m thick.

It was suggested from the finds that Carraig Aille II was occupied for a relatively long period of time between the eighth and late tenth/eleventh centuries. The possible Viking hoard placed into the inner face of the cashel wall has been dated to the tenth century, but there appears to have been a reasonable interval between its deposition and the final desertion of the site.

A number of rectangular houses, built in a similar fashion to the cashel’s walls, were associated with rectangular stone yards and enclosures in the level ground to the north of the cashel. One house with a paved surface measured 9.3m by 2.8m internally and was associated with eight post-holes supporting the superstructure. Butting onto the cashel’s southern perimeter was another stone structure with a paved surface, associated with a possible ancient field bank. A considerable collection of early medieval finds was recovered inside the cashel. Unfortunately, few could be confidently correlated with any of the successive occupation layers and only gave a general dating for the

Fig. G.99: Bronze drinking-horn terminal from Carraig Aille II (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 8)

264

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Copper alloy crucibles

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Scrap glass?

33 whetstones Incomplete quernstones Saws Bone pins Flax seeds

Shears Bone needle Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object 16 iron pins 54 iron knives Iron shears Six iron rings Iron saws Four pronged tools Silver hoard Silver ingots Bronze terminal mounting for drinking-horn Bronze hand-pin Bronze ring pins Gilt bronze brooch Bronze pins Bronze ring Bronze toilet implement 20 glass beads Glass bracelet fragment 33 fragments of jet bracelet 35 quernstone fragments 33 whetstones 14 spindle whorls Two bracelets

22 bone combs 34 bone pins Bone needle 12 spindle whorls

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

265

Dates

Carrigatogher (Harding), Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 180900/176325 SMR No: N/A Reference: Taylor 2010.

have increased the area within the enclosure to approximately 70m by 60m. Fifty-six probable graves were excavated in the centre of the inner enclosure. A sixth/seventh-century date for one of these burials was achieved through radiocarbon dating.

Investigation carried out in advance of the N7 roadway revealed a possible enclosure at Carrigatogher (Harding), and subsequent excavations revealed a multi-period site including a prehistoric fulacht fiadh, although the main feature was resolved as a multi-phase ditched enclosure containing both settlement evidence and a number of human burials.

The rectangular structure located at the entrance to the inner enclosure may have been associated with iron working, since quantities of slag were found in the in-fill, and may also been associated with the large quantities of iron waste, including slag and tuyère fragments, which were found north-east of the stream. Although the date from this structure pre-dates those dates obtained from the inner enclosure ditch, it is possible that this site represents a settlement-cemetery, with occupation, industrial activity and burial all occurring on the same site at the same time.

The initial enclosure was oval in shape (38m by 29m), and surrounded a natural gravel mound. The enclosure was later enlarged through the addition of a further ditch. A third, outer ditch was visible to the west, and would

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-244821 Beta-249825

Context Hazelnut shell from primary ditch fill Willow branch from primary ditch fill

Date 1400±40 BP 1380±40 BP

Beta-249826

Willow branch from middle ditch primary fill

1340±70 BP

Beta-244822

Post-hole of rectangular building

1640±40 BP

Beta-244823 Beta-249823

Hazel charcoal in grave fill Willow branch from outer ditch

1450±40 BP 1400±50 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 750kg iron slag Tuyère

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

266

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 572–678 A.D. 582–694; A.D. 704–705; A.D. 748–765 A.D. 577–831; A.D. 836–869 A.D. 263–277; A.D. 330–537 A.D. 547–655 A.D. 549–692; A.D. 749–763

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron tools Copper-alloy pin Two blue glass beads

Three stone discs Whetstones Spindle whorl Waterlogged fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

267

Dates

The stone-built enclosing bank appears to have ceased to function as a protective barrier during the secondary occupation phase. The southeast-facing door of the secondary house was roughly opposite the eastern enclosure entrance though there appears to have been no attempt to repair or rebuild the gateway at this point; the opposite doorway, however, had no corresponding entrance through the enclosure.

Carrigillihy, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W22363255 (122363/032559) SMR No: CO142-091001 References: O’Kelly 1951; 1951–52b. Excavation was undertaken in the early 1950s by M.J. O’Kelly of University College Cork and financed by means of a Special Employment Scheme. The site was located just above the 15m contour mark on gently westeast sloping ground, 45m to the west of a series of indented cliffs along the western side of Glandore harbour.

The enclosure bank was much collapsed (less than 0.6m) and its inner facing removed at this point, suggesting that the inhabitants of this secondary house simply passed in and out over this particular stretch of bank. The abundance of stone from the collapsed walls of the enclosure and primary house may have attracted the secondary occupants to this site.

Excavation revealed a possible early medieval square house superimposed upon the ruins of an earlier possible Bronze Age oval house associated with a stone enclosure. The primary phase of occupation consisted of an oval house within a low oval stone-built bank. The stone bank (24m by 21m) was 1.2m high and 2.75m thick at its bestpreserved points and contained a core of loose stones and occasional orthostats faced with small flanking slabs at various places. The eastern entrance contained a roughly cobbled area and a gate identified as two stone-packed post-holes, set 1.06m apart between the stone bank terminals. The interior contained a stone-built ovalshaped house (internal dimensions 10.05m by 6.7m) with an eastern doorway directly opposite the enclosure entrance.

The finds from the secondary phase were all recovered outside the secondary house and suggest an early medieval date. A fragment of a shale bracelet was recovered immediately to the south-west of the secondary house in the same habitation refuse deposit associated within this building. Fragments of two rotary querns were found near the inner face of the south bank above the grey-white leached deposit.

A spread of unbroken habitation refuse extended out from the floor of the house and across the open space to abut against the lower courses of the inner face of the enclosure, suggesting the house and enclosure were contemporary. The finds (pottery sherds, a bronze awl, a stone disc, two hone stones, perforated slabs and flint pieces) from the habitation refuse and occupation deposits and pits inside the house suggest the primary phase of occupation was during the Bronze Age. A sterile grey-white leached deposit sealed all these occupation deposits. The secondary phase of occupation was marked by a stone-built house, square externally (8.5m by 8.5m) with rounded corners. The dry-stone walls were on average 1.4m thick, and survived to a maximum height of 0.6m. The building contained two opposing doorways which were defined by one post-hole each. Large internal postholes suggest that posts at the corners and centre of the house supported a wooden or thatched roof. A layer of habitation refuse, flecked with charcoal, was recovered across the whole floor of the house.

Fig. G.100: Plan of primary phase at Carrigillihy (later phase dashed) (after O’Kelly 1951–52b, Fig. 2)

268

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Shale bracelet fragment Fragments of two rotary querns

‘Small finds’ Table

269

Structure B was oval in plan (4.8m by 2.9m). It was postbuilt, with the roof supported by a central post. As with Structure A, there was no evidence for any internal hearth. Another possible structure (Structure C) was identified between Structures A and B as a curvilinear drainage gully. There was no evidence for a hearth and three internal post-holes may have a structural function.

Carrigoran, Co. Clare Grid Ref: R38946719 (138944/167192) SMR No: CL051:171 References: Reilly 1999:0047; 2000; 2000:0055; Young 2006c. Excavations in Carrigoran townland in advance of road works revealed evidence for six main phases of activity on an area of gentle south-easterly sloping land, with marshland to the south and east. Two of these phases (1 and 3) would appear to belong to the early medieval period, with a phase of abandonment (Phase 2) separating them.

Eights pits were discovered to the south of the structures. Charred seed remains (dominated by hulled barley, indeterminate cereals, oats) were recovered from a number of these pits which appear to have been originally used for grain storage. A rim of a rotary quern and a Class B comb fragment were recovered from the fill of the pits, and rotary quern fragments was also found in a disturbed context. Although a complete chert end-scraper was also found in one of these pits, the presence of oats indicates that the final use of the pits may have been in the medieval period.

The main finds from Phase 1 were comprised of the remains of three structures in Area A, partially enclosed by a post fence (Structures A–C) and a series of pits containing charred oat remains in Area C.

Several small curvilinear stone-walled and ditched fields belong to Phase 3. There was also evidence for iron smelting/smithing in the form of furnace pits and a large quantity of slag from this phase. This comprised 30.4kg of metallurgical waste associated with two smelting furnaces dateable to the ninth/tenth century AD. Smithing hearth cakes and tuyères formed part of the recovered assemblage. The end-plate of a Class E bone comb (preninth/tenth century) was found in the fill of one of the field ditches. This was in good condition and appears to have been lost/discarded in the ditch during manufacture, implying that the ditch silted up in the early medieval period.

Structure A had an internal width of 4.2m and was at least 5.2m long. It was post-built and contained a central line of double stakes possibly representing an internal divide. The presence of a number of external post-holes outside its south-western and southern walls suggests that these may have supported roof- or wall-bracing timbers. A shallow pit was located in the interior of this structure, the primary fill of which contained burnt soil, stone, bone, charcoal and charred seed remains. The charred seed remains of hulled barley, possible barley, indeterminate cereal and grass seeds, and weeds such as dock, cleaver and plantain were recovered from its secondary fill. This pit appears to have been used primarily for storage or to contain waste products from crop processing. The absence of oats from the pit fill suggests a prehistoric date.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Two furnace pits 30.4kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Bone combs

Industrial Processing Table

270

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object

Dates

Two copper-alloy pins Blue glass bead Jet/shale bracelet Four fragments of lignite/shale bracelet Rotary quernstone Possible whetstone Type ‘B’ comb Type ‘E’ comb Bone bead

9th/10th C

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

271

the excavated ditches, but did not align with either of the crop-marks evident on the aerial photograph. A substantial sandy-clay deposit in the three trenches in the centre of the enclosure may represent material deposited after the removal of the possible souterrain. The extent of this deposit implies that the possible souterrain may have been a substantial structure extending over 8m.

Carrigrohane, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W6015/7076 (16015/07076) SMR No: CO073-082 eferences: Moloney 2003:0188; Moloney et al 2003. A levelled bivallate enclosure was excavated prior to residential development. It revealed evidence for internal and external enclosing ditches as well as a possible internal souterrain and the truncated remains of drains, pits and other features; however, the site interior had been damaged by both agricultural activity and recent developments in the area. The site was recorded as a crop-mark on an aerial photograph, consisting of two concentric rings with a maximum external diameter of 60m and an enclosed space of 40m–45m. The truncated remains of the inner and outer ditches were 1m apart and corresponded well with the area enclosed by the inner crop-mark on the aerial photograph.

A series of anomalous deposits possibly consisting of the truncated remains of drains, pits and structures were uncovered in the interior of the enclosure. A series of small pits and deposits in the southeast of the interior may possibly be related to some form of structure in this area, and a possible field drain with occasional large subangular stones was located to the northwest of the internal ditch/possible souterrain. A large diagonal cut in the eastern end of Trench 2 in the enclosure’s interior revealed one fragment of postmedieval pottery (brown-ware). A series of four cultivation furrows (013-016) – 2.3m apart and 1m in width – were excavated to the south-west of the enclosure and may represent the remains of lazy-beds associated with post-medieval cultivation.

The heavily-truncated remains of a possible outer ditch were identified as a narrow parallel linear feature, and the inner ditch (maximum width 3.3m) was broadly aligned with the inner crop-mark on the aerial photograph. Both of these ditches contained silty-clay fills with charcoal inclusions, and a sherd of souterrain ware and one piece of animal bone was found in the inner ditch.

The souterrain ware pottery from the fill of the enclosing ditch indicates that this site was an early medieval enclosure which contained a possible north-western entrance, a possible internal souterrain and a series of features possibly relating to a structure in the southeast of the internal space.

Another internal ditch or possible destroyed souterrain, 3m in width, was uncovered. It contained a similar midbrown silty-clay fill deposit with occasional charcoal to Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware pottery?

‘Small finds’ Table 272

The interior of the site was greatly disturbed by later reuse of the site, firstly as a cillín, and also for agriculture. The remains of a spindle whorl and a blue glass bead were recovered from the disturbed topsoil. A large pit (2m by 1.2m by 0.65m deep) was the major surviving internal feature. Finds from this included animal bone, a bone weaving-tool, iron slag and iron objects. Similar finds were recovered from an adjacent surviving occupation horizon.

Carrowkeel, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: M09651705 (109657/317058) SMR No: MA038-004 References: Walsh and Zajac 2004; Zajac 2002:1382; 2003:1307; 2011. The site consisted of a sub-circular bank-and-ditched enclosure (26m by 23m) set on gently sloping ground. Excavation of the site was required in order to facilitate road construction. Evidence of an earlier Bronze Age ‘ritual’ enclosure and associated burials were also found on site. Investigation of the bank revealed that it consisted of a number of re-deposited mineral soils laid down in regular layers in a clockwise direction; this material appears to have been sourced from just outside the enclosure. The site was quite degraded, but evidence for a stone revetment was identified on the external face of the bank. The probable entranceway was also associated with stone revetting, and large possible post-holes were discovered underlying these stones, possibly representing gate-posts of an earlier entrance. The ditch was U-shaped with an average width of 4m and depth of 2.2m. A small assemblage of animal bones (including deer bones) was recovered from the lower fills of the ditch, as well as part of a quernstone, the shaft of a bronze ring pin, and a pointed piece of corroded iron.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Fig. G.101: Plan of enclosure at Carrowkeel (after Walsh and Zajac 2004)

Indirect Evidence

Weaving tool? Spindle whorl Bone weaving tool

Industrial Processing Table

273

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects Bronze ring pin Blue glass bead

Dates

Quernstone Spindle whorl

Bone weaving tool

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.102: Finds from Carrowkeel (after Zajac 2011)

274

Carryduff (‘Queen’s Fort’), Co. Down Grid Ref: J36626520 (33662/36520) SMR No: DOW 009:028 References: Jope 1966; Lynn 1981-82.

the site had been raised over a series of phases, turning it into a ‘raised rath’. Stone-footed structures were identified in the interior, but these were not fully resolved either by function or by occupation phase.

Queen’s Fort consists of a bivallate rath set on the summit of a drumlin. Excavation in 1961 revealed that

It would appear that the original construction of the rath, and its subsequent modifications all took place during the souterrain ware period.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

275

Castlefarm, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O0039416 (300394/241605) SMR No: N/A References: O’Connell 2006; 2009; O’Connell & Clark 2009. Castlefarm – discovered in advance of the M3 roadscheme – was a multi-phase settlement-cemetery site that was dated between the fifth and thirteenth centuries. Earlier prehistoric activity from the Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age was also represented in the form of lithic objects, a possible burnt mound and a ring-ditch respectively. The site was located a short distance southwest of Dunboyne town on a slightly elevated ridge – at 73m OD – in an area of gently undulating pastureland and was bounded to the north by the River Tolka. Approximately half of the site was excavated. The primary enclosure at Castlefarm, constructed sometime between the mid fifth and mid seventh centuries (see below for radiocarbon dates), was Dshaped and had dimensions of approximately 90m by 70m. The entrance was at the southwest and consisted of an un-dug causeway. Artefacts from the ditch in this phase included a bone knife handle with ring-and-dot decoration, iron knife blades and copper-alloy ringed pins. Large quantities of animal bone were also associated with this phase. At least seven burials – extended with heads to the west – were associated with Castlefarm’s initial early medieval phase. They were located outside the enclosure in proximity to the causewayed entrance and both adults and children (males and female) were represented in the small group. A well – also external to the enclosure – was associated with this phase.

Fig. G.103: Enclosures at Castlefarm (after O’Connell 2006, 19) The final early medieval modifications to the enclosure occurred between the late eighth and early eleventh centuries. This phase involved a re-cut to the outer enclosure ditch and the incorporation of the enclosure annex. Artefacts included omega pins and penannular brooches, and substantial quantities of animal bone were present in the ditch-fills. The latter was present in large quantities throughout the early medieval phases.

The primary enclosing ditch was re-cut on a number of occasions between the seventh and eighth centuries. Artefacts included dress items such as ringed pins, bone pins and lignite bracelets. Functional items included worked bone and antler as well as a variety of iron knives.

Later medieval activity was evident through a re-cut of the outer enclosure ditch and small-scale industrial activity within the inner and outer enclosure ditches. Material culture, in the form of artefacts and animal bone, was not present in large quantities during this phase.

The site was considerably enlarged between A.D. 771 and 975 by the construction of an outer enclosure. The Dshaped enclosure was re-cut on its eastern side and the site was expanded to the southwest, west and north. A number of wells were located at the north and west. The new enclosure had dimensions of 110m by 90m. The finds assemblage was comparable to earlier phases and included a variety of dress and functional artefacts. An enclosure annex was constructed at the south of the site and had dimensions of 30m by 20m–25m.

Apart from deep features such as the wells, very little survived within the enclosures at Castlefarm. Centuries of agricultural activity have erased any domestic features. Eight large unlined wells – ranging in depth between 1.6m–2.5m – were discovered. It is possible that these were related to textile production because numerous sewing needles, spindle whorls, loom beater pins, a weaver’s rubbing stone and a loom weight were recovered from some of the enclosing ditch fills.

276

Small-scale ironworking was evident in the presence of three possible bowl furnaces, a charcoal production pit and the occurrence of iron waste or slag. One of the bowl furnaces was dated to A.D. 564–666 while the charcoal production pit was formed later between A.D. 1035– 1225. Evidence for non-ferrous metalworking was also small and included two rough globules of molten copper and a possible copper ingot.

rotary quern-stones. Charcoal from the second fill of the kiln was dated to A.D. 662–828. Three hundred and thirty-seven wooden pieces were identified at Castlefarm and they all belonged to the early medieval phases. The most prevalent species were alder and hazel, followed by pomaceous fruitwood and ash. Seven components of stave-built wooden vessels were included in the assemblage and the presence of the blade from a cooper’s croze – a specialist woodworking tool – strongly suggests that stave-built wooden vessels were manufactured at Castlefarm.

Cereal processing was evident in the form of a figure-ofeight-shaped cereal-drying kiln and the fragments of two Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-220131

Context F212: Animal bone from primary fill of inner enclosure ditch

14C

Beta-246936

F486: Charcoal from second re-cut of inner enclosure ditch F214: Animal bone from fill of outer enclosure ditch

1370±40 BP

F298: Animal bone from primary fill of outer enclosure ditch re-cut Right femur shaft fragment from burial 1 Left fibula shaft fragment from burial 7 Right femur shaft fragment from burial 10

1160±40 BP

F949: Charcoal from basal fill of bowl furnace C943 F527: Charcoal from fill of charcoal-rich production pit C511

1420±40 BP

F685: Grain from fill of figure-of-eight-shaped cereal-drying kiln

1270±40 BP

Beta-220132 Beta-220133 Beta-229298 Beta-229299 Beta-229300 Beta-246945 Beta-246938 Beta-246939

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Three smithing hearths 75.6kg smithing slag

Other metal-working

Copper globules Copper ingot

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1500±40 BP

1170±40 BP

1570±40 BP 1530±40 BP 1280±40 BP

880±40 BP

Industrial Processing Table 277

A.D. 1035–1225; A.D. 1234–1238; A.D. 1248–1251 A.D. 662–828; A.D. 838–866 Radiocarbon Dates 6th/7th C

Charcoal production pits

11th/12th C

Shoe leather Rubbing stone Loom weight Spindle whorls Needles Bone loom beater

Nettle-retting wells? Flax seeds

A.D. 409–575 A.D. 427–608 A.D. 658–783; A.D. 787–824; A.D. 841–861 A.D. 564–666

Indirect Evidence

Cooper’s tool Bone pin

Unworked pig fibulae Antler waste

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 434–492; A.D. 508–519; A.D. 528–643 A.D. 599–712; A.D. 746–767 A.D. 727–737; A.D. 771–975 A.D. 775–979

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood

Worked bone

Worked antler

Leather Cloth

Object 13 iron pin shanks 22 pin shanks (iron and copper alloy) Ring-headed pin Iron scroll pin Four iron needles 32 iron knives Cooper’s croze Four bronze ringed pins Silvered-bronze ringed pin Two penannular ring brooches Nine copper-alloy pin shanks Seven copper-alloy stick pins Copper-alloy ring-headed pin Three copper-alloy scroll pins Four copper-alloy needles Copper-alloy stud Copper-alloy mount Six glass beads Six fragments of lignite bracelet Loom weight Rubbing stone Three spindle whorls Three quernstones Six whetstones 337 specimens Yew staves Yew bucket bottom Alder turned fragment Loom beater pin Bone stick pin Six bone comb fragments Bone needles Bone spindle whorl Four knife handles Antler spindle whorl Antler pins Antler combs 17 pieces of shoe leather

‘Small finds’ Table

278

Dates

Castlegar, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: M35647631 (135642/276311) SMR No: MA101-026 Reference: Zajac and Scully 2004. The site consists of a sub-circular enclosure set on the end of a gravel ridge. The internal diameter of the site measured 48m by 40m, and it was enclosed by a slight bank and a shallow ditch (2.5m wide by 0.2m deep). Excavation revealed that the ditch had been backfilled in three stages. Although the upper fill appeared to be modern, it was possible that the earlier fills may have been created deliberately after the abandonment of the enclosure. Bones extracted from sealed contexts within the lowest ditch fill were used for radiocarbon dating (see below). The interior of the site was badly degraded and had been largely destroyed by ridge-and-furrow agriculture. A souterrain, however, was discovered within the bounds of the enclosing ditch, along with a narrow cobbled walkway, which presumably linked it to a (now destroyed) above-ground structure.

Fig. G.104: Plan of enclosure at Castlegar (after Zajac and Scully 2004, 25)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UB-4701 UB-4702

Context Bone – abandonment fill Bone – main ditch fill

Date 1067±43 BP 1186±51 BP

UB-4703 UB-4704

Bone – from gravel in ditch side Animal bone – ditch bottom

1141±44 BP 1182±44 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Loom weight Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

279

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 888–1028 A.D. 692–749; A.D. 764–972 A.D. 778–988 A.D. 710–746; A.D. 766–973

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Five blue glass beads Fragment of blue glass bracelet

Whetstones Quernstone Loom weight

Bone knife handle

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.105: Glass bracelet from Castlegar (after Zajac and Scully 2004)

280

Castleskreen, Co. Down Grid Ref: J47304027 (34730/34027) SMR No: DOW 037:037 Reference: Dickinson & Waterman 1959. The site consisted of an earthwork set on the top of a drumlin. The site was excavated in a number of small digs between 1952 and 1955 in order to inform the Archaeological Survey of Co. Down. Excavation revealed an early medieval enclosure (34.5m in diameter) which was later re-modelled into an AngloNorman motte. This enclosure underwent two phases of construction. In the first phase, the site was enclosed within a ditch, but there was no accompanying bank. The dominant feature in the interior was an extensive hollow (7m wide and 1.8m deep) which was interpreted as a watering-hole for cattle. Finds from the occupation layer were limited to a few animal bones, a rim of souterrain ware, and a chipped sandstone disc. In the second phase, a bank was raised around the site. Although only approximately 0.9m high, this bank was augmented by a timber palisade (indicated by the presence of a number of post-holes) located on the inner slope. Sherds of souterrain-ware were recovered from this occupation phase, as were a blue glass bead, a fragment of a shale/lignite bracelet, and a fragment of a quernstone. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.106: Plan of excavations at Castleskreen (after Dickinson & Waterman 1959, 68)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bronze-working crucibles

Souterrain ware Spindle whorl

Bone pin? Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Bronze brooch? Two glass beads Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Sandstone quernstone Spindle whorls

Dates

Bone pin

Small finds Table 281

An area of approximately 1000m2 was cleared by machine, under strict archaeological supervision. Agricultural activity from late medieval to modern times had removed virtually all traces of archaeological deposits, but hand-excavation of some areas did reveal several archaeological features. These took the form of stone spreads and, more importantly, the remains of a wide, shallow ditch in the north-west of the site.

Cavanapole, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: H782435 (27820/34350) SMR No: ARM 011:011 Reference: Crothers 1996:015. Rescue excavations were undertaken in Cavanapole townland in advance of an extension to a quarry. The Ordnance Survey six-inch map shows the site of a fort within the new area to be quarried. The fort was not located in a geophysical survey, and manual excavation of a strip across the supposed site showed it to be merely a local outcrop of limestone. An area of approximately 1000m2 was cleared by Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Finds recovered, the vast majority from the ditch, include a sherd of souterrain ware, ironworking slag, crucible fragments, a fragment of tuyère, a small piece of amber, and several metal objects including a complete ring-pin, with the ring articulated.

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère fragment Crucible fragments

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze ring-pin Sherd of souterrain ware

Amber

‘Small finds’ Table

282

survived. The only finds within the basal ditch fills were iron fragments, a copper-alloy fragment, an iron knife and a flint flake. Finds from the middle and upper ditch fills included an iron object, iron nails, iron slag, an amber bead and a single-sided bone comb. The presence of Dublin-type ware in the top deposit demonstrates that the ditch had filled-in by the thirteenth or fourteenth century. A sherd of Late Roman Amphora (B-ware) was recovered from the topsoil and probably relates to the primary use of the site.

Cherrywood (Site 18), Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O24252322 (32425/22322) SMR No: N/A References: Ó Néill 1999; 2006; 2012; Ó Néill & Coughlan 2010. Excavations at Cherrywood revealed a multi-phase enclosure which was utilised initially as a cemetery during approximately the sixth and seventh centuries, before the site was settled between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The site was situated on a low hill, the southern end of which overlooks the Loughlinstown River, while the confluence of the Loughlinstown and Shanganagh Rivers lies close by to the east.

Early Medieval Cemetery The enclosure at Cherrywood was initially constructed to enclose a cemetery which was in use during the sixth and seventh centuries. Thirty-eight burials were revealed and all were extended inhumations in earth-cut graves. Twenty-two were adults and 16 were sub-adults. Ear muffs were common to many graves, and the majority were laid out in rows and sometimes evenly spaced, which suggests the former presence of grave markers. The only grave goods were two buckles (one dated to the sixth or seventh century), a fragment of an iron pin and an iron fragment. This suggests that some of the interred were clothed. Enclosed Scandinavian Settlement A number of features, including structures (represented by stake- and post-holes), a cereal-drying kiln and a pit, post-dated the use of the cemetery. Four structures were revealed within the enclosure. Structure 4, the earliest building, was sunken and was located in the south-western part of the enclosure. It was represented by an oval area measuring 2.75m by 1.9m. The structure was surrounded by a U-shaped setting of stake- and post-holes that was open to the east. A bone needle was recovered from a charcoal-rich central area and animal bone associated with the building was dated to A.D. 680–890.

Fig. G.107: Plan of cemetery at Cherrywood (after Ó Néill 2006, 68) The archaeological activity was enclosed within an oval enclosure that measured 42m by 38m. The enclosing ditch was up to 3m wide and 1.6m deep. During the site’s initial use, the enclosure ditch was continuous – possibly accessed by a temporary bridge – whereas two sections were backfilled to leave opposing entrances at the west and east during its later phase. No evidence for a bank

Fig. G.108: Plan of Scandinavian settlement at Cherrywood (after Ó Néill 2006, 71, 75) 283

doorway and an internal partition, while a metalled surface was also present outside the north-eastern corner. The partition divided the building into two rooms and the doorway was visible in the southern gable wall. The only finds were a decorated bronze strap and a piece of blue glass which were associated with the metalled area.

Structure 1 post-dated Structure 4. It was trapezoidal in plan and measured 17.5m in length and was between 5.75m and 6.8m wide. It appeared to have load-bearing posts along the outer walls and a small number of internal stake- and post-holes indicated three transverse internal divisions. A hearth was situated off-centre at the southern end and a centrally-perforated piece of decorated bone (possibly a spindle whorl, loom weight or gaming piece) was found in its fill. The only other find was represented by fragments of a decorated bone comb from a post-hole. Structures 2 and 3 were potentially contemporary and were constructed after Structures 4 and 1. Structure 1 was truncated by Structure 2; the latter was clearly divided into three and was slightly sunken. The area defined by the building measured 8.15m by 5.4m and an entrance was located at the north. The doorway was cobbled and it appears that the roof was supported by internal posts, but evidence for a hearth or flooring had been ploughed away. A deposit overlying the cobbled doorway contained a ringed pin, a bone comb fragment, a lignite bracelet fragment and various fragments of bronze and iron. Animal bone from this deposit was dated to A.D. 1020–1230.

Further features within the enclosure included a cerealdrying kiln and a rectangular pit. The latter produced animal bone, a ringed pin, a pronged, socketed object, a domed bronze stud, a decorated whale-bone plaque, iron objects, iron slag, bronze fragments, and a sherd of coarse pottery. The whale-bone plaque dates to the second half of the ninth century, so it appears that the pit was contemporary with Structure 1. A silver ingot was found 200m from the site. The morphology of the structures, the radiocarbon dates and the whale-bone plaque indicate a potential rural Scandinavian settlement at Cherrywood and interestingly, a former local cemetery was chosen as a place of settlement. Historical accounts indicate that the area was targeted by second-generation Scandinavian raiders, while there was a tendency amongst Scandinavians to settle at or near monastic sites, and Tully church is located near the site.

Structure 3 measured 9.4m by 5.3m and was the southernmost building. The surviving features included a

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Silver ingot

Indirect Evidence

Bone needle Bone needle Spindle whorl?

Industrial Processing Table

284

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron fragments Three-pronged object Iron pin Two bronze ringed pins Bronze fragments Bronze strap Bronze stud Bronze panels Blue glass bead LRA sherd Lignite bracelet

Dates

Amber bead Bone comb Whale-bone plaque Bone spindle whorl/bead Bone needle

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

285

11th/12th C 9th C

Clanrolla, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: J0744562662 (30744/36266) SMR No: ARM 003:001 References: Neill 2009; Lynn 1981-82. Located on an exposed position on a promontory which projects into Lough Neagh, this had originally been a circular monument, but the removal of material by previous land-owners and by roadworks has left a Dshaped mound. The raised rath stands 5m above the base of the surrounding ditch, and the current top measures 15m in diameter. This had been converted during the eighteenth century into a sheltered arbour or viewing platform. A large amount of souterrain ware sherds was recovered from the mound.

Fig. G.109: Plan and section of Clanrolla (after Neill 2009)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

286

stone cashel, although this wall may also have been a stone revetment, 0.8m in height. The occupation surface was within a brown loamy and stony layer, within which there was a built hearth with ashy material around it, all overlaid by sand and clay. The uppermost surface of the crannog was enclosed by a stone wall in the manner of a cashel.

‘Clea Lakes’ (Tullyveery td), Co. Down Grid Ref: J50995494 (35099/35494) SMR No: DOW 024:021 Reference: Collins & Proudfoot 1959. The early medieval crannog of Clea Lakes was excavated in June 1956 as part of the County Down Archaeological Survey research programme. The crannog had already been excavated in the nineteenth century, when finds including bronze pins, a stone disc and both early medieval souterrain ware and medieval coarse ware were found. Pat Collins and Bruce Proudfoot’s excavations were limited to a narrow trench into the occupation deposits and down to the lower surface. The crannog was located in a small lake lying in the drumlins to the west of Strangford Lough, two km north-west of the coastal town of Killyleagh, Co. Down.

Most of the finds were from the pre-occupation, substructural midden deposit, though some were from the sandy deposit above this. The artefacts were all of early medieval date. They included 61 sherds of souterrain ware, two crucibles used for bronze-working as indicated by the reddish staining of bronze dross, a bronze sheet fragment, an iron-socketed gouge (possible used in wood-turning), three bone pins (from pig fibulae), a glass bead, a lignite bracelet, a piece of rotary quern, a perforated stone loom weight, two spindle whorls, slate discs, nine whetstones, 36 pieces of flint with steep edge-bruising used as strike-a-lights (as well as a Neolithic thumbnail scraper and Late Mesolithic Bann flakes), a tracked stone and a stone pebble used as a ‘linen polisher’. Previous or ‘old’ finds from the site included souterrain ware, a stone disc, a bronze pin and a bone pin.

The site was artificially constructed by depositing subsoil, freshly-quarried rock-chips and a thin layer of peat over the natural boulder clay. This was covered by a layer of occupation debris or topsoil, a peaty sealing layer, overlain by a 1m-thick deposit of midden material. It was suggested that this midden material had been transported there from another settlement site in the vicinity. The occupation surface was enclosed within a wall built in the manner of an early medieval

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Two bronze-working crucibles

Souterrain ware Whetstone rough-out Iron gouge used in wood-turning? Bone pins? Plate for bone comb? Two spindle whorls Loom weight Pebble ‘linen-polisher’

Industrial Processing Table

287

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron gouge Bronze sheet fragment Bronze pin Glass bead Four fragments of glass bracelets Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Granite quernstone (Mourne?) Loom weight Two spindle whorls Nine whetstones

Dates

Four bone pins

Small finds Table

Fig. G.112: Stone disc and spindle whorls from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, figs 2 & 3)

Fig. G.110: Bone objects from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, fig. 2)

Fig. G.111: Iron wood-working (?) gouge from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, fig. 3) Fig. G.113: Inscribed stone discs from Clea Lakes (after Collins & Proudfoot 1959, figs 2 & 4)

288

A possible rectangular building of post-and-slot construction was found within the interior of this enclosure; and a huge circular building (40m across) has been interpreted as the rígtech, or royal house. There was evidence for bronze-working within the enclosure, and iron- and glass-working were conducted inside the hilltop fort, but outside the enclosure. There is currently no published information on the quantities of waste or features connected with these activities. The construction of the ‘inauguration mound’ would appear to date to this phase of occupation, and excavations on it discovered the presence of a small circular wooden ‘hut’ on its summit. Several phases of roads were uncovered during the excavations – a bronze ‘button’ in the shape of a beetle was found in the earliest one – including a cobbled entranceway. The gateway into the enclosure would originally appear to have been set into a six-post wooden tower. This would appear to be an original feature since the earliest of the wooden gateposts recovered from the entrance was associated with sherds of E-ware.

Clogher (Clogher Demesne td), Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H53875133 (25387/35133) SMR No: TYR 058:033 References: Warner 1971:032; 1972:031; 1973:033; 1973; 1974:037; 1975:035; 1979; 2000; Bonner 2001. Research excavations were undertaken over a number of seasons on the hilltop fort at Clogher, Co. Tyrone. The site is located to the rear of the modern cathedral, and had long been assumed to be the royal site of the Airghialla tribes of mid-Ulster. An early medieval enclosure had been set within the banks of the earlier hillfort which showed evidence for an Iron Age construction/ occupation. Excavations through the bank, and interior, of the internal enclosure revealed a multiplicity of phases and features. The earliest internal enclosure would appear to have been delimited by a palisade trench, 30m in diameter, with an associated wide external ditch. A low external bank beyond the ditch may have been timber-framed and also may show evidence for another external palisade. A rim sherd of a small amphora found from this phase of occupation suggests that the site had prestigious, international contacts. The artefactual remains suggest that this enclosure was still in use by the mid sixth century – a sherd of Late Roman Amphora (B-ware), and a D-type penannular brooch (after Kilbride-Jones 1980), was found in the upper fill of the ditch. Large quantities of fragments of penannular brooches, and a late-Roman bronze bracelet, have been interpreted as evidence for a brooch factory. Part of the hilltop fort ditch appears to have been re-used during this phase as an area for iron smelting, and at least two furnaces were found from this period, and others were implied from the excavation. A large dump bank was then created outside the ambit of the earlier ditch which was in-filled with yellow clay (the ‘Clogher Yellow Layer’). The material for this appears to have been obtained from a deep outer ditch which now defined an enclosure with an internal diameter of approximately 50m. Sherds of E-ware sealed by this bank suggest a sixth/mid seventh-century construction date. Connections with contemporary continental Europe may also be indicated by the discovery of two iron bull-head mounts (originally believed to be from a Belgic ‘fire-dog’ of earlier date, but now interpreted as belonging to a standard), as well as an iron spearhead of Gaulish form.

Fig. G.114: Excavation plan of Clogher (after Bonner 2001, 19)

289

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-835

Context Primary silting of ringditch

14C Date 1515±120 BP

UB-838

Early ringditch fill

1770±65 BP

UB-841

Later ringditch fill

1770±90 BP

UB-842 UB-844 UB-2033 UB-2034 UB-2035 UB-2036

Late ringfort occupation Charcoal with iron smelting Late ringditch fill=2034 Late ringditch fill=2033 Early ringfort occupation Earliest ringfort occupation

1635±65 BP 1555±45 BP 1725±115 BP 1670±70 BP 1440±45 BP 1710±75 BP

UB-2038

Ringfort occupation

1260±70 BP

UB-2176

Associated with quartz pebbles

1335±65 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Two smelting furnaces

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 251–715; A.D. 744–768 A.D. 88–103; A.D. 122–411 A.D. 35; A.D. 53–436; A.D. 489–510; A.D. 517–529 A.D. 255–559 A.D. 415–598 A.D. 61–566 A.D. 218–553 A.D. 544–662 A.D. 133–444; A.D. 447–464; A.D. 482–533 A.D. 649–897; A.D. 921–944 A.D. 596–830; A.D. 836–868

Radiocarbon Dates

Fragments of bronze penannular brooches

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery

Object Iron mounts Iron spear Fragments of bronze penannular brooches Late-Roman bronze bracelet Bronze button One sherd LRA Sherds of E-ware

Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 290

Dates

was visible on the site. The ditch of this oval-shaped enclosure contained a sequence of fills along its entire length.

Clogher, Lixnaw, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: Q89502940 (08950/12940) SMR No: N/A References: Coyne 2004:0774; Collins & Coyne 2007.

A number of pits, post-holes and other isolated features were scattered across the site. The majority contained sterile deposits of unknown function and no structures could be identified from the post-holes. Several curving features were excavated in the interior of the enclosure and may date to the original occupation of the site.

A previously unrecorded enclosure at Clogher was identified during initial monitoring and testing in advance of a residential development. The site was situated on a low hill surrounded by marsh on its northern and western sides, and revealed evidence for an enclosure with associated burials, a possible metal-working pit, keyholeshaped kiln and a complex of pits and post-holes.

A small iron-working furnace was uncovered to the northeast of the enclosure and had been truncated by a modern drain. A keyhole-shaped kiln was also excavated to the northeast of the enclosure.

The excavated portion comprised just over half of the eastern side of the enclosure measuring 40m by 50m, and the original diameter of the enclosure was estimated at about 70m. Few definite archaeological features could be identified in the enclosure interior as the site had been heavily truncated by intensive agricultural activity in recent centuries.

The skeletal remains of at least 21 individuals, with an additional ten possible grave-cuts, were concentrated in the south-western quadrant of the enclosure interior. All the grave-cuts were aligned east-west, apart from one north-south example. The human remains were poorly preserved due to the acidic conditions of the soil, but men, women and children were all represented.

The earliest feature on site consisted of a small circular ditch (1.4m wide and 0.65m deep) which enclosed an area 21m by 10m. The site was subsequently remodelled and an outer ditch (3m–4m wide and 1m deep) was constructed. This enclosed a large oval-shaped area (52.5m by 52m), although the full extent of this enclosure was not established. It was assumed that the entrance lay outside of the excavated area to the west, as no entrance Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron-working furnace

A large number of cultivation furrows, drains and linear trenches criss-crossed the site and appear to have been associated with later agricultural activity, particularly relating to the use of the site as a domestic garden in recent centuries. Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

291

selected de-fleshed skeletal remains without artefacts upon the floor of the cave. The skeletal material was left exposed on the cave floor and spanned the early fifth century to the ninth century; the earliest date stands alone and could possibly represent a very early usage of the cave. The early burials from the ‘Graveyard’ were subsequently mixed together with the later burials from the ‘Two-Star Temple’ and produced radiocarbon dates from the seventh/ninth century.

Cloghermore, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: Q906128 (09060/11280) SMR No: KE030-068; KE030-069 References: Connolly 2000; Connolly & Coyne 2000; Connolly et al 2005. A cave and D-shaped enclosure at Cloghermore revealed considerable early medieval funerary and burial activity associated with an eighth/ninth-century pagan Irish community and a late ninth/tenth-century Scandinavian family. The excavations were undertaken in 1999 and 2000 following the discovery of human remains inside the cave. The main excavated areas comprised trenches across the enclosure and around the cave entrance shaft as well as a series of excavated areas within the entrance passages and the two internal chambers.

The second phase centres on the later ninth/mid tenth century, and is indicative of the use of the cave by a small pagan community – possibly Scandinavian – consisting of at least four adults and three sub-adults with gravegoods, as well as a possible cremation burial. It is characterised by the interment of complete bodies with artefacts and complex burial rites involving the cremation of animals and the interment of parts of horses. The clay appears to have been introduced in the second phase either to cover the burials inserted in the final phase of activity or to cover the earlier burials and provide a clean surface; all of the artefacts and most of the skeletal material were recovered from this deposit. It appears that the burials were disturbed or possibly intentionally desecrated at a later date, perhaps by the native population. A sub-circular setting of stones covered by a number of larger slabs and containing a black deposit of cremated animal bone, charcoal and ash was excavated inside the ‘Graveyard’. The black deposit appears to have derived from a funerary pyre outside the entrance shaft. Although no human bone was recovered, it was suggested that the feature could possibly have been the site of a human cremation burial. Amber beads were recovered from the deposit. Un-burnt horse bone and a horse tooth were also found around and within the stone setting.

Fig. G.115: Plan of cave at Cloghermore showing excavated areas (after Connolly et al 2005, 10) The cave consists of 375m of fossil passages situated under a large limestone reef (located now at 51m OD). The main entrance is through a narrow cleft on the northern side of the reef with two recorded chambers to the south – the ‘Two-Star Temple’ and the ‘Graveyard’. A second, unrecorded entrance was discovered at the southern terminal inside a D-shaped enclosure on the south-facing side of the reef. This enclosure consisted of a broad bank scarped out of the side of the reef which measured 16.8m by 28m internally, and 34.8m by 44.8m externally.

The entrance gallery and its related alcoves were also used for burial during the second phase, producing large amounts of animal and human bone. Artefacts from the entrance gallery included an amber bead, pendant whetstone, stone bead, stone spindle whorl, stone disc bead, rotary quern fragment, bone bead, decorated bone handle, decorated bone gaming-piece, bone comb fragments, antler pin-beater, iron rings, iron knives, iron shears, iron bucket-handle, shaft of a bronze pin, metal stud with textile attached and a blue glass bead with yellow paste decoration. The two principal features comprised a sub-rectangular pit and a fully articulated skeleton.

There was no clear stratigraphy within the cave which precluded the possibility of a detailed sequence of deposition within the cave. Both the ‘Graveyard’ and the ‘Two-Star Temple’ chambers appear to have originally contained little or no sediment. A clay deposit was introduced into the cave (possibly in the second phase of activity) though minimal amounts were found in the deepest chamber (‘Two-Star Temple’) or the gallery connecting it to the ‘Graveyard’. Two phases of burial were advanced though there was evidently a short span of time between both, with the possibility existing that the site was in continuous use in this period.

A sub-rectangular pit was uncovered inside the cave entrance. It contained a quantity of animal bone as well as the remains of one adult – bones from the foot – and three sub-adults – the torso of a young child and the metatarsals of two children. The pit also produced a large number of finds including an antler spindle whorl, fragments of double-sided comb teeth-plates, a bonepoint, bone-pin, bone gaming-piece, decorated doublesided antler comb, part of iron shears, iron knives and a red jasper fragment. Charcoal from the base of the pit

The first phase of burial activity may date to the fifth century, but centres on the eighth/ninth centuries and was associated with the use of the use of the ‘Two-Star Temple’ and ‘Graveyard’ chambers as ossuaries of a small pagan Irish population. The phase was characterised by the disarticulation and deposition of 292

A circular depression appears to have then been excavated at roughly the same time around the opening of the cave to facilitate the construction of a drystone-walled entrance shaft (1.77m in maximum height, 1.3m wide at the top and 0.6m wide at the base). The depression was then backfilled with the black deposit from the pyre containing charcoal and cremated animal bone. The drystone-walled entrance shaft was finally sealed by three capstones and was overlaid by the black deposit from the pyre containing two perforated bone needles and a struck flint pebble.

produced a radiocarbon date of 1140±60 BP. The deposits in the pit were sealed and appear to have had a ritualistic function. A fully articulated skeleton was uncovered inside and to the east of the cave entrance. Two stones uncovered on the north-eastern side of the torso either formed part of a setting or were used to prevent the body from rolling down-slope. Charcoal from the fragmentary remains of a second adult from soil over the articulated burial produced a radiocarbon date of 1180±40 BP. Charcoal from the base of the shallow grave-cut of the articulated skeleton produced a radiocarbon date of 1150±60 BP, which could indicate that bone from an earlier burial was either disturbed or mixed in with the soil covering the burial during the interment or was deliberately included as part of the burial ritual.

The construction of the D-shaped enclosure also appears to have been roughly contemporary with the funerary activity outside the entrance shaft and the latest burials inside the cave. The enclosure consisted of two banks of earth and stone divided by a rock-cut ditch, and a shallow drain-like feature was uncovered outside the bank which may have been used to divert water downslope away from the enclosure. Three shallow post-holes were uncovered between the outer bank and the external drain, charcoal from which produced a ninth/tenth-century date. The central location of the entrance shaft in the enclosure, and the recovery of a whetstone from the make-up of the inner bank, supports this c. tenth-century date for the enclosure. Similarly, the recovery of fragments of cremated bone in the fills of the post-holes as well as in the ditch between the two banks suggests that this evidence was roughly contemporary with the funerary activity outside the entrance shaft.

Artefacts associated with the articulated skeleton included a small carved stone vessel or crucible, a boatshaped whetstone, two copper-alloy pins, a copperalloyed ringed-pin, a small copper-alloy button, an iron knife and a fragment of an iron shield boss. Fragments of a copper-alloy buckle tang were found in the soil immediately above the articulated skeleton. Many of the latest burials from within the cave were from areas immediately inside the entrance with the latest from Area T producing a date of 1020±40 BP. It appears that the burials near the mouth of the cave entrance may have been associated with the ritual sealing of the entrance shaft. Artefacts from the fill of the entrance shaft included two bone pins, a whetstone, a copper-alloy fragment and decorated bone comb fragments.

The cremated and un-cremated animal bone from Cloghermore is distinct from other animal bone assemblages of the period as it showed sheep as the most common animal. It also showed that the slaughter of young animals – mainly lambs and piglets – was common practice and is perhaps indicative of ritual activity and feasting. The considerable quantity and diversity of the grave-goods indicate the richly furnished burials of possibly Scandinavian craft-workers, warriors, females and children.

The later ninth/tenth-century cave burials were associated with a complex series of funerary activities outside the cave opening involving the cremation of animal bone in a funerary pyre and the construction and closure of the drystone-walled entrance shaft. The remains of a substantial walled structure defined by a slot-trench were uncovered on the south-eastern side of the entrance shaft. It appears to have been deliberately dismantled – it was cut by the pyre flue and its material re-used in the construction of a pyre situated inside a sub-circular depression. A second, shorter slot-trench together with a number of post- and stake-holes were possibly contemporary with the pyre and may have supported a platform over the fire or formed the corners of a wooden pyre structure. The side-plate of a decorated bone comb was uncovered from inside the fill of the shorter slot-trench. Fragments of cremated bone, burnt iron fragments and part of a bone spindle whorl were recovered from the pyre remains. Excavated finds to the east of the entrance shaft also included an iron anvil and a quern stone. Charcoal from the pyre remains (1160±60 BP) indicates that it is broadly contemporary with the latest cave burials.

Fig. G.116: Plan of D-shaped enclosure and entrance shaft showing areas excavated at Cloghermore (after Connolly et al 2005, 6)

293

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-132903 Beta-137044

Context Human bone from Area X Human bone from the Graveyard – Area A

14C Date 1150±40 BP 1270±40 BP

Beta-137045

Human bone from the Graveyard – Area B

1190±50 BP

Beta-137046

Human bone from the Graveyard – Area C/D

1140±40 BP

Beta-137047

Human bone from the Graveyard – Area B

1210±40 BP

Beta-137048

Human bone from entrance shaft

1190±40 BP

Beta-137049

Human bone from Two-Star Temple – Area E

1260±50 BP

Beta-137051 Beta-137052 Beta-137053

Human bone from Two-Star Temple – Area G Human bone from the Graveyard – Area B Human bone from the Graveyard – Area B

1220±40 BP 1550±50 BP 1330±50 BP

Beta-137054

Charcoal from Trench I, post-hole

1130±60 BP

Beta-137055 Beta-137056

Charcoal from the Graveyard – Area A Animal bone from cremation deposit

1240±50 BP 1170±60 BP

Beta-137057

Human bone from the Graveyard – Area A

1360±40 BP

Beta-150535

Charcoal from Trench 3, pyre site

1160±60 BP

Beta-150536

Charcoal from Area W

1150±60 BP

Beta-150537

Charcoal from Area V

1140±60 BP

Beta-150538

Human bone from Area W

1180±40 BP

Beta-150539

Human bone from Area T

1020±40 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Possible crucible

Pins Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table 294

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 778–980 A.D. 662–828; A.D. 838–866 A.D. 690–751; A.D. 762–905; A.D. 912–970 A.D. 779–794; A.D. 800–987 A.D. 687–895; A.D. 925–936 A.D. 694–700; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–902; A.D. 916–967 A.D. 665–878 A.D. 685–892 A.D. 410–609 A.D. 608–780; A.D. 792–805 A.D. 729–735; A.D. 772–1020 A.D. 669–889 A.D. 692–749; A.D. 763–989 A.D. 606–717; A.D. 743–769 A.D. 694–703; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–994 A.D. 716–744; A.D. 768–1015 A.D. 722–740; A.D. 770–1018 A.D. 717–743; A.D. 768–907; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 898–920; A.D. 944–1052; A.D. 1081–1128; A.D. 1135–1152 Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron fragments Iron arrowhead Iron rings Iron knives Copper-alloy ringed pins Copper-alloy fragments Hack silver and two silver ingots Glass beads Stone spindle whorls Whetstone pendant Stone beads Amber bead Bone combs Bone plaque Ivory bead Bone bead Bone handle Bone pins Antler pin beater

‘Small finds’ Table

295

Dates

Cloghorr, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: C875397 (28750/43970) SMR No: N/A Reference: Harper 1972b. The existence of a souterrain at Cloghorr was discovered as a result of earthmoving to accommodate a caravan park outside Portrush. Only a rather hurried and generally unsatisfactory investigation was possible in the shadow of a bulldozer.

Fig. G.118: Plan of Cloghorr souterrain (after Harper 1972b) Fig. G.117: Souterrain ware from Cloghorr (after Harper 1972b, fig. 2) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

296

Pits, post-holes and gullies were located to the south-west of the penannular enclosure. It is unclear as yet if they are contemporary with the cemetery. A wide, shallow ditch – 24.5m in length and 5.9m wide – was found downslope. It produced three sherds of Leinster cooking ware indicating later medieval activity at the site. Thirty-six artefacts were retrieved from this site and most were associated with the western arc of the penannular ditch. These included iron pins, a needle, chain links, a bone pin and a fragment of a bone pendant.

Cloncowan, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N75494931 (275497/249316) SMR No: ME042-031 References: Baker 2007b; 2007c. An initial topographical survey at Cloncowan in advance of the gas pipeline to the west identified a distinct platform approximately 30m in diameter and 0.5m high. Excavation of its eastern quadrant revealed 34 features of archaeological interest. The results indicate that a Bronze Age ringditch became the focus of a burial ground during the early medieval period. The site was on the east-facing slope of a north-south gravel ridge.

Three radiocarbon dates from Cloncowan indicate that the ringditch was constructed during the Bronze Age and re-visited and adopted as a cemetery in the early medieval period.

The main focus of the site was a penannular ditch. Its western arc extended for 3.4m and contained seven fills. Three pieces of chert and a piece of flint were recovered from its fill. The longer eastern arc extended for 10m and three phases were identified in the ditch. The primary fill included charcoal-rich, silty clay which contained frequent burnt and un-burnt bone. A number of artefacts were retrieved including a bone spindle whorl. The second deposit was identified as the result of slippage. The final phase, which incorporated a re-cut of the ditch, contained 13 burials. Three further graves were enclosed by the penannular ditch. There was no consistency in their alignment and eight were interred in graves that truncated the cut of the ditch. Ear-muff stones were present by the head in one grave while another contained a pillow-stone. The burials have been preliminarily identified as five adults, seven juveniles and four neonates.

Fig. G.119: Excavation at Cloncowan (after Baker 2007b, 321)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-4990 UB-4992

14C

Context N/A N/A

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1538±42 BP 1555±24 BP

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Pins

Spindle whorl Needle

Industrial Processing Table 297

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 424–604 A.D. 429–560 Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron awl Iron nails Two copper-alloy rings

Spindle whorl Two bone pins

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

298

Dates

finds are medieval in date and indicate that the wall could have been constructed or repaired in this period.

Clonmoney West, Co. Clare Grid Ref: R43106231 (143104/162317) SMR No: N/A Reference: Murphy & O’Neill 2001.

Linear features in the adjacent field may represent part of a settlement enclosure. The character of the finds from the stone wall and the underlying deposit suggests that these features may have had a domestic function. A number of hearths, pits, drainage ditches, spreads, postand stake-holes were also excavated close by in the same townland and produced thirteenth- to sixteenth-century radiocarbon dates, confirming late medieval activity in this area.

Topsoil stripping on a promontory overlooking the River Shannon in the townland of Clonmoney West in advance of road works revealed evidence for a fourth- to seventhcentury deposit, an early/late medieval stone wall, two post-medieval field walls and undated burnt spreads. The stone wall stretched along the northern side of the site for a length of 30m and had an average width of 2.2m. The wall overlay a silty-clay deposit containing charcoal, animal bone and cremated bone. An eighth/ninth-century copper-alloy ring-pin and a polished stone axe flake were recovered from the deposit, and radiocarbon dates from charcoal from this deposit fell into the fourth and fifth century (see below). It could not be clearly established if the stone wall was contemporary with this deposit. An incised rotary quernstone fragment, a roof tile, an Anglo-Norman ‘Edward III’ coin and a whetstone were recovered from the wall. Some of these

Two spreads containing oxidized clay, small stones and charcoal were uncovered to the south of the postmedieval walls, overlying the natural boulder clay. The spreads do not appear to have been related to the postmedieval walls and may represent areas of burning. A small quantity of animal bone fragments was recovered from the early medieval deposit and overlying stone wall and comprised bone from cattle, sheep/goat, pig and horse with some limited evidence for butchery marks.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-161999

Context Charcoal from silty brown deposit underlying stone wall

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

14C

Date 1590±60 BP

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

299

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 337–602

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Copper-alloy ring pin

8th/9th C

Incised rotary quernstone Whetstone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.121: Copper-alloy ring pin from Clonmoney West (after Murphy & O’Neill 2001)

Fig. G.120: Inscribed rotary quernstone fragment from Clonmoney West (after Murphy & O’Neill 2001)

300

Cloonaghboy, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: 140619/300541 SMR No: MA062:058 Reference: Gillespie 2011a. Excavation on the bivallate rath at Cloonaghboy was carried out in advance of the N5 roadway. The internal diameter of the rath was revealed to be between 30m and 36m, surrounded by two substantial ditches, and the site also included a souterrain. Charcoal from the main fill of the outer ditch produced a radiocarbon date in the late sixth/early seventh century, while a radiocarbon date from the inner ditch lay in the late seventh/eighth century.

Fig. G.122: Bivallate rath at Cloonaghboy (after Gillespie 2011a)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GrA-35590

Context Fill of souterrain post-hole

14C Date 1265±30 BP

GrA-35588

Fill of souterrain post-hole

1365±30 BP

GrA-35570 GrA-5587

Fill of inner ditch Upper fill of outer ditch

1290±30 BP 1430±35 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

301

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 667–783; A.D. 788–820; A.D. 842–859 A.D. 611–690; A.D. 752–761 A.D. 663–775 A.D. 567–659

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Corroded iron knives

Quernstone fragments

Antler pin

‘Small finds’ Table

302

Dates

cast from the re-cut of the ditch, and overlay a refuse pit which included a broken rotary quernstone and animal bone. A seventh/eighth-century date was recovered from burnt bone from this pit (see below), giving a terminus ante quem for the construction of the banked enclosure.

Cloongownagh, Co. Roscommon Grid Ref: M90649997 (190644/299970) SMR No: RO011-160002 References: Henry 1999:765; Lennon 2000:0849; Lennon & Henry 2000; 2001.

The interior of the enclosure had been damaged by subsequent agriculture and the early medieval structural remains consist of two possible post-holes and four slottrenches. The main feature that could be clearly identified to the early medieval period was a linear trench of unknown length (the trench extended into the unexcavated portion of the site). The excavated part of this trench (9.2m long by 1.1m wide by 1.1m deep) was filled with a series of silts and clays, into which were set a series of upright posts and wooden planks, one of which was radiocarbon dated to the eighth/ninth century (see below). Three other slot-trenches were uncovered in the interior, including one which may have been associated with a series of post-holes.

A large, sub-rectangular earthwork (64m in diameter, and defined by a ditch (2.3m in width and 1m to 1.55m in depth)) was identified during field-walking. Excavation of half of the enclosure was required in order to facilitate road building. A number of phases of occupation were identified under excavation, ranging from the prehistoric (there was evidence for Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age occupation), through the early medieval period, and into the post-medieval. An earthen bank (2.75m to 3.5m in width) appears to have been constructed around this time within the ambit of a prehistoric ditch which also appears to have been recut during the early medieval period. Radiocarbon dates from the basal fills of the ditch, below the re-cut, suggest that it had originally been excavated during the Iron Age. The later bank appears to have been created from the up-

Iron slag and a fragment of a quernstone were recovered from the fill of the early medieval re-cut ditch. Radiocarbon dates from the upper layers of the ditch fill suggest that the early medieval site may have been abandoned by the eleventh or twelfth century.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UCD-00106

Context Wooden plank from slot-trench

14C

UCD-00107 UCD-00108

Wooden plank from slot-trench Ditch in-fill

1185±80 BP 1050±80 BP

UCD-00111 UCD-00113

Ditch in-fill Burnt bone from pit under bank

1180±80 BP 1360±67 BP

Quoted in Lennon & Henry 2000 Quoted in Lennon & Henry 2000

Wooden plank from slot-trench

1165±45 BP

Burnt bone from pit under bank

1339±50 BP

Date 1305±67 BP

303

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 623–628; A.D. 631–884 A.D. 673–991 A.D. 779–794; A.D. 801–1161 A.D. 674–994 A.D. 550–782; A.D. 789–811; A.D. 846–855 A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–984 A.D. 604–778

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Lignite bracelet Two quernstones

‘Small finds’ Table

304

rubbing stones?) were found in the ash and overlying silt. These deposits had been subsequently buried by stone collapse and peat.

Coarhabeg, Valentia Island, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V349758 (03490/07580) SMR No: N/A References: Hayden 1994; 1994:119; Mitchell 1989.

Cell 2 (1.5m by 1.4m) adjoined Cell 1 at its northwest end. Its walls survived to a maximum height of 0.8m, and would appear to have been built at the same time as the north wall of Cell 1. The 0.8m-wide entrance to this cell was located in the northeast corner and was defined by an in situ jamb stone at its western side. The cell had a roughly paved internal surface, and a stone spindle whorl and a number of water-worn stones were recovered from a 120mm-thick deposit overlying the paving. As with Cell 1, the occupation layer was buried under collapsed stone and a deposit of peat.

A small unenclosed early medieval clochán was excavated in Coarhabeg townland on Valentia Island just off the southern tip of the Iveragh peninsula. The excavation was undertaken on behalf of and in conjunction with research by G.F. Mitchell of Trinity College Dublin in Valentia Island. The site was situated 500m from the coast in an area of cut-away bog, in the vicinity of a late prehistoric landscape of field boundaries, huts and track-ways. St. Brendan’s Well and its stone crosses were also situated 500m to the north.

The fragmentary remains of a third sub-rectangular or oval-shaped structure (Cell 3) were uncovered to the west of the southwest corner of Cell 1. This cell is likely to have measured 3.4m by 2.7m internally, and the entrance was probably in the south wall where a large pillar-like stone was uncovered.

The stone building survived as a 0.5m-high rectangular mound with stones protruding through its capping of peat. Excavation opened an area measuring a maximum of 11.2m by 10.2m, revealing a stone building consisting of three conjoined cells. The walls of two of the cells (1 and 2) were still visible in the northern half of the site but those of cell 3 in the southern half had completely collapsed. The interior and entrances of Cells 1 and 2 were completely excavated; Cell 3 was cleared of peat but not further excavated.

The large amount of stone collapse within the interior and exterior of the buildings suggests that the cells originally contained corbelled roofs. The dark blue glass bead and the available radiocarbon date indicate an early medieval date for the building.

The dry-stone walls of the trapezoidal central cell (Cell 1) (maximum internal dimensions of 3.4m by 2.8m) survived to a maximum 2m wide and 1m high. A stonelined hearth was revealed in the northwest corner of the cell. Large vertically-set flat slabs faced the interior of the wall in places and also the entrance passage (2.6m by 1.2m). The entrance passage and the area immediately outside the entrance were paved with flat slabs. Spreads of ash occurred throughout the cell and to some extent in the entrance passage and on the paving outside the cell on its south and west sides. Fragmentary calcified animal and fish bones were found in the ash adjacent to the hearth with another small patch of animal bone recovered near where the entrance passage met the cell. The burnt material yielded a two-sigma calibrated date of A.D. 562 to A.D. 758 (see below). Finds from the interior of Cell 1 consisted of an unfinished stone spindle whorl and three struck fragments of flint. A blue glass bead, a fragment of blue glass and a small flint blade were found in the ash in the entrance passage. A number of water-worn pebbles (possible

Fig. G.123: Plan of Coarhabeg clochán (after Hayden 1994, 24)

Radiocarbon Dates: Sample No. GrN21031

Context Burnt deposit adjacent to hearth

305

14C

?

Date

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 562–758

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Blue glass bead Spindle whorls

‘Small finds’ Table

306

and seventh centuries, and a fragment of E-ware, which dates to the mid sixth and seventh centuries. Another prestige item was a rare complete whale-bone sword hilt which survived in two pieces.

Collierstown 1, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N94745882 (294743/258825) SMR No: N/A References: O’Hara 2008a; 2009a; 2009b.

F288 – This curvilinear ditch appeared continuous with the above but they were two separate ditches. It measured 16m by 1.8m by 0.75m and was orientated east-west. The primary cut contained both burnt and un-burnt animal bone. The re-cut contained small amounts of animal bone, of which frequent amounts were burnt, charcoal and traces of land snail and shellfish. Finds included fragments of unidentified iron objects, a flint flake and a bone gorge used for fishing.

Collierstown 1, excavated in advance of the M3 road scheme, was a cemetery that was utilised from potentially the mid fifth until the late ninth century. The burial ground was initially constructed as a number of segmented ditches, possibly beneath a mound, and expanded through a succession of enclosures to incorporate a larger number of interments. The site was situated on a slight ridge on the east bank of the Gabhra River at 120m OD.

F195 – This ditch was orientated approximately northeast-southwest and followed the alignment of the Phase 1 enclosure ditch. It measured 11.1m by 1.36m by 0.56m and was re-cut twice. The primary deposit contained one fill and included a small quantity of animal bone. The first re-cut was similarly devoid of finds but the final re-cut included fragments of Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware). The latter fills also contained quantities of charred oats, barley and assorted grasses. The low number of charred weed seeds and chaff fragments suggested the grains had been processed prior to their incorporation in the ditch. This could be interpreted as domestic or agricultural waste on the site, but may potentially relate to ritual feasting when placed in the context of the presence of animal bone (the majority was from food waste and only a small quantity showed evidence for butchery) and the ritual deposition of sherds of imported pottery.

The earliest burial at Collierstown 1 was a female who was centrally placed within an area defined by two shallow curvilinear ditches that formed an enclosure (Phase I enclosure; 15m by 17m). The enclosure was roughly circular-shaped in plan with a potential entrance to the north. Finds from the ditch fills included quantities of animal bone, trace inclusions of charcoal, and a sherd of Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware). The latter was from a later deposit and probably relates to subsequent phases. The female burial (dated to A.D. 423–594) was in a simple extended unlined grave and was orientated westeast. She was buried with a deposit of burnt clay, charcoal and burnt pig bone covering the pelvic area and so was potentially non-Christian. A low mound may have covered this grave because later burials were inserted into stratigraphically higher levels. A further eight inhumations, extended west-east and in dug and partially stone-lined graves, were interred centrally within the Phase I enclosure and represent the first phase of burial activity at Collierstown (Group 1 burials). The absence of children within this group suggested it was not a familial plot but may have been reserved for socially high-ranking adult members of the community (Elizabeth O’Brien, pers. comm.) This enclosure was largely truncated by later enclosures which, for a time, maintained a similar shape.

F24 – This curvilinear ditch measured 9.5m by 2.13m by 0.44m and was located 4m east of, and approximately concentric with, F63. It was re-cut at least once. Two deposits from the original cut contained trace amounts of charcoal and animal bone, some of which was again burnt. The first re-cut had a single fill with inclusions of animal bone, charcoal and burnt bone. The latter was unidentified but is likely to be animal. Other finds were small fragments of iron and copper-alloy objects. This ditch could represent an extension of the Phase II enclosure in an effort to provide more space within an increasingly congested cemetery, possibly for the Group 3 interments (see below).

Phase II witnessed the construction of a series of curvilinear, segmented ditches that were broadly contemporary and were re-cut on a number of occasions (Phase II enclosure; ditch feature numbers F24, F63, F195, F196, F288). Many of the ditches cut through and maintained the shape of Enclosure 1.

F196 – This was a short ditch or pit that measured 5.06m by 1.42m by 0.75m and was located immediately northwest of the western terminal of F195. It is unlikely that F196 and F195 are contemporary due to their proximity and relative positioning, so it may represent an expansion of the site in the same manner as F24. It contained seven deposits. Animal bone was found in most contexts along with lesser quantities of burnt animal bone and charcoal. Artefacts included Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware) and a further fragment of an iron object. This feature was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 402– 568.

F63 – The first north-south curvilinear ditch measured 24m by 2.38m by 0.68m (length by width by depth) and was re-cut once. The primary deposit included moderate to frequent amounts of animal bone, some of which was burnt, and traces of charcoal. The latter was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 427–608. The ditch re-cut fill included burnt and un-burnt animal bone and a tiny quantity of slag, which suggests possible evidence for iron working at the site during this phase. High-status artefacts included two sherds of imported pottery. These were identified as a rim sherd of Phocaean Red Slip Ware, produced in the eastern Mediterranean between the fifth 307

The last group of 12 burials may have been roughly contemporary with the Phase III enclosure. Infants – for the first time – were interred and this was a mixed cemetery that possibly represented an extended family across a generation. The graves were a mix of dug and stone- and wood-lined examples and they cut through one of the Phase II enclosure’s eastern ditches. The burial of an adult male was dated to A.D. 687–895 while another was dated to A.D. 540–654.

A comb side-plate fragment found in a pit less than 2m south of the southern terminal of the above dates to the sixth or seventh century. The second group of burials encircled the Group 1 burials but remained within the Phase I enclosure. The graves contained eight females, five males and one unsexed individual, and were a mix of dug, stone-lined and woodlined graves. The positioning of the Group 2 burials indicated initial knowledge of the location of the Group 1 burials. The recovery of Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware) from the fill of one of the Group 2 graves suggested this burial occurred at the time similar pottery was being deposited in the Phase II Enclosure ditches. Therefore, some of these burials may be contemporary with the second enclosure phase. Preserved oak lining from one grave was dated to A.D. 427–608 while the earth-cut grave of an adult female was dated to A.D. 423–594.

The final and fourth enclosure phase consisted of a re-cut to the Phase III enclosure and an extension of the site southwards in the form of a triangular-shaped enclosure. F25 – This ditch measured 58.5m by 4.5m by 1.3m, and it replaced and removed much of the eastern side of the Phase III enclosure. It contained eight deposits which included animal bone, burnt bone, snail shell and seashell. Finds included flint debitage, a flint end scraper and a copper-alloy spiral-headed ring-pin. Late medieval pottery, an iron spur fragment and post medieval pottery was retrieved from the upper fills, demonstrating that the ditch was open for a long period.

The Group 3 burials were the largest group and consisted of 26 interments. They were formally laid out in rows of approximately five burials each. They were centrally placed within the Phase II enclosure but did not respect the Group 1 burials, which they truncated. The graves were again a mix of dug, stone-lined and wood-lined examples and the cemetery continued to be utilised exclusively for adults. The high-status nature of those within and associated with the burial ground is inferred by the recovery of E-ware, Late Roman Amphora (Biiware) and Phocaean Red Slip Ware in the surrounding ditches (during the mid sixth century AD). A piece of antler was found next to the left hand of a male and was probably a deliberate deposit. A sherd of Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware) was found within the fill of another grave which also contained a large amount of charcoal, although the latter may have been the result of disturbance of another feature or grave fill. The burial of an adult female was dated to A.D. 423–594, and the remains of oak lining from a double male burial were dated to A.D. 559–662.

F360 – This represented the western part of the Phase IV enclosure ditch and measured 54m by 2.35m by 1.1m. It similarly obliterated much of the Phase III enclosure on this side and contained seven deposits of mostly washedin sediment. Charcoal was present as were some uncharred seeds which were dated to A.D. 402–568. The lower deposits contained animal bone and preserved organic material including wood. Artefacts included a wooden stave fragment and a fragment of Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware). A number of features – other than the burials – were situated within the enclosures. Some post-holes were clustered towards the centre of the site but they did not form any coherent structural plan. They may have supported grave markers such as large wooden crosses. A square-shaped enclosure – formed by two L-shaped ditches – was located to the immediate north of the Phase I and II enclosures and measured 6m by 6m. The entrance to the Phase II enclosure was directly opposite the square enclosure entrance. Its ditches contained inclusions of burnt and un-burnt animal bone and charcoal. Artefacts included an iron fragment, possibly from a knife, Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware) and a twisted copper-alloy fragment. The exact function of this feature is unclear but it may have marked the site of a shrine or small wooden church. One hearth and a large number of pits were also scattered throughout the interior of the site but their relationship to other features was unclear.

The Phase III enclosure consisted of a partially surviving ditch that measured 34m by 2.3m by 1.5m. It would have formed a circular-shaped enclosure in plan but only a small portion of this ditch survived because the remainder was extensively truncated by the Phase IV enclosure. This ditch contained a large number of dumped or naturally accumulated deposits. Animal bone was retrieved from many contexts and a quantity of land snail was also identified. Other finds included Late Roman Amphora (Bii-ware) pottery and fragments of iron objects. The ditch provided two radiocarbon dates of AD 569–671 and AD 559–662.

308

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-250161

Context Human bone from central and primary female burial 48

14C Date 1550±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 423–594

Beta-247009

Charcoal from fill of Phase II enclosure ditch

1530±40 BP

A.D. 427–608

Beta-247207

Charcoal from fill of Phase II enclosure ditch

1580±40 BP

A.D. 402–568

Beta-247005

Human bone from burial 47

1530±40 BP

A.D. 427–608

Beta-247008

Human bone from burial 58

1550±40 BP

A.D. 423–594

Beta-247001

Human bone from burial 1

1550±40 BP

A.D. 423–594

Beta-247007

Wood from grave of burial 54

1430±40 BP

A.D. 559–662

Beta-241296

Charcoal from fill of Phase III enclosure ditch

1410±40 BP

A.D. 569–671

Beta-247011

Wood from fill of Phase III enclosure ditch

1430±40 BP

A.D. 559–662

Beta-247002

Human bone from burial 13

1210±40 BP

Beta-247003

Human bone from burial 18

1460±40 BP

A.D. 687–895; A.D. 925–936 A.D. 540–654

Beta-247010

Charcoal from fill of Phase IV enclosure ditch

1580±40 BP

A.D. 402–568

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 588g iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Worked tine Flax seeds

Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.125: Stone loom weight from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a)

Fig. G.124: PRSW sherd from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a) 309

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler

Object Pin shaft Knife blades Unidentified iron objects Copper-alloy ring pin Twisted copper-alloy necklace

Dates

One sherd PRSW Nine sherds LR1 One sherd E-ware Loom weight Wooden stave Whale-bone sword hilt Bone handle Antler comb Antler peg

Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.127: Bronze ringpin and twisted necklace from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a, plate 97)

Fig. G.126: Phases at Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a, fig. 13)

Fig. G.128: Antler and bone objects from Collierstown (after O’Hara 2009a)

310

timber palisade trench was present which increases the likelihood of its interpretation as a livestock enclosure.

Colp West, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O11797415 (31179/27415) SMR No: ME020-043 References: Clarke & Murphy 2001; Murphy 2011; Gowen 1988a; Kinsella 2010.

During Phase II, a large sub-rectangular enclosure was annexed onto the northern side of the circular enclosure. It was not fully excavated and measured 55m by 20m. Animal bone from the ditch fill was dated to A.D. 618– 772. The southern oval enclosure was replaced, during this phase, by a second sub-rectangular enclosure which had a diameter of 15m. It produced a similar date of A.D. 604–725. The large northern sub-rectangular area enclosed a number of features but these were earlier in date than its construction and were also chronologically earlier than the circular enclosure. No features were evident in the southern sub-rectangular enclosure but evidence for a palisade survived. The lack of internal features and occupational evidence from the enclosure ditches suggests these possibly functioned as livestock or field enclosures.

Colp West, excavated in advance of a housing development, was a multi-period enclosure complex that also revealed at least seventeen cereal-drying kilns, postholes, spreads and pits. The early medieval phases included a primary circular enclosure and six variouslyshaped associated enclosures. Some of the kilns were dated to this period. Earlier archaeological evidence included a Bronze Age enclosure, hut and pits, an Iron Age enclosure, cereal-drying kilns and a range of other features. The site was located on agriculturally productive land on a ridge (40m OD) with good views of the surrounding landscape. It lay southwest of an early medieval cemetery (Gowen 1988a) and east of a monastic site.

An undated C-shaped enclosure – measuring 18m in length – cut the above features and possibly represents the final early medieval phase. A decorated blue glass bead was uncovered from the ditch fill. The enclosure ditch was mainly devoid of artefacts and occupational debris.

The circular enclosure, measuring 29m in diameter, and a southern annex represented the first phase of early medieval occupation at Colp West. The former enclosed a souterrain, a hearth and two pits and an entrance was located to the southeast. The latter had a diameter of 20m and no contemporary features were enclosed. Another oval enclosure, further south (not fully excavated, diameter 11.5m), was possibly contemporary with Phase I and was also devoid of features. It is possible that they both functioned as livestock enclosures. Charcoal from silting of the circular enclosure ditch was dated to A.D. 604–725 but the construction date may be slightly earlier (see below for radiocarbon dates). The southern oval annex was similarly dated to A.D. 563–688. Large quantities of animal bone were present in the circular enclosure ditch and cereal grains were also identified. Artefacts included a bronze pin, two knife blades and a whetstone fragment. A fragmentary bone comb with spiral and dot decoration was recovered from the fill of the souterrain. The southern annex produced only a small amount of animal bone. Slight evidence for a

Fig. G.129: Enclosures at Colp West (after Clarke & Murphy 2001)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UB-4673

Context Animal bone from silting of circular enclosure ditch

Date 1357±44 BP

UB-4674

Animal bone from ditch-fill of southern circular enclosure (annexed onto circular enclosure) Animal bone from ditch-fill of northern sub-rectangular enclosure (annexed onto circular enclosure). Animal bone from ditch-fill of southern sub-rectangular enclosure (replaced initial southern annex) Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln

1397±44 BP

UB-4675 UB-4672 Beta159619

311

1345±44 BP 1357±44 BP 1630±80 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 604–725; A.D. 738–771 A.D. 563–688; A.D. 755–756 A.D. 618–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 604–725; A.D. 738–771 A.D. 242–595

Beta159620 Beta159621 Beta159618

Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln

1560±70 BP

Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln

1550±60 BP

A.D. 349–368; A.D. 379–641 A.D. 399–634

Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln

1530±70 BP

A.D. 400–649

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Furnace bottom Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone handle rough-outs Rubbing stone?

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Corroded objects Bronze pin Glass bead

Dates

Whetstone Rubbing stone Two bone handle rough-outs Antler handle

‘Small finds’ Table

312

Conva, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W720998 (17200/9980) SMR No: N/A Reference: Doody 2008. Excavations were undertaken on sites identified from aerial photography and geophysical prospecting, which revealed a group of four enclosures. Enclosure 4 would appear to represent the earliest phase of occupation on the site, and is dated to the early medieval period. This seems to have been overcut by the later enclosures 1 and 2, which were probably excavated after the sixteenth century. Fig. G.130: Enclosures at Conva (after Doody 2008) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3635 UB-3638

14C Date 1388±37 BP 1525±43 BP

Context Fill of upper ditch Enclosure 4 Basal pit fill in Trench 5

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Furnace bases 15kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 586–686 A.D. 427–617

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table 313

bank. Two large square-cut post-holes were recorded at the entrance within the interior of the perpendicular orthostats.

Coolagh, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 135890/227188 SMR No: N/A References: Hardy 2005:579; 2008; 2011.

Radiocarbon dates obtained from charcoal samples taken from underneath the stone circular structure, two postholes close to the cashel entrance and from a layer beneath the large limekiln have produced a date range from the late seventh century to early tenth century AD. A large curving outer annex wall was visible within the dense ash and hazel growth to the south. It survived for a length of 120m enclosing a large sub-oval area to the south and southeast of the cashel. About half way along the annex wall two large stones were positioned perpendicular across the wall at a distance of 5m apart in much the same way as was recorded with the cashel entrance.

Excavation in advance of road building indicated the presence of a large early medieval cashel (53.5m by 60.2m) with an entrance to the east. The external width of the enclosing wall varies from 2.1m–2.6m and had a surviving height of 1.1m–1.4m. There is very little evidence for internal structures although one round stonebuilt feature (Structure A) was recorded in the western half and may represent a roundhouse (6.75m by 6m). This structure, however, seems to have been void of any hearth, pit, post- or stake-holes. Two later limekilns (Structures B & C) were also recorded in the western half of the enclosure.

Two fragments of laminated shale bracelet were found at the cashel, as well as a number of possible pounding, polishing and rubbing stones, suggesting that bracelets may have been produced on site during the early medieval period.

The entrance to the cashel was located on the eastern side of the site and consisted of a simple passage through the bank. It measured 3.3m by2.3m east/west and was identifiable by the placing of two large limestone orthostats perpendicular to the kerbing placed across the Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-7690

Context Charcoal from under Structure A C29

14C Date 1322±32 BP

UB-7691

Charcoal from post-hole in cashel entrance C49

1231±32 BP

UB-7692

Charcoal from post-hole in cashel entrance C51

2744±35 BP

UB-7693

Charcoal under limekiln

1152±32 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working

Direct Evidence 2.25kg slag (smithing) Crucibles

Indirect Evidence

Bracelet making (pounding & polishing stones)

Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

314

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 651–725; A.D. 738–771 A.D. 688–754; A.D. 758–882 975–953 B.C.; 945–814 B.C. A.D. 779–793; A.D. 801–973

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Chisel Knife blade

Dates

Lignite bracelet fragments Hammer stones Whetstone Red jasper bead

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

315

included a ditched enclosure, approximately 32m in diameter, which was dated to the eleventh/twelfth century AD. Five pits were revealed in the interior, one of which appears to have been a dump for metallurgical waste. A series of post-holes and linear trenches were also discovered in the interior, but were not resolved into structural plans.

Coolaholloga, Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 18560/18073 SMR No: N/A Reference: Murphy & Clarke 2001. A number of archaeological sites were uncovered during pre-construction work on the N52 roadway. These Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.131: Plan of enclosures at Coolaholloga (after Murphy & Clarke 2001)

316

were interpreted as potential domestic hearths, rather than furnace bottoms, because of the lack of accompanying iron slag. There was, however, evidence for three furnaces nearby: one was indicated by a concentration of charcoal, iron slag and a fragment of a tuyère, and another appears to have had an associated stake-built structure.

Coolcran, Co. Fermanagh Grid Ref: H36495002 (23649/35002) SMR No: FER 194:006 References: Williams 1985a; 1988. The site consisted of a low circular earthen platform (2m high and 43m in diameter) set on the edge of a marshy valley. Excavation was necessitated due to a farm improvement scheme.

The most significant feature of this site was the discovery of the souterrain. The water-logged condition of the site meant the survival of almost 50 oak timbers which supported the souterrain roof. A dark organic material, which ran around and between these timbers, was interpreted as the remains of wattle walling. Dates from thirteen of the timbers provided a felling date of A.D. 822±9 (suggesting that they were from the same tree) and, therefore, that the structure was built in the 820s. The construction date of the souterrain appears to have been contemporary with the raising of the mound on site. Apart from the metalworking debris, the only find of note was a rotary quernstone.

Excavation revealed that the site had originally consisted of a univallate enclosure, just over 30m in diameter. A line of stake-holes under the bank of this enclosure suggest that this settlement may have been preceded by a palisaded enclosure, which occupied a similar area. The interior of the site had been badly damaged by postmedieval agricultural activity, and only fragmentary structural features survived. These would appear to be from the later, raised phase of the site. Three areas of cobbling survived, and it has been suggested that these may represent an external yard surface. Two fire-pits Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Three furnaces Iron slag Tuyères

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Rotary quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

317

uncovered during excavation may represent wind-breaks or shelters associated with the smithing/smelting.

Cooltubbrid East (Graigueshoneen td), Co. Waterford Grid Ref: 23943/10518 SMR No: WA015-094003 Reference: Johnston et al 2009.

A number of possible ore remains were collected during excavation, only one of which was identified as copper ore coming from an unstratified context. The nearest source of copper ore is Bunmahon, eight miles away on the coast. This indicates that it is likely that copper ore was being brought to the site rather than the smelting being carried out at the mine site.

Excavations in advance of the N25 roadway revealed areas of metal-working, including two possible bowl furnaces, a water storage pit, and a copper-smelting hearth. It is possible that some of the post-holes

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-170155

Context Charred material from iron-smelting furnace

14C

Beta-174297

Charred material from copper-smelting furnace

1310±40 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Bowl furnaces Copper-working hearth Copper ore

Date 1460±80 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 415–689; A.D. 752–761 A.D. 647–778

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects Bronze/copper fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

318

Dates

across the enclosure indicates that iron-smithing was also being undertaken.

Coonagh West, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R53305687 (153300/156876) SMR No: N/A References: Taylor 2007; Hull 2004:0999; Taylor & Ruttle 2005:975.

A rough stone causeway extended southwards from the dry ridge on which the enclosure was located through marshy ground towards the river Shannon. The causeway was discontinuous and extended for a distance of 67m. In contrast to the prehistoric track-way, the causeway was positioned on top of the estuarine alluvium demonstrating a later date.

A gravel island at Coonagh West revealed an early medieval ditched enclosure with an internal rectangular building as well as associated pits and a stone causeway. Prehistoric activity, two small buildings, two fulachta fiadh and a trackway, were identified at the western edge of the drumlin. The site was completely excavated in 2004–05 in advance of the proposed Limerick Southern Ring Road (Phase II). The dry gravel ridge was bounded on its western, southern and south-western sides by the River Shannon and situated on the margins of its estuarine alluvial zone (0m–3m OD) at the edge of Coonagh village, west of Limerick city.

A pair of sixth/seventh-century copper-alloy penannular brooches (typologically similar to a pair found at Ballinderry II crannóg, Co. Offaly), several copper-alloy pins, a small stone disc, a pin-sharpener stone and two quernstones were recovered from the fills of the enclosing ditch. Other items recovered included a worked antler handle and a lathe-turned bone spindle whorl. The excellent preservation conditions also produced a very large animal bone assemblage (including antler and horn cores) and a quantity of fish-bone was also recovered.

The ditched enclosure was situated at the eastern end of the gravel ridge and had a diameter of 36m, with an entrance defined by a series of gullies along the northwest side (the dry-land side). The ditch was typically 2.5m wide and 1m deep with no evidence for an associated internal bank. A series of smaller curvilinear ditches was identified along its western perimeter, suggesting that the enclosure was re-defined on at least one occasion. Though the interior of the enclosure had suffered from erosion of loose gravel, the remains of at least one building (a rectangular post-built structure, 4m by 1.6m) was identified in the south-east quadrant. A number of pits and post-holes were also identified in the interior and exterior of the enclosure. A number of external pits were excavated. One pit to the east of the enclosure produced a quantity of animal bone and a pin-sharpening stone which appears to have been deliberately deposited. Pits to the west of the enclosure had evidence for intense burning and one produced a small crucible fragment indicating that fine metalworking was taking place at the site. Iron slag from Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.132: Excavated features from Coonagh West (after Taylor 2007, 76)

Direct Evidence Iron slag Crucible

Indirect Evidence

Horn cores Antler cores Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table 319

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Two copper-alloy penannular brooches Copper-alloy pins

6th/7th C

Pin-sharpener stone Quernstone

Bone spindle whorl Antler handle

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.133: Penannular brooches from Coonagh West (after Taylor 2007)

320

Areas B and C consisted of corn-drying kilns, probable ditch and possible structural features, exposed against the natural subsoil. Many of the cut features contained iron slag, animal bone and charcoal. These areas also were not fully excavated but were covered with geo-textile and topsoil when South Dublin County Council agreed to cease development in the area, as Dúchas advised. Many of the features were corn-drying kilns, and samples which produced carbonised remains were submitted for botanical analysis and radiocarbon dating. Iron knives, bronze pins and glass beads were found between Areas B, C and D, supporting the evidence of Area A and indicating an early medieval date for the site.

Corcagh Demesne, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O066313 (30660/23130) SMR No: N/A Reference: Carroll 2001:340. Excavations were undertaken prior to the construction of a flood lake. Some linear features, with animal bone, charcoal and iron slag, were found. Finds consisted of a blue glass bead and two fragments of lignite bracelet. These finds point to the likelihood of an early medieval date.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Bronze pins Blue glass beads Lignite bracelets

‘Small finds’ Table

321

Dates

A number of gullies and post-holes were located in the immediate vicinity of the souterrain, hinting at the former presence of structures, but heavy truncation of the site did not enable further interpretation.

Cormeen, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N738891 (27380/28910) SMR No: N/A Reference: McConway & Halpin 1992:150.

The enclosing ditch was revealed by machine trenching prior to pipe-laying. It was positioned 6m west of the souterrain and measured 2.6m in width and was 1m deep. The ditch fill was relatively sterile. The enclosure ditch appeared to relate to another ditch section approximately 43m to the west. Therefore, the souterrain and associated gullies and post-holes were located within an enclosure that measured 43m in diameter.

Excavations at Cormeen revealed an enclosure and internal souterrain with associated post-holes and gullies. The souterrain was trapezoidal-shaped and measured approximately 10m in length and was 2.5m wide at its terminal end. It appears it was unlined, as there was no evidence of stone paving or stone uprights, nor any evidence that wood was utilised for its construction. The entrance consisted of three steps that were cut into the subsoil and they accessed a gently sloping passage. The maximum depth of the souterrain was 2.6m. The only finds were Bronze Age pottery and souterrain ware which came from the souterrain’s upper fills.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

There was indirect evidence of an accompanying bank because the volume of re-deposited natural was noticeably deeper close to the lip of the western ditch. It is possible that the bank overlay the souterrain and the settlement builders may have deliberately incorporated the underground passage into the enclosing bank.

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

322

Corraneary, Co. Cavan Grid Ref: 26487/30532 SMR No: CV-023-013001 Reference: Davies 1942. The crannog was excavated in the late 1930s. It appears to have been constructed of a patchwork of horizontal beams and cut twigs to form an irregular area of about 10m by 10.5m, and a few marginal piles suggest the remains of a stockade. In the centre of the occupation layer, on a floor of oak logs, were some flat stones, probably a hearth. In the north-west quadrant were two upright piles and a beam-floor covered with a little clay; the north-eastern area contained much burnt grain and straw, while the south-eastern quadrant was stony. The habitation layer contained many un-burnt animal bones, scraps of burnt bone, much charcoal, a few hazelnuts, and – mainly in the south-west quadrant – quern-fragments and twelve hones. It is clear from the datable finds that two periods of occupation are represented, one comparatively early and the other of the sixteenth or seventeenth century. To the earlier phase belonged the wooden floor, probably the stockade and the hearth, and perhaps the burnt grain, though unfortunately the relationship of the latter to the finds is not clearly stated. Fig. G.134: Pottery, mould and Corraneary (after Davies 1942, fig. 5) Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Five crucibles Two moulds

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Quernstone 12 honestones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 323

crucibles

from

Corrstown, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C86093914 (28609/43914) SMR No: LDY 003:026? References: Conway et al 2007; Conway 2010; Ginn & Rathbone 2011.

of post-holes, were discovered near the centre of the enclosure. This house was most likely associated with a drystone-wall-built souterrain. This was radiocarbon dated to a rather early date of mid sixth/mid seventh century (see below). A kiln, dated to the same time as the souterrain, was also found within the enclosure.

The site was indicated in SMRNI as an ‘enclosure’ which was set in an area of level pasture. The area was fully excavated prior to the construction of a private housing estate. This excavation revealed two main phases of noncontinuous occupation. The discovery of 76 structures showed that the site had been a major settlement during the Bronze Age, but there had also been occupation through the early medieval period.

Another structure, external to the enclosure, was indicated by two sections of wall-slot ditches (0.3m in depth). The ditches appear to have been too inadequate to support walls, and the absence of any associated postholes suggests that this ‘structure’ was not roofed either; there was also no evidence for a formal entrance. Two alternative possibilities have been suggested: it was a possible corral/animal pen, or it represents a system of drains that defined an area which could have been used as an open-air threshing floor. A quantity of charred cereal grains (mostly oats, but also some barley as well as remains of wild radish) was retrieved from the fill of one of the ditch sections of this ‘structure’ and was radiocarbon dated to the ninth/tenth century.

Half an enclosure (approximately 25m in diameter), defined by a U-shaped ditch (2.5m wide and 1.09m deep) was uncovered during the top-soil stripping. The ditch cut through earlier occupation layers, and Bronze Age pottery and flint tools were found in the lower fill. Internal structural features had been severely truncated by later agricultural activities, but the remains of a possible rectangular house, represented by a linear gully and a line

The only early medieval find recovered from these structures was an iron knife found in the souterrain.

Fig. G.135: Early medieval structures (dark) at Corrstown. Other structures are Bronze Age (after Ginn & Rathbone 2011) 324

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-6232 UB-6237 UB-6377

Context Souterrain wall Kiln Ditch of unresolved structure

14C Date 1447±30 BP 1447±30 BP 1185±31 BP

UBA-16613

Hazel from pit

1326±22 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 563–652 A.D. 563–652 A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–899; A.D. 918–951 A.D. 653–712; A.D. 746–766

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife blade

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

325

Neither house nor souterrain appears to have been associated with an enclosure.

‘Craig Hill’ (Craig td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: C96453907 (29645/43907) SMR No: ANT 007:023 Reference: Waterman 1956a. A souterrain was discovered during top-soil stripping for a quarry. Further excavation revealed a series of postholes which delimited a trapezoidal-shaped structure. These were identified with a timber-framed wattle-anddaub house. A stone-lined gutter was located to the south of this structure; and an area of paving was located to the east. Any signs of occupation had been removed in topsoil stripping prior to excavation. The souterrain was excavated just to the west of this structure. An occupation deposit consisting of charcoal and numerous sherds of souterrain ware overlay the sloped entrance to the souterrain. A bronze ring-pin, similar to those recovered from Ballinderry and Lagore crannogs, was also recovered from the stone and soil covering the souterrain.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.136: Plan of house and souterrain at Craig Hill (after Waterman 1956a, 88)

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze ring-head pin Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.137: Bronze ring pin from Craig Hill (after Waterman 1956a, fig. 2) 326

‘Craigaphuile’, Raholp td, Co. Down Grid Ref: J54464739 (35546/34739) SMR No: DOW 031:021 Reference: Collins 1959a. Limited excavation was undertaken on a cluster of three raths (two raised raths and a univallate rath) in the production of the Archaeological Survey of County Down. Excavation through the ditch and raised interior of Rath 1 identified four separate phases of heightening (although it seems that these may have been nearcontemporary with each other). The only occupation evidence consisted of four sherds of souterrain ware, and four worked flints.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.138: Plan and section of excavation at raised rath in Raholp (after Collins 1959a, fig. 1)

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

327

because there were no cores to indicate on-site flint working, they suggested that the flints were introduced on to the site with stone and gravel during its construction. Alternatively, they may have been seen as exotic or magical items by the early medieval inhabitants of the site, being used to protect food or the house against fire.

Craigywarren, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D11800930 (31180/40930) SMR No: ANT 032:043 Reference: Coffey 1906. The site consisted of a small crannog, formerly located at a depth of 2m in a bog, about 80m out from the former western shore of the original lake. The precise location of this site is now unknown. Lisnacrogher crannog, the reputed nineteenth-century find-spot of an assemblage of La Tène metalwork, was located about 500m to the north. The site was almost totally excavated by W.J. Knowles, George Coffey and a team of nine assistants over a twoweek period in August/September 1901.

Undecorated souterrain ware pottery and clay crucibles were also recovered from site; one of the latter had red vitreous matter on its surface, possibly the remains of melted enamel. A bone trial piece and a bronze bracelet were also found. The finds indicated to the excavators the presence of craft-workers (metal, leather and possibly enamel) and relatively wealthy inhabitants. On the basis of the typology of the penannular brooch, the site was dated to the tenth century AD.

The crannog was small and circular, measuring only about 14m in diameter. It was defined at its edge by a lightly-built wooden palisade, of cleft oak planks and roundwood ash posts driven into the peat in a regular manner. There was a possible entrance at the north side. The site was constructed of a primary layer of heather and small branches on the underlying black mud. This was followed by a second layer of horizontal tree trunks and heavy branches, staked down by oak piles. These trunks were laid lengthways around the edge of the site. This was followed by another layer of heather, making a clean, even surface. The uppermost occupation surface was of hewn and mortised planks, laid down, with the north side of the crannog consolidated by spreads of stones. There was a possible house or hut at the north side of the crannog, represented by a scatter of planks covering an area 2.6m by 2.6m. These were small planks, occasionally drilled and pegged, partly overlying the palisade at one area. There was also a stone-lined hearth beside these planks, which consisted of a single flat stone (0.5m diameter), surrounded by smaller stones, overlain by a layer of white ash. There was also a ‘midden’ of animal bone beside this house. It produced most of the site’s finds, including pottery, a concave scraper, a silvered, plain penannular brooch, a bronze pin and a finger ring and a bracelet. A sword was found beneath the timbers, and a spear-butt was found near it.

Fig. G.139: Plan of Craigywarren crannog (after Coffey 1906, plate VI)

A midden on the north side (beside the house and possible entrance) produced bones of cattle, sheep, goat, pig, deer and horse, including three well-preserved horse skulls. It also produced other finds including an iron pan, an iron rod, a possible barrel-padlock key and fragments of decorated leather shoes. A range of lithics was also found at Craigywarren, including 50 flint flakes, three scrapers, a concave scraper, a lozenge-shaped arrowhead, three polishing stones, spindle whorls and a stone axe fragment. The excavators decided that the flints were not strike-a-lights (presumably because they were un-bruised). However,

Fig. G.140: Bronze objects from Craigywarren (after Coffey 1906, plate VIII)

328

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Enamel deposit on clay crucible Two crucibles

Souterrain ware sherds

Radiocarbon Dates

Fragments of shoe leather Spindle whorl Loom weight?

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron sword Two bill hooks Iron pan Butt end of spear Bronze bracelet Silvered brooch Brooch pin Small disc of bronze Silvered bronze ring

Dates

10th C?

Souterrain ware Crucibles Spindle whorl ‘Polishing stones’ Loom weight?

Trial piece Fragments of shoes

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.142: Leatherwork from Craigywarren (after Coffey 1906, plate (IX)

Fig. G.141: Crucible from Craigywarren (after Coffey 1906, plate IX)

329

quadrant where a shallow trench about 5m long ran parallel with a line of five shallow pits/post-holes.

Croom East, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R505590 (15050/15900) SMR No: LI030-022 References: Shee Twohig 1974:0030; 1977.

A number of irregularly shaped pits up to 0.45m deep were located in the southwest. Near the centre of the site was a symmetrical pair of post-holes, each with a deep post-hole cut into the side of a shallower pit. The postholes from the site contained dark soil intermixed with charcoal. There was no evidence for hearths or palisade/revetment on either side of the enclosing bank.

A univallate enclosure at Croom East revealed a possible internal structure as well as other pits, post-holes and features. The site was one of two enclosures levelled in 1972/73 in advance of a residential development. The excavation was undertaken in March 1974 and financed by a state grant administered through the Office of Public Works. Two trenches (1m wide) were excavated across the enclosing banks and ditches and a large area (80 m2.) was investigated in its interior.

A large quantity of animal bone (99 fragments) and human bone (30 bones) was recovered from the enclosing ditch and central area. The animal bone comprised that of cattle, sheep/goat, pig, horse and dog. Two femur bones belonging to two separate humans (one less than seventeen years, and the other more than 20 years old) were identified in the northwest quadrant of the site.

The southern side of the enclosure (42m OD) was truncated by the Croom-Rathkeale Road while the western side had been taken into the garden of the nextdoor house. The site was one of a group of three enclosures situated on well-drained soil, 1.6 km from Croom.

An iron knife with traces of a riveted bone handle was recovered from a pit in the northwest quadrant of the site. A corroded iron loop or link was found in a hollow in the north-eastern corner of the excavated area. Found amongst animal bone, also in the northwest quadrant, was part of a plano-convex side-plate from a bone comb decorated with dot-and-circle motifs.

The enclosure had a diameter of 30m externally and 16m internally. The enclosing ditch was U-shaped in profile. It measured a maximum of 3m in width and 1.8m in depth. The natural silting of the ditch was easily identifiable from the more recent deliberate backfill which contained pieces of wood and tree roots.

A bronze penannular ring and a fragment of iron slag or possible furnace bottom were also found on site. Surface inspection of the adjacent levelled enclosure to the west yielded animal bone and a whetstone of red sandstone.

The levelled internal bank survived to a height of 0.25m– 0.3m and had a maximum basal width of 4.15m. The bank had an estimated original height of 1.2m–1.4m, based on the basal width of the bank and the size and depth of the enclosing ditch. A possibly recent secondary ditch/pit had been cut parallel with the defences at the lip of the ditch and bank. It was filled with loose dark earth, stones and animal bone. At this point the ditch had a marked shoulder which deepened sharply about half-way down. The stratigraphy of the central area of the site had been seriously disturbed to a depth of 0.3m–0.4m deep by recent bulldozing. The top layer comprised a deposit of humus and yellow clay 0.1m–0.15m deep which had been spread over the enclosure interior during the construction of the nearby house in 1973. A disturbed dark homogenous habitation deposit – 0.2m–0.3m deep – containing animal bone was recovered beneath the top layer. A large number of disturbed pits, post-holes and trenches were uncovered dug into the boulder clay beneath this habitation deposit. The post-holes did form any recognizable plan of a structure, except in the northeast

Fig. G.143: Excavated features in Croom East 1 (after Shee Twohig 1977, 31)

330

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife with bone handle Iron loop Bronze penannular ring

Red sandstone whetstone

Fragment of bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.144: Finds from Croom East (after Shee Twohig 1977)

331

Dates

Cross, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 164775/225449 SMR No: N/A Reference: Mullins 2009a.

centre of the enclosed area, which dates to c. A.D. 400– 559. An incomplete human skeleton (Burial 6) overlay the secondary fill of the ring-ditch, suggesting that it had at least partially silted-up by the sixth century.

Excavations in advance of roadworks revealed a prehistoric cemetery which was re-used during the early medieval period. The main archaeological feature from the early medieval period is a sub-circular ring-ditch approximately 14.5m in diameter. This ring-ditch truncated earlier burials, and would appear to have been constructed in association with Burial 4, located in the

A smaller ring-ditch, measuring approximately 4.8m in diameter, was located to the southeast of the large ringditch. This ditch also appears to have been early medieval in date, based on its relationship to the central burial, Burial 1, which has been radiocarbon dated to A.D. 439– 648. A yellow glass bead recovered from the fill also suggests that this ditch was exposed during the early medieval period.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Wk21248

Context Human bone from Burial 1

14C

Wk21253 Wk21250 Wk21249 Wk21254

Human bone from Burial 2 Human bone from Burial 3 Human bone from Burial 4 Human bone from Burial 5

1538±39 BP 1581±38 BP 1587±38 BP 1604±38 BP

Wk21251 Wk21252

Human bone from Burial 6 Human bone from Burial 7

1628±39 BP 1674±38 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1489±38 BP

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 439–486; A.D. 532–647 A.D. 427–601 A.D. 405–563 A.D. 400–559 A.D. 359–361; A.D. 382–552 A.D. 338–539 A.D. 253–434; A.D. 493–506; A.D. 521–526 Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Yellow glass bead

‘Small finds’ Table 332

Crossnacreevy, Co. Down Grid Ref: J39697016 (33969/37016) SMR No: DOW 010:007 Reference: Harper 1973–74. The enclosure (36m by 31m) was located just to the south of the summit of a drumlin, and had been damaged prior to excavation by post-medieval building construction and occupation. Excavation was largely focused on the interior of the enclosure and this revealed a sub-circular clay house-platform, surrounded by a pebbled yard. A sub-circular gully cut into the clay platform may suggest a roundhouse, although the distribution of post-holes is less clear. A number of sherds of souterrain-ware (22), an iron bar(?), and a green/yellow glass bead were recovered from the area of the house platform. Excavation of the ditch revealed a U-shaped ditch, approximately 2m deep. A number of layers within the ditch indicated re-cutting, and dating of some of these suggest this may have occurred from the thirteenth century onwards.

Fig. G.145: Excavated area at Crossnacreevy (after Harper 1973–74, 33 & 34)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-674

Context Charcoal from burnt house-post

14C Date 1350±30 BP

UB-751

Humic acid from basal fill 0.1m of ditch fill

715±65 BP

UB-848

Humic acid from top 60mm of soil buried under bank

1910±90 BP

UB-849

Humic acid from 0.2m–0.26m from ditch base

540±90 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

333

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 637–713; A.D. 745–767 A.D. 1188–1198; A.D. 1206–1401 155 B.C.–137 B.C.; 113 B.C.–A.D. 264; A.D. 275–333 A.D. 1272–1520; A.D. 1592–1620

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron bar?

Dates

Greenish-yellow glass bead Souterrain ware Mourne greisen-stone lamp

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.146: Greisen stone lamp (from Mourne Mts) from Crossnacreevy (after Harper 1973–74, fig. 6)

334

number of possible associated features indicative of settlement activity, such as post-holes, stake-holes and pits, were located to the south and west of this structure. Iron objects, slag, the point of a copper-alloy stick pin, hazelnut shells and charred seeds were among the finds retrieved from these features. The majority of these are possibly contemporary with the enclosure. A small square structure comprising of post- and stake-holes was situated c.7m southeast of the house. It is more likely that this structure functioned as an outhouse/storage unit rather than a dwelling. In total, six wood species were identified in association with this phase of activity of the site. All would have been located within easy access of the site. The wide variety of species identified within this site may reflect a random selection policy.

Curraheen, Co. Cork Grid Ref: 160722/069228 SMR No: N/A References: Danaher 2002:0296; 2011; Danaher & Cagney 2004. The site was uncovered during testing prior to the construction of the N22 roadway, and consisted of two enclosure ditches and internal structures, including a house and a grain silo. Radiocarbon dating revealed that both ditches were contemporary and of early medieval date. The larger of the two enclosures would appear to have been the settlement area, with the smaller enclosure functioning as an animal compound. Although no evidence of a bank was visible prior to excavation, work on the fosse revealed that it contained the backfilled remains of the bank.

Unfortunately as Curraheen 1 was situated in an area of acidic soils, bone did not survive, with the exception of small quantities of cremated bone. Five of these samples were sent for analysis. One was exclusively animal bone, possibly of pig, while the remainder were a mixture of human and animal bone. The absence of bone within the site also precludes the identification of crafts or activities that may have been carried out on the site such as weaving or the manufacture of bone and antler tools.

The only features present within the interior of the smaller enclosure were three large post-holes, of which one produced a charcoal sample which, like the enclosing ditch, yielded an early medieval date (seventh century). Of the early medieval features present within the larger enclosure, a house with a roughly oval ground plan measuring 8m by 6m was clearly visible. A possible outhouse or storage unit was also identified. It is possible that other structures were present within the site but no discernable patterns were readily identifiable. The house was positioned in the northeast quadrant of the site and appeared to be of post-and-wattle construction with no separate roof structures. An oval arrangement of postholes and an internal hearth which measured over 1m in length were all that remained of this structure. At least twelve upright timber posts would have formed the structural frame of this building; these had an average diameter of 0.16m and depth of 0.1m. This structure could have slept between 8–10 people and possibly provided a number of functions such as providing warmth and shelter for the inhabitants, the storage of food and personal belongings, while food was possibly cooked over the internal hearth. The only artefact from within this house was a glass bead of possibly early medieval date.

Fig. G.147: Plan of multi-phase settlement at Curraheen (early medieval features in black) (after Danaher 2011)

Charred seeds of oats, barley and wheat were recovered from the hearth and at least one of the structural posts. A

335

Radiocarbon Dates Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-171416 Beta-171417

Context Charred alder from post-hole in small enclosure Charred alder from primary fill of main enclosure ditch

14C

Beta-171419

Charred alder from charcoal-rich fill of main enclosure ditch Charred alder from tertiary fill of small enclosure ditch Charred alder from tertiary fill of main enclosure ditch Charcoal from pit

1240±60 BP

Beta-171420 Beta-171423 Beta-178192

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Date 1450±40 BP 1390±70 BP

1320±40 BP 1290±60 BP 1500±60 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 547–655 A.D. 444–447; A.D. 464–482; A.D. 533–779; A.D. 794–801 A.D. 660–896; A.D. 923–940 A.D. 648–774 A.D. 649–878 A.D. 431–647

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron axe head Iron objects Copper-alloy objects Glass bead Honestone

‘Small finds’ Table

336

Dates

bone were uncovered on the old ground surface of Tumulus II and were interpreted by the excavator as the site of a cremation fire. A small pit was found in one of the spreads filled with cremated bone and charcoal and contained near its top a small bone plaque with early Iron Age La Tène decoration (O’Kelly 1989, 329–330). Tumulus II revealed a scatter of cremated bone on the old ground surface where a possible cremation pyre had been lit and over which the mound had been built.

Cush, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R69802580 (169800/125800) SMR No: LI048-034--References: Ó Ríordáin 1940; O’Kelly 1989. A significant early medieval landscape containing a large number of settlement enclosures, with internal occupation evidence, structures and souterrains, together with a complex pattern of rectangular field systems was excavated at Cush. The research excavations were undertaken between August-October 1934 and JulySeptember 1935 and were financed under a state scheme for the relief of employment. The site (210m–240m OD) was situated on the border of good agricultural land along the foothills of a northward extension of the Ballyhoura Hills (Slieve Reagh), commanding considerable views across the Limerick plain to the north. The site consisted of a southern group of enclosures, a northern group of enclosures, the western field, the related field systems and three prehistoric tumuli.

The early medieval activity comprised ten excavated ‘ringfort’-type enclosures, an adjoining rectangular ‘enclosure’ and a system of field boundaries. The southern group of enclosures covers three acres and consists of six conjoined enclosures (1-6) associated with a sub-rectangular area, ‘the enclosure’, delimited by a ditch and bank to the west. The excavations revealed that Cush 2, 3 and 4 were roughly contemporary but were preceded by Cush 1, while Cush 5 was built at a later stage, followed finally by Cush 6. The site known as the ‘enclosure’ is the latest feature and was erected after all the other enclosures and a number of the field systems were built.

The greater part of the interior of the enclosures was excavated as well as various sections through their ramparts and entrances. Also excavated were the three tumuli, various portions of the rectangular ‘enclosure’, a small area of the ‘western field’ and trial-trenches along the field boundaries. The enclosures generally produced relatively thin occupation deposits and this lack of stratigraphy hindered any detailed reconstruction of the sequence of and relationship between the various different internal features and structures – buildings and souterrains. Considerable evidence for Bronze Age burial activity was uncovered and comprised five cremation urn burials within the northwest sector of Cush 5 in the southern group, Tumulus I (to the south of Cush 7), and a small cist burial with two food vessels, just inside a section of the modern field fence dividing the ‘western field’ from that containing the tumuli. Ó Ríordáin claimed that the burials inside Enclosure 5 were later than the occupation of the enclosure though the stratigraphic evidence to substantiate such a claim is neither completely clear nor detailed. Most recent commentators (e.g. Edwards 1990, 17) now believe that the enclosure is early medieval and was simply built in an area of prehistoric burial activity. Tumulus I revealed a primary long cist burial (1.9m by 0.6m internally) with a food vessel type pot beneath its original ground level. A kerbed mound (0.9m high and 11m in maximum diameter) was erected over this burial. Following this, an encrusted urn was placed near the centre of the mound and a ditch dug around the site. The mound was covered with a paving of small stones after the ditches had silted up, on which at least one cremated burial was placed.

Fig. G.148: Southern Group of enclosures at Cush (after Ó Ríordáin 1940, plate XIV). Numbers indicate enclosures; letters indicate houses. Cush 1 consists of a counterscarp enclosure on the northwest side of the southern group with a diameter of 17.7m internally and 39.6m externally. The ditch of the surrounding enclosure was continuous and access to the fort may have been by means of a wooden gangway defined on the western perimeter by two pairs of flanking post-holes and an internal causeway. Numerous postholes were uncovered and these divided into two main groups, mainly in the southeast and the northwest of the interior. No definite plan of any structure was identified though a group of post-holes in the southeast had a roughly semi-circular outline. Three hearths were uncovered – two associated with the northwest cluster of post-holes, and one with the southeast. A silted-up stone-

Iron Age burial activity was uncovered at the sites of Tumulus II and possibly Tumulus III. These bowl barrows each measured about 1.8m high and 13.7m and 16.46m respectively in diameter with enclosing ditch. Spreads of charcoal mixed with fragments of cremated 337

was flanked on either side by two large post-holes which probably formed part of an entrance gateway. Evidence for a kerb of stones at the external base of the inner bank, north of the entrance, as well as the recovery of similar boulders in the fill of the inner ditch indicates some form of stone facing along the external side of the inner bank. Successive phases of occupation were uncovered in the interior. The earliest house appears to have been a drystone-walled circular house which utilized the topography of the interior of the site. There were traces of other houses – one circular and one rectangular – which were wooden-framed. Other post-holes were found in the interior, but the form and chronological relationship of these structures was not known. Portions of paving were identified across the site with one area in the centre of the interior possibly contemporary with one of the wooden houses. A souterrain-type structure comprising two long compartments connected by a narrow passage was also uncovered on the northeast of the enclosure. Finds from the site included one thin bronze plate, one spherical bronze object and a bone comb.

lined souterrain – 8.2m long – was found in the southwest of the interior. Finds from the enclosure included a possible flint scraper and one loom weight. One particular quernstone also appears to have possibly been re-used as a pivot stone for the structure in the southeast. Cush 2 consists of a counterscarp enclosure at the northern side of the southern group. The remains of a small timber and clay house – defined by two post-holes and an irregular setting of stones in a clay bank – were located just inside and on the south side of the western entrance. A stone-lined hearth was located in the centre of the site and was associated with a small number of burnt bones, and many post-holes (presumably representing a structure or a sequence of structures, the form of which could not be identified). Two shallow storage pits and a souterrain – 4.3m long – were also uncovered in the centre of the interior. Finds from the site included a greenish-yellow glass bead and part of the blade of an iron sickle. Cush 3 consists of a bivallate enclosure to the south of Cush 2. The western entrance was 5.2m wide and was flanked by a facing of dry-stone masonry at its ditch terminals. Immediately within the enclosure, the entrance appears to have been defined by two pairs of post-holes and the remains of a stone kerb set on the inner side of the bank. Several post-holes were identified in the southern and south-eastern side of the interior and appear to have formed rectangular houses – the best-defined having dimensions of 4.9m by 3.7m. On top of the inner bank a small cist-like feature – 0.5m by 0.38m – with a small amount of calcined bone was discovered, which the excavator interpreted as a hearth. A silted-up stone-lined C-shaped souterrain was discovered in the northern half of the interior. A series of post-holes in a hollow outside its southern opening were interpreted as a possible timber structure associated with the souterrain entrance. Finds from the site included half a greenish-yellow glass bead, iron spear-head, stone axe fragment, un-bored disc of a spindle whorl, one loom weight, two stone-discs and a stone bracelet.

Cush 6 was formed by the area bounded within the outer banks-and-ditches of Cush 4 and 5. The burnt remains of a rectangular wattle-and-daub building (6.7m by 4.3m) were uncovered near the northern side of the enclosure. A considerable amount of iron slag was found on this site. The site of the rectangular ‘enclosure’ has its own bankand-ditch on three sides, with the fourth side formed by enclosures 1-6. The ditch of this site was cut into the underlying rock and was larger than the ditches of the enclosures. A line of twelve post-holes was identified inside the bank on the south side and appears to have formed part of a structure, built possibly to strengthen the defences at this point. A number of structures were discovered in this area. A possible stone-and-timber roundhouse (A) – defined by a sub-rectangular row of post-holes and stones around a compact clay floor with two internal hearths – was excavated to the west of enclosure 1 just inside and partly covered by the collapse of the banks of the ‘enclosure’. A rectangular house (B) (7m by 3m) with a stone-paved floor and of stone-and-turf construction was excavated in the southern interior of the ‘enclosure’. Four post-holes were uncovered in the interior of the structure and probably held timber roof supports. Immediately south of House B were uncovered a further two structures designated (C). The main building was rectangular (5.5m by 4.3m) and its walls were constructed in part directly over House B. The other house was identified by a light band of charcoal which formed no coherent structural plan. House D was excavated to the north of House B and consisted of a post-built rectangular sunken structure with an irregular partition running through its centre. House E was excavated in the south-eastern area of the ‘enclosure’ and was identified by bands of charcoal which formed no definite plan. A possible unfinished spindle whorl was found at this house.

Cush 4 consists of a univallate enclosure to the south of Cush 2. A hearth was located in the centre of the interior and a series of flat stones forming the base of a wall of a possible structure were uncovered to its north and east. A large, complex stone-lined souterrain was uncovered south of the hearth and the approach to its opening was defined by a series of post-holes, interpreted as belonging to some form of entrance structure. Several post-holes were uncovered between the hearth and the souterrain – as were further portions of walls – but no complete building plan could be identified. Finds from the souterrain included two light blue glass beads and three beads of dark blue glass. Other finds included a bronze button or stud, bronze pin, three stone spindle whorls, one stone bracelet and a stone pendant. Cush 5 consists of a bivallate enclosure – with preceding prehistoric burial activity – at the south end of the southern group. The western entrance of the enclosure 338

One further house (F) was uncovered in the area of the ‘western field’ adjacent to the ‘enclosure’. It was similarly built to House A and comprised a roughly circular structure (4m diameter) with stone-and-organic walls and a compact internal clay floor. Associated with this building were numerous small post-holes to its west which may represent the remains of other successive houses on the site. Three flint barbed-and-tanged arrowheads were recovered from one of these post-holes while another yielded a single flint arrowhead and a fragment of flint. The recovery of these prehistoric finds to the west of this building and the proximity of the building to the small cist grave containing two food vessels could indicate that this structure – and perhaps some structures within the rectangular enclosure – is also potentially prehistoric in date.

the two enclosures for defensive or agricultural purposes. Accepting the latter interpretation, the connecting arc of this site may have been built perhaps at the same time as the defences of Cush 8 and Cush 10 were strengthened. Except for a few post-holes, there were no structural remains associated with the site.

The earthworks of the northern group consisted of four enclosures (7-10) within a modern field of over three acres with a further unexcavated site (11) situated in the next field. The enclosures of the northern group were connected with each other through a bank between Cush 7 and Cush 8, and a section of arcing bank and ditch between Cush 8 and Cush 10. Some strengthening of the defences of Cush 8 and Cush 10 may have occurred but all the enclosures appear to have been roughly coeval with each other.

A series of elongated rectangular field systems were identified at Cush, running west-east down the hillside to the enclosures. The field boundaries were delineated by U-shaped ditches, 0.9m deep and a low bank surviving to a height of 0.45m. In contrast to the modern field systems, these field boundaries respected the outlines of the early medieval enclosures and appear to be roughly contemporary with or at least date to the later stages of the occupation of the enclosures. Test excavations identified that the field boundary trenches either cut into or stopped immediately short of the enclosure ditches, leading Ó Ríordáin to suggest that the field boundaries had been dug while the enclosure ditches were still unsilted and in use.

Cush 10 consists of a trivallate enclosure, north of Cush 9. Part of the enclosing defences was removed by a modern field fence. A series of wall-trenches within the interior outlined a number of rectilinear features. Another curved wall-trench was excavated at the east side of the end of a souterrain and appears to have formed part of a protecting structure. At least one of these structures appears to have been in use after the souterrain had siltedup.

Cush 7 consists of a bivallate enclosure (43m overall diameter) at the most southerly end of the northern group. The site had a western entrance and the inner face of the inner bank was faced with stone. There were partial traces of occupation deposits, but these were substantially destroyed by later agriculture.

Excavations within the area of the ‘western field’ identified further east-west silted-up ditches, interpreted as field boundaries, which pre-dated the ditches and banks of the rectangular ‘enclosure’ site to their east. This evidence suggests that the bank and ditch of the rectangular ‘enclosure’ were built after the enclosures and a number of the field systems were laid out. The boundaries of the rectangular enclosure do appear to have been integrated into this system of ancient fields as its ditch and bank were aligned with two field boundaries on the eastern side of the southern group of enclosures as well as one of the early ditches in the ‘western’ field. A block of ridge-and-furrow made by a heavy plough with a fixed mouldboard was also identified running roughly east-west across part of the rectangular enclosure. Its age could not be determined but it could also be possibly associated with these field systems.

Cush 8 consists of the partial surviving remains of a trivallate enclosure to the north of Cush 7. Two stonelined souterrains were located at the south and north ends of the site. The southern souterrain was 10m long with a ventilation passage, 4.9m long, at its southern end. The northern souterrain consisted of a straight stone-lined structure 7m long with a timber-built entrance approach defined by four post-holes. Two groups of post-holes in the interior give evidence for structures. One group east of the northern souterrain defined a roughly rectangular structure with an associated hearth. Another group of post-holes west of the northern end of the southern souterrain defined a structure of unidentified shape. The partial remains of a circular wattle-built structure defined by arcs of stake-holes were also excavated to the east of the southern souterrain. The remainder of the structure was not located, possibly due to disturbance caused either by the construction of the rectangular post-built house or the southern souterrain. Two post-holes, about 1.5m apart, were revealed along the southern side of the enclosure and were interpreted as part of an entranceway. Finds from the site included two bronze ring-headed pins.

General finds from the site included around thirty fragments of jet bracelets, four iron knives, iron nails and over fifty whet-stones – the greatest number from Cush 4. Three possible rubbers of saddle querns and a considerable quantity of rotary querns fragments – Cush 10 (26), Cush 1 (12), Cush 5 (9), Cush 3 and Cush 4 (7 each), House B (6), Cush 9 (3) and Cush 6 (3) – were also recovered. Sixteen pounds of iron slag was also recovered, mainly from Cush 4, Cush 6 and Cush 7 with some pieces also found on Cush 3 and Cush 10. The pieces of slag from Cush 7 were particularly large with some weighing over two pounds. A sample of slag from

Cush 9 consists of a small section of bank and ditch in the form of an arc extending between Cush 8 and Cush 10. The arc may possibly form part of an enclosure or alternatively it may instead have been built to connect up 339

Cush 4 was examined by Oliver Davies, QUB, who identified one possible furnace bottom and suggested that the collection was derived from bog ore. A very small fragmentary collection of animal bones was recovered Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

and consisted primarily of cattle followed by minute amounts of pig (5), sheep (3), and dog, hare, corncrake and horse (1 each).

Direct Evidence 7.25kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bog iron ore

Un-finished jet Un-finished spindle whorls

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Corroded iron Bronze plate fragment Hollow bronze ring Bronze stud Two bronze ringpins Bronze pin Six glass beads

Dates

30+ jet fragments Two shale bracelets Spindle whorls Loom weights 50+ whetstones Sandstone pendant Stone bead Bone plaque Bone comb

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.150: Bone plaque and comb from Cush (after Ó Ríordáin 1940, fig. 38)

Fig. G.149: Glass beads from Cush (after Ó Ríordáin 1940, fig. 35)

340

The bank overlay the occupation layer and was approximately 1.5m high. Its related ditch was 5m wide and between 2m and 2.4m deep. A number of hearths and burnt spreads were noted within the ditch and were probably placed there to provide shelter from the weather. Two B-ware sherds, iron slag, two bone pins and three bone cylinders were retrieved from the ditch fill.

Dalkey Island, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O27702645 (327702/226465) SMR No: DU023-029 References: Liversage 1968; Doyle 1998. Excavations at Dalkey Island during the latter half of the 1950s revealed pre- and contemporary promontory fort activity dating to the early medieval period. The presence of large quantities of imported B- and E-ware pottery demonstrates that the settlement was in use from the fifth to mid seventh centuries. Prehistoric finds also indicate earlier use, while historical records attest to Scandinavian use of the site from the ninth century.

Liversage recorded a number of artefacts that were not stratigraphically related to the bank and these included two sherds of Samian ware, a small bronze penannular brooch, a second possible penannular brooch, a knife and two spindle whorls. The artefacts from Site II are indicative of occupation even though no dwellings or related structures were identified.

Dalkey Island is about eight hectares in size and is separated from the south Dublin coastline by a fastflowing tidal sound approximately 400m in width. A well supplies the island with fresh water. The promontory fort is located on the northern side of the island and consists of a small headland cut off by a low bank with external ditch. The fort is divided into two platforms by a low granite cliff that runs from south to north. The western platform overlooks the harbour and the eastern platform is between 2m and 3m higher.

A hearth and a possible cereal-drying kiln were revealed in the northern part of Site II but there was no evidence for the bank and ditch here. The higher, and more exposed, eastern platform was excavated between 1957 and 1958 (Site III). The ditch and bank extended into this area although the latter was less substantial compared to the findings at Site II. Site III revealed extensive early medieval evidence that included the remains of a substantial sub-rectangular structure which was built upon the bank. The building measured approximately 6m in length by 3.5m wide and contained a central hearth. The roof may have been supported by the bank, or a ‘stone scatter’ which was not recorded on plan and may have functioned as a low wall. A sherd of Late Roman Amphora (B-ware) was sealed beneath the hearth while a dark occupation layer partially sealed the hearth and the rear slope of the bank. This contained animal bone, shell, a glass bowl sherd, five sherds of E-ware, a lignite or jet bracelet fragment, an iron loop-headed ringed pin, nails, iron slag and a bone pin. A layer above this, that covered the bank, contained animal bone, an iron ringed pin with an attached bronze chain, a bone pin, nails, worked bone and a hone stone. Also, 55 E-ware sherds, from possibly the same jar, and a bronze ringed pin were recovered at the interface of this layer and the top layer. The E-ware sherds were distributed in two areas at either side of the entrance which suggests that the structure may have been in use when they were deposited. This suggests that the building was in use between the mid sixth and mid seventh centuries at least, and possibly earlier. Interestingly, the dwelling was situated on an elevated and exposed position – both on top of the bank and on one of the highest places in the northern part of the island – so it appears that visibility was a key factor in its choice of location.

Fig. G.151: Plan of excavations at Dalkey Island (after Liversage 1968, fig. 2) The first excavation (termed Site II), between 1956 and 1958, investigated the promontory fort bank and ditch on the lower western platform. A possible entranceway was located consisting of several post-holes, two of which were stone-packed. Notably, a pre-bank occupation layer was discovered and finds from the upper level included three bronze pins, B- and E-ware pottery sherds, two glass vessel fragments, iron nails, a piece of worked bone, part of a broken whetstone and part of a steatite ring. The lower fill contained only prehistoric finds. The presence of B- and E-ware pottery beneath the bank indicates settlement activity, before the promontory fort was constructed, between the fifth and mid seventh centuries.

A trench was placed across the northern promontory platform in 1959 and was labelled Site V. Early medieval activity consisted of a number of pits. One produced an E-ware sherd and a lignite ring although their function is unclear. Twenty-five E-ware sherds were also uncovered within the trench. A number of other cuttings revealed further pits and hearths. Late Roman Amphora and E341

ware pottery sherds were associated with one hearth while one of the pits produced ironworking debris including slag and a possible tuyère fragment.

seventh centuries. The fort bank was utilised for the construction of a building – probably a house – in the seventh century. The large amounts of imported pottery suggest that the promontory fort acted as an importation base rather than a permanent high-status settlement. Therefore, specialised temporary or seasonal settlements may have been utilised on the island by a social elite who controlled the procurement of exotic foreign goods before they were redistributed on the mainland.

Excavations have revealed structural and artefactual evidence indicative of settlement at Dalkey Island dating to the early medieval period. The first early medieval habitation phase preceded the construction of the promontory fort, probably between the fifth and mid Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère 40 crucible fragments Lumps of bronze/copper slag Bronze ingot

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale

Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron ring-headed pin Bronze pins Bronze penannular brooch Bronze ingot Lead weights (fishing weights) Blue glass ring Seven sherds of glass Blue glass bead Late Roman Amphorae sherds Samian ware sherds E-ware sherds Three fragments of lignite rings Mudstone ring Fragments of ‘jet’ bracelets Fragment of ‘jet’ ring Shale plaques Three stone beads Two disk-shaped steatite beads or spindle whorls Seven fragmentary bone pins

‘Small finds’ Table

342

Dates

lintels were regularly recycled and re-used on new structures.

Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D28660878 (32866/40878) SMR No: ANT 034:005 References: Kenward & Allison 1994; Lynn 1988d; 1989; Lynn & McDowell 2011; McDowell 2004.

The interior of the enclosure appears to have been raised in stages, with part of the enclosure still being occupied while the remainder was heightened by 1m. This entailed the deliberate burial of earlier structures, and the construction of new buildings on this raised area. By the time the entire enclosure was raised, it stood 2m above the old ground surface, and was surrounded by a wide, deep, stone-revetted ditch. The subsequent occupation area on top of the stone-revetted mound was slightly smaller than that of the earlier enclosure (20m by 22m). The earliest houses built on the mound appear to have been ‘figure-of-eight’ shaped, but roundhouses were also present during this phase. Some of these structures appear to have incorporated stone into their construction, and one of the last houses built during this phase would appear to be stone-built and rectangular.

The site consisted of a raised mound (25m in diameter on top, and 6m high), set on a north-facing slope. The site was completely excavated as it was to be removed under a farm improvement scheme. Excavation revealed four major phases of occupation, and the presence of at least 46 contemporaneous and consecutive structures (5m–8m in diameter). Although there was some evidence for prehistoric occupation, the earliest occupation phase was represented by a ‘ring-ditch’, enclosing an area 22.5m by 25m. Two pairs of post-holes (one on the line of the outer edge of the ditch and the other pair just inside the inner edge) have been interpreted as representing a gateway into the site. If this interpretation is correct, it would presuppose the presence of an upstanding feature (either an earthen bank or a wooden fence) associated with the circuit of the ditch, but no such feature was identified during excavation. The ring-ditch appears to have been in-filled prior to the construction of the next phase, and ironworking slag and a furnace bottom were found in this infill. A radiocarbon date derived from this material (see below) overlaps with date ranges derived from structures within the enclosure, suggesting the possibility that some of these structures may have been contemporary with the ring-ditch.

The mound was subsequently raised again by at least 1.5m. An entranceway was identified, but no trace of a surrounding fence, bank or wall was detected. Two drystone-walled souterrains were constructed into the built-up mound, and, although no other structures survived from this period, it is presumably the case that these souterrains were associated with houses. The waterlogged conditions of the site meant that quantities of organic material survived, including shoe leather, animal and human hair, and wicker walls. These conditions were also conducive to the survival of insect material, including animal and human lice, as well as plant material, including fragments of woad pods and flax fibres.

The earlier ring-ditch was replaced by a banked-andditched enclosure, of which only the bank remains (the ditch presumably having been destroyed by the subsequent creation of the mounded enclosure). The bank enclosed a slightly larger area than the ring-ditch (26m in diameter), and had a stone-revetted inner face. The entranceway to this enclosure had an up-hill lie, and seems to have followed that of the ring-ditch. This was presumably not an issue at the time, as water could have drained away into the ditch, but in later phases this resulted in the lower occupation layers becoming waterlogged. A number of house structures, related to this enclosure, suggest that there were various phases of construction and abandonment during this phase of occupation. The earlier houses are circular in plan, and are indicated by series of stake-holes, representing the uprights of wicker-walled structures. At least one of these buildings has evidence for internal subdivisions. Roundhouses continued to be built within the enclosure, but there are also examples of ‘figure-of-eight’ houses, built in a similar fashion. Some of these also show further internal divisions, and, in the better-preserved houses, the water-logged conditions allowed possible bedding areas to be identified by the build-up of organic material. Excavations also revealed that the timber door jambs and

A large number of glass objects found on site included 85 glass beads, two fragments of glass bracelets, and an inlaid glass stud. A glass-topped iron pin was also found. Crucible and tuyère fragments suggest that glass-working may have been undertaken on site. There was evidence for iron working and iron tools were identified (knives, billhooks and shears). Other finds included three amber beads; a bronze brooch; a millstone and two wooden paddles; fragments of wooden vessels, and quantities of souterrain ware.

Fig. G.152: Copper-alloy brooch-pin from Deer Park Farms (after Lynn & McDowell 2011)

343

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3064

Context Wall stakes of house Iota

14C

UB-3065

Soil & Charcoal House J

1229±14 BP

UB-3066

Charcoal House Chi

1302±15 BP

UB-3081

Wicker from wall of Theta

1311±18 BP

UB-3082

Wicker from wall of Eta

1291±17 BP

UB-3083

Wicker from wall of Zeta

1280±17 BP

UB-3084

Wicker from wall of Kappa

1312±20 BP

UB-3093 UB-3199

Wooden threshold of Omega Withies from structure H

1269±16 BP 1181±14 BP

UB-3200 UB-3201

Wicker from wall of P Wicker from wall of Z

1258±14 BP 1171±14 BP

UB-3217 UB-4192

Cut-off river channel Ring ditch

1408±43 BP 1258±22 BP

UB-4193

Charred twigs – House B

1142±34 BP

UB-4194 UB-4195

Charred twigs – House R Charcoal – Souterrain

1313±38 BP 1219±25 BP

UB-4196

Charred twigs – House E2

1189±31 BP

UB-4197 UB-4953

Charred twigs – Pit Outer rings of oak

1273±24 BP 925±39 BP

Date 1295±16 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 666–723; A.D. 739–770 A.D. 709–746; A.D. 766–875 A.D. 664–718; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 659–716; A.D. 744–768 A.D. 668–725; A.D. 738–771 A.D. 675–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 658–718; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 683–774 A.D. 779–794; A.D. 800–891 A.D. 687–776 A.D. 779–793; A.D. 801–895; A.D. 925–937 A.D. 563–676 A.D. 673–782; A.D. 789–811; A.D. 848–852 A.D. 780–791; A.D. 805–982 A.D. 652–774 A.D. 695–699; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–886 A.D. 719–742; A.D. 769–898; A.D. 920–947 A.D. 670–777 A.D. 1024–1188; A.D. 1198–1206

Fig. G.154: Glass beads from Deer Park Farms (after Lynn & McDowell 2011)

Fig. G.153: Crucible with copper residue from Deer Park Farms (after Lynn & McDowell 2011)

344

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence 38kg iron slag – some smelting, largely smithing Tuyère fragments Possible copper-alloy ingot Crucible sherds

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working

Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Saw Iron auger Drawknives Bone pins Antler tines Leather shoe fragments Shoe last Stone & wooden spindle whorls Rubbing stones Shears Leather tablet

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass

Pottery

Object 14 iron pins Four iron rushlight holders Links of iron chain Two forks (fragments) Three loop handles/straps Meat hook Two socketed pot handles Five awls 31 knives Two needles Saw Shears Iron auger Two drawknives (?) Billhook & hook Two plough socks Three sickles 48 fragments of iron sheet Iron spearhead Five copper-alloy ring pins Copper-alloy brooch Possible copper-alloy ingot Copper-alloy strap end Copper-alloy strap Fragments of bronze sheet Four copper-alloy rings (or fragments) Blue glass stud 47 blue glass beads Six white glass beads Three segments glass beads 26 decorated glass beads Three glass toggle beads One green glass bead Two fragments of glass bangles Souterrain ware from 21+ vessels

345

Dates

Lignite/shale

15 fragments of lignite bracelets Six fragments of rings of petrified wood

Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood

Worked bone

Worked antler Leather

Cloth

Two grindstones 18 honestones Four spindle whorls Two quernstones Stone bowl/lamp Three amber bead fragments Stave-built vessels (largely yew – some Prunus) Two turned alder vessels Carved oak trough Base of woven basket Four wooden spindle whorls? Seven wooden pins Horizontal waterwheel hub and paddle 64 wooden pegs Five lengths of withy rope Two wooden pipes (alder and elder) Two bone awls Two Class B combs One Class B or D comb Double-edged comb 29 unperforated pig fibula pins Seven perforated pig fibula pins Antler tines Leather tablet (for weaving) Remains of 13 leather shoe soles 10 leather shoe vamps Wooden shoe last Three fragments of woollen cloth Four fragments of (linen?) cloth Two lengths plied yarn Two lengths single yarn

‘Small finds’ Table

346

extra rigidity, and this, together with the close spacing of the posts, suggests that the structure was a tower. The most important aspect of the site was the evidence of iron-working. Five industrial hearths were found, each with shallow ancillary pits (possibly crucible-stands). Three of these hearths were concentrated in the southern half of the site and appear to be contemporary. Each of the three was connected to its own long, curving gully, which is interpreted as the remains of a flue of some kind. The other two hearths (one in the northeast quadrant, one in the southwest) had no gullies, but each was fringed by a multiple ring of close-set stake-holes (160 holes in one case), some of which had a slight slope inwards. The full range of iron working seems to have taken place, producing ring-headed pins and small knives. Dating evidence was sparse, but indicated the early medieval period. Charcoal samples were taken from the hearths for dating purposes.

Deerfin, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D156023 (31560/40230) SMR No: ANT 038:006 Reference: Bratt 1975:04. This site was threatened by agricultural improvements. The enclosure was originally a cashel, 80m in diameter. The wall was generally 1.5m wide and survived to a height of 1m. Subsequently, a ditch 2m deep was dug around the cashel, the spoil being dumped on and around the wall to convert it into an earthen rampart. A counterscarp bank was also built. The cashel entrance (on the southwest) was retained in this period. The quadrant was occupied by a wooden structure just behind the rampart. The evidence for this was a group of nine post-holes, arranged three by three to form an area of 4m2. Several of the holes had held twin posts providing

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Five industrial hearths

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bog ore Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron ring-headed pins Small knives Ore-working tools

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

347

Dates

Few finds were recovered from the enclosure, but those few are typical of the early medieval period, including iron knife blades and a rotary quernstone.

Derrinsallagh 3, Co. Laois Grid Ref: 225446/185940 SMR No: N/A Reference: Lennon 2009. The site was uncovered during testing prior to the construction of the M7 motorway. Subsequent topsoil stripping revealed a large number of archaeological features including a single-ditch enclosure, pits and postholes, cereal-drying kilns, and small cremation pits. The main phase of occupation consisted of a single-ditch enclosure, roughly circular in outline, with a gated entrance on the east side. The interior of the enclosure revealed clusters of post-holes representing rudimentary structures, lines of stake-holes indicating internal subdivisions, and pits. Peripheral activity associated with the enclosure included six cereal-drying kilns, bowl furnaces and pits.

Fig. G.155: Plan of enclosure at Derrinsallagh 3 (after Lennon 2009)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. SUERC-17273

Context Charcoal from kiln floor

14C

SUERC-17272 SUERC-17279

Willow Ash

960±35 BP 1210±35 BP

Material Iron-working

Date 1260±35 BP

Direct Evidence Four smelting furnaces Two possible smithing hearths 60kg+ of iron slag – smithing and smelting

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

348

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 668–829; A.D. 837–866 A.D. 1017–1159 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–894; A.D. 930–931

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Barrel padlock Two iron knives Copper-alloy strip – rim of bowl? Shank of copper-alloy ring pin? Blue glass bead

Dates 9th–14th C

Quernstones Whetstones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.156: Iron knives from Derrinsallagh 3 (after Lennon 2009)

Fig. G.157: Rotary quernstone from Derrinsallagh 3 (after Lennon 2009)

349

Derry More, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: J04902800 (30490/32800) SMR No: ARM 026:008 References: Halpin 2000; Long 2001:022. A hachured enclosure was shown on early editions of the Ordnance Survey maps, but at the time of excavation this was only marked on the ground by a fraction of surviving bank. Excavation was required prior to the construction of a number of houses on the site. Four trenches were excavated through the site, and the original enclosure ditch was discovered in all of these. The only other features located during the excavation were the curving gullies of a (possible) roundhouse, and the linear gullies of a possible rectangular house. A number of sherds of souterrain ware were found in the linear gullies, suggesting that the associated structure was built during the early medieval period. The lack of occupation debris, habitation layers, and charcoal spreads has led the excavator to suggest that this site may have only been occupied for a short period, or, indeed may have been abandoned before being fully completed.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.158: Plan of excavations at Derry More in 2000, showing location of features (after Halpin 2000)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

350

identified as alder. This showed traces of having been cut with a sharp axe. A sample submitted for radiocarbon dating (UB 3719) gave a result of 1262 ± 38 BP and with 95% probability lies within a date range of AD 666–872. Elsewhere on the sheltered side of the crannóg the lakebed was more silted and timbers were fewer in number.

Derryhowlaght East, Co. Fermanagh Grid Ref: H300364 (23000/33640) SMR No: FER 230:091 Reference: Williams 1993:105. This site is situated towards the southern shore of Derryhowlaght Lough, an inter-drumlin lake in the Upper Erne basin. The crannóg is not marked on any OS map edition, perhaps because the water level was several metres higher than the present level within living memory. It now appears as an irregular oval island 10.5m north-south by 8.2m east-west and standing only 0.3m above the surface of the water.

Off the south side, below 0.3m of silt, is an area of extensive complicated woodwork with indications of vertical wattle panels. This extends out 19m from the centre of the crannóg but could not be surveyed as it was not visible and diver activity was damaging to the fragile structures. Careful searching, using metal detectors, of the crannóg and surrounding lake-bed led to the recovery of some artefacts and animal bones. A complete rotary quern and two fragments were recovered from the water. A fragment of iron slag, a piece of burnt clay and an iron object were recovered as was a jaw-bone of a horse and a single pig bone. A gridded search of the entire lake-bed indicated deep silting and no archaeological objects were recovered.

Underwater inspection revealed a submerged wooden outer perimeter, indicating the original extent of the structure was some 23m east-west. On the exposed weather side of the crannóg, in an arc from north-northwest to west to south-west, erosion has revealed a jumble of round-sectioned timbers, each on average 1m long and 0.15m in diameter. Only two of these timbers have indications of mortising. The timbers were left in situ with the exception of one fragment which has been

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3719

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

14C

Context Timber from crannog

Date 1262±38 BP

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

351

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 667–829; A.D. 837–868

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Rotary quern

‘Small finds’ Table

352

Dollas Lower, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: 14872/13926 SMR No: N/A Reference: Grogan et al 2007. An isolated bowl furnace was uncovered on a steep westfacing slope. This was associated with a possible refuse pit of similar date. Preliminary investigation suggested the site was primarily involved with smithing rather than smelting.

Fig. G.159: Smithing features from Dollas Lower (after Grogan et al 2007) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-179185

Context Fill of smithing hearth

14C

UB-6087

Fill of waste pit

1571±31 BP

Material Iron-working

Date 1560±40 BP

Direct Evidence Smithing hearth Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 415–584; A.D. 590 A.D. 419–557 Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

353

Donacarney Great, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 31395/27445 SMR No: N/A Reference: Rathbone & O’Reilly 2008. Excavations in advance of a housing development uncovered a number of archaeological features, including eight refuse pits, four ‘pits’, three possible cereal-drying kilns and a shallow curvilinear feature. A radiocarbon sample from a cattle phalanx found in one of the refuse pits produced an Iron Age/early medieval date; and the types of cereal found within the kilns also suggest an early medieval date.

Fig. G.160: Plan of excavated features at Donacarney Great (after Rathbone & O’Reilly 2008)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. SUERC-16816

14C Date 1650±35 BP

Context Cattle bone from pit

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 261–281; A.D. 325–467; A.D. 480–533

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

354

continued on site as refuse is found both inside the area defined by the in-filled ditch and outside it. A number of post-holes and a possible stone-built structure constitute the structural remains from this phase of occupation. The site was later used as a Christian cemetery (almost 70 skeletons were excavated in 1959), effectively destroying any structural remains belonging to the main occupation phases.

Dooey, Co. Donegal Grid Ref: B76000170 (176001/401707) SMR No: DG065-003003 References: Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961; Ó Floinn 1995; McGill 1947. The site is located on a plain of sandhills that juts out into Trawenagh Bay/Gweebarra Bay. Stone tools, pottery, metal-working and human remains had been found in the area from the late nineteenth century. Larger scale investigation was undertaken in the late 1930s/early 1940s, and this revealed ‘dozens’ of bronze pins, as well as an iron penannular brooch, iron slag, a ‘few’ decorated beads, and a ‘number’ of sherds of decorated pottery. Human skeletal remains were discovered eroding out of a sandhill during this period, and a larger scale excavation was eventually undertaken in 1959 as part of the Special Employment Scheme. This excavation revealed four phases of occupation.

About 2,000 finds were recovered from the 1959 excavation, but most were not closely stratified. The site appears to have had a predominantly industrial function. Large quantities of Nucella (Purpura) lapillus shells (dog-whelk) were found, which have been interpreted as indicating that purple dye may have been extracted on site. Over 120 iron knives – most with bone or antler handles attached – were also recovered, as well as a number of industrial iron tools. Fifty complete, or nearcomplete, bronze pins were recorded, as well as several bronze belt-buckles and ring-brooches, and fragments of crucibles which showed evidence for bronze-working. Some of these bronze objects were also found to have had amber, enamel or millefiori settings. A number of glass beads were found, but, unlike the bronzes, there was no evidence for glass-making on site.

The earliest phase is represented by an unenclosed area (56m by 64m), which contained a number of shallow fire pits. The central part of this earlier occupation area (38m by 40m) was later enclosed by a ditch, which filled in relatively quickly with sand. Habitation appears to have Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Complete clay moulds Fragmentary clay moulds Crucibles

Indirect Evidence

Wood knife handles Bone working evidence – knife handles Worked antler Un-worked antler Knife handles

Wood-working tools?

Radiocarbon Dates

Leather-working tools? Spindle whorls

Nucella lapillus shells

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.161: Mould for bronze brooch from Dooey, and reproduction drawing of brooch type (after Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, fig. 7) 355

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler

Object 120+ iron knives Chisels Gouges Hammer head Pincers Leather-/wood-working tools Pins Penannular ring-brooches Belt-buckles Bronze awl 50 complete/fragmentary bronze pins Almost 50 bronze ring-pins Bronze ring-brooches Bronze belt-buckles Two silvered/tinned rings Enamel decoration Millefiori decoration Several glass beads

Bone pins Bone needles Bone combs Bone spindle whorls Bone knife-handles Worked antler Antler knife-handles

Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.162: Carved antler pieces from Dooey (after Ó Ríordáin & Rynne 1961, fig. 8) 356

Dates

purple dye may have been extracted, were also found in these sites. Artefacts from this site consisted of two glass beads and a flint core.

Doonloughan, Co. Galway Grid Ref: L580459 (05800/24590) SMR No: N/A Reference: Murray & McCormick 2012.

Given the coastal location of the site it is not surprising that a relatively large quantity of fish bones, and a small quantity of mammal bones, were recovered from the site.

The sites at Doonloughan were identified while sampling midden sites for marine shells, and are part of a larger number of sites located in the sand dunes around the False Bay area. Most of these sites were discovered because artefacts (bronze pins, sheet bronze and bronze wire, and chert arrowheads), animal bones and miscellaneous burials had been exposed by erosion. Two trenches were excavated at Doonloughan Site 3. In Trench 1, an area of burning was uncovered, and charcoal from this was radiocarbon dated to the late eighth/early ninth century (see below). The remains of four stakes, and the possible remains of a fifth, were also discovered. The burning extended into Trench 2, where a small pit was discovered. Finds from this site consisted of a plain bronze penannular brooch, a small piece of worked antler, and an iron knife blade. A further two trenches were excavated at Doonloughan Site 11. These uncovered the lower stone courses of a house of sub-circular shape (4.4m in diameter), and it is suggested that these stones may have acted as anchors for a wicker-walled structure. The structure had a central stone-lined hearth and an east-facing entrance marked by two upright stones. A shell midden, composed of periwinkles and limpets, was found against an exterior wall. Shells of dogwhelks (Nucella lapillus), from which

Fig. G.163: Plan of house at Doonloughan (after Murray & McCormick 2012)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. (* – calibrated with marine reservoir effect: Hughen, K.A., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S., Bronk Ramsey, C., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer C.E. 2004. Radiocarbon 46, 1059–1086.) 14C

Sample No. UB-3640

Context Burnt wicker from Square 1

Date 1025±26 BP

UB-4317

Charcoal

1276±30 BP

UB-4327 UB-4324 UB-4325

Patella sp. Littorina littorea Nucella lapillus

1600±30 BP 1524±23 BP 1819±30 BP

UB-4002 UB-4073

Nucella lapillus Nucella lapillus

1780±35 BP 1756±45 BP

357

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 904–912; A.D. 971–1038 A.D. 662–781; A.D. 791–807 *A.D. 713–987. *A.D. 794–1040. *A.D. 494–752; *A.D. 758–761. *A.D. 548–801. *A.D. 560–846.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Worked antler

Nucella lapillus shells

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife blade Bronze penannular brooch Two glass beads

Worked antler piece

‘Small finds’ Table

358

Dates

‘Doonmore’ (Cross td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D17244263 (31724/44263) SMR No: ANT 005:007 Reference: Childe 1938. The site is set on top of a rocky peak rising 12m almost vertically from the surrounding farmland. It was excavated under a grant by the Prehistoric Research Council for Northern Ireland. Excavation on the summit revealed areas of paving, a rectangular structure and two hearths. Possible post sockets were also discovered around the edges of the summit, indicating the likely presence of a light palisade.

Fig. G.164: Plan of excavation at Doonmore (after Childe 1938, fig. 1)

The nature of the site and the presence of sherds of greenglazed pottery suggest that the site was used during the Anglo-Norman period. There is also substantial artefactual evidence that the site was occupied during the early medieval period – there were large numbers of souterrain ware pottery sherds (as well as some unidentified wheel-thrown pottery), shale bracelets, iron bloom, and fragments of three rotary quernstones (one of which had a cross carved in low relief).

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.165: Lignite/shale cores from Doonmore (after Childe 1938, fig. 8)

Direct Evidence Iron bloom

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware Shale cores

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Wheel-thrown pottery Three rotary quernstones

‘Small finds’ Table

359

east of the wicker-walled house, although this industrial activity may belong to the medieval period as indicated by the mixed presence of souterrain ware and everted-rim ware.

Doras, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H815678 (28150/36780) SMR No: TYR 046:025 Reference: McDowell 1987. Excavations were undertaken at the small, D-shaped townland of Doras, two miles northwest of Coalisland, in an attempt to identify whether this townland represented an early medieval ecclesiastical enclosure. The excavation did not indicate clear evidence for an early ecclesiastical establishment, although there was evidence for early medieval settlement and industry on the site. Only parts of a semi-circle of stake-holes remain, but the surviving evidence may best be interpreted as representing the site of a circular, wicker-walled house with a central hearth, and a drainage gully upslope to the south. A solitary sherd of souterrain ware was found in the house, although others were found in disturbed contexts to the east. A few undiagnostic iron objects and some slag were also found, including quantities of slag in the post-holes of the entranceway to the house. Slag/furnace bottoms were found in the gully (G4) to the

Fig. G.166: Decorated quernstone from Doras (after McDowell 1987, fig. 8)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2675

14C Date 1303±90 BP

Context Twigs from bottom of ditch

Fig. G.167: Plan of early medieval house at Doras (after McDowell 1987, fig. 3)

360

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 575–899; A.D. 919–949

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Slag and furnace bottoms

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Sandstone whetstone Sandstone quern

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

361

battered slope running up from the road edge to the road fence line. Some archaeology will remain undisturbed within this slope. Apart from the two ditches, only one internal feature was uncovered; this reflects truncation of the site rather than distribution of archaeological features. The ditch had an average maximum width of 6.5m and depth (cut into subsoil/bedrock) of 3.5m. The ditch enclosed an area of 50m by 51m. A geophysical survey (magnetometer) showed the ditch to form a rectangular enclosure; the eastern and western extents remain undisturbed on each side of the road boundary.

Dowdallshill, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J059092 (30590/30920) SMR No: N/A Reference: Channing 1994:169. The site was discovered during road construction, which had severely truncated the site prior to excavation. The remains consisted of two ditches running at right angles across the road-take. An access/haul road had been cut through the ditches on the western side of the road-take. The site was located in an area of "Cut" and thus the ground had been dug away on both sides of, and in between, the ditches. The finished road will have a Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

Bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

362

D-shaped enclosed settlement (Enclosure 3). The enclosure ditch was re-cut on a number of occasions but internal features were again rare. Finds from the initial ditch cut included a fragment of a copper-alloy strap attachment, an iron knife, fragments of iron objects, bone objects including a comb fragment and spindle whorl and a bone pin fragment, a fragment of lignite and numerous flint objects. The initial construction of the D-shaped enclosure has been dated to A.D. 680–882 and its establishment represented a clear expansion of the settlement.

Dowdstown 2, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N89686254 (289684/262547) SMR No: N/A References: Cagney et al 2009; Cagney & O’Hara 2008. Dowdstown 2, excavated in advance of the M3 roadscheme, was a large early medieval enclosed settlement and mixed agricultural complex. Initially, a circular enclosure was constructed between the mid fifth and mid seventh centuries. This was succeeded by a complex of field enclosures and annexes dating to the eighth/ninth centuries. Two structures and a large number of cerealdrying kilns were also recorded. The site was situated on a steep scarp where the land fell away very sharply to the northwest – between 44m and 49m OD – towards the River Boyne. This area was regularly flooded during excavation.

The shape and size of the enclosure was maintained after its first re-cut. This phase was dated between the mid seventh and late eighth centuries. Animal bone was common but charred cereal grains were less frequent. Artefacts included a decorative ring from a tinned copper-alloy pin, an iron bill-hook, iron knife fragments, fragments of iron objects, a lignite fragment and frequent flint items. The second re-cut displayed potential evidence for a causewayed entrance to the east, which had not been located in earlier excavation. Animal bone and finds were few. The final re-cut again contained only a few artefacts and animal bone in some contexts. Charred seeds were also present.

The earliest feature on site was a circular enclosure (Enclosure 1) measuring 32m in internal diameter that was dated between A.D. 426 and 600 (see below for radiocarbon dates). The entrance was possibly located to the northeast although this was not entirely certain. Finds associated with this early phase included animal bone, an iron knife, a bone knife handle and decorated bead, a quernstone fragment, fragments of iron objects and assorted struck flints.

A multi-phase rectangular enclosure (Enclosure 4), measuring 40m by 24m, was annexed onto Enclosure 2 and continued in use throughout the D-shaped enclosure’s (Enclosure 3) lifetime. Charred seeds and animal bone were present in the ditch fills. These were also discovered in the succeeding ditch re-cut as well as a copper-alloy pin shaft and a needle. A final re-cut revealed animal bone, charcoal, charred seeds, worked bone and a copperalloy ringed pin.

The enclosure ditch was re-cut between the mid sixth and mid seventh centuries as it was prone to silting. The shape and form of the enclosure was maintained. Animal bone was not discovered in large quantities during this phase; artefacts were also few and included a copperalloy fragment and struck flint. A second, and final, recut to the enclosing ditch revealed a larger quantity of finds including a bone pin, a possible whetstone, a copper-alloy fragment, a possible clay loom weight and struck flint. Animal bone was again rare.

A small sub-circular enclosure (Enclosure 5) – 18m in diameter – was located to the east of the above enclosures and enclosed a hearth and a kiln. The ditch fill included small quantities of charred cereal and animal bone.

Only a few internal features survived within the circular enclosure at Dowdstown 2. These included a C-shaped ditch that was re-cut a number of times and was probably contemporary with the enclosure. Finds from the initial excavation and re-cut of the ditch were few but the second and third re-cuts produced a more plentiful assemblage including iron knives, a needle, a pin, copperalloy objects, fragments of iron objects, worked bone and struck flint. Some iron slag and oxidised clay was also present from the third re-cut.

A large multi-phase rectangular enclosure was located to the north of Enclosures 1-5 within the River Boyne floodplain (Enclosure 6). A 2m-wide causewayed entrance was located on its western side. The ditch was dug in the seventh century and very few finds were associated with this phase. Small quantities of animal bone, charred seeds, snail shell and charcoal were located within the first ditch re-cut. Artefacts included flint, an iron knife, fragments of iron objects and a copper-alloy loop-headed pin shaft. Again, artefacts related to the final re-cut were scarce. A drain connected this with Enclosure 4. This large enclosure may have functioned as a floodplain-enriched meadow for cattle during the summer.

A rectangular multi-phase enclosure (Enclosure 2), measuring 32m by 16m, was annexed onto the eastern side of the circular enclosure. The ditch fills included animal bone and charred seeds. Artefacts included a worked stone, a piece of quartz, an iron fragment and a number of flints. It is likely that this was contemporary with the circular enclosure and with enclosures 4 and 5.

A shallow, badly-preserved enclosure ditch was recorded for a short distance along the eastern limit of excavation (Enclosure 7). However, the geophysical survey demonstrated that it formed an enclosure broadly similar in size and form to Enclosure 4 which suggests they were

The next phase at Dowdstown 2 consisted of the amalgamation of the two enclosures above into a larger 363

was cut by Enclosure 2 and, therefore, predated it. Charred barley grain from one of its post-holes was dated to A.D. 553–658 indicating that it was contemporary with Enclosure 1. The structure may have served as a barn or grain store because charred grain was recovered from a number of associated deposits.

contemporary. Its single fill contained small quantities of animal bone. An irregular-shaped enclosure (Enclosure 8; 20m by 22m) was located to the south of Enclosure 3. Animal bone, charcoal and charred grain were recovered in varying quantities and an iron knife was the only artefact retrieved. A small enclosure was appended to its western edge (Enclosure 9).

A collection of 11 post-holes clustered together internally within Enclosure 1 but they did not form a recognisable structural plan. One post-hole was dated to A.D. 689–899 and it is possible that more than one building is represented by these features. The radiocarbon date suggests that a structure was contemporary with Enclosure 3.

Two poorly-preserved structures were identified at Dowdstown 2. The first (Structure A) was possibly square or rectangular, and survived to a maximum length of 10m. This post-built structure was surrounded by a partially-extant drip gully and may have been 6m wide. It

Fig. G.168: Early medieval enclosures at Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009)

364

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C Date 1454±33 BP 1540±40 BP 1240±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 554–651 A.D. 426–600 A.D. 680–882

Beta-220120

Context F496: Animal bone from primary fill of Enclosure 1 F442: Animal bone from primary fill of Enclosure 1 F328: Animal bone from primary fill of re-cut Enclosure 1 ditch F548: Animal bone from primary fill of Enclosure 3

1300±40 BP

QUB-7009

F336: Animal bone from fill of Enclosure 6

1369±33 BP

Beta-247068 Beta-247072

F721: Fill of post-hole associated with Structure A F1476: Fill of post-hole associated with Structure B

1440±40 BP 1200±40 BP

Beta-247069

Cereal grain from oval-shaped cereal-drying kiln (Kiln A)

1180±40 BP

Beta-247071 Beta-247070

Cereal grain from oval-shaped cereal-drying kiln (Kiln C) Cereal grain from cereal-drying kiln (Kiln H)

1340±40 BP 1320±40 BP

A.D. 649–781; A.D. 791–807 A.D. 605–691; A.D. 750–762 A.D. 553–658 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–899; A.D. 919–948 A.D. 717–743; A.D. 768–907; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 637–772 A.D. 648–774

Sample No. UB-7039 Beta-220119 Beta-220117

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 1.31kg iron slag Furnace lining

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone pins

Loom weights Spindle whorl Needle

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.169: Iron bill-hook from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) Fig. G.170: Blue glass bead from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009)

365

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron knives Fragments of iron objects Iron needle Iron pin Iron bill-hook Iron shears Iron spearhead Copper-alloy fragments Copper-alloy objects Copper-alloy strap attachment Copper-alloy ring Copper-alloy ringpin Copper-alloy pin shafts Copper-alloy needle Blue glass bead Clay loom weight Lignite bracelet fragment Quernstone fragment Whetstone Loom weight

Dates

Bone knife-handle Bone pins Worked bone Bone comb Bone spindle whorl

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.171: Copper-alloy pins from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009) Fig. G.172: Lignite bracelets from Dowdstown (after Cagney et al 2009)

366

‘Downview Park West’, Ballyaghagan td, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J33087855 (33308/37855) SMR No: ANT 057:025 Reference: Davison 1964. Three souterrains were uncovered during the construction of a roadway in 1959. There were no indications that these souterrains had been included within a rath.

Fig. G.174: Plan and section of souterrains at Downview Park (after Davison 1964, fig. 1)

Fig. G.173: Souterrain ware sherds from Downview Park (after Davison 1964, fig. 2)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 12 fragments of iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two iron nails

Dates

209 sherds of souterrain ware

‘Small Finds’ Table

367

Dressogagh, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: H93075543 (29307/35543) SMR No: ARM 009:001 Reference: Collins 1966. The site consisted of an irregular ‘pear-shaped’ enclosure (29m by 34m internally) set on the northern slope of a drumlin. Farm improvement threatened the enclosure, leading to the excavation of the site. Excavation through the inner bank and ditch revealed an earlier, pre-bank occupation layer. This was indicated by the presence of an iron-smelting hearth (and associated iron slag) located beneath the present inner bank. It was, however, suggested by the excavator that the smelting hearth and inner ditch may have been contemporary features, suggesting perhaps that the present bank may not have matched the proportions of the contemporaneous bank. Indeed it would appear that scarping of the outer face of the bank, and re-cutting of the ditch, were undertaken in recent years to assist in drainage. The major feature on the site was a ‘figure-of-eight’ house. Both parts of the house respected each other, and were held to be contemporary, rather than a succession of roundhouses; and both ‘rooms’ were found to contain a central hearth. Both of the hearths were flanked by small post-holes, which have been interpreted as supports for a cooking crane. Small circles of charcoal found in the centre of the slot-trenches would appear to represent the remains of the vertical wands used in wickerwork, implying that the structure had wicker, or wattle-anddaub, walls.

Fig. G.176: Plan of Dressogagh (after Collins 1966, 118)

Two sherds of souterrain ware were found in the old turfline under the main bank. These finds, along with the presence of the smelting-hearth, suggest that the site was occupied prior to the construction of the main bank and ditch. Over 50 sherds of souterrain ware were recovered from the house, as well as fragments of a fine bronze chain.

Fig. G.177: ‘Figure-of-eight’ house at Dressogagh (after Collins 1966, 120) Fig. G.175: Souterrain ware from Dressogagh (after Collins 1966, fig. 4)

368

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron-smelting hearth Possible slag

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron nail Bronze chain

Dates

Souterrain ware Two shale bracelets Fossilised wood hone Fossilised wood hone Spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

369

Dromiskin, Co. Louth Grid Ref: O060979 (30600/29790) SMR No: N/A Reference: Halpin 1988:45.

A portion of a ditch 11.5m long was revealed, running parallel with and immediately to the south of the souterrain, cutting part of the chamber trench and its fill. It was not traced any further as it ran off the pipeline corridor to the west under the driving track to the east. It had a round-bottomed profile 1.3m wide, widening towards the east where it became flat-bottomed and was up to 2.5m wide and 0.4m deep. Investigation of the site during trenching for the pipe did not clarify the nature or date of this feature but revealed the presence of a further east-west ditch further upslope.

The remains consisted of two almost completely destroyed/demolished souterrains, with a portion of a possible medieval building lying almost on top of one. The remains of the souterrain consisted of the severely truncated, robbed and partially-disturbed construction trench. The excavated structural remains consisted of a passage, creep and elongated chamber. The passage survived for 9.5m in length as far as the creep, some of the stonework of which was still in situ. The passage was represented by a steep-sided, flat-bottomed trench c.0.8m wide and a maximum of 0.6m deep. The creep consisted of a stone-built step, which survived in the floor, and drystone-built walls no more than 0.3m high on either side. The passage/chamber beyond the creep ran in an east-southeast direction, creating an overall curvilinear plan, upslope.

Overlying the ditch fill were the remains of a stone structure, represented by three walls, 4.1m by 3.9m. It was 0.9m wide at its best-preserved point and survived to a maximum of 0.2m, or two courses, in height. Cut by the souterrain at the point where the creep occurs was an earlier stone- and midden-filled pit. It was oval in plan, measuring a maximum 3.3m by 1.2m. Some 9m to the north of Site 1, and down slope from it, a second series of partially-destroyed features was revealed. These included a large hearth site and the entrance to a second souterrain. The hearth consisted of a rectangular setting of stones two courses high, measuring 0.5m by 0.25m overall and a maximum of 0.25m high. The souterrain was represented by a trench 1.1m wide and a maximum of 0.35m deep, with a metalled surface running to the north of the hearth. It was traced for some 3.5m at which point it ran off the pipeline corridor to the west.

The very shallow remains of the construction trench for this portion of the souterrain were traced for a distance of 7.5m, but further investigation eastwards was prevented by the presence of the driving track of the pipeline corridor which remained in constant use while the site was being excavated. Where excavated it had a maximum width of 1.7m and a maximum depth of 0.6m. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table 370

Dromore, ‘Glarryford Rath’, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D0475013540 (30475/41354) SMR No: ANT 027:006 Reference: Collins 1968. Excavation in the interior of a large raised rath at Glarryford revealed three house structures. House 1 was demarcated by an approximately circular drainage gully with a diameter of 10.5m. A hearth (or at least an area of burnt earth associated with kerb stones) was located within this structure, as well as finds of charcoal and souterrain ware. House 2 was also defined by an approximately circular rainwater gully, 5.1m in diameter. Within the circle were half-a-dozen post-holes and a long shallow basin which contained a 0.1m-thick layer of charcoal. A few souterrain sherds were scattered through the fill of this fire-pit. House 3 was apparent before excavation, evidenced by a short length of stone walling. Excavation revealed an approximately rectangular area with rounded corners enclosed by a dry-walled revetment which survived to a maximum height of three courses. Much of the interior had been roughly paved with basalt stones, although this stopped short of the wall by about 0.6m. A sherd or two of souterrain ware comprised the only artefacts in the house area.

Fig. G.178: Plan of Dromore ring-work (after Collins 1968, fig. 2)

Fig. G.179: Photograph of House 3 at Dromore, looking north (after Collins 1968, plate V) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

371

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.180: Souterrain ware from Dromore (after Collins 1968, fig. 6)

372

A series of external stake-holes and pits were excavated within the enclosure interior. One pit between the two structures (but on the same stratigraphic level) contained dumped iron-working material and charred plant remains. Charcoal from this pit produced a radiocarbon date range in the sixth/seventh century (see below). A pit in the northern area had evidence for in situ burning and contained burnt bone, saddle quern fragments, charcoal, iron slag, a bi-chrome glass bead and a blue glass bead.

Dromthacker, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: Q85911623 (085917/116236) SMR No: KE029-095 Reference: Cleary 2008. An excavation at Dromthacker in advance of a new university campus at Tralee revealed a univallate enclosure with two internal buildings preceded by an unenclosed settlement associated with a small structure and gully. The site was situated on the south-westerly face of a gradually-rising ridge (58m OD) between the Big River and a tributary of the River Lee.

The radiocarbon dates from the two phases suggest that there was not any significant time interval between the initial unenclosed settlement and the subsequent construction of the enclosure and associated structures.

Pre-enclosure activity was indicated by a series of postholes, stake-holes and pits on the eastern side of the site. The post and stakes defined a structure 3.8m by 3m. An internal pit and a paved surface, which extended from the interior of the building to the east, were also located. This paved area was cut by a gully (14.6m long by 0.9m wide and 0.4m deep) which was interpreted as a drain for keeping the environs of the building dry. A hone-stone was recovered from the paved surface, while two others were also identified within the fill of the gully. Charcoal from the gully produced a radiocarbon date range in the fifth/sixth century (see below). The Phase 1 unenclosed settlement was overlain by an introduced clay layer which was interpreted as a levelling-up of part of the site prior to the construction of the Phase 2 oval enclosure (19m by 24m internally). The enclosure bank survived to a maximum height of 0.75m and maximum width of 2.25m. The ditch associated with it was U-shaped with a surface width of 2.7m. There was no indication of basal silting, indicating that the ditch was either cleaned out periodically or in-filled shortly after excavation; excavation revealed that it had been partially in-filled in antiquity.

Fig. G.181: Plan of Phase 1 house at Dromthacker (after Cleary 2008, 24)

The original entrance was not located, and a south-eastern entrance blocked in the 1980s was associated with modern paving. Two pits and a post-hole – supporting a possible gate-post – were excavated in this area, and were interpreted as a possible original entrance; however, the ditch was continuous in this area and these features may represent pre-enclosure activity. The pits were bowlshaped and contained iron slag, charcoal and fireshattered stones. One also contained partly vitrified clay, possibly belonging to the clay surrounding a tuyère. Phase 2 occupation was mainly confined to the eastern and southern sections of the enclosure interior and had surviving remains of at least two post-built buildings with internal stake-holes. Structure 1 was located in the southeast and had an estimated internal diameter of 7.5m. A stone spread on the south-western side was interpreted as marking the building’s entrance. Structure 2 was recorded 2m north-east of Structure 1. It was an oval-shaped building with an estimated long axis of 8.5m and contained an internal hearth.

Fig. G.182: Phase 2 structures at Dromthacker (after Cleary 2008, 32) 373

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GrN23798

Context Charcoal from Phase I gully fill

14C

GrN23797

Charcoal from fill of pit between Phase 2 Buildings

1480±25 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère

Date 1520±30 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 433–495; A.D. 504–523; A.D. 526–609 A.D. 545–637

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bi-chrome glass bead Blue glass bead

Four honestones

‘Small finds’ Table

374

Drumadonnell, Co. Down Grid Ref: J24393915 (32439/33915) SMR No: DOW 035:053 Reference: McSparron 2001. Monitored top-soil stripping was undertaken prior to the construction of a new primary school because of the possibility that a lost early medieval ecclesiastical site may have existed in the vicinity. This claim was largely based on the survival of a high cross, which had subsequently been removed from the area. Excavation revealed the presence of a hearth and associated post-hole settings, as well as a second hearth which did not appear to have been associated with the layout of post-holes. Dating of charcoal from both of the hearths, however, gave an early medieval date (see below). It is suggested that the post-holes may have represented a roundhouse-type structure. A number of sherds of souterrain-ware pottery were found on site, but there is also some evidence (two nonsouterrain-ware pottery sherds and the nature of the seed assemblage in the bottom of a pit/kiln) that the site was occupied in the Bronze Age. Fig. G.183: Unenclosed house at Drumadonnell (after McSparron 2001, 49)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. N/A

Context Charcoal from lower fill of primary hearth

14C Date 1160±60 BP

N/A

Charcoal from secondary hearth

1200±60 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

375

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 694–703; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–994 A.D. 682–905; A.D. 912–970

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

376

paved area were constructed. Souterrain ware (54 sherds) was also found in this occupation layer.

Drumadoon, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D16744046 (31467 44046) SMR No: ANT 009:042 References: McSparron & Williams 2009; 2010.

The interior of the site was levelled again, and the external bank was strengthened by the addition of an internal stone revetment. A sub-circular hut was identified in this occupation phase, which appears to relate to the conversion of the early medieval site into an Anglo-Norman motte. A copper-alloy bell-shrine of possible twelfth-century date was discovered in a void within the souterrain fill. A figure of Christ, which was manufactured at Limoges in the thirteenth century, had been attached to the bell-shrine. A silver half-penny of Henry III (dating to 1247–1272) was also found in this phase. Over two hundred pottery sherds were recovered – the majority (134) were identified as souterrain ware; a large number (85) were identified as possible souterrain ware; and fourteen were identified as thirteenth/ fourteenth-century Medieval Ulster Coarse Pottery.

The site consists of a mound, approximately 5m high, set at the end of a ridge. Small-scale gravel quarrying by the landowner had exposed the side of a souterrain, and had potentially compromised the integrity of the archaeological site. Excavation of the site revealed that a bank had originally enclosed an area 14m by 5m on top of a natural mound, approximately 3.5m in height. This bank had a stonefaced external façade, and there was evidence for a cobbled entranceway and metalled interior surface. The construction of the souterrain appears to have occurred during this phase of occupation. Human habitation is indicated by the presence of a hearth, and a circular hut which was associated with deposits of burnt wattle-anddaub. Souterrain ware (242 sherds) was found in this occupation layer, as well as two iron nails, an iron spearhead and a copper-alloy clasp. A large number of oat grains (over 10,000) were recovered from in and around the hut, accounting for 74% of the total cereal grains from this occupation phase.

Analysis of the mammalian animal bones shows that the numbers of identified specimens (NISP) from the Early Medieval occupation phases are: Cattle (185); Sheep (160); Pig (43); Horse (7); Dog (10); Cat (14); Fox (31); and Hare (3). A number of fish bones (67) were also recovered, and were identified as salmon, saithe, red seabream, and cod (in the earliest occupation layer); and cod and red seabream (in the later layer).

The bank slump was later levelled and in-filled to create an artificial platform upon which a second hearth and

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-6414

Context Charred cereal grains from Hearth II

14C

UB-6416

Charred cereal grains from basal fill of souterrain

1152±30 BP

UB-6417

Charred cereal grains from Hearth I

1186±30 BP

UB-6418

Charred cereal grains from Hut I

1199±30 BP

UB-6993

Human femur in gravel capping souterrain

1260±29 BP

Date 1185±30 BP

377

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 724–739; A.D. 771–899; A.D. 919–949 A.D. 779–792; A.D. 803–972 A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–899; A.D. 919–948 A.D. 713–745; A.D. 767–895; A.D. 925–937 A.D. 670–783; A.D. 787–823; A.D. 841–861

Fig. G.184: Souterrain ware ‘cup’ from Phase II at Drumadoon (after McSparron & Williams 2009, plate V)

Fig. G.185: Bell shrine from Drumadoon (after McSparron & Williams 2009, plate A.II) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Flax seeds

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two iron nails Iron spear head Copper-alloy clasp Copper-alloy bell shrine Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

378

Dates

primarily consisted of two substantial linear ditches, one cutting through the other almost at right angles and from which early medieval pottery was recovered. Apparently associated with these were several small pits containing charcoal-flecked soil and further sherds of medieval pottery. Both linear features ran beyond the limits of the pipeline corridor and may indicate the location of a more extensive medieval site. The recovery of high-status thirteenth-century French pottery combined with the townland name of Drumaheglis (Hill of the Church) would suggest the location of an ecclesiastical settlement in the immediate vicinity.

Drumaheglis, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: C90502525 (29050/42525) SMR No: N/A Reference: Anon. 2003:007. Monitoring of topsoil-stripping associated with the installation of a pumping station and a new system of gravity sewers to service the hamlets of Bendooragh, Balnamore, Drumahiskey and Drumaheglis, Co. Antrim uncovered five areas of archaeological deposits. Site E was uncovered upslope from Drumaheglis Marina. As uncovered within the pipeline corridor, the site

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

379

‘Dun Emer’, Lusk, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: 32081/25418 SMR No: N/A References: Giacometti 2007b; 2011.

A large deep pit (1.7m in diameter and 1.4m deep) to the south of the Eastern Enclosure shows signs of having been filled with water. A narrow snaking drain ran into the pit from the south-west and would appear to be contemporary with the pit and in simultaneous use. The pit has been interpreted as a cistern or well for the provision of clean drinking water.

A large east-west running field boundary appears to mark the first early medieval phase on site. This has been tentatively dated to c.AD 650. This boundary was integrated into the subsequent enclosure complex as the northern ditch of the main and eastern enclosures, and the southern ditch of the Northern Enclosure. The Main Enclosure encompassed an area 38m by 32m, while the Eastern Enclosure was smaller at 21m by 19m. The Northern Enclosure was the smallest of the three (9m by 8m) and its surrounding ditches appear to have been deepened during the lifetime of the nearby kiln.

A large bowl-shaped kiln was found 10m north of the Northern Enclosure. Three post-holes were noted around the kiln – two around the flue – which may indicate the presence of a structure over the kiln or of a raised drying platform over the bowl. Another two small keyholeshaped kilns were found: one to the west of the Main Enclosure, and another to the southeast. The enclosure complex appears to have been deliberately dismantled at the end of its occupation phase. Radiocarbon dating of small fragments of charcoal from the lower portion of the ditches returned a range of possible dates for this abandonment, with the most likely spanning the years A.D. 758–883 and A.D. 765–890. Wooden structural supports were removed intentionally, rather than being burnt down or allowed to rot naturally, as all of the post sockets were clean and contained no charcoal. The large posts supporting the bridge into the main enclosure seemed to have been removed before the ditch was allowed to fill in, suggesting the farmstead was dismantled as the inhabitants were leaving. Although the enclosures were not occupied, the land in and around them continued to be managed, and was probably cultivated and used as pasture. Temporary hearths were found in the uppermost portions of the ditch, and charcoal from one of these was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 803– 972. These hearths were located almost at the top of the in-filled enclosure ditch, and the date indicates that the enclosure ditches were completely silted up by the end of the tenth century.

There is no causeway across the ditches into the Main Enclosure. Two symmetrical depressions on the outer edge of the southern ditch, and two post-holes on its inner side, have been interpreted as evidence for supports for a timber bridge structure. Another possible ‘bridge’ was tentatively identified over the west ditch of the Main Enclosure. A cobbled or metalled surface appears to have been deliberately laid in the ditch of the Main Enclosure during the occupation of the site, although the purpose of this feature remains unclear. Animal bones, shell and slag were noted amid and beneath this cobbled surface, and one fragment of Dublin Type Ware (dating from the twelfth/fourteenth centuries) was found in the upper fill of the ditch. This was the only dateable artefact recovered from the ditch, but would appear to have been introduced into the ditch by later agricultural activity. A curvilinear ditch that ran across the site on an east-west orientation may belong to this phase of use. This feature generally followed the course of the ditches forming the southern sides of the eastern enclosure and main enclosure, and cut through the uppermost fills of these ditches. It is likely that this later ditch was originally dug when the early medieval enclosure ditches were almost filled up, but still visible. A number of structural features are associated with this enclosure complex. Two probable house structures have been identified in the interior of the Main Enclosure. Structure A was defined by 16 post-holes centred on a hearth, creating a semi-circular or oval feature approximately 6m wide. Two shallow stake-holes located next to the scorched pit may be evidence of the uprights associated with a cooking spit. Seven post-holes found to the south and west of Structure A did not form any obvious pattern; however, a very tentative interpretation may be that they formed two lines for fences, which may have created a pen in the corner of the enclosure. Structure B was outlined by 20 post-holes forming a roughly oval shape approximately 11m in length and 7m wide.

Fig. G.186: Plan of main enclosure at Dun Emer, Lusk (after Giacometti 2007b)

380

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-7143 UB-7144

Context Hearth in Structure A Hearth dump in upper layer of ditch

14C Date 1398±32 BP 1151±30 BP

UB-7145

Eastern ditch

1214±31 BP

UB-7148 UB-7149

Post-hole Large kiln

1246±32 BP 1337±32 BP

UB-7150 UB-7151

Small kiln Eastern ditch

1288±32 BP 1230±34 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 6kg of bloomery slag – wustite, fayalite & interstitial glass

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 596–672 A.D. 780–792; A.D. 803–972 A.D. 693–748; A.D. 765–890 A.D. 681–870 A.D. 644–721; A.D. 741–770 A.D. 658–779 A.D. 688–754; A.D. 758–883

Radiocarbon Dates

Siderite ore fragments

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

381

Dún Eoghanachta, Co. Galway Grid Ref: L811113 (08110/21130) SMR No: GA-110:020A References: Cotter 1993; 1994; 1995; 1995:117; 1996; 2012.

approximately half the interior of Structure A and a strip 1m wide along the exterior of its south wall. Similar deposits were uncovered in all three cuttings. The earliest deposits consisted of midden dump containing mainly limpet and periwinkle shells with lesser quantities of animal, fish and bird bones. This material in-filled hollows and open grykes in the bedrock and abutted the foundations of the fort wall. In Cutting 2 a few scraps of animal bone and shell fragments lay within a deep gryke which continued in under the fort wall; it seems likely that this activity (at the earliest) is contemporary with the construction of the fort, rather than representing a pre-fort horizon, but further excavation is necessary to establish this for certain. A number of spreads of darker charcoalrich soil may represent the remains of hearths contemporary with the midden, and a small setting of stones in Cutting 1 may also be the remains of a hearth. The only other features evident at this level were two hollows in the bedrock outside the east wall of Structure C. These appear to have been deliberately constructed and may have acted as rubbish pits. The fills contained cattle, pig, sheep and red deer bones. Finds from the midden deposit were few, but included an iron ringheaded pin, part of a shale bracelet, an amber bead, a cake of iron slag and a slotted-and-pointed iron tool. Parallels for the latter are known from Cahercommaun, Lagore, Carraig Aille and a number of Scottish and Scandinavian sites.

The univallate stone fort of Dún Eoghanachta is located about 1.5km north-west of Dún Aonghasa. It stands on a shoulder of relatively level ground bounded along the south, east and west by rising broken terrain. A short distance north of the site an inland cliff drops almost vertically to an area of good grazing land. Like the other large stone forts on the Aran Islands, it was restored in the late nineteenth century. Dún Eoghanachta was selected for excavation firstly because of its architectural similarity to Dún Aonghasa and secondly as its simple plan and small size suggested that it was likely to be a single-period site, with the main period of occupation or activity thus providing a date for its construction. The fort measures 26m in internal diameter and the walls are up to 5m high and average 4.75m in thickness. The doorway is in the east sector and consists of a faced, featureless opening. A terrace 0.8m– 1.2m wide runs along the inner face of the wall at a height of 1.6m–2.5m above present ground level. At present five sets of steps lead from the ground to the terrace and a further five sets of steps lead from the terrace to the top of the wall. The interior is level, with a large expanse of bedrock now exposed towards the centre of the site.

The midden dump underlay the walls of the two structures excavated (A and C). No definite occupation surface or deposits associated with these structures survived in situ. A flat slab lying on the ground surface within Structure C may have been a hearth stone. The slab partly underlies the east wall of the house and if it represents floor level it seems likely that any deposits contemporary with the house have been disturbed or eroded away. Within Structure A, a silver coin of Edward I (probably of AD 1300 date) was recovered near the surface of the midden dump, about 0.2m below the present ground level. Though not definitely related to the occupation of the house, the find suggests that there was some activity at the site in the thirteenth century. No dating evidence was recovered for the construction and occupation of Structure C. With so little known about rural medieval and early post-medieval settlement in the west of Ireland, it is not clear whether the absence of a pottery assemblage points to a late (eighteenth-century?) rather than an early date. By the time of John O’Donovan's visit in 1839, the structures appear to have been abandoned and collapsed or occluded by rubble.

Three buildings stand in the western sector. The largest (Structure C) has a rectangular ground-plan (5.25m by 3.78m internally) and a featureless doorway in the short north wall. The west wall is formed by a skin of walling butted back against the lower terrace of the fort. Two lintelled recesses in this wall may have been fireplaces or cupboards. The remaining walls stand to a height of 1m and are 0.75m–1m in thickness. This structure is undoubtedly a house and may be medieval or later. Structure B is conjoined to the south side of Structure C and is also rectangular in plan (4.12m by 1.6m internally). It consists of a lean-to butted back against the fort wall and partly occluding a set of steps here. Structure A is also butted against the west wall of the fort. It is of irregular rectangular plan (3.7m long by 1.74m–2.45m wide internally) with a pronounced angle in the long southern wall. The north wall is partly occluded by a build-up of rubble on the exterior and the doorway (a faced gap in the east wall) is also partly occluded by this rubble.

The limited excavations carried out suggest a date in the second half of the first millennium AD for the construction of the fort. If future research confirms this, then Dún Eoghanachta may be compared with other large stone forts such as Cahercommaun, which appears to have been a high-status settlement in the late first millennium AD.

Three cuttings were opened over a five-week period. Cutting 1 included approximately half of the interior of Structure C and a strip 1m wide on the corresponding sector of the exterior; Cutting 2 (3m by 3m) was located in the south-west quadrant and Cutting 3 included

382

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron ring-headed pin Slotted iron tool

Dates

Shale bracelet Amber bead

‘Small finds’ Table

383

enclosure, which had been subsequently demolished with no trace remaining.

Dunalis Upper, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C80443064 (28044/43064) SMR No: LDY 007:004 Reference: Lindsay 1934-35.

The most interesting aspect of the souterrain is that one of the ceiling lintels in Chamber 2 is a re-used oghammarked stone. Possible drill-holes associated with the construction of the souterrain were uncovered, as was a possible stone drill-bit.

The souterrain was located in the environs of a new reservoir. It had originally been within a ringed

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware Drill-holes in souterrain walls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Possible drill

‘Small finds’ Table

384

‘Dunbeg Fort’ (Fahan td), Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V35219726 (035219/097269) SMR No: KE052-270001 Reference: Barry 1981.

of stone – up to 1.6m deep – which was probably deliberately thrown off the stone rampart or off the entrance-complex of Bank 1. Charcoal from the base of Ditch 1 indicated that it was in use in the eighth/ninth centuries AD.

Dunbeg promontory fort, situated in Fahan townland on a sheer cliff promontory, was excavated in 1977 because of coastal erosion. Excavations revealed that the site’s defensive ditches and banks and its internal stone building were mostly likely occupied between the eighth and eleventh centuries, with some earlier evidence for activity in the late Bronze Age.

The inner stone rampart had a maximum thickness of 6.35m and width of 3.08m and survived for 29m, about half of its recorded length in the mid-nineteenth century. The rampart was depicted by George Du Noyer in 1856 as completely cutting off the promontory in one straight line. Two cuttings were opened across the space between the surviving curving eastern end of the rampart and the cliff edge, but no trace of an original stone rampart was located. Various accounts report the removal of stone from the site in the nineteenth century and it is possible that this part of the rampart had been removed in the late nineteenth century.

The fort itself consists of a clochán defended by an inner stone rampart and an outer line of five ditches and four banks. A souterrain leads from the rampart entrance under part of the causeway through the earthen defences. The fort’s interior was almost completely excavated and trenches were cut across the earthen defences, rampart, causewayed entrance and souterrain.

The rampart itself was constructed in two phases. Phase 1 involved the construction of the inner half of the wall which averaged 4.8m wide and 2.76m maximum height. Two corbelled chambers were incorporated into the walls on either side of the stone-lintelled entrance, which measured 2m wide and 2.3m high. Phase 2 involved the addition of further supports to the entrance, the deepening of Ditch 1, and the construction of a dry-stone wall (up to 2.25m wide and 1.9m high) against the outer face of the Phase 1 rampart. The additional pressure of the Phase 2 exterior wall required the construction of a retaining wall along the internal (southern) side of the Phase 1 rampart, which was partially excavated and measured 2.3m deep and 2m wide.

The earliest phase of activity on the site consisted of a shallow U-shaped ditch (0.9m deep and 2.2m maximum width) which partly underlay the inner stone rampart. The ditch ran for 19m from inside the line (southern side) of the rampart entrance to its termination point at the eastern curved end of the rampart. Associated with the ditch were a possible dry-stone wall and wattle fence, indicated by a collapse of stone and a layer of charcoal along the length of the ditch. One copper nail was recovered from the topmost layer of the ditch, and a sample from the charcoal layer of the ditch produced a Late Bronze Age/early Iron Age date.

The remains of a central causeway partially survived between the defensive banks and ditches and were defined by upright orthostats at the edges of the banks and possible cobbled areas. Similar-sized stones were recovered in the fill of the Ditch 1 terminus and it was suggested that these orthostats formed part of a complete series of pillars flanking the edges of the causeway.

The four lines of banks survived to a maximum height of 1m above the old ground level and were up to 3m wide. Tentative traces of palisade trenches (maximum of 0.5m deep and 1m wide) were identified on the north-facing (external) crests of Banks 1 and 2. Several of the sections through the banks revealed that they had been constructed in two or three distinct phases which took place fairly close together as indicated by the lack of any intervening old sod horizons between them.

The drystone-built souterrain extends for some 16.5m in a south-west to north-east direction from within the stone rampart entrance out under the line of the entrance causeway and terminating 2m south of the outer face of Bank 2. Several sections of the souterrain were excavated but no original earthen floor level or artefacts were recovered.

The angle of most of the tip-lines of the banks appears to suggest that each bank was constructed with the up-cast from the (internal) ditch to its immediate south. A series of boulders in Ditch 2 at the base of Bank 1 appear to have slipped off an outer (northern) stone-facing of this bank. Indications of a possible outer stone facing were also identified on Bank 2.

A large dry-stone building (internal diameter of 7.5m) was excavated in the interior of the fort. Its walls were circular shaped externally and rectangular internally and are unlikely to have supported a corbelled roof. Its northwest lintelled doorway was linked with the rampart entrance by a flagged pathway, and the floor of the entrance was lined with several flagstones which extended for 1.4m into the interior of the building.

The four ditches north of Ditch 1 all had a similar shallow U-shaped profile measuring between 0.98m and 1.55m deep and from 5.6m to 12m wide. Most of the fill of these ditches was the result of the normal denudation of the defensive banks, with evidence also for narrow layers of windblown sand/silt. Ditch 1 was deeper and more steeply sloping than the other defensive ditches. The original fill of the ditch appears to have been cleared out in recent times and backfilled with an extensive deposit

Two phases of activity were identified within the stone building. The Phase 1 features consisted of a hearth, scatters of stake-holes, areas of burning, a shallow trench 385

medieval artefacts – thirteen sherds of post-medieval pottery, brass button, brass medal of the Catholic Total Abstinence League and clay pipe fragments – found mostly in the topsoil in the fort’s interior. The animal bone – sheep/goats, pig and cattle as well as deer and birds – was fragmentary and recovered mostly from within the occupation layers inside the building.

and a possible foundation trench for the southern wall. The hearth contained charcoal, animal bone and ash and was associated with a series of stake-holes, indicative of structural supports. The shallow trench (1m long and 0.2m wide) was located beside one of the areas of burning in the north-west quadrant and was full of charcoal. It was interpreted as the remains of an internal wattle fence. Charcoal from the first period of activity produced a radiocarbon date range in the tenth/eleventh centuries (see below). It is possible that the first phase coincided with the construction of the building as there was no evidence for internal structural supports and it is unlikely that a structure of such size supported a corbelled roof. The Phase 2 activity was more extensive and prolonged than Phase 1 and consisted of a habitation layer (indicated by charcoal, animal bone, and flints) concentrated around two central hearths as well as a pit along the southern wall, an area of flagstones inside the northern door and scatters of stake-holes and six post-holes across the interior, except for the north-eastern quadrant. The radiocarbon date from the charcoal from the habitation deposit suggests that both Phase 1 and 2 occupation layers were of short duration and occurred around the tenth century (see below). Finds from the second occupation comprised a possible quernstone and rough pestle and an undecorated stone spindle whorl. A possible cleat nail was also located in the topsoil of a cutting inside the building.

Fig. G.187: Plan of Dunbeg promontory fort (after Barry 1981, 301)

It was suggested that the building in Phase 2 was never completely roofed and that wooden lean-to structures were erected in the northwest, southeast and southwest corners of the building, with two sides being supported by the top of the stone walls while the other sides were supported by wooden posts. Some of the stake-holes appear to have lined up with each other and could indicate the presence of wattle walls in the interior of these structures. A stone-flagged path linked the northwest entrance of the building with the stone rampart. It overlay part of a stonelined drain which extended 4.4m east of the eastern door jamb of the building to the cliff-face to the southwest. A triangular area of stone cobbling of recent date was excavated to the east of the building and sealed a nineteenth-century brass button. Finds from the fort’s interior included two small hone-stones.

Fig. G.188: Plan of rampart and fort interior at Dunbeg (after Barry 1981, 302)

The finds at Dunbeg were very few in number and comprised a small collection of possible early medieval objects mentioned above as well as a number of post-

386

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2215

Context Wood charcoal from base of Ditch 1

14C Date 1150±75 BP

UB-2216

2535±35 BP

UB-2217 UB-2218

Charcoal from inside shallow ditch, partly underlying the inner stone rampart Charcoal from Phase 1 of clochán Charcoal from habitation deposit from Phase 2 of clochán

UB-2219

N/A

1150±75 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

960±100 BP 1050±35 BP

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Quernstone Stone spindle whorl

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

387

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 691–749; A.D. 763–1018 799–721 B.C.; 694–540 B.C. A.D. 891–1263 A.D. 895–925; A.D. 937–1030 A.D. 691–749; A.D. 763–1018

this was occupied by a slight irregular hollow, about 1.7m long and 0.45m wide. It is uncertain whether this was an original feature. It was difficult on account of the nature of the boulder clay to define its limits, either in depth or extent, with certainty and it may well have been an area of original trampling rather than a cut feature. Only two of the 51 sherds recovered came from this lowest filling, the bulk of the pieces coming from immediately above it.

Dunbeg, Co. Down Grid Ref: J33954872 (33395/34782) SMR No: DOW 029:028 Reference: Inskeep & Proudfoot 1957. In November 1956, a small-scale excavation was carried out to examine a possible house-site on the hill-top and obtain if possible finds which might assist in the dating of the earthwork, and might indicate whether the earthworks were of the same date as the house-site. The house-site appeared to be an oval-shaped hollow about 4m by 3.3m in area and about 0.6m deep. A long gulley cut from slightly south of the highest part of the hill ran into the north-west corner of the hollow at right angles to its main axis. The eastern half of the hollow was emptied first in order to give a north-south section, and later the north-west quadrant was emptied in order to give a section of the gulley and an east-west section along the axis of the hollow. Excavation indicated that the part of the ridge on which the hill-fort was built consisted of boulder-clay and not of solid rock as had first seemed likely on account of the steepness and broken nature of the ground. The hollow had been cut into this very tough boulder clay to an average depth of 1.2m. The true shape had been more that of a rectangle with rounded corners than an oval, and on the south and east sides the walls were comparatively steep, giving a floor space of approximately 1.8m by 3.3m–3.6m. The central part of Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.189: Plan and section of Dunbeg (after Inskeep & Proudfoot 1957)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

51 sherds of souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table 388

Dunbell Big (5), Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: S55705210 (25570/15210) SMR No: KK024-01?-References: Cassidy 1990a; 1990b; 1991; Prim 1852– 53; 1861.

width of the ditch was 4m and it survived to a depth of 2m. The only finds recovered from the ditch in the earlier excavation were animal bones, and one sherd of coarse pottery. When the ditch was further excavated later in 1990, however an iron barrel-lock key was recovered from the lower fill of the ditch.

Dunbell Big (5) is one of a cluster of enclosures found in this townland. In 1850 the land owner began quarrying the enclosure for fertilizer, and this resulted in a number of surveys and excavations of the sites by local antiquarians. As was typical of such digs, the excavators were largely interested in material culture remains, rather than structural or stratigraphical features. Finds from these excavations included bronze ring pins, an iron bell, silvered bronze wire and lignite bracelets.

Further excavation in the interior of the site recovered evidence for a square wicker-walled house, with central hearth and internal roof supports. A 6m roundhouse, also of wicker-walled construction, was identified south of the square house. This structure had a small porch (indicated by four post-holes), and the door-step into the house had survived in situ. A third structure, described as being ‘slightly horse-shoe-shaped’, was also identified in the late 1990 excavations. The floor of this structure was full of iron slag, and it seems highly probable that this was a workshop. A furnace was also located within the interior of the enclosure.

By the time of the excavation in 1990, Dunbell Big (5) had been completely levelled; however, antiquarian reports that it may have contained a souterrain meant that some features might have survived. The site was now threatened by the expansion of a local limestone quarry.

In the course of excavation a number of Bronze Age burials were also found underlying the early medieval structures and occupation layers.

An oval ditch was uncovered during these excavations, with a maximum external diameter of 50m. The upper Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3389

Context Charcoal – ditch fill

14C Date 1430±54 BP

UB-3390

Charcoal – post-hole square house

1193±33 BP

UB-3391 UB-3392

Charcoal – post-hole square house wall Charcoal – roundhouse

1233±39 BP 1314±28 BP

UB-3410 UB-3412

Charcoal – gully Charcoal

1309±70 BP 1141±32 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnace

Indirect Evidence

Possible lignite fragments

Industrial Processing Table

389

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 466–481; A.D. 534–486 A.D. 712–745; A.D. 767–898; A.D. 920–947 A.D. 684–885 A.D. 655–725; A.D. 738–771 A.D. 614–883 A.D. 781–790; A.D. 807–982

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron bell Bronze ring pins Silvered-bronze wire

Lignite/shale bracelets

‘Small finds’ Table

390

Dates

encroachment of a neighbouring quarry. Trial excavations to locate the original ditches identified an enclosure with an internal diameter of 56m. The eastern ditch cutting was V-shaped – 5m wide at the top, and 2m deep. Two amber beads, two fragments of lignite bracelet, and a bone-pin were found in occupation debris in the top 0.3m of this. The western ditch cutting was slightly shallower, and was sealed by a habitation layer containing five sherds of thirteenth-century pottery.

Dunbell Big (6), Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: S55705210 (25570/15210) SMR No: KK024-01?-References: Foley 1972; 2006. Dunbell Big (6) is one of a cluster of enclosures found in this townland. In 1850 the land owner began quarrying the enclosure for fertilizer, and this resulted in a number of surveys and excavations of the sites by local antiquarians. As was typical of such digs, the excavators were largely interested in material culture remains, rather than structural or stratigraphical features. Finds from these excavations included bronze ring pins, an iron bell, silvered bronze wire and lignite bracelets.

Excavations in the interior of the enclosure revealed the presence of a roundhouse, indicated by arcs of post-holes, which was subsequently replaced by a structure of indeterminate shape, associated with a central hearth. A bone awl and iron slag were recovered from these structures. Other finds from the site include a number of iron objects and a fragment of a blue-glass bead.

Prior to excavation, Dunbell Big (6) was only visible as a faint embankment. The site was excavated due to the

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone pin

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object

Dates

Blue glass bead Two fragments lignite/shale bracelet Honestone Two amber beads Bone pin Bone awl ‘Tusk’ object

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

391

Dundrum, Co. Down Grid Ref: J40483700 (34048/33700) SMR No: DOW 044:006 Reference: Waterman 1951. Excavation at the Anglo-Norman castle of Dundrum, Co. Down identified some early medieval occupation evidence. The name Dun(a)droma, by which the castle hill is referred to in the Annals, provides a prima facie case for postulating a pre-medieval occupation of the site, and the excavations produced evidence in support of this supposition. The early medieval bronze ornament from trench 2, and probably the iron plough share with which it was associated, together with the early pottery found overlying the natural rock in trench 1, can be pointed to in this connection. Moreover, the distinctive character of the dry-stone walling in the lower levels of trench 3 seems to distinguish this structure from the later medieval work on the site, and although it may indeed represent an early feature of the medieval occupation, in the absence of associated finds it could equally well be considered of still earlier date. At all events, the archaeological finds, scanty though they are, may be said to substantiate the place-name evidence and it is to be hoped that continued work on the site will provide further data concerning the occupation of the hill in the early medieval period. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.190: Plan of Dundrum (after Waterman 1951, fig. 1)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron plough share Bronze disc Bronze pin

Dates

51 sherds of souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table 392

in the ditch contained a few sherds of souterrain ware, and more burnt and un-burnt animal bone. The shallower outer ditch also produced numerous sherds of souterrain ware, along with pieces of a clay crucible and lumps of iron slag. A series of palisade trenches around the entranceway, and also along the river front, were also excavated, from which souterrain ware and fragments of a jet bracelet were recovered.

Duneight, Co. Down Grid Ref: J27776078 (32777/36078) SMR No: DOW 014:028 Reference: Waterman 1963b. The site, a motte-and-bailey castle, was to be partially destroyed during farm improvements. During excavation it became apparent that the site had been re-used through different archaeological periods. A Bronze Age burial was uncovered on the ridge, and the site was turned into an enclosure during the Early Medieval period, before being re-modelled by the Anglo-Normans. Excavations in the Anglo-Norman bailey revealed an earlier enclosure (60m by 39m) within a bank (2.1m– 2.4m high and up to 6.6m wide), with some evidence for a further external ditch to the east. Three structures were uncovered in the interior, although only one (Building A) was fully excavated. This building was of dry-stone construction and would appear to have been subrectangular in shape. As with the other two structures, souterrain ware was found in association with this building.

Fig. G.191: Structures in south part of bailey at Duneight (after Waterman 1963b, 66)

The bottom of the inner ditch was waterlogged and produced a layer of peat, 0.6m thick, which contained animal bones and pieces of wood. The occupation layer Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze buckle Yellow glass bead Souterrain ware Jet bracelet Shale stone disc

‘Small finds’ Table

393

Dunmisk, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H62787070 (26278/37070) SMR No: TYR 036:001 References: Ivens 1988a; 1989; Henderson 1988b; Henderson & Ivens 1992. The site consisted of a circular enclosure (approximately 40m in diameter) set on a hilltop. Nearby quarrying threatened the site, and as such a substantial rescue excavation was undertaken on both the enclosure and the surrounding hilltop, excavating around one-quarter of the entire area. Although the site was known locally as a ‘fort’, excavation revealed that it may have been an ecclesiastical enclosure, or possibly a settlement/ cemetery. Over 500 graves were excavated (535), and at least ten of these revealed multiple inhumations. A number of skeletons could be sexed, and these revealed 26 male and 27 female bodies; over 40 juvenile skeletons were recovered, the majority of which (30) were of infants under ten years old. The argument for the site having been a small monastic community (with an ancillary mixed-sex workforce) is largely based on the discovery of a rectangular timber-built structure, orientated roughly east-west. The east end is demarcated by a foundation trench, suggesting a rather substantial feature, whereas the remainder of the structure is outlined by post-holes. A large number of the burials appear to have been aligned with this structure, and some burials appear to have been placed within the structure prior to abandonment. It has therefore been argued that this structure was a small church, and that the enclosure may be equated with the lost monastic site of Domnach Mescáin (which could have been corrupted over time to Dunmisk).

Fig. G.192: Excavated area at Dunmisk (after Ivens 1988, 28)

Apart from the early medieval graveyard, the site also shows substantial evidence for industrial activity. The industrial area appears to have been set outside the original limits of the graveyard, although both later and earlier graves have encroached into this area. Finds from this area included fragments of several tuyères, large numbers of mould fragments, 145 sherds of crucibles and large quantities of slag. Most significantly, six of the crucibles showed evidence of having been used for glassmaking (the first such evidence for native glass manufacture found in Ireland). Fragments of thirteen separate glass items were also found in this area. The remainder of the finds from the site consisted of copperalloy pins (three), an amber bead, part of a lignite bracelet and two sherds of ‘flat-rim’ ware.

Fig. G.193: Rectangular timber structure (church?) at Dunmisk (after Ivens 1989, 60)

There is no definitive archaeological evidence for settlement on the hilltop, although it has been suggested by a process of elimination that this may have occurred in the northwest part of the site.

Fig. G.194: Glass objects from Dunmisk (after Henderson 1988b, fig. 1)

394

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. HAR-6833

Context Old turf layer under bank.

14C Date 1480±100 BP

HAR-6832

Grave

1270±80 BP

HAR-6831

Charcoal from lower fill of bowl furnace.

1230±80 BP

HAR-6830

Old turf layer cut by ditch

450±80 BP

HAR-6829 HAR-6828

Occupation layer Charcoal from hearth/ furnace

1320±80 BP 1260±70 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag 258 fired clay mould fragments 145 sherds of crucible Tuyères

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 346–374; A.D. 377–719; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 639–900; A.D. 917–965 A.D. 658–906; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 1316–1355; A.D. 1389–1642 A.D. 580–890 A.D. 649–897; A.D. 921–944

Radiocarbon Dates

Six crucibles with glass residue Six crucibles with glass residue

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron nails Copper-alloy ring pin Glass rods, studs and beads Lignite/shale ring Slate spindle whorl Four whetstones Three quernstones Amber bead

‘Small finds’ Table

395

Dates

The artefactual remains from the site (especially the three sherds of E-ware and the fragment of Germanic glass claw-beaker) suggest that activity was on-going on the island in the late sixth/early seventh century. This date is supported by a probable penannular brooch fragment (dated to the early seventh century). A fragment of a crucible, four fragments of slag, and two fragments of copper alloy were also found, suggesting that some form of metalworking may have occurred on site.

‘Dunnyneill Island’ (Dunnyneill Islands td), Co. Down Grid Ref: J54745384 (35474/35384) SMR No: DOW 024:035 References: McCormick et al 2002; McCormick & Macdonald 2003; 2004. The site is an enclosure, approximately 30m in diameter, comprising two banks and an intermediate ditch, which is set on the top of the larger of the Dunnyneill Islands in Strangford Lough (although it would appear that the two Dunnyneill Islands originally were part of a single, larger island). A smaller ‘annex’ was added to this enclosure, and it is possible that further annexes may have been destroyed by tidal action. The site had been subject to coastal erosion and it was feared that the enclosure could be destroyed within 60 years.

Subsequent analysis revealed that a number of dishshaped and flat-bottomed crucibles were present. They are likely to have been used as cupels to assay silver. A single piece of zinc bearing copper-alloy slag was also found. Significant quantities of iron slag (16kg, the majority from the lower part of the site with a small amount from the bank) indicated that smithing took place on the site.

In the first season, excavations in the north of the enclosure revealed a number of structural features including the rubble collapse of the inner revetment of the bank; a curvilinear gully; a hearth; and two linear features (possibly representing a palisade). The limited scope of the excavation, however, made it difficult to work out a relative chronology for these features.

A more extensive excavation was undertaken in 2003. A further six trenches were opened, revealing that the site had a long period of use. Possible earlier enclosure features were found under the inner bank, as well as unassociated prehistoric material. The early medieval enclosures appear to have been abandoned in the seventh or eighth century, possibly as a result of the collapse of Merovingian trade networks, and the site was then not reoccupied until the eleventh or twelfth century. The numbers of imported materials (three sherds of E-ware and a number of glass fragments), and the relative lack of domestic material, suggests that the enclosure may have functioned as an emporium, rather than a high-status occupation site.

A second trench was laid through the banks and ditch, but again could not confidently establish their relative chronology, although they would appear to be contemporaneous. Excavation revealed, however, that the inner bank may have been deliberately slighted.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-4918 UB-4919

14C

Context Animal bone from occupation layer. Animal bones from fill of ditch

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1195±22 BP 1292±20 BP

Direct Evidence 16 kg iron slag Crucible fragment Copper-alloy slag

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Worked bone fragments

Bone comb fragment Stone spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table 396

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 774–891 A.D. 667–728; A.D. 736–772

Radiocarbon Dates

Fig. G.195: Plan of Dunnyneill Island (after McCormick & Macdonald 2003, 15)

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Three iron nails Two iron roves Copper-alloy penannular brooch Two copper-alloy mounts Copper-alloy stud-headed stick pin Nine fragments of glass from Germanic beaker Reticello glass rod Souterrain ware Three sherds of E-ware

Dates

6th/7th C 12th–14th C 11th–13th C 6th/7th C

6th/7th C

Stone spindle whorl Bone comb plate Single-sided bone comb (Type F/G)

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

397

6th/7th C? 9th–13th C

dwellings is succeeded by the construction of an enclosure bank with an internal revetment or stone kerb. In a later phase of construction, a rectangular house was constructed, using the interior bank as a supporting wall. The site then appears to have been abandoned for a time, before being modified into an Anglo-Norman motte.

Dunsilly, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J14088890 (31408/38890) SMR No: ANT 050:003 Reference: McNeill 1991–92. Excavation was undertaken on a motte prior to its destruction and revealed a number of phases of occupation. The earliest phases of the site are represented by ephemeral remains of circular structures, and a stonebuilt hearth. This phase of (possibly) unenclosed

Finds from the site were dominated by souterrain ware (420 sherds), as well as a few objects of glass and lignite.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-967

Context Charcoal spread in ‘pre-enclosure B’ (29)

14C

UB-968 UB-2001 UB-2002

Charcoal spread from floor of house (15) Charcoal from ‘pre-enclosure C’ hearth (32) Charcoal from ‘pre-enclosure B’ hearth (F20)

890±40 BP 1565±105 BP 1380±65 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Furnace bottom Iron slag Ten sherds of crucible

Date 1905±75 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ 87 B.C.–78 B.C.; 55 B.C.–A.D. 259; A.D. 284–323 A.D. 1035–1219 A.D. 255–656 A.D. 544–776

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Fragments of copper alloy Dark blue glass armlet Flattened blue glass bead Half a light blue glass bead Dark blue glass bead 420 sherds of souterrain ware 10 sherds of crucible Three fragments of lignite rings Two spindle whorls Polished stone ring?

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 398

Ennisnag, Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: 27177/14639 SMR No: N/A Reference: Jennings 2008.

site Danesfort 12, located 200m to the southwest. The early medieval phase consisted of a field boundary ditch and a metalworking area that included a charcoalproducing kiln, a furnace and a possible forging area.

The site had two main archaeological phases: Bronze/Iron Age and early medieval. The Bronze Age archaeology primarily consisted of a ringditch and a cremation pit, which suggested that it was an extension of the funerary

The two most diagnostic pieces of evidence for metalworking on the site were two smelting furnace pits located on the west side of the field boundary ditch. Three pits and a metalled surface, perhaps part of the forging process, were located on the east side of the ditch.

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Furnace bottoms Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

399

was 8.5m long, up to 1.3m wide and between 1.04m and 1.5m high. It was the terminal point of the air vent. The second was entered through a semi-circular drop-hole. Four rectangular slots were positioned over the drop-hole and contained charcoal, suggesting a trap-door entrance. The lower chamber was partially cut from bedrock and opened substantially towards the west. It was 7.5m long, between 1.1m and 2m wide and up to 2.1m high. Lintels had been robbed from all the upper chambers, while the lower ones were intact and had evidently not been entered. The upper chambers were filled with occupation debris, i.e. black loam with frequent lenses of ash and charcoal, evidently settlement debris from occupation above.

Farrandreg, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J03000800 (30300/30800) SMR No: N/A Reference: Murphy 1998:463. Construction work at Farrandreg, Castletown, Dundalk, Co. Louth, revealed the dry-stone air vent of a souterrain. The souterrain was entered through a narrow creep that ran east and west. The eastern section led to a large rectangular chamber, up to 2.8m wide, 4.4m long and 1m high, with a central wall for supporting lintels. The western passage led to the substantial oblong chamber first discovered in testing. From this, two lower chambers were entered through a semi-circular drop-hole. The first Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Bone needles

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object

Dates

Bronze stick pins Souterrain ware Rotary quernstone

Bone needles Bone comb

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

400

No trace of an early bank, palisade, wall, etc., was found in the area excavated within the ditch, and examination of the unexcavated area outside the hedge bank suggested that the land surface simply fell away from the enclosure on the expected, and probably unaltered, natural profile. It is not possible to select, from among a number of vague possibilities (e.g. a stock enclosure or temporary encampment), a most likely explanation for the function of this site, and it can hardly be termed a rath or ring-fort.

Farrest, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H443792 (24430/37920) SMR No: TYR 026:012 Reference: Lynn 1983c. A rescue excavation was undertaken in 1980 on a hill-top enclosure which was threatened with destruction to provide the in-fill for a nearby bog. Excavation was not able to clearly identify the nature or chronology of the monument. Section C–D showed that the ditch appears to have been earlier than the surviving bank; and the stone layer near the bottom of the ditch had iron-smelting debris and large fragments of several locally-made medieval vessels (‘everted-rim ware’) thrown into it over a short time period.

Material Iron-working

Twenty-two lumps of slag or clinker, four large pieces of furnace-bottoms, two almost complete furnace-bottoms and a complete iron bloom were found in the stony layer in the end of trench C–D. Dr B. Scott comments that these fragments are typical of iron-smelting waste, but that in Ireland the techniques used changed little with time. It is not possible to say whether this debris suggests early medieval or later medieval smelting.

Direct Evidence Slag Furnace bottoms Iron bloom

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Everted-rim ware Quartzite quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

401

During Phase II both enclosures were re-cut and modified slightly after they had in-filled and silted naturally. The inner ditch was re-cut, but not entirely, and its inner edge was lined with stones. The entrance was also modified and narrowed. The outer ditch was also re-cut along the same lines, except to the east where a new ditch was dug 5m beyond the inner ditch. The latter in this area was backfilled with the material from the newly-dug ditch.

Faughart Lower, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J06501060 (306500/310600) SMR No: N/A References: Bowen 2008; Buckley & McConway 2010. Excavations in advance of the A1/N1 Newry-Dundalk link road revealed a multi-phase multivallate enclosed settlement-cemetery. Evidence for settlement, agriculture and industry was identified through the artefactual assemblage and enclosed features, such as souterrains and furnaces, while the cemetery contained nearly 800 individuals. The latter originated during the late Iron Age/early medieval transitional period and was utilised until potentially the end of the tenth century.

The morphology of the site was altered again, and substantially, during the third phase. The inner and outer ditches were back-filled and they were replaced by a single enclosure that defined an area 55m in diameter. Two entrances were identified to the north-west and south-west. The western side of the ditch was more substantial than the eastern or northern sides as evidenced by a large, stone-faced wall that was built into the ditch. The end of a drystone-built souterrain was connected to the ‘wall’. Its main entrance was located within the enclosure and its passage moved northwards until it turned sharply to the west and ended at the enclosure ‘wall’. Artefacts from deposits within the souterrain included three deliberately-broken millstones, a ploughshare and coulter, a clay crucible, pottery and personal items. Another, fragmentary, souterrain was also recorded at the site. The cemetery was located between the Phase I and Phase II enclosures, to the north-east, and included 772 burials. The majority of graves were aligned west-east, unless underlying bedrock influenced their position, and were both earth-cut and stone-lined. The graves were compactly placed and lay on top of each other; in some places up to 12 successive levels were recorded. Over time the burial ground expanded to the south and southwest to incorporate further burials. The mixed cemetery contained 530 adults, 150 juveniles and 90 infants. Two burials returned radiocarbon dates of A.D. 390–550 and A.D. 790–1000, which means the cemetery was possibly used for 600 years.

Fig. G.196: Plan of phases at Faughart Lower (after Bowen 2008, 11) The site was situated close to other excavated contemporary settlements such as Newtownbalregan (Bayley 2003:1286; Roycroft 2005), Carn More (Delaney 2003:1272; Roycroft 2005), Tateetra (Hayes 2006), and Balriggan (Delaney 2010), and lay 3km north of Dundalk. The early medieval ecclesiastical site at Faughart Upper is located in the neighbouring townland. Approximately three-quarters of the site was fully excavated.

Apart from the souterrains and cemetery, a number of other internal features were identified at Faughart Lower. These included a large well in proximity to the burial ground, several large pits and two iron-working furnaces. The souterrains, pits and well all indicate settlement although no houses were identified. Other indicators of habitation included a variety of pins made from bronze, iron and bone, blue glass beads, bone combs and belt buckles. Functional domestic items were represented by over 1,000 sherds of souterrain ware, iron knives, spindle whorls and the ploughshare and coulter mentioned above. Iron slag and a crucible mould also testify to metalworking at the site.

Phase I involved the construction of a bivallate enclosure that consisted of an inner earth- and rock-cut ditch which was surrounded by a much larger ditch. The oval inner enclosure measured 29m north-south and an entrance was present to the north. The outer enclosure was positioned between 5m and 6m away from the inner ditch and enclosed an area approximately 40m in internal diameter. No entrance was detected.

402

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Clay crucible

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

1,000+ sherds of souterrain ware

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron ringpins Iron knives Iron plough share Bronze ringpins Lead ingot Blue glass beads 1,000+ sherds of souterrain ware Spindle whorls Bone pins Bone combs

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

403

Dates

iron knife-blade were found in association with this occupation layer. The third phase of occupation was identified with the construction of the banked-andditched enclosure. It is possible that the two hearths were associated with this phase, but this could not be corroborated from the archaeological evidence. The final phase of occupation appears to have followed on from either abandonment of the earlier site, or a collapse of the bank, since at this time the enclosure bank was remodelled. Two burials located in the interior of the enclosure – both oriented east-west, and neither buried with grave goods – were dated by the excavator to this final phase of occupation. It is possible that a cremation that was enclosed in a cist, described by the antiquarian T.H. Knox, belonged to this final phase.

‘Feerwore Rath’ (Turoe td), Co. Galway Grid Ref: M61692259 (161692/222590) SMR No: GA097-150001 Reference: Raftery 1944. The site consists of a banked enclosure approximately 28.5m in diameter, set on a gently sloping hill. No ditch was evident prior to excavation. The excavation was carried out under an Irish Government Scheme for the Relief of Unemployment.

The absolute chronology of the site is more difficult to ascertain. The excavator notes the fact that cremations had been replaced by inhumations by c.AD 500, and that the iron fibula found in the earliest phase of occupation has similarities to examples from the first century BC.

Fig. G.197: Plan of early medieval occupation phases at Feerwore (after Raftery 1944, facing 52) Excavation revealed the presence of a surrounding rockcut ditch, 2.5m in width and 1.5m deep. The ditch appears to have originally been allowed to silt-up naturally, although there are occasional layers which may represent bank tumble or deliberate in-filling. The entrance to the enclosure was cobbled and flanked by two large stones and there was evidence for the existence of substantial timber posts. The bank was formed by the construction of a drystone-walled internal revetment, which supported the earthen bank (although evidence from one area suggests that the outer face of the bank was also stone-revetted). This wall overlay an earlier organicrich layer, which, in turn, was overlain by a yellow clay horizon occupation layer that included charcoal and animal bones.

Fig. G.198: Iron bell and clapper from Feerwore (after Raftery 1944, fig. 3)

The shallowness of the soil in the interior meant that few stratigraphical and structural features remained. However, a number of occupation horizons were identified. An early Iron Age occupation was inferred from the presence of an iron fibula, half a bronze ring, some pieces of iron and iron slag, and a couple of flint tools. The second phase of occupation was identified with the yellow clay horizon. A possible post-built structure belonged to this phase. A fragment of a crucible, two glass ring-bead fragments, a penannular bronze ring, an iron bell, and an

Fig. G.199: Bone knife handle and ‘toggle’? from Feerwore (after Raftery 1944, fig. 4) 404

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Crucible

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone knife handles

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron blade Iron bell Iron fibula brooches Bronze pin Three bronze rings/ring pins Bronze spirals (ear-rings?) Fragments Half light-green ring Half blue glass bead Three sandstone hones Old Red Sandstone quernstone Bone knife handles Bone toggle

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

405

Dates

Extension of quarrying activities in the area threatened the stone fort located on the summit of Feltrim Hill. An area 35m by 25m in extent was excavated as part of predestruction conservation. This excavation identified a Neolithic phase on site, as well as the early medieval phase represented by the cashel.

Feltrim Hill, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: 32004/24454 SMR No: DU012-025001 Reference: Hartnett & Eogan 1964.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Silver ingot

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Waste disc of jet Wood-working tools Bone pins

Needles Two spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object 23 knives 23 iron ringpins Five needles Wood-working tools Spearhead 27 bronze objects (some silvered) Two glass bracelets Five glass beads 15 fragments of jet bracelet Two jet beads Whetstone pendant Two quernstones 48 bone pins – pig fibulae 11 bone combs 14 bone points Bone gouges Three bone beads Two bone needles Bone knife handle Antler knife handle

‘Small finds’ Table

406

Dates

while at the northern end of the platform there were several substantial post-holes and a thick deposit of charcoal. Sherds of plain, thick souterrain ware were the only finds in this occupation layer.

Finkiltagh, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: C991072 (29910/40720) SMR No: ANT 031:009 Reference: Williams 1973:0003.

The ditch was re-cut in phase II and the upcast piled on the site, increasing the height of the platform to 1.4m. A dark occupation layer containing only one post-hole was discovered. The pottery of this layer, although still souterrain ware, was finer, and in some cases had applied cordons.

The site, set in to the lee slope of a ridge (100m OD), was excavated before its removal in a land clearance scheme. It consisted of a small, flat, oval platform 14m by 10 m, surrounded by a counterscarp ditch. Excavation produced evidence for two phases of construction and occupation. The occupation of Phase I was on a low mound (c. 0.8m high) of boulder clay, surrounded by a ditch. The remains of a small rectangular structure were found in the south,

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

The original site archive was destroyed by fire at the site hut.

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

407

Galgorm, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D0843001520 (30843/40152) SMR No: ANT 037:017 Reference: Evans 1946. In May, 1945, a souterrain was discovered, or rediscovered, by Colonel Chichester of Galgorm Castle. In the earth which had been dug out a considerable quantity of lignite, some of it half-burnt, several pieces of peat, some iron-slag, a few flints of poor workmanship, and several sherds of souterrain ware were found. The presence of lignite and slag suggests the possibility that the fuel was used for reducing iron-ore: both occur in the interbasaltic beds of the locality, the iron-ore frequently, and the lignite at Rathkenny, six miles away, and at Dunloy. Fig. G.200: Souterrain at Galgorm (after Evans 1946, fig. 3) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Half-burnt lignite?

Souterrain ware Lignite

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

Bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

408

Garranes td (‘Lisnacaheragh Fort’), Co. Cork Grid Ref: W47336400 (147337/064003) SMR No: CO084-084 References: Ó Ríordáin 1942; O’Donnell 1990:015; 1991:022; Power 1989; Doyle 1999.

The southern side of the enclosure saw intensive occupation. The black charcoal-rich deposit was uncovered beneath a stony deposit in this area and contained a rich artefactual assemblage as well as discarded craft-working products and debris. Iron and bronze manufacturing were a significant activity in this area as evidenced by the principal finds of iron slag, crucibles, clay and stone moulds, iron pincers and awls, a bronze ingot and a bronze casting ‘jet’ or ‘pour’. Fragments of enamel fused to crucibles and an uncut millefiori rod also suggest enamelling and the working of millefiori on site. Other finds included a bronze button, bronze brooch, bronze pins, possible clay lamp, iron shears, amber beads and fragments of glass beads and vessels.

Lisnacaheragh is an impressive trivallate enclosure in the townland of Garranes which has revealed an elaborate entrance structure as well as early occupation evidence, extensive craft-working activity and imported late fifth/sixth-century pottery. The site is located on the northern side of an upland area (160m OD) that acted as a watershed between the river systems of the Bandon and the Bride. The site was subject to two excavations; the first was undertaken by S.P. Ó Ríordáin as part of a Special Employment Scheme administered through the Office of Public Works in the late 1930s, which investigated a section of the defences, the entrance-way and a select number of areas in the interior; and various trenches in the interior of the enclosure were subsequently investigated in the early 1990s by Mary O’Donnell through a grant from the Office of Public Works.

Post- and stake-holes were also excavated in this deposit in the southern area, though none formed any coherent plan. A setting of stones which formed an irregular arc was identified near the northern end of the black deposit and might represent one possible structure. Part of the lower stone of a quern was revealed close to this possible structure. A rock-cut rectangular pit (2.75m by 1.8m) was excavated at the eastern end of the black deposit and contained crucible fragments and a fragment of flint at the bottom of its fill.

The site has a total overall diameter of 110m and contains three irregular banks and ditches enclosing an interior space about 67m in diameter. The eastern entrance was thoroughly excavated and was defended by three irregularly-spaced wooden gates between the ends of the outer and inner banks. Two trenches which may have supported a palisade of uprights extended between the ends of the inner bank and the fourth and innermost gate, and served to narrow the entrance towards the interior. The excavation of two post-holes as well as traces of a double line of stones under the northern side of the inner bank entrance suggest the plan of a square hut (2.4m by 2.4m) which preceded the construction of the inner enclosing bank.

The black habitation deposit along the southern side of the fort’s interior lay beneath a stony deposit which had been piled against the inner side of the inner enclosure to strengthen this rampart. This stony deposit had then been retained in place by a stone kerb which ran approximately parallel to the inner bank and about 3.65m from it for 7.6m along the southern side of the enclosure interior. The occupation of this area appears to have been abandoned shortly after the stony deposit slipped over the stone kerb. It was suggested by Ó Ríordáin that the stone kerb may have been utilised as one side of a later structure on the site, as possible foundations of walls were identified running out from the kerb.

There were no significant stratigraphical differences to indicate different chronological periods of habitation. The principal phase of habitation was associated with a dark charcoal-rich deposit immediately inside and to the north of the eastern entrance and along the southern sides of the interior. This dark organic deposit close to the entrance was investigated by both Ó Ríordáin and O’Donnell. Ó Ríordáin uncovered a large collection of small post-holes of no coherent plan in this deposit, as well as a range of finds including two glass beads and a pin from a bronze penannular brooch and various domestic objects.

The pottery assemblage is the strongest indicator that the main phase of occupation at the site was during the later fifth and sixth century AD. A large quantity of Late Roman Amphora sherds (250) imported from the eastern Mediterranean during the late fifth to mid sixth centuries AD was recovered, particularly within the dark charcoalrich deposit. The site also revealed one of the very few examples in Ireland of a type of red slipped bowl (Phocaean Red Slip Ware (A-ware) (c. 500 AD)) which often accompanied these amphorae from the eastern Mediterranean. Sherds of a possible red slipped ‘platter’ have also been subsequently identified within the rich pottery assemblage.

O’Donnell’s excavations in this area uncovered a sherd of Late Roman Amphora (B-ware) and a perforated stone disc within Ó Ríordáin’s dark deposit. Her excavation also importantly established that the eastern end of the site had been levelled up and occupied before the enclosing banks were built. O’Donnell also excavated a trench in the western side of the enclosure which produced evidence for part of the burnt walls of a roundhouse. This structure is the only definite building excavated at the site.

A range of domestic objects including iron knives and nails, whetstones, perforated stone discs, struck flint and an unusually small collection of spindle whorls (3) and loom weights (2) were recovered in various contexts across the site. Animal bone was poorly preserved due to the acidic nature of the soil but the meagre evidence appeared to belong mainly to cattle, followed by pig. 409

Fig. G.201: Plan of Garranes (after Ó Ríordáin 1942) Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working

Direct Evidence Blacksmith’s pincers Iron slag Tuyère Bronze casting fragment Clay moulds Stone moulds 39 complete crucibles 2,500 crucible fragments Tuyère

Indirect Evidence

Glass rods Enamel Crucibles with enamel residue

Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

25 whetstones

Needle Shears Loom weights Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

410

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass

Pottery

Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two pincers Shears Three awls 12 nails Six knives 60 pieces of bronze including: Bronze button Penannular brooch Three bronze pins Two bronze strips Bronze stud Unidentified bronze ornaments Bronze needle Possible bronze ring Three objects of tinned bronze Two lumps of tin Lead ring Enamel 10 glass beads Three pieces of millefiori glass Three sherds of vessel glass Ground glass disc Three glass rods c. 30 clay moulds Clay lamp E-ware (seven sherds) Late Roman Amphorae (c. 200 sherds) PRSW (40 sherds)

Dates

Stone moulds Stone mortar 25 whetstones Two/three loom weights Three stone discs Quernstone Three spindle whorls Two amber beads

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.202: Phocaean Red Slip Ware (A-ware) from Garranes (after Ó Ríordáin 1942, fig. 23)

Fig. G.203: Iron knives from Garranes (after Ó Ríordáin 1942, fig. 9) 411

Garretstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 29602/25481 SMR No: N/A References: Rathbone 2007; 2009. The site at Garretstown 2 was excavated as part of the M3 Clonee–North of Kells Motorway Scheme. Excavations revealed two principal phases of activity at the site: a ring-ditch cemetery of the Middle Bronze Age; and a series of large enclosures, originating in the developed Iron Age and continuing in use until the late seventh to mid tenth century AD. The excavated enclosures were associated with a large enclosure located immediately west of the site, but consequently undated. Both phases of activity represent significant concentrations of archaeology, but the presence of the Late Iron Age enclosures are of particular importance considering the general paucity of excavated sites of this date in Ireland, and the manner in which it seems that there is continuity of settlement between the Late Iron Age and the early medieval period.

Fig. G.204: Plan of enclosures at Garretstown (after Rathbone 2009)

At the very east of the site a series of ditches was excavated that was part of an irregular rath. It is estimated that approximately one-third of the rath was excavated, the rest lying beyond the road-take, and the site had an estimated internal diameter of 37.5m. The earliest dated activity at the Garretstown 2 enclosure complex was confined to the northwestern portion of the sub-rectangular enclosure and suggests the excavation of that particular section of ditch in the Iron Age. The first re-cut of this enclosure was dated to the third/fourth century, and it appears to have been recut again between the fifth and eighth centuries AD.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.205: E-ware sherds from Garretstown (after Rathbone 2009)

Direct Evidence Smelting hearth

Indirect Evidence Charcoal kiln

Industrial Processing Table

412

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Two sherds of E-ware

‘Small finds’ Table Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-241298 Beta-241299

Context Grain from kiln fill Grain from kiln fill

Date 1550±40 BP 1500±40 BP

Beta-246970 Beta-241300 Beta-246971 Beta-241301 Beta-246972

Grain from kiln fill Cherry from fill of kiln Grain from kiln fill Charcoal from kiln Charcoal from pit fill

1570±40 BP 1440±40 BP 1530±40 BP 1540±40 BP 2260±40 BP

Beta-220138 Beta-246973 Beta-246974

Cattle mandible from primary rath fill Grain from kiln Charcoal from pit fill

1310±40 BP 1530±40 BP 2150±40 BP

Beta-246975

Charcoal from pit fill

1980±40 BP

Beta-246976

Charcoal from pit fill

1810±40 BP

Beta-246977

Charcoal from pit fill

2020±40 BP

Beta-246978

Grain from kiln fill

1190±40 BP

Beta-246979

Charcoal from ditch fill

2140±40 BP

Beta-246980

Charcoal from ditch fill

1260±40 BP

Beta-246981

Charcoal from ditch fill

1360±40 BP

Beta-236025

Cattle femur from ditch fill

1190±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 423–594 A.D. 434–492; A.D. 508–519; A.D. 528–643 A.D. 409–575 A.D. 553–658 A.D. 427–608 A.D. 426–600 398–344 B.C.; 323–205 B.C A.D. 647–778 A.D. 427–608 358–277 B.C.; 259–238 B.C.; 236–87 B.C.; 78–55 B.C. 87–78 B.C.; 55 B.C.–A.D. 91; A.D. 99–124 A.D. 87–105; A.D. 121–264; A.D. 276–332 159–134 B.C.; 116 B.C.–A.D. 67 A.D. 694–700; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–902; A.D. 916–967 356–284 B.C.; 256–248 B.C.; 234–50 B.C. A.D. 668–832; A.D. 836–869 A.D. 606–717; A.D. 743–769 A.D. 694–700; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–902; A.D. 916–967

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) date Sample 5

Context Primary fill of ringfort F126

413

Date A.D. 497–707

recovered near the centre of the enclosure and dating to just before, or at the start of, the occupation of the site.

Garryduff I & II, Garryduff, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W92518633 (192515/086332) SMR No: CO055-001; CO055-002 Reference: O’Kelly 1963.

The secondary phase of occupation followed a partial collapse of the inner face of the enclosure bank and was marked by the decay of the enclosure defences and entrance. Areas of paving in the south and southeast sides of the interior – two associated with hearths – suggest the presence of house sites, as does the presence of a third, isolated hearth to the northwest.

Garryduff I and Garryduff II were two univallate enclosures excavated by staff from University College Cork during the summers of 1945 and 1947. Garryduff I (maximum diameter of 20m) was situated at the highest point of the eastern end of a prominent hillside knoll (162m OD), 165m upslope from Garryduff II (142m OD) and commanding considerable views to the north over the valleys of the River Blackwater and Bride. It was a significant enclosed settlement with two phases of early medieval occupation. In contrast, Garryduff II revealed no settlement evidence and no finds, except for a few charcoal spreads. It was interpreted as a possible cattle enclosure associated with Garryduff I.

The excavation was finds-rich, with the majority of the finds associated with the secondary occupation phase. Finds exclusive to this occupation phase included a bronze finger ring, tweezers, button and sewing needle; two iron chisels; sickles; bill-hooks; a belt-buckle; a barrel-padlock and an anvil; a bone spindle whorl; a glass stud and bracelet; a shale bracelet; two stone lamps, and one pair of quernstones. Finds from both the primary and secondary phases included bronze pins; iron knives; iron spearheads; iron shears; awls; pins; ladles; hooks; rings; nails; eight barrel-padlock keys; iron vessel ‘escutcheons’; bone pins; glass beads; glass vessel fragments; stone pendants; stone plaques; stone discs and a large quantity of stone spindle whorls; whet- and honestones, and flint artefacts.

The enclosure banks of Garryduff I consisted of an outer and inner stone facing with a rubble core, built upon an annular platform of broken rock quarried from the external ditch. These banks survived to a maximum of 6.5m thick and 1.37m high, and appear to have been constructed and repaired in two separate phases associated with the two periods of occupation. The eastern entrance of Garryduff I consisted of a stonelined entrance passage and an external uncut causeway of rock (3.35m–4.9m wide). A series of post-holes and trenches within the entrance passage were interpreted as forming the remains of a wooden palisade and a possible gate-tower. The only feature of note at Garryduff II consisted of an unusual entranceway, with post-holes suggesting a gated palisade filling the gap between the ends of its stone-built banks. The external rock-cut ditch of Garryduff I was wide (5.3m) but rather shallow (0.45m–1.8m deep). It appears to have operated more as a quarry ditch to provide material for the core of the bank than a specific addition to the enclosure’s defences. A low counterscarp bank was identified running around the southern perimeter of the enclosure outside the rock-cut ditch. Two periods of occupation, very closely associated together and of insignificant time difference, were identified within the interior of Garryduff I. The primary phase began shortly after the bank was built and was marked by two houses. House I occupied the west central area and was a post-built structure of indeterminate plan. It was associated with an internal hearth and rubbish pit from which a few fragments of E-ware pottery were recovered. House II, a post-built structure, was identified to the east of House I. It was rectangular in form (6.4m by 3.05m) and had an internal hearth and areas of paving. A gravelled entrance passage stretching from the eastern side of House II through the entrance passage also belonged to this phase and provided a dry surface into the centre of the enclosure. The principal find from this phase consisted of a bird ornament decorated with gold filigree

Fig. G.206: Plan of excavation at Garryduff I (after O’Kelly 1963, plate III) Evidence for ironworking was well attested in both the primary and secondary occupation phases and finds recovered included crucible fragments, furnace bottoms, tuyère fragments, ore and a considerable quantity of slag. A bowl-shaped furnace was excavated beyond the northwest corner of House I from Period I while six pitfurnaces belonged to the Period II occupation. A small blob of glass was recovered beside the bowl-shaped furnace from Period I and could ‘represent a drop of molten glass from the artificer’s tool’ suggesting that this structure was also possibly used for glass-working. Another blob of glass was recovered from a secondary 414

occupation context in the centre of the interior and may suggest further evidence for this activity.

both Period I and II contexts indicates that there was no significant time difference between the phases.

Nine stone trial pieces were recovered from the site, all but one from the secondary occupation phase, and contained a variety of designs including a spiral pattern, geometrical interlacements, animal or bird ornament and an interlaced anthropomorph.

The finds from Garryduff I, particularly the decorated bird ornament from the primary phase and the E-ware assemblage, indicate that the enclosure was occupied in two roughly-contemporary phases around the late sixth/seventh century. The site appears to be possibly slightly later than Garranes where E-ware was absent, though perhaps contemporary with Ballycatteen fort where Red Slip Ware and Late Roman Amphora were absent, though E-ware was also recovered.

The pottery assemblage recovered in both occupation phases consisted entirely of imported E-ware, as well as one sherd of Red Slip Ware (A-ware). The recovery of pottery sherd fragments belonging to the same vessel in Material Iron-working

Other metal-working

Direct Evidence 44 Furnace bottoms One furnace Ore Eight tuyère fragments Iron slag Anvil Three complete crucibles 24 crucible fragments Furnace bottoms Tuyère fragments

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Blob of molten glass Spindle whorls Saws Bone pins Stone and bone spindle whorls Sewing needle Shears

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Object Iron chisels 61 iron knives Two spearheads Seven pairs of shears Two saws Nine awls Nine ring pins Seven pins Four ‘bifid’ pins Two sickles Anvil Bill-hook Seven rings Gold bird ornament Three bronze rings Four bronze disc pins Nine bronze ring pins Two pins Bronze mount Bronze tweezers Bronze button Bronze sewing needle

Dates

415

Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Glass stud Glass bracelet Glass beads Four fragments of glass vessels E-ware sherds One sherd PRSW Shale bracelet Two shale pendants Two stone lamps Quernstones 18 spindle whorls 98 stone discs 125 whetstones Nine trial pieces Four stone plaques Amber bead Bone pins Bone points Bone spindle whorl

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.207: Gold bird from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 1 and Plate VIII)

Fig. G.209: Glass beads from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 13)

Fig. G.210: Crucibles from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 21)

Fig. G.208: Bronze ringpins from Garryduff (after O’Kelly 1963, fig. 2)

416

rich material. A possible post-hole was suggested for this pit, though the presence of different varieties of wood in the charcoal argues against this interpretation.

Garrynamona, Co. Clare Grid Ref: R36516095 (136518/160952) SMR No: CL061-004 Reference: Rynne 1964.

The second phase of habitation was associated with the construction of the enclosure banks and the stone-revetted south-western entrance-way. The enclosure had a diameter of 32m externally and 24m internally, and enclosed a habitation deposit containing flecks of charcoal and a few bone fragments. There appears to have been no evidence of structures or other features associated with this occupation phase.

An enclosure in Garrynamona townland, excavated in advance of the construction of a new runway and landing strip at Shannon airport, revealed evidence for a possible early medieval enclosed settlement preceded by a series of trenches and pit features. The excavations were conducted on behalf of the National Museum of Ireland over the course of eleven days in the spring of 1959. The site was situated on a small rock-outcrop on low-lying ground, surrounded on the north, east and south by marshy land and on the west by gently rising rocky ground.

The excavator suggested that the main period of inhabitation associated with the enclosure was between the fourteenth and seventeenth centuries AD. He cited the late appearance of some of the iron finds as well as the occurrence of seventeenth-century pottery sherds and clay pipes in contexts associated with this phase. It could be suggested, however, that the enclosure is early medieval and that these artefacts were removed from their original contexts due to subsequent site disturbance. Various other finds and artefacts including fragments of quernstones and a piece of slag recovered in the ‘old ground level’ might originally be early in date.

Two main periods of inhabitation were uncovered. The first phase was associated with a series of pre-enclosure shallow trenches and pits in the eastern and south-western area of the site. The shallow pits or trenches averaged about 0.2m–0.3m in depth, and were filled with a dark material containing small flecks of charcoal and some animal bone. An east-west trench in the south-western part of the site ran across the area of the subsequent enclosure entrance and was filled with dark-blackish stony deposits containing charcoal lumps. One long, narrow trench (1m wide) ran in a north-south direction and extended under the north-eastern enclosure bank. A single course of setting stones (approximately 0.25m high) ran along its western edge. Near a stone scatter, another north-south orientated trench approximately 2.8m in width and 0.3m deep ran under the eastern enclosure bank and contained a fill mixed with charcoal flecks and a fragment of a polished bone point.

A late phase of occupation at the site was associated with a number of spreads of mussel shells in the southern interior and a small internal enclosure (3m by 4m internally) immediately inside and to the east of the south-western enclosure entrance. These features were associated with glass fragments, pottery sherds and coins dating to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

A pit in the south-eastern quadrant contained a black charcoal-rich fill and revealed a decorated double-sided bone comb at its base. This feature was uncovered at the north-western end of a pile of loose stones, which could have formed some part of a surface. A fire-pit excavated to the east of the centre of the site revealed two large flat-headed iron nails and a portion of a bronze binding strip within its reddish burnt charcoal fill. Nearby was another small pit filled with charcoalMaterial Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Fig. G.211: Medieval bone comb from Garrynamona (after Rynne 1964, fig. 8)

Object

Dates

Fragments of quernstone

Bone point Bone comb

15th C?

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 417

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence Charcoal lumps?

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.212: Plan of Garrynamona (after Rynne 1964, plate XLVII)

418

Radiocarbon Dates

there was evidence for a post-built fence or palisade on the northern side of the enclosure. The latter was possibly constructed after erosion of the bank.

Glebe (Site 43), Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O22892362 (322892/223620) SMR No: N/A References: Seaver 2005a; 2007; 2011.

The interior was heavily ploughed but a cluster of postholes, a hearth and a pit, measuring 8m by 5m, were identified off-centre. They may possibly denote the area of a former dwelling.

Excavations at Glebe – in advance of the construction of a road interchange – revealed a circular early medieval enclosed settlement and associated field system dating between the late seventh and late ninth centuries AD. Slightly-earlier cereal processing was also evident in the form of four cereal-drying kilns. The enclosure was situated on a steep scarp on the townland boundary between Glebe and Laughanstown, and on rich agricultural land.

A reasonable number of artefacts were recovered from the site including ringed pin fragments, bone pins (including an unusual zoomorphic example with the head stylised as a horse’s head), a bone scoop with dot-andspiral decoration, blue glass beads, a stone spindle whorl, a broken rotary quern and iron slag. Possible ecclesiastical connections with the nearby monastic site at Tully were indicated by the presence of inscribed worked pieces of wood. One piece featured a raised cross while another contained an inscription of the word ‘Deo’ and a chi-rho symbol. These motif pieces may indicate that the inhabitants were involved in the manufacture and decoration of church manuscripts or artefacts.

Four ‘figure-of-eight’ cereal-drying kilns were situated to the west of the enclosed settlement in Laughanstown townland. Two returned radiocarbon dates between the mid sixth and mid seventh centuries, which probably places this agricultural activity before the construction of the settlement enclosure.

Two smaller ditches radiated from the enclosure to the south and represented field enclosures. The curving hedgerow of the townland boundary complemented one of these which demonstrates an associated field system and suggests the early medieval antiquity of townland divisions. When the two field ditches were taken together they formed a petal-shaped field enclosure. Material from a post-hole marking one of the boundaries was dated between the late seventh and late ninth centuries.

The enclosure measured 46m in internal diameter and had an entrance at the south-east. Large slabs and boulders within the ditch on either side of the entrance suggest that the bank on either side was revetted with stone. The enclosing ditch contained large quantities of animal bone and evidence for butchery was recorded on the three main domesticates of cattle, sheep and pig. Middens of seashell show that the inhabitants utilised the nearby sea shore which was approximately 3km away to the east. A portion of the bank survived on the western side while

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Context Charcoal (Pomoideae) from post-hole associated with cereal-drying kiln Charcoal (Pomoideae) from structure associated with cereal-drying kiln Seeds from cereal-drying kiln Charcoal (Prunus?) from hearth

14C

Date 1462±29 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 554–646

1473±32 BP

A.D. 543–645

1460±32 BP 1263±26 BP

OxA-12720

Charcoal (Pomoideae) from occupation deposit under bank

1244±27 BP

A.D. 551–648 A.D. 669–782; A.D. 789–812; A.D. 845–855 A.D. 684–832; A.D. 836–869

OxA-12719

Charcoal (Pomoideae) from post-hole fill of field ditch

1321±27 BP

Sample No. OxA-12753 OxA-12814 OxA-12816 OxA-12718

419

A.D. 653–721; A.D. 741–770

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working

Direct Evidence 5.2kg iron slag – smithing slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Decorated cattle bones Decorated pig bone Bone bead Bone pin

Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron blade Twisted copper-alloy wire – possible head of ring pin Glass beads

Rotary quernstone (granite) Stone spindle whorl

Decorated cattle bones Decorated pig bone Bone bead Bone pin

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

420

Dates

entrance. The D-shaped platform outside the cave entrance appears to have been deliberately constructed to produce a level surface for domestic activity. Several prehistoric lithics overlay the early medieval finds on the platform, suggesting that material was dug up from inside the cave and dumped outside to create this platform.

‘Glencurran Cave’ (Tullycommon td), Co. Clare Grid Ref: R27409631 (12740/19631) SMR No: CL010-054 References: Dowd 2004; 2005; 2007; 2009. Glencurran Cave is situated on a limestone knoll on the southeastern side of Glencurran valley (110m 0D) along the western part of the Burren National Park, close to the village of Kilnaboy. Excavations between 2004 and 2009 revealed evidence for Late Bronze Age votive deposition and early medieval occupation. The early medieval occupation evidence was uncovered primarily from the entrance area and included an external hearth and Dshaped platform and a collection of early medieval domestic artefacts (including a Viking glass necklace).

The remains of a small crude stone-lined hearth were found immediately outside the entrance and contained a charcoal-rich deposit and burnt and un-burnt animal bones. It was stratigraphically earlier than the platform but probably also from the early medieval period. Charcoal from the hearth came from a collection of twigs or small branches rather than mature wood. Along with the size of the hearth and the relatively low quantity of charcoal, this indicates a small low-intensity fire. A series of limestone blocks were fitted across the cave entrance and may have functioned as a plinth for a wooden door – a suggestion supported by the recovery of an iron barrel-padlock key inside the cave. Another crude arrangement of stone was identified in the southern part of the entrance chamber and may mark an attempt at demarcating the living space between the chamber and the passage during this period.

The cave is over 750m in length, although only the outermost 65m is of archaeological interest. A level Dshaped platform is situated outside the cave entrance. Inside the entrance is a level area named the ‘Entrance Chamber’, connected by a low narrow passage, less than 13m in length, with the main cave passage and an area approximately 45m from the cave entrance. An early Bronze Age lithic assemblage – core, blades, flakes, scrapers and retouched artefacts – was recovered primarily in the entrance area as well as from deeper into the cave system. Middle Bronze Age burial activity was concentrated around a drystone-built artificial cairn. Fragments of scallop shells, a shale axe, a rubbing stone, a copper-alloy object, a net-sinker, three bone beads, three perforated cowry shells, a perforated periwinkle shell, 42 amber bead fragments, charcoal, animal bone and seventeen fragments of human bone were recovered from disturbed deposits on the cave floor directly beneath the cairn. A Middle Bronze Age radiocarbon date was obtained from an adult human fibula (see below).

The main occupation layer from the D-shaped platform included a socketed iron sickle, a tanged knife, a stone spindle whorl, and a perforated iron strap (possibly from a wooden bucket), as well as Bronze Age lithics and a prehistoric perforated dog-whelk. An early medieval ringed-pin was recovered inside the cave entrance where it seems to have been deliberately placed under a flat stone with a certain degree of care. A relatively large quantity of animal bone was recovered from the entrance chamber and platform and appears to represent butchery and consumption. The faunal remains consisted primarily of bones of cattle, sheep and pig, outside the cave entrance, and were associated with primary butchering waste. Consumption appears to have taken place inside the cave entrance where most of the bones represented meat-bearing elements of cattle, sheep and pig occurred. Domestic fowl, mallard, goose bones, cat and dog were also recovered inside the cave entrance.

Evidence for Late Bronze Age funerary activity was also discovered in the cave. The un-burnt bones of a 2-4 year old child were found scattered in the area and produced a Late Bronze Age radiocarbon date (see below). A large quantity of cowry-shell beads, periwinkle-shell beads, amber beads and the remains of two Late Bronze Age pottery vessels were recovered in disturbed contexts close to the burial. The remains of a newborn baby and at least three adults were also recovered from this area. Further evidence for deliberate deposition of disarticulated human bones was found in the cave entrance where a human bone produced a Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age date (see below).

A Viking necklace of 69 glass beads was recovered in the area where much of the Late Bronze Age activity was identified. A number of the beads were segmented and foil-covered and are similar to other examples recovered from Kilmainham and Islandbridge as well as at a trading site at Birka, Sweden. The necklace may have been stolen and hidden in the cave, or alternatively might, along with other undated human bones from this area, belong to a Viking burial.

Evidence for early medieval occupation was identified primarily in the entrance chamber and outside the cave

421

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Stone spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron sickle Iron tanged knife Ringed pin Viking necklace of 69 glass beads

Stone spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

422

Dates

Glengormley, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J314815 (33140/38150) SMR No: ANT 056:014 Reference: Brannon 1986:05.

In the second phase of excavation, the remaining half of the site was mechanically stripped of topsoil, revealing in places a thin spread of archaeological deposits which sealed subsoil-penetrating features, namely a curvilinear gully with a radius of 5m but lacking any associated deposits, and a long ditch-like feature, up to 5m wide and 1.5m deep. This latter was first thought to be a failed or collapsed souterrain but the deposition of silt deposits within it, containing animal bones and waterlogged wood, suggest rather that it was a void open for some considerable period. Its location within the interior of the rath, and the fact that the feature was sealed by clays which had eroded from the adjacent rath bank, indicate that the feature was cut at an early stage. Its interpretation remains uncertain. The site has been totally destroyed.

The excavation took place in two phases, prior to development of the site as a housing estate. In the first phase, one quadrant of the site was entirely manually excavated. Primary subsoil-cutting features consisted of curvilinear gullies up to 1m wide and 0.25m deep, possible post-pits and ephemeral gullies, usually filled with a charcoal-flecked leached clay. Conventionally these features would be interpreted as traces of structures, but no firm evidence of hearths was found and occupation debris consisted of no more than ash lenses and a few sherds of souterrain ware.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

423

Glenloughan, Co. Down Grid Ref: J07434404 (30743/34404) SMR No: DOW 033:005 References: Proudfoot 1953b; Jope 1966.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Excavations in 1953 on the rath pair at Glenloughan showed that the annex was a later addition to the original rath.

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

424

Gortgrib, Co. Down Grid Ref: J39677307 (33967/37307) SMR No: DOW 005:040 Reference: Warner & Delaney 1970:14.

church or of any medieval structure were found; but remains of a cemetery were uncovered some distance away, and it is probable that the site of the church lay under adjacent houses.

Investigations were conducted on the supposed site of a medieval church where overburden had been removed for the construction of a school playing field. No traces of the

A complex of ditches and of intersecting gullies was revealed which proved to be of Later Iron Age date; one ditch produced a vessel of souterrain ware and several further sherds were found on the site.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

425

produced early medieval dates – Structure A (A.D. 678– 885), Structure B (A.D. 1022–1216) – and it seems likely that the undated Structure C also belongs to this phase. The stone structures seem to have been too large to have functioned as ‘sunken-floor buildings’ in the Viking tradition, and instead have been tentatively interpreted as food stores, analogous to cellars set beneath (now absent) wooden structures. No houses or hearths were found, but it is suggested that settlement occurred close by. Frequent lumps of iron-working waste material, which was possibly from a badly-preserved smelting or smithing hearth, and a ditch containing waste from this activity (A.D. 776–969) also show early medieval activity on site.

Gortnahoon, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 171950/225740 SMR No: N/A Reference: O’Carroll & Péterváry 2009. Excavation undertaken prior to roadworks identified two cereal-drying kilns, pits and stone-lined pits at four closely-spaced locations within the townland of Gortnahoon. A kiln/furnace in Area 1 (2650–2200 cal. B.C.) and a pit in Area 2 (1880–1640 cal. B.C.) returned Bronze Age dates. Early medieval features in Area 2 consisted of a dumbbell-shaped stone-lined kiln with an enclosing penannular trench and associated features, dated c.A.D. 717–940; and an L-shaped kiln in Area 3 which returned a radiocarbon date of A.D. 1161–1268. Two of the three stone-lined, semi-subterranean structures in Area 3

A fragment of a rotary quern was recovered from a pit at the entrance to Structure A and a Class E bone comb (c. ninth/tenth century) in fragmentary condition was found on the lower step of Structure B.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Wk21331 Wk21332 Wk21334 Wk22888

Context Charcoal from Structure B Charcoal from Structure B Charcoal from Structure A Seed from kiln basal fill Area 2

Date 933±36 BP 902±44 BP 1238±43 BP 1195±30 BP

Wk22889 Wk228890

Seed from kiln fill Area 3 Seed from ditch fill with metal-working waste

823±33 BP 1166±32 BP

Fig. G.213: Areas 2 and 3, Gortnahoon (after O’Carroll & Péterváry 2009)

426

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1022–1181 A.D. 1030–1216 A.D. 678–885 A.D. 717–743; A.D. 768–896; A.D. 923–940 A.D. 1161–1268 A.D. 776–903; A.D. 914–969

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 28kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze pin

Rotary quernstone Whetstone Class E bone comb

9th/10th C.

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.214: Bronze stick pin from kiln at Gortnahoon (after O’Carroll & Péterváry 2009)

427

entrance feature was later modified and the ditch close to the entrance area was re-cut; this activity was radiocarbon-dated to the seventh to ninth centuries (Phase 3c). A nearby hearth also dated to this phase of activity. The final phase of early medieval activity at this site was radiocarbon-dated to the eighth to tenth centuries (Phase 3d), which comprised Structure 2 – a rectangular structure – and other nearby features. Features identified within the enclosure represented structural remains, cereal-related activities and metalworking. In terms of artefactual evidence, cereal processing was suggested by the presence of cereal remains (predominantly barley and oat) and quernstones, while metalworking was represented by slag remains, hammerscale and tuyère fragments.

Gortybrigane (Site 2), Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 171534/167895 SMR No: N/A Reference: Clark & Long 2010. Archaeological investigations were carried out at Gortybrigane Site 2 in advance of construction of the N7 Nenagh to Limerick road scheme. Five different areas of archaeological activity were excavated. Area A contained a number of modern furrows and a modern field boundary. Area B contained a Late Bronze Age burnt mound. Area C consisted of an isolated shallow spread of heat-shattered stone and charcoal. Area D contained a network of modern drains. Area E contained multi-period activity, including a Middle Bronze Age structure (Phase 1), an Iron Age pit (Phase 2) and a substantial early medieval enclosure (Phase 3). Evidence for postmedieval and modern agricultural activity, in the form of plough furrows and drainage ditches, was also recorded in a number of areas. A small number of early medieval features – including kilns and a possible smithing hearth – pre-dated construction of the early medieval enclosure. These features were radiocarbon-dated to the fifth to sixth centuries (Phase 3a). Construction of the enclosure ditch followed, which was radiocarbon-dated to the sixth/seventh centuries (Phase 3b). The internal diameter of the sub-circular enclosure measured 66m. No definite evidence for a bank was identified. A significant portion of the enclosure was located beyond the road-take, and geophysical work was carried out to better understand the extent of the site. Another kiln was also constructed during this phase. A causewayed entrance was recorded on the north-eastern side of the enclosure, with unusual extensions of the enclosing ditch projecting towards the interior of the site, forming an entrance ‘passage’. This

Fig. G.215: Plan of excavated features at Gortybrigane (after Clark & Long 2010)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-9936 UBA-9937 UBA-9938 UBA-11754 UBA-11755 UBA-11756 UBA-11757

Context Charred grain C2329 Charred grain C2114 Charred grain C2242 Charcoal C1081 Charcoal C1111 Charcoal C1044 Charred grain C2020

14C Date 1546±24 BP 1605±25 BP 1487±24 BP 1497±21 BP 1503±20 BP 1426±22 BP 1225±19 BP

UBA-11758 UBA-11759 UBA-11761

Charcoal C1141 Charcoal C2039 Charred grain C2385

1279±19 BP 1595±23 BP 1169±21 BP

UBA-11762 UBA-11763

Charcoal 1008 Charred grain C2430

790±21 BP 1204±24 BP

428

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 430–570 A.D. 408–536 A.D. 542–633 A.D. 538–619 A.D. 535–617 A.D. 594–656 A.D. 695–696; A.D. 709–747; A.D. 766–881 A.D. 676–772 A.D. 417–536 A.D. 778–898; A.D. 920–945 A.D. 1217–1271 A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–890

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 11kg slag – largely smithing (1% smelting) Two tuyères Hammerscale Smithing hearth?

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Unfinished loom weight?

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Three iron nails Copper-alloy ring

Dates

Slate disc – pre-loom weight? Three quernstones

‘Small finds’ Table

429

Iron slag from these deposits also indicates later activity in this area.

Gragan West, Co. Clare Grid Ref: M200018 (120000/201800) SMR No: N/A References: Cotter 1988:04; 1990.

The mound itself appears to represent the disturbed remains of an early medieval settlement. A number of large stones were scattered across the western half of the mound. They may represent the demolished remains of a dry-stone wall or could have been laid deliberately to provide a well-drained, level surface – similar to that which occurred in many of the structures in the interior of Cahercommaun. A stone-lined hearth (1.5m by 0.7m) set into the mound just west of the mound’s midpoint was also similar in style to hearths excavated at Cahercommaun.

A mound at Gragan West was excavated because of severe farm disturbance on the site in the 1980s. A number of Bronze Age finds were recovered, as well as a possible hearth, dry-stone wall, other structures and finds associated with an early medieval settlement. Previous finds from the site (e.g. a palstave axe-mould, part of a stone mortar, tracked stone, spindle whorl, iron pick, and iron slag) were brought to the attention of the National Museum, initiating a rescue excavation in the winter of 1988. The site is situated on a level platform (210m OD) on the eastern slopes of the limestone Burren ridge of Poulacapple, commanding extensive views to the east, north and south.

A small hole was drilled into the bedrock in this area and may have been used to support a post for some form of structure. Two sawn horn tips were recovered from the disturbed material in the west side and just east of the centre, and indicate that bone-working was being carried out on the site. A fragment of a worked bone rib from the western side of the mound may have been used for scraping and softening animal hides. The loom weight and spindle whorls indicate textile production. Iron slag from the sod of the mound, the centre of the mound and the area to the north may have been associated with iron-working activity. The hone-stones and rotary grinding stone were used for smoothing and sharpening tools and weapons. A relatively large quantity of animal bone as well as occasional oyster, scallop and barnacle shells were also discovered on the site.

The site consists of a roughly circular mound, 22.5m in diameter and 1.35m in maximum height in the centre, tailing off steeply downslope to the east and more gently to the north and south. The western half was almost completely levelled and a number of features (an outbuilding in the southwest sector, a north-south farmtrack bisecting the centre of the mound and a modern drystone wall cutting its southern portion) had caused severe disturbance to the site. There was limited stratigraphy (four layers) and where it survived this was extensively disturbed. Two cuttings were excavated at right angles to each other near the midpoint of the mound, and a third trench was excavated in a small pocket of archaeology, 35m to the north of the mound.

The focus of the early medieval settlement was in the disturbed western half of the mound and it was from this area that the bulk of the finds were recovered (e.g. stone spindle whorls, a loom weight, hones, hammer-stone, rotary grinding stone, strike-a-light, an amber bead, dumb-bell rock-crystal bead, quartz toggle, fragment of iron knife and a key for a barrel-padlock). The other early medieval finds (e.g. a bone toggle, cylindrical bone/horn object, yellow herringbone glass bead, stone gaming pieces, small bronze ring, socketed iron spearhead, iron gouge, iron needle, iron ring and miscellaneous iron artefacts) were found across the site.

Evidence for Bronze Age activity was identified in disturbed contexts from within the mound and in an isolated pocket of archaeological material, 35m to the north of the mound. Finds from the mound comprised a decorated rim-sherd of an early Bronze Age food vessel pot in the western disturbed half of the site and the previously recorded palstave axe-mould. An area of prehistoric activity to the north of the mound comprised a variety of finds (e.g. animal bone, fragments of chert, a stone knife and a possible dagger with a raised midrib).

430

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Melted glass bead?

Spindle whorls Loom weights Iron needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron knife Iron spearhead Iron ring (or horse bit) Iron gouge Iron needle Small bronze ring or head of ring pin Yellow glass bead Rock-crystal bead Quartz toggle Stone gaming pieces Grinding stone Hammerstone Siltstone loom weight Two spindle whorls Seven hone stones Amber bead Bone toggle Bone/horn object

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

431

Dates

and finds included a pair of iron shears, two iron knives, an iron arrowhead, an iron arrow-/spear-head, three pieces of iron slag and two glass beads.

‘Grange West’ (including Ballybeg, Knocknahur, Luffertan and Seafield tds), Co. Sligo Grid Ref: G63003300 (163000/333000) SMR No: SL014-152; SL014-153; SL014-158002. References: Burenhult 1984; Håkansson 1981.

Excavation at a large earthen enclosure at Knocknahur (70m in diameter) uncovered two cist burials at the centre of the monument. Radiocarbon dates of charcoal from one of these burials gave an early medieval date. Finds associated with this burial included three fragments of jet bracelet, six fragments of bronze, two fragments of iron and two iron knives.

A number of small-scale excavations were undertaken on ‘kitchen middens’ along the coast between the prehistoric burial complex at Carrowmore and Ballysadare Bay. These sites largely consisted of house platforms, built up with a double circle of stones, which probably represent the inner and outer revetments of turf walls. Shell middens were also associated with these sites. Radiocarbon dates from five of the sites show that they were not associated with the prehistoric activity at Carrowmore, but were of an early medieval date. No enclosure appears to have been identified around these structures, and they must therefore be considered to have been small isolated coastal huts. Only two of the sites are recorded to any degree (Settlement 2: Grange West, and Settlement 8: Luffertan). The double-ringed enclosure at Grange West was oval in shape (19m by 24m). Excavation uncovered a series of post-holes along the axis of the excavation trench, as well as seven post-holes associated with a paved surface and a hearth. A large concentration of sea-shells was also discovered close to the entrance of a (possibly associated) souterrain. Finds from this site included two iron fragments, one piece of iron slag, two whetstones, and four sherds of unidentified pottery. The site at Luffertan was roughly circular (20m in diameter), and excavation revealed the presence of three smaller internal ditches (of which at least two were concentric). The dates from this site range from the Iron Age through to the early medieval period (see below),

Fig. G.216: Post-built structure at Grange West (Settlement 2) (after Burenhult 1984, 89)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150.

Ballybeg, Co Sligo (Settlement 6): Sample No. Lu-1758

Context Charcoal

14C

Date 1230±50 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 669–894; A.D. 928–933

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 718–743; A.D. 769–990 A.D. 898–919; A.D. 947–1157

Grange West, Co Sligo (Settlement 1): Sample No. Lu-1753

Context Charcoal

14C

Lu-1754

Charcoal

1010±50 BP

Date 1160±50 BP

Grange West, Co Sligo (Settlement 2): Sample No. Lu-1699

Context Charcoal

14C

Lu-1838

Charcoal under stone

1320±70 BP

Date 1830±50 BP

432

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 71–262; A.D. 278–328 A.D. 605–879

Grange West, Co Sligo (Settlement 3): Sample No. Lu-1755

Context Charcoal

14C

Date 1990±50 BP

Cal. 2 Σ 151–140 B.C.; 111 B.C.–A.D. 125

14C

Date 1260±50 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 665-878

14C

Date 1260±50 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 665–878

14C

Date 1310±50 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 641–783; A.D. 787–824; A.D. 841–861

14C

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 780–792; A.D. 805–1016

Luffertan, Co Sligo (Settlement 8): Sample No. Lu-1756

Context Charcoal

Knocknahur, Co. Sligo (Settlement 10): Sample No. Lu-1863

Context Charcoal from cist burial

Seafield, Co Sligo (Settlement 11): Sample No. Lu-1757

Context Charcoal

Cloverhill Lough, Co. Sligo: Sample No. Lu-1841

Context Wood from floor of crannog

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Date 1120±50 BP

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Shears

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron fragments Four iron knives Iron shears Iron arrowhead Iron spearhead Six fragments of bronze Two glass beads Souterrain ware? Three fragments of jet bracelet Two whetstones

‘Small finds’ Table

433

Dates

was also uncovered on the clay surface near the hut. Fragments of burnt bone and pieces of iron slag were recovered from these features.

Grange, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R63734263 (163737/142633) SMR No: LI023-068 References: Ó Ríordáin 1949b; 1950.

The entrance was along the western perimeter of the enclosure. There was no evidence for a gate at the entrance, except for one doubtful post-hole half-way between the two stone-lined ditch terminals. A considerable spread of charcoal and remains of brushwood was uncovered in the entrance and immediately outside. This was very tentatively interpreted as the remains of some simple, makeshift method of closing the entrance such as placing bushes in the opening.

A raised enclosure at Grange revealed an internal early medieval hut and associated hearths, pre-dated by hearths of uncertain date. Also excavated during this excavation season were five sites (I-V) in the adjacent Ballingoola townland, comprising two prehistoric ring-barrows (I & II) and three possible ring-ditches of uncertain date (IIIV). The sites were situated in a marshy valley of the Camoge north of Lough Gur and were divided by a deep stream forming the boundary of the two townlands.

Finds from the peat included a chert arrowhead, stone spindle whorl, two hammer-stones, whet-stones and seven flint-flakes. Iron slag was recovered from various places in the peat as well as on the clay floor where six flint flakes, one bone point, and one whetstone were recovered. The finds from the peat indicate a long chronological period and were not necessarily all contemporary with each other. The stone spindle whorl, one whetstone and some iron slag from beneath the clay floor could indicate an earlier phase of early medieval activity on the site.

The sites were excavated in the summers of 1948 (Grange and Ballingoola I-IV), and 1949 (Ballingoola V) as part of continuing research into the Lough Gur area. The area of the sites excavated comprised the entrance (if present), considerable portions of the interior as well as sections through the enclosing features – banks and ditches. Two phases of activity were identified at the enclosure at Grange. Prior to the construction of the enclosure, the site was covered by a deposit of peat which overlay a layer of alluvial clay. A pre-enclosure phase consisted of a number of hearths associated with small burnt stones deep in the peat. The largest hearth overlay a hollow containing many roots and some hazelnuts. It was suggested that this area may have formed a small hummock in ancient times on which hearths connected with temporary occupation were built. This hummock may have attracted the builders of the enclosure to this site. Its enclosing ditch was cut through the peat into the alluvial clay to a depth of approximately 0.5m with the material obtained from it – peat and clay – being used to form a low bank. The slight outer bank was very irregular and did not exist everywhere. The enclosure at Grange was 32m in diameter and was marked by a bank, ditch and slight traces of outer bank. The enclosing bank was contemporary with a spread of clay overlying the peat that extended from the banks on the east towards the centre of the site. On the dry clay surface was a circular deposit of charcoal, fragments of charred wood and burnt clay, interpreted as the remains of a burnt structure, 5m in diameter, with wattle and clay walls. No trace of any post-holes was found. A patch of burning in the centre of the hut’s interior was identified as a hearth. Evidence for other firing hearths in the open

Fig. G.217: Excavated areas of Grange enclosure (after Ó Ríordáin 1949b, Fig. 2)

434

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Stone spindle whorl Whetstone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

435

In the final phase, the domed second phase occupation layers were deliberately re-modelled into a steep-sided, flat-topped mound. Thirty large rubbish pits (1m wide by 1m deep) were dug into the top of the mound, but the only structural remains found were in the form of two stone-kerbed hearths and the possible foundation for a drystone-built rectilinear building. There was some evidence for a wooden perimeter fence around the top of the mound. Finds from this phase included souterrain ware, lignite armlets, a green-and-white glass bead, and a bronze spiral-ringed pin.

Gransha, Co. Down Grid Ref: J53147694 (35314/37694) SMR No: DOW 006:002 References: Lynn 1985a; 1988b. Excavation was undertaken in 1972, and again in 1982, on top of an artificial mound, 6.7m high and 22m in diameter, which was set on the edge of a former bog. Earliest activity on the site was indicated by a small ditch (1.8m wide and 0.8m deep) which ran around the mound. There were also traces of a low (possibly timber-revetted) bank, and the burnt remains of a possible associated palisade. A bronze penannular brooch and a number of sherds of E-ware were recovered from the ditch of this phase. The second phase was indicated by a 0.3m-thick occupation layer, and there is some evidence for a low external bank and shallow ditch. A number of stone-lined hearths were found in this phase, as well as an arc of stake-holes which may represent part of a circular wattlebuilt structure. Possible seed drills were uncovered in the upper part of this occupation layer during the 1982 excavation. Finds from this occupation phase included pottery (E-ware and souterrain ware) and metal objects (iron knives, a stylus and some scraps of bronze). Stone spindle whorls and hones were also found, along with pieces of clay moulds (including one for a decorated brooch-pin terminal). Over 40 fragments of flat stones with geometric designs were also found and were interpreted as trial pieces.

Fig. G.218: Bronze brooch and pin from Gransha (after Lynn 1985a, figs 3 & 4)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2597

Context Charred timbers from possible palisade?

14C Date 1465±55 BP

UB-2598

Charred timbers from possible palisade?

1580±50 BP

Fig. G.219: Section of Gransha showing phases (after Lynn 1988b, 39) 436

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 435–490; A.D. 509–517; A.D. 529–662 A.D. 386–596

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

40 fragments of shale motif pieces

Early 9th C?

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Knives, spatula, tweezers, stylus Bronze zoomorphic penannular brooch Bronze scraps Bronze spiral ring pin Green-and-white glass bead E-ware Souterrain ware Lignite armlet Spindle whorls

Dates 6th/7th C 10th C?

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.220: E-ware sherd, and reconstructed E-ware pot, from Gransha (after Lynn 1985a, fig. 3)

Fig. G.221: Shale motif pieces from Gransha (after Lynn 1985a, fig. 4)

437

slag, and an associated stone-faced bank were revealed to the south-east of the enclosure, as well as a narrow gully. Their date is unknown but they may relate to field enclosure activity associated with the enclosure. A drystone-constructed keyhole-shaped cereal-drying kiln and rake-out spread, which had been built into an earlier ditch, were also exposed. These tend to date to the latter part of the early medieval period and late middle ages.

Haggardstown, Co. Louth Grid Refs: J067026 (30670/30260), J068030 (30680/30300), J06780236 (30678/30236), J05860405 (30586/30405), J05430420 (30543/30420), J06010354 (30601/30354) SMR Nos: LH012-009; LH012-008; LH012-009, LH012-027 References: Campbell 1994:180; McConway 1995:220; McLoughlin 1999:610; Moore 2001:858; O'Carroll 1999:544; Walsh 2002:1348; Jordan 1934.

Archaeological testing in 2001 by Moore on top of a hill and its environs at Haggardstown revealed a number of north-south and east-west ditches and related features. The ditches may relate to a series of settlement enclosures. One of the ditches included a fragment of souterrain ware and human bone. Substantial areas of burning, including frequent fragments of animal bone and shell, were also revealed on top of the hill which is suggestive of an occupation layer. A possible souterrain was revealed in a field to the east.

Haggardstown townland, Co. Louth, has been the focus of intense archaeological investigation, mostly between 1994 and 2002, due to a range of infrastructural developments. Jordan, back in the 1930s, referred to the removal of stones from an underground passage and this is one of the first references to a souterrain in the area. Subsequent excavations have revealed enclosures, souterrains, field boundaries, cereal-drying kilns and industrial areas. Many of these features have been dated, by morphology and artefactual evidence, to the early medieval period. However, certain features such as the cereal-drying kilns and a variety of ditches may not belong to this period, and radiocarbon dates are needed to resolve this. Undoubtedly though, Haggardstown was an intensively settled and farmed landscape during the early middle ages, as evidenced by the variety and scale of archaeological features discovered to date.

Excavations by McLoughlin in 1999, in advance of the Xerox Technology Park, revealed a souterrain, ditches and cereal-drying kiln. The drystone souterrain was located approximately 40m south of a horseshoe-shaped enclosure (LO007-095). Its entrance passage, which contained a slot with two post-holes, probably to hold a previous door, ran east-west for 3m until it turned northsouth. It continued for 7m until it widened slightly into an end chamber. Another passage was located that ran at a right angle from the north-south passage. It extended for 5m until it terminated at a chamber. Finds from the souterrain included an amber bead, a probable loom weight, half a lignite bracelet and a quantity of animal bone. Several metal objects were also recovered including an example with traces of enamel.

Test excavation in advance of a housing development was undertaken by Campbell in 1994 on the south-west corner of a 23-acre field with clear views towards the sea. A previously unrecorded enclosure, with a possible entrance to the east, was discovered, measuring 45m eastwest by 40m north-south. A section through the ditch determined that it was 5.5m wide and 2.2m deep. Further test trenches across the interior of the enclosure uncovered 11 features including a possible small souterrain. Three ditch-like features were also located immediately north of the enclosure.

The souterrain cut through a ditch that was linked to the horseshoe-shaped enclosure. A large, irregular-shaped feature consisting of a central linear ditch with two crescent-shaped arcs projected at either end was situated approximately 3m north of the souterrain. One of the arcs contained souterrain-ware sherds, while the partial remains of an articulated skeleton were revealed at the southern end of the other arc. A drystone keyhole-shaped cereal-drying kiln was also excavated at the site.

In 1995, the remains of a drystone souterrain were identified during land reduction at an ongoing housing development. Monitoring and test excavation by McConway determined that the passageway survived for 10m east-west before turning sharply south for a further 11m to a single, badly-collapsed chamber. The passage was approximately 1.5m wide and the chamber was subrectangular in shape and measured 3.5m by 5m. Test trenches around the perimeter of the souterrain revealed an enclosure ditch that had a diameter of 30m. A section through the ditch showed that it was 3.4m wide and 1.8m deep and it contained organic-rich deposits of shell and bone.

Archaeological testing in 2002 by Walsh on lands zoned for potential residential use and in proximity to the southeast of McLoughlin’s excavations identified a series of spreads, layers and linear features related to early medieval industrial activity. The archaeological features contained a number of sherds of coarse early medieval pottery – possibly souterrain ware – and considerable quantities of metal slag. Haggardstown townland has, therefore, revealed a range of archaeological features indicative of early medieval settlement, agriculture and industry. The relationship between the sites is difficult to determine without radiocarbon dates but it is clear that Haggardstown was the focus for continued settlement throughout the early middle ages.

Archaeological monitoring of two fields in a low-lying area, mostly below 15m OD, was undertaken by O’Carroll in 1999 in advance of a housing development. The proposed development avoided the nearby enclosure, partially excavated by Campbell, to the north-west and its surrounding area. A field boundary, which contained iron 438

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Half a lignite bracelet Loom weight Amber bead

‘Small finds’ Table

439

by a preliminary geophysical survey that was carried out on the site. A pit or the beginning of a ditch was uncovered by these further cuttings. The fill contained a large amount of animal bone, cremated bone, iron slag and a few iron finds as well as two sherds of a cooking vessel of probable French origin (ninth–twelfth centuries). This layer appears to represent the fill of a recut ditch and it reached a maximum depth of 1m and appears to be of early medieval date. It would appear that the ditch formed part of a larger enclosure, possibly a rath with a diameter of 50m, which extends northwards.

Harristown, Co. Louth Grid Ref: N995905 (29950/29050) SMR No: N/A Reference: Murphy 1994:181. Several burials in stone-lined graves were uncovered during the excavation of foundation trenches for a house in Harristown. As a result of this discovery a rescue excavation was carried out on the site to the west, prior to the construction of a dwelling house. Four cuttings were opened in areas shown to be archaeologically significant Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects

Dates

French pottery?

9th–12th C

‘Small finds’ Table

440

‘Hillsborough Fort’, Large Park (Hillsborough) td, Co. Down Grid Ref: J2450058600 (32450/35860) SMR No: DOW 014:012 Reference: Gaskell-Brown 1978. Excavations in the parade ground in the interior of the star fort at Hillsborough, Co. Down in 1966 revealed an arc of a ditch, enclosing an area approximately 45.6m in diameter. House structures found in association with the rath ditch may have been built in the seventeenth century, and it is postulated that the rath may have been used as a temporary defence before the construction of the star fort. Large amounts of souterrain ware were recovered from the early medieval rath ditch.

Fig. G.222: Plan of rath excavation in interior of star fort at Hillsborough (after Gaskell-Brown 1978, fig. 1)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Two quartzite rotary quernstones (Cultra or N. England)

‘Small finds’ Table

441

Holywood, Co. Down Grid Ref: J40887888 (34088/37888) SMR No: DOW 001:003 References: Proudfoot 1959; Dunlop 2004:0436.

Archaeological material revealed on the ground's surface was clustered into three distinct areas. Area 1 was a small hearth 3m in length; Area 2 was a mix of stone and charcoal; and Area 3 was an area of pavement similar to that described by Proudfoot. All of these areas produced pottery and flint similar to that discovered in the topsoil, forming an assemblage that combined Bronze Age and early medieval material. Proudfoot speculated that a bank and ditch surrounded the site. Invasive excavation at the furthest extent of all the trenches revealed a number of twentieth-century drainage pipes but no evidence for a ditch anywhere along the perimeter of the site. Area 4, a heavy clay and stony rubble layer, may be the material Proudfoot used as evidence for his ditch, but in section it is far from diagnostic.

Two test-trenches were excavated within the gardens of 37 and 39 Croft Road with the aim of defining the extent of the archaeological material that had previously been discovered by Proudfoot in his 1959 excavations and identified as a rath. The trenches were 2m wide (where conditions allowed), with the longer trench being 50m in length and the shorter 20m. The trenches cut across a relatively flat plateau, which fell steeply along its northeast and south-west boundaries and shallowly to the north-west. Finds, in the form of Bronze Age and early medieval pottery and poorly-worked Bronze Age flint, were recovered along the length of both trenches.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware Unfinished quernstone

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze ring pin Souterrain ware Quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

442

Island MacHugh (Baronscourt td), Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H36468378 (23646/38378) SMR No: TYR 017:033 References: Davies 1950; Ivens & Simpson 1986. The site consists of a crannog in Lough Catherine which was excavated a number of occasions. The excavations by Davies in the late 1930s highlighted the fact that the occupation layers on the crannog extended from the Bronze Age through to the seventeenth-century castle located on the island. Later excavation by QUB showed that the major Bronze Age phase identified by Davies actually was early medieval, with the structural timbers of the crannog felled in the first couple of decades of the seventh century AD.

Fig. G.223: Excavated areas of Island MacHugh (after Davies 1950 and Ivens & Simpson 1986) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Crucibles

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Crucibles with enamel Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

Textile fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

443

evident to the north and south-east. Animal bone was again plentiful, as was iron slag. A range of iron finds were present including an arrowhead, a smith’s hammerhead and unfinished objects. Other artefacts included fragments of souterrain ware and a copper-alloy ringed pin. The second ditch was dug sometime between the fifth and seventh centuries and was finally abandoned before the end of the ninth century. The final enclosure was D-shaped and measured 47.5m by 61m. The enclosing ditch was much wider and deeper than the previous ditches and had a maximum width and depth of 5.3m and 1.8m respectively. Finds were similar to earlier phases, including large quantities of animal bone, ferrous metallurgical waste and a range of functional and personal items. The enclosure was probably created in the ninth or tenth centuries before it was abandoned sometime between the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. It appears that the succession of enclosures was created to accommodate the expansion of the cemetery over many centuries.

Johnstown 1, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 27698/24047 SMR No: ME048-031 References: Clarke & Carlin 2008; Photos-Jones 2008a; Gannon 2008; Clarke 2010. Johnstown 1 – excavated in advance of the M4 roadscheme – was a multi-period settlement/cemetery and industrial site that was utilised for over 1,000 years. Two areas of activity were evident. The first was a succession of enclosures that respected a burial mound which originated in the late Iron Age, and defined areas of burial, settlement and industrial activity until potentially the seventeenth century. The second area was outside the enclosure and consisted of a mill-race ditch and the site’s final use as a cillín in the post-medieval period. The site was situated on the summit of a low promontory that overlooked marshland and was located close to the River Blackwater and the border between Meath and Kildare.

Settlement evidence at Johnstown 1 survived as refuse pits, hearths, gullies, spreads and cobbled surfaces that were distributed throughout the interior of the enclosures. Large quantities of animal bone (both butchered and unbutchered), significant quantities of plant remains and a range of artefacts (both personal and functional) also show that people were living and working here throughout the early and later middle ages. Dwelling evidence was mainly dated between the ninth and fifteenth centuries but it is reasonable to predict that this later settlement activity erased archaeological evidence preceding the ninth century.

A succession of three enclosures was centred on the burial mound, which measured 15.5m by 18.5m. The mound was not initially enclosed when the first burials were placed there. One of the earliest depositions included the incomplete remains of three adults in a charnel pit beneath the mound. Burials associated with the mound were dated between the late fourth and late seventh centuries. Following this, up until the end of the tenth century, burials were placed to the south of the mound. Gradually, burial activity moved to the south-east and then east of the mound between the final centuries of the early medieval period until the end of the late middle ages. Three hundred and ninety-eight inhumations were associated with the enclosures including 70 male adults, 72 female adults, 41 unsexed adults, 18 adolescents, 111 juveniles and 149 infants. The majority were extended, aligned west-east, within simple, unlined graves.

Ironworking was undoubtedly the dominant industrial activity at Johnstown. Over 2,000kg of metallurgical waste was retrieved and iron-working features included bowl furnaces and smithing hearths, which demonstrated that both raw iron and finished artefacts were produced. Seven iron-working areas were identified and the majority were outside the enclosures. The earliest dated metallurgical activity occurred to the east of the enclosure in A.D. 250–538 and ironworking continued to be practised in different areas of the site until potentially the seventeenth century. Where industrial activity occurred within the enclosures, it was mainly separated from the settlement areas and cemetery in the western area.

Three enclosing phases demarcated the cemetery, settlement and industrial areas. The primary enclosure was sub-oval and measured 59m in diameter. The entrance was at the north and finds within the ditch included large quantities of animal bone, iron slag and iron objects. The ditch was excavated between A.D. 432 and 651. The second enclosure – measuring 53m by 54m – had a more substantial ditch and two entrances were Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-176806 Beta-176807 Beta-176808 Beta-176809 Beta-176810

Context Charcoal from layer within furnace Charcoal from furnace within base of Phase III enclosure ditch Charcoal from occupational deposit overlying Phase I and II enclosure ditches Charcoal from metallurgical dump Charcoal from kiln

444

14C

Date 2220±70 BP 840±60 BP 1230±60 BP

1280±60 BP 1380±60 BP

Cal. 2 Σ 401–97 B.C. A.D. 1042–1107; A.D. 1117–1276 A.D. 664–898; A.D. 920–947 A.D. 653–881 A.D. 560–730; A.D. 735–772

A.D. 432–498; A.D. 501–651 A.D. 433–494; A.D. 505–523; A.D. 526–661 A.D. 1438–1641 A.D. 1427–1636 A.D. 996–1006; A.D. 1012–1221 A.D. 561–710; A.D. 747–766 A.D. 349–367; A.D. 379–641 A.D. 1058–1064; A.D. 1069–1071; A.D. 1155–1292 A.D. 349–368; A.D. 379–641

Beta-177959

Animal bone from Phase 1 enclosure ditch

1490±60 BP

Beta-177960

Animal bone from primary context of Phase 2 enclosure ditch

1470±60 BP

Beta-177961 Beta-177962 Beta-177963

Bone collagen from smelting hearth Bone collagen from mill-race ditch Animal bone from possible animal enclosure ditch

380±60 BP 400±60 BP 930±60 BP

Beta-178194

Bone collagen (Burial 25)

1390±50 BP

Beta-178195

Bone collagen (Burial 110)

1560±70 BP

Beta-178196

Human bone from Burial 118 at eastern edge of mound

790±50 BP

Beta-178197

1560±70 BP

Beta-178198

Human bone from charnel pit containing partial remains of at least three disarticulated adults, associated with central burial mound Bone collagen (Burial 219)

1400±50 BP

Beta-178199

Bone collagen (Burial 280)

820±50 BP

Beta-178201

Bone collagen (Burial 485)

780±60 BP

Beta-180650

Bone collagen (Burial 42)

1410±60 BP

Beta-180651

Bone collagen (Burial 68)

280±40 BP

Beta-180652 Beta-180653

Bone collagen (Burial 196) Human bone from Burial 269 in middle fill of Phase 3 enclosure ditch

680±70 BP 930±70 BP

Beta-181477 Beta-181478

Charcoal from spread of burnt timbers Charcoal from a refuse pit

510±60 BP 1010±60 BP

Beta-181479

1520±60 BP 1460±70 BP

A.D. 430–670

Beta-184611

Charred material from metallurgical pit within enclosure Human bone from Burial 33 associated with central burial mound Bone collagen (Burial 145)

A.D. 549–692; A.D. 749–763 A.D. 1048–1085; A.D. 1123–1138; A.D. 1150–1281 A.D. 1050–1082; A.D. 1125–1136; A.D. 1152–1302; A.D. 1366–1383 A.D. 536–720; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 1485–1604; A.D. 1606–1668; A.D. 1781–1797; A.D. 1947– A.D. 1222–1409 A.D. 990–1228; A.D. 1232–1242; A.D. 1247–1251 A.D. 1297–1485 A.D. 894–929; A.D. 932–1162 A.D. 423–642

740±40 BP

Beta-184612

Bone collagen (Burial 222)

630±40 BP

A.D. 1215–1300; A.D. 1368–1381 A.D. 1285–1401

Beta-184613

Bone collagen (Burial 249)

1200±60 BP

Beta-184614 Beta-184615

Bone collagen (Burial 295) Bone collagen (Burial 370)

570±60 BP 740±40 BP

Beta-184700

Charcoal from a smelting furnace

1200±60 BP

Beta-184701

Charred material from metallurgical pit F1105 to east of enclosures Human bone from Burial 26 in proximity to mound

1660±60 BP

Bone collagen (Burial 34) Human bone from Burial 128 in proximity to the mound Bone collagen (Burial 142) Bone collagen (Burial 166)

1240±40 BP 1240±40 BP

Beta-184610

Beta-184702 Beta-184703 Beta-184704 Beta-184705 Beta-184706

445

1100±40 BP

780±40 BP 1270±70 BP

A.D. 682–905; A.D. 912–970 A.D. 1293–1436 A.D. 1215–1300; A.D. 1368–1381 A.D. 682–905; A.D. 912–970 A.D. 250–538 A.D. 785–786; A.D. 828–839; A.D. 866–1021 A.D. 680–882 A.D. 1182–1284 A.D. 645–896; A.D. 923–940

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 2,000kg slag Smelting pits Smithing hearths

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Wooden artefacts Bone pins

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Four scale-tanged knives 17 whittle-tanged knives One fish hook Six awls/punchers Jeweller’s/Cobbler’s hammer Two iron rods Three iron rods Awl? Iron needle 36 shroud pins Stick pin Ringed pin Copper-alloy penannular ring-pin Copper-alloy pseudo-penannular ring-pin Copper-alloy pin? Blue glass bead Red? glass bead 19 sherds of possible souterrain ware 10 sherds of ‘early medieval’ pottery Loom weight Quartz rotary quernstone Sandstone rotary quernstone Three bone pins Two bone pins Bone needle Two bone combs

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

446

Dates

Phase 3 F124 Burial 319

12th/13th C

Kilcloghans, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 142990/253830 SMR No: N/A Reference: McKinstry 2008. Excavations in advance of the N17 Tuam Bypass uncovered a rath, 35m in diameter, at Kilcloghans. The site was defined by a single ditch, 3.6m wide and 1.5m deep, and had an associated stone-lined souterrain. Finds from the ditch and souterrain included large amounts of animal bone and a significant number of small, mostly metal, artefacts. Items of personal adornment included two iron dress pins and an inscribed copper strap-end, possibly from a belt. Domestic activities are represented by several iron knife blades and curious socketed tools with prongs, possibly used in the processing of cattle hides. Other finds, including an iron hook and metal hoops (possibly part of a stave-built vessel, such as a bucket or barrel), may be evidence of the storage of food or other materials.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.224: Excavations at Kilcloghans (after McKinstry 2008)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Pronged iron tool? Pronged iron tool?

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two iron pins Several iron blades Pronged iron tool Iron hook Barrel hoops Copper strap-end

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

447

well as a number of cereal-drying kilns, which may relate to the ecclesiastical community’s agricultural activities. Phase I consisted of a linear ditch and the remains of a hearth at its base. There was a marked increase in farming activity during Phase II including the creation of a subrectangular field enclosure and two cereal-drying kilns. Additional phases were late medieval in date, based on the occurrence of pottery sherds within the ditches.

‘St Gobban’, Kilgobbin, Stepaside, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O18902440 (31890/22440) SMR No: DU025-016 References: Bolger 2008; Larsson 2004:0644; 2004:0645; 2004:0646; Strid 2005. Excavations in two fields directly to the west and south of the early medieval church of Kilgobbin revealed evidence for settlement, agriculture and industry. This evidence included curvilinear and linear ditches, slot-trenches, post- and stake-holes, and pits. The earliest phase predated the enclosure ditches and consisted of a circular slot-trench and pit. No finds were recovered from this phase. The second phase consisted of a north-south-oriented ditch and a concentration of post-holes in the northern part of the excavated area. The relationship between the two was unclear but the former may have been a field boundary. Artefacts indicative of settlement and metalworking associated with this phase included two possible copper-alloy pins and a clay mould fragment. A curving ditch was revealed in Phase III and it defined a circular area approximately 37m in diameter. It was evident that the ditch did not enclose the church or graveyard. Phase IV, however, was related to the ecclesiastical site. A large curvilinear ditch was revealed which defined a circular or sub-circular enclosure. This cut the Phase III enclosure and it would have encircled all, or a large section, of the present church and graveyard. The ditch was back-filled before another enclosure was created that enlarged the space. An annex was created at the southern end and this defined an area of industrial activity which included metal-working features, slag and crucible fragments. A number of pits also produced metal-working debris. The artefacts from this phase included a selection of iron and copper-alloy pins, a polychrome bead fragment, a lignite bracelet and a highly ornate copper-alloy clasp.

Fig. G.225: Plan of phases excavated at Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008)

Further excavation at the north-west of the site revealed probable early medieval activity. Two ditches, from the first phase, appeared to define a large sub-rectangular enclosure that extended beyond the excavation limit. Occupation was evident from the presence of large amounts of animal bone, a possible refuse pit and artefacts from the upper fill of one of the ditches. The finds included iron knives, a possible shears, and both iron and copper-alloy studs or mounts. It is probable that this enclosure is related to the enclosure activity described above but their chronological relationship cannot be determined until radiocarbon dates are available.

Fig. G.226: Bone pins and antler gaming piece from Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008, plate 5)

Excavation to the south of the church identified further multi-phase activity. Additional ditches were revealed, as

448

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag – smelting and smithing Four crucibles Two clay moulds Copper slag

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone pins Needle Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-6455

Context Fill of ditch C3

14C Date 1267±31 BP

UB-6458

Fill of pit C31

1317±31 BP

UB-6457

Fill of ditch C14

1285±32 BP

UB-6486

Fill of ditch C21

1222±34 BP

UB-6456

Fill of ditch C8

1226±32 BP

UB-6487

Fill of pit C70

1185±34 BP

UB-6488 UB-6459

Fill of ditch C21 Fill of ditch C44

970±33 BP 1219±30 BP

UB-6462

Fill of ditch C302

1302±31 BP

UB-6460 UB-6461

Fill of kiln 1 Fill of kiln 2

1297±30 BP 1296±49 BP

Fig. G.227: Clay mould and crucibles from Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008, fig. 9) 449

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 665–783; A.D. 788–820; A.D. 842–859 A.D. 653–726; A.D. 737–771 A.D. 659–779; A.D. 794–801 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–888 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–885 A.D. 720–741; A.D. 770–900; A.D. 918–964 A.D. 1015–1157 A.D. 693–748; A.D. 764–887 A.D. 660–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 663–772 A.D. 649–784; A.D. 786–827; A.D. 839–864

Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron pins Copper-alloy needle Copper-alloy ring pin Two copper-alloy pins Copper-alloy strap connector Glass bead Lignite bracelets Spindle whorl

Two bone pins Antler gaming piece

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.228: Stone, metal and glass finds from Kilgobbin (after Bolger 2008, fig. 10)

450

Dates

Kilgreany, Co. Waterford Grid Ref: X17629438 (21762/09438) SMR No: WA030-018 References: Movius 1935; Tratman 1929; 1937; Stelfox 1930–31; Molleson 1985–86; Dowd 2002.

After prehistoric activity, the cave was inhabited sometime between the fifth and tenth centuries AD. The majority of the early medieval material was uncovered in a severely-disturbed black earth and stone deposit in the inner chamber, which also contained the bones of extinct fauna, fragments of the skull of an individual (Kilgreany D), Late Bronze Age metalwork and post-medieval pottery. Three concentrations of ash identified as hearths were also found within the early medieval deposit in the inner chamber.

A cave at Kilgreany produced considerable evidence for early medieval habitation and prehistoric burial and funerary activity. The cave is made up of three chambers (‘outer’; ‘inner’; and ‘rear’), with a total length of 16.5m. The cave was first excavated in 1928 by members of the Royal Irish Academy and the University of Bristol Speleological Society, whose objective was to obtain faunal remains. The excavations were concentrated in the outer chamber and produced a range of artefacts, faunal remains and human burials, presumed to be the first proof of Palaeolithic man in Ireland. The Harvard excavations in 1934 entirely investigated the inner and outer chambers. The trenches revealed that late Pleistocene, prehistoric and early medieval evidence were mixed together within the extensively-disturbed stratigraphy within the cave. It also suggested that the burials were Neolithic – a theory confirmed by radiocarbon dates procured from human, animal, and faunal remains in recent years (Molleson 1985–86, 2; Brindley et al 1989– 90, 2).

Fig. G.229: Plan of Kilgreany Cave (after Dowd 2002)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. OxA-5734

14C Date 1515±55 BP

Context Cattle

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Worked bone Worked antler Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

451

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 428–639

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife Iron ringed pin Bronze ringed pin Crest of gilded bell shrine

Dates

Lignite bracelet fragment 18 whetstones 10 spindle whorls Two rotary quernstones

Bone points Double-edged bone comb Bone needle Bone pin Antler dice

‘Small finds’ Table

452

returned a radiocarbon date in the late eighth to late tenth centuries (see below). This occupation deposit lay beneath the primary souterrain backfill or demolition deposit of the souterrain which contained the remains of the drystone walling and lintel stones as well as animal bone, a stone disc, iron slag and a piece of iron ore.

Killanully, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W69246362 (169240/063628) SMR No: CO086-047 References: Mount 1992; 1995. A univallate early medieval enclosure and souterrain and a post-medieval rectangular enclosure were excavated in Killanully townland in advance of a limestone quarry extension. The site was located on the crest of an eastwest ridge near its north-western end at 41m OD and overlooking the valley of the Owenboy River. The excavation of the whole site revealed that the enclosure and souterrain were primarily occupied between the eighth/tenth centuries AD and were associated with iron smelting and cereal-cultivation. The early medieval enclosure was oval in plan (25m by 36m), and was enclosed by a low bank, 1.5m thick and 0.35m high. The excavated ditch was V-shaped and rockcut and measured 1.95m wide and 1.05m deep. Two fills were identified within it and contained a quantity of animal bone. The eastern entrance was a simple uncut causeway, 3.5m wide, between the two ditch terminals, with no indication of any post-holes which may have supported a gate. A small quantity of animal bone, a sherd of post-medieval pottery and a fragment of an iron key-shaft were excavated inside the southern terminal.

Fig. G.230: Plan of Killanully (after Mount 1995, 124) A corn-drying kiln consisting of a deep circular pit (1.25m by 1.15m, and 0.8m deep) with a flue 0.6m long was excavated in the western side of the enclosure. The fills of the furnace pit contained a large quantity of iron slag, animal bone, charcoal, two iron nails, charred barley and fat-hen. Charred cereals and weeds were uncovered at the heavily-burnt base of the kiln. An irregular slot (1m long by 0.5m wide and 1m–1.15m deep) was excavated 1.5m east of the corn-drying kiln and contained fragments of burnt cattle bone, charcoal, three charred oat grains and one charred weed. A radiocarbon determination from a large piece of charcoal returned a calibrated two-sigma radiocarbon date of A.D. 689–888. A pit (0.85m by 0.3m at the top and 0.3m deep) was situated close to the souterrain and contained animal bone and iron slag.

Evidence for a truncated layer containing occasional flecks of charcoal and fragments of burnt bone was identified beneath the southwest portion of the bank, indicating some form of occupation before the enclosure was built. Animal bone and a tuyère fragment within the enclosing bank indicated the presence of a furnace on the site before or during the construction of the bank. Intensive modern cultivation and the erosion of soil down the hill slope had destroyed any evidence for houses or hearths inside the enclosure. A stone-lined souterrain was located in the south-western area of the site and consisted of a single curving passage 11.3m long, 0.4m–0.9m wide and at most 1.85m below the present ground surface. The structure was unroofed except for one stone lintel and was built using alternating orthostats of upright stone slabs along its southern section and dry-stone walling for the most part in the northern section. A quantity of charcoal in the interstices of the stones along the northern section produced a radiocarbon date from the tenth to the thirteenth century (see below).

A horizon layer situated directly beneath the sod but significantly overlying the interior features in the southwestern part of the site contained a large quantity of animal bone, iron slag, iron ore and various stone and metal artefacts, displaced from their primary context due to the modern cultivation. Finds from this displaced layer included a knife blade, an iron pin with remains of ringed head, an iron shears, iron nails and spikes and a possible part of a blowpipe, five whetstones, two stone discs and various late finds.

The souterrain contained five fills. The original floor of the souterrain was heavily trampled and contained animal bone, molluscs, charcoal, a piece of cinder from a furnace and a bone barrel-bead. An occupation deposit that infiltrated the souterrain through the entrance and was contemporary with the use of the souterrain was discovered overlying the original floor. A quantity of animal bone, a single hazelnut shell, charred barley, fathen, molluscs and charcoal as well as a whetstone, iron band, iron fragment and 25g of metal ore were recovered from this context. A sample of charcoal from this deposit

The animal bone was fragmentary and contained an overwhelming number of teeth remains. Sheep, pig, cattle, deer, dog and horse were the domestic animals in descending order of frequency recovered during the excavation. The quantity of iron slag found, and the recovery of tuyère fragments, indicates iron smelting on the site. The corn-drying kiln and the cereal grain 453

(especially barley, as well as oats and fat-hen) indicate a mixed farming economy.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3647

Context Charcoal from fill of slot, 1.5m east of corn-drying kiln

14C

UB-3648 UB-3649

Charcoal from the dry-stone walling of the souterrain Charcoal from occupation layer inside souterrain

969±97 BP 1155±38 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron ore Tuyère Kiln lining

Date 1222±34 BP

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–888 A.D. 889–1260 A.D. 777–975

Radiocarbon Dates

Iron shears

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron shears Iron ring pin Iron knife blades

Dates

Seven whetstones Three stone discs Bone bead

‘Small finds’ Table

454

ware and a portion of a jet bracelet. One sherd of souterrain ware was a rim-fragment of hard-baked though gritty fabric, black in colour throughout except for the interior brown surface, and with carbonised deposits on the outside. A number of post-holes were found in the neighbourhood of the fire-pit, one with a very fine stone packing. It is difficult to relate these to the fire-pit or the outer ring of post-holes. Finally, along the outer ring of post-holes, a small pocket of stones was removed to reveal a second but much smaller fire-pit, again with a secondary pit cut in its floor.

Killarn, Co. Down Grid Ref: J44457565 (34445/37565) SMR No: DOW 005:010 Reference: Boal & Moffitt 1959. The rath had been considerably damaged and in part removed, sometime between 1834 and the end of the nineteenth century. The north-eastern quadrant has been completely levelled, while in the north-western quadrant the site has been quarried down to the level of the bottom of the ditch. Only the southern arc of the bank and the ditch remain, this being some 42m long. Originally the site may have been oval in plan and about 42m by 51m overall, with an internal diameter of about 24m. The surviving part of the structure comprised a ditch some 4.5m deep and 7.5m wide, with an earthen bank on the inner edge now about 1.8m above the general ground level inside the rath. The western end of this bank had been cut into when the site was partially levelled and still retained a fairly fresh face due to the trampling of cattle over the site. Since so much of the site had been destroyed, the area available for excavation was limited. The bank terminates in quite a steep slope and approximately 1.8m in from this is found a row of post-holes. At the approximate centre of the arc formed by the post-holes at the foot of the bank, a stone-filled pit was found. This was about 1.2m in diameter with a maximum depth of 0.3m. The stones were all in a very sheltered condition and there was also a good deal of charcoal and when the pit had been cleared, it was seen that the clay into which it had been cut was fire-baked. The pit was of dual form, for inside the main pit a smaller subsidiary one had been cut, just over a foot in diameter. Curving away from the firepit was a shallow groove not more than 80mm deep; what purpose this served and whether it was functionally related to the fire-pit at all is uncertain. It might be the remains of a shallow foundation trench for a hut wall. The only finds from the site were obtained in the neighbourhood of the fire-pit: three sherds of souterrain Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.231: Plan of Killarn (after Boal & Moffitt 1959)

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

455

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet

‘Small finds’ Table

456

Killealy, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J16338065 (31633/38065) SMR No: ANT 055:074 References: Harper 1970:03; Lynn 1981–82; Smith et al 1973.

located either under the banks or in the bottoms of the ditches. The remains of wooden houses and hearths were found. This occupation layer yielded no pottery but produced a single-sided bone comb and a dumb-bell bead [UB-536; UB-537; UB-538; UB-539; UB-541; UB-545].

This site was an enclosure with a raised interior, surrounded by two ditches and two banks. It was subsequently destroyed by work at Aldergrove airport. A number of occupation phases were identified on the site.

Phase 2: A layer of peat 0.1m thick separated this phase from the earliest one. From this later occupation which was marked by at least four hearths and a possible house site, sherds of souterrain ware were recovered, as well as two bronze pins, a loom weight and several bones [UB540; UB-542].

Phase 1: Occupation was first established on a raised peat platform – whether or not this peat was natural, or deliberately placed in position is not yet clear: there is no peat on the immediately surrounding land and none was

Phase 3: The final occupation layer. A third bronze pin was the major find in this phase [UB-544].

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Hughen, K.A., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S., Bronk Ramsey, C., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2004 Radiocarbon 46, 1029–1058. 14C

Sample No. UB-536 UB-537

Context SE corner of trench Phase 1 occupation surface

Date 1635±65 BP 1470±45 BP

UB-538

Wood – Phase 1

1600±65 BP

UB-539 UB-540 UB-541 UB-542

Charcoal – base of hearth Phase 2 hearth Hearth & Surround – Phase 1 Hearth A

1540±65 BP 1385±65 BP 1560±35 BP 1345±65 BP

UB-544

P4 Layer 3 – Hearth

1230±50 BP

UB-545

Oak Doorpost

1395±40 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Bone comb Loom weight Textile

Industrial Processing Table

457

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 255–559 A.D. 441–455; A.D. 460–484; A.D. 533–656 A.D. 261–280; A.D. 325–601 A.D. 401–643 A.D. 544–774 A.D. 419–574 A.D. 572–783; A.D. 787–822; A.D. 841–860 A.D. 669–894; A.D. 928–933 A.D. 574–683

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Three bronze ring-head pins Dumb-bell shaped bead Souterrain ware

Bone comb Textile

‘Small finds’ Table

458

identified on the north side of the enclosure (Cuttings 7 and 15). House 3 replaced House 2 with apparently little time lapse. Both measured 6m in diameter and contained south-eastern entrances. A slightly curving slot-trench pre-dated the two houses and may have formed part of an earlier structure/fence. Two iron knives were revealed in ploughsoil above the houses.

‘Killederdadrum’ (Lackenavorna td), Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: R94807211 (194800/172110) SMR No: TN027-100 Reference: Manning 1984. A large univallate oval enclosure known as Killederdadrum in the townland of Lackenavorna revealed an early medieval enclosure with associated circular houses, corn-drying kiln, possible souterrain and western annex as well as a mainly post-medieval cemetery. The enclosure was partially excavated in September and October 1979 as it was threatened by a farm improvement scheme. One-tenth of the enclosure was excavated and comprised cuttings across the enclosing features, the interior and external earthworks to the west. The site is situated on a slight east-west ridge of ground in a valley between three hills at an altitude of 168m OD.

A charcoal sample from the wall trench of House 2 produced a calibrated two-sigma date of A.D. 1157–1325 (see below) although this does not appear to be compatible with the archaeological evidence from the site and the consensus about the early medieval dates of these roundhouses. A deep oblong pit (3m maximum width) containing two small fragments of iron and the lower stone of a quern cut the south-western side of the circular trench of House 1. A line of stones, apparently the bottom course of a rough wall, survived on its west side and one shallow post-hole was found against its east side near the northern end. This feature is later than House 1 and may represent the remains of a robbed-out souterrain.

The oval enclosure measured 72m east-west and 52m north-south from the estimated inner edges of the enclosing ditches. The enclosing ditch was V-shaped in profile and averaged 2.8m wide at the top and between 1.4m–1.8m deep. A riveted iron mounting, iron shears, knife and awl as well as quantities of charcoal, carbonized grain and animal bone were recovered in the fill of the ditches. The enclosing banks were barely identifiable but survived best along the northern perimeter where it was 0.7m high (maximum) and about 3m wide.

A pit-like feature, identified as a possible corn-drying kiln, cut into the inner slope of the southern enclosure ditch (Cutting 1) and contained a black layer of carbonized grain similar to that recovered inside the fill of the enclosing ditch. A double row of stones running west along the ditch may represent the demolished remains of the kiln’s flue. A calibrated two-sigma radiocarbon date from the grain dated the kiln to A.D. 937–1172 (see below).

The entrance was situated along the southern enclosing perimeter (Cutting 9) and consisted of an un-dug causeway (3m–3.5m wide) across the ditch. Two pairs of large post-holes were found inside the causeway flanking the entrance and may have held either successive gateposts (2.5m apart) or formed part of a single entrance structure. Two smaller pits along the eastern face of the entrance bank suggest that this side may have been supported by a fence or revetment.

A number of other early pits and a hearth were uncovered within the various cuttings (2, 4 and 6) within the enclosure interior. One shallow irregular depression in cutting 4 contained a quantity of charcoal and iron slag and indicates ironworking on site. An undated standing stone situated in the centre of the site (Cutting 2) was held in place by packing stones inside a large shallow oblong pit (0.75m maximum depth).

A wooden house defined by a circular trench, 8.8m in diameter, with an eastern doorway and a possible northern annex, was excavated at the western end of the enclosure (Cuttings 5, 10 and 11). A complex of pits, post- and stake-holes were found inside the house though the lack of stratigraphy made it difficult to interpret them. Internal features of House 1 included two hearths, four post-holes for roof supports and a pit containing a bronze pin.

Two parallel low banks (20m apart) with external ditches ran westwards from the oval enclosure and may have formed part of some type of enclosure annex. The ditches were comparable both in size and fill to the main enclosure ditch and maybe roughly contemporary. Finds from the ditch included a small E-ware pottery vessel recovered in a re-deposited context in an upper fill and a small fragment of iron. The southern bank of the annex cut across a long straight re-cut narrow trench (0.8m–1m wide and 0.6m deep) which continued in both directions for 20m beyond the excavation area. A small piece of iron slag was the only find recovered from this feature. Four cultivation furrows inside the annex appear to be later than the annex banks.

One hearth, probably contemporary with the house, was cut by a recent pit. Other finds associated with House 1 included two iron knives, a perforated stone disc, honestone, rotary grinding stone and a sliver of sawn antler. An iron axe-head, a polished stone axe, hone-stone and quernstone were recovered in the ploughsoil above House 1.

The post-medieval cemetery consisted of roughly 80 excavated burials, all from within the eastern two-thirds of the enclosure interior and none related to the standing

Two smaller houses defined by shallow circular trenches and with little evidence for internal features were 459

indicated by the circular houses, the later possible souterrain and the tenth–twelfth century kiln.

stone. Burials rarely disturbed each other suggesting that they were marked by upright stones or slabs. The burials cut across earlier pits, post-holes and other features, and shroud pins and a clay pipe from a number of graves confirm a post-medieval date.

The enclosure is about twice the size of the typical ‘ringfort’ and is more comparable to the dimensions of ecclesiastical enclosures. The lack of any church, definite early burials or cross-slabs might suggest that it was not ecclesiastical, though the limited nature of excavation cannot preclude their existence. The parish of ‘Kildadrum’ (1302–06) and Kyllydiradruim (1450) was recorded in two medieval sources though its absence from the Civil Survey (1659) might imply that ‘this was a parish in name only with no actual church structure’.

Evidence for spinning and weaving on the site was suggested by the perforated stone disc (thread separator) inside House 1 as well as two spindle whorls from the site. Iron smelting is also indicated by the recovery of slag though no furnace was uncovered. The small fragmentary faunal assemblage comprised cattle, pig, sheep or goat, wild game and a red deer antler fragment. Wheat and oats were grown and were ground with querns recovered from the site.

The re-use of long-abandoned sites for worship and burial by the Catholic community after the Reformation is not uncommon and could explain the post-medieval cemetery. Though marked as a graveyard called ‘Killederdadrum’ in the first edition (1841) OS map, the cemetery appears to have gone out of use about the same time following the relaxation of the penal codes.

The two main chronological divisions consisted of an early medieval occupational phase and a mainly postmedieval burial phase. The piece of E-ware indicates that the site was occupied from at least the sixth/mid seventh century AD. Continued early medieval occupation is Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GU-1511 GU-1513

Context Carbonised grain from fill of corn-drying kiln in Cutting 1 Charcoal from wall trench of House 2

14C

Date 1000±60 BP 745±65 BP

Fig. G.232: Plan of excavated areas at Killederdadrum (after Manning 1984, 241)

460

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 895–925; A.D. 937–1172 A.D. 1157–1325; A.D. 1344–1394

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Rough-outs for spindle whorls Axe Worked antler Thread separator Spindle whorl Shears

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron shears Seven knives Iron axe Two awls Copper-alloy pin

Dates

Sherd of E-ware Three fragments of stone discs Two whetstones Two spindle whorls

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.233: Sherd of E-ware from Killederdadrum (after Manning 1984, fig. 10)

461

Killickaweeny, Co. Kildare Grid Ref: 283859/240679 SMR No: N/A References: Walsh & Harrison 2003; Walsh 2005; 2008; 2011; Photos-Jones 2008b; 2008e; O’Carroll 2004; Johnson 2004a; 2004b; Riddler & TrzaskaNartowski 2004.

Industrial activity appears to have been concentrated in specific areas of the interior. These are indicated by six bowl furnaces, refuse pits including industrial waste (86kg of iron slag), and a possible cistern, which may have been associated with metalworking. Slag and hammerscale were recovered from the fill of structure B, and it is suggested that this may have been a metal-working workshop; structure D was also interpreted as a metal-working workshop, perhaps roofed, but with a wall only along one side.

This enclosure was first identified by aerial photography in 2001 and was fully excavated the following year. Excavation revealed two phases of occupation on site. The earlier phase was defined by an incomplete curvilinear ditch with a U-shaped profile, which survived to a length of 30m. An incomplete L-shaped ditch with a U-shaped profile associated with this early phase was interpreted as the boundary of a livestock enclosure. These ditches appear to have been deliberately in-filled with occupation rubbish, and were cut through by the ditch of the later occupation phase.

Over 9,000 bones from ten animal species were recovered from site. Cattle were the dominant species, and along with the other main domesticates (sheep/goats and pigs) made up 89% of the assemblage. The minimum numbers of individuals were as follows; Cattle: 27; Sheep/goat: 18; Pig: 14; Horse: 3; Dog: 4. Cat, hare, red deer, rat and avian bones were also identified. Insect analysis from the possible cistern identified dung beetles (Aphodius sp.), and beetles that live on decaying vegetable matter, and it has been suggested that these indicate that livestock was in the enclosure near this pit and that the organic refuse gradually built-up in the cistern.

The main occupation phase was defined by a ‘heartshaped’ ditch, approx. 200 m long, and on average 2.5m wide and 1.2m deep. This enclosed an area of 3050m2. Four structures were excavated in the interior of this enclosure – a circular post-built structure (6m by 5m) (A); slot-trenches for wattle walls for a sub-rectangular building (9m by 7m) (B); similar foundations for a circular building (5m in diameter) (C); and a rectangular structure defined by post-holes at the corner (2m by 2.7m) (D). Structure A was interpreted as the main dwelling – a nearby pit included numbers of charred cereal grains (barley, oat and wheat). Structure C was interpreted as an outhouse for livestock, and it is suggested that the sub-rectangular structures on site may have been influenced by Viking houses.

Staves and the lid/base of a yew vessel were recovered from waterlogged ditch deposits, as well as fragments of alder, ash, blackthorn and Scots pine. Holly and hazel fragments were found in the possible cistern. Wood charcoal analysis also identified willow and apple. The finds from this site included four penannular-ring headed pins; sixteen iron knives; five glass beads; a (possible) pair of iron shears; and a rotary grindstone.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-18557

Context Main fill of earlier phase ditch

14C

Beta-185555

Charcoal from upper fill of main ditch

1010±70 BP

Beta-185550 Beta-185549 Beta-185553

Charcoal from pit Charcoal from pit Charcoal from post-hole in Structure B

1280±60 BP 1270±60 BP 1220±50 BP

Beta-185551 Beta-185556 Beta-185554

Charcoal from pit Charcoal from gully Charcoal from pit

1300±60 BP 1260±50 BP 1250±60 BP

Beta-185553 Beta-185558 GU-11625

Charcoal from pit Charcoal from metalworking hearth Charcoal from metalworking hearth

1260±60 BP 1090±60 BP 1320±50 BP

Date 1350±60 BP

462

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 569–782; A.D. 790–809 A.D. 888–1186; A.D. 1200–1205 A.D. 653–881 A.D. 656–886 A.D. 673–897; A.D. 922–942 A.D. 644–876 A.D. 665–878 A.D. 657–894; A.D. 928–934 A.D. 656–890 A.D. 778–1032 A.D. 618–782; A.D. 789–812; A.D. 845–856

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 86 kg smelting slag Smithing hearth

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Wooden vessels Bone pin 25 fragments of antler Iron needle Iron shears Two weaving tensioners Antler spindle whorl

A.D. 656–886 ? Mid-9th C.?

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Object Six dress pins with penannular head Iron needle Punches/auger/strike-a-light or instrument for weaving rush matting Possible shear blade 18 iron nails Six Type-E knives Four Type-B knives One Type-D knife Five un-typed knives Hollow iron stem Copper-alloy pin and nail? Three small annular beads of dark blue glass Two decorative blue and white tripartite bead fragments

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler

Dates A.D. 656–886. A.D. 656–886. 8th/9th C. ? A.D. 656–886. A.D. 656–886. ? ? A.D. 656–886. A.D. 656–886. A.D. 656–886. A.D. 656–886. A.D. 656–886.

Rotary grindstone Wooden vessels Three pins/needles from pig bone One pin/needle from sheep bone Two animal-tooth awls Two antler combs (one = Class D) Two antler picks Spindle whorl

Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table WOODEN ARTEFACTS Wooden artefacts recovered from Killickaweeny included two staves and the partial remains of a lid/base of a stavebuilt vessel. These were all found together and probably

represent the same vessel. The remaining artefact was unclassifiable but appears to represent the end of a worked object possibly a shaft or rod.

Species Hazel

Botanical Name Corylus avellana

Artefact Worked ‘object’

Context C395 – fill of cistern/pit

Yew

Taxus Baccata

Stave-built vessel

Stave from Ditch A

463

Measurements L: 120mm Diam. 65 mm L: 310mm W: 55mm Thick. 7mm

Stave from Ditch A Semi-circular lid/base from Ditch A

L: 110mm W: 50mm Thick. 7mm L: 385 mm W: 100 mm Thick. 15mm

Fig. G.234: Antler (left) and stone spindle whorls from Killickaweeny (after Walsh 2008, Illus. 3.10)

Fig. G.235: Decorated antler comb from Killickaweeny (after Walsh 2008, Illus. 3.10)

464

Killyglen, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D36230349 (33623/40349) SMR No: ANT 035:024 Reference: Waterman 1968. During farm improvement in 1962/63, a souterrain was uncovered. This was associated with the remains of a circular, platform-shaped earthwork, 24m in diameter. Finds from the souterrain included souterrain ware sherds, a bronze pin, and flint flakes.

Fig. G.236: Plan and section of souterrain at Killyglen (after Waterman 1968, fig. 1)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze pin Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

465

Killyliss, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H41816101 (24181/36101) SMR No: TYR 050:007 Reference: Ivens 1984a. The site consisted of a sub-rectangular enclosure (approximately 42m in diameter) with an external counterscarp bank, set on top of a small drumlin. Excavation was required as the site was threatened by a farm improvement scheme. The interior of the site had been damaged by subsequent agricultural activity, resulting in many truncated or substantially destroyed features. Several small gullies, sealed by the inner enclosure bank, indicated that the site may have been occupied prior to the construction of the enclosure. A substantial trench (0.9m deep) encircled most of the interior. This feature was sealed by early medieval occupation layers, and has been interpreted as a possible palisade trench associated with the earlier occupation, or an early drain. An area of cobbling and a single stake-hole were found in the interior of the enclosure; and a stone-packed gully and associated postholes were interpreted as the remains of a small roundhouse or hut. Examination of the remains from a large pit just to the south of this house indicated the presence of human whipworm eggs, suggesting that this feature may have acted as a latrine pit. A shallow gully surrounding this pit may indicate that the latrine was contained within a structure of some sort.

Fig. G.237: Excavated area at Killyliss (after Ivens 1984a, 12)

One of the most enigmatic features on site was a small clay platform, which dated stratigraphically to the early medieval period. This platform appears to have been constructed to house a clay-lined trench (1.85m wide and 0.45m deep) which has evidence for structural timbers and post-holes. This feature has been interpreted as an ‘above-ground souterrain’, or at least an earth-covered feature which served a similar purpose.

Fig. G.238: Hut-site and latrine at Killyliss (after Ivens 1984a, 23)

Excavations on the ditch and banks revealed methods of construction – the inner bank appears to have been built by a series of gangs, and the ditch appears originally to have been fitted with a wattle lining. The waterlogged conditions of the ditch meant that various organic materials survived from the early medieval occupation phase. These included artefacts (44 fragments of leather which seemed to mainly come from several shoes) as well as the remnants of a split-rail and wattle fence (which was assumed to have originally surmounted the inner bank before collapsing into the ditch). About 30 sherds of souterrain-ware were found on site, the majority of which (28) were from a single vessel. These were discovered in a context which pre-dated the construction of the banks and ditches, suggesting that the earlier occupation of the site also took place during the early medieval period. Two iron knives were found in the early medieval contexts, and a short iron sword was recovered from the latrine pit.

Fig. G.239: Section through ditch at Killyliss, showing find location of wicker fence (after Ivens 1984a, 21)

466

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2620

Context Timber from latrine pit

14C

UB-2621

Split-oak palisade post from ditch

1355±65 BP

UB-2623

Burnt planking from ‘above ground souterrain’

1140±55 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Date 1180±60 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–983 A.D. 560–782; A.D. 789–812; A.D. 845–856 A.D. 772–1017

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Sawn bone waste Shoe-making

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Iron sword

Dates

30 sherds of souterrain ware Three fragments of shale bracelets

44 pieces of leather

‘Small finds’ Table

467

square chamber which contained upright wooden posts, along with several collapsed oak roof planks. A partly metalled floor surface was evident in both the chamber and the passageway and a date of A.D. 659−772 has been returned for the floor surface of this passageway. An iron bill-hook and a small iron anvil were found within the fills of the souterrain.

Kilree 3, Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: 25444/14964 SMR No: N/A References: Coughlan 2009a; 2011a. Kilree 3 consists of a main enclosure (Ditch 1) delimited by a roughly circular ditch 85m in diameter. There was no evidence of an internal or external bank. At the centre of this enclosure was a concentric enclosure, 38m in diameter (Ditch 2). A possible entrance to Ditch 2 was evident to the east, while a later annex to the north-east (Ditch 3) appeared to obscure the exact location of the entrance into the main enclosure.

A subterranean passageway, possible chamber and drophole in the south-western interior of Ditch 1 most likely represents the remains of a second earth-cut souterrain (Souterrain B) as no evidence of dry-stone or wood construction was identified. The drop-hole was later used as a waste pit from which part of a copper vessel rim and a sherd of African Red Slip Ware were recovered.

The primary ditch fills were the result of natural slumping and siltation indicating that the ditch had remained open for some time, while the upper fills suggest that the ditch had been backfilled deliberately. Two smaller annexes were uncovered to the north-east (Ditch 3) and southwest (Ditch 4) of the main enclosure, but no significant features were recorded within these. Several later drainage ditches were identified across the site.

The souterrain also produced a copper-alloy brooch, which was recovered from the chamber. Later medieval activity at Kilree 3 consisted of a stone-lined, keyholeshaped kiln within the south-eastern fills of Ditch 1. This kiln had evidence for three phases of use. Several smaller kilns and three metal-working pits, which contained charcoal, slag and burnt clay, were also excavated. The post-medieval period was evidenced by several field drains and a large, stone-filled pit.

An earth-cut souterrain (Souterrain A) was found in the west of the main enclosure. The passage ended in a Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-9040

14C

Context

Date 1125±26 BP

UBA-9043

Material Iron-working

1098±23 BP

Direct Evidence Iron anvil Iron slag Metal-working pits

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

468

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 829–838; A.D. 867–989 A.D. 891–992

Radiocarbon Dates

Fig. G.240: Plan of excavations at Kilree 3 (after Coughlan 2009a) Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron anvil Iron bill-hook Two iron knives Copper-alloy brooch Decorated copper vessel rim

Dates

African Red Slipware

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.242: Copper vessel rim from Kilree 3 (after Coughlan 2009a)

Fig. G.241: Iron anvil from Kilree 3 (after Coughlan 2009a) 469

Kilscobin (Hughes Lot East td), Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 20900/14000 SMR No: N/A References: Fairburn 2003:1759; Kavanagh 2007. A circular enclosure was uncovered during preconstruction testing on the route of the M8 Cashel Bypass. Only half of the enclosure was excavated since the remainder lay outside the road-take. The enclosure had an approximate internal diameter of 26m, and contained several post-holes, pits and linear features. Two corn-drying kilns were located about 20m outside the enclosure.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.243: Plan of Kilscobin (after Kavanagh 2007)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Stone spindle whorls

‘Small finds’ Table

470

with the complex, two of which appear to pre-date the more northerly putative rath (Enclosure C).

Kiltrough, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 311125/273117 SMR No: N/A Reference: Gallagher 2011. Excavations prior to the construction of a water pipeline uncovered a univallate rath, with two main phases of activity, and four further enclosures (one of which [Enclosure C] may represent a second rath). A souterrain was also located, although this extended beyond the remit of the excavation. The principal early medieval activity consisted of a univallate rath, 25m in diameter. This enclosure may have been associated with the outer ditch, 35m to the north. The original rath ditch was later re-cut, and the site re-modelled (possibly as a countermeasure to potential flooding caused by a watercourse). It is possible that the watercourse may have been associated with a large, metalled pit created during Phase 2, which in turn may have been associated with a (now vanished) horizontal mill. Four figure-of-eight kilns were associated

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Fig. G.244: Glass beads from Kiltrough (after Gallagher 2011)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects Iron knife Copper-alloy finds Copper-alloy pin Four glass beads

Dates

Broken comb

‘Small finds’ Table

471

partitioned into three distinct zones by an arrangement of linear and curvilinear gullies. These zones may have had different functions such as habitation, agriculture and industry, which could have been re-ordered at different times during the site’s occupancy. While a definitive bank was not identified, most of the internal divisions did not extend as far as the enclosing ditch, suggesting the former existence of an internal bank.

Knockadrina/Stonecarthy West, Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: 25163/14024 SMR No: N/A References: Coughlan 2009b; 2011a; Eogan 2011. The earliest feature at Knockadrina consisted of a possible Neolithic hut defined by a series of slot-trenches, post-holes and a large pit. This was to the south of the later enclosure. A cobbled roadway/pathway (75m long and 1.6m wide) ran south-east/north-west across the southern half of the site and was truncated by much of the southern extent of a later enclosure ditch and the features within it. Linear depressions resembling wheel ruts were identified along the path, but these were probably drainage features.

A 4.1m-diameter slot-trench in the southeast quadrant indicated the location of a circular house, with several post-holes possibly defining the entrance. The house was enclosed by a curvilinear gully and the main enclosing bank/ditch. A partly sunken rectangular house was identified in the north-east quadrant. This comprised a partly intact cobbled floor and walling and several large post-holes. The fill of a post-hole associated with this rectangular house has been radiocarbon-dated to A.D. 650–766.

The main enclosing ditch delineated an internal area of 65m by 58m and had a causewayed entrance opening to the south-east. The upper layers of the ditch fill yielded the shank of a copper-alloy ringed pin. This shank most likely belonged to a plain-ringed, loop-headed pin and would have been in use from the fifth century AD onwards. The internal area of the enclosure was

Slot-trenches and small pits containing iron slag were also recorded in the vicinity of the structure. Other features on the site returned radiocarbon dates ranging between A.D. 650 and A.D. 890.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-9039 UBA-9315

14C Date 1020±22 BP 1204±33 BP

Context Animal bone from enclosure ditch Internal boundary enclosing house

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

472

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 983–1033 A.D. 693–704; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–895; A.D. 927–935

Radiocarbon Dates

Fig. G.245: Plan of excavations at Knockadrina (after Coughlan 2009b)

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron ring-headed pin Copper-alloy ringed pin

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

473

Knockaholet, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D04902305 (30490/42305) SMR No: ANT 018:019 Reference: Lawlor 1935. The site consists of a substantial motte, approximately 5m high, and measuring 7.8m by 6.3m on top. The motte stands in a large oval enclosure, probably a bailey, measuring 53m by 43m, defined by a steep scarp and enclosed by traces of an outer ditch. Two souterrain ware ‘urns’ were found in an outer bank south of the bailey in 1935, suggesting early medieval occupation.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.246: Souterrain ware ‘urns’ from Knockaholet (after Lawlor 1935, 171)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

474

Knockea, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R61294945 (161299/149455) SMR No: LI013-111002 Reference: O’Kelly 1967.

There were no associated grave-goods except the possible strike-a-light. Most of the other finds were from disturbed contexts inside the enclosure and none could be said to have belonged to any particular burial horizon. Finds comprised a bone comb fragment, four strike-a-lights, and an ornamented pebble, all from disturbed contexts, as well as a flint scraper and stone disc.

An early medieval platform enclosure with internal structures and an adjacent burial enclosure with associated habitation evidence were excavated on a hill at Knockea over the course of eight weeks in 1960. The excavations were financed by a state grant administered through the Special Employments Scheme and the Royal Irish Academy. A complex of earthworks and enclosures covered an area of ten acres running from the highest point of the hill southward. The excavation comprised full investigation of a small enclosure (Site I) and a trialtrench across an adjacent platform enclosure (Site II).

The burial enclosure was post-dated by two parallel trenches which extended over its northern silted-up ditch. The fill of the trenches and the area between them was much flecked with charcoal. An irregular-shaped pit extended from the centre of the area to the southeast corner and produced animal bones and a blue glass bead. The trenches contained no wattle or post-holes and were interpreted as foundation trenches or possible drainage features for a structure.

Site I consisted of a burial enclosure (18m by 18m) with its sides oriented to the cardinal points. Three curving trenches pre-dated the burial enclosure. Two were identified on the eastern side with one running northsouth having cut the other east-west trench. The east-west trench was cut by the ditch of the burial enclosure but continued intact under the bank. Another curving trench was also cut by the southern ditch of the burial enclosure. These trenches contained no wattle or post-holes but were interpreted as either foundation trenches of huts or possible drains for structures. A few animal bones were recovered from the trenches.

The adjacent Site II consisted of the partial remains of an early medieval platform enclosure. The eastern half of the enclosure was still visible though the western half had been almost completely ploughed out. Two phases of activity were uncovered in the excavated trial-trench.

The enclosing ditch of the burial enclosure was square in plan with rounded corners and displayed a U-shaped profile, approximately 2m wide at the top and 0.8m deep on average. The spoil from the ditch was placed on the inside to create a broad low bank faced internally with a vertical drystone-built revetment which survived to a maximum height of 0.7m. The bank had an average thickness of 3m and enclosed an area 8.3m by 8.3m. There was no entrance opening and the original ditch was continuous throughout. However, a causeway of stones was built across the ditch on the western side to create an entrance passage, 1.5m wide. It led on to a gravel cobbled path on the top of the bank, defined by two sets of postholes on the spine of the bank and on the ditch. A line of large post-holes spaced 1m apart was uncovered all the way around the spine of the enclosing bank, 1m from the inner facing. An inhumation cemetery of at least 66 burials was uncovered within the enclosing bank beneath a scatter of stones which appeared to have been deliberately spread across the interior. The burials were extended and mostly oriented east-west. Most were interred within simple unlined pits though the heads of a small number were partly protected by a few stones. A strike-a-light stone was uncovered beside the skeleton of child in a pit in the northwest quadrant. One hundred and eleven water-rolled pebbles – 83 of them white quartz – were found in the fill directly over the child’s skeleton.

Fig. G.247: Plan of Phase 1 at Site II, Knockea showing sequences of huts (A-K) (after O’Kelly 1967, 85)

475

In the later phase, a new ditch was dug outside the earlier ditch (which may have filled up by this stage), and a bank was built. The bank was revetted internally and externally by a wooden palisade identified as two concentric trenches with post-holes. The ditch was broad and deep and contained quantities of animal bone and charcoal. The partial remains of an angular wattle house with a roughly circular pit inside it were identified partly overlying the filled-up secondary ditch at the northern end. The sides of the internal pit were oxidized indicating in situ firing.

In the early phase the site appears to have been enclosed by a primary ditch. No evidence for an internal bank was uncovered, suggesting that the soil may have been spread across the interior of the site. An excavated section of the ditch at the northern end measured 1m wide and 0.5m deep, and contained habitation refuse which had gradually accumulated and spread outward into the ditch from the interior. The entrance was through an uncut causeway at the southern end and was defined by one post-hole which may have supported a gate. The partial remains of twelve huts were identified in the interior in the trial-trench; these appeared to be of wattle construction, although a number also had wall-trenches and post-holes. The buildings were not all of the same date with many of the structures clearly cutting each other or displaying some evidence for repair. The remains of two of these huts (J and K) were excavated in the environs of the southern entrance and possibly pre-dated the primary enclosure. Two of the houses were described as rectangular or sub-rectangular in shape and two as circular. Two of the structures contained internal hearths. A thick spread of soil rich in habitation refuse containing a number of finds and animal bone overlay all the excavated structures. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Furnace bottoms Tuyère Crucible

A number of domestic finds were recovered from the primary phase structures and habitation refuse and included an iron pin or needle, two iron knives, five hones, one bone ‘scoop’, and a bone handle. There was also evidence for industrial activity in the first phase in the form of two furnace bottoms and fragments of a tuyère. A blue glass bead, one iron awl, two bone pins, one bone point, a fragment of a jet bracelet and fragments of four quernstones comprised the finds from the later phase. The faunal remains from the site included cattle, sheep, pig, horse, dog, fox, red deer (antler tines) and rook as well as the fragmentary remains of at least four adult humans as well as some children and infants. Indirect Evidence

Bone pins Iron pin/needle

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.248: Finds from Knockea (after O’Kelly 1967) 476

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron pin/needle Two iron knives Iron awl

Dates

Two glass beads Fragment of jet bracelet Five hone-stones Four quernstones

Bone ‘scoop’ Bone handle Bone pins Bone comb fragment

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.249: Finds from Knockea (after O’Kelly 1967)

477

cist burials which were located at the western perimeter of the passage tomb and potentially date to the fifth and sixth centuries. The final burials included three seventhand eighth-century disturbed extended inhumations.

Knowth, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N99677343 (299674/273437) SMR No: ME019-030 References: Eogan 1968; 1974; 1977; 2004; 2012; McCormick & Murray 2007; O’Brien 2009.

Early Medieval Unenclosed Settlement The first phase of early medieval activity at Knowth ceased by the end of the eighth century and occupational evidence during the following century is absent. However, in the tenth century a large unenclosed settlement – including 15 houses, nine souterrains, five metalworking areas, cobbled and paved surfaces and many hearths – succeeded the initial settlement which had been backfilled. The houses survived as bases of drystone walls. They were rectangular with rounded corners and some examples had central hearths on stone floors. The houses measured between 6m and 12m in length and 3.5m to 6.25m in width. Eight souterrains had beehive chambers and some were associated with the houses.

Knowth, excavated since the 1960s by George Eogan, is a large multi-period burial and settlement complex that was utilised from the Neolithic until post-medieval times. The complex of monuments is situated on a low hilltop, at 61m OD, in the Boyne river valley with extensive views over the plains of Meath. Bivallate Raised Enclosure and Cemetery The passage tomb mound, measuring 85m in diameter, was the focus of the first early medieval phase at Knowth. During the seventh and eighth centuries two concentric ditches were excavated into the mound. The outer ditch was dug at the base of the mound and was on average 5m wide and 2.3m deep. The inner ditch enclosed the top of the mound and was 3m in depth. A steep scarp linked the outer and inner ditches and the average height between the base of the outer ditch and the outer edge of the inner ditch was 6m. There was no evidence for a bank associated with either ditch. A 6m-wide causewayed entrance was located to the south-east. No internal domestic features were identified but both occupational and dating evidence was present in the enclosure ditches and mostly within the outer enclosure ditch.

The metalworking areas revealed that iron-, bronze-, gold-working and enamelling occurred on site. Stone-, bone- and antler-working was practised and there was indirect evidence for wood, wool, leather and textile craft. Artefacts from this phase were more abundant than those of the earlier phase and included many items of personal adornment. These included a range of metal ringed and stick pins dating between the tenth and thirteenth centuries, bone pins, belt buckles, bone combs and jet bracelets. Functional items were represented by iron knives, needles, seven quernstone fragments, grindstones, a horse bridle and flint scrapers. Animal bone was uncovered from a wide variety of contexts including house floors, souterrains, occupational layers and from within the hearths.

Artefacts from this phase included a sherd of E-ware and a single-edged bone comb from the lower fills of the inner enclosure ditch. The former demonstrates that the inner enclosure was in use between the sixth and mid seventh centuries. Bronze items included a potential ear scoop, two possible spoons and three penannular brooches with zoomorphic terminals. A melon bead was also uncovered. Animal bone was present in both the inner and outer ditches.

Contact with Scandinavian Dublin was evident from the presence of weighing scales and an eleventh-century Hiberno-Scandinavian bracelet. The rounded corners on the rectangular houses at Knowth also indicate Scandinavian building-style influences. The final early medieval phase ended sometime during the eleventh century. Annalistic references indicate that Knowth was granted to the Cistercian Abbey of Mellifont during the middle twelfth century but no archaeological evidence for this was uncovered. Modification of the south-eastern side of the mound occurred during the late twelfth century as two stone-lined ditches and a bastion were constructed by the Anglo-Normans.

A small mixed cemetery of crouched, flexed and extended burials was associated with the passage tomb and some of the latter were contemporary with the first early medieval phase. They were situated outside but close to the mound. Thirteen burials, which were either crouched or flexed, with accompanying grave goods have been dated to the middle Iron Age (see below for radiocarbon dates, taken from O’Brien 2009). The second phase of burial activity was represented by four slab-lined Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GRN-15370 GRN-15371

14C Date 1920±60 BP 1960±30 BP

Context Burial 7 Burial 8

478

Cal. 2 Σ 42 B.C.–A.D. 231 39–7 B.C.; 5 B.C.–A.D. 87; A.D. 104–121

GRN-15372 GRA-13595

Burial 10 Burial 21

2095±20 BP 1921±50 BP

GRN-15384 GRN-1471

Burial 11/12 Burial 14

1355±20 BP 1270±25 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Furnaces/hearths Iron smelting slag Smithing cakes 341.3kg mixed slag Tuyère Crucibles for gold-working

Other metal-working

Indirect Evidence

175–50 B.C. 38–27 B.C.; 25–9 B.C.; 3 B.C.–A.D. 218 A.D. 646–682 A.D. 668–779; A.D. 794–801

Radiocarbon Dates

Scrap metal assemblage of crozier fragment, mount fragment and other objects

Crucibles for silver-working Two stone ingot moulds One two-part clay mould Three complete heating trays Copper, silver and gold found by XRF Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working

Clay spindle whorl Two jet rough-outs Unfinished quernstones, grindstones and spindle whorls (3) Augurs Cut and polished waste fragments Five strips of button/bead waste Cut and polished waste fragments

Leather-working Cloth-working

Spindle whorls Bone pin beater Needles Loom weights Shears

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Object 200+ iron knives Iron punches Iron awls 17 iron needles 16 iron sickles/pruning hooks 17 iron ringed pins (including fragments) Eight iron stick pins Six iron buckles Iron shackles Two augurs Shears

479

Dates

Other metal

Glass

Pottery

Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

44 copper-alloy ringed pins (including fragments) 97 copper-alloy stick pins Two copper-alloy bangles Two copper-alloy tweezers Three bronze Roman toilet items Two copper-alloy bell pendants Three bronze penannular brooches Three bronze hinged pins One leaded gunmetal brooch-pin One copper-alloy ring brooch One leaded gunmetal ringed-pin Three copper-alloy buckles 20 copper-alloy buttons Five copper-alloy strap-ends Six copper-alloy needles Two lead spindle whorls Five fragments of glass bangles 48 glass beads Two enamelled glass studs Blue glass stud Two sherds Samian ware Two sherds E-ware One sherd souterrain ware Clay spindle whorl 77 fragments of jet bangles Three jet finger-rings Two jet counters 40 quernstones 14 grindstones 15 spindle whorls Six stone beads Two loom weights 84 whetstones Six amber beads Two amber finger-rings Amber stud 36 bone stick pins 15 bone pins Bone combs Bone awl 29 bone beads Seven bone buttons 11 bone needles Four bone spindle whorls Eight bone knife handles 62 antler combs One antler knife handle Two fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

480

Knowth Site M, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N99847387 (29984/27387) SMR No: ME019-069 Reference: Stout & Stout 2008. Research excavations at Knowth Site M revealed a settlement-cemetery, enclosed by two sub-circular ditches, dating between the sixth and tenth centuries. A third, undated, outer enclosure was constructed potentially after the tenth century. Settlement evidence was revealed by a platform between the inner and second enclosure ditches and a range of artefacts, animal bone and cereal remains that were retrieved from the ditch fills. Agricultural evidence was also detected within the enclosures. Prehistoric activity was attested to by the presence of large quantities of un-stratified lithics. The site is situated in marshland and is drained by a stream linked to the River Mattock. It is located immediately northeast and down-slope from the multi-period burial and settlement site at Knowth in the Boyne river valley.

Fig. G.250: Excavated Areas at Knowth Site M (after Stout & Stout 2008, 8) The second enclosure was oval in plan and concentric with the inner enclosure. Evidence for an internal bank was also present in certain places. It had an external diameter of 74m by 62.5m. The ditch was situated between 9m and 10m outside the inner enclosing ditch. Charcoal from its primary fill produced a date of A.D. 662–780. Animal bone was present throughout and there was evidence that the ditch had been re-cut. The only find was an iron disc.

The earliest phase at Knowth Site M consisted of a series of undated linear trenches and five pits, some of which were cut by the later settlement-cemetery. The settlement-cemetery was enclosed by two subcircular ditches. The inner enclosure defined an area measuring 48m northwest/southeast by 40m. It was slightly raised and therefore represented the driest part of the site. The ditch was excavated in five locations and contained similar fills. Animal bone was present throughout and processed cereal grains were abundant. Charcoal was also present in many of the ditch fills. Artefacts included part of a polished stone axe, a flint side and end scraper, iron slag and a fragment of an undecorated bone comb. A blue glass bead and a fragment of a gilt Anglo-Saxon mount were discovered in topsoil above the ditch. Bone and charcoal from the inner enclosure ditch produced a date between the late sixth and mid seventh century (see below for radiocarbon dates). Evidence for an internal bank was present in two cuttings.

The outer enclosure was eccentric to the two inner enclosures and consisted of two banks with an intervening ditch. It measured 110m in diameter and both banks were over 5m wide. Although this enclosure has not been dated it is believed to post-date the two inner enclosures. Fifty-two burials were revealed in the central and southern areas of the inner and second enclosures. The majority in the central area were extended in simple unlined graves and aligned west-east. Two of the graves may have been covered with stone slabs. Finds associated with these burials were limited and included a stone ball, a flint flake and fragments of two iron nails. Soil surrounding the two graves where stone slabs were present produced a sherd of E-ware. Charcoal has dated two of the graves to A.D. 597–673 and A.D. 856–989 which suggests that the cemetery was in use from at least the sixth to tenth centuries.

The inner enclosure ditch may have been further delimited by a wall and two associated external trenches. The wall, surviving to a height of three courses, followed the edges of two trenches. Charcoal and large amounts of charred cereal grains were present in one of the trenches. A flint scraper was also discovered in its ditch fill. A date of A.D. 767–896 indicates that it fell into disuse at some point during this time. The second trench was cut by the above example. It produced a flint and an iron nail. A highly decorated Hiberno-Scandinavian bronze strap-end with interlaced decoration on both sides was located in a layer below the subsoil and overlying the initial trench.

Ten badly-damaged slab-lined graves were located at the south-eastern section of the inner enclosure and some extended into the second enclosure. As with the burials above, they were extended and aligned west-east. One of the graves utilised a fragment of a stone slab featuring megalithic art. A bronze baluster-headed ring-headed pin was found in the topsoil above this area cemetery. A potential trapezoidal structure was located at the western section of the inner enclosure. It was defined by four roughly circular pits. One of the pits appears to have been a post-pipe and was surrounded by packing clay and a large charcoal-rich layer. The eastern wall of the posthole sloped gradually suggesting either that the post was

A final trench, located to the west of the first trench and which contained similar fills, produced iron knife fragments. A date of A.D. 877–998 was obtained from its upper fill. 481

erected at an angle or that it was used as a structural support. Charcoal and cereal grains were present in its fill and the former produced a date of A.D. 561–652. Habitation evidence was found in the south-eastern area between the inner and second enclosing ditches. Excavation revealed a platform defined by a curving trench and some pits. Artefacts within the soft dark clay that overlay the platform included a toggle-like object made from a sperm whale’s tooth, worked horn and a small worked bone fragment. Agricultural activity within the enclosures was represented by plough-marked stones, cultivation furrows, trenches and ditches. Radiocarbon dates from two of the trenches, one of which contained a spindle whorl and the other charred seeds, demonstrate that farming occurred at Knowth Site M between the mid sixth and late ninth centuries.

Fig. G.251: Anglo-Saxon gilt mount from Knowth Site M (after Stout & Stout 2008)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UB-7019 UB-6587

Context Bone and charcoal from inner enclosure ditch Fill from trench associated with wall

Date 1427±32 BP 1198±31 BP

UB-7018

1112±30 BP

UB-7020

Upper fill of trench to west of wall and associated trenches Charcoal from primary fill of second enclosure ditch

UB-6571 UB-6578

Charcoal from grave B84 Charcoal from grave H14

1396±32 BP 1130±32 BP

UB-6566

Charcoal from post-pipe related to potential trapezoidal structure Charcoal from trench related to agricultural activity Charcoal from trench related to agricultural activity

1448±31 BP

UB-6579 UB-6573

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Possible hearth

1277±30 BP

1467±31 BP 1224±32 BP

Indirect Evidence

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table 482

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 573–658 A.D. 712–745; A.D. 767–896; A.D. 923–940 A.D. 877–998; A.D. 1002–1013 A.D. 662–780; A.D. 792–805 A.D. 611–663 A.D. 782–789; A.D. 810–847; A.D. 856–989 A.D. 561–652 A.D. 548–645 A.D. 690–751; A.D. 761–886

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Six iron knives Gilt Anglo-Saxon mount Bronze ring-headed pin Bronze Hiberno-Norse strap-end Blue glass bead One sherd of E-ware Part of lignite bracelet

Perforated sperm whale’s tooth Bone comb

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.252: Hiberno-Norse strap end from Knowth Site M (after Stout & Stout 2008)

483

Dates 7th/8th C

the cairns suggest it was still in use during the early medieval period (see below).

Knoxspark, Co. Sligo Grid Ref: G67262876 (16726/32876) SMR No: SL020-166 References: Mount 1994:206; 1994; 2002; 2010.

The cemetery was dominated by east-west oriented burials, suggestive of the Christian rite. A number of the burials may have been earlier; for example, there was a decapitation burial similar to Iron Age examples, and one burial was accompanied by a socketed iron spearhead. The radiocarbon date from this later individual, however, placed him firmly in the eighth/ninth century.

The site consists of an enclosure set on an elongated ridge. This area was to have been destroyed during a road construction project. However, upon preliminary excavation of the site, the road-take was diverted, allowing the interior of the enclosure to be excavated under research, rather than rescue, conditions. The enclosed area measured approximately 75m by 64m, defined by an arc of earthworks consisting of two series of banks, and an intervening ditch. This effectively cut off the end of the ridge, creating an inland ‘promontory fort’ defended by a river bed and marshy area. Two cairns excavated outside the main enclosure would appear to have been contemporary with the in-filling of the ditch. A smaller sub-rectangular enclosure (23m by 19m) was located within the confines of the ‘promontory fort’. It was enclosed by a stone wall that survived up to 0.95m in height. Occupation debris from this smaller enclosure included animal bone, iron artefacts and iron slag. This enclosure appears to have been established as the boundaries of a cemetery site for over 185 individuals which re-used the central area of the promontory fort. Although cremations were discovered in the two cairns which seem to have provided the original focal point for this cemetery, radiocarbon dates from animal bones from

Fig. G.253: Plan of promontory fort and rectangular enclosure at Knoxspark (after Mount 2002, 105)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. GrA-2452

Context Animal bone from ditch

Date 1260±40 BP

GrA-2454

Animal bone from ditch

1190±40 BP

GrA-2455

Animal bone from cairn

1180±40 BP

GrA-2456 UB-3836

Animal bone from cairn Human femur from burial 4

1240±40 BP 1184±31 BP

GrA-2401 GrA-2404 GrA-2453

Animal bone Residue Residue

1430±40 BP 1150±40 BP 1100±40 BP

484

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 668–832; A.D. 836–869 A.D. 694–700; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–902; A.D. 916–967 A.D. 717–743; A.D. 768–907; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 680–882 A.D. 724–739; A.D. 771–899; A.D. 918–953; A.D. 958–961 A.D. 559–662 A.D. 778–980 A.D. 785–786; A.D. 828–839; A.D. 866–1021

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence Eight furnace bottoms 66 incomplete furnace bottoms 40kg iron slag Clipped fragments of silvered bronze

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

8th/9th C

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object 152 iron objects Gold disc Two bronze pin stems Bronze pendant Two glass beads

Dates

Whetstone

‘Small finds’ Table

485

the first occupation. Period 1b produced Romano-British pottery, evidence for a seventh- to eighth-century workshop for making glass studs and a seventh-/eighthcentury bronze disc.

Lagore (Lagore Big td), Co. Meath Grid Ref: N98615284 (298619/252846) SMR No: ME038-027 References: Hencken 1950; Price 1950; Lynn 1985–86; Warner 1985–86; Comber 1997; Eogan 1966; 2000.

Liam Price’s historical research was to strongly influence Hencken’s interpretations of the chronology of the site. He believed that historical references to the destruction of the crannog could be identified in the archaeological record. He thought that the Period I occupation was abandoned after the event referred to in the Annals of Ulster for AD 850, when Cinaed son of Conaing, King of Cianacht rebelled against Mael Sechnaill, plundered the Uí Néill and ‘deceitfully sacked the island of Loch Gabor, levelling it to the ground’ (corro ort innsi Locha Gabur dolose corbo comardd fria lar), while also burning the nearby church of Treóit. Period II and Period III produced few finds to enable close dating of the site. Hencken felt that the Period II occupation probably ended with the destruction of Lagore described by the Annals of Ulster for AD 934 when ‘the island of Loch Gabor was sacked by Amlaíb, grandson of Imar’ (Inis Locha Gabhar do thogail la hAmlaibh h. nImair). There are no historical references to the site after AD 969. The end of Period III and the probable abandonment of the site probably occurred in the late tenth or early eleventh century AD. Archaeologists have pointed out the circular arguments that lie behind Hencken’s use of historical references to phase the various occupations, but accept his general dating of the site. It is also worth pointing out that other potential phases of prehistoric and medieval occupation at Lagore have rarely been described. Later medieval artefacts from the site were largely ignored by the excavator and a wooden anthropomorphic figure from a sandy layer in the northwest part of the crannog has been dated to the early Bronze Age.

Lagore crannog, Co. Meath, was first discovered in 1839, when local labourers digging a drainage ditch exposed wooden structures, huge amounts of animal bone and numerous finds of metalwork at the site. The subsequent antiquarian investigations at Lagore can be considered to mark the beginnings of research on Irish crannogs. The site was later excavated by the Harvard Archaeological Expedition between 1934 and 1936. The stratigraphy of the crannog was complex and badly obscured by the earlier diggings, so that its dating and structures have been the subject of much re-interpretation. The crannog survived as a large mound measuring 41m across, consisting of 3m thickness of peat, brushwood and timber, located at the eastern end of a now drained lake. Lagore crannog was occupied between the seventh and early eleventh centuries AD and historical sources have traditionally been used to identify it as the actual historical site Loch Gabor, the early medieval residence of the kings of Brega of the southern Uí Néill. Archaeologists have in the past attempted to put the date of the start of Lagore back before the fifth century AD, but most recent commentators have accepted the seventhcentury origins for the site. Lagore crannog was certainly occupied over a long period, re-constructed and re-built on several occasions. There is good evidence for some late Bronze Age activity on the site, although this is difficult to clarify. Hencken, strongly influenced by the constraints of the historical references, identified three separate, consecutive palisades of first piles, then posts and finally planks. Lynn has suggested there were even more phases of occupation. The palisades probably defined the outer defences of the crannog.

The Lagore excavations produced huge amounts of early medieval finds, described in detail in the original report, within which the nineteenth-century discoveries from the site are also incorporated. There was extensive evidence for bronze working at Lagore, particularly in the seventhand tenth-century phases of occupation. The site produced pieces of copper ore, sandstone ingot moulds and moulds for bronze rings, clay crucibles, tuyères, spilt bronze waste and scrap pieces of sheet bronze. Bone and stone trial or motif pieces were found, indicating the preparation of designs on-site. Bronze artefacts from the site included penannular brooches, zoomorphic penannular brooches, decorated belt buckles and strapends, pins and ringed pins, bowls and rings. There was also some on-site blacksmithing and ironworking, with large amounts of iron slag in the Period II occupation and ironworking floors in the Period II and Period III phases. Iron penannular brooches and pins may have been made there. Objects of finer metals included gold filigree ornament and silver bracelets. There was also evidence for glass-working, with moulds for glass studs occurring, but other finds included glass bracelets and armlets, glass rods, millefiori, enamel and a large number of glass beads. The glass beads were decorated in a range of ways, in blue, white, yellow, khaki and green. The beads

Hencken suggested that the crannog builders firstly placed a layer of animal bone, brushwood and peat on the lakebed, to use as a foundation to work from in building the main crannog. This layer he designated as his Period 1a which, he considered, preceded the use of the crannog proper. Lynn has suggested that the Period 1a material is itself evidence of a lake settlement, rather than the debris and working platform of crannog builders. This occupation phase, compacted and driven into the lake muds by the weight of the later crannog, may have had houses, hearths, piles, wooden platforms, brushwood and wattle mats and occupation debris. This earliest phase of occupation produced some Roman pottery (including Terra Sigilata) and post-Roman material. The latter included seventh-century pottery, an iron sword, a seventh-century gold ornament and a seventh- to eighthcentury horse bit. Period Ib was taken by Hencken to represent the first main phase of occupation, but it probably was just one of several successive phases after 486

varied in shape from annular to segmented, dumb-bell and melon-shaped. There were also large amounts of lignite bracelets. Imported European objects included Roman glass fragments, amber and E-ware pottery. Animal bones were used as motif-pieces to work out designs for metalworking.

It is clear from the historical record that Lagore was witness to several violent occasions, when people were killed in raids on the site. The excavations at Lagore produced 200 human bones from lower levels or the seventh-century Period 1a phase of occupation of the crannog, many from headless bodies. Fourteen human skulls with cut occipita indicated the beheading of victims, while other bodies were scattered about the edge of the site. It is possible that these were early medieval in date, but it is also possible that they are in fact prehistoric burials. Two iron collars with chains, a possible leg-iron and an iron trident have been interpreted as means of controlling hostages or slaves. Weaponry included a range of different types of iron swords. There were twelve iron spearheads, leaf-shaped and shouldered, including a Viking spearhead with an ornamented socket. There were also spear-butts, ferrules and iron shield bosses, while iron horse-bits were also found.

Fig. G.254: Glass beads from Lagore (after Hencken 1950, fig. 65)

Lagore crannog produced huge amounts of animal bone; 50,000 pounds of bone were recovered from the excavations and the nineteenth-century antiquarian accounts describe similar huge amounts being removed for fertiliser. Cattle easily predominated (much of it slaughtered) in the faunal assemblage, but pigs and sheep/goat were also kept. Horse was fairly infrequent, although certainly present in small numbers. Dog, cat and fowl were also present. There may have been some limited hunting of deer, hare, wild geese and wild duck. Hencken’s impression was that meat-eating predominated over grain, although he paid little attention to the use of dairy products. Agricultural tools included iron plough shares, plough coulters, sickles, bill-hooks and a few rotary querns. Wheat straw (Triticum sp.) was identified in a mass of plant remains. There were also iron shears, although these may have been used for textile working. Other evidence for textile production included spindle whorls, fleece and goat hair and woven textiles.

A range of other domestic crafts were practised on the site. Leather shoes, scraps of leather and a wooden shoe last probably indicate the manufacturing of shoes on-site, while an iron leather-working tool, similar to an example from Ballinderry crannog No. 1, was also found. Wooden spindles, spindle whorls, fleece and animal hair were found, along with un-carded wool and numerous pieces of textiles. Spinning and possibly weaving on a simple loom were probably also carried out in the crannog. Bone working resulted in bone combs, pins, a possible nail cleaner, gaming pieces, bone dice and a possible dicebox. There was a wide range of woodworking equipment, including iron axes, an adze, a wooden mallet, knives, gouges, awls, a punch, two small saws, a draw-knife and iron nails as well as whetstones for sharpening them. Wooden artefacts produced on-site included stave-built buckets, lathe-turned bowls (including some which replicate E-ware pottery), ladles, spindles and various other domestic utensils.

Material Iron-working

Other metal-working

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working

Direct Evidence Tuyère fragments Iron slag Smithing hearths Molten bronze Mould for ring-headed pin Five stone ingot moulds 263 crucibles including fragments Two pieces copper ore

Indirect Evidence

Glass stud moulds Lignite cone Unfinished quernstone Adze and saws Pins 268 leather fragments

487

Radiocarbon Dates

Cloth-working

Textile

Shears Spindles Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale

Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood

Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron swords Iron spear-heads Iron brooches Bill-hooks Adze Two saws 45 iron knives Iron shears Collars and chains Four bronze brooches Bronze bird-headed brooch Bronze pins Two bronze discs Bronze buckle Millefiori bronze pin Bronze bowls Two bronze bracelets Bronze rings Two bronze needles Five bronze studs Fragment of silver bracelet Gold ornament Fragments of glass vessels Glass stud Millefiori glass rod 136 glass beads and fragments 21 glass armlet fragments Sherds of Samian ware Sherds of E-ware 92 fragments of shale bracelets Lignite bead Nine shale spindle whorls Two shale beads Three grindstones 43 quernstones 10 perforated whetstones Plain whetstones 16 amber beads Amber ring Stave-built vessels Lathe-turned vessels Wooden pins/pegs 10 spindles Hazel spindle whorl Bone combs Bone pins Two bone spindle whorls Six bone beads Nine bone handles Bone needles Antler points Shoe leather 44 textile fragments – largely woollen

‘Small finds’ Table

488

Dates

that this distinctive hard pan layer did not occur anywhere else on the site except in the middle of the section across the fort at the point where the inner edge of the ditch and the inner bank meet.

Lahard, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V866930 (08660/09300) SMR No: KY065-021 Reference: Connolly 1994:127.

At either end the stratigraphy changes and only two soil layers are visible, a topsoil layer and, clearly seen cutting through the main stratigraphy, the dark brown loam soil used to in-fill the inner ditch on the eastern and western sides of the fort. At this point the in-filled ditch is 1.2m deep and 1.9m wide at base. Excavation further into the site, however, showed the in-filled ditch to have had a maximum depth of 2.2m.

Excavation was necessitated by road-widening. The fort is set on a low hill which slopes quickly down to the south and affords commanding views of the land to the south and south-west, along the river Laune 300m away. The 1842 and the re-surveyed 1894 editions of the Ordnance Survey six-inch map record the site as being a univallate rath; however, the fort appears to have been much disturbed prior to both editions and may originally have been a bivallate site.

Some small lenses of charcoal showed up across the section, predominantly in the area of the topsoil/brown loam transition, and are probably due to the burning off of surface overgrowth such as furze bushes.

No definite traces of an outer bank remain, although the boundary between the present roadway and the fort is an abnormally-wide earthen bank with a stone core. This is a construction technique often found in rath banks and it may be that the boundary is composed, partly, from the remains of a previously unrecorded outer bank.

Like the possible outer bank, the inner bank was constructed using a stone core which was then covered with earth. However the stratigraphy of the inner bank was very different to that of the possible outer bank, as it conformed more readily to the general stratigraphy of the rest of the site.

Inside this boundary, on the southern side of the fort, are the only extant remains of the inner ditch. Elsewhere around the site it has been in-filled with material, probably taken from the denuded inner bank. Where it remains the ditch is flat-bottomed and 3m wide at base.

Within the inner bank, at a depth of 0.4m below the top of the section and 19.3m from the western end of the section, a sub-circular pit was revealed. The pit measured 0.58m by 0.6m and was 0.2m deep. The pit was roundbottomed and appeared to have been lined with a light brown marl clay. It contained large quantities of charcoal, burnt soil and large lumps of iron slag and fused stone (Samples 2 & 3).

The inner bank is preserved, in some form, all round the fort. However, like all the elements of the site, it is best preserved on the southern side. The exaggerated width of the bank, on all except the southern side of the fort, is due to the levelling of this feature.

The in-filled inner ditch at the eastern and western sides of the fort continued to be visible in the section across the inner bank.

The ditch inside this bank had been partly in-filled with loose stone. The average depth of the topsoil here was 0.27m and this layer rested on the dark brown loam found in the outer bank/boundary. The dark brown loam rested on a 0.18m-thick light brown sandy soil which in turn rested on a 0.03m-thick hard pan layer which contained a lot of iron pan and small quantities of charcoal (Sample 1). This layer rested on the base layer of the site, a compact cream-coloured gravel layer. It should be noted Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Excavation continued into the fort interior where the stratigraphy conformed to that elsewhere in the site. No stone occurred at any point within the fort interior nor was any habitation layer visible. The only finds were modern pottery and one fragment of a clay pipe.

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table 489

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

490

The enclosure appears to have formed part of the manorial gardens, and cultivation has severely truncated archaeological features from this phase. A pair of stonelined post-sockets was uncovered which presumably relate to a structure from this phase. A few sherds of souterrain ware were found in these post-sockets.

‘Langford Lodge’ (Gartree td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J09617507 (30961/37507) SMR No: ANT 058:017 Reference: Waterman 1963a. The site existed as a circular platform (24m by 25.5m in diameter, and 0.9m to 1.5m high). An ice house associated with the ruined manor house had been cut into the site in the nineteenth century. Excavation showed that the site had a multi-phase history, beginning with a Neolithic phase of occupation. The early medieval occupation occurred in two phases. In Phase I, an area approximately 22m in diameter was enclosed by a ditch (1.5m to 1.8m wide and 0.6m deep). A small – approximately 7.5m wide – square timberposted house was discovered in the centre of this enclosure, with an associated central hearth. This structure was surrounded by a shallow drainage gully. The area around the house appears to have had a cobbled surface, but elsewhere the site was un-metalled. This occupation soil contained sherds of souterrain ware, and its nature led the excavator to interpret this as representing an animal stockyard, rather than human habitation.

Fig. G.255: Plan of Phase I house at Langford Lodge, Gartree (after Waterman 1963a, 47)

Fig. G.256: Glass bracelet from Langford Lodge (after Waterman 1963a, fig. 7)

In Phase II the ditch was moved outwards to its present position and the interior was raised into a low platform. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery

Object Iron harness bit

Dates

Dark blue glass armlet Souterrain ware Three sherds of wheel-thrown pottery (E ware?)

Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 491

Faunal remains from this excavation show a higher percentage of sheep bone than normally found on other early medieval sites – Cattle (44.7%); Sheep (43.3%); Pig (6.8%); Red Deer (3.0%); Horse (1.5%). One bone each was found of dog, cat and hare; and there were also a number of bird bones (domesticates and sea birds), as well as some fish bones (mostly cod).

‘Larrybane’ (Knocksoghey td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D04824512 (30482/44512) SMR No: ANT 004:005 References: Childe 1936; Proudfoot & Wilson 1961– 62. The site is a promontory fort which was partially excavated by V.G. Childe in 1935. It was later threatened by quarrying, and was further excavated in 1954. The 1954 excavation was largely focused on the interior of the site. No structural remains of house walls were discovered. However, some roughly cobbled floors were found which suggest that the houses may have been rectangular. An iron ring, nail and sickle were found on site, and the presence of slag suggests that ironworking was undertaken on site. The exotic material found on site – a fragment of bronze, a glass bangle, and an amber bead – are possible indicators of external trade. Around 1,500 sherds of souterrain ware are recorded for the site. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.257: Plan of excavations at Larrybane, Knocksoghey (after Proudfoot and Wilson 1961–62, 92)

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Yew vessels Pointed bone tool

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron ring Iron nail Iron sickle Fragment of bronze Glass bangle 1,500 sherds of souterrain ware Sherds of ‘soapy’ ware – grass-marked and covered in red slip

Dates

Amber bead Two decorated bone combs Pointed bone tool

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 492

c. A.D. 850

of House A. The walls of House A were over 1.5m thick and reached a height of 1.67m above floor level with evidence for the corbelling of the walls from a height of 1.2m. The excavation of seven post-holes in its interior suggested that the structure may have been narrowed by corbelling to a certain distance before being roofed by means of thatch or other material, supported on posts set in the floor.

‘Leacanabuaile’ (Kimego West td), Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V44578079 (044571/080797) SMR No: KE079-016 Reference: Ó Ríordáin & Foy 1941. A collapsed stone enclosure known as Leacanabuaile in Kimego West townland, Iveragh Peninsula was excavated over the course of two summers in 1939 and 1940. The site was situated on a massive rock-eminence commanding excellent views across to Valentia Harbour and Dingle Bay and Cooscrom Harbour. The excavation cleared the enclosure interior of collapsed stone and debris, exposing evidence for six buildings, a souterrain and a wall chamber.

The collapsed walls of two other stone circular buildings were discovered beneath the walls of House B. One very definite structure was identified south of House B and had walls approximately 0.8m thick. The other structure was not as distinct but appeared under the northern side of House B. The three round stone houses (House A and the two structures beneath House B) were evidently the earliest buildings on the site. House B was a rectangular structure (7.1m by 6.15m) which covered the centre of the enclosure and allowed entrance to House A. It had rounded external corners and its walls were preserved to a height of 1.5m. The walls were on average 1.8m thick which would have enabled the structure to be corbelled to a certain point. The excavation of four large post-holes in the interior supports the idea that the roof was completed by means of some form of a timber or thatched construction. Seven stake-holes were also excavated in the interior and were probably used to ‘support pot-hangers or for some other domestic purpose’. A large irregular slab (0.83m by 0.68m, and 0.2m thick) with a hole in the centre (0.2m) was revealed near the centre of House B overlying the habitation layer. Its function is uncertain though it was interpreted as a primitive chimney which may have been originally set in the roof to allow the egress of smoke from the fire. The entrance to House B was opposite the enclosure entrance and was 0.94m wide. A covered drain (0.38m in width and 0.1m in depth) lined with stone flags was exposed running out from the House A entrance through the main enclosure entrance and would have been used to carry off water to outside the enclosure.

Fig. G.258: Plan of Leacanabuaile stone fort (after O’Sullivan and Sheehan 1996) The surrounding wall was completely exposed and the enclosure was found to have an internal diameter of between 18m and 21m. The walls were 3.05m thick at the base before narrowing towards the top, and were faced with well-laid thin shale slabs on the outer and inner surfaces, with a rubble filling. A batter was evident on both the inner and outside surfaces while two ledges were found to extend around the wall tops at various points, thus providing parapets from which the inhabitants could look out beyond the settlement. The entrance passageway was situated along the eastern side and was defined by upright stones which may have supported a lintel.

House C was a rectangular building (4m by 3.35m) situated in the north-eastern side of the enclosure and utilizing the enclosure wall as one of its side walls. Its walls were 0.83m thick and remained to a height of nearly 0.6m with no evidence of battering, and the corners were rounded externally. House D was situated between the south-eastern corner of House B and the enclosure wall. Its entrance was 0.6m from the enclosure wall and 0.91m wide. This building post-dated the construction of the central House B structure as its walls had to be narrowed from 1.2m to 0.3m thick beside House B to leave a passage between both buildings. House D and House C because of their similarity to each other were evidently the latest structures on the site.

Four houses and the partial remains of another two structures were identified within the interior of the stone enclosure. House A was a round stone building erected against the western side of the enclosing wall and had an internal diameter of 4.5m. Though House A formed part of a large conjoined building with House B in the centre of the enclosure opposite the eastern entrance, it was evidently earlier than the latter structure as the walls of House B were built against and not bonded into the walls

A souterrain was exposed running from under the western enclosure wall to an aperture in the interior of House A. Evidence for an intermural chamber within the enclosure wall was also revealed immediately outside House C entrance. This had an opening (0.45m by 0.38m) which 493

led into a flagged chamber (3.05m by 1.2m and 0.7m high) with a lintelled roof. Both the souterrain and wall chamber were evidently built when the enclosure was

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

constructed as the stonework showed no indication that these structures had been incorporated as secondary structures.

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Three iron knives Iron pin Bronze ring-headed pin

Dates

Five fragments of quernstone Spindle whorl Loom weight Seven whetstones Stone disc Four bone combs

‘Small finds’ Table

494

holes were cut into the north and southwest corners of the pit, and it is possible that these originally supported a roof; four courses of rudimentary stonework were uncovered in the northern face of the pit. Environmental remains included pig bone, fish bone (trout, eel and salmon) and small bird bone. A bone comb, a gaming piece and a perforated stone were also recovered from this pit, while an iron blade was found in the upper fill. Another shallow pit was cut into the upper fills of the large pit. Bones of sheep, bird and fish were recovered from this pit, as well as grains of barley and wheat, and pieces of iron slag.

‘Leggetsrath’ (Blanchfieldsland td), Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: S52385596 (252377/155958) SMR No: N/A References: Lennon 2005; 2006a; 2006b; Lennon & O’Hara 2011. Large-scale topsoil stripping was conducted under archaeological supervision prior to road works. In this process an enclosure defined by concentric ditches was uncovered. The inner ditch enclosed an area of 34m by 32m, with a 3m-wide entrance to the northeast. Slottrenches were found either side of the entrance in the inner ditch, and it is possible that these held upright timbers which were then removed or rotted in situ. These timbers may have acted as a defensive feature, or to retain the earthen bank. A possible palisade trench may also have existed on the east side of the site. The ditch was broadly U-shaped in profile, ranging in width from 1.1m –1.7m, and in depth from 0.8m–1.1m. On the western side the ditch was V-shaped and measured 2.3m wide and 1.4m deep. The ditch appears to have been in-filled over a short time period since there was no formation of silt layers between the fill deposits.

There was no evidence of an enclosing bank. The excavator suggests that the ditches are contemporary, but also raises the possibility that the outer ditch represents an expansion of the site. A series of linear features outside the northeast of the site may represent field boundaries contemporary with the occupation of the enclosure. A corn-drying kiln (radiocarbon-dated to A.D. 1020–1258) was built over one of these ditches, and a blue glass bead was recovered from the ditch fill. The upper fill of this kiln contained oat, barley and wheat grains. An earlier corn-drying kiln (radiocarbon-dated to A.D. 778–1025) was built over another ditch, and upper fill layers of this kiln contained grains of oat, wheat, barley and rye.

Animal bone was recovered from the ditch fills, and a radiocarbon date of A.D. 569–809 was obtained (see below). Two sherds of late Roman Amphora (Bii) pottery, dating from the late fifth/mid sixth centuries, were recovered from the middle of the ditch; the excavator suggests that the inner ditch had gone out of use by the seventh/eighth century.

No evidence of domestic settlement was uncovered in the interior of the enclosure.

The outer ditch measured 54m in diameter, although it was missing on the northern side. The east section was Ushaped in profile, measuring 1.5m wide and 1m deep. A re-cut section of the ditch has a V-shaped profile and measures 5m wide and 2.3m deep. Unlike the inner ditch, the outer ditch appears to have in-filled slowly, with layers of silts and fine gravels making up the bulk of the fill. A rudimentary stone revetment was uncovered on the outer edge of the southeast part of the ditch. Animal bone was also recovered from this ditch, and a radiocarbon date of A.D. 689–983 was recovered from a fill of the re-cut ditch (see below). The upper ditch fill disclosed a number of metal objects (two iron blades, iron rod and copper-alloy rod) and sherds of Saintonge pottery. A portion of a third curving ditch which respected the enclosure was also discovered further down slope. Several shallow linear ditches ran off this feature, and it is suggested that these may represent early field boundaries. A blue glass bead recovered from one of these would place them in the early medieval period. Two corn-drying kilns were later superimposed over these boundaries, but may also belong to the early medieval period. Fig. G.259: Plan of Leggetsrath, Blanchfieldsland (after Lennon 2005)

The only feature excavated in the centre of the enclosure was an enigmatic pit, 3m long by 1.2m deep. Two post495

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-205166

Context Fill of inner ditch

14C

Beta-205167 Beta-205168

Corn-drying kiln Basal fill of outer ditch (re-cut)

900±70 BP 1180±60 BP

Beta-205169

Corn-drying kiln

1100±60 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Date 1350±60 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 569–782; A.D. 790–809 A.D. 1020–1258 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–983 A.D. 778–1025

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone needles Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron blades Iron rod Copper-alloy rod Copper-alloy ring pin Blue glass bead LRA (1)

Dates

5th/6th C

Perforated stone

Bone comb Bone gaming piece Two bone needles

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

496

Letterkeen, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: F98140759 (098145/307594) SMR No: MA046-004007 References: Ó Ríordáin 1951; Ó Ríordáin & Mac Dermott 1951–52.

A timber-posted roundhouse (5.2m in diameter) was located in the interior, which appears to have been linked to the souterrain by a stone pavement. An area of intensive burning just beyond the western wall of this structure appears to have been associated with a trenched feature which was tentatively identified as a kiln. Another setting of stones was identified as a second structure (of indeterminate shape). The associated material – fragments of crucibles and heavily burnt or glazed clays – as well as the intensive burning, suggests that this may have been a workshop.

The site is an enclosure with an internal diameter of 26m surrounded by a bank and ditch, with a low external bank beyond the ditch (possibly a bivallate or a counterscarp enclosure). The maximum ditch width was 4m and the maximum bank height was 4.5m. In 1935 two Bronze Age ‘food vessels’ were found on site, which resulted in a number of pits being dug in the interior in search of ‘treasure’. The largest hole in the interior, however, resulted from the removal of the souterrain from the site, presumably in the nineteenth or twentieth century. Excavation revealed that the inner face of the inner bank was supported by a stone revetment, and that, on either side of the entrance, a similar stone structure formed the core of the bank. The low outer bank appears to have included a palisade trench on the outer lip of the ditch. The fence associated with this trench appears not only to have surrounded the site, but also to have framed both sides of the entrance causeway over the ditch and to have ended at the gated entrance into the interior of the enclosure. A series of gate-posts were identified during excavation, suggesting that the gate must have been replaced on a number of occasions. The interconnection between entranceway, ditch, causeway, and palisade trench suggests that they were all contemporary. The souterrain was probably a later addition to the site since it was built into part of the inner bank. Post-holes in the floor of the souterrain and grooves in the walls indicate that structural timbers were employed to support the roof, which may also have been of timber.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.260: Plan of excavations at Letterkeen (after Ó Ríordáin & Mac Dermott 1951–52, Plate XVIII)

Indirect Evidence

Crucibles

Industrial Processing Table

497

Radiocarbon Dates

Fig. G.261: Features near entrance at Letterkeen (after Ó Ríordáin & Mac Dermott 1951–52, Plate XIX) Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Bronze pin Three glass beads Fragment blue glass bracelet Eight fragments jet bracelet Two quernstones Whetstones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 498

of the material filling the re-cut revealed two main dumps of waste material consisting of blackened soil with significant amounts of slag, along with a substantial portion of one tuyère, and more than 30 fragments from others. It was originally thought that the large amount of slag and hammerscale sampled from the area may indicate the making of weapons for the 1641 uprising. However, radiocarbon dating has placed this metalworking in the end of the seventh century, and thus contemporary with the site’s occupation.

Lisanisk, Co. Monaghan Grid Ref: H85030370 (285030/303700) SMR No: N/A References: Coughlan 2003:1490; 2011c. The site was discovered during topsoil stripping in advance of road construction, which revealed a doubleditched enclosure (external diameter of 60m, internal diameter of 40m). There was no stratigraphic evidence to suggest that the construction of the ditches was not contemporary, although the inner ditch appears to have been deliberately in-filled during the seventh/eighth century. A number of internal features, pits, post-holes and two possible structures were also discovered.

Another area of industrial activity was located 16m to the south-east of this smithing hearth and probably represented an immediate continuation of a similar activity. It was initially identified as an area of rough kerbing, to the north of which was located another possible smithing hearth along with an associated working platform. It is possible that part of the kerbing supported the bellows for the hearth. The area contained a large amount of charcoal and waste metal and slag fragments.

The outer ditch was broadly U-shaped in profile, with a maximum width of 3.3m, and a maximum depth of 1.4m. The lower ditch fills were almost completely sterile, with the exception of occasional animal bone fragments; the upper fill was likely to be associated with the deliberate filling of the ditch. A coin dated to 1692 was found in the upper fill, indicating that the ditch remained open until at least this time. The enclosure, however, was not recorded on the First Edition OS maps, suggesting that it was finally in-filled in the intervening years. An articulated human skeleton discovered in the ditch would appear to have been a casualty of an attack on the nearby crannog in 1647.

A number of internal features – pits, post-holes and two possible structures – were also identified on the site. These features were evident between the two ditches as well as within the inner ditch enclosure. There are no specific dates or functions for any of this material. A small cluster of seven stake-holes in the centre of the site may represent the location of a small hut. A second possible small hut, with an associated hearth, may be located in the north-east of the inner enclosure, but there was no evidence of large-scale permanent structures or houses. A large pit between the two ditches, in the northwest of the site, may have been used for storage, possibly as a cistern, or a foundation for a very large post or beacon. Alternatively, it may have functioned as a test-pit prior to construction of the two ditches.

The inner ditch was broadly V-shaped in profile, with a maximum width of 1.5m, and a maximum depth of 1.1m. Like the outer ditch, it had been filled largely with generally sterile re-deposited clays. Waste material dumped into the upper fill of the eastern ditch section, however, included occasional sherds of pottery and lumps of slag and charcoal. It is likely that this material is associated with two specific areas of industrial activity located within the outer ditch, and to the south-west and west of the inner ditch.

To the north-east of the enclosure, a probable field boundary/drain extended from the outer ditch, although it is not felt that this feature was contemporary with the original cutting of the ditch. A number of isolated features – pits, gullies and post-holes – identified in the area to the south of the enclosure are of unknown date and are thought to be associated with land clearance. This clearance activity could date from the prehistoric to the post-medieval period. It may be more easily associated with the most recent period of land clearance, which led to the present field system

The excavation of the west side of the inner ditch revealed a substantial cut through the ditch in this area to widen and deepen it. A probable smithing hearth was identified at the base of this cut, with a number of associated stake-holes (interpreted as a possible shelter) and spreads of charcoal and burning. The hearth appeared originally to have been too large and so was relined to make it smaller, possibly after only one use. Excavation

499

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

500

A single sherd of E(i)-ware was found in the occupation layer of the enclosure, and a number of examples of coarse-ware (crannog-ware or souterrain ware), were also found. The only other notable finds were six sherds of a crucible from the upper fill of the inner ditch. The domestic animal bones are dominated by cattle (80%) with roughly equivalent percentages of sheep and pigs. In later layers the percentage of cattle bones drops to 70%, and sheep make up over 20%.

‘Lisdoo’ (Castle Balfour Demesne td), Co. Fermanagh Grid Ref: H36273313 (23627/33313) SMR No: FER 246:015 Reference: Brannon 1981–82. The site consisted of a bivallate enclosure set on summit of a small hill. Prior to 1977, half of enclosure had been destroyed by building, and pending destruction of the remainder demanded archaeological.

the the the an

The interior of the enclosure was badly degraded by subsequent agricultural activity. A (possible) portion of a souterrain passage was discovered in the interior (Trench 5), from which the articulated skeleton of a young male was recovered. The excavator speculated that this individual may have been suffocated by a collapse of the souterrain roof. Excavations in the inner ditch revealed that it had originally been approximately 2m deep and up to 8m wide; the outer ditch was found to be about 1.5m deep and at least 5.5m wide (the outer edge was not fully traced). The artefactual remains suggest that both of these ditches were deliberately in-filled during the later medieval period. Excavation through the bank and internal ditch revealed a couple of layers of charcoal, including one layer from beneath the construction phase of the bank (see below). A series of stake-holes was also found at this level, perhaps suggestive of an earlier palisade-enclosure.

Fig. G.262: Plan of Lisdoo (after Brannon 1981–82, 54)

Fig. G.263: Section of bank and inner ditch, and location of skeleton in ‘souterrain’ (after Brannon 1981–82, 56)

501

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2202

14C

Context Charcoal from under bank

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1655±45 BP

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 258–298; A.D. 319–472; A.D. 476–534

Radiocarbon Dates

Crucibles with bronze residue

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery

Object Iron awl Iron pin

Dates

Souterrain ware sherds E-ware sherd

6th/7th C

Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.264: Finds from Lisdoo (after Brannon 1981–82, fig. 3)

502

revealed. House 1 was more or less circular in plan with an average diameter of 6m. House 2 was roughly circular in plan and was situated to the east of House 1. Little over half of this structure was excavated, but it had roughly the same diameter of House 1. House 3 overlay House 2 and was rectangular in form (7m by 5.5m). The close setting and small diameters (50mm–80mm) of the surviving post-holes of these three structures indicate that they were probably post-and-wattle built.

Lisduggan North 1, 2 & 3, Co. Cork Grid Refs: R42740326 (142746/103269); R43190338 (143195/103381); R43160335 (143163/103353) SMR Nos: CO023-157; CO023-158; CO023-159 References: Twohig 1990; Twohig & O’Kelly 1972. Two levelled univallate enclosures situated close together on a south-facing slope of Knocknanuss Hill in Lisduggan North townland were investigated in advance of quarry developments. The excavations identified evidence for a field pattern of banks and ditches which preceded two enclosures, one of which contained evidence for an outer palisade and three buildings together with habitation debris (Lisduggan 1), and the other interpreted as an associated livestock enclosure (Lisduggan 2). A further univallate enclosure (Lisduggan 3) in the same townland was excavated in the summer of 1973. Earlier field patterns, as well as another livestock enclosure, were also identified at this site.

An extensive gravel spread was revealed between the doorways of the three houses. A pit (2m by 1.5m and 0.5m deep) was excavated in the centre of the gravel spread and may have been used to collect and retain runoff rainfall from the spread. Three hearths were also excavated in the south-west quadrant of the enclosure and were located in the vicinity of the houses. None were delimited by stones but were identified as intensely-burnt soil mixed with charcoal and animal bone. Various objects including fragments of spindle whorls, crucibles, flint objects, a rotary quern upper-stone, a blue glass bead, two sherds of E-ware, whetstones, a piece of amber, a bronze buckle and iron knives were recovered within the habitation deposits associated with the buildings, hearths and gravel spreads. The very partial remains of two humans as well as a small quantity of fragmentary animal bone were also recovered in these deposits.

The excavations established that all three univallate enclosures were preceded by a series of trenches which may have supplied material for a number of adjacent field banks. The linear trenches were of variable width and depth, e.g. a 40m stretch of one linear trench excavated beneath Lisduggan 3 was roughly 0.9m deep, 0.58m wide at the bottom and 1.3m wide at the top. The excavations established that these linear trenches had not completely silted up when the three enclosures were built, and that they all appeared to belong to a contemporary field network.

Lisduggan 2 was roughly circular in plan and had an average diameter of about 50m. The only feature uncovered in this enclosure was a short length of a cobbled pathway. Except for one single flint piece, no structural, artefactual or faunal evidence was uncovered in any of the trenches. A levelled lime-kiln was built into the banks of its enclosure, probably sometime during the nineteenth century. A large number of modern stonefilled drains were also identified cutting both Lisduggan 1 and Lisduggan 2, and appeared to have been built shortly before the two enclosures and lime-kiln were levelled in the nineteenth century.

No remains of banks adjacent to the linear trenches were identified beneath Lisduggan 1 and Lisduggan 2 though this was explained by disturbances associated with the subsequent ploughing and levelling of the sites. Excavation at Lisduggan 3 identified the remains of a small field bank, surviving to a height of only 0.3m when the enclosure was built. The denuded form of this field bank suggested that it was no longer functional at this time. No artefacts, bone or charcoal were found in the fills of the linear trenches preceding the three enclosures. The pattern of linear trenches was very irregular and is suggestive of more than one small series of fields. The best parallel to this can be found in Co. Limerick at the complexes at Cush (Ó Ríordáin 1940) and Lough Gur (Ó Ríordáin 1949a).

Lisduggan 3 was roughly circular and had an average diameter of 45m internally. The enclosing bank survived to a height of 1.3m above the turf level and at its base had an average width of 6m; it appeared to have been constructed in two phases. The excavated ditch was 0.8m below the turf level and had an average width of 3.5m across the top of the ditch. The enclosure had a causewayed entrance 5m wide along its southwest perimeter, and excavations in the vicinity of this exposed a deliberately-laid spread of cobbles and gravel which it was suggested was roughly contemporary with the secondary phase of the enclosing bank. Though the interior had been extensively disturbed by subsequent ridge-and-furrow cultivation, it was possible to identify a rectangular structure (7m by 6m) in the centre of the enclosure. It was defined by lines of post-holes, set at 50mm–150mm intervals, some containing the charred remains of posts. No evidence of post-holes was recovered in the interior of this structure and it was considered unlikely that the vertically-set posts would have been strong enough to carry a roof without supports.

Lisduggan 1 was approximately elliptical in plan (60m by 45m), defined by a U-shaped ditch with a depth of 1.2m. Cuttings through its bank and ditch revealed a palisade trench 0.5m wide and 0.3m deep on the outer face of the enclosure bank. The original entrance was located along its southern perimeter and consisted of an entrance causeway about 3m wide with no evidence for post-holes or any structures within its vicinity. Every trench opened within the interior produced charcoal and bone to varying extents. The densest habitation deposits were revealed in the southwest quadrant where three houses, identified as dark bands containing a mixture of soil, charcoal and bone and the charred remains of a few post-holes, were 503

Except for a blue glass bead, a flint perforator/scraper and a whetstone, there was no evidence for any habitation structures, artefacts or debris within or in the vicinity of Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

the rectangular structure, strengthening its interpretation as a livestock pen.

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Crucible fragment

Un-worked piece of amber

Stone spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Four iron knives Bronze buckle Blue glass ring setting? Blue glass bead Two sherds of E-ware

Dates

Two spindle whorls Four whetstones Millstone grit quernstone Un-worked piece of amber

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.265: Plan of Lisduggan 1 and 2 (after Twohig 1990, plan 1) 504

were variations between the three houses; in House 2, for example, there were only three sheep bones and no horse bones, whereas House 3 produced only horse and pig bones.

Lislackagh, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: M35679758 (13567/29758) SMR No: MA071-042 References: Walsh 1993; 1995.

Although the site appears to be typologically early medieval – a supposition which is supported by the material culture – the dates from the three houses on site are Iron Age (see below). It is possible that the houses substantially pre-dated the enclosure, and any perceived relationship between them was merely coincidental. Given the early medieval nature of some of the finds from these structures, that is an unlikely option. It thus seems most probable that these dates were retrieved from charcoal from structural timbers, and as such, these dates refer, not to the felling date of the tree, but rather to a date when the tree was still growing.

The site consisted of a severely truncated enclosure (38.5m by 39.5m in internal diameter) which had been almost completely levelled in the late 1970s; excavation was required in 1992 to facilitate the construction of the Swinford by-pass. Excavation through the ditch recorded a stony basal layer, with subsequent gradual in-fill layers. Animal bones and iron slag were recovered from these contexts. Excavation in the interior of the site revealed evidence for three roundhouses. House 1 was the largest (4.6m in diameter), and contained the burnt remains of wattle-and-daub. A number of possible internal post-holes were also identified, potentially belonging to roof supports. Finds from this building include quantities of animal bone (751 fragments), an (unfinished?) blue glass bead, part of a bronze pin-head, fragments of bronze, and iron slag. House 1 appears to have been burnt down, but this does not appear to have been the case with House 2 (3.6m in diameter). Finds from this house include a fragment of bronze and three blue glass beads, as well as quantities of animal bone (499 fragments). House 3 (3.9m in diameter) was the most truncated structure. The fill of the foundation trench for this building included a fragment of iron slag with limestone inclusions which was interpreted as refuse from a failed smelt. An iron-smelting furnace pit was later identified on site. Iron slag and smelted iron nodules were recovered from this area. A number of un-stratified, but diagnostic early medieval, artefacts were recovered from the topsoil. These included two iron ‘hooks’, an iron knife blade, a yellow glass bead, a calcite bead, and a fragment of a lignite bracelet. Analysis of the faunal assemblage suggests that cattle dominated (with almost 50% of the identified bones). Surprisingly, horse was next in order (with almost 40%), although this may be due to taphonomic survival. There

Fig. G.266: Plan of excavated area at Lislackagh (after Walsh 1995, 8)

Fig. G.267: Roundhouses at Lislackagh (after Walsh 1993) 505

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3764 UB-3765

Context Charcoal from foundation trench of House 1 Charcoal from top of foundation trench of House 2

14C Date 2071±35 BP 1996±81 BP

UB-3766

Charcoal from foundation trench of House 3

2050±49 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Smelting waste

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ 183 B.C.–A.D. 2 200 B.C.–A.D. 181; A.D. 187–214 186 B.C.–A.D. 54

Radiocarbon Dates

Un-finished (?) glass bead

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two iron hooks Iron knife Bronze pin-head Bronze fragments Four blue glass beads Yellow glass bead

Dates

Lignite bracelet fragment Calcite bead

‘Small finds’ Table

506

probable cleaning and/or deepening was thrown on the outside of the ditch to form a counterscarp bank. It would seem obvious that when the size of the fort was expanded, the provision of a substantial bank and ditch and defensive features such as a bank-top palisade were regarded as essential and that the cleaning out or deepening of the ditch was still as important for an unknown period thereafter.

Lisleagh I, Co. Cork Grid Ref: R178106 (11780/11060) SMR No: CO027-03001 References: Monk 1988; 1993b; 1995; 1998; McLarnen et al 2004. A counterscarp rath was excavated in the early 1980s as part of a wider academic research project into the nature and function of these monument types in Munster. Excavation revealed that the location had been previously occupied during the Neolithic and into the Bronze Age. It is also possible that the bronze-working found on the site relates to a phase of use prior to the construction of the ringfort proper.

There is evidence for at least seven structures within the excavated area at Lisleagh I. It is not possible on stratigraphic grounds alone that all were contemporary, but it is possible that some were. The fact that at least three of these structures went through several phases of re-building on the same spot may relate to the continuing interaction of one structure to another, as well as to the availability of usable space within the ringfort, and that space within the ringfort even after the outer earthwork was erected was not at a premium. The clearest evidence indicates roundhouses, built from earth-set stakes woven with wattle-work above ground, but there is also evidence for structures built of pre-woven wattle screens set in a shallow trench emplacement, trench-set post structures, and perhaps even the use of sleeper-beam construction.

The earliest ringfort seems to have been erected over a previously demolished field boundary, although it is evident from the charred deposits in probable shallow root-holes found in the old ground surface under the bank, that some clearance was necessary. This original ringfort (diameter 38m) was only short-lived, since it had not existed long enough for the ditch to substantially erode before the bank was back-filled into it. At this point a larger-diameter, more substantial earthwork was erected concentric with the bank of the earlier ringfort and topped with a substantial palisade, and the earth from the

Large amounts of iron slag recovered from the excavation suggest that the site was a busy industrial location.

Fig. G.268: Structures and iron-working areas at Lisleagh I (after Monk 1988)

507

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2607

Context Charcoal

14C

UB-2608

Charcoal

1310±55 BP

UB-2688 UB-2689 GrN-12361

Charcoal Charcoal Charcoal from iron slag dump

1390±65 BP 1165±90 BP 1230±30 BP

GrN-12360 GrN-14529

? Charcoal under bank

1285±25 BP 1630±25 BP

GrN-14530 UB-2549

Bronze-working debris Destruction layer of Roundhouse 1

1545±30 BP 1280±75 BP

UB-2548

Badly-burnt post

1315±35 BP

Material Iron-working

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1045±70 BP

Direct Evidence One ton of iron slag Furnace bottoms Tuyère fragments Bronze-working debris

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 783–788; A.D. 814–844; A.D. 858–1160 A.D. 639–830; A.D. 836–868 A.D. 542–773 A.D. 677–1018 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–882 A.D. 669–773 A.D. 351–367; A.D. 381–469; A.D. 477–534 A.D. 428–581 A.D. 624–626; A.D. 631–897; A.D. 921–943 A.D. 653–730; A.D. 735–772

Radiocarbon Dates 8th/9th C

5th/6th C

Deer antler fragments

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.269: Blue glass beads from Lisleagh I (after Monk 1988)

508

Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron ringpin Iron knife Bronze beads Bronze buckle Bronze clasp Bronze ringpin Blue glass beads E-ware pottery?

Dates

Quernstone Perforated stone discs Decorated stone disc Two miniature honestones/pendants Charred rim fragment of bowl Deer antler fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

509

palisade suggests that this enclosure was used for a longer period than the bank-and-ditched enclosure.

Lisleagh II, Co. Cork Grid Ref: R178106 (11780/11060) SMR No: CO027-03001 References: Monk 1993a; 1995; 1998; McLarnen et al 2004.

The wall plans of at least four roundhouses were excavated in the enclosure interior. They were built using a variety of construction techniques from deep stakes to slot-trenches supporting large posts and stake-holes. One structure contained a possible porch which cut an earlier round building containing an inner line of conjoined upright planks with a shallow slighter outer wall, possibly of wattle. Several arcs and alignments of stake-holes were also identified, though none formed any coherent pattern.

Lisleagh II was excavated as part of a University College Cork research dig over a number of seasons. Excavation revealed an early medieval enclosure, and a later ditched enclosure with an external wooden palisade. The site was situated midway along a spur of ground just below 150m OD, which terminates the Kilworth hills and faces south and west over the broad sweep of the Blackwater valley. Despite intensive modern cultivation and truncation, a large number of structural features were identified within the interior of the site.

A drystone-built souterrain was revealed within the northeastern quadrant. It appears to have been surrounded by burnt wooden posts. It may have had a timber roof as the backfill contained no long lintels but did reveal a layer of burnt material in one of the primary fills which could represent the remains of a wooden roof. The souterrain was backfilled in a series of stages and within its heavilyburnt deposits revealed a number of finds including slag, furnace-bottom fragments, hone stones, several metal artefacts and an iron knife blade. Though the souterrain had cut the remains of a house, the excavation of several stake-holes in the upper fill of the souterrain suggests continued occupation after the structure fell out of use.

The site originally consisted of an enclosure (58m by 63m) enclosed by a bank, the basal layers of which survived to a height of 0.75m. The rest of the bank had been subsequently backfilled into the ditch, and this backfill lay beneath a burnt charcoal horizon which had covered the site. Eventually, a steady infill of cultivation had levelled the fills of the ditch up to the ground surface. The entrance of the original enclosure was identified along the western perimeter. At the entrance area, a paved surface was revealed beneath a deep humus-rich deposit containing areas of burning. One post-hole and a large indented pivot-stone, excavated on the edge of the northern terminus of the bank, indicate the presence of a gate-structure.

An extensive stony deposit was excavated within the western interior of the enclosure and had been presumably laid to raise and level up this half of the site. Its surface was cut by a number of post pits and stakeholes though these were at a lower density than any other part of the site.

After the original enclosure fell out of use, the central area of the site was encircled by a shallow ditch and an external wooden palisade, interpreted as a cattle enclosure. The ditch was V-shaped and 1.03m wide and 0.77m deep. After a short space of time, it was deliberately backfilled with organic material, animal bone, iron-working debris and charcoal. At least one roundhouse was built upon remains of the backfilled ditch, indicating subsequent occupation on the site.

Several pits were excavated within the interior, one of which revealed a possible ring-pin. A number of shallow pits in the south-eastern area of the enclosure contained large quantities of slag and appear to have been involved in ironworking. One pit in this area, surrounded by a concentration of loose slag as well as a heavily ironstained mixed spread, was interpreted as a possible bowl furnace.

A narrow trench containing traces of contiguous upright timbers was found immediately outside, and encircling, this ditch and may have been contemporary with this structure. The palisade trench had cut through the remains of the original bank, suggesting that the fence changed over time from a log-built palisade to a flimsy stakefence. The lack of occupation evidence overlying the

Finds from the site were fewer than those recovered on Lisleagh I. Considerable evidence for ironworking and metalworking was identified as was a large quantity of animal bone. The recovery of charred grains of six-row hulled barley, oats, rye and flax seeds, as well as quernstones, indicate a mixed agricultural economy at the site.

510

Fig. G.270: Plan of Lisleagh II (after Monk 1993a) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Bowl furnace

Indirect Evidence

Flax seeds

Industrial Processing Table

511

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron pin

Dates

Two glass beads Sherd? Hone stones Perforated stone disc

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

512

depression, where it terminated in a large irregular crater of modern disturbance.

Lismahon (Ballykinler Lower td), Co. Down Grid Ref: J429389 (34290/33890) SMR No: DOW 044:033 Reference: Waterman 1959a.

Excavation on the summit of the mound revealed three phases of occupation: Phases I and II relating to an early medieval occupation and Phase III to the use of the mound as a motte castle in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Phase I appears to have been marked by the construction of a ditched enclosure, while Phase II was distinguished by the erection of a vertical timber revetment, braced at the rear and probably on the outside as well, which served to retain the make-up of a platform rising to a height of about 1.5m above the surface of Phase I.

The name Lismahon, which is at least as old as c.AD 1200, is given to a mound, somewhat pear-shaped on plan, which rises a maximum of 5.5m from ground level to a flat top, 22m by 19m over the main diameters. Enclosing the mound is a flat-bottomed ditch, averaging 6m in width and 2m in depth. Before excavation, the outline of a building, indicated by a low bank enclosing three sides, could be observed on the summit of the mound. To the west of this structure was a shallow

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze ring-headed pin Souterrain ware Spindle whorls

‘Small finds’ Table

513

smaller ‘annex’ lying to the north and attached to the external ditch.

Lisnagade, Co. Down Grid Ref: J08674405 (30867/34405) SMR No: DOW 033:009 References: Proudfoot 1953b; Jope 1966.

Excavations in 1953 on the annex rath to the north of Lisnagade Fort revealed sequences of excavation and silting-up prior to the enclosure of Rath 2 within the Lisnagade Fort complex. A long narrow structure located in the centre of Rath 2 would seem to have been a later addition.

The site at Lisnagade consists of a massive trivallate rath (Lisnagade Fort), about 100m in external diameter and surrounded by ditches of up to 3.5m in depth, and a

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.271: Plan of Lisnagade Fort and Lisnagade 2 (after Proudfoot 1953b)

514

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Three blue glass beads Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

515

Three earth-cut souterrains were excavated in the interior of the site and typically comprised a series of low barrelvaulted chambers connected by narrow creep-ways and ventilated by stone air ducts. Burnt sediments, probably hearth debris, from the backfilled entrance to Souterrain I yielded a radiocarbon date spanning the late ninth/tenth centuries and was regarded as a terminus ante quem date for the construction of the souterrain.

‘Lisnagun’ (Darrara td.), Co. Cork Grid Ref: W41814211 (141819/042115) SMR No: CO135-031001 Reference: O’Sullivan et al 1998. Lisnagun is a univallate enclosure situated on a gentle south-eastern slope at 60m OD, which was excavated as part of a community initiative by the Clonakilty Macra na Feirme. Excavation revealed evidence for a central roundhouse, various outbuildings, three souterrains and other structures and features, but the phasing of the site was very difficult to establish as modern ridge-andfurrow cultivation had truncated almost all the features and stratigraphic evidence.

The location of the entrance of two of the souterrains (I and III) within the circumference of the gully of the possible roundhouse tentatively suggests that at least one may have been entered from this structure. As roundhouses are less common after the tenth century (Lynn 1978a), it is quite possible that the roundhouse and Souterrain I were associated with each other and in use during the ninth century.

Possible stake-holes, pits and a shallow interrupted ditch were discovered beneath the enclosure banks. The ditch had steep sides and a U-shaped base and measured 1.3m wide and 0.5m deep. A rock-cut trench also traversed the outer south-eastern entrance area. The evidence was too slight to establish whether these features at Lisnagun represented part of a pre-enclosure field system or the remains of an earlier settlement enclosure. The surviving enclosure had an external diameter of 53m and an internal diameter of 35m. Where it survived, a low broad counterscarp bank, 0.5m high and 1.4m wide, was identified outside the ditch. The main bank survived to a maximum height of 1.4m over the original ground surface. Its inner face was revetted by a low rubble drystone wall (0.65m high) along its eastern and southern sectors. The ditch was V-shaped in profile with a flat base and measured between 3m and 5m wide and up to 2m deep. Transient hearths, identified by thin spreads of charcoal over scorched soils or settings of stones, were revealed in the base of the ditch.

Fig. G.272: Plan of interior of Lisnagun (after O’Sullivan et al 1998, 38)

The entrance was located along the south-eastern sector of the enclosure and had been remodelled at least once. Its terminals were retained by a low dry-stone wall which formed a narrow 2m opening. An area of gravel paving was also associated with this entrance way. An earlier entrance arrangement which possibly formed an entrance screen and gateway was identified beneath the gravel paving and took the form of a substantial trench (1.2m wide and 0.9m deep) filled with large packing stones and two adjacent large post-holes.

It appears that the three souterrains represent a gradual succession of use and replacement rather than a single activity phase. One of the chambers of Souterrain I was later adapted as a stone-lined pit after the other creepways and chambers were backfilled. Finds from the backfill inside the souterrains included burnt sediments from wood charcoal, hazelnut shells, animal bone and shellfish fragments as well as various iron objects, iron slag, a blue glass bead, possible hone and hammer-stones and large perforated stones.

A possible roundhouse, defined by a shallow circular gully or trench (0.15m deep and with an overall diameter of 5.7m), was excavated in the centre of the enclosure. No entrance, structural features or hearths were recovered though its central location does support its interpretation as a roundhouse. A concentration of stake-holes and linear slot-trenches was excavated in the area adjacent to the inner face of the enclosure bank on either side of the primary entrance. These were interpreted as small rectilinear outbuildings with floor plans of between six and eight square metres.

A metalled surface in the eastern area abutted the retaining wall of the inner face of the bank and extended for up to 8m into the interior. It was continuous with the gravel paving in the entrance-way and completely overlay the slot-cuts and stake-holes of the possible outbuildings. The metalled surface contained a considerable amount of burnt occupation debris including small crushed fragments of charcoal, animal bone and shell fish. A deposit of stony soil (up to 0.8m in depth) sealed the archaeological features in the south-eastern down-sloping quadrant and may have been part of an attempt to raise 516

and dry this area. Finds from this deposit included possible hone and hammer-stones and an iron blade. It could not be established if this stony deposit related to the occupation of the enclosure or was associated with later post-medieval cultivation activity. Further features associated with possible post-medieval cultivation activity included a secondary western entrance and ridgeand-furrows.

identifiable and contained the remains of cattle, sheep/goat, pig and red deer. The plant remains from the site represent a typical crop regime from the period with oats and barley dominant and smaller quantities of wheat and rye also present. Two pits pre-dating the enclosure contained a high incidence of wheat and may represent an earlier crop regime. Forty-seven pieces of iron slag were recovered, the majority from disturbed contexts or inside the fills of the souterrains.

A small quantity of animal bone was recovered from the site. Only 6% of the total animal bones (179) was

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3178

Context Charcoal from domestic debris in backfilled entrance of Souterrain 1

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

14C

Date 1110±35 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 785 A.D. 828–838; A.D. 866–1017

Radiocarbon Dates

Unfinished quernstones/ stone settings

Flax seeds

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Two iron blades Iron ring Iron nail Three iron ‘tools’ Bronze plate with rivets Blue glass bead

Dates

Six hone stones Five fragments of quernstones?

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

517

and disappeared in its southern quadrant. This eastern recut extended the original ditch to the south by some 5m. The southern quadrant, where the ditch disappeared, had a shallow ditch remnant on the western side suggesting an entrance of about 3m in width. Linear features and postholes outside this to the south also suggest some form of everted entrance feature. Within the outer boundary ditch were the remains of a post-hole-built circular house. This had central post-holes and evidence for an eaves-drip gully around its western edge. The house wall was defined by a series of post-holes at regular intervals along a shallow slot. This may have been the base of a rotted wicker wall. Artefacts recovered included coarse pottery and some struck flint. The flint was recovered from the surface so was not in a secure context. The pottery appeared to be souterrain ware.

Lisnalinchy, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J31028707 (33102/38707) SMR No: N/A Reference: Gilmore 2003:0020. The site was uncovered during monitored topsoilstripping for the creation of a dual carriageway. It took the form of a circular ring-ditch approximately 15m–17m in diameter and appears to run off from the area of the new road-take to the west and under the road wall to the east. The cut width on initial uncovering was about 0.3m and contained a dark-brown fill with stones. On removal of the wall, the ditch was found to continue below it. The outer ditch was found to have been recut on the eastern side. The ditch was up to 1m in width and 0.5m in depth

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

518

South, connected to Hut A North, was a little over 3m in diameter. It had a hearth towards the centre and a large boulder bedded in the natural to the west may have functioned as a seat. An area of paving was recorded to the east. Charcoal and artefacts, including pottery fragments and flint chips, were discovered.

‘Lissachiggel’, Doolargy, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J10141302 (310146/313021) SMR No: LH004-050 Reference: Davies 1939. Excavation was undertaken at the upland cashel and hut sites at Lissachiggel, in the townland of Doolargy, as part of the unemployment relief scheme in September 1940. Seventeen huts were recorded within, and abutting, the cashel wall. Based on artefactual and construction evidence, the huts were built during the latter part of the early medieval period and the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries. Those belonging to the early medieval period will be discussed here. The cashel is situated on marshland at 244m OD. A number of unenclosed huts and field systems are evident in the cashel’s surrounding landscape.

Hut B East measured about 3.5m squared and was one of the largest buildings in the cashel. The walls were formed with large uprights and an entrance may have been located to the west. Two hearths were centrally placed and charcoal was evident in large quantities around them. Hazelnut shells, burnt bone and burnt flint chips were found within the fire debris, and other finds included possible flint tools and coarse pottery fragments. Hut B West was connected to the eastern hut. It was roughly rectangular and measured 1.8m by 2.4m. The southern entrance was marked by three upright jambs. Charcoal and some small pottery fragments were discovered in the southern part of the structure.

The cashel was roughly circular and measured approximately 58m east-west by 55m north-south. Its wall was constructed with medium to large stones and a core of gravel. It survived to a height of 1.8m. Evidence for a palisade was suggested by dark patches on the wall, 3.6m apart, which contrasted with the rubble-fill. Posts, 15cm in diameter, may have been positioned along the wall top to form the palisade. Evidence for a surrounding ditch was identified to the north and east of the wall. An entrance, bounded by upright blocks, was noted to the south and was 0.9m wide. Finds around the entrance included charcoal, three flints, half a blue glass bead and two pottery sherds (probably souterrain ware). Pottery sherds are recorded from the majority of structures and are described as coarse wares. It is likely that the majority represent hand-made souterrain ware vessels.

Hut C East was circular and had a diameter of 3.6m. The door was to the south and was flanked by two small jambs. A hearth was centrally placed and there were internal irregular traces of cobbling. Further indications of occupation included quantities of charcoal, fragments of a lignite bracelet, seven flint tools, an iron object and coarse pottery sherds. Hut C West was smaller and had a diameter of 2.3m. The entrance was similarly to the south and a hearth was present centrally. Finds included charcoal, hazelnut shells, an iron knife, a flint (possibly a scraper) and small pottery sherds. Huts B and D were described by Davies as isolated huts within the cashel. Hut B South was roughly circular and had a diameter of 1.8m. A door, flanked by two jambs, was located to the south-east and it was paved with small stones. Charcoal and pottery sherds were the only finds. Hut D was very small and had a diameter of 1m. Charcoal was present in good quantities and a glass bead was recovered from the burnt earth. No entrance was evident.

Davies classified the huts under a number of headings – 1. Clustered huts in the interior: A (North and South), B (East and West), C (East and West) 2. Isolated huts in the interior: B (South), D 3. Huts that abutted the cashel wall and yielded no burnt bone: E, K, N, O 4. Huts that abutted the cashel wall and yielded lots of burnt bone: F, G, H, I, L

Hut E was constructed against the cashel’s inner wall. It was irregularly shaped and a small bench may have been situated in the west wall. A hearth was centrally placed and the floor was roughly paved. Finds from the hut included charcoal, two pieces of iron, flint tools (some probable strike-a-lights) and pottery sherds.

Group 4 will not be discussed as they are probably later and may date to the seventeenth or eighteenth century. Most of group 3, except for E, are also probably later additions. The remaining huts were most likely built during the early medieval period but it is not known if all were contemporary with the construction of the cashel or if they represent a number of occupation phases.

Lissachiggel was probably constructed between the seventh and tenth centuries based on dating evidence for early medieval settlement enclosures (both earth and stone) and the presence of possible souterrain ware. Davies had identified two main periods of hut use/construction dating to the early and post medieval periods. It appears, based on the cashel’s upland location above the productive agricultural soils, and the paucity of finds, that Lissachiggel was a low-status transhumance settlement which was utilised during the summer months.

Hut A North was circular and measured approximately 1.4m in diameter. The walls were two stones thick and the entrance was probably located to the north-east. The south end of the hut was paved with rough slabs and an occupation layer (consisting of charcoal and nine coarse pottery sherds) was concentrated on the lower side, probably as a result of the hut’s sloping floor. Hut A

519

Fig. G.273: Detailed plan of houses at Lissachiggel (after Davies 1939, 217) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife

Dates

Blue glass bead Souterrain ware Spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

520

conditions in the ditch of the later enclosure preserved wooden artefacts (including most of an oaken churn, and a couple of lathe-turned vessels – all of which were typologically dated to around the start of the ninth century), and the fragments of two (or three) leather shoes.

Lissue, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J22786325 (32278/36325) SMR No: ANT 067:013 References: Bersu 1947; 1948. The site consists of a univallate enclosure, approximately 60m in diameter, built on the southern slope of a drumlin. A research excavation was undertaken combining the Royal Irish Academy, Queen’s University, Belfast, the Belfast Municipal Museum and the Inspectorate of Ancient Monuments. Excavation revealed the presence of an earlier, smaller enclosure ditch. Finds from the fill of this earlier ditch included animal bones and pieces of worked wood, along with sherds of souterrain ware, which suggest that this ditch was deliberately back-filled during the early medieval period, when the enclosure expanded to its present size. A large number of post-holes were uncovered in the interior of the enclosure. These were interpreted by the excavator as forming concentric circles and, based on previous excavations in the Isle of Man, the excavator suggested that these represented a circular structure, approximately 40m in diameter, which would have covered the entire interior of the enclosure. No other such structure has been identified in an Irish context, and it is possible that such an interpretation is erroneous. Finds from the site included a slate ‘trial-piece’ which has examples of interlaced design, a bronze ring-pin and two glass beads. There were also vast amounts of souterrain ware – the sherds from the earlier ditch tended to be undecorated, whereas those from the later enclosure had ‘cable-ornamentation’, presumably formed by pinching the clay between finger and thumb. The water-logged

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Fig. G.274: Plan of excavated area at Lissue (after Bersu 1947, 34)

Indirect Evidence Slate ‘trial-piece’?

Souterrain ware

Wooden vessels Shoe

Industrial Processing Table

521

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron pin Bronze ring pin Two glass beads Souterrain ware

Dates

Slate ‘trial piece’ Oak churn Lathe-turned vessels

Two or three shoes

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.277: Wooden churn from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 13)

Fig. G.275: Slate trial piece from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 11)

Fig. G.276: Wooden vessels from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 14)

Fig. G.278: Souterrain ware from Lissue (after Bersu 1947, fig. 12)

522

Loher, Co. Kerry Grid Ref: V51526193 (051529/061931) SMR No: KE106-003001 References: O’Flaherty 1985:34; O'Sullivan Sheehan 1996.

the buildings, the excavation did reveal a good stratigraphic sequence of houses. &

House I (6.6m internal diameter) was uncovered in the north-eastern quadrant of the enclosure abutting the enclosing wall. Its walls survived to an average height of 1.3m, and an entrance 0.8m wide was located at the south. Excavation revealed an earlier stone-built circular structure in the area of House I, which was in turn predated by a wooden structure constructed of driven stakes. The entrance of a souterrain was located in the western half of the interior of House I, which gave access to a drystone-built lintelled passage, 1m high, which runs east-west for 3m. Excavations established that the construction of the souterrain post-dated House I.

A stone fort at Loher, situated on the lower western slopes of Farraniaragh Mountain, was excavated in the early 1980s. A network of old field walls, some of which are curvilinear, occurs in the vicinity of the site, and is overlain by a modern field pattern. Excavation revealed a sequence of wooden and stone-built circular and rectangular structures within the interior. The stone fort measured 18.4m by 19.8m internally. The enclosing walls (4m thick and up to 3.3m high) contained a rubble core faced internally and externally with random courses of well-built dry-stone masonry. Traces of two terraces furnished with steps were uncovered along the internal face of the wall, and a lintel-covered paved entrance passage (4m by 1.35m, and 1.7m high) led into the interior from the south-south-east.

House II (7.75m by 6.3m internally) occupied much of the western half of the interior of the enclosure. The walls of the building survived to an average height of 1.2m and consisted of a rubble core faced internally and externally with coursed dry-stone masonry; a 1m-wide entrance was located on the south wall and contained a paved pathway which leads towards the caher entrance. The northeast angle of the building abutted the external face of the circular dry-stone house, thus post-dating House I, but House II was also preceded by a circular wooden structure constructed of driven stakes. Another possible post-built structure was also identified in this area.

The interior was covered with stone-fill to a depth of 2m prior to excavation. Two drystone-built structures (one circular (I) and one rectangular (II)) were exposed within the stone-fill and their interiors excavated. Though no great depth of occupation deposit was uncovered within

Fig. G.279: Aerial photograph of Loher (after O'Sullivan & Sheehan 1996)

523

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife

Dates

Glass beads

‘Small finds’ Table

524

circular kerb of stones, secondly a stone-lined hearth in yellow clay, followed by a wooden post-bordered hearth in peat. Hearth 3 was a rectangular construction of stones. Hearth 7 was a circular stone kerb under the wall revetment. Some of the hearths were industrial rather than domestic, as iron and bronze slag, crucibles and a clay mould for casting bronze pins were the only objects found in them. Other evidence for iron-working included iron slag, ore and bloom.

Lough Faughan crannog (Ballyrolly td), Co. Down Grid Ref: J44644114 (34464/34114) SMR No: DOW 037:050 References: Collins 1955; Proudfoot 1955. The early medieval crannog of Lough Faughan, Co. Down was excavated in 1951–1952, as part of the County Down Archaeology Survey. Prior to excavation it was suspected that the site was late medieval in date, primarily because of the antiquarian discovery of an imported medieval green-glazed pottery jug on the site. While the excavations produced some evidence for late medieval occupation in the form of pottery and a coin, they revealed that the site was mostly early medieval in date, occupied at some unknown period between the seventh and tenth centuries AD.

The primary crannog occupation layers also produced souterrain-ware pottery (230 sherds). The evidence for crafts included discs used in weaving, hand distaffs, four spindle whorls and an antler peg. Evidence for metalworking included crucibles (pyramidal with triangular mouth) and moulds for casting bronze pins. Items of personal adornment included a penannular brooch, pin, needle, bone pins, lignite bracelets, finger rings, glass beads, glass vessels and a glass armlet. There were three fragments of rotary querns and perforated whetstones. There was also an iron shield boss (found at the base of the occupation levels) and an iron axehammer. Throughout the occupation layers there were deposits of animal bone, including mostly cattle, with some pig, sheep, red deer bone (1.2%) and domestic fowl (possibly from a fighting cock) and fish bones from cod. There were also upper occupation deposits that may date to the end of the early medieval period. These included thin spreads of gravel and some fire-reddened clay. The gravel covered an expanse of black, burnt material of charcoal, burnt straw, carbonised oats and barley.

The early medieval crannog survived as a circular mound (36m in diameter, 1.2m in height) located in marshy ground. It apparently was constructed by laying down a sub-structural layer (5m thick) of brushwood (hazel, alder, birch) and peat over a marshy deposit on the lakebed. The ‘peat’ was often composed of heather, bracken and scrub and there were several layers of bluish or yellowish clay, but there were no large timbers. The brushwood was occasionally pinned into position using stakes. The upper surface of this substructure was then covered with planks (‘random groups of timber rafts’) pinned into position, and woven wattle panels, interpreted by the excavators as the beginning of the occupation layer. There was some domestic refuse found in these structural levels, as well as a single hearth (hearth 5) interpreted as a fireplace used by the crannog builders (although it is conceivable that this was an actual early occupation horizon). Finds from the structural layers included whetstones, two crucible sherds, a wooden object, sawn antler cuttings, an iron shield boss, a small circular iron pan, an iron shears, a barrel-padlock key, an unfinished comb, with animal bones strewn through the brushwood and peat layers. Other items from the brushwood and peat layers included wooden cart fragments, a turned wheel hub, a yew-wood hoop from a large barrel, stave-bucket fragments and a turned wooden bowl.

The uppermost occupation surface was enclosed within a stone revetment or wall, of three courses of stone with a straight outer face. This wall may only have been constructed on the north side of the crannog, perhaps to alleviate slumping. Within this enclosing feature was a dark soil of humus and occupation material, 0.3m thick at the centre of the site. There were some early medieval objects within this occupation material, as well as some sherds of medieval pottery probably dated to the thirteenth century. An early thirteenth-century coin was also found on the crannog. The early medieval crannog at Lough Faughan appears to have been a settlement site whose inhabitants were engaged in agriculture, domestic crafts and both bronzeworking and iron-working. Like Clea Lakes, a midden from another settlement site was used to build the crannog. It is probable that at least one hearth (i.e. Hearth 4) was actually a circular house floor, potentially re-laid on several occasions. The various objects and finds recovered suggest domestic habitation, but the crannog was also clearly used for iron-working and bronzeworking, with several hearths devoted to this activity. The site economy was based on mixed farming in the surrounding landscape, with the slaughtering of cattle at a young age probably indicating a preponderance of dairying. The site was also briefly re-activated in the later middle ages, like many other crannog sites, with a stone wall or revetment built around its edges.

The primary occupation surface was based on the wicker matting that had been laid across the site, and the occupation deposits consisted of dark brown, peaty soil, merged with peat and brushwood, within which there were numerous clay spreads laid on damp patches and reddened by burning, interpreted as hearths surrounded by stone kerbing and associated with spreads of timbers. The site’s largest hearth (hearth 4) was 4.5m in diameter, by 0.6m in thickness, consisting of seven superimposed layers of grey ash, with yellow clay and charcoal. Finds from this ‘hearth’ included a bone pin and a sherd of Roman Samian ware (often perceived as a magical or medicinal item in the early middle ages). It seems likely that this so-called hearth could be interpreted as an early medieval house floor, where the excavators did not recognise the walling. Hearth 6 had a sequence of firstly a 525

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Crucibles Copper & tin slag Clay mould

Indirect Evidence

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Scrap glass Souterrain ware 17+ whetstones Thatcher’s tool? Lathe-turned bowl Red deer antler cuttings – knife handle manufacture?

Leather-working Cloth-working

Iron shears Wooden spindle Stone spindle whorls Stone loom weights Pigment-grinding stones? Yarn-twisters?

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood

Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron pins Iron knives Two iron axes Iron shears Pan from set of scales? Strike-a-light? Shield boss Bronze penannular brooch Bronze pin Bronze needle Bronze key Six glass beads Glass armlet 230 sherds of souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Lignite finger ring Three granite quernstones Four sandstone spindle whorls Two loom weights (1 sandstone, 1 granite) 17+ whetstones Pigment-grinding stones? Two yarn-twisters? Two amber beads Wicker mat Lathe-turned alder bowl Spindle? Yew staves Thatcher’s tool? Bone pins Bone comb Sperm whale tooth pendant Antler peg

‘Small finds’ Table

526

Dates

investigated. Although it had been supposed that there is a crannog in Lough Island Reevy, the larger island was largely formed by a granite outcrop, and the smaller one had no visible construction piles.

Lough Island Reevy (Ballymoney td), Co. Down Grid Ref: J28873423 (32887/33423) SMR No: DOW 042:043 Reference: Gaffikin & Davies 1938.

Finds from the larger island included pieces of plain and decorated pottery (souterrain ware?), as well as furnacelining and one piece of heavy crystalline iron slag.

In the autumn of 1937 the water of Lough Island Reevy was drained out, in order to effect repairs to the reservoir dam, and two previously submerged islands were

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnace lining

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron objects

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

527

Loughbown (1), Co. Galway Grid Ref: M82162894 (182163/228944) SMR No: GA087-178 Reference: Bower 2009a.

The inner ditch showed evidence of two subsequent phases of re-cutting, and the skeleton of a juvenile human was found in the western terminus of this ditch. The lack of cut features to the rear of this ditch led the excavator to suggest the presence of a contemporary bank, some evidence of which may be seen in the in-fill of the ditch. Two corn-drying kilns were cut into the in-fill of the inner ditch, and radiocarbon dates from one of these suggest that this occurred around the fourteenth century.

The site consisted of a bivallate enclosure set on the side of a hill. The site was enclosed by two ditches: the outer ditch (1.5m wide and 0.8m deep, with a diameter of 63m) and the inner ditch (3m wide and 1.1m deep, with a diameter of 42m). Excavation was required to facilitate road construction.

Two possible structures were identified in the interior of the site. Structure A was trapezoidal in shape (indicated by eleven post-holes), and had an occupation layer that contained charred cereals and hazelnuts. This structure may potentially have acted as a gate-house. Structure B comprised five post-holes and a slot-trench arranged in an L-shape; animal bones, burnt clay, and charred cereal remains were recovered from this structure. Another area of occupation debris was indicated to the north of Structure B. This had been truncated during excavation, but revealed charcoal, shell, bone, slag and cereal remains, as well as an iron fish hook and a ringed pin. A stone-built souterrain was also discovered in this area, and this produced a large number of animal bones (largely cattle and sheep/goat).

The enclosure would appear to have been the site of earlier activity, and a linear ditch uncovered during excavation produced a Bronze Age radiocarbon date (see below). This ditch was truncated by the outer ditch of the enclosure, but appears to have remained open throughout the early medieval period as an iron knife blade (dated by the excavator to the ninth to fourteenth century) was also found in this feature. The outer ditch was V-shaped in profile and was in-filled with largely sterile silts. Some bone was recovered from the earliest fill, and one of these returned a radiocarbon date in the sixth/seventh century (see below). The upper fill of this ditch to the east of the entrance was overlain by metal-working spoil, suggesting that the ditch had been in-filled by the time iron-working was conducted in this area. Dates from one of the three smithing hearths would indicate that this occurred in the eleventh/twelfth century.

Other finds from site included fragments of eight quernstones, a silver penny of Edward I (1272–1307), two iron bars, a copper-alloy ring, a copper stud fragment, and six other fragments of copper alloy. Almost 5,000 animal bones were recovered from this site, and cattle and sheep were the most dominant species identified (with cattle only slightly more numerous than sheep).

The entranceway appears to have had an outer gate (indicated by large post-holes just beyond the outer ditch), and may have been bounded by a possible palisade trench or associated drainage trench.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UB-7362 UB-7363

Context Charcoal from basal fill of outer ditch Charcoal from fill of smithing hearth

Date 1444±32 BP 863±31 BP

UB-7365 UB-7366

Charcoal from layer in outer bank Charcoal from fill of corn-drying kiln

614±30 BP 644±29 BP

UB-7367 UBA-8096

Charcoal from fill of gully in entrance Bone from human burial

1572±30 BP 1138±29 BP

528

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 563–653 A.D. 1047–1088; A.D. 1122–1139; A.D. 1149–1257 A.D. 1294–1402 A.D. 1282–1327; A.D. 1342–1395 A.D. 419–554 A.D. 782–789; A.D. 810–848; A.D. 855–983

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 130kg of iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone weaving tool

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron bars Iron pin Iron fish hook Iron knife Copper-alloy ring-pin Copper-alloy stud Copper-alloy fragments

Dates

Hone stone Bone combs Bone weaving tool Bone button

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.280: Bone combs from Loughbown 1 (after Bower 2009a, fig. 18 & plates 15a & 15b)

Fig. G.281: Copper-alloy ring pin from Loughbown 1 (after Bower 2009a, fig. 19 & plate 16a)

529

faces. Radiocarbon dates from this construction phase suggest that material from an earlier Iron Age site may have been re-worked into the early medieval bank (see below). This wooden facing may have been complemented by a facing of small limestone stones on the interior face of the bank. A metalled entrance-way was revealed, associated with two large post-holes for the gate.

Loughbown (2), Co. Galway Grid Ref: M81732872 (181730/228729) SMR No: GA087-177 Reference: Bower 2009b. The site consists of a banked-and-ditched enclosure (37m by 48m) placed on the brow of a small hill. Excavation of the site was required to facilitate road building. Prior to the main excavation a test excavation had taken place in 2004, and a geophysical survey of the interior had indicated a number of anomalies.

Around 60% of the site interior was composed of exposed bedrock, thus there were few structural remains. An area of activity was, however, identified in the northwest of the interior, consisting of a slot-trench, ten post-holes (in an irregular pattern), and three pits. An early medieval radiocarbon date was returned from associated charcoal (see below).

Excavation of the enclosure bank revealed post-holes along the inner and outer faces of the bank, and these were interpreted as evidence for wooden shoring on both

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UBA-8103

Context Bone from base of ditch

Date 1159±29 BP

UBA-7360

Charcoal from bank-fill

2245±33 BP

UBA-7361

Charcoal from lower bank fill

2162±34 BP

UBA-7759 UBA-7760 UBA-7758

Charcoal from ditch Charcoal from post-hole Charcoal from fill of slot-trench of sub-circular structure

342±32 BP 941±33 BP 2266±24 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

530

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 778–903; A.D. 914–969 392–345 B.C.; 323–205 B.C. 361–272 B.C.; 263–102 B.C. A.D. 1467–1640 A.D. 1022–1164 396–352 B.C.; 295–228 B.C.; 221–211 B.C.

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife blades

Dates

Shale bracelet Rotary quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

531

present, as was dog (four fragments) and red deer (one fragment).

Loughboy, Co. Kilkenny Grid Ref: S51445382 (25144/15382) SMR No: KK019-040; KK019-041 References: E. Cotter 1998:362; 1999; McCutcheon 1999. Excavations were undertaken on the site of two circular enclosures recorded in the early editions of the Ordnance Survey maps, but no longer visible on the ground. The sites were located on the top of two small knolls. Excavation revealed little evidence for the enclosure KK019-041, and work was focused on KK019-040, although it also turned out to have been substantially destroyed by agricultural improvements in the 1930s. Top-soil stripping here uncovered a sub-rectangular enclosure (41m by 35m), which was later expanded by the addition of a secondary ditch, thus enclosing an ovalshaped area of 52m by 39m. Two charcoal spreads were uncovered in the interior of the site, from which fragments of iron slag and a fragment of a bone comb were found. An ironworking hearth was also located within the interior, from which 35 pieces of iron slag were recovered. A cemetery of at least 20 individuals was discovered in the south-east of the interior. The animal bones recovered from the ditch were dominated by cattle (370 fragments). Sheep (64 fragments) and pig (46 fragments) were also

Fig. G.282: Plan of Enclosure KK019-040 at Loughboy (after Cotter 1999)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-4465 UB-4466

Context Animal Bone Charcoal

14C

UB-4467

Human Bone

1345±42 BP

Material Iron-working

Date 1408±42 BP 1589±55 BP

Direct Evidence 35 pieces iron slag Iron-working hearth

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table 532

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 565–674 A.D. 346–371; A.D. 377–596 A.D. 618–729; A.D. 735–772

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Fragment of bone comb (Class C1)

‘Small finds’ Table

533

10m by 2.5m wide and the east-west example measures 7.5m by 2.5m. The north-south chamber is connected on its north-south end coming off the south-west of the eastwest chamber. The interior of the north-south chamber is partially filled with earth and is inaccessible. The eastwest chamber is partially filled in its east end almost up to its corbels. A few courses of masonry can be seen in its west end. The lintels are rough and measure up to 1.5m by 0.8m across. There is a probable entrance on the south-east corner of the east-west chamber where a boulder lies in a shallow depression.

Loughlackagh, Co. Roscommon Grid Ref: M938219 (19380/22190) SMR No: N/A Reference: Lavelle 1994:202. The area was trial-trenched in advance of an extension of the cemetery, to ascertain the limits of any archaeological deposits. The site consists of a souterrain with two chambers in an L shape. At present several of its lintels have been removed and the interior of its east-west chamber is visible. The north-south chamber measures Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

534

The souterrain consisted of a linear passage, with a slightly wider chamber at its western end, lined with drystone walls. It was 12m long and had maximum dimensions of 1.05m wide by 1.4m deep (internal) with up to fifteen courses of dry-stone masonry. It had steps at both ends, indicating possible access points. The side walls also had nine post cavities, including four pairs of opposing cavities. A copper-alloy pin and a corroded iron knife were present in the fill.

Lowpark, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: 147233/300643 SMR No: N/A References: Gillespie 2010; 2011b. This site was identified during testing in advance of the construction of the N5 Charlestown bypass. Features dating to the Early and Late Neolithic, Bronze Age and medieval periods were identified on this excavation.

The sunken rectangular chamber had maximum dimensions of 11.25m by 5.75m by 2m deep. It contained a rectangular drystone-built structure. The walls had two opposing pairs of post cavities similar to the souterrain. A break in the wall and rough stone facing continuing outside the structure indicates a possible entrance feature in the east-north-east corner. Artefacts from the fill of this structure include three corroded iron objects, possibly knives, and a bronze ring pin. A large quernstone and a possible bullaun stone were incorporated into the fabric of the stone wall.

The medieval palisaded enclosure included three palisade trenches, ranging in diameter from 30m to 44m. Two of these were adjacent and are likely to have been contemporary. Palisade 1 enclosed the main area of archaeological activity, including a drystone-walled souterrain, a large sunken stone-lined chamber, a smaller stone-lined keyhole-shaped pit and a series of smaller features. There was extensive evidence for ironworking and an L-shaped trench that may also have held structural elements.

The stone-lined keyhole-shaped pit measured 3.4m by 2.4m and was 0.8m deep at the narrow end and 1.4m deep at the wider end. It was lined with randomlycoursed unshaped boulders. An unusual arrangement of stone slabs occurred at the base of the pit, measuring 0.8m by 0.4m by 0.3m deep. The fills included a miniature polished stone axe head, a fragment of a burnt bone pin and a corroded iron artefact.

The ironworking was a relatively early feature of the site. There were four main iron-working areas, three of which had definite structural evidence and nine additional pits containing iron-working evidence; 1.34 tonnes of iron slag were retrieved. Four large stones with concave surfaces, which may have been used for crushing ore, were identified. A selection of corroded iron objects, three blow-hole blocks/tuyères, vitrified clay linings and hammerscale point towards significant iron-working industry.

Five post-holes were excavated adjacent to the keyholeshaped pit. Four of these formed an arc, which, if extended to a circle, would have a diameter of 8m and may have held posts of a house. The fifth post-hole was associated with this arc but was not in line with the others. Its fill included a small gold filigree artefact of twisted wire and foil.

The L-shaped foundation trench was earlier than the palisade trenches. It consisted of a slot-trench that measured 12m by 7m. This may be the remains of the foundation trench of a large rectangular structure or enclosure.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-231649 Beta-231655 Beta-234460 Beta-231652 Beta-231656 Beta-234459 Beta-231650 Beta-231654

Context Oak post from souterrain Oak charcoal from souterrain Oak charcoal from palisade trench Oak charcoal from entrance post-hole Oak charcoal from L-shaped trench Oak charcoal from fill of outer ditch Hazel charcoal from fill of 'box-like' feature Holly charcoal from fill of post-hole in roundhouse

535

14C Date 1450±40 BP 1460±40 BP 1250±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 547–655 A.D. 540–654 A.D. 674–874

1720±40 BP

A.D. 237–412

1230±40 BP

A.D. 684–887

1150±40 BP

A.D. 778–980

1250±40 BP

A.D. 674–874

1100±49 BP

A.D. 782–789; A.D. 811–846; A.D. 856–1022

1345±25 BP GrN-30847

Oak charcoal from slot-trench of rectangular structure

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Four iron-processing workshops 11 pits with iron-working residue 1.36 tonnes of iron slag Granite anvil Tuyères Smelting & smithing

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

A.D. 644–694; A.D. 701–706; A.D. 748–765

Radiocarbon Dates

Pin

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Copper-alloy pins Gold filigree panel Glass bead

Dates

Lignite bracelet fragments Quernstones Honestones Bone pin

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.283: Tuyères from Lowpark (after Gillespie 2011b) Fig. G.284: Lignite bracelets and glass bead from Lowpark (after Gillespie 2011b)

536

represent the presence of wooden foundation planks. A porch and possible roof-supports were also indicated by the pattern of post-holes. The partial remains of another roundhouse, Structure C (4.48m in diameter), were also indicated by a curvilinear foundation trench. As with Structure A, this had some evidence for internal subdivision. A possible curvilinear lean-to structure, Structure B, was also identified. This structure measured 3.8m by 8.4m and appeared to use the bank as a rear wall; a hearth was located within this building. Another curvilinear structure, Structure E, which was composed of six post-holes with a central post, was identified in the north-west of the interior. It appeared to have been open to the north and may have constituted a shelter or windbreak. Patterns of post-holes also identified two rectilinear structures in the interior – a rectangular building (Structure D); and an L-shaped structure (Structure F). Other groups of post-holes were uncovered, but these could not be identified with possible structures. A drystone-built souterrain was constructed during this phase, and may have been associated with House F.

Mackney, Co. Galway Grid Ref: M83742941 (183745/229417) SMR No: N/A References: Jones 2004:0703; Delaney 2005:630; 2009; 2011. The site consisted of a partially destroyed enclosure (55.64m in diameter) set on the side of a low hill. The enclosure was not included in the SMR and was only recognised during field-walking undertaken as part of the Environmental Impact Assessment. The site was excavated to facilitate road construction. Excavation revealed three main phases of occupation on site. The earliest phase of occupation was indicated by the presence of two fire pits, and a number of linear features, all of which underlay the later enclosure bank. A radiocarbon date from charcoal associated with one of these fire-pits suggests that the bank was constructed quite late in the early medieval period (see below). This date (A.D. 771–899) is almost identical to one of the dates returned from the ironworking area (A.D. 775– 900), however, which suggests that at least some ironworking may have been conducted on site prior to the construction of the bank.

A series of bowl furnaces/smithing hearths was also identified to the north of the entrance. Dates from these features range from the ninth/tenth century to the eleventh/twelfth century. Two series of post-holes found in the vicinity of this metalworking area are presumably related to workshops, but the pattern of these could not be clearly identified.

The second phase of occupation was marked by the construction of the enclosure ditch, which had maximum dimensions of 6m wide and 3.1m deep. The lower ditch fills were composed of silts, presumably from gradual slippage, but a series of higher ditch fills, composed of medium to large sub-rounded stones, would appear to represent the collapsed remains of the stone revetment from the outer face of the bank. A similar stone revetment appears to have existed on the interior face of the bank. A series of large post-holes, found at the entrance, has been interpreted as either representing a gateway into the enclosure, or possibly as the remains of a more substantial gatehouse structure. A series of structures was identified in the interior. The foundation trench for the roundhouse, Structure A (5.4m in diameter), appears to have been divided into eight straight sections, which may Material Iron-working

Four large fire pits were later dug into the interior of the site. Three radiocarbon dates from these place them in the fourteenth to seventeenth centuries. The site was then used as a quarry, before being utilised as a cillín – 143 infant skeletons were recovered during excavation. Just over 5,000 animal bones were recovered from the early medieval phase of the site, mainly of domesticates (cattle dominant, then sheep and pigs). Few finds were directly attributable to the early medieval phase, but these included three iron knife blades, an iron bar, and an iron ‘tool’. A silver penny of Henry III (1216–1272), and two un-dated bone ‘toggles’ were also found on site.

Direct Evidence Bowl furnaces/Smithing hearths 42kg slag

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Bone toggles

Industrial Processing Table 537

Radiocarbon Dates 9th C.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-7368

Context Charcoal from later fire-pit

14C

UB-7369 UB-7370

Charcoal from later fire-pit Charcoal from later fire-pit

484±28 BP 385±29 BP

UB-7371

Charcoal from double bowl-furnace

1173±30 BP

UB-7372

Charcoal from post-hole C861

702±30 BP

UB-7373

Charcoal from later occupation layer C765

377±30 BP

UB-7374

Charcoal from fire-pit

1183±29 BP

UB-7375

Charcoal from hearth

365±30 BP

UB-7376

Charcoal from metal-working feature

991±31 BP

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Date 524±30 BP

Object Iron knife blades Iron bar Iron ‘tool’

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1323–1347; A.D. 1392–1442 A.D. 1409–1448 A.D. 1443–1523; A.D. 1559–1563; A.D. 1570–1631 A.D. 775–900; A.D. 917–965 A.D. 1261–1308; A.D. 1361–1386 A.D. 1446–1525; A.D. 1557–1632 A.D. 728–736; A.D. 771–899; A.D. 919–949 A.D. 1449–1528; A.D. 1545–1546; A.D. 1551–1634 A.D. 988–1054; A.D. 1078–1153

Dates

Bone toggles Worked antler objects (post-medieval?)

‘Small finds’ Table

538

Magheraboy, Co. Sligo Grid Ref: G68603500 (16860/33500) SMR No: N/A References: O’Neill 2003:1661; 2005; Danaher 2007. An enclosure (external diameter of 40m), defined by a Ushaped ditch, 2.5m wide with an average depth of about 1m, was discovered during topsoil stripping prior to road construction. It was located on the side of a south-facing slope, less than 200m to the west of an upstanding enclosure (SL014-125). The site had been truncated by later agricultural activity, and none of the bank survived; about half the site was excavated. A continuous deposit of large stones in the upper layers of the ditch fill may represent a stone wall built upon the bank. Alternatively, it may represent the stone revetment for its presumed earthen bank. The ditch had no evidence for maintenance and appears to have been allowed to silt up naturally over the life-time of the site. The interior of the site produced no evidence for a formal structure, although these may have existed in the unexcavated half of the site. The excavated half contained a series of pits, two hearths and several possible postholes. The fill of one of these pits contained part of a rotary quernstone and charred barley grains. The site produced a small sample of animal bones (N=189), the high incidence of teeth (N=106) being indicative of poor preservation.

Fig. G.285: Outline plan of Magheraboy (after O’Neill 2005)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-197650 Beta-197651 Beta-197652

Context Deposit within linear feature Pit Charcoal spread over hearth.

14C

Beta-197654 Beta-197655

Deposit in ditch Pit

1350±80 BP 850±60 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Date 1160±40 BP 1220±40 BP 1150±70 BP

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table 539

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 775–979 A.D. 685–892 A.D. 694–702; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–1017 A.D. 556–876 A.D. 1040–1110; A.D. 1115–1271 Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Copper-alloy ring pin Blue glass bead

‘Small finds’ Table

540

holes on the edge of the pit may have been used to support a fire-crane or spit.

Magheramenagh, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C86103890 (28610/43890) SMR No: LDY 003:023 (N/A?) References: May 1955; Reilly 1999:130.

A curving gully to the west of the main site has been interpreted as either a defensive palisade trench, or merely a windbreak. Again, the chronology of this feature and its relationship with the Bronze Age or early medieval occupation was not established.

The site was discovered during development work on a gently sloping field outside Portrush, Co. Antrim. The development occurred in the general area of an unlocated souterrain recorded in the NISMR, and it is likely that the souterrain uncovered during this excavation represents that feature.

The souterrain was discovered on a knoll in the northern part of the field. Most of the sides had dry-stone walling, but in the south end of the entrance area and the east end of the main passage the walls were rock-cut. The nature of debris within the souterrain suggests that it may have been deliberately destroyed by the removal of the upper stonework. Souterrain ware was found in the souterrain, as well as fragments of a bone comb, and iron slag. No certain trace of a surface structure associated with the souterrain was found at Magheramenagh, but the presence of a rock-cut step at the western end hints that there may have been one in that area.

Topsoil stripping of the site revealed two structures – a circular building (8m in diameter) and a rectangular building (8m by 5m) – within five metres of each other. Both of these structures were interpreted as being of Neolithic date, largely based on the cultural material recovered. This was dominated by coarse pottery and crudely-struck flint. Later radiocarbon dating, however, showed that the roundhouse was of Bronze Age date, and the rectangular house was early medieval (see below). A second rectangular house (8m by 6m) was identified built on the remains of the Bronze Age roundhouse. The chronology of this house was not established, and it may potentially be contemporary with the early medieval rectangular house. This structure appears to have been associated with quantities of burnt material, and it is suggested that it may have burnt down. The date from charcoal taken from the central fire-pit within the early medieval rectangular house suggests that this feature was contemporary with the occupation of the house, and presumably represents a domestic hearth. Two stake-

Fig. G.286: Plan of souterrain at Magheramenagh (after May 1955)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta 186549 Beta 186550 Beta 186551

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

14C Date 1160±40 BP 1410±40 BP 1280±40 BP

Context Circle of posts Charcoal from fire pit Wall slot

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table 541

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 775–979 A.D. 569–671 A.D. 658–783; A.D. 787–824; A.D. 841–861 Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

Bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

542

Two souterrains had been discovered in the late nineteenth century on the development site (SMR 32:40 and 32:41) at Markstown, Cullybackey. These were not uncovered during the present work, but the remnants of an early medieval house platform were found, along with souterrain ware and a piece of E-ware.

Markstown (Cullybackey td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D06120598 (30612/40598) SMR No: ANT 32:40 Reference: McSparron 2001:0014.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Sherd of E-ware

Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

543

suggesting that it may have been contemporary with the occupation of the house structure.

Marlhill 1, Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 206093/133230 SMR No: N/A Reference: Molloy 2009.

Only two early medieval artefacts were identified: a flat stone disc and a whetstone/honestone, both recovered from the early medieval ditch. A number of stone discs found during excavations in York were suggested to have been lids for wooden or ceramic vessels. These all dated from the late ninth to the mid eleventh century.

Two early medieval features were uncovered during excavations at Marlhill, Co. Tipperary – a sub-rectangular structure, and a ditch. The structure was located north of, and partially truncated the upper fills of, an earlier ring barrow. Material from one of the structural post-holes returned a date of A.D. 434–643. The structure was sub-rectangular in plan and measured 6.6m in length, and had its southern and eastern edges defined by a slot-trench. Two centrally-placed intercutting pits are likely to have held central roof supports. A well-defined entrance was located along the northern wall of the structure, and an inhumation burial was located in the entrance. This burial produced a date of A.D. 674–874. A second burial was identified 4.5m to the north of the structure. This burial produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 776–980. A ditch was identified to the east of the structure, but it was only partially exposed and continued beyond the limits of the excavation. A deposit from the in-fill of the ditch produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 649–857,

Fig. G.287: Plan of features at Marlhill (after Molloy 2009)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-231089

Context Animal bone – F27

14C

Beta-231090 Beta-231092 Beta-233934

1250±40 BP 1150±40 BP 1460±40 BP

Beta-233935

Human burial in entrance to rectangular structure – F59 Human burial to north of structure – F235 Hazel from post-hole to southeast of rectangular structure – F14 Hazel & oak from post-hole in structure – F61

Beta-232706

Pomaceae – F18

1980±40 BP

UB-7841

Blackthorn from ditch – F162

1298±43 BP

Date 2100±40 BP

544

1500±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ 346–320 B.C.; 206–36 B.C.; 30–20 B.C.; 12–1 B.C. A.D. 674–874 A.D. 778–980 A.D. 540–654 A.D. 434–492; A.D. 508–519; A.D. 528–643 87–78 B.C.; 55 B.C.–A.D. 91; A.D. 99–124 A.D. 649–783; A.D. 788–813; A.D. 844–857

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Stone disc Whetstone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

545

keyhole-shaped in plan. Two post-holes identified halfway along the base of the kiln flue may have been related to activity associated with the kiln.

Marlhill 2, Co. Tipperary (Site 150.3) Grid Ref: 206247/133189 SMR No: N/A Reference: Moriarty 2007. The site consisted of a sub-circular enclosure that contained a number of features including a corn-drying kiln, a hearth and a drainage gully. A large keyholeshaped kiln was also identified immediately to the south of the enclosure. The enclosure gully was probably designed to control water drainage in the vicinity of the central kiln and also to signifying ownership. The enclosure was defined by a penannular gully that enclosed an area 16m by 12m. A heavily-disturbed, partially stone-lined oblong kiln was centrally placed within this sub-circular enclosure. Two post-holes at the northern end of the kiln may have been associated with some form of superstructure such as a drying rack. A charcoal sample from this kiln gave a radiocarbon date of A.D. 782–990, though this could probably be further constrained to A.D. 855–990.

Fig. G.288: Plan of gullies and kilns at Marlhill (after Moriarty 2007)

A second corn-drying kiln was identified immediately outside of the sub-circular enclosure. This kiln was

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-7201

14C

Context Hazel from central kiln

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Date 1129±33 BP

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

546

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 782–789; A.D. 810–848; A.D. 855–990

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Copper-alloy stick pin

‘Small finds’ Table

547

Marlinstown, Co. Westmeath Grid Ref: N463527 (24630/25270) SMR No: WM019-066 References: Keeley 1990:113; 1991:126.

The inner enclosure ditch was fully excavated during the second season of excavation, confirming that this feature post-dated the initial phase of activity at the fort. It comprised a well-defined ditch which varied in depth and content from the western to the eastern side of the monument. On the west the fill consisted of a homogeneous clay fill with scattered animal bone inclusions, while on the north and east side the feature was narrower in width and contained a considerable amount of material including animal bones, crucible fragments, iron slag and bronze artefacts. A simple entrance feature was located at the south-east. A metalworking area was uncovered in the area of the northern bank, where a bowl furnace and associated pits were discovered.

Investigation was recommended at the site as construction of the proposed Mullingar By-Pass was scheduled to cut through the monument, destroying the eastern area of the structure. Prior to excavation the site was defined by an oval-shaped bank atop a natural glacial knoll. It measured 52m in length and 46m in width. Excavation revealed a complex monument as defined by a bank surrounded by an outer ditch and with evidence of an interior ditch. These, and the discovery of a human skeleton and several pits during the investigation phase, led to a four-week excavation of the site. A further five burials were uncovered at this time and the alreadyexposed features were excavated. The bank measured 1m in maximum height. It was composed of a mixture of boulder clay with inclusions of charcoal and fragmentary animal bone. An outer ditch surrounded the bank; this attained a depth of 1.8m and a maximum width of 2m. The second ditch has been only partially excavated; so far it appears as though it cuts into the bank in some areas while in others it lies directly inside the bank. The nature of this ditch and the chronology of the structures were to be addressed during a further season's work at the site. Artefacts recovered from this feature include a bronze finger ring, an iron knife, crucible fragments and a vitreous material. A significantly large amount of animal bone was recovered from the ditch, including complete skulls.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Additional burials were uncovered at the site, bringing the maximum count to 14. Where burial was formal, all were represented by extended inhumation with the head at the west. The skeleton of an adult male was recovered from the outer ditch; this was an extended inhumation lying along the line of the ditch. The inner enclosure ditch also contained skeletal material; here the remains of a child were uncovered. Not all of the bones were present but skeletal analysis indicates that the child may have fallen or been thrown into the ditch. It lay across the ditch with the head at the west. The skeletons of two children buried simultaneously were also recovered from within the monument. These lay facing each other with the skulls touching. The remains of an adult female placed prone in a grave were also found. This represents the second example of an atypical burial from the site.

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnaces Crucible fragments

Indirect Evidence

Vitreous material

Leather scorer Leather scorer or weaving tool

Industrial Processing Table

548

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal

Object Iron knife Iron leather scorer Bronze finger ring Bronze bracelet

Dates

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

549

in length. It varied in width between 1m and 2m and the roof had a maximum height of 1.9m. Two jamb slots, which probably supported posts for a gate or door, were positioned between the first and second turns in the passage. Primary material from the entrance contained large quantities of charcoal and an iron nail. The former produced an un-calibrated radiocarbon date of A.D. 688±55. A bronze pin and an iron knife were retrieved from the fill above it. The gallery contained two air vents and was devoid of artefacts.

Marshes Upper, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J066049 (30660/30490) SMR No: LH007-080; LH007-081; LH007-092; LH007-107; LH007-120 References: Gosling 1980-84:0137; 1980-84:0138; Gowen 1992; McCormick & Crone 2000; Campbell 2002; Mossop 2002a; 2002b; 2002c; O’Hara 2002. Archaeological investigations in the townland of Marshes Upper, in advance of a number of infrastructural developments since the 1980s, have revealed an intensely-settled early medieval landscape, and most notably from the latter part of the period as revealed by the excavation of ten souterrains. The souterrains were both enclosed and unenclosed and dating evidence – both radiocarbon and artefactual – suggests they were utilised between the seventh and twelfth centuries. Other features included an extensive field system, a cereal-drying kiln and a structure. The earliest feature was the kiln, which dated to the Iron Age/early medieval transitional period. This was followed, from the seventh century, by the large-scale construction of both open and enclosed settlements and related field enclosures.

Souterrain B was smaller than Souterrain A. It was Lshaped and measured 24m in length. The passage was between 1m and 1.4m wide and 1.2m high. The chamber was 1.1m high and 1.4m in width. It was rougher in construction compared to Souterrain A, and also had a number of defensive features such as a drop hole. Finds, in secondary deposits, from the entranceway and passage included fifteen sherds of souterrain ware, fragments from a bone comb and the remains of a neonatal pig. The enclosure (55m by 60m) completely encircled Souterrain A while it stopped short, on either side, of Souterrain B. A causewayed entrance was present to the north and the ditch varied in width and depth between 1.2m and 2m, and 0.2m and 1.4m respectively. No evidence for a bank survived. Occupation layers, of ash, charcoal, shell and animal bone, were found overlying a primary silt layer within the ditch. Other finds included sherds of souterrain ware and three sherds of E-ware. An outer concentric gully was also detected, 3m outside the ditch, and it may have related to the enclosure.

A souterrain was identified during site clearance work for the Industrial Development Authority in October 1980. Subsequent excavations revealed that it was W-shaped in plan and 21m long. Other features included a small stone U-shaped hut, some pits and a straight trench, which was 1.25m wide and 0.7m deep. The latter appeared to define the northern boundary of the settlement but no evidence for an enclosure was evident. Artefacts recovered in association with the souterrain, hut and trench included over 50 sherds of souterrain ware, an iron belt-buckle, a plain bronze strap-end, struck flint flakes and a small quantity of animal bone. Eight Hiberno-Scandinavian silver pennies, dating to A.D. 995–1000, were also recovered from the fill of the souterrain entrance.

Site 4 at Marshes Upper revealed three souterrains and an enclosure. One of the souterrains (Souterrain C) lay outside the enclosure. Souterrain A was T-shaped in plan and was 40m long. An 11m passage led to a junction where it continued for 18m to the northern chamber and 10m to a western chamber. The passage was between 1m and 1.5m in width and the chambers measured between 1.6m and 2m, and 1.3m and 1.7m respectively. A secondary fill at the entrance contained a high charcoal content, a souterrain ware sherd and a quernstone fragment. Artefacts were absent from the northern and western chambers.

In 1981, excavations occurred at another unenclosed souterrain in advance of the construction of an inner bypass road. The souterrain was S-shaped and measured 20m in length. A doorway, comprised of wooden jambs recessed into the side-walls and mortised into a lintel beam, was present 7m inside the entrance, and the outline of a wooden sill was visible on the floor. The majority of artefacts were recovered from an organic fill at the entrance and included approximately 50 sherds of souterrain ware, about twelve whetstones, a chert leafshaped arrowhead, a small bronze ring-pin and a bronze cruciform belt-buckle tongue with decorated red glass terminals.

Souterrain B was crescent-shaped in plan and 25m long. A primary deposit at the entranceway contained lots of charcoal. An un-calibrated radiocarbon date of A.D. 848±50 was obtained from this fill. A number of finds were also revealed including souterrain ware sherds, a jet bracelet fragment, two hammer stones, a bronze stick pin and a bone comb. The chamber contained a layer of paving slabs and a layer of silt below this produced fragments of souterrain ware and four iron objects.

Excavation in 1982 at the Finnabair Industrial Estate revealed five dry-stone souterrains and associated enclosures known as Marshes Upper 3 and 4. They were situated on two small, but prominent, hillocks less than 60m apart.

Souterrain C was L-shaped and measured 16m in length. A 10m-long passage turned west towards a chamber. A deposit at the entrance produced a large volume of iron slag, a furnace bottom, a bronze mount and sherds of souterrain ware. The latter were from the same pot as

Site 3 consisted of two souterrains (A and B) and an enclosure. Souterrain A was Z-shaped and measured 35m 550

side-chamber was evident to the north. The exposed backfill of the souterrain included occasional charcoal flecks, frequent small greywacke fragments and a lens of ash charcoal. The latter was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 384–694. Two openings enabled access to Passages 1 and 4 but the latter was not recorded as it was unsafe. The portion of Passage 1 measured 7.2m in length, had an average width of 0.95m and was 0.85m high. An opening was revealed that led to the side-chamber. The chamber measured 2.8m east-west by 1.4m north-south and was approximately 1m high. It had rounded corners and corbelled walls. Another passage (Passage 2) was revealed at a higher level. It was 0.95m high and it curved for 8m before terminating at a small beehive chamber. The chamber measured 1.7m in diameter and was 0.7m high. A square opening was revealed in the centre of the floor which formed a drop-hole to Passage 3. This varied in width between 0.8m and 1.1m and in height between 0.55m and 1m. No artefacts were retrieved from the souterrain.

those found in Souterrain B which suggests a contemporary deposition of the finds at both sites. The enclosure at Site 4, like that at Site 3, survived as a very slight feature due to severe truncation of the area. The enclosure completely enclosed Souterrain A while Souterrain B was partially enclosed. Souterrain C lay outside the enclosure to the north. Excavation revealed a 30m length of ditch that averaged 1.5m wide and 0.5m deep. An entrance gap was potentially located to the south. No evidence for a bank survived and the ditch fill was devoid of artefacts except for a bone cylinder fragment. A possible outer ditch was identified 1m outside the enclosure ditch. A large enclosure and souterrain (Marshes Upper Site 5), discovered during the construction of a residential development, was excavated in 1982 on a low hill overlooking Dundalk Bay. The enclosure measured 100m by 80m but much of its upper levels had been destroyed by quarrying. A few fragments of souterrain ware and animal bone were retrieved from the middle ditch fill and there was evidence for some re-cuts to the ditch. No trace of a bank survived. The souterrain was located in the south-eastern area of the enclosure and, like the enclosure ditch, much of it had been destroyed by quarrying. The dry-stone structure consisted of a ramped entrance and the lower courses of a beehive chamber. Fragments of souterrain ware were found in a deposit above the chamber floor and inside the passage entrance.

A number of ditches were revealed across the Dundalk Institute of Technology site that comprised a system of rectangular early medieval fields measuring approximately 50m by 80m. Another larger example measured 102.1m north-south by 64.2m east west and was defined by a 2m-wide ditch which had an average depth of 0.5m. The ditch was re-cut at least three times and the presence of bank-slump material indicated that an up-cast bank may have been partially stone-faced. Finds were evident in the final re-cut and included probable fragments of souterrain ware and small quantities of hazel charcoal and worked flint. The charcoal was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 684–887. Small amounts of flint debitage, iron slag, bloom and a small iron object were also retrieved from the surface of the ditch-fill. Earlier agricultural activity was also present in the form of a cereal-drying kiln. The fire chamber was heavily oxidised around the base and a small alder timber was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 311–548.

Another dry-stone souterrain was revealed during the construction of a basketball court at a school in 1995. It may have been unenclosed, as an area 35m to the east was archaeologically investigated but nothing was found. However, an enclosure may be present a further distance away so it is impossible to say if this was an open or enclosed souterrain. The portion of the souterrain investigated was 10.1m long and consisted of two passages; one was higher and was connected to the lower passage by a drop hole which led to a chamber area. The upper passage was 1.9m long, 0.75m high and 0.95m wide and an air vent was present in the end wall. The lower passage was accessed through the drop hole. It measured 9.4m in length, was 1.45m high and had a maximum width of 1m. The passage broadened at the northern area which formed a chamber which was 1.75m wide. No finds were discovered during excavation.

Excavation also revealed the remains of a post-built oval or U-shaped structure. It was 3.6m wide and at least 3.6m long. There was no evidence of internal divisions or a hearth but the site was heavily truncated so this was not surprising. A number of external pits containing small amounts of charcoal and cremated animal bone were also uncovered and were probably refuse pits. A sample from one of the pits produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 946– 1214.

The most recent excavations in Marshes Upper during the first six months of 2002 – in advance of the construction of playing fields at the Dundalk Institute of Technology – have revealed further evidence for early medieval activity including a souterrain, field systems and a structure.

In conclusion, the townland of Marshes Upper witnessed extensive early medieval settlement and agricultural activity most notably from the seventh century onwards. A cereal-drying kiln and fields were laid out before there was a considerable increase in the use of the land through the construction of at least ten souterrains which were both enclosed and unenclosed.

The dry-stone souterrain was discovered during archaeological monitoring. Its cut was between 2.5m and 3.25m wide and was traced for approximately 60m. It surrounded a central, L-shaped island of natural. A small

551

Fig. G.289: Plan of Marshes Upper 3 & 4 (after Gowen 1992, 57)

Fig. G.290: Plan of Marshes Upper 4 (after Gowen 1992, 76) 552

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-170297

Context Charcoal in souterrain

14C

Beta-170303 Beta-170370

Charcoal from field enclosure re-cut Charcoal from alder timber within cereal-drying kiln

1230±40 BP 1640±60 BP

Beta-170305

Charcoal from pit beside structure

980±70 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 14.5kg iron slag Furnace bottom Iron bloom waste

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working

Date 1480±90 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 384–694; A.D. 703–706; A.D. 748–765 A.D. 684–887 A.D. 255–306; A.D. 311–548 A.D. 898–920; A.D. 946–1214

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Bone cylinder Bone handles

Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron belt buckle Iron knife Bronze strap-end Bronze ring pin Bronze belt buckle with glass-decorated terminals Bronze pin Bronze stick pin Bronze mount 100+ sherds souterrain ware Three sherds of E-ware Jet bracelet fragment 12 whetstones Rubbing stones

Bone combs Bone cylinder fragment Six bone handles Bone spindle whorl Worked antler

‘Small finds’ Table

553

Dates

phase of occupation. The roundhouse associated with the palisade is stratigraphically the most recent sub-keep structure; therefore it must be assumed that the rectangular house is prehistoric, probably Neolithic. The corn-drying kiln is also overlain by cultivation ridges, and it may be assumed that it is contemporary with the last roundhouse.

‘Maynooth Castle’ (Maynooth td), Co. Kildare Grid Ref: N92683867 (292687/238678) SMR No: KD005-015 References: Hayden 1999:405; 2000. Excavations were undertaken for a number of seasons at the keep of Maynooth Castle. A number of archaeological features were discovered under the sub-floor level of the keep, relating to early medieval occupation. Four main structures were identified from this period – a rectangular building; a roundhouse; a corn-drying kiln; and a roundhouse with attached palisade. A rectangular structure was identified, outlined by a series of post-holes, stake-holes and slot-trenches. The east wall measured 4.8m, with a 0.8m gap in the centre, flanked by large post-holes, which represents the doorway. The remaining walls of this structure are not so clearly recognisable. A couple of roundhouses were also identified beneath the keep. These are not synchronous, and the later roundhouse appears to have been associated with an attached palisade trench. This is the clearest prekeep structure, and consists of a single arc of stake-holes for a wattle-walled house, 5m in internal diameter. A double series of stake-holes at the east of the house has been interpreted as a replaced section of walling. A central post-hole, and a set of four internal post-holes, was interpreted as holding roof supports; and a series of stake-holes, inside the building, were interpreted as the remains of an internal division. Both of these roundhouses had associated central hearths. A keyholeshaped corn-drying kiln was also discovered beneath the keep. Carbonised grains of oat and barley were recovered from its fill. The final phase of the pre-keep activity appears to have been agricultural, with a number of cultivation ridges visible. These appear to avoid the last roundhouse, and may therefore be associated with this

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.291: Prehistoric and early medieval structures beneath the keep at Maynooth Castle (after Hayden 2000)

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

554

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Corroded iron objects Corroded bronze objects

Dates

Bead of lignite/jet

‘Small finds’ Table

555

‘Meadowbank’ (Jordanstown td), Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J36198506 (33619/38506) SMR No: ANT 052:047 References: Crothers 1995; undated. The site was a mound, 40m in diameter, raised 4m above the surrounding landscape. The site was located on a gentle south-east facing slope, and was excavated prior to a housing development. Excavation revealed four identifiable phases of occupation. The first phase consisted of the construction of a univallate enclosure surrounded by a large ditch (up to 7.5m wide and 2.5m deep) and a wide bank (up to 5m wide). The entranceway to this site appears to have been flanked by a sequence of large post-holes and two stonelined palisade slots. Several hazel wands recovered from the silted-up ditch of this early phase of occupation have been tentatively interpreted as the collapsed remains of a bank-top palisade. A post-built circular structure and associated iron-working pit, along with other truncated post-holes and pits, appear to have been constructed at this time. A second occupation layer succeeded these features, but left little structural remains.

Fig. G.292: Phase 1 roundhouse at Jordanstown (photo courtesy of N. Crothers) The site was then deliberately raised and a souterrain was built into this mound. Finally the souterrain was deliberately destroyed, but occupation still carried on and is evidenced by structural traces and cobbled surfaces. Finds from the site were dominated by souterrain ware (1,240 sherds), but two lignite bracelets, one perforated whetstone fragment, iron working slag, tuyère fragments, bone pins, bronze dress pin fragments, iron dress pins and an iron spearhead were also recovered.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-4232 UB-4233 UB-4234

Context Charcoal – context 60 Charcoal – context 102 Charcoal – fill 198

14C

UB-4232

Charcoal – context 60

1255±44 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Tuyère fragments Iron slag

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1255±44 BP 1352±49 BP 1511±44 BP

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Bone pins

Industrial Processing Table

556

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 670–875 A.D. 605–773 A.D. 433–496; A.D. 503–636 A.D. 670–875

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron dress pins Iron spear head Bronze dress pins

Dates

1,240 sherds of souterrain ware Two lignite bracelets Whetstone Bone pins

‘Small finds’ Table

557

Millockstown, Co. Louth Grid Ref: N977875 (29770/28750) SMR No: LH017-054 Reference: Manning 1986.

were extended inhumations, aligned with their heads to the west. One of the graves utilised a quern fragment in its construction while objects found in association with the graves, but not deliberate grave-goods, included an iron nail and needle.

An excavation was conducted at Millockstown after work on the land, by the owner, revealed part of a souterrain. The excavation also revealed another souterrain and multi-phase settlement enclosure activity consisting of a D-shaped enclosure, which was replaced by a smaller circular enclosure, and a final, and larger, D-shaped enclosure, which replaced the first two enclosures. The latter was associated with the souterrains and a cemetery. The site was situated on a natural terrace, at 121m OD, near the top of a southward-facing slope. The site was not fully excavated and the archaeological features were identified in a number of trenches across the site.

A word of caution must be assigned to the dating of the burial ground. Many similar sites have shown that the cemetery represented the first phase of activity and that settlement and agriculture then developed. It may be that the unexcavated part of the cemetery contains the earliest graves which could be contemporary with the construction of the first enclosure. A spread within the Phase I enclosure was dated but the ditch was not. The exact chronology of the site remains difficult to determine without radiocarbon dates from the enclosure ditches and burials. Two souterrains were associated with Phase III. Souterrain 1 was of dry-stone construction and consisted of a short curving upper passage which led to a lower passage and a circular corbelled chamber. It was situated outside the Phase I and Phase II enclosures, but within the final enclosure, so may be contemporary with the latter. The second souterrain was situated 40m to the north-west of Souterrain 1. It consisted of a long earth-cut passageway, which contained three major bends, before it reached a large round corbelled chamber. Other features included a trap-like feature, a drop hole and a small side chamber. Three artefacts were retrieved from the first stretch of the passageway and included an iron stick pin, a decorated bronze stick pin and an iron needle. The middle part of the souterrain produced a sharpening stone, flint waster, iron fragments, human bone (probably from disturbed burials) and a decorated bronze toilet implement. Souterrain 2 definitely post-dated the second enclosure because it cut into the backfilled ditch, while it ran parallel with the Enclosure III ditch which suggests the latter was already in existence when the souterrain was constructed.

The Phase I D-shaped enclosure (65m by 56m) was defined by a ditch which averaged 1.4m in width and had a maximum depth of 1.5m. No evidence for a bank survived. It enclosed three spreads of occupation material including a hearth and charcoal. Charcoal from one of the occupation spreads was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 322– 609. The only find from this phase, from another habitation spread, was the terminal and part of the ring of a zoomorphic penannular brooch which dates to the third century. Therefore, based on the brooch and radiocarbon date, it appears that the Phase I enclosure was constructed in the third or fourth century AD. During Phase II, a smaller circular enclosure replaced, and was constructed centrally within, the earlier Dshaped enclosure. It measured 37m in diameter and enclosed a hearth and a spread of carbonised grain. The ditch averaged 2.7m in width and was 1.5m deep and the remains of the bank were evident. The only finds from the ditch were animal bone and a large iron nail. No radiocarbon dates were available for this phase so all that can be surmised is that the enclosure was constructed in between Phase I and Phase III.

A fragment of souterrain ware was recovered in a context that post-dated Enclosure II and this pottery generally dates between the eighth and tenth centuries. The presence of two stick pins, one a club-headed type, also shows that Souterrain II was open between the mid eleventh and thirteenth centuries. The lack of late medieval pottery from the site strongly indicates that the earlier date range should be favoured. Therefore, when the artefactual evidence is combined with the Enclosure III radiocarbon date, the final phase at Millockstown probably occurred between the eighth and eleventh centuries.

Phase III witnessed the construction of a final, and much bigger, D-shaped enclosure which replaced the first two enclosures. It measured 40m by 100m and was associated with two souterrains, a cemetery and two pits. The ditch measured between 2.8m and 4m in width and had a maximum depth of 2m. The only finds from the ditch were animal bones. Charcoal from the ditch returned a very broad radiocarbon date of A.D. 576–1024. The cemetery has been ascribed to the third phase because it cut through the Phase I and Phase II occupation layers. It measured 20m by 12m and was roughly centrally-placed within Enclosure III. It was only partially excavated. The majority of graves were stone- or slab-lined and many cut into earlier ones. The burials

Other archaeological features on the site included two pits, which have been ascribed to Phase III, and possible cultivation furrows, although the dates of the latter are uncertain.

558

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GU-1781

Context Charcoal from Phase I occupation layer

14C

GU-1782

Charcoal from Phase III enclosure ditch

1240±125 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Date 1595±70 BP

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Flax seeds

Needle Spindle whorl

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 260–284; A.D. 322–609 A.D. 576–1024

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron stick pin Iron needle Bronze zoomorphic penannular brooch Bronze stick pin Bronze toilet implement Three bronze ringed pins

Spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

559

Dates

Several distinct areas of craft-working and processing (the Lower Area) were identified at the base of the hill below the farmstead enclosure. From west to east, these were: (i) a long-lived curving ditch incorporating a firepit and water management features; (ii) a series of intercutting linear drainage features possibly dating to Phase II; (iii) a cluster of three craft-huts, one of which replaced an earlier one; and (iv) a short-lived area of casual ironworking. A ditch with a distinctive curve to the west of the larger boundary ditch seems to have been in use for a long period of time. Frequent evidence of maintenance and alterations found along its base demonstrated that it was well maintained. The burnt pit located at the west of the ditch contained numerous episodes of burning noted in the pit fills, which confirms that the pit was used repeatedly and suggests that it was not constructed simply to enclose or for carrying water. The post-holes and deeper gully to the east of the ditch may have formed a structure such as a sluice, to manage and limit the flow of water through the ditch. No evidence for the purpose of the ditch was found, although it must have been used in a process involving both heat and water, perhaps cereal processing of some sort.

Moathill 1, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 28595/26775 SMR No: ME025–023 Reference: Giacometti 2007a. A number of early medieval sites were excavated in the townland of Moathill, Co. Meath. These were identified as Navan 1, Navan 2 and Navan 3, although they are better defined as Moathill 1, 2 and 3. Moathill 1 comprised a defended farmstead residence and numerous additional enclosures around it which were used as animal pens and as spaces for craft-working (blacksmithing, cereal-processing, butchery, etc.). This site can be further divided into the Upper and Lower area. The Upper Area probably represents a small enclosed domestic farmstead, defined by a ditch to the east that followed the hill contours. Based on the limited evidence available, this enclosure appears to have had a diameter of 20m–25m. The main entrance to the enclosure was clearly defined and contained a slot-trench that may have been associated with a gate or similar entrance structure.

This ditch also contained the most interesting (if mixed) artefact assemblage, consisting of several fragments of post-medieval pottery, three tanged iron knives or knife blades and a bone pin. The pin and knives might suggest a broad early medieval date sometime in the first millennium; the settlement appears to have fallen out of use in the ninth century, and was abandoned by the time of the construction of the Anglo-Norman Navan motte.

Inside the settlement enclosure, five fire-pits, fire-pit dumps, occasional post-holes and part of a rectangular structure were identified. Only one artefact was recovered from this portion of the site, a possible bracelet of copper alloy. Two radiocarbon dates from the enclosure and structure returned identical ranges of late sixth century to mid seventh century.

Fig. G.293: Plan of excavated areas at Moathill (after Giacometti 2007a) 560

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-7572 UB-7573 UB-7574

Area Upper Area Upper Area Lower Area – Phase 1

Context C202 – entrance C149 – fill of pit C216 – boundary ditch 239

14C Date 1404±30 BP 1413±30 BP 1203±31 BP

UB-7575

Lower Area – Phase 1

C41- ditch junction C70

1261±31 BP

UB-7576

Lower Area – Phase 1

C16 – fill of ditch 15

1227±31 BP

UB-7577

Lower Area – Phase 1

C124 – fill of post-holes 120-3

1188±33 BP

UB-7578

Lower Area - medieval

C22 – Structure 1 – medieval iron-working hut

365±30 BP

UB-7579

Lower Area – Phase 1

C20 – fill of pit 14

1546±32 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 15kg metallurgical waste (smithing hearth cakes; fragments of tuyères)

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 596–667 A.D. 587–664 A.D. 695–699; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–894; A.D. 927–935 A.D. 669–784; A.D. 787–825; A.D. 840–862 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–884 A.D. 717–743; A.D. 768–899; A.D. 918–953 A.D. 1449–1528; A.D. 1545–1546; A.D. 1551–1634 A.D. 427–584

Radiocarbon Dates 7th/8th C

Bone pin/needle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron object Iron knives Copper-alloy bracelet

Dates

Bone pin/needle

‘Small finds’ Table

561

Moathill 2 & 3, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 28600/26800 SMR No: N/A Reference: Halliday 2006:1612.

enclosure appears to have contained burials and may be broadly contemporary with the occupation of Moathill 1. A kiln and a series of parallel intercutting ditches excavated at the north-east end of the site yielded no datable evidence.

The excavation of Moathill 2 indicated multi-phase activity on the site, with part of two separate enclosures recorded. The first ditch was presumed to be circular in shape and was truncated by a larger rectangular enclosure from which a fragment of bone comb was retrieved. The later ditch is presumed to date to the early medieval period. No definite date was obtained for the earlier ditch, but it is possible that it was prehistoric in date. This

Moathill 3 was located to the south of Site 2 and a number of features of archaeological significance were resolved, including part of a probable prehistoric ringditch burial with central cremation pit, two kilns and a probable early medieval D-shaped enclosure, with evidence of two highly truncated circular structures within the confines of the enclosure and two kilns outside the perimeter.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bone comb fragment

‘Small finds’ Table

562

enclosure ditch. This was identified in Trench 5 and excavated to a depth of 0.6m before being stopped by the height of the water table. The full extent of this feature was not identified during testing and its function was not clear. As with the inner enclosure ditch, finds from the fills were restricted to animal bone.

Mooretown North, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: 31680/24810 SMR No: N/A Reference: Halliday 2004:0651. Testing was carried out as a pre-planning exercise. Eighteen trenches were excavated using a mechanical excavator fitted with a toothless bucket. A series of archaeological features was identified. The results indicated that an enclosure ditch previously identified in the townland of Oldtown and tested by Christine Baker (Baker 2006) should continue through this area.

To the south of the curvilinear feature, another ditch was identified in Trench 4. It was only partially exposed and finds were the same as those retrieved from the other ditches. It was interesting to note that this feature was not identified during the geophysical survey. Also of note in the western field was that the results from the geophysical survey in Oldtown suggested that the outer enclosure ditch should be coming through on the south-eastern side of the western field of this proposed development. However, this was not noted on the recent geophysics or during testing; the location of this ditch remains unclear at present.

The inner enclosure ditch was identified in three trenches (Trenches 1, 2 and 6) and correlated directly with that identified on the geophysical survey. It was only excavated to its base in Trench 1, where it was found to have a maximum depth of 0.9m. Its width at that point was 3m and two fills were identified. The basal fill of the ditch was a thin layer of charcoal-rich silty clay containing animal bone and a sherd of possible souterrain ware, indicating an early medieval date for the feature. Above this basal layer, the main fill was indicative of redeposited natural subsoil containing frequent charcoal and occasional animal bone.

In addition to the above features, a possible rectangular feature was identified on the southeastern side of the inner enclosure ditch. Trench 4 was excavated in order to locate this feature. However, this feature was not identified and its form and function remain unclear at present. Similarly, a number of spikes presented in the geophysics were not identified during the trial testing.

The evidence from the inner enclosure ditch suggests that this feature is probably early medieval in date, although this supposition is based solely on one sherd of probable souterrain ware and an abundance of animal bone. No features were identified on the interior of the ditch to suggest its function.

The results from the trial testing in the eastern field were completely different from those in the western field. The geophysical survey suggested that a possible circular feature existed at the western edge of the field and this was supported by an aerial photograph. A trench was excavated across this area (Trench 12), but no evidence was found for this feature.

Trench 6 yielded a number of other features on the exterior of the inner ditch to indicate that definite human activity was taking place around this feature. Stake-holes, post-holes and pits were all identified, although no artefacts were retrieved from them to suggest a date range.

The only features in the eastern field comprised a drain running north-south in the north-west corner of the field and modern plastic pipes in the southeastern corner of the field. No features or deposits of archaeological significance were identified in this field.

A possible curvilinear feature was identified during the geophysical survey to the south-east of the inner Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

563

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

564

further 262 individuals were buried and some of the thirdphase graves were re-opened to accommodate further burials. The ditch produced less domestic waste than its predecessor. Its upper fill contained butchered animal bone and numerous small finds including a rare sherd of D-ware which dates to the sixth century. Part of the newly-expanded enclosure remained burial-free during Phases III and IV which suggests the former presence of a structure or perhaps some form of activity that left no trace archaeologically.

‘Mount Offaly’, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O23302420 (32330/22420) SMR No: DU026-119 Reference: Conway 1999. Excavation in advance of the construction of an Esso service station revealed a large multi-phase enclosed cemetery. The site remains undated but it probably originated during the late Iron Age. It is difficult to determine when it fell out of use. It appears that the cemetery began as an ancestral burial place and was then taken over by the Church. The large number of interments suggests it was utilised over many centuries, and potentially into the later middle ages. The burial ground contained 1,553 burials as well as disarticulated remains and charnel pits. Settlement, on the site or in the vicinity, was evident from numerous dress items, functional objects, imported pottery, butchered animal bone and areas of cobbling. Evidence for industry included a furnace and associated hearth. Excavation only revealed a section of the site and further burials and features undoubtedly lie outside the excavated area.

The cemetery expanded in size again during Phase V to incorporate further burial. The middle ditch was filled-in and a third and final outer enclosure was created. It was positioned between 8m and 9m east of the former middle enclosure and its fill was mostly sterile apart from numerous stones. At least 424 burials and a unique charnel pit were associated with Phase V. The latter contained at least three individuals and the bones were carefully and deliberately positioned around a millstone base. Potential settlement evidence was identified and included several areas of cobbling, significant deposits of butchered animal bone, domestic waste and small finds. Iron-working was also present. A furnace and associated hearth were built over the former middle ditch and they contained dump deposits and iron-working debris including large amounts of slag and several iron objects.

Twenty individuals were associated with the first burial phase at Mount Offaly. They were all extended W-E inhumations and were well-spaced and consistently aligned on the same axis. No grave-goods or finds were associated with this phase, which remains undated, but the cemetery probably originated during the late Iron Age (see below).

The final phase was associated with at least 450 burials. The outer enclosure was filled-in and a large cobbled area was constructed that partly overlay the final back-filled ditch.

Phase II included 48 burials. Conway associates the inner ditch with this phase but it may have been constructed for the first phase of interment. A bone pin was retrieved from the primary fill and E-ware, dating between the mid sixth and seventh centuries, came from a secondary fill. A 6.5m stretch of the ditch was filled with dark occupation soil and included a large quantity of butchered animal bone and a double-sided bone comb. Further animal bone and E-ware fragments were identified in the upper fill. Therefore, the ditch was open prior to the mid sixth or seventh centuries. Also, the site name suggests the former presence of a mound and this is strengthened by accounts of a mound on the site in the early twentieth century. Based on evidence from many other mound, or ferta, sites and settlement-cemeteries, Mount Offaly probably originated during prehistory and most likely in the Iron Age.

A large variety of artefacts, indicative of settlement, craft and trade, were retrieved from the inner and middle ditch fills at Mount Offaly. These included ringed pins, stick pins, belt buckles, glass beads and bone combs. The presence of spindle whorls, bone pin-beaters and iron shears testify to cloth or textile manufacture. Evidence for woodworking included gouges, chisels, punches and knives. Bone and antler working was also identified from bone blanks and antler tines and burrs. The status of Mount Offaly, notably during the sixth and seventh centuries, is evident from its imported pottery including Late Roman Amphora (B-ware), D-ware, and E-ware. The inner and middle ditches also produced large quantities of butchered animal bone which testify to the processing and consumption of meat at the site or nearby. Perhaps the site developed from its inception as a ferta into a larger settlement-cemetery. Religious-type artefacts were uncovered including box or book mounts and a composite bronze cross. The lack of domestic evidence from the final enclosure may suggest that the site functioned solely as a cemetery by this stage and was under the control of the Church. When this changeover occurred, however, is unclear and the findings from the final report should clarify a number of these issues.

During Phase III, the inner ditch was back-filled and burials extended over this area. At least 120 individuals were buried during the third phase. The cemetery expanded as far as the second or middle ditch which was between 2m and 3.5m further east of the original enclosure. The numbers interred within the confines of the middle enclosure ditch greatly increased during Phase IV. A

565

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron-working furnace Iron slag Copper-alloy slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates Between Phases 5 and 6

Blue glass rod fragment

Wood-working tools Bone blanks Antler tines Shears Pin-beaters Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery

Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Shears

Dates

Sherd of PRSW Sherd of LRA2 Sherd of D-ware 19 sherds of E-ware

Bone comb fragment Bone pin-beaters

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

566

identified to the west of the site. One possible charcoalproduction pit was located further east. This was subrectangular in shape and measured 0.7m long by 0.36m wide and 0.1m deep. The fill was black/brown silt sand and there was evidence of burning in situ at the base. A total of nine coarse pottery sherds were recovered from the deposit, along with charcoal and some burnt bone.

Moyle Big, Co. Carlow Grid Ref: 27722/17351 SMR No: N/A References: Hughes 2006:195; Kyle et al 2009. The site was excavated as part of the N9/N10 road scheme. Excavation on the site revealed a total of fifteen possible features. A number of pits identified were quite substantial but contained little of diagnostic value. Two small, shallow linear pits were located to the west of the site, 0.28m from each other. Both pits were circular in shape. The first measured 0.45m long by 0.4m wide and 0.16m deep; the second measured 0.47m long by 0.34m wide and 0.16m deep. They were filled with brown/black sandy silt with inclusions of charcoal, slag and stone. There was no evidence of burning in situ.

A large pit measuring 1.14m long by 1m wide and 0.51m deep was located 5m to the south of the feature mentioned above. It contained two deposits, a lower midbrown silt sand with stone and gravel inclusions and an upper mid-brown/grey silt clay. A total of 253 sherds of possible medieval pottery, along with 150 pottery crumbs, were recovered from the upper fill. Other finds from this deposit included one corroded metal fragment, two possible worked stone tools, two small fragments of bone and a composite bone comb. This pit was identified as the substantial medieval pit discovered during testing.

Three shallow burnt spreads with burning in situ were

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware?

Bone comb

‘Small finds’ Table

567

Moylederg Island, (Greenan td), Co. Donegal Grid Ref: 19708/38480 SMR No: DG085-003 Reference: Davies 1946. Moylederg Island or Inishgarve lies at the north end of Lough Eske, under the shelter of the Blue Stack Mountains. Settlement was confined to the top of the island, which is roughly of oval form, rising rather more than 1.5m above the normal summer lake-level. The sides and north-eastward projection are fairly steep, with a good many protruding boulders. The stones at the base of the south side seemed to form a rough kerb, which may have been set intentionally. Below the mound is a gravelly beach with a more gentle slope, covered by the lake when in flood.

Fig. G.295: Miscellaneous finds from Moylederg (after Davies 1946, fig. 3)

Fig. G.294: Plan of excavations at Moylederg Island, Lough Eske (after Davies 1946, fig. 2)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère fragment

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table 568

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Three iron blades Iron objects

Dates

Four blue glass beads Souterrain ware Shale arm-ring

‘Small finds’ Table

569

timbers, some re-used. There were also gravel spreads on the east side of the crannog, potentially the earliest of the early medieval occupation layers. At the south side of the crannog, there was a stone hearth, with a C-shaped arc around it. Finds from the vicinity of the hut included Eware (sixth/mid seventh-century imported pottery), an iron shield boss, and a rectangular bronze mount (similar to the escutcheons on the Sutton Hoo hanging bowl). Finds from the gravel spread included two Merovingian glass bottles and a bronze spatula for removing their contents, both being sixth/seventh century in date. At the south side, there were bone combs and amber beads.

Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N81988555 (281980/285559) SMR No: ME005-099 References: Bradley 1982–83; 1984a; 1984b; 1985–86; 1987:39; 1990–91; 1991; 1993;1994–95; 1997; 1999; 2011. Moynagh Lough, Co. Meath, is the most significant early medieval crannog excavated in Ireland in modern times, having been the subject of a long-term programme of excavations since the 1980s by John Bradley. The site had been occupied in the Late Mesolithic and in the early and late Bronze Age, followed by a hiatus in the Iron Age. In the early medieval period, there were several phases of occupation from the late sixth to the ninth century AD, with a sequence of palisades, circular houses and evidence for on-site metalworking, the trade of exotic goods, diet and economy.

Phase V is represented by a group of refuse layers, but no structures are reported. The phase is interpreted as dating to the mid to late seventh century AD. Finds included a rim-sherd of E-ware, a bronze disc-pendant pin, a bronze penannular brooch with birds’ head terminals, doublesided bone combs, glass beads and a leather shoe. Phase W was occupied c. AD 690–720. It had a small circular house or workshop (3m in diameter), with an entrance to the east; a hearth with rectangular stone settings was present within the foundation layers of the house. The occupation surface of the crannog was a thick layer of charcoal-flecked soil and ash, sometimes compact with charcoal and bones, sometimes grey and smooth with burnt bones, charcoal and iron flecks. A significant industrial feature included a pit, cut into the peat and filled with ash. A layer of gravel was spread over the pit and a stone-lined rectangular hearth was built upon it. The hearth was surrounded by post-holes, probably from a spit, with a pit to one side (in which was a large rotary quern fragment). There was also a bowl furnace, being a keyhole-shaped pit set in gravel and lined with mud, which had been carefully back-filled with sand. There was also a series of un-phased middens outside the site’s Palisade 2 on the north, east and west sides. These layers of habitation debris were evidently the ‘rubbish tip’ of the crannog. They were rich in animal bones, and they also produced a large number of small finds, including a penannular brooch, small pieces of gold filigree and objects of wood and leather, including a separate-bladed shovel.

The early medieval crannog was situated at the southern edge of a former lake on the River Dee, overlooked by hills and slopes to the south and west. The site was sheltered from south-west winds and was snugly placed inside one corner of the lake with good views to the north and north-east. It seems that the muddy knolls and artificially-constructed mounds of peat occupied in the Mesolithic and Bronze Age remained as lake shallows beside the deepest part of the lake, making it a good location for crannog construction. There are several substantial early medieval enclosures on the neighbouring drylands, notably those to the immediate west at Lissanard, Lissnacross and Cherbourg Wood. An AngloNorman motte at Nobber to the north may also have its origins in the early medieval period, perhaps being originally an early medieval raised enclosure. Other sites in the environs include several crannogs, an early medieval church site at Nobber, a potential unenclosed settlement at a souterrain at Ballynee, as well as possible horizontal mills on the River Dee. There were at least six phases of occupation in the early medieval period, each marked by a re-deposited layer of peat and possibly representing a generation of activity. The crannog varied in form through these five phases of occupation, but in general terms it measured 40m by 32m. The sub-structure consisted of stones, gravelly earth, timbers, brushwood and re-deposited peat. Piles were driven into the ground both outside the crannog (to a distance of 10m out from the western side) and within, to retain the foundation layers.

Phase X (probably dating c. AD 720–748) was primarily significant for the evidence for metalworking and industrial production that it produced. The crannog’s occupation surface was built of a basal layer of redeposited peat laid on the site, on top of which a roundhouse was located between two metalworking areas (1 and 2). There was also an entrance to the crannog on the northeast side, with a timber pathway laid on peat, one re-used timber providing a dendrochronological date of AD 625. The house was circular, with a double postand-wattle wall, and measured about 7.5m in diameter. Its floor surface was of re-deposited peat and ashes, although this had mostly been removed. Metalworking Area 1 was situated between the house and the entrance and was defined by a spread of charcoal, 4.2m by 4m and 0.06m in thickness, with thick chunks of charcoal, earth and ash mixed in. There was also a cesspit (1.7m by 1.3m) at the

Phase U was the earliest phase in the early medieval period, probably dating to the late sixth to seventh centuries AD. It has produced an early medieval occupation horizon, with a hut and pathway that apparently pre-date the main palisade construction (as both are cut by it). There was a small circular hut (3m in diameter), with an arc of post-and-wattles (2.9m by 1.9m), a charcoal-rich floor, and a spud-stone to hold a door at the south side. There was also a pathway running away from the house, 4m in length, consisting of 32 flat 570

bone comb plates, glass beads, eight jet bracelet fragments, a bone gaming piece, 114 pieces of flint (many being strike-a-lights) and a bronze drinking-horn terminal. The second house was smaller, approximately 5.2m in diameter, and also had a stone-lined hearth, but the occupation layer was less apparent. There was a bowl-shaped furnace to the west of the house, lined with lake marls. Finds associated with the furnace included three complete crucibles, 50 crucible sherds, three heating trays, a clay mould fragment, baked clay nozzles and a bronze ingot. Many of the crucibles bore evidence of being held by an iron tongs.

edge of the metalworking area, re-cut on two occasions, which produced layers of dung interspersed with layers of straw and leaves. Finds from Metalworking Area 1 included a pottery vessel, pieces of baked clay, crucible sherds, fragments of two-piece clay moulds and motifpieces. There was also an iron stake, used for beating metal. Metalworking Area 2 was larger and was found to the west of the house. It produced four major features: a furnace, a stone-lined area of clay, a spread of compacted pebbles and a dump of metalworking debris. These features were all clearly permanent, intended for re-use, as the furnace was filled with sand and gravel, enabling people to return to work there. Finds from Metalworking Area 2 included slag, a whetstone, eight flints, a lump of yellow enamel, amber beads and chips, a bronze pin and button, two iron knives, a head of a bone pin and two cut pieces of horn. There were also 67 crucible sherds, three heating trays and 600 mould fragments (1.7kg in total weight). They included 400 featureless mould fragments, 100 plain impressed pieces and 60 decorated pieces. The moulds were used for the production of brooches, mounts, studs (of types found on decorated shrines) and other decorated objects. Ingots were introduced onto the site, placed in crucibles, melted in the furnace and poured into the moulds. The furnace was used on at least eight occasions. The moulds may have been cooled nearby on the pebbled area; post-casting work and mould-making may have been carried out on a pink clay and cobbled spread. The spatial organisation of the metalworkers’ areas can thus be recognised.

Phase Z (probably dating c. AD 780–810) was the uppermost surviving occupation surface, and had been greatly disturbed by modern bulldozing during attempted land reclamation in the 1980s. There were the remains of an oak palisade, a foundation layer of re-deposited peat and a single charcoal spread. The palisade was constructed of young oak roundwood trunks. These posts probably had wattles woven around them where they stood above the ground. The crannog would have been 36m–40m across. Finds from this layer included three tanged iron knives, two complete crucibles and sherds of others, part of a rotary quernstone, a bone comb fragment, a glass bead, a chunk of amber and four jet bracelet fragments. Moynagh Lough is both a well-preserved multi-period archaeological site and a remarkable example of an early medieval Irish crannog. The archaeological evidence of a large house, fine metalwork and imported items suggest that Moynagh Lough was a high-status settlement, particularly by the mid eighth century AD. Recent historical research suggests that Moynagh Lough itself may be identified as a place known as Loch Dé Mundech and that its crannog may well have been an aristocratic or lordly site of the Mugdorne. Its long-term excavation has revealed several important things about early medieval settlement continuities, on-site domestic and industrial activities, and the status and lives of its inhabitants. The crannog was apparently occupied continuously c. AD 600–810, a period of some two hundred years. Although there may have been short phases of abandonment, it seems that every generation or so, the entire crannog was reconstructed and ever-larger houses placed upon it.

In Phase Y (dated c. AD 748–780), the crannog had two roundhouses, a large oak palisade and a furnace-pit, with finds including crucibles, a clay mould, clay nozzles and a bronze ingot. The palisade was of hewn and cleft oak tightly placed together in a U-shaped trench. The palisade construction dates to AD 748 and therefore comes at least 180 years after the first occupation of the site. The palisade revets a layer of re-deposited peat upon which the houses were constructed. The largest house (Roundhouse 1) was a substantial circular structure, 11.2m in external diameter (10m internal diameter) with double walls and a penannular-shaped, laid foundation of reddish-brown gravel internally and an external ridge 0.26m in width and 0.15m in thickness. There were at least 250 internal posts, representing internal partitions, beds and benches. There were several phases of hearths, and 20 spreads of ash and animal bone (rake-outs from the hearth) were scattered through the occupation layer. The floor deposits were thickest (up to 0.12m in thickness) on the south side near the hearths, and were thinnest on the north side. The earliest hearth was substantial, being a stone-lined rectangular hearth, and was followed by fireplaces added to the east. Most of the spreads of animal bone were usually found in the vicinity of these hearths. Finds from the large roundhouse included eight tanged iron knives, three iron key handles, a socketed iron spearhead, a bone spear-point, stone hones, iron nails, and spindle whorls. The house also produced such finds as a bronze pseudo-penannular ring, a spiral-headed bronze ring, two ringed iron pins, balland spatula-headed bone pins, two bronze finger rings,

The site seems to have been used both for domestic occupation and for various metalworking practices. The presence of furnaces, copper-ingots, crucibles, heating trays and baked clay nozzles strongly indicates on-site metal production (melting bronze and smelting copper and tin) and the numerous clay mould fragments indicate that a wide range of bronze artefacts was actually being made at Moynagh Lough. Amber, gold wire and enamel found on the site indicate the production of fine jewellery. There was also some iron working on the site since slag, a furnace base and hydrated ferric oxide were found within the large house. Other crafts practised onsite include the working of wood, leather, bone and antler, while there may also have been glass working, as glass rods, a vitrified glass bracelet and an unfinished 571

glass bead are known. The crannog dwellers obtained several other fine items through long-distance trade networks, such as the Merovingian glass vessels, jet bracelets, amber and tin.

had passed their prime, while male calves were slaughtered at a young age. Most of the cattle were slaughtered elsewhere and dressed meat taken on to the site for feasting or normal daily food consumption. It is clear that the surrounding rolling hills provided good grazing land for large herds of cattle. The presence of rotary querns on the crannog also suggests some measure of arable farming. It is likely that the crannog was being provisioned by the inhabitants of the ringforts and enclosed settlements found around the local lakeshore.

The diet and economy of the site has been revealed by studies of the large faunal assemblage. There were large numbers of cattle, pig and sheep, with smaller numbers of horse, red deer, cat and dog. Dairy cows predominated in the bovine bone record and were only killed when they

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Furnaces Slag Crucible sherds 600+ two-piece mould fragments Three motif pieces Clipped and hammered gold Gold wire Bronze ingot

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Lump of yellow enamel Coil-built vessel Unfinished quernstones Five amber chips Cut pieces of bone Cut pieces of antler Shoe Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Spear-head Iron knives Iron tongs Bronze spatula Bronze pins Bronze penannular brooch Gold filigree panel Merovingian glass bottles Glass beads E-ware sherds Coil-built vessel Jet bracelet fragments Rotary quernstones Amber bead Wooden bucket Bone combs Bone pins Worked antler pieces Leather shoe

Dates

6th/7th C 6th/7th C

‘Small finds’ Table

572

Moyne, Co. Mayo Grid Ref: M255674949 (125678/249491) SMR No: MA123-060002 Reference: Manning 1987. The site consisted of a large enclosure (135m by 125m) and a ruined church, surrounded by a stone wall, set on a patch of pasture located between a bog and rocky terrain. Aerial photographs of the site showed that the interior of the enclosure had been subdivided by a system of earthworks. The graveyard was still in use, and the site was excavated after purchase by Mayo County Council required the provision of an access road. A series of trenches was excavated inside the enclosure. These trenches cut across some of the internal features revealing that some were post-medieval field walls, but also that some were early medieval ditches. The ditches may have been associated with the ecclesiastical site; however, it is also possible that they were associated with an earlier secular site, which the excavator argues may have preceded the foundation of the church site.

Fig. G.296: Plan of excavated area at Moyne (after Manning 1987, 46)

Finds from these trenches included a number of undiagnostic objects, but nevertheless the types of artefacts which are generally associated with early medieval sites – four iron knives; a piece of worked bone; iron slag; a piece of sheet bronze; an iron pruning hook; half of a set of iron shears; and an iron disc-headed pin. Quantities of animal bone recovered from the trenches are dominated by cattle and pig, although a large number of red deer bones were also found on site, as well as sheep, horse, otter, cat and dog.

Fig. G.297: Bone and antler objects from Moyne (after Manning 1987, fig. 10) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. GU-1783

14C Date 1090±85 BP

Context Human bone from lintel grave

573

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 713–745; A.D. 767–1057; A.D. 1076–1154

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Unfinished bone pin Antler cut-offs Shears

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Four iron knives Pruning hook Iron shears Disc-headed pin Sheet bronze fragment

Dates

Bone pins Two antler handles

‘Small finds’ Table

574

the thirteen post-holes discovered in the interior could not be reconciled with a structure.

Mullaghbane, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H38526613 (23852/36613) SMR No: TYR 042:004 Reference: Harper 1972a. The site consisted of a univallate enclosure (47m by 36m) that was under threat of destruction because of farm improvements. Excavation through the bank of the enclosure identified three phases of construction, separated by thin lenses of weathered clay. A layer of charcoal was identified on top of the ancient interior ground surface, and this could also be traced over the top of the first phase of bank construction, and was sealed by the second phase. Unfortunately no radiocarbon date was produced for this layer. The nature of preservation of the charcoal layer, however, suggests that the second phase of bank construction occurred soon after the burning incident. Excavations in the interior of the enclosure revealed a ‘pear-shaped’ gully (the drip-gully for a roundhouse), which was constructed after the second bank phase. This gully was later cut into by a refuse pit which contained two large deposits of iron slag (including a furnace bottom), and an oaken plank. Another possible gully feature was partially excavated in the interior; and the foundations of a stone-walled feature were also identified. The function or form of either of these structures, however, could not be identified. Similarly,

Fig. G.298: Excavated features at Mullaghbane (after Harper 1972a, 38)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-268 UB-390

Context Humic acid from upper 20mm of soil below bank Humic acid from lower 40mm of soil below bank

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnace bottom

14C

Date 825±85 BP 1715±100 BP

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

575

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1024–1295 A.D. 85–111; A.D. 115–544

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Two glass beads Three fragments of shale bracelet

‘Small finds’ Table

576

pits, filled with animal bones and charcoal, rather than structural post-holes. Very few finds were recovered from the interior. These consisted of a stone spindle whorl; an iron object; a piece of iron slag; and a flint flake.

Narraghmore, Co. Kildare Grid Ref: N788001 (27880/20010) SMR No: KD032-029 Reference: Fanning 1972. The site consisted of a triple-banked enclosure, with two intervening ditches, which enclosed an area 55m by 70m. The enclosure was set on top of a ridge, and had been largely destroyed by gravel extraction. Excavation was required as future quarrying threatened to destroy the entire site. Excavation through the banks and ditches revealed that the cores of the banks were constructed from the up-cast from the ditches. The outer bank appeared to have had an internal stone revetment, and a palisade trench was identified along the top of the inner bank. There was some evidence of pre-enclosure activity in the form of two fire-pits which were discovered beneath these banks.

Fig. G.299: Plan of Narraghmore (after Fanning 1972, 170)

Only a small portion of the interior survived to be excavated. A number of small pits were discovered in the occupation layer, but these appear to have been rubbish

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J. R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. P2412 P2413

14C Date 1580±170 BP 1945±60 BP

Context Sod layer buried by bank Sod layer buried by bank

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

577

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 68–777 89–74 B.C.; 57 B.C.–A.D. 225

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron object

Dates

Spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

578

above a bend on the Blackwater River. It was enclosed by three concentric ditches and large quantities of animal bone were recovered from each. Three phases of activity were recorded. Phase I consisted of a large number of post-holes and similar features that represented one or more buildings which had burnt down. A kerbed platform measuring approximately 2m by 3m was constructed during Phase II and large quantities of iron slag, iron bloom and two iron knives were recovered. Coarse gravel was spread over the resultant heightened mound during Phase III, and artefacts included bone combs, bone needles, stick pins, a barrel padlock, a blue glass bead and jet rings.

Nevinstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N85016872 (285017/268725) SMR No: ME025-004; ME025-043 Reference: Cahill 1977/79:059. Excavation in advance of a mining development at Nevinstown revealed a range of features spanning prehistory until the post-medieval period. The earliest was an urn burial, while a late medieval cross and a potential post-medieval cillín burial ground represented the most recent activity. An unenclosed souterrain denotes early medieval activity while a mound, enclosed by three ditches, may date to the early and/or later middle ages.

The function and chronology of the mound remains unclear without radiocarbon dates. The large quantities of animal bone from each enclosing ditch suggest a settlement aspect as does the presence – although not clearly defined – of a number of buildings from Phase I. Phase II was possibly a smith’s forge based on the finds, while the domestic nature of the artefacts from Phase III suggests a settlement function. The finds from Phase III could conceivably date from the early or late medieval periods but a lack of medieval pottery from the site seemingly favours an earlier date. Another possibility is that this was originally a raised early medieval settlement that was re-used by the Anglo-Normans.

The souterrain (ME025-004), which appeared to be unenclosed, was in very poor condition and it was only possible to determine that a passage approximately 12m long led into a roughly circular beehive-type chamber. It survived to a height of three or four courses because most of the building material had been robbed. Habitation evidence in the immediate area was slight, consisting only of a pit which contained two fragments of a saddle quern. A flat-topped mound (ME025-043) was situated in proximity to the souterrain, at the end of a gravel ridge Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Iron bloom

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone needles

Bone needles

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Two iron knives

Dates

Blue glass bead ‘Jet’ rings

Bone combs Bone needles

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 579

Newcastle 2, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 276493/240661 SMR No: N/A References: O’Hara 2008b; Photos-Jones 2008d. This site was identified during the assessment phase of works prior to the M4 development, and features were spread over two fields. A bowl furnace, a refuse pit, a circular pit/post-hole, a hearth, a possible corn-drying kiln and a number of patches of oxidised clay were exposed. The hearths and pits yielded no cultural material, nor any faunal remains that would be indicative of cooking or domestic use. The fill of the hearth had a relatively large amount of charcoal (60% of deposit) towards the base, and given its proximity to the furnace, it is suggested that this feature may have been used for roasting the ore, although no ore fragments were found during excavation.

Fig. G.300: Plan of excavated areas at Newcastle 2 (after O’Hara 2008b)

The bowl furnace was also not found in association with any dwelling or structural remains, although a possible post-hole was located to the south. Large quantities of slag, a number of small metal globules, and a slag pit (25% of the fill represented slag) located around the furnace suggest that it was used on a regular basis. The base of the kiln was partially oxidised along its northern, eastern and western ends. At the base of the cut were four small shallow stake-holes positioned in a rough diamond shape. The stake-holes may have acted as a support rack, although it is unlikely they would have supported any significant weight. The primary deposit at the eastern end of the feature was a dense layer of pure charcoal, much of which remained as intact pieces of wood, some of which resembled planking. This feature was provisionally interpreted as a cereal-drying kiln; however, no charred seed remains or any environmental material was recovered from the processed samples and a reinterpretation may be necessary.

Fig. G.301: Plan of furnace complex area at Newcastle 2 (after O’Hara 2008b)

A number of features, either patches of oxidised clay or small cut features with traces of in situ burning, were noted in all areas across the site and interpreted as hearths. None of these features contained any cultural material or evidence of domestic use and were not, except where indicated, associated with further archaeological remains. They appear to be non-domestic outdoor hearths. It is possible that some may be nonarchaeological in nature, and it is also possible that some of the larger examples may have been used for the provision of charcoal for either the kiln or furnace.

Fig. G.302: Plan of kiln area at Newcastle 2 (after O’Hara 2008)

580

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-177439 Beta-177440

Context C002 – Bowl furnace C006 – Isolated hearth

Date 1040±60 BP 990±50 BP

Beta-177441

Charcoal from kiln

850±40 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Bowl furnace Slag

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 883–1156 A.D. 902–916; A.D. 968–1168 A.D. 1046–1092; A.D. 1120–1140; A.D. 1148–1266

Radiocarbon Dates A.D. 883–1168

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

581

situated in the centre of the enclosure. It was defined by a slot-trench measuring a maximum of 11m by 9m internally. Charcoal from the slot-trench and from the central oak post-hole produced calibrated two-sigma dates of A.D. 765–1017 and A.D. 855–1274.

Newtown, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R62555585 (162550/155850) SMR No: N/A References: Coyne 2001; 2005; 2006; 2011; Coyne & Collins 2003.

A large number of pits and post-holes were identified in the southern part of the interior of the building, which was partly delineated by a shallow east-west linear trench. Very little stratigraphic evidence survived and no distinct occupation layers were identified within its interior. The fill of the linear trench produced a green glass bead with yellow paste herringbone decoration, and a shallow pit north of this trench contained a dark blue glass bead. A hone-stone was recovered from the building’s central post-hole. The slot-trench of the building produced part of a glass armlet with white decoration, an iron knife, a socketed iron implement, a flint scraper, some horse teeth and the top of an adult human skull (aged about thirty). The last three finds were tentatively interpreted as a possible foundation deposit during the building’s construction.

Newtown A, excavated in advance of the proposed Limerick Southern Ring Road, revealed an eighth/eleventh-century sub-triangular enclosure with internal buildings, pits and other features. Prior Bronze Age activity was represented by two houses situated to the north of the enclosure as well as a flat cremation cemetery, while the ditch of another undated possible enclosure (Newtown E) was excavated 25m to the west. Newtown A was previously unrecorded and discovered during test-trenching on a crest of a hill (30m OD) in an otherwise generally low-lying landscape, east of Limerick city. The first phase of activity appears to have centred on an early Bronze Age flat cemetery and includes two houses (A and B), large pits and possible burnt mound material. Fragments of at least seven funerary pots (Vase Urn tradition) containing the cremated remains of at least three individuals were uncovered, mostly from a series of inter-cutting pits in the south-western corner of the early medieval enclosure.

A circular structure defined by another slot-trench, 5m in diameter, was situated to the north of the figure-of-eight building and had been badly truncated by later drainage activity. No dating evidence was recovered from this structure.

Two roughly U-shaped buildings were excavated on the north side of the main enclosure and appear to have been associated with the flat cemetery. They contained internal hearths and were defined by slot-trenches and post-holes. Prehistoric pottery was recovered from hearths and pits associated with these structures. Three features – a pit with early Bronze Age pottery, areas of burning with charcoal and cremated bone and a deposit of charcoal and burnt stone – were uncovered to the immediate north of the main enclosure, 10m from the Bronze Age structures. Newtown A had maximum dimensions of 40m by 50m, and the enclosing ditch was V-shaped in profile and averaged 3m in width. The basal fill of the enclosing ditch produced a calibrated two-sigma date of A.D. 778– 1032. Charcoal from an upper fill of the enclosing ditch produced a calibrated two-sigma date of A.D. 1018–1295 and may date the final levelling of the site. The ditch was partly surrounded on its eastern and northern sides by a narrow trench (0.5m in width), interpreted as an external palisade slot-trench. No earthen internal enclosing bank was identified.

Fig. G.303: Plan of excavated features at Newtown A (after Coyne 2005, 53) One large pit situated to the south-west of the figure-ofeight building revealed a flint blade and a quantity of charcoal. A possible drain defined by a large linear cut ran across the upper layer of the fill of this pit and appears to have originated in the slot-trench of the central building. A number of pit features were recorded to the west of the figure-of-eight building, but none contained any finds or had any stratigraphic relationship with each other.

The eastern enclosure entrance was formed by a 5m-wide un-dug portion of the ditch and was revetted in places by stone facing. A series of post-holes and a slot-trench were excavated immediately inside the entrance and were interpreted as the remains of some form of gatehouse. A cobbled area in the entranceway had been repaired or resurfaced on at least one occasion.

A cluster of undated pits and post-holes was excavated to the east of main enclosure (A) though none of the features had any stratigraphic relationships to each other.

A figure-of-eight structure comprising a large semicircular structure with an attached northern annex was 582

A cluster of four other pits to the immediate east of the main enclosure (A) were filled with burnt stone and were identified as pot-boilers or possible roasting pits. No finds were associated with any of these features.

enclosure. No diagnostic finds were recovered from the fill of the ditch, nor was any charcoal retrieved. The ditch cut an area of burnt stones, tentatively identified as the remains of a fulacht fiadh. Two sherds of a possible Vase Urn were recovered from a large pit 15m west of the burnt deposit, and were possibly related to it. The eastern side of the curving ditch was in turn cut by a modern field boundary.

Newtown E was situated 25m to the west of the main enclosure and consisted of a curving ditch feature, possibly forming part of a large sub-rectangular Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-182313

Context Holly (Ilex) charcoal from slot-trench of figure-ofeight building

14C Date 1150±70 BP

Beta-182314

Oak (Quercus) charcoal from central post-hole of figure-of-eight building

970±120 BP

Beta-182317

Blackthorn (Prunus spp) charcoal from base of enclosure ditch Blackthorn (Prunus spp) from upper fill of enclosure ditch

1090±60 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 694–702; A.D. 705–748; A.D. 765–1017 A.D. 782–789; A.D. 810–847; A.D. 855–1274 A.D. 778–1032

840±90 BP

A.D. 1018–1295

Beta-182323

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife

Dates

Blue glass armlet Green glass bead Blue glass bead Hone stone

‘Small finds’ Table 583

The souterrain was located 5m to the south-west of enclosure and it followed the incline of the hill down to the south. It measured 46m in length and consisted of a number of galleries, rectangular and corbelled chambers, a drop hole and an entrance way which featured one large internal door with jambs and a locking arrangement. Another interesting component of the souterrain was the reuse of a piece of decorated megalithic art as a capstone near the entrance to Gallery 3.

Newtownbalregan, Co. Louth Grid Ref: J02150892 (302156/308928) SMR No: N/A References: Bayley 2003:1286; Roycroft 2005. Newtownbalregan 6, excavated in advance of the M1 motorway, consisted of a circular enclosed settlement and an external souterrain which were situated on a high ridge overlooking the Castletown and Kilcurry river valley. Artefacts from the enclosed settlement suggest occupation between the seventh and tenth centuries and the souterrain may be contemporary, as they typically date between the eighth and tenth centuries. Contemporary excavated settlements in proximity to Newtownbalregan 6 included Carn More (Delaney 2003; Roycroft 2005), Tateetra (Hayes 2006), Balriggan (Delaney 2010) and Faughart Lower (Bowen 2008). The enclosure measured 46m in internal diameter and had an overall diameter of approximately 52m. A causewayed entrance, 5m wide, was located on its eastern side. The enclosure ditch measured between 2m and 4m in width and had a maximum depth of 1.5m. It produced, notably on its southern side, a number of artefacts indicative of settlement including a copper-alloy penannular brooch, two stick pins, three decorated glass beads and a knife. Animal bone was more plentiful in the western part of the ditch so this may have been close to where butchering and meat processing occurred. Items of a functional nature, within the ditch fills, included 32 fragments of souterrain ware and large numbers of worked flint. Further evidence for habitation was present within the southern area of the enclosure. This consisted of a series of post-holes and pits, some of which were truncated by each other, but no recognisable structural plan could be identified.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.304: Souterrain at Newtownbalregan (after Roycroft 2005, 73)

Indirect Evidence

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

584

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife Copper-alloy brooch Two copper-alloy stick pins Three glass beads 32 sherds of souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

585

Dates

notches. This was covered with substructural layers of clay, peat and stones, buttressed by heavy timbers at the edge. The occupation surface may be represented by an organic, midden layer found in different areas of the site. A possible house on the site was represented by a hearth set on a flat stone, and two arcs of oak stakes (possibly remains of a wattle wall) from a sub-circular structure 6m by 4m in diameter. The occupation layer appears to have been covered by a layer of red/orange soil, interpreted as the burnt remains of a house. Otherwise, the occupation layer was sealed under a buff-tan clay, incorporating charcoal, crucible fragments, pieces of slag and a possible furnace, but no structures were found in this upper layer. The site was enclosed within an irregular palisade, including a cleft oak palisade on the east side (including two rows of planks with horizontals lying between) and an irregular roundwood post-and-plank palisade (with scatters of roundwood outside it) on the west. Some bone objects and comb fragments, datable to the tenth century AD, were found in association with this palisade, probably dating its construction c.AD 950. Finds from the machine-disturbed layers in the middle and edge of the site included a hoard of tenth-century Anglo-Saxon pennies (ranging AD 924–955, probably deposited c.AD 950), 20 bronze stick pins and a square-sectioned whetstone with copper-alloy fittings (probably a ceremonial sceptre). Finds from outside the palisade included two quernstones, a wooden bucket stave, wooden staves from a small waisted vessel, fragments of leather, a double-sided comb, a shaft-hole iron axe, an iron pan or ladle. A great quantity of animal bone (including cattle, sheep, pig, goat, horse, red deer, hare and fox) was also found outside the palisade.

Newtownlow, Co. Westmeath Grid Ref: N38063702 (238062/237020) SMR No: WM038-011 References: Bourke 1985:058; 1986:078; Kenny 1984; Heery 1998. The early medieval crannog of Newtownlow, Co. Westmeath was located in a small, former lake (250m by 500m) on a tributary of the River Brosna. The site is located 15m–20m from the original gently sloping shoreline to the south, and 60m–70m from the base of a steep esker (which runs east-west) to the north. The site was exposed during modern land reclamation in the early 1980s, when a hoard of Anglo-Saxon pennies was recovered from the spoil. The site was subsequently partly excavated by Cormac Bourke in the 1980s, but remains largely unpublished. This was an early medieval crannog built of a cairn of stones, earth and timber in marshy ground, probably occupied c.AD 950 to c.AD 1200 (contemporary with Ballinderry no. 1, Co. Westmeath, which was 16km to the west). It is part of an early medieval settlement complex, along with a large, univallate enclosure at Newtownlow situated on slightly elevated ground 150m to the west at the narrow end of the lake. The crannog is also overlooked by a large, flat-topped earthen motte surmounted by a late medieval cylindrical tower (‘Low’s Castle’) at Newtownlow, 300m to the southeast. This may originally have been an early medieval raised rath, appropriated by Anglo-Norman settlers in the late twelfth century. There is also a probable late-medieval parish church beside the motte, surmounted by a probable seventeenth-century church built on the earlier site, with an adjacent graveyard at Newtownlow. Palaeoecological studies from nearby Cornaher Lough indicate early medieval agricultural activities and woodland clearance c.AD 500. All sites are located south of a substantial esker that must have been an early route-way.

Towards the end of the site’s life history (possibly after a period of abandonment as indicated by the rotten palisade planks), the palisade on the east and southeast was buried under a large cairn of stones and the mound was covered under a sterile layer of clay. This uppermost layer produced late twelfth-century green-glazed pottery sherds, an eleventh- to twelfth-century stirrup ring, a copper-alloy plaque and cast crouching animal (twelfthcentury date) and a fine jet cross of eleventh- to twelfthcentury date, found in peat to the west of the site.

The crannog (17m by 17m, standing to a height of 1.5m) was built on a wooden substructure on the underlying peat, of a platform of substantial trunks, across which were laid light timbers and brushwood, interlocked by Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnace Crucible fragments

Indirect Evidence

Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table 586

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron axe Iron pan 20 bronze stick pins

Dates

Jet cross Whetstone Two quernstones

11th/12th C

Stave-built vessels Bone combs Bone spindle whorls Bone objects Leather fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

587

large structure, 8.5m in diameter, were assigned to Phase VI. They post-dated Phases IV and V and pre-dated the seventh phase. However, their relationship to the animal enclosures of Phase V is unclear.

Ninch, Laytown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O16237195 (31623/27195) SMR No: ME028-025 References: McConway 2001:1007; 2002:1489; 2002; 2010.

McConway has assigned the cemetery to Phase VII. A large enclosure, measuring 80m east-west by 80m northsouth, enclosed all of the above features and cut features associated with Phases IV–VI. The enclosing ditch was 5m wide and 2m in depth and was also re-cut on its western side. The burials were mainly located at the centre of this enclosure and a total of 79 articulated burials, and a further thirteen disarticulated burials, were excavated. The majority lay in an area measuring 7m by 4.5m. Two were placed in stone-lined graves to the west and the remainder were located to the east and south. Most were in simple un-lined graves and were oriented slightly north-west/south-east, with the head to the west. However, three burials had slight south-west/north-east orientations and one poorly-preserved and disturbed burial appeared to be crouched. E-ware was recovered from some grave fills, indicating that the cemetery was in use during the sixth and seventh centuries.

Ninch, excavated in advance of a residential development, was a large multi-period enclosure complex and burial site that dated from prehistory until the late medieval period. The northern half of the site consisted of four large, roughly concentric, sub-circular enclosures dating between approximately the sixth and tenth centuries. Also present were a cemetery, circular house slots, two souterrains, a well, pits, slots, gullies, cobbled surfaces and animal enclosures dating up until the eleventh century. A series of large enclosures dominated the southern part of the site. At least eight early medieval phases were identified. The site occupied the summit and the eastern slope of a low ridge that ran parallel to the coast with views of the Irish Sea. The first early medieval phase included an oval enclosure to the north of the site. It measured 38m by 25m, and was situated at the highest point. An entrance was located to the east and a second entrance, to the west, was evident after the enclosure had been re-cut.

Although McConway has assigned the cemetery to Phase VII, its central location and the presence of a potential crouched burial suggests that the burial ground was the initial focus of the site and probably originated during the late Iron Age. It is likely that settlement and agricultural activity developed from the site’s initial use as a burial ground and that settlement, burial, industry and agriculture were practised alongside each other across many centuries.

Phase 2 involved the construction of a second large subcircular enclosure – internal dimensions of 34m by 39m – that enclosed the earlier Phase I enclosure. Only part of this was excavated as it continued beyond the excavation limit. Sherds of E-ware were recovered from the upper fills of this ditch as well as bone comb fragments, bone needles, knives, iron slag, shell and animal bone. The presence of E-ware from the upper ditch fills indicates that the enclosure was still open between the sixth and mid seventh centuries and was constructed sometime before this.

Two souterrains and a large pit – possibly a well – were assigned to Phase VIII. The larger souterrain cut through a junction of ditches associated with Phases I-IV and VI to the north of the site and the smaller souterrain cut the inner edge and upper fills of the large enclosure that surrounded the cemetery and a range of other features.

During Phase III, a third enclosure – measuring 50m by 43m – enclosed the above enclosures and cut the Phase II enclosure on its northern side. The enclosures were situated along the higher part of the ridge and enclosed only a minor number of features. This can be explained by heavy truncation of the site.

A number of enclosures to the south of the site were also revealed. The earliest, with an entrance to the southwest, was sub-rectangular and had a diameter of 24.6m. A larger second enclosure measured 50m by 30m. A third enclosure, measuring 80m by 60m, had a substantial ditch which was 2m deep and 3.5m wide. A noticeable lack of archaeology along a 10m band on the inner side of the ditch suggests the former presence of a formidable bank. The ditch was open for some time and a small bucket stave, made from yew, was recovered from the basal fill. Other finds included animal bone, shell, a bone peg, some glass beads, a jet bracelet fragment and two ringed pins. Little survived internally within the enclosures due to heavy truncation. A decorated ringed pin, dating to the late tenth/early eleventh century, is similar to examples from Scandinavian Dublin and it is likely that the inhabitants during this phase were in contact with the town.

During Phase IV, the above enclosures were filled in and replaced by an open settlement. This consisted of slottrenches between 6.5m and 7m in diameter, which probably enclosed dwellings; an extensive cobbled pathway; and field boundaries. Five variously-sized oval enclosures have been assigned to Phase V, and probably functioned as livestock enclosures because they lacked internal features and occupational evidence. A series of gullies, slots and ditches – that produced charcoal, crushed shell and animal bone – and a fourth

588

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone peg Bone needles

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron knives Two bronze ringed pins Glass beads Sherds of E-ware Jet bracelet fragment

Dates

Bone peg Bone comb fragments Bone needles

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

589

northern side and drainage trenches on its higher eastern face. House B was situated to the south of House A and was also oval in plan with measurements of 10.4m– 11.5m along its short and long axes. It may have been erected slightly later than House A since it overlapped this structure to some extent. Two hearths were probably associated with this structure which was defined by postholes and a drainage trench forming a concentric arc around its walls.

Oldcourt, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W08663148 (108663/031486) SMR No: CO141-118001 Reference: Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961. An excavation of a univallate earthen enclosure at Oldcourt in the late 1950s was financed by a state grant administered through the Royal Irish Academy and the Special Employment Schemes Office, Dublin. The site consisted of a single bank and external ditch enclosing two oval-shaped buildings, associated hearths and a souterrain. The enclosure is situated on a slight rise of ground just below the 30.5m contour mark, commanding views of a considerable area of the surrounding countryside.

The excavation established that soil had been moved from the higher eastern half of the site to the lower opposite area in an attempt to level the interior of the enclosure at a subsequent period. The soil which had been moved belonged to the primary occupation phase of the site, making it impossible for the excavators to stratigraphically analyse the finds or to accurately assign post-holes and other features to various levels.

The site consists of a univallate circular enclosure with an internal diameter of 23m. The bank, built from boulder clay from an exterior ditch, was approximately 3.5m high at its highest point in the south and between 0.9m–1.5m high along the north-east quadrant. A revetment comprising a rough facing of loosely-built stones was identified along the inner face of the bank in the southern and eastern cuttings. A trench-like feature which had been refilled was excavated beneath the bank of the enclosure along its western side and provided evidence for some form of activity before the enclosure was erected.

The chief iron tools recovered included a ferrule, two tanged knives, a chisel and a number of slotted-andpointed objects. Items of personal adornment included three fragments of a jet bracelet, a segmented bead of blue glass and a bronze ring. A possible iron vessel escutcheon and a bronze-coated iron bell (see above) were two other remarkable finds. Small-scale ironworking was evidenced by the presence of one almost-complete furnace bottom and fragments of eight others, as well as residues of light glassy slag. Some pieces of rock limonite, one of which appeared to have been roasted, suggest that the local limonite was being used as an ore. No significant quantity of animal bones, or evidence for arable farming (e.g. quernstones), was recovered during the excavation at the site.

The exterior ditch had a depth of 1.95m and a maximum width of 4.5m. Spreads of charcoal in various deposits of the fill indicated that fires had been lit inside the ditch on a number of occasions. The entrance was situated on the eastern face of the enclosure and was defined by a short palisade-revetment trench on its south side and a stakehole on the north, suggesting the presence of a wooden gate structure. It was surfaced with a rough cobble paving which led out across a causeway of large boulders and clay which crossed obliquely over the exterior ditch. The excavation of the interior revealed a number of pits, three hearths, trenches and a large collection of postholes. The considerable accumulation of soil blackened by charcoal and decayed organic matter was suggestive of a relatively long period of occupation. A souterrain was excavated in the southwest quadrant and consisted of a passage linking four chambers. A pit beneath a flag in one of the recesses of a chamber contained a bronzecoated iron bell placed in moss. Two house plans were identified from the large collection of post-holes, hearths and trenches. House A was probably the earliest structure as it is centrally situated with its entrance facing the entrance of the enclosure. It had one internal hearth and an oval floor plan of roughly 10m–12m, defined by post-holes, stone settings along its

Fig. G.305: Plan of Oldcourt (after Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961, fig. 2)

590

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Complete furnace bottom Fragments of eight furnace bottoms

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Limonite

‘Jet’ core

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale

Object Iron ferrule Two iron knives Iron chisel Bronze ring Bronze-coated iron bell Blue glass bead

Dates

Three fragments of jet bracelet Jet core

Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.307: Bronzed iron bell from Oldcourt (after Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961)

Fig. G.306: Iron objects from Oldcourt (after Murphy & Ó Cuileanáin 1961)

591

fragments and part of an antler ring. Charred grains of rye (Secale cereale) and barley (Hordeum sp.) were also recovered from this occupation layer. The domestic animal bones from the early medieval period showed an MNI % of Cattle (30.8%), Sheep (38.5%), Pig (23.1%) and Horse (7.7%). Fish (eel, cod, haddock, flat fish and salmonid) as well as edible shellfish (dominated by winkles, but also a number of cockles and mussels) were also found in the midden.

Oughtymore, Co. Londonderry Grid Ref: C66163638 (26616/43638) SMR No: LDY 001:002 Reference: Mallory & Woodman 1984. The site was located in a sand cliff overlooking the Lough Foyle estuary and was in danger of being completely destroyed by coastal erosion. A two-day rescue excavation was undertaken to record the midden.

It was suggested by the excavators that the early medieval inhabitants of the site at Oughtymore may have represented a social class inferior to those who dwelt in raths, and that they may have held their land on tenure from the church.

The main archaeological horizon consisted of a substantial occupation deposit (ranging from 0.1m to 0.3m thick). Twenty sherds of souterrain ware pottery were found in this layer, as well as fragments of a blue glass bracelet and a lignite bracelet, two bone comb Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2442

Context ‘Carbon sample’ from early medieval occupation layer

14C

UB-2443

‘Carbon sample’ from layer of burning underlying occupation layer

1480±30 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Date 1295±40 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 651–782; A.D. 789–811; A.D. 847–854 A.D. 541–642

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Antler ring & spindle whorl Antler spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler

Object

Dates

Glass bracelet Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet

Bone comb Antler ring Antler spindle whorl

Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 592

five individuals were identified within the cemetery and one individual was found within the enclosure wall. The cemetery contained 39 simple pit graves and 26 slablined graves with or without lintels. The northern half of the cemetery was arranged in two to three north/south rows of east/west burials. An extensive programme of radiocarbon dating was undertaken and, based on the results of this programme and on the stratigraphic sequence and the character of the burials, 75 have been assigned to an early medieval burial phase ranging from A.D. 550–970, with a concentration of burials dating to the period A.D. 640–800.

Owenbristy, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 142872/211898 SMR No: N/A References: Delaney et al 2009; Lehane & Delaney 2010; Lehane et al 2010. The site consisted of an area 44m in diameter defined by a large drystone enclosure or cashel. A number of pits, post-holes and possible hearths were identified toward the centre of the enclosure; an animal tooth from the upper fill of one of these four large pits returned a radiocarbon date of A.D. 603–682.

The orderly north/south rows of burials were interrupted by a series of pits and post-holes which represented a wooden structure – possibly a small church. The charcoal-rich fills of two of the post-holes on the northern wall of this building returned radiocarbon dates spanning A.D. 580–649 and A.D. 619–667.

Fig. G.308: Cashel and cemetery at Owenbristy (after Lehane & Delaney 2010)

Fig. G.309: Iron torc from Owenbristy (after Lehane & Delaney 2010)

A clearly-defined cemetery area was also identified in the eastern and south-eastern sector of the enclosure. NinetyRadiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-11218

Context Rib

14C

UB-11220 UB-11221

Rib Frontal bone

1460±32 BP 519±34 BP

UB-11222

Rib

1184±26 BP

UB-11223 UB-11224

Rib Rib

1407±30 BP 590±26 BP

UB-11225

Tibia

1214±28 BP

Date 1143±34 BP

593

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 780–791; A.D. 805–981 A.D. 551–648 A.D. 1321–1349; A.D. 1391–1445 A.D. 773–897; A.D. 922–942 A.D. 594–666 A.D. 1300–1368; A.D. 1381–1411 A.D. 694–699; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–889

UB-11226

Femur

1175±20 BP

UB-11227 UB-11228 UB-11229

Tibia Rib Femur

1370±18 BP 337±35 BP 1330±24 BP

UB-11230

Cranium

519±34 BP

UB-11231 UB-11232

Petrous process Rib

747±34 BP 1255±24 BP

UB-11233 UB-11234 UB-11235

Rib Fibula Rib

1402±33 BP 1208±17 BP 1290±17 BP

UB-11236

Rib

630±16 BP

UB-11237

Parietal bone

1326±20 BP

UB-11238 UB-11239

Rib Rib

1263±17 BP 1309±18 BP

UB-11240 UB-11241

Rib Rib

1404±29 BP 1349±29 BP

UB-11242 UB-11243

Rib Rib

1407±32 BP 1264±29 BP

UB-11244

Humerus

1301±29 BP

UB-11245

Ribs

1306±30 BP

UB-11246

Rib

1335±31 BP

UB-11247

Ulna

1373±24 BP

UB-11248 UB-11249 UB-11251

Humerus Occipital bone Fibula

1457±36 BP 516±21 BP 1150±27 BP

UB-11252

Femur

1635±38 BP

UB-11253 UB-11254

Humerus Radius

1392±25 BP 1329±23 BP

UB-11255 UB-11256

Rib Ulna

1242±35 BP 1237±20 BP

UB-11258

Femur

1213±22 BP

UB-11493 UB-12368 UB-12369

Rib Tibia Fibula

1473±21 BP 1398±22 BP 1351±22 BP

UB-12370 UB-12371 UB-12366

Fibula Rib Charcoal from post-hole

1402±27 BP 1424±22 BP 1385±19 BP

UB-12367 UB-12372 UB-12373

Charcoal from post-hole Animal Bone (281) Animal Bone (403)

1442±20 BP 1123±23 BP 1382±32 BP

594

A.D. 778–895; A.D. 925–937 A.D. 642–672 A.D. 1468–1642 A.D. 651–712; A.D. 746–767 A.D. 1321–1349; A.D. 1391–1445 A.D. 1219–1290 A.D. 674–783; A.D. 788–820; A.D. 842–859 A.D. 590–671 A.D. 772–885 A.D. 668–726; A.D. 737–771 A.D. 1292–1323; A.D. 1346–1393 A.D. 654–709; A.D. 747–766 A.D. 683–776 A.D. 660–717; A.D. 743–768 A.D. 598–666 A.D. 640–711; A.D. 746–766 A.D. 588–668 A.D. 667–783; A.D. 788–818; A.D. 842–859 A.D. 660–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 658–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 646–720; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 619–628; A.D. 631–678 A.D. 548–651 A.D. 1401–1440 A.D. 780–791; A.D. 806–972 A.D. 267–272; A.D. 335–538 A.D. 609–667 A.D. 651–712; A.D. 746–766 A.D. 682–876 A.D. 689–752; A.D. 761–834; A.D. 835–870 A.D. 719–742; A.D. 769–886 A.D. 554–639 A.D. 610–663 A.D. 644–689; A.D. 754–757 A.D. 602–665 A.D. 596–656 A.D. 619–628; A.D. 631–667 A.D. 580–649 A.D. 883–985 A.D. 603–682

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 5kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl Loom weights?

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron knife blades Two iron buckles Iron neck torc Bronze brooch Two blue glass beads

Dates

Two fragments of lignite wristband Whetstones Rotary quernstone fragments Spindle whorl Loom weights? Two stone beads Bone-handled knife Two bone pins

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

595

field mouse. Many of the larger bones belonging to cattle, sheep and pig were broken in marrow extraction. A number of thin clay layers separating the black deposit were identified in places. While this feature was very scanty, it appears to indicate that the occupation of the cave may not have been continuous. It was suggested that the black habitation surface dated to the eighth/ninth century AD. The outer chamber of Cave C was a suitable place for dwelling as it offered advantages of shelter, adequate living space and a convenient water supply either from the water passages in the low-level inner tunnels or from a nearby stream. The cave was subsequently abandoned as a habitation site and the present surface of earth and stones covered over the black layer.

Park North, Midleton, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W91298009 (191291/080093) SMR No: CO076-004 Reference: Coleman 1941–42. Bones and signs of human habitation were discovered in an undisclosed cave near Midleton in 1865. The cave at Park North, situated at a partly quarried hollow (‘Foxes Quarry’) and excavated in the summer of 1942, revealed evidence for an eighth/ninth-century habitation deposit, and was tentatively identified as the site of this earlier find. Four cave entrances (A-D) were identified in the quarry face. Cave C was the largest of the group and was selected for excavation after the opening of a test-pit. It contained an entrance, 6m wide and 3m high, which led into an outer chamber (9m by 4.5m). The floor of the outer chamber was covered with loose limestone blocks. A series of low-level water-tunnels was identified in the inner tunnels of the cave. The lowest deposit of the outer chamber of Cave C consisted of stiff alluvial clay formed by flood waters entering the cavern. Numerous rock fragments and a quantity of animal bone – cattle (75%) followed by sheep/goat, red deer (antler fragments), pig and dog – were embedded within the deposit. A sandy clay bed, possibly the result of prolonged and deep flooding within the cave, lay above the stiff alluvial clay in the outer chamber of Cave C. Traces of charcoal occurred mostly near the top of the bed but no continuous hearth was observed. The remains of cattle, pig, and red deer (one antler tine) were recovered from this layer. An extended thick black habitation layer of clay and charcoal (0.15m–0.28m deep) overlay the sandy clay bed in the outer chamber. Numerous bone fragments were scattered through the deposit and were dominated by cattle (50%) and sheep/goat (45%), followed by very small quantities of pig, red deer, hare, rabbit, dog, goose, fowl, bird and

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.310: Excavated areas in Midleton ‘Cave C’ (after Coleman 1941–42, fig. 2)

Indirect Evidence

Bone pins

Needle Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

596

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron knives Bronze ring Fragments of silvered bronze Corroded bronze fragments

Stone spindle whorl Two whetstones

Bone needle Two bone pins Two bone comb fragments

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

597

Dates

metalworking was being practised in the vicinity at this time. The pit also produced the largest collection of animal bone from the site, which has been identified as cattle, sheep and a possible horse.

Park, Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 199643/180953 SMR No: N/A Reference: Mullins 2011.

A corn-drying kiln roughly contemporary with the early medieval pit was found approximately 50m to the southeast. Cereal recovered from a kiln basal fill returned a radiocarbon date in the eighth/ninth century (UBA15045). This kiln may have been associated with a rectangular light building (Structure 4), possibly a store.

The excavation of the site at Park revealed a multi-period site, with the earliest phase of activity dated to the Bronze Age. This was represented by a concentration of pits, post-holes and stake-holes in the western area of the site. A concentration of 77 pits and six hearths, dated to the medieval period, was located across the area of the excavation; and a later phase of medieval activity at the site was associated with four kilns. Limited evidence for metalworking was recorded at the site, with slag found in two of the ditches, four pits and a hearth.

A potential enclosure comprising a rectangular ditch was excavated at Park. The exposed portion of this enclosure formed an L shape in plan, and this was clearly not a ringfort. However, it appears to be contemporary with the main period of ringfort occupation, since radiocarbon dating of charcoal recovered from a secondary fill returned a late seventh-century date (UBA-15098).

Radiocarbon dating placed three features in the early medieval period – a pit, a kiln and an enclosing ditch. Other material probably dating to the early medieval period included a structure (Structure 4), iron-working features and finds such as an iron ring and a knife blade.

Several features at Park 1 produced evidence of iron working, and iron slag from an iron-smelting pit. Other pits producing evidence of iron working in the vicinity produced fragments of slag. A corroded and broken iron ring, possibly from a horse harness, and a similarlycorroded knife blade were found during the excavation of the kiln.

The first and most westerly area of early medieval activity was represented by a pit. The pit was re-cut and charcoal recovered from a secondary fill returned a radiocarbon date in the eighth/ninth century (UBA15099). Slag was found in the pit and this indicated that Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-15045

Context Cereal from kiln

14C

UBA-15098 UBA-15099

Charcoal from ditch Charcoal from pit

1363±21 BP 1230±18 BP

Material Iron-working

Date 1245±19 BP

Direct Evidence Iron-smelting slag Iron-smithing slag

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table 598

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 685–783; A.D. 787–825; A.D. 840–862 A.D. 642–680 A.D. 694–703; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–876

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron ring Iron knife

Dates

Rotary quernstone fragments

‘Small finds’ Table

599

structure, however, make it more likely to belong to the earlier phase.

Parknahown, Co. Laois Grid Ref: S34227419 (234223/174191) SMR No: N/A References: O’Neill 2007; 2008; 2009; 2010.

The cemetery enclosure is placed within the doubleditched enclosure. Almost five hundred burials were uncovered (472), most of which were east-west aligned after the Christian fashion. Some of these burials were associated with ‘ear muffs’ (i.e. stones placed on either side of the head to prevent rolling), and a number of decorative items were also found associated with the burials. These included glass beads, bone beads, copperalloy pins, bone pins, a fragmented jet bracelet, and a copper-alloy mount with inset enamel.

Topsoil stripping prior to road construction uncovered a series of archaeological features set on a low plateau overlooking the River Goul. These consisted of an enclosure ditch, a later double-ditched enclosure, and an enclosed cemetery. The earliest ditched enclosure measured 54m in diameter, and was defined by a ditch 2.25m wide and 1.2m deep. It appears to have been a domestic site, and fragments of bone needles and a bone comb were recovered from the ditch fill. Some corroded iron knife blades were also recovered from this phase. A radiocarbon date from this enclosure places it in the fifth to seventh century (see below). This enclosure ditch was deliberately in-filled during the construction of the double-ditched enclosure. The internal diameter of the later double-ditched enclosure was 60m, and dimensions for the larger ditch are recorded as 4m wide and 2.2m deep. An external linear feature discovered by geophysics would appear to be contemporary with this enclosure, and may represent a field boundary. The enclosure ditches were allowed to silt-up naturally, but there is also evidence for re-cutting. Radiocarbon dates from the double-ditched enclosure suggest it was constructed in the fifth or sixth century (which suggests that construction of the single-ditched enclosure must fall in the early part of the radiocarbonderived date range), and dating from the re-cut suggests this was done in the eleventh or twelfth century (see below). A large quantity of animal bone was recovered from the ditch (cattle, horse, pig, sheep and deer), but this had not been fully analysed at time of writing. The most impressive find from this phase was a penannular copper-alloy brooch with bird-head terminals. This is Anglo-Saxon in style and is dated to the seventh century.

Fig. G.311: Features at Parknahown (after O’Neill 2007, 134)

A possible circular structure defined by slot-trenches and post-holes may belong to either of these enclosure phases. Radiocarbon dates from the gully associated with this Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-218638

Context Charcoal from early ditch enclosure

14C

Beta-218647

Charcoal from base of double-ditched enclosure

1560±40 BP

Beta-218648

Charcoal from re-cut double-ditched enclosure

970±70 BP

Date 1530±50 BP

600

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 422–624; A.D. 629–630 A.D. 415–584; A.D. 590 A.D. 899–919; A.D. 952–957; A.D. 961–1218

SUERC-17260

Alder charcoal

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

1660±35 BP

Direct Evidence 100kg iron-working residue – principally smithing, also smelting Crucible fragment

Indirect Evidence

A.D. 258–299; A.D. 318–441; A.D. 485–532

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone pin & pin beater Antler waste – unfinished handle? Bone needles Bone weaving implement

Industrial Processing Table (from settlement phase)

Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Iron ring pin Copper-alloy strap Copper-alloy stick pin Copper-alloy penannular brooch Copper-alloy pin shank Copper-alloy ring pin Copper-alloy zoomorphic penannular brooch Bronze bead Fragments of lignite bracelets or rings Six quernstones Six whetstones Red quartzite stone disc Bone needle Bone pin Bone pin beater Bone spear-head Antler comb (Class B(a))

‘Small finds’ Table (from settlement phase)

601

Dates

Platin, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O08877526 (30887/27526) SMR No: ME020-014 References: Lynch 2000:0774; 2001:1022; Conway 2001:1019.

truncated by a small pit, and a series of irregularly-shaped pits which contained no dating evidence. Phase III consisted of two linear parallel gullies which were situated 4m apart from each other and approximately 15m east of the structures. The fills of the first gully suggest that, for the most part, it silted up naturally. The western end showed evidence for in situ burning and contained frequent charcoal inclusions and a large concentration of animal bone. A sherd of pottery, an iron nail and a copper-alloy ring were also recovered from its fill.

2002;

The settlement at Platin – discovered in advance of the M1 road-scheme – was located immediately north of the Duleek road 3km west of Drogheda and adjacent to the promontory fort (ME020-014; see below). The site was situated on agriculturally-productive pastoral land.

Approximately 4m to the south was a similar east–westoriented linear gully which terminated in a post-hole at its western end. Industrial activity was evident in the middle part of the gully as a high ash content with inclusions of burnt clay and charcoal. This fill also contained slag and a crucible sherd. Below this was further evidence for in situ burning, crucible sherds, ferrous material and a substance which had a glass-like appearance. Immediately to the west was a layer of fire-reddened or burnt clay.

Two unenclosed successive circular structures were discovered. The earliest, Structure B, evident as two concentric gullies, measured 15m in diameter. This represented the first phase of activity on site. The gullies were mostly filled through natural deposition of wash material and slumping of their sides. The few finds included a piece of iron slag, a flint waste flake, a fragment of a ceramic bead and a crucible sherd. Structure B enclosed a number of pits that may have been contemporary. One – possibly a domestic refuse pit – contained some horse teeth, fragments of animal bone and charcoal. A central circular pit was also present which potentially supported a central roof support, although archaeological evidence for such was lacking.

A roughly east–west-oriented sub-linear cut was located to the south of the linear gullies. Its base contained a layer of fire-reddened or burnt clay and pottery, a clay mould and two pieces of iron slag were recovered from its fills, indicating further industrial activity.

The following phase incorporated the construction of Structure A which cut Structure B. Like the latter, it was 15m in diameter and was defined by two curvilinear gullies. A number of internal features or possible roof supports were present. The enclosure was horseshoeshaped in plan and gaps or possible entrances were evident to the east and west. Twenty-eight stake-holes were located along the inner edge of the northern gully and probably formed the basis for a post-and-wattle wall. The southern section of the structure was also defined by a foundation trench with a number of stake-holes, 38 in total, located along its inner edge.

A number of pits were associated with Phase III and one contained iron slag, a sherd of pottery and a number of pot-boiler stones. The occurrence of the latter, and of bone fragments, suggests that some of the dumped material originated from a domestic source. Excavation of the western half of Platin Fort (consisting of a substantial west–east-aligned rock outcrop covering an area of approximately two acres and surviving up to 10m above the surrounding landscape) – in advance of the M1 road-scheme – revealed a middle Iron Age burial and a Neolithic spread. This area had been badly damaged by quarrying and, as a result, no enclosing earthworks were present. Early medieval occupational evidence was lacking but tentative indicators included lignite bracelet fragments, a stone bead and a ringed pin which were retrieved from the topsoil.

The archaeological evidence suggests that Structure A was dismantled at some stage as the gully fills were subject to a number of episodes of natural silting, side slippage and infilling of occupational material after the abandonment of the structure. Finds from the upper fills included a whetstone, crucible fragments, glass beads, tuyère fragments and iron objects, all of which appeared to be associated with the Phase III industrial activity on site.

Test excavations to the south and north of the fort also failed to reveal settlement evidence, but the remains of at least two cereal-drying kilns were revealed to the north and one has been dated between the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

A number of features were located to the west of Structure A including a possible hearth, which was

602

Fig. G.312: Plan of structures at Platin (after Lynch 2002)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère fragments Crucible fragments

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron objects Ringed pin Glass beads Ceramic bead Crucible fragments Lignite bracelet fragments Whetstone Stone bead

Dates

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

603

Cobbling was encountered in the eastern part of the interior where the depth of topsoil was relatively greater. Elsewhere cobbling probably had never existed since it was not even preserved between the rigs. A number of post-holes and a shallow pit were found but no coherent pattern could be obtained because of the rigging. Finds included a considerable quantity of coarse pottery, probably all souterrain ware, a socketed iron goad or javelin head, a silver penny of Edward I dated 1280–81 (identification kindly made by W.A. Seaby, Ulster Museum). The ditch proved to be very steep-sided but with a broad U-shaped bottom 2.15m below the original ground surface as indicated by the surviving old soil beneath the spread of the inner bank.

Poleglass, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J278695 (32780/36950) SMR No: ANT 064:002 Reference: Harper 1971:06. A rescue excavation was mounted on this small rath beside the Stewartstown Road between Belfast and Derriaghy. Subsequent destruction resulted from a road improvement scheme associated with housing development undertaken by the Northern Ireland Housing Trust. The interior of the site proved to have been heavily rigged and survival of features on much of the site was entirely fortuitous. The interior area of the rath sloped down eastwards to a probable causeway across the ditch.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

604

or may have been constructed at this time as an AngloNorman ringwork.

Pollardstown, Co. Kildare Grid Ref: N775151 (27750/21510) SMR No: KD023-004 Reference: Fanning 1973–74. The site consisted of a double-banked enclosure, with an intervening ditch, set on an esker ridge. Gravel quarrying had destroyed a portion of the site, but from earlier maps it was estimated to have measured 70m by 80m. Future quarrying threatened to destroy the entire site, thus occasioning a large-scale excavation of the remaining features. The nature of the destruction meant that no structural features were discovered in the interior. However, an occupation layer (0.2m deep) abutting the enclosure bank was excavated. This was found to include animal bone, charcoal, and a couple of fragments of iron slag. A number of iron artefacts were also recovered including two stirrups, an arrowhead, a buckle, three iron rods, and six nails. The potentially militaristic nature of parts of this assemblage, and its potential late date (the stirrups and arrowhead were dated by the excavator to the twelfth/thirteenth centuries) would suggest that this site may have either been re-occupied during these centuries, Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Fig. G.313: Plan of Pollardstown (after Fanning 1973– 74, 252)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Object Iron stirrups Iron arrowhead Iron buckle Three iron rods

Dates 12th/13th C

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 605

Poulacapple, Co. Clare Grid Ref: 11855/20440 SMR No: CL-005-015002 Reference: Reynolds 1972:0030.

The cultivation of the interior and the planting of trees had caused considerable disturbance to the site and had destroyed almost all traces of a habitation level. A number of pits containing charcoal and burned and unburned animal bones mixed with dark earth were found. Some fragments of iron including a sickle and a knife were found in one pit, while another pit yielded some fragments of ornamented bone and the upper stone of a rotary quern. An amber button was found in the humus layer along with a quantity of iron slag. Apart from these finds, no evidence of habitation was recovered. The finds offer little help in deciding a possible date for the construction and occupation of this site.

The site consisted of a roughly circular area, approximately 43m in diameter, enclosed by a deep fosse and an outer bank giving a maximum diameter of about 55m. When the dense scrub which covered the site prior to excavation was cleared away, it was found that cultivation ridges covered the interior of the rath, while there were a number of large tree stumps around the perimeter.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife

Dates

Amber button Decorated bone

‘Small finds’ Table

606

A basal fill returned an early date of A.D. 20–210. This was derived from a fragment of oak charcoal, which may have been influenced by the ‘old wood effect’. Cattle bone from a secondary fill of this ditch produced a date of A.D. 659–779, and charcoal from the secondary fill yielded a date of A.D. 1026–1175.

Rahally, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 166007/225872 SMR No: GA086-211 References: Mullins 2005:644; 2008; 2009b. Excavations were undertaken in advance of roadworks in the vicinity of a bivallate rath (GA086-211). These uncovered a Bronze Age hillfort, as well as a neighbouring univallate rath (Ditch 2) and an annex to the bivallate rath (Ditch 8).

There is no clear evidence for diagnostic internal structures. A shallow, linear, stony deposit that occurred along the interior of Ditch 8 in the northwest corner may represent the remains of an internal bank, and four rubbish/grain storage pits were also identified. Three human burials were inserted into the in-fill of ditches 2 and 8, and thus post-date these enclosures. Burial 1, inserted into the univallate ditch, was dated to A.D. 892– 1023, suggesting that the rath had fallen out of use by the ninth/tenth century. Although a residual Iron Age date was obtained from a basal fill of Ditch 8, the earliest medieval date from a secondary fill suggests that this annex enclosure was in use by A.D. 659–778. A further date from the upper ditch fills suggests it was abandoned by A.D. 1026–1175. This seems to be supported by the dating of the burials inserted into the ditch – Burial 2 was dated to A.D. 992–1156, and Burial 3 was dated to A.D. 1019–1185.

The univallate rath had an internal diameter of 32m, and seems to have had an 8m-wide entrance in the southwest. A series of small, concentric, cut features were found within the univallate rath. A curvilinear gully consisting of three truncated segments was identified approximately 3m inside Ditch 2. This gully may have aided drainage by collecting water draining from the now-destroyed internal ringfort bank. A second curvilinear gully measuring 2m in length may represent the location of a destroyed structure within the enclosure. Four pits were found within this enclosure and may have functioned as refuse pits or storage pits. The possible annex to the bivallate rath located on the top of the hill defined a sub-circular enclosure that measures approximately 38m by 40m. One ditch terminus identified in the south probably represents an entrance to the annex, but this was not investigated as it lay outside the limit of the excavation. No stratigraphic relationship was established between this enclosure and the adjacent bivallate rath (GA086-211); however, Ditch 8 may represent an annex to this site, or it may alternatively represent a separate, univallate rath similar to Ditch 2. Three radiocarbon dates have been returned from Ditch 8.

Diagnostic finds from the univallate ditch include a melon bead, a pewter finger ring and multiple bone comb fragments. The melon bead represents a continuation of an earlier Iron Age type and the pewter ring was probably in circulation for some time before it was deposited in the ditch. The bone comb fragments, however, suggest a tenth-century or later date. Of the small finds retrieved from Ditch 8, the glass bead and the penannular brooch (eighth/ninth century) represent the best datable finds.

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Wk22644

Context Charcoal from basal fill Ditch 8

14C

Date 1911±30 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 20–140; A.D. 148–172; A.D. 194–210

Wk22638

Charcoal from ringfort Ditch 2 secondary fill

1225±30 BP

Wk22640

Charcoal from small pit in Ditch 2

1239±30 BP

A.D. 690–750; A.D. 762–885 A.D. 687–873

Beta-241478 Beta-241479 Wk22639

Human bone Burial 1 Human bone Burial 2 Charcoal from pit F181

1070±40 BP 980±40 BP 973±30 BP

A.D. 892–1023 A.D. 992–1156 A.D. 1016–1155

Wk22641

Charcoal from secondary fill Ditch 8

926±30 BP

A.D. 1026–1175

Beta2414780? UB-7245

Human bone Burial 3

940±40 BP

A.D. 1019–1185

Charcoal in vicinity of central bank

884±29 BP

A.D. 1043–1105; A.D. 1118–1144; A.D. 1146–1218

607

Wk22646

Charcoal from basal fill dumbbell kiln

775±30 BP

A.D. 1216–1280

UBA-10318

Cattle bone from secondary fill Ditch 8

1298±32 BP

A.D. 661–773

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Unfinished bone comb or handle

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife blades Bronze penannular brooch Pewter or silver ring Blue glass bead Two yellow glass beads

Dates

Two bone combs (19 fragments)

‘Small finds’ Table

608

of a bone comb were found in its primary fill. The floor in the northern part of the souterrain was covered by a burnt layer which had originated from Hearth II. A hearth and an iron leather-scorer were identified in one of the upper fills and indicate a temporary re-use of the structure when it was already half back-filled. A bronze ring-pin was also recovered on top of the eastern wall of the souterrain.

Raheennamadra, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R74282932 (174282/129329) SMR No: LI041-013011 Reference: Stenberger 1966. A univallate platform enclosure at Raheennamadra, excavated in 1960 and 1961 by the University of Uppsala, revealed an early medieval hut, souterrain, paved courtyard and two extended, furnished human skeletons. The site belongs to a group of three enclosures which are situated in open grazing land and delimited by a number of small streams and ditches.

A number of radiocarbon dates were retrieved from various contexts inside the souterrain. Charcoal samples from the butts of timber roofing props on the floor of the souterrain returned dates of A.D. 555–995 or A.D. 340– 890 and A.D. 581–1016 [all at two sigma]. The use of the souterrain was roughly contemporary with Hearth II (A.D. 537–995) because burnt remains from the functioning hearth had washed down to the open floor of the souterrain.

Pre-enclosure habitation phase was suggested by the excavation of an isolated oval-shaped hearth filled with charcoal and burnt clay on top of the original ground surface. The charcoal returned a calibrated two-sigma date of B.C. 60–A.D. 429. The hearth was not associated with any other features and may represent the remnants of temporary dwelling pre-dating the enclosure.

Two burials were uncovered to the east of the souterrain. These were aligned with heads to the south-south-west. Both skeletons had an iron knife blade placed beside the skull, and one had an iron buckle. The grave goods and alignment could suggest a pre-Christian or transitional date.

The enclosure consisted of a low platform – approximately 0.75m high – surrounded by a bank-andditch. The diameter of the site was roughly 38m–40m and the platform inside the bank was some 25m across. The ditch was U-shaped in profile and was cut into the boulder clay. It varied from 1.3m to 1.5m in depth and its width was approximately 3m at the top and 1m at the bottom.

The final phase of habitation was associated with a possible stone enclosure or hut close to the bank in the north-western part of the site. This structure appears to have been built much later than the main habitation phase as it was uncovered just below the present ground level.

The enclosing bank survived to a height of 0.6m–1.1m above the old ground surface. The bank had a core of boulder clay surrounded on both sides by an extensive humus layer which in turn was covered with boulder clay. Some round shallow depressions were identified between the bank and the edge of the external ditch and may represent post-holes for a supporting palisade.

The radiocarbon dates from the sites contain very broad error margins and only narrow the main habitation phase down to the latter half of the first millennium AD.

The north-western entrance appears to have been protected by side-posts and an unusual gated palisade (cf. Garryduff II, Co. Cork) filling the gap between the ends of the enclosing banks. A 2m-wide metalled surface was excavated in the centre of the entrance passage and formed part of a large early paved courtyard (75m2) in the northern part of the enclosure. A partially-destroyed circular wall trench in the centre of the site was interpreted as a roundhouse, 6m–7m in diameter. A hearth (II) was found beside and on top of the southern part of this trench and evidently post-dates the possible hut. Charcoal from the hearth returned a twosigma date between A.D. 537 and A.D. 995. The southern side of the hut trench touched a wall of the souterrain.

Fig. G.314: Plan of excavated areas at Raheennamadra (after Stenberger 1966, plate II)

The souterrain was revealed in the southern part of the enclosure and contained a number of back-filled clay deposits. A small number of animal bones and fragments

609

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. U240

14C

1430±130 BP 1220±110 BP

U243 U244

Context Charcoal from oak post-ends in southern post-holes of souterrain As U240 – re-treated Charcoal from oak post-ends in southern post-holes of souterrain As U242 – re-treated Charcoal from Hearth II

U245

As U244 – re-treated

1300±120 BP

U246 U247

Charcoal Hearth III in souterrain As U246 – re-treated

1200±110 BP 1360±100 BP

U248

Charcoal from Hearth I on original ground surface

1840±110 BP

U241 U242

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Date 1280±120 BP

1260±120 BP 1330±120 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 555–995; A.D. 1006–1012 A.D. 340–890 A.D. 637–1021 A.D. 581–1016 A.D. 439–486; A.D. 532–977 A.D. 537–995; A.D. 1009–1011 A.D. 643–1027 A.D. 435–490; A.D. 509–517; A.D. 529–893 91–69 B.C.; 60 B.C.–A.D. 429

Radiocarbon Dates

Crucible

Worked bones – pre-‘spearhead’

Two pin-beaters

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Two iron knives Corroded iron objects Bronze ring pin Object of bronze and iron Bronze bucket handle

Dates

Crucible Whetstones

Bone comb fragments Three bone ‘spearheads’

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

610

either the last stages of occupation or after the site was abandoned’.

Raheens I, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W76566358 (176569/063589) SMR No: CO087-047 Reference: Lennon 1993.

The large cutting in the interior of the site revealed that the internal features had been heavily truncated due to extensive modern ploughing activity. Several dug features were identified but the lack of occupation deposits made stratigraphic associations impossible. A square shaped pit (2m by 2m, and 0.8m deep) was excavated close to the inner ditch and contained within its fills a considerable amount of charcoal, animal bone fragments, a perforated hone stone and an iron knife blade. Two post-pits were situated in the western corners of the pit and may have provided some form of superstructure for this possible storage pit.

Two enclosures, 400m apart, were excavated in Raheens townland in advance of an industrial development. Raheens I was recorded on the First Edition of the Ordnance Survey six-inch maps, although it appears to have been subsequently levelled in the nineteenth century. The excavation revealed two concentric ditches enclosing two roundhouses, a scatter of post- and stakeholes and one large pit as well as some peripheral activity to the west of the site. Phasing of the site was impossible as extensive modern ploughing activity had removed all occupation debris and truncated almost all the features.

The principal internal features were the two roundhouses. House 1 and House 2 measured 5m and 6m in diameter respectively and appear to have been principally constructed using slot-trenches and double lines of stakeholes. The entrances to House 1 and House 2 were along the southern and south-eastern sides. No indications of a hearth or internal supports or divisions were uncovered in either structure, though these were probably destroyed by recent ploughing activity.

An isolated stone-lined pit and a scatter of post- and stake-holes and other pits were excavated to the west of the enclosure. One line of stake-holes appears to have functioned as a small wind-break while a trench containing several stake-holes and two pits had another possible structural purpose. The lack of occupational debris from these features suggests that they were temporary structures and do not represent external habitation sites. The features also had a close stratigraphic relationship to the enclosing ditch suggesting that they may have been associated in some way with the construction of the enclosure ditches.

A total of thirteen pieces of struck flint, including one possible Bronze Age tanged and barbed arrowhead, were finally recovered on the site. A small quantity of animal bone fragments was recovered from post-holes, pits and ditch fills on the site. Only 11% of the total animal bone (188) was identifiable and was dominated by cattle and sheep/goat to lesser extent.

The site contained two concentric ditches, set 4m apart, which had diameters of 34m internally and 45m externally. There was no direct evidence for associated banks. Two sections through the outer ditch revealed that it was U-shaped in profile and measured up to 1.9m deep and 2.2m wide at the surface; the sections through the inner ditch revealed it was almost bowl-shaped in profile and measured up to 1.6m deep and 3m wide at the surface. Both ditches appear to have remained open for a period of time before being finally, deliberately in-filled. One fragment of a sheep/goat horn core was found inside a fill in the inner ditch. A gradually curving U-shaped trench (0.5m deep and 1.8m wide at the surface) was identified immediately inside the inner enclosing ditch along its western side. The trench was excavated extending along the inner perimeter of the ditch for a distance of 18m and was never farther than 1m from it. It was tentatively interpreted as a slot-beam trench which may have held uprights for a wooden palisade along the western side. A dump of charcoal and heat-shattered stones containing several sherds of an unglazed, possible early medieval, French ware were recovered in one of the upper fills of the trench and suggest that this ‘backfill took place in

Fig. G.315: Plan of excavated area at Raheens I (after Lennon 1993, 76)

611

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence Large amounts of charcoal?

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron blade

Dates

Perforated hone stone

‘Small finds’ Table

612

southern area of the interior and consisted of a single chamber built using vertically- and horizontally-laid limestone slabs. A substantial post-hole, circular in outline, was identified at the base of the souterrain and may have been used as a structural support during the erection of the structure. The roof of the souterrain appears to have been subsequently removed and the structure back-filled with occupation debris containing rubble, animal bone and charcoal.

Raheens II, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W76366348 (176361/063481) SMR No: CO087-046 Reference: Lennon 1994. Raheens II was situated 400m southwest of Raheens I and was excavated in advance of an industrial development. The excavation revealed a univallate enclosure containing at least eleven structures and three souterrains. The site was visible prior to excavation but appears to have been levelled and extensively ploughed out more recently.

Souterrain 2 was situated on the northern side of the enclosure and contained a long narrow entrance running from a single chamber into the eastern side of the interior. The possible remains of an uncompleted souterrain (3) were identified in the north-west area of the interior. A large construction trench was excavated but appears to have been subsequently back-filled. There was no evidence to suggest that the souterrain was earth-cut and that the roof had collapsed. The backfill of the feature consisted of occupation debris, animal bone (sheep and cattle), shellfish (oyster, whelk and periwinkle), fish bone and charcoal. A polished stone bead was recovered from the up-cast material of one of the souterrains on site.

The enclosure had a diameter of 28m and was enclosed by a much-denuded bank. This bank averaged less than 0.6m in height and as a result of the levelling of the site did not survive on the northern and western sides of the enclosure. The ditch was U-shaped with a relatively flat base and measured 2.1m deep and 4.3m wide at the surface. The main ditch fill constituted a single phase of backfilling. The entrance was located along the southwest perimeter and was defined by two re-cut post positions, set 1m apart, which may have functioned as upright supports for a gate. A metalled surface extended northwards from the post positions towards the interior of the site. A total of eleven structures, some almost complete and others with sections surviving, were uncovered in the interior of the site. In all cases, a trench (0.2m–0.3m in width, and 0.1m–0.2m in depth) was excavated which would have supported the posts/stakes of the structures walls. Seven of the eleven structures had evidence for post- and stake-holes within the trenches though they were for the most part irregularly-spaced out and not consistent throughout the entire length of the construction trenches. All the structures were circular except for one sub-rectangular example. The sub-rectangular structure (4.6m by 6.5m) as well as six other circular structures (4.5m–5.6m diameter) were suitably large to have functioned as domestic dwellings. Four other structures were smaller in diameter (2.4m–3.5m) and may have been used as outhouses or storage buildings. A burnt layer containing charred hazel twigs, oak charcoal fragments and burnt hazelnut shells, as well as several fragments of a shale bracelet, partially covered one of the structures and may have resulted from the destruction of its roof or side walls. No evidence of hearths or fire settings was found in association with the structures. The structures were not all contemporary with each other, and appeared to pre-date the souterrains which belonged to the later activity on the site.

Fig. G.316: Plan of some of the houses and souterrains at Raheens II (after Lennon 1994, 52)

Two of these souterrains were excavated and a further one surveyed. Souterrain 1 was situated towards the

613

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorls?

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object

Dates

Fragments of shale bracelet Two perforated stone discs (spindle whorls?) Perforated hone stone Stone bead

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

614

The roof had evidently collapsed or been removed in ancient times at the point of recent access. A large quantity of souterrain ware and animal bone was found on the passage floor below the break in the roof. The back-filled passage heading towards the original entrance was not investigated.

Rampark, Co. Louth Grid Ref: 31399/30673 SMR No: N/A Reference: Campbell 2004:1122. Following the discovery of burials during the excavation of foundations for a house at Rampark, in the village of Lordship, a salvage excavation was undertaken. Within the 18m by 9.5m area of the house, the work concentrated on the burials already exposed in the foundation trenches, with only limited excavation into virgin ground to recover the full extent of certain graves. Seven substantial lintel graves, excavated up to 0.8m into the subsoil, were recorded. At least three had been reopened for secondary interments. A further six probable lintel graves visible in section faces were left in situ. In one grave, four quartz pebbles were found among the bones, with more recovered from the backfill over the lintels. Ten metres from the lintel graves a crouched female inhumation and a badly-truncated extended inhumation were found in close proximity to habitation deposits containing souterrain ware. Osteoarchaeologist Laureen Buckley provided on-site expertise.

Area 2 Monitoring of the 25m by 9.5m percolation area west of the house revealed a second group of Early Christian burials, comprising one adult and nine juveniles in simple pit graves, the latter surviving only as arcs of teeth and small hollows where the skulls had rested. In the same area were three Bronze Age cremation burials, two in pits and one in an undecorated urn. The urn was removed in a soil block by National Museum conservation staff. One of the cremation pits was within a miniature ring-ditch, 0.25m wide with an overall diameter of 1.3m, which also contained cremated bone. Other features included pits, a small iron-smelting(?) furnace and a kiln of uncertain use. Area 3 Monitoring and limited excavation took place on the 20m by 23.5m percolation area of the adjoining property to the north, where the house had already been built. A slightly curved ditch, revetted on one side with large boulders, ran east-west along the north edge of the area. Other features included numerous pits and deposits, with animal bone and souterrain ware, and a length of unroofed souterrain with an air-vent.

Investigation of a group of boulders exposed by topsoilstripping on the driveway into the house led to the discovery of a two-level souterrain consisting of an upper passage (4.5m long) and lower passage (8m long) linked by a trapdoor. Both passages were served by air-vents. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron-smelting furnace

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table 615

A large number of souterrain ware sherds were uncovered on site, as well as fragments of three iron knives, and a solitary blue glass bead.

Rathbeg, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J18288805 (31828/38805) SMR No: ANT 050:018 Reference: Warhurst 1969. The site was a univallate enclosure which was levelled during motorway construction. It had been identified with Rathbeg of Moy-Linne in Dal nAraidi, a site mentioned in various early annals. The V-shaped ditch was found to be approximately 5.7m wide and 2.7m deep. Two turf layers in the ditch indicated occupation phases of the enclosure. The only finds from the ditch were fragments of one cordoned souterrain ware pot and preserved plant macrofossils (mainly hazel). A circular timber-posted building was excavated near the centre of the enclosure, but produced no associated finds. To the east of the interior three aligned post-holes were interpreted as the supports for a later lean-to structure which utilised the inner face of the bank. A bowl-shaped corn-drying kiln was also built into the inner face of the bank in the south of the interior. A rectangular stone-walled building and a rectilinear clay-walled building were located in the west of the interior. Both appear to have been contemporary with a primary occupation phase. Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Fig. G.317: Plan of interior of Rathbeg (after Warhurst 1969, 95)

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Three iron knives

Dates

Glass bead Souterrain ware Hone stone

‘Small finds’ Table 616

Rathgurreen, Co. Galway Grid Ref: F37872002 (13787/22002) SMR No: GA095-009 Reference: Comber 2002. The site is a bivallate enclosure set in a strategic position on the Maree peninsula and was excavated in the late 1940s as a research dig. The enclosure consisted of an inner enclosure with an internal diameter of 49m, and an outer enclosure with an internal diameter of 76m. Like many bivallate enclosures, excavation revealed that the site had originally been a univallate enclosure. Unlike the vast majority of such sites, however, Rathgurreen was converted into a bivallate enclosure, not by adding an external circuit of bank-and-ditch, but by building a second series of vallation inside the original univallate enclosure. Both sets of banks were faced internally and externally with dry-stone walls. A suggested ‘fighting terrace’ or palisade trench had been identified in previous visual surveys of the outer bank; on excavation, however, this was revealed to be a result of the gradual settling of the bank material between the dry-stone walls that formed the inner and outer faces of the earthen bank. Fig. G.318: Excavated area at Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, 141, 158–9)

There was some evidence of possible metalling in the interior of the site, but no structural remains were identified during excavation. A number of pits were excavated in the interior, some of which may have functioned as rubbish pits, but others may have been used for iron-smelting.

Fig. G.319: Iron triskele object from Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, fig. 13) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. (* – calibrated with marine reservoir effect: Hughen, K.A., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S., Bronk Ramsey, C., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer C.E. 2004. Radiocarbon 46, 1059–1086.) Sample No. UB-4323

Context Bone – Phase 2 – in inner ditch

14C

UB-4331

Shell – Phase 1 – under inner bank

1925±30 BP

Date 1275±36 BP

617

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 660–783; A.D. 788–821; A.D. 842–860 *A.D. 408–659.

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyères Crucibles

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Tuyères with green/red vitreous material

Dog-whelk shells

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery

Object Iron knife Iron penannular brooch Iron pin Iron triskele object Bronze pin Decorated bronze ring Two bronze links Bronze fragment

Dates

Sherd of E-ware Oil lamp

Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.321: Iron pins from Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, fig. 11)

Fig. G.320: Bronze objects from Rathgurreen (after Comber 2002, fig. 9)

618

addition to these, a composite iron/copper-alloy pin (a possible ring-pin), the complete blade of an iron knife (the handle had long since decayed) and a few fragments of ferrous metal were also found during excavation of the foundation.

Rathmorrissy, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 146412/228335 SMR No: GA084-065 Reference: Jones 2010. Approximately 60% of the ringfort at Rathmorrissy lay within the footprint of the M17 Galway–Tuam motorway scheme. The ringfort consisted of a circular enclosure, 50m in diameter, defined by a V-shaped ditch, 4m in width and over 2m in depth. Evidence for activity in the interior consists of the foundations of two circular structures; one represented by a shallow trench (thought to be an animal pen or similar), the other quite clearly a habitation of some sort. A geophysical survey beyond the road corridor indicated no substantial structures in that portion of the fort. The circular foundation trench of the probable house measures 4.7m in internal diameter and 5.7m in external diameter. This house seems to have been burned down, either deliberately or accidentally, and burnt stumps of timber planks – and the clay used to pack them in place – survived in situ. Careful excavation revealed what appear to be the remains of at least five timber planks. In

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.322: House at Rathmorrissy (after Jones 2010, 49)

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife Iron fragments Iron/copper-alloy ring pin

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

619

Souterrain ware dominated the pottery finds from the early medieval site, with the sole exception of the two sherds of E-ware from the Phase 1 occupation. A number of quernstones (probably of Mourne granite) were uncovered from Phase 2; two mill stones (of Scrabo sandstone) were also recovered, though these would appear to have been associated with the later motte phase. Large numbers of iron objects (mainly nails) and a number of copper-alloy objects (mainly clothing pins) were also found in the various early medieval occupation layers.

Rathmullan Lower, Co. Down Grid Ref: J47753736 (34775/33736) SMR No: DOW 044:016 References: Lynn 1981–82; 1985b; 1988e; Bourke 1985; Goodall 1985; Warner 1985. The site was a man-made mound (8m high) with a faint surrounding ditch (excavation revealed it had been approximately 6m wide, and 1.8m deep) which overlooked a coastal plain. The occupants of the neighbouring bungalow had given notice that they intended to remove the mound as there was a danger of collapse. Excavation revealed a number of distinct phases of occupation dating from the Early Medieval period through to Anglo-Norman occupation. The earliest identified occupation phase (Phase 1) contained a series of post-holes and stake-holes which, in association with the curvilinear drip-gullies, were interpreted as the remains of one or more wooden or wattle-built roundhouses. It was not possible to identify whether this settlement was enclosed by an earthwork or fence at this time. An early date (mid fifth to mid seventh century) was obtained from charcoal in the hearth of one of these houses, and this date coincides with the late sixth to early eighth-century date suggested by the discovery of two sherds of imported E-ware in the occupation layer. The primary occupation phase was then buried under a 0.6m layer of dumped topsoil. This soil dump appears to have been used as a platform on which a wattle-walled roundhouse (approximately 8m in diameter) was constructed. The Phase 2 roundhouse was built almost directly over the location of the earlier roundhouse, perhaps indicating continuity of settlement.

Fig. G.323: Plan of Phase 1 at Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, 73)

The site was remodelled again and there is evidence for the construction of a structure of rectangular plan with stone footings. It seems probable that this structure was built in association with the souterrain which was constructed at this time. Two radiocarbon dates from this phase (UB-2527 and UB-2525) suggest occupation in the ninth/tenth centuries. The Phase 3 structures were later covered by an enigmatic spread of boulders, which may represent the footings for rectangular-shaped clay buildings. This phase is unlikely to have ended earlier than the eleventh century, and may indeed belong wholly, or partly, to the twelfth century. The site was raised by two metres c.AD 1200 when it was transformed into an Anglo-Norman motte, and was later increased in height by a further metre.

Fig. G.324: Plan of Phase 2 at Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, 79)

620

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-2524

Context Charcoal from Anglo-Norman motte phase

14C

UB-2525

Charcoal from souterrain infill

1085±20 BP

UB-2526

Charcoal from Phase 1 hearth.

1500±40 BP

UB-2527

Charcoal from floor of Phase 3 house

1130±40 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Four small cakes of slag Crucible

Date 1165±55 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 695–698; A.D. 708–747; A.D. 765–990 A.D. 895–925; A.D. 936–1014 A.D. 434–492; A.D. 508–519; A.D. 528–643 A.D. 780–792; A.D. 803–992

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorls Needle Loom weights

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.325: Spindle whorls from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, figs 23 & 25)

Fig. G.326: Bronze objects from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, fig. 28)

621

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale

Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler

Object 14 ‘objects’ Socketed point Ring Pin? Nails Iron ingot Object of iron and bronze Two pins Spiral-ringed pin Stud

Dates

Two sherds of E-ware c. 100 sherds of souterrain ware Shale ring Shale disc Three shale spindle whorls Five sandstone spindle whorls Two mudstone spindle whorls Quernstone fragments Honestones Two rings Armlet Rubbing stones Loom weights? 16 pins Lathe-turned antler spindle whorls Needle Pin

Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.327: Bone pins from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, fig. 25) Fig. G.328: Souterrain ware from Rathmullan (after Lynn 1981–82, fig. 19)

622

stones mixed in with them. This new body of material was held in position by a stout revetment of horizontal logs, held in position by two rows of squared oak posts running along the eastern side of the crannog. The solid revetment was not used on the western side, where only oaken piles were driven into the marls. It is interesting to note again that the strongest defences faced towards the land, thus presenting an impressive palisade towards the shoreline.

‘Rathtinaun’ (Lough Gara td), Co. Sligo Grid Ref: M73019994 (173014/299948) SMR No: SL047-021 References: J. Raftery 1957; 1966; undated; B. Raftery 1994. The Bronze Age and early medieval crannog of Rathtinaun, Co. Sligo (also known as Crannog 61) was first recognised in 1952 after drainage led to the artificial lowering of the lake-levels of Lough Gara, on the Sligo/Roscommon border. The site appeared as a large stone cairn or mound, 36m by 29m and 2.5m in height, about 30m from dry land in a sheltered bay or inlet on the eastern side of the lake. Prior to excavation, the discovery of late Bronze Age artefacts on the site indicated its prehistoric origin. The site was totally excavated between 1953 and 1955 by Joseph Raftery of the National Museum of Ireland.

The initial phase of occupation (IVa) in Period IV was an oval crannog, 25m by 15m. It survived mostly as foundation material, but the Period III hearth continued in use with layer after layer of clay and ash being laid down. There was no protection for the hearth, but some postholes may represent a house. In the latter phase (IVb) of the Period IV occupation, there was a definite house structure. This was a large roundhouse (10.5m in diameter), of carefully sharpened stout oak posts spaced at intervals of 0.20m–0.35m. The house walls were probably of wattle. There was a central hearth and spread of ash and the house had a possible entrance facing to the east, looking out at the water. The surviving posts formed the southern wall of the house, but they were cut off at the level where Period IV ceased and Period V began. The house may have been demolished on the north side, where no posts remained.

The site had two late Bronze Age phases of occupation (Period I and Period II), followed by a period of abandonment and concealment by lake sands. Previously, it was thought that the site had an Iron Age phase, but recent radiocarbon dating indicates this is not the case. Period 1 probably dated to the late Bronze Age (c. 900 BC). There was no great chronological gap between Period I and Period II and the finds from the latter were also of late Bronze Age origin.

In the final phase of the Period IV occupation (i.e. IVb), it was necessary to extend or strengthen the crannog, so sand, stones, vegetation and other materials were piled against the oak revetment and piles on the southwest side of the crannog. The soils were of a sooty, black texture and the Period IVb phase was sterile of artefacts. Finds from the Period IVa occupation included stone hammerstones, whetstones, flint scrapers, flakes, spindle whorls, discs and a rotary quern. There were also two iron pins, two iron ferrules, three iron knives, nails and a staple. Raftery also mentions a ‘hoard consisting of a rotary quern, an iron horse-bit and a wooden pin’, potentially a deliberate deposit. There were bone pins, antler handles, and wooden stave-built and lathe-turned wooden vessels, as well as a clay bead. There were also clay mould fragments for casting copper-alloy rings. Period IV occupation was ended by a lake flood which deposited water-washed sands over the site.

The early medieval occupation began with the Period III level. Period III was the richest period of activity, suggested by the excavator to date from between AD 600–750. However, the presence of a small Merovingian yellow glass bottle or phial (typologically datable c. AD 500–650) probably indicates a slightly earlier sixth to seventh-century date. In Period III, a large mound of stones, 11.5m in length, was placed on the sands and was retained by a wooden revetment. Peat, logs and stone were heaped against and around the sides of this mound, and in turn retained by a timber revetment, increasing the size of the crannog to 28.5m by 21m. A layer of brushwood, gritty yellow sand, flagstones and timber were laid over this at about the same time. The crannog was retained by a vertical pile palisade, probably built in two phases, partly enclosing the site on north and northeast sides (facing the shoreline). Raftery did not recognise any house posts, but an oval or circular house was probably represented by a large centrally-placed hearth, in use over an extended period, with a layer of brushwood and peat that may have served as a house floor. The house floor was initially of peat sods, strewn with rushes, and as the sods settled into the stone core below the floor, it was levelled with sand. A hearth was laid down, initially being a simple unprotected hearth. The house had a floor of clay and subsequently of stone.

The Period V occupation began with the raising of the level of the Period IV surface, with a solid deposit of stone heaped over the whole site to make a new crannog. This cairn or stone deposit was 1.5m thick, measuring 26m by 20.5m, forming a crannog with oval plan. Humus was also mixed through this cairn. However, the superficial features of the Period V occupation had all but disappeared. It did have a small stone setting, 10m in length, which may have been the curving arc of a wall, while a small concentration (2m by 1m) of fourteen narrow (0.05m diameter) stakes may have formed some structure. A layer of clay and ash, speckled with charcoal, could have been a floor. The raising of a stone cairn over the crannogs in Lough Gara was also carried out on other sites, and at the small crannog at Sroove, it dated to

The Period IV occupation began with the levelling of the crannog surface by placing grassy turves and stones over the Period III remains, which had sloped or tilted to the south. These turves were obviously taken from the foreshore meadows, with grass, plants, rushes, roots and 623

inner row of posts was of oak, the outer row of birch. The western side of the crannog had been largely washed away by wave erosion. Traces of occupation were meagre, apart from finds of artefacts and a layer of ash and clay on the northeast side of the site. A possible circular house was represented by seven post-holes, a rectangular pit and a layer of flat stones. Finds from Period VI included stone pebbles, flakes, scrapers and chert flakes, as well as whetstones, some with sharpening grooves. There were also stone rotary querns. Other finds included bronze decorated discs, bronze ringed-pins, an iron socketed spearhead, iron knives, iron nails, iron rings, iron slag, bone pins (some with ornamental heads), combs, bone ‘spearheads’, bone tops, antler pins and handles, wooden staves, bases, binding hoops and wooden beetles. There was also evidence for metalworking in the form of clay crucibles, as well as a glass stud and amber pieces.

between the seventh and tenth centuries AD. The Period V finds included stone axes, pebbles, chert thumbscrapers, hollow-scrapers, hones, flint strike-a-lights and discs. There were also two rotary querns. There were five bronze ringed-pins and a bronze strap-end, as well as an iron socketed spearhead, one iron shield-boss, iron knives, nails, and an iron sickle. Bone pins, double-sided combs, spindle whorls and bone and antler handles were also found. Wooden vessels included stave-built buckets, bases, barrel hoops, carved tubs, a spoon, a bowl and pins. There was also a glass ring-bead and a lead ringbead. The Period V crannog was then abandoned for a considerable period, allowing the build-up of a turf layer and natural vegetation across the site, forming a 0.10m– 0.15m depth of dark soil. The Period VI crannog saw re-occupation of the site after a period of considerable abandonment. The inhabitants of the local area evidently decided to re-use the old crannog site. They extended it by heaping small stones, twigs, peat and grassy sods on the existing mound and beyond it, particularly at the perimeter of its eastern side. Raftery interpreted this as a later crannog which availed of the earlier site as a foundation material. The crannog was supported along its eastern side by a palisade of wooden posts erected in two rows, strengthened on its outer side by a revetting bank of sandy and peaty material that sloped down to the water’s edge. This may have been a high palisade, rather than a low revetment; the lines of posts ran for about 31m along the side of the site. The

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

The Period VII phase of occupation was the final one on the site. This phase was scanty and barely traceable. A small area on top of the mound had a thin layer of black soil over it, which was covered by small, angular stones. Thereafter, rising lake levels submerged the crannog under a considerable depth of water, perhaps up to 4m above the site. The Period VII finds included stone axes, hammerstones, hones, chert flakes and stone discs. There were also bronze penannular rings, bronze discs and pins, iron nails and rods, bone pins and combs, beads and a glass gaming piece.

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Crucibles

Amber pieces Pins Leather shoes Spindle whorls

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Object Iron spearhead Iron shield boss Iron ferrules Iron knife Iron ring brooch Iron bill-hook

Dates

624

Other metal

Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Bronze penannular brooch Bronze ringed-pins Bronze pin Bronze strip Bronze rings Bronze bracelets Bronze armlet Bronze discs Lead ring-bead Merovingian glass phial Glass bracelet Glass bead Glass stud

6th/7th C

Shale bracelets Whetstones Spindle whorls Stone discs Stone beads Four rotary quernstones Amber bead Wooden stave-built vessels Wooden dishes Bone pins Bone combs Bones beads Bone spindle whorls Antler handles Leather shoes

‘Small finds’ Table

625

between the features was problematic. Some of the gullies pre-dated the enclosure construction while others were contemporary. A substantial east-west slot-trench returned a radiocarbon date of A.D. 809–989 which was chronologically later than a date taken from the upper fill of the enclosure ditch. Another gully, which formed part of a boundary to the cemetery on its western side, was dated to A.D. 685–892. The relationship between the interior features is difficult to assess. Although no hearths were identified, some oval-shaped pits, areas of scorching and finds from the enclosure ditches and gullies, such as large quantities of animal bone, suggest settlement activity. A number of unstratified finds were also discovered and are representative of habitation, including complete and fragmented bone tools that were largely associated with weaving, a spindle whorl, lignite bracelet fragments, a blue glass bead, a fragment of an amber bead, two bone comb fragments, rubbing stones and many miscellaneous scraps of metal. A sherd of E-ware was found in the enclosure area and suggests a network of trade and exchange between high-status sites in Brega and possibly further afield.

Ratoath, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O01355215 (30135/25215) SMR No: N/A References: Dehaene 2004:1328; O’Brien 2009; Wallace 2003:1452; 2003:1454; 2004:1324; 2010. Excavation in advance of a large-scale residential development on the western fringe of Ratoath village revealed a large multi-period enclosed settlement, burial, agricultural and industrial complex. Prehistoric activity consisted of a late Bronze Age ringditch and an Iron Age ringditch and cereal-drying kilns. A settlement-cemetery enclosure and associated agricultural and industrial features succeeded these during the early middle ages while later medieval activity was also identified. The site was situated on the plateau of an east-west ridge on rich agricultural land. The enclosure measured 40m in internal diameter and its ditch had an average width of 2.77m and was 1.22m deep. Finds from the ditch fill included animal bone, a penannular brooch and an iron blade. The primary fill returned a date of A.D. 547–655 while an upper fill was dated to A.D. 647–778.

A potential outer enclosure ditch approximately 14m west of the settlement-cemetery enclosure was detected. It followed the same curvature for a length of 28.4m and was 3.4m in width and up to 1.4m in depth. Iron slag was retrieved from one of its four fills. A large U-shaped shallow pit which contained animal bone was located between the inner and outer enclosure ditches.

The cemetery, only partially excavated, was located in the south-east section of the enclosure. Forty-nine burials were identified and a small quantity of disarticulated human bone was also present. The graveyard contained 32 adults, 13 juveniles, three infants and five deposits of disarticulated human remains. The majority were aligned west-east in simple unlined graves. Burials that deviated from this included a crouched adult lying on its left side (Burial 12; A.D. 426–600) and an adult with its legs tightly flexed on top of the stomach area (Burial 34; A.D. 569–671). Some extended burials were interred with grave-goods including a young female with a copperalloy neck-ring (Burial 38; A.D. 668–832), an adult with an iron strap-end (Burial 35), a juvenile with an iron needle and two pieces of slag (Burial 48) and an adult – with evidence for ante-mortem injuries to the skull – with an iron knife and a small iron fragment (Burial 46). The neck-ring is similar to an example found from a cemetery at Bergh Apton in Norfolk (O’Brien 2009). This suggests possible Anglo-Saxon contacts and cultural influences in Ratoath. Some of the burials (for example Burial 12) potentially pre-date the enclosure and this is in keeping with the evidence from many settlement-cemeteries whose origins lie in the Iron Age.

A number of linear ditches and cereal-drying kilns were representative of agricultural activity to the east of the enclosure. The former produced few artefacts but substantial quantities of animal bone were present. The ditches formed roughly-rectangular enclosures and were dated between the fifth and eighth centuries. Several variously-shaped cereal-drying kilns were also identified to the east of the enclosure and they produced large quantities of cereal grains. A large example with a baffle stone was dated to A.D. 860–1018 while a teardropshaped and a figure-of-eight-shaped kiln both produced Iron Age dates. Metallurgical activity – mostly ironworking – was evident in a number of areas surrounding the settlementcemetery. A large volume of iron-smithing slag was recovered from the fills of two L-shaped ditches immediately to the north of the enclosure. A substantial ditch, which extended from the south-east side of the enclosure, produced a large quantity of iron-smithing slag. A portion of a lignite bracelet was also uncovered in the ditch fill. Two dates from the ditch fills ranged from A.D. 427–608 to A.D. 637–772. This larger ditch formed an annexe with two other smaller ditches which enclosed a large charcoal spread and a small keyhole-shaped kiln (dated to A.D. 431–600). Iron-smithing slag was again recovered in large quantities from this area. It appears that smithing was undertaken at specific areas outside the enclosure while an absence of iron-smelting slag suggests this occurred further away from the site and probably

A complex series of ditches, gullies and pits was identified within the enclosure which spanned the fourth to tenth centuries. No coherent plan for any domestic structures was identified but some of the gullies and slottrenches undoubtedly supported timber buildings. A series of curving gullies were identified in the south-west, north-west and north-east areas of the enclosure and may relate to each other. They possibly formed an enclosure – approximately 22m in diameter – but truncation, evidence for successive phases of re-building and limited excavation of the interior meant identifying relationships 626

nearer to where raw materials such as bog ore were sourced.

settlement, agricultural and industrial centre. Many phases were identified within the enclosure and its neighbouring field systems and cereal-drying kilns. Therefore, its inhabitants were involved in a range of farming and industrial activities across many centuries in tandem with the site’s use as both a dwelling place and a place for burying the dead.

Non-ferrous metalworking potentially occurred immediately to the west of the enclosure. Several small features, which were badly truncated by modern farm work, produced a lead ingot and a crucible sherd. Ratoath was a multi-period site which developed from a prehistoric burial place into a much larger early medieval

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Beta-196367

Context Bone from small ring-ditch

Date 2870±40 BP

UB-6539 UB-6538

Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln

1867±36 BP 1812±35 BP

Beta-196364

Bone from large ring-ditch

1790±40 BP

Beta-198517

Bone from oval pit

1630±40 BP

Beta-198519 UB-6546 UB-6542 Beta-198510 UB-6543 Beta-196362

Bone from north-south slot-trench Carbonised grain from pit Charcoal from slot-trench Bone from east-west ditch Carbonised seed from cereal-drying kiln Bone from curvilinear ditch

1600±40 BP 1589±35 BP 1569±35 BP 1530±40 BP 1532±35 BP 1490±60 BP

UB-6540

Charcoal from linear feature

1501±38 BP

Beta-196366

Bone from linear ditch

1490±40 BP

Beta-198518

Bone from curved ditch

1480±40 BP

Beta-196371

Bone from linear ditch

1410±60 BP

Beta-198522 Beta-196363 Beta-196369

Bone from enclosure ditch Bone from linear ditch Bone from linear ditch

1450±40 BP 1410±40 BP 1380±40 BP

Beta-198520

Bone from curved feature outside enclosure

1310±80 BP

UB-6544 Beta-198512

Carbonised grain from pit Bone from north-south ditch

1390±34 BP 1350±40 BP

Beta-198509 Beta-198513 Beta-198516 Beta-198523 Beta-198511

Bone from east-west ditch Bone from curvilinear ditch Bone from enclosure ditch Bone from enclosure ditch Bone from ditch

1340±40 BP 1310±40 BP 1320±40 BP 1310±40 BP 1300±40 BP

627

Cal. 2 Σ 1193–1171 B.C.; 1168–1143 B.C.; 1132–922 B.C. A.D. 70–235 A.D. 90–100; A.D. 124–261; A.D. 281–328 A.D. 127–345; A.D. 374–375 A.D. 268–271; A.D. 335–540 A.D. 383–560 A.D. 403–551 A.D. 416–565 A.D. 427–608 A.D. 431–600 A.D. 432–498; A.D. 501–651 A.D. 435–491; A.D. 509–518; A.D. 528–642 A.D. 436–489; A.D. 513–516; A.D. 530–648 A.D. 441–455; A.D. 460–484; A.D. 533–651 A.D. 536–720; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 547–655 A.D. 569–671 A.D. 582–694; A.D. 704–705; A.D. 748–765 A.D. 585–894; A.D. 929–931 A.D. 597–680 A.D. 614–723; A.D. 739–770 A.D. 637–772 A.D. 647–778 A.D. 648–774 A.D. 647–778 A.D. 649–781; A.D. 791–807

Beta-196365

Bone from linear ditch

1260±40 BP

UB-6545

Carbonised grain from possible furnace

1225±34 BP

Beta-198515 Beta-198521 UB-6541

Bone from ditch Bone from slot-trench Charcoal from re-cut of slot-trench

1220±40 BP 1220±40 BP 1131±35 BP

Beta-196368

Seed from cereal-drying kiln

1110±40 BP

Beta-198514 Beta-196372

Bone from curvilinear ditch Re-cut of ditch

910±40 BP 740±60 BP

Beta-198505 Beta-198504 Beta-198508

Bone from burial 25 Bone from burial 12 Bone from burial 54

1570±40 BP 1540±40 BP 1490±40 BP

Beta-198506 Beta-196361 Beta-198507

Bone from burial 27 Bone from burial 34 Bone from burial 51

1450±40 BP 1410±40 BP 1300±40 BP

Beta-196360

Bone from burial 38

1260±40 BP

Fig. G.329: Plan of enclosures at Ratoath (after Wallace 2010)

628

A.D. 668–832; A.D. 836–869 A.D. 688–753; A.D. 760–886 A.D. 685–892 A.D. 685–892 A.D. 782–790; A.D. 809–989 A.D. 783–787; A.D. 817–843; A.D. 860–1018 A.D. 1032–1210 A.D. 1166–1319; A.D. 1351–1390 A.D. 409–575 A.D. 426–600 A.D. 436–489; A.D. 513–516; A.D. 530–648 A.D. 547–655 A.D. 569–671 A.D. 649–781; A.D. 791–807 A.D. 668–832; A.D. 836–869

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Direct Evidence Iron-smithing slag Lead ingot Crucible sherd

Indirect Evidence

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Radiocarbon Dates 5th-7th C

Pins Weaving tools Spindle whorl Rubbing stones

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Metal scraps Iron knives Iron strap-end Iron awls Zoomorphic penannular brooch Bronze neck-ring Blue glass bead Sherd of E-ware Lignite bracelet Amber bead Bone weaving tools Bone spindle whorl Two bone comb fragments Bone pins

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

629

Dates

gullies which drained into a substantial ditch that was possibly the tailrace of a mill.

Raystown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O04975147 (304976/251474) SMR No: N/A References: Seaver 2004:1334; 2005b; 2006; 2010.

The outer burial enclosure was reduced in size on the northern side and became D-shaped during the latter part of this phase, and a large drainage ditch was constructed to the north of it.

Raystown, excavated in advance of the N2 road-scheme, was a large enclosed settlement-cemetery and agricultural complex that was in use for at least 600 years between the early fifth and twelfth centuries. The site was located on a north-south ridge – between 65m and 71m OD – in an area of mostly low-lying land. It was bounded by a river, streams and an area of water-logged ground on three sides. Geophysical prospection revealed a palimpsest of further activity, notably to the west of the excavation.

Phase III (AD 600–800) witnessed the digging of a subrectangular enclosure around the burial ground and northern habitation area which enclosed an area of 60m2. It replaced the earlier outer burial enclosure. Large quantities of burnt grain were present in the ditch and this area became the new focus for cereal-processing. The ditch was open between the mid seventh and early ninth centuries and a rare iron horse snaffle was retrieved from its fill. A stone-built souterrain – located within the defined area – also belonged to this phase. The scale of cereal processing during Phase III was further demonstrated by the construction of two water mills. Southern Mill 1 and Southern Mill 4 produced similar radiocarbon dates; the former was dated to A.D. 660–782 and the latter returned a date of A.D. 653–772. Burial continued during this phase both within and outside the main enclosure.

A number of phases were identified at Raystown. The initial activity was focused on a penannular burial enclosure on top of the ridge that was dated between the fourth and sixth centuries. It measured 22m north-south by 18m east-west. Eight of the twenty radiocarbon-dated human burials came from this phase and six of these were clustered close to the centre of the enclosure. One of them cut the ditch and was dated to the fifth/sixth century which suggests that the ditch was back-filled by the end of the sixth century. Broadly contemporary cereal-drying kilns were situated to the south and north-east of the burial ground.

During Phase IV (AD 700–900), a new substantial mill in the southern mill complex, Southern Mill 5, was constructed, the sub-rectangular enclosure was backfilled, and settlement continued in the southern section of the site. Evidence for the latter consisted of a series of hearths, gullies and a refuse pit. The pit contained hearth rake-out, a ringed pin, animal bone and cereal remains.

During Phase II (AD 500–700), a 50m-diameter outer burial enclosure was dug concentrically around the original cemetery enclosure. It was probably created in the sixth century. A rim fragment of an imported continental glass vessel – dating between the fifth and seventh centuries – came from the lower plough-soil within the enclosure, while a date of A.D. 654–779 was obtained from the northern part of the enclosure ditch. Further burials were placed in the newly-expanded area.

Large-scale cereal processing was evident for the first time during this phase on the northern part of the site through the construction of a mill whose millrace utilised the east-west part of the sub-rectangular enclosure. The stone-built cereal-drying kiln in the northern habitation area was still in use and was dated to A.D. 799–975.

Settlement evidence belonging to this phase was identified to the north of the cemetery and consisted of several gullies and an earth-cut souterrain. Post-holes along the latter’s passageways indicate that it was roofed and it had a circular chamber with a ring of post-holes cut into the floor and walls. Cereal grain from one of the post-holes was dated between the mid sixth and mid seventh centuries.

The burial enclosure contained a single burial from this phase which was dated to A.D. 766–898. A second water mill (Northern Mill 2) replaced the initial mill in the northern part of the site during Phase V (AD 900–1150). It was constructed between A.D. 887–1017 and used a different water-source from the one used by Northern Mill 1. It was abandoned during the twelfth century. Settlement evidence during this phase included a hearth and a baking-slab, gullies and metalling, slottrenches of a possible rectangular building and a further series of hearths that were associated with this building. Another mill (the Central Mill) was constructed and cut many of the main features in the southern area during Phase V. It is likely that the Southern Mill Complex had fallen out of use by this time.

Two substantial northwest-southeast boundaries were constructed during Phase II. One may have functioned as a mill-race while the other was fed by a series of northsouth gullies and ditches, which drained from a terminal at the junction of the outer burial enclosure. They were both re-cut numerous times – like many of the ditches at Raystown – and they enclosed a number of hearths and pits. Considerable arable activity in the northern and southern parts of the site was also associated with this phase. Four figure-of-eight-shaped cereal-drying kilns were present, two in each area. The southern kilns were associated with

A single burial in the cemetery (dating to A.D. 809–989) belongs to this phase while the presence of a late eleventh/mid twelfth-century stickpin within the burial ground suggests the possibility that burial continued until 630

this time. Settlement evidence is also suggested by the presence of two candle holders dating between the mid eleventh and thirteenth centuries. The site was abandoned during the twelfth century as attested to by the small quantities of late medieval pottery from the site. Half of the cemetery was within the road-take and excavation revealed 93 articulated burials (68 adults, three adolescents, 20 juveniles and two older infants) while a further 40 burials were indicated by the presence of disarticulated bones scattered around the area. Geophysical survey suggests that a total of between 300 and 400 burials may have been present if the density of burials was similar outside the road-take and burial continued at the same rate as those revealed during excavation. The radiocarbon dates suggest the majority of burials took place during the first three phases and decreased in numbers thereafter. Seventy-three burials were identified within the inner enclosure and many of the central ones were inter-cut. They were mainly extended, oriented west-east, and in shallow and unlined graves. The majority of children who died between the ages of one and eight were buried in a specified area to the south of the penannular enclosure. Noteworthy aspects of burial at Raystown included evidence of violent deaths for two males and the burial of a male in a former cereal-drying kiln. The latter had been covered with stones and was laid in a north-south position with his legs flexed. Thirty-one burials were found to the south of, or cutting, the inner enclosure. They ranged in date from the sixth to the tenth centuries. Twenty burials were juvenile and some later examples had a blue glass bead at their necks. Fig. G.330: Plan of Raystown (after Seaver 2006, 77)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Wk-17910

Context Single barley grain from sub-rectangular enclosure

Date 1295±36 BP

Wk-16823

Human bone from articulated burial within ring-ditch

1647±33 BP

Wk-16306

Human bone from articulated burial within ring-ditch

1528±33 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 654–779; A.D. 794–800 A.D. 263–277; A.D. 329–467; A.D. 480–533 A.D. 432–602

Wk-16821

Human bone from articulated burial south of ring-ditch

1425±33 BP

A.D. 573–660

Wk-16307

Human bone from articulated burial within ring-ditch

1334±34 BP

Wk-16309

Human bone from articulated burial cutting ring-ditch with blue glass bead

1130±35 BP

A.D. 644–724; A.D. 738–771 A.D. 782–789; A.D. 809–850; A.D. 851–989

631

Wk-16310

Human bone from articulated burial outside ring-ditch

1195±34 BP

Wk-16302 Wk-16294

Charcoal from fill of pit cut by souterrain Charcoal from a circular pit north of the western souterrain

1249±53 BP 1284±40 BP

UB-6521

Oak timber from Southern Mill 1

1279±32 BP

UB-6522

Oak timber from Southern Mill 4

1315±35 BP

UB-6523

Oak timber from Southern Mill 5

1206±35 BP

Wk-16300

Burnt oak in feature within southern mill complex

1188±37 BP

UB-6524 Wk-16295 Wk-17907 Wk-17908 Wk-16296

Oak timber from Northern Mill 2 Charcoal from backfill of Northern Mill 2 Oat grain from cereal-drying kiln Wheat grain from cereal-drying kiln Blackthorn charcoal from fill of cereal-drying kiln

1096±35 BP 938±32 BP 1575±30 BP 1428±30 BP 1151±35 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Marked timbers Bone buttons Tensioner Distaff Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Fig. G.331: Bone, glass and lignite finds from Raystown (after Seaver 2010, 276)

632

A.D. 695–696; A.D. 709–747; A.D. 766–898; A.D. 920–947 A.D. 665–887 A.D. 656–783; A.D. 788–820; A.D. 842–859 A.D. 660–782; A.D. 790–809 A.D. 653–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 691–750; A.D. 763–895; A.D. 926–935 A.D. 713–745; A.D. 767–901; A.D. 917–966 A.D. 887–1017 A.D. 1023–1164 A.D. 418–551 A.D. 576–657 A.D. 779–794; A.D. 799–975

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron knives Iron awls Iron hollow punch Iron tensioner Copper-alloy needle Three copper-alloy pins Two copper-alloy pin shafts Two copper-alloy stick pins Glass beads Imported glass vessel E-ware sherd

Dates

Rotary quernstone Grinding stone Hone stone Bone needles Bone pin beater Bone distaff Spindle whorl Bone buttons Bone toggles Two bone combs Two bone knife handles Bone pins

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

633

was a pre-rath horizon of possible prehistoric date since a small polished stone axe and worked flint were found in one of the irregular gullies. Phase 2 was represented by a series of truncated features again cut into subsoil but only surviving as the butt end of post- and stake-holes. Several irregular hollows of uncertain function were also discovered at this level. Phase 3 saw the deliberate filling of the ditch and a process of levelling up of the slope. These deposits sealed the filled-in ditch as well as providing a more level platform for the living surface. Phase 4 was represented by a further series of post- and stake-holes and hollows cut into the Phase 3 deposition layers. There was a pit and stake-hole complex on the inner edge of the bank which seems to have been used as a cooking pit. There was no evidence here or elsewhere for a hearth. The ploughed-out bank was associated with this phase and would appear to be a secondary bank replacing the earlier bank which would have been associated with the ditch. The entrance through this secondary bank was revealed during the course of the excavation.

Ringmackilroy, Co. Down Grid Ref: J14149360 (31414/39360) SMR No: DOW 051:048 Reference: Crothers 1992:037. A small-scale rescue excavation was carried out on this ploughed-out rath in advance of its total removal as part of a building development. The rath was situated on the summit of a drumlin with extensive views in all directions. The drumlin sloped away in all directions with steeper gradients on the north and east sides. The rath survived as a very low platform surrounded by a shallow bank with a maximum height of 0.4m. There were traces of a silted-up ditch on the west and south sides only. Excavation, however, proved that the ditch did in fact extend around the south-east side of the rath as well. Due to the imminent threat, the topsoil was stripped using a mechanical excavator under supervision. It was soon apparent that the rath had been heavily ploughed resulting in a ploughsoil with a maximum depth of 0.35m. This deep ploughing had removed all traces of occupation layers in the northernmost side of the rath where the ploughsoil rested on the subsoil of the core of the drumlin. On the southernmost side of the rath, however, there were substantial deposits due to a phase of levelling up of the slope.

No real stratigraphy survived on the northern half of the site. A series of post-holes, hollows and a very few stakeholes were all that remained. The bank had been spread by plough action on the north-east to south portion and survived only as a stony spread. Finds recovered were mainly of souterrain ware, distributed throughout the site. Several lignite fragments, slag, two whetstones, a small polished stone axe and a stone(?) adze were also recovered.

The excavation of the southern half of the site revealed four phases of activity. The earliest phase, represented by a series of subsoil-cut post-holes and irregular gullies, Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware Lignite fragments Two whetstones

‘Small finds’ Table 634

that some form of activity continued on site through the medieval period, and into the post-medieval period.

Rinnaraw, Co. Donegal Grid Ref: C03803680 (20380/43680) SMR No: DGO 016-016 References: Fanning 1987:011; 1988:011; 1989:019; 1990:025; 1992:032; Comber 2006.

Little was discovered in the ‘yard’ of the house. Structural remains in the east of the enclosure revealed possible iron-working activity with considerable amounts of iron slag (30kg was recovered from the site) and fragments of furnace bottoms. The largest number of souterrain ware sherds from the site was also recovered from this area.

The site was described in the Archaeological Survey of Co. Donegal as a ‘cashel’, although all that was visible prior to excavation was a 7m-arc of large stones along the edge of a rock platform (20m–25m in diameter).

Finds from the site included a number of stone artefacts including seven ‘burnishers’ or polishing stones; five fragments of serpentine rings; a large number of perforated stones (loom weights or net weights); a number of stone discs (interpreted as gaming pieces); and a number of quern fragments. Aside from the iron knife and other objects found in the shell midden, a small number of badly-corroded iron objects were found – of these, four knife fragments were identified.

The early excavations were focused on an area of mounds in the centre of the enclosure. Excavation revealed this as a rectangular stone house (7m by 5m internally). A large internal paved area was discovered, as well as possible internal divisions and post-holes which may have held the roof. The hearth was located just north of the centre of the house, and occupation deposits from above the paved floor showed fragments of charcoal and burnt bone, as well as iron slag. A stone-lined drain ran out of the house under the wall beside the entrance. This appears to lead from the paved area, and led the excavator to describe the structure as a ‘byre-house’, with the paved area acting as an animal pen. Such structures were common in the later medieval period and into the post-medieval period, although similar ‘byre houses’ have been excavated at Norse sites in the Western Isles. A shell midden including shellfish (winkles, cockles and barnacles) as well as iron slag, two iron objects, a pot sherd, and a fragment of tuyère, were found in the area of the north wall of the house. The exact relationship of this midden to the wall is not understood, although it has been stated that it carried into the rubble wall core. A second shell midden was found against the outer face of the wall at the entrance. This included shellfish (winkles and limpets) as well as three pot sherds. The dates from shells from these middens suggest that they are substantially later than the occupation of the house; however, charcoal from one of the middens is contemporary with the primary occupation (see below). It seems likely therefore

Fig. G.332: Rinnaraw cashel (after Comber 2006, 86)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. (* – calibrated with marine reservoir effect: Hughen, K.A., Baillie, M.G.L., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J.W., Bertrand, C., Blackwell, P.G., Buck, C.E., Burr, G., Cutler, K.B., Damon, P.E., Edwards, R.L., Fairbanks, R.G., Friedrich, M., Guilderson, T.P., Kromer, B., McCormac, F.G., Manning, S., Bronk Ramsey, C., Reimer, P.J., Reimer, R.W., Remmele, S., Southon, J.R., Stuiver, M., Talamo, S., Taylor, F.W., van der Plicht, J. and Weyhenmeyer C.E. 2004. Radiocarbon 46, 1059–1086.) 14C

Sample No. GrN-18078 GrN-18079 GrN-18080

Context Shell from midden Shell from midden Charcoal from hearth

Date 910±50 BP 790±50 BP 1330±60 BP

GrN-19755

Charcoal from wall

1085±25 BP

635

Cal. 2 Σ * A.D. 1344–1624 * A.D. 1454–1689 A.D. 602–784; A.D. 787–826; A.D. 840–863 A.D. 895–927; A.D. 935–1015

GrN-19756

Charcoal from north midden

1160±35 BP

GrN-19757

Charcoal from wall

1070±35 BP

GrN-19758

Charcoal from hearth

1055±35 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag Tuyère Furnace lining

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

A.D. 777–908; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 894–928; A.D. 934–1021 A.D. 895–925; A.D. 936–1027

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware Perforated stones

Loom weights?

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knife fragments

Dates

Souterrain ware sherds Quernstone fragments Honestones Nine stone discs Stone burnishers Five fragments of serpentine bracelet/ring 10 perforated stones (loom weights? / net-sinkers? / quernstones?) 11 quernstone fragments Bone points

‘Small finds’ Table

636

combs, bone and metal needles, and a blue glass bead. Although there were no clear traces of structural remains, around 200 litres of butchered animal bone (largely sheep, cattle and pigs) were recovered from site. This led the excavator to suggest that the site may have been used for social/ritual feasting, rather than domestic occupation.

Rochfort Demesne, Co. Westmeath Grid Ref: N42774710 (242772/247101) SMR No: WM026-051 References: Channing 2007; Stevens & Channing 2012. The site was located on top of a hillock, near to Lough Ennell. It had been identified as a ‘ringfort’ in the SMR, and was completely excavated in 2005 and 2006 due to future destruction by a road scheme. Excavation revealed that the site consisted of three concentric sub-circular ditches, with the truncated remains of two banks. The inner ditch (width 2.4m and depth 1.55m) enclosed an area with an internal diameter of 38.9m. This proved to be the earliest enclosure on site. The outer ditch (maximum dimensions of 3.95m wide and 1.82m deep) enclosed an area with an internal diameter of 50m. This seems to have been constructed soon after the inner ditch. The third ditch cuts through the outer ditch, and would appear to have been dug in the eighteenth century. The interior of the site was damaged by later activity, and only a number of rubbish pits were identified within the area enclosed by the outer ditch. Artefactual remains from the site suggest a period of occupation stretching from the Iron Age through into the early medieval period. A swan-necked pin discovered in a pit near the entrance to the inner enclosure has been identified with similar pins dated c.500 B.C.–A.D. 400. A ‘Dublin-type’ ringpin, found in the topsoil, has been dated to the tenth century AD. Other finds included fragments of bone

Fig. G.333: Plan of enclosures at Rochfort Demesne (after Channing 2007, 113)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. SUERC-8586

Context Cow mandible from inner ditch

14C Date 1350±35 BP

SUERC-8587

Cow mandible from outer ditch

1200±35 BP

SUERC-8588

Charcoal from pit in interior

1230±35 BP

UBA-8158

Cattle mandible from Phase 1 ditch

1318±23 BP

UBA-8159

Animal bone from pit

1184±43 BP

UBA-8160

Sheep/goat bone from pit

1167±22 BP

UBA-8161 UBA-8163

Cattle bone Animal bone from pit

1036±22 BP 1157±21 BP

UBA-8164

Animal bone from pit

887±25 BP

637

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 620–629; A.D. 630–719; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 693–748; A.D. 765–897; A.D. 922–941 A.D. 688–754; A.D. 757–883 A.D. 655–718; A.D. 742–769 A.D. 710–746; A.D. 766–908; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 778–899; A.D. 919–949 A.D. 974–1027 A.D. 780–792; A.D. 804–902; A.D. 916–967 A.D. 1044–1101; A.D. 1119–1143; A.D. 1146–1217

UBA-8165

Animal bone from pit

1210±41 BP

UBA-8873

Charcoal from pit

1093±30 BP

UBA-8875

Cereal seeds from hearth

1071±31 BP

UBA-8876

Charcoal from hearth

1189±29 BP

UBA-8877

Cattle bone from bank

1211±22 BP

UBA-9228 UBA-9453

Cattle bone from pit Oat grains from pit

1383±29 BP 760±31 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 8.5kg iron slag

Indirect Evidence

A.D. 687–895; A.D. 925–937 A.D. 891–999; A.D. 1002–1013 A.D. 895–926; A.D. 936–1020 A.D. 723–740; A.D. 770–897; A.D. 921–943 A.D. 721–741; A.D. 770–887 A.D. 607–675 A.D. 1219–1283

Radiocarbon Dates

Needles Weaving tools

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Needles Dublin-type copper-alloy pin Blue glass bead

Dates 10th C

Grinding stone Bone combs Bone needles

11th C

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

638

Roestown 2, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N95795380 (295792/253807) SMR No: N/A References: O’Hara 2007; 2009c; 2009d

Evidence for ironworking was minimal and consisted of slag residues and furnace bottoms. Non-ferrous metalworking – usually associated with high-status sites – was indicated by the presence of crucible fragments, bone motif pieces, a stone ingot mould and some droplets of copper alloy. Glass working was also practised because some of the crucible fragments contained glazed residues. A number of artefacts were recovered that demonstrated small-scale textile production (spindle whorls, iron and copper-alloy needles), bone-working (worked bone) and carpentry (an iron awl).

Roestown 2, excavated in advance of the M3 roadscheme, was a large multi-phase enclosed early medieval settlement and associated agricultural complex that was utilised from potentially the mid sixth century through to the thirteenth century. The site, divided into Areas A and B, was dissected by the current N3. The former – to the east of Area B – included an animal enclosure and field systems and the latter comprised the settlement and associated field enclosures. Roestown was situated on the edge of a slight northeast–southwest terrace (at 106m OD) in undulating countryside. Redbog, a reclaimed marsh area, was located to the east so much of the surrounding land would have been waterlogged in antiquity.

A series of small irregular fields was located to the east of the D-shaped enclosure in Area A. The largest of these, from Phase I, measured 25m by 25m. A number of artefacts were associated with the Phase I fields including bone pins and combs, an iron knife and sherds of E-ware. A dog skeleton dating to A.D. 606–717 belonged to this phase and two disturbed human burials – which were associated with one of the enclosures – may also have been associated with Phase I. The fields were removed to form a much larger U-shaped enclosure (40m by 30m) that was associated with a number of radiating ditches. The Phase II enclosure and ditches contained large quantities of animal bone and a variety of artefacts including bone pins and comb fragments, iron knives and two stone gaming boards. This phase was dated by radiocarbon to the seventh and eighth centuries. During Phase III, a rectangular enclosure replaced the U-shaped enclosure. Animal bone was still evident in large quantities and artefacts included a strip of decorated bronze, a fragment of silver, a lignite bracelet and a possible bone flute. This phase potentially dates between the eighth and eleventh centuries. The final phase consisted of a small thirteenth/fourteenth-century enclosure that was constructed in the centre of the Phase III enclosure.

The primary enclosure (Area B) was D-shaped and was constructed between A.D. 533 and 651. The enclosing ditch was re-cut on two further occasions between the eighth and tenth centuries. The initial site measured 76m by 53m and its dimensions did not alter radically during later phases. The ditch varied between U- and V-shape in profile and was generally 1.3m deep. The entrance to the enclosure occurred at the northeast. The initial entrance required a bridge or other form of access as the primary ditch was uninterrupted around the site. Following this, in Phase II, a causeway was created at the entrance point. A number of internal ditches were recorded for Phases II and III within Enclosure 1. These were absent during the primary phase. One of the earliest ditches cut a small structure associated with E ware. Cereal-drying kilns and curvilinear gullies – possible small shelters or structures – were located in the southern partition of the enclosure. This area was potentially utilised for cereal processing. A number of radiating ditches were connected to the outer enclosure to the south and it is likely they were fields associated with cereal growing. The western part of the enclosure was also partitioned by a series of ditches but their function is unclear. A drystone-built souterrain was situated at the centre of the D-shaped enclosure and was not stratigraphically related to earlier features. The souterrain contained three beehive chambers that were connected by three short passages. Other aspects of the souterrain included pits within each chamber, a ramped entrance, a boxed cupboard, an air vent and a trap-door feature. A large number of personal dress items were associated with the settlement in Area B, including glass and stone beads, lignite bracelets, bone pins, copper-alloy and iron ringed pins, bone comb fragments and a belt buckle.

Fig. G.334: Lignite bracelets from Roestown (after O’Hara 2009d, 69)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150.

639

Sample No. Beta-220115

Context F427: Animal bone from D-shaped enclosure ditch, Area B

14C Date 1480±40 BP

Beta-220116

1170±40 BP

Beta-219005

F484: Animal bone from re-cut of D-shaped enclosure ditch, Area B F 144: Animal bone from primary fill of enclosure ditch, Area A

Beta-219003

F116: Animal bone from Phase 1 ancillary enclosure, Area A

1360±40 BP

Beta-219002

F108: Animal bone from primary fill of Phase 1 enclosure, Area A

1320±40 BP

Fig. G.335: Phases from Roestown (after O’Hara 2007, 145)

640

1380±40 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 441–455; A.D. 460–484; A.D. 533–651 A.D. 727–737; A.D. 771–975 A.D. 582–694; A.D. 704–705; A.D. 748–765 A.D. 606–717; A.D. 743–769 A.D. 648–774

Material Iron-working Other metal-working

Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 10.35kg smithing slag Stone anvil Stone ingot mould Three crucible fragments Bone motif pieces Copper-alloy residue

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Crucible with glazed residue

Iron awl Bone pins & comb blanks Pins Stone spindle whorl Knitting needle? Shears Loom weight

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler

Object Shear blades? Iron awl Three socketed blades Iron pins Iron needles Iron blades 32 copper-alloy pin fragments 11 glass beads Four sherds of E-ware Seven lignite bracelets Stone spindle whorl Three whetstones Loom weight Stone lamp Amber fragment 25 bone pins Bone comb fragment with copper-alloy rivets Antler knitting needle? Four antler combs Antler knife handle Antler pins

Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.336: Bone comb fragments from Roestown (after O’Hara 2009d, 82)

641

Dates

than the preceding phase. Pigs were also fewer when compared to Phase I whereas, conversely, sheep/goat numbers increased and they represented the second most utilised species after cattle.

Rosepark, Balrothery, Co. Dublin Grid Ref: O20206121 (32020/26121) SMR No: DU005-013 Reference: Carroll 2008.

Burial evidence was also revealed at Rosepark as the disarticulated remains of three adults were found in a shallow pit on top of the hill. One of the individuals was dated to A.D. 582–694. The burial activity may relate to the latter part of Phase II or Phase III

Excavations at Rosepark, Balrothery, Co. Dublin in advance of a housing development revealed a hilltop multi-phase enclosure complex spanning approximately the late Iron Age until the eighth or ninth centuries AD. Unenclosed habitation, consisting of seven souterrains, potentially succeeded the hilltop settlement but was abandoned prior to the arrival of the Anglo-Normans. A small number of disarticulated burials were identified on the summit of the hill and agricultural activity, especially cereal processing, was present including eleven cerealdrying kilns and quantities of animal bone. Approximately a little over half of the site was excavated.

The hilltop enclosure was again extensively modified between the sixth and eighth centuries during Phase III. Ditch F was largely a re-cut of Ditch A – the inner enclosure – and E-ware was recovered from its fill. A new outer enclosure, Ditch C, was dug but was not as extensive as the previous outer enclosure. However, it showed evidence for an associated stone-revetted bank. Charcoal from Ditch C was dated to A.D. 671–778 while E-ware was also recovered. Other finds from the upper fill included an iron belt buckle, a bronze pin, a knife and a loom weight. Ditch J was likely a continuation of Ditch C and it also probably had a related stone-revetted bank. The ratio of the three main animal domesticates was similar to Phase II.

Phase I witnessed the digging of an enclosure ditch (Ditch G); only a small section was excavated, on the summit of the hill and it has been dated to A.D. 259–411 (see below for radiocarbon dates). The highest part of the site was 58m OD and there were clear views of the surrounding countryside in all directions from the hilltop. The coastline was just 2km away. Only 12m of the ditch was revealed within the excavated area and it contained a stony layer throughout its fill as well as animal bone, charcoal and iron slag. The remainder of the ditch may have been removed due to the digging of later ditches A and F. Contemporary agricultural activity occurred at the base of the hill as two cereal-drying kilns produced similar radiocarbon dates. The remainder of the kilns were undated but it is likely that many were contemporary. A number of possible huts may also date to this phase as they were truncated by the Phase II ditch (Ditch E). Phase I was largely devoid of artefacts except for a possible iron axe-head. Analysis of the animal bones showed that cattle represented the vast majority of the domesticated animals (89%), followed by pig (9%) and sheep/goat (3%).

The Phase III outer enclosure enclosed two souterrains while a further five were located further downhill from the hilltop enclosure. The enclosed souterrains may relate to this phase or, alternatively and more likely, they all belong to Phase IV. Phase IV consisted of occupation at Rosepark from the ninth century until the arrival of the Anglo-Normans. The souterrains possibly represent a movement from enclosed to open settlement at this point and it appears that the hilltop enclosure was abandoned by the eighth or ninth centuries. Some of the souterrains were used, after their abandonment, as cereal-drying kilns. Kilns nearby at Glebe South were radiocarbon-dated between the early eleventh and thirteenth centuries. It could tentatively be suggested that the souterrains at Rosepark were utilised between the ninth and tenth centuries before their abandonment. Some were thereafter reused as cerealdrying kilns contemporary with cereal-processing at Glebe South.

Both an inner (Ditch A) and outer ditch (Ditch B) were excavated on the hilltop during the second phase of activity between the fifth and sixth centuries. A linear ditch (Ditch E) also extended eastwards from Ditch B while a large house was constructed at this time between the inner and outer enclosures. An entranceway, represented by parallel trenches, was located to the east of the outer enclosure. Ditch A contained large quantities of charcoal and animal bone and its lower fill was dated to A.D. 431–607. E-ware sherds were identified in its upper fill and can be dated between the mid sixth and seventh centuries. It is likely that the outer enclosure was contemporary with the inner enclosing ditch as it related to Ditch E which cut a number of the Phase I features. Only a few finds came from Ditch B, including a possible iron belt buckle and a bone needle, while the only find from Ditch E was an iron escutcheon. Generally, therefore, artefacts were scarce from the Phase II enclosure ditches. During this phase, cattle remained the dominant domesticated species but were less abundant

Fig. G.337: Phase I at Rosepark (after Carroll 2008, 24) 642

Fig. G.338: Phase II at Rosepark (after Carroll 2008, 30)

Fig. G.339: Phase III at Rosepark (after Carroll 2008, 52)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-4808

Context Charcoal from fill of Phase I Ditch G

14C

UB-4807

Charcoal from cereal-drying kiln (Kiln 1)

1689±15 BP

UB-4809

Charred cereal grains from cereal-drying kiln (Kiln 2)

1639±21 BP

OxA-11472 UB-4810 Beta-236600

Charcoal from lower fill of Phase II Inner Enclosure (Ditch A) Charcoal from Phase III outer enclosure (Ditch C) Human bone from shallow pit

1524±36 BP 1269±23 BP 1380±40 BP

Material Iron-working

Date 1693±22 BP

Direct Evidence Iron slag Furnace clay

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Bone points, needle and pin Spindle whorl/ loom weight Bone needle

Industrial Processing Table

643

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 259–296; A.D. 321–411 A.D. 262–279; A.D. 326–410 A.D. 343–440; A.D. 486–531 A.D. 431–607 A.D. 671–778 A.D. 582–694; A.D. 704–705; A.D. 748–765

Radiocarbon Dates

Fig. G.340: Spindle whorl/loom weight from Rosepark (after Carroll 2008)

Material Iron Other metal

Glass

Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Iron ring pin? Iron knife blades Iron belt buckle Bronze pin Bronze ring pin Copper-alloy fastener Copper-alloy disc Copper-alloy fragments White glass bead Yellow glass bead Blue glass bead Herringbone-patterned bead E-ware sherds (9) Sandstone spindle whorl or loom weight Quernstone

Bone points Bone pin Bone comb fragment Bone needle

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

644

Dates

chert debitage, one fragment of flint debitage and two fragments of quartz debitage.

Sallymount, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: 166527/160525 SMR No: N/A Reference: Clark & Long 2009.

Two post-holes located just inside the causeway entrance in the south of the sub-rectangular enclosure were probably related to a gate structure. Three clusters of post-holes and pits were located in the interior of this enclosure. These contained fragments of slag and had evidence for hearths, and would appear to have had some industrial function.

Extensive early medieval activity was identified at Sallymount, Co. Limerick, represented by a sub-circular enclosure and an attached sub-rectangular enclosure. The sub‐circular enclosure would seem to have had a domestic function. A structure consisting of four posts 2m apart arranged in a square (Structure 2) was identified in the interior of the enclosure. A charred hazelnut shell from the fill of one of these holes produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 671–772 (UBA‐12268). No features were identified within the four‐post structure; however, the ground surface was compacted and slightly stonier than the surrounding area suggesting its use as a floor. A probable hearth was located to the north of this structure and returned a calibrated date range of A.D. 557–644 (UBA‐12269).

Structure 3, approximately 4m by 2.5m, was located just outside this enclosure. This structure was defined by a series of post-holes, one of which produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 612–661 (UBA‐12281). The fill of these post-holes included slag, flake hammerscale, spheroidal hammerscale, and furnace lining. Two features located in the interior of this structure have been interpreted as smithing hearths associated with metalworking. Structure 4 was also located just south of the subrectangular enclosure and consisted of two dumbbell‐shaped cereal‐drying kilns set inside a structure surrounded by a series of post-holes. A central wall separated the structure into two parts, each one containing a kiln. The kiln deposits returned radiocarbon dates of A.D. 653–770 (UBA‐9935) and A.D. 688–870 (UBA‐9934). It is tentatively suggested that an alignment of at least eleven post-holes and features to the south of Structure 3 may have formed another structure. The shape of the structure represented by these features is unclear though they seem to reflect one long alignment of postholes with a northwest/southeast orientation combined with several shorter northeast/southwest alignments. The structure measured approximately 11m long and 6m wide.

Seven stake-holes were recorded approximately 1m to the south of the four‐post structure. They were roughly aligned in a north/south direction and arranged in a fashion that could indicate they supported some kind of wattle structure/screen. Another, more substantial fence or screen was located between Structure 2 and the entrance to the enclosure. The enclosure ditch was re-cut and the entrance causeway remodelled, probably in the seventh century – a charred grain returned a radiocarbon date of A.D. 581–664 (UBA‐12265). Three refuse pits were cut into the redeposited material within the ditch. These contained food refuse as well as tiny un-diagnostic fragments of slag and spheroidal hammerscale from metalworking. A hazelnut from one of these pits was radiocarbon dated to A.D. 653–766 (UBA‐12267), while charcoal from another pit produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 572–646 (UBA‐12273). A curvilinear feature truncated the eastern side of the original sub‐circular enclosure ditch. Radiocarbon dating of this feature returned a calibrated date of A.D. 677–774 (UBA‐12275) Shortly after the construction of the sub‐circular enclosure, two additional ditches were excavated to create a sub-rectangular enclosure annexed to the original one. Organic material from the basal layers of these ditches produced a date of A.D. 581–650 (UBA‐12280), while the upper fill of the ditches produced dates of A.D. 673–772 (UBA‐12271) and A.D. 679–775 (UBA‐12272). The sub-rectangular enclosure would appear to have a more industrial focus and deposits in the ditch included evidence of smithing hearths/furnace bottoms, fragments of slag and corroded iron, as well as two fragments of

Fig. G.341: Objects from Sallymount (after Clark & Long 2009)

645

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UBA-9934

Context Charred hazelnut C592 – basal fill of cereal-drying kiln 1

14C

UBA-9935

Charred barley C123 – basal fill of cereal-drying kiln 2

1320±26 BP

UBA-12265 UBA-12266

Charred cereal C12 – re-cut of curvilinear ditch Charcoal C52 – basal fill of curvilinear ditch

1413±33 BP 1501±22 BP

UBA-12267

Hazelnut C54 – upper fill of waste pit

1327±21 BP

UBA-12268 UBA-12269 UBA-12270

Hazelnut – fill of post-hole Structure 2 Hazelnut C224 – deposit in hearth Charcoal C6 – tertiary fill of curvilinear ditch

1284±23 BP 1464±25 BP 1684±24 BP

UBA-12271

Hazelnut C71 – fill of sub-rectangular enclosure ditch

1282±20 BP

UBA-12272 UBA-12273 UBA-12275 UBA-12276 UBA-12279

Hazelnut C82 – fill of sub-rectangular enclosure ditch Charcoal C85 – fill of waste pit Hazelnut C269 – fill of sub-rectangular enclosure ditch Hazelnut C292 – fill of post-hole Charcoal C325 – fill of post-hole

1270±19 BP 1451±21 BP 1275±20 BP 1279±21 BP 1649±21 BP

UBA-12280 UBA-12281 UBA-12282

Charcoal C121 – fill of sub-rectangular enclosure ditch Charcoal – fill of post-hole Structure 3 Emmer C523 – fill of post-hole Structure 1

1439±21 BP 1400±19 BP 1653±29 BP

UBA-12283 UBA-15462

Charcoal C119 – upper fill of sub-rectangular enclosure ditch Charcoal C111 – basal fill of sub-rectangular enclosure ditch

1716±23 BP 1622±26 BP

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence 265kg slag Smelting slag Smithing hearths Furnace lining Hammerscale

Date 1239±24 BP

Indirect Evidence

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Spindle whorl Needle

Industrial Processing Table

646

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 688–754; A.D. 757–834; A.D. 835–870 A.D. 653–721; A.D. 741–770 A.D. 581–664 A.D. 470–478; A.D. 535–624 A.D. 653–710; A.D. 747–766 A.D. 671–722 A.D. 557–644 A.D. 259–285; A.D. 288–292; A.D. 322–419 A.D. 673–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 679–775 A.D. 572–646 A.D. 677–774 A.D. 674–773 A.D. 337–434; A.D. 493–506; A.D. 523–526 A.D. 581–650 A.D. 612–661 A.D. 261–281; A.D. 325–440; A.D. 486–531 A.D. 255–392 A.D. 387–535

Radiocarbon Dates

Fig. G.342: Enclosures at Sallymount (after Clark & Long 2009) Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Two pin shanks Pin head Needle

Dates

Whetstone Spindle whorl Stone disc

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

647

The water-logged conditions immediately to the southeast of the causeway preserved some organic objects – mainly wooden stave-built vessels and a scrap of possible shoe leather. Analysis of the animal bone suggests that the minimum numbers were as follows: Cattle – 8; Pig – 5; Sheep – 4; Horse – 2; Cat – 1.

Seacash, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J15397978 (31539/37978) SMR No: ANT 055:077 Reference: Lynn 1978b. The enclosure had been levelled during World War II to construct temporary airforce huts, and was completely destroyed in 1971 prior to construction of an army barracks. The site had been seriously damaged by bulldozing and all features in the northwest area were truncated to some extent. A flimsy, possibly wickerwalled, structure was discovered in the southeast quadrant.

Almost 3,000 sherds of souterrain ware were found on site, some of which were decorated with cordons or oval impressions. Three glass beads, three bronze pins and an iron spiral-ringed pin were also found. Agricultural activity was indicated by the discovery of an iron sickle point and part of a rotary quernstone; and other industrial activity may have been hinted at by the discovery of pieces of whetstones and hone-stones, as well as stone spindle whorls.

Access to the enclosure had been gained across an hourglass-shaped causeway. The causeway was broken by an ancient, stone-packed drain, evidently designed to permit water to escape to the northwest. It is possible that the drain was a secondary feature of the causeway. An attempt had been made to widen the causeway at some time late in the enclosure’s occupation, or perhaps after its abandonment. A row of eight oak posts (‘A’ on plan) had been driven in 1.5m from the edge of the causeway and parallel to it. The original entrance was blocked by a gate as two large post-holes (‘B’), 2m apart and 0.35m deep, were found 2m inside the causeway. A circular structure was identified to the east of the modern pipe trench; and a rectangular lean-to structure, which may have utilised the exterior bank face as an interior wall, was identified to the east of this. The circular structure was interpreted as a dwelling, while the lean-to may have been an outhouse.

Fig. G.343: Plan of Seacash (after Lynn 1978b, 57)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UB-671

Context Gate Post (‘B’)

Date 1430±70 BP

UB-672

Charcoal occupation F16 (‘C’)

1175±65 BP

UB-673 UB-845 (1973)

Causeway Revetment Post (‘A’) 71–73 cm above ditch bottom

790±40 BP 995±65 BP

UB-845 (1975)

69–75 cm above ditch bottom

1080±75 BP

UB-846

19–23 cm above ditch bottom

1140±110 BP

UB-847 UB-847F

0–6 cm above ditch bottom Retest of 847

695±90 BP 1135±100 BP

648

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 433–494; A.D. 505–523; A.D. 526–695; A.D. 698–708; A.D. 747–765 A.D. 688–753; A.D. 759–988 A.D. 1174–1281 A.D. 896–924; A.D. 938–1186; A.D. 1200–1206 A.D. 773–1053; A.D. 1079–1153 A.D. 661–1049; A.D. 1085–1123; A.D. 1137–1151 A.D. 1162–1424 A.D. 667–1045; A.D. 1094–1120; A.D. 1141–1147

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Leather scrap Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron spiral-ringed pin Iron sickle point Three bronze pins Three glass beads 3,000 sherds of souterrain ware Two lignite armlets Rotary quernstone Whetstones Spindle whorl

Dates

Stave-built vessels Leather shoe?

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.344: Souterrain ware from Seacash (after Lynn 1978b, fig. 8)

Fig. G.345: Stone hones, rubbing stone and grinding stone from Seacash (after Lynn 1978b, figs 8 & 9)

649

thickness. Finds from this deposit included a flint blade, nineteen fragments of flint débitage and seventeen fragments of a possible clay tuyère. There was no evidence to suggest in situ industrial activity such as metalworking. The possible tuyère fragments suggest that the material represents a small dump site or deposit, possibly from the site at Shallon 1 which was exposed 64m to the north. Shallon 1 was radiocarbon-dated to between the third and sixth century AD.

Shallon 3, Co. Meath Grid Ref: 27013/30933 SMR No: N/A Reference: Russell 2001:1054. The site was exposed during monitoring of topsoilstripping carried out prior to motorway works. The site consisted of a single deposit of grey-black clay measuring 1.6m in length, 1.5m in width and 95mm in

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence 17 fragments of clay tuyère

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

‘Small finds’ Table

650

the enclosure, and two body sherds of souterrain ware were recovered from the floor of the souterrain.

Shane’s Castle Park, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J10398781 (31039/38781) SMR No: ANT 049:031 Reference: Warhurst 1971. A trench was opened through the ditch and entrance into the centre of the enclosure. This showed that a cobbled causeway, approximately 3m wide, had been left across the ditch. Excavation of the ditch uncovered two stout oaken stakes set in post-holes against the outer edge of the bank. These were interpreted as having formed part of a revetment to prevent slippage of the bank into the ditch. A few sherds of souterrain ware were also found in the ditch. Fragmentary remains of at least six structures were identified within the enclosure. One of these consisted of two longitudinal trench slots, presumably to hold the sill of a wooden structure, and has been identified by the excavator as being contemporary with the primary occupation of the enclosure. Along with sherds of souterrain ware, three small pieces of cinder slag and a blue glass bead were also recovered from the site. A souterrain, built into the north bank of the enclosure, was also excavated. The entrance of this was located outside Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Fig. G.346: Plan of interior of enclosure at Shane’s Castle Park (after Warhurst 1971, 60)

Direct Evidence Three pieces of cinder slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Blue glass bead Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

651

fills contained lots of animal bone fragments, a blue glass bead and an amber bead. A palisaded entrance was recorded at the north-east and the post-holes curved gradually south-west to a cobbled entrance where two external drainage ditches fed into the main enclosing ditch.

Sheephouse 2, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O06307472 (30630/27472) SMR No: N/A Reference: Moore 2001:1055. Excavations in advance of the M1 Drogheda By-Pass revealed a multi-period settlement site that consisted of a Neolithic structure, a potential early medieval enclosure, an undated oval enclosure and a number of ditches, pits, hearths and post-holes. The latter occurred in isolated contexts but also formed linear and curvilinear features (possibly forming structures). Arable agriculture was evidenced by the presence of cereal-drying kilns. The site was 1km west of Drogheda and overlooked the River Boyne to the north. The immediate landscape is utilised for crop cultivation.

The ditch profile differed across the extent of the enclosure. At its east-facing side it had a central slot, perhaps indicating a large stockaded timber fence. However, the southern side was U-shaped and deeper, with steep sides. At the north there was a steep northfacing slope and a gradual south-facing slope. No evidence of a bank was observed. Internally a second, shallower slot-trench was excavated. This may represent a small delimiting ditch or drainage feature. A series of north-south and east-west ditches were located in proximity to the enclosure and may represent contemporary animal or field enclosures.

The potential early medieval phase consisted of an enclosure which measured 38m in maximum width northsouth and continued on in section to the east. Its ditch

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Blue glass bead

Amber bead

‘Small finds’ Table

652

period. The enclosure had a diameter of 75m. Within this was a small circular house that measured 5m in diameter and an area where iron smelting occurred. Comber (2008, 123) indicates that a furnace may have been found. A number of artefacts were retrieved including glass beads, fragments of jet bracelets and some iron knives. Earlier activity was represented by the foundations of a large sub-rectangular house that measured 10.5m by 6.25m.

Simonstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: N857705 (28570/27050) SMR No: N/A Reference: Kelly 1981. A large early medieval enclosure was excavated at Simonstown, and the site was a focus of a number of periods spanning the Neolithic until the early medieval

Material Iron-working

Direct Evidence Iron smelting Possible furnace

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives

Dates

Glass beads Jet bracelets

‘Small finds’ Table

653

Skahanagh North, Co. Cork Grid Ref: V77518594 (177510/085940) SMR No: CO 053-10 References: Murphy 2003:347; 2006.

A second gully or flue (0.5m by 2m and 0.2m in depth) truncated the first gully but did not extend beyond it, so it is likely that these features were broadly contemporary and in use together. Both gullies were cut by the Cshaped foundation trench. If these features were the flues of kilns, they were out of use before the area was enclosed.

Topsoil stripping in advance of road construction revealed a series of archaeological features including a sixth/seventh-century enclosure and a C-shaped structure. The levelled enclosure was most likely of univallate construction and had an approximate internal diameter of 22m. No evidence for an enclosing bank was identified during the excavation, but a curvilinear section of the western portion of the ditch was excavated. This was Ushaped in profile (maximum dimensions of 3.4m wide and 1.2m deep) with sloping sides and a flat base, and had a 4m-wide entrance at its northwest end.

A sub-circular pit and a partially stone-lined hearth were roughly contemporary with the gullies. The sub-circular pit (1.5m by 1.12m and 0.3m deep) contained charcoal, oxidized clay and sandstone and was used to dispose of fire-debris. The hearth (1.5m by 0.8m and 0.3m deep) was also cut by the C-shaped trench and contained charcoal, burnt bone and cereal grains, mainly oats followed by barley. Charcoal from its fill produced a date in the seventh to ninth century range (see below). The Cshaped trench enclosed a space with a diameter of 7m by 9m internally and 10m by 10m externally. It is unclear if the structure was a roofed dwelling; it may instead have been erected to act as a wind break shielding the internal hearths and pits from the prevailing south-westerly winds. The location of an entrance, 3.7m wide, to the north-east facing the enclosure supports this interpretation. Charcoal, burnt bone, carbonized wood and a large quantity of cereal grains (primarily oats, barley and some wild plants) were recovered from it; eight deposits were recovered, and a radiocarbon date in the seventh to ninth century range (see below) was recorded from the charcoal. Roughly contemporary with the C-shaped foundation trench were two internal pits and two pits to the southeast. The internal features comprised a pit containing a hearth and a sequence of fire debris which cut the earlier gully and a sub-circular pit. Charcoal, oxidized clay and a large quantity of cereal grains were recovered from the various deposits within the sequence of fire debris. The pit (3.5m by 1.3m and 0.8m deep) truncated the enclosing C-shaped trench and was the latest feature on the site. The hearth (1.2m by 0.2m and 0.2m deep) was stone-lined and cut into the southeast side of the pit. It had a heavily-oxidized base and contained charcoal, burnt bone, carbonized wood and a large quantity of seeds, primarily of oats followed by barley. A second pit (0.8m in diameter and 0.4m deep) was cut into the top fill of this pit. Two burnt fragments of bone and a copper-alloy implement, most likely used as an ear scraper or a type of grooming implement, were recovered from its lower fill. Charcoal from its lower fill produced a radiocarbon date in the sixth/seventh century (see below).

Fig. G.347: Plan of features at Skahanagh North (after Murphy 2006) This ditch contained four main fills. Charcoal from the basal fill produced a radiocarbon date in the seventh century (see below), and a metal object was recovered from its top fill. A stone deposit (2m in diameter and 0.2m in depth) was found within the top fill of the ditch at the northwest end. A C-shaped structure was situated to the southwest of the enclosure and was contemporary with it. It was roughly contemporary with, though pre-dated by, a number of internal pits, deposits and features. The earliest features comprised two sub-circular charcoal-rich deposits containing oxidized clay and seeds – mainly oats followed by barley. There was no evidence for in situ burning and these deposits may represent the dumping of fire debris.

Two sub-oval pits to the southeast were excavated, one of which contained a hearth at its base, from which charcoal, burnt bone and a large quantity of seeds – primarily oats and barley – were recovered. An oak sample from its fill produced a radiocarbon date in the seventh to ninth century range (see below). Two other possible subcircular hearths were located to the west of the C-shaped structure. The first hearth contained charcoal, burnt bone

Two gullies, one hearth and a pit represented the next phase of activity pre-dating the C-shaped structure. One curvilinear gully splaying outwards at its southward extent was identified as a flue of a possible kiln. Cereal grains – primarily oats as well as wheat – were found in its basal fill. A pit filled with fire-debris cut this feature and may have destroyed its hearth. 654

fragments and oxidized clay within its fills; and the other possible hearth contained charcoal and small stones.

small quantity of burnt bone could not be identified to species but contained both large mammal (assumed to be cattle, horse or large deer) and medium-sized mammal (assumed to be sheep/goat, pig or small deer). The few finds from the site consisted of modern ceramic sherds, a metal object and two copper-alloy implements.

Fire debris, burnt bone and a large quantity of grains (principally oats and to a lesser extent barley, with smaller amounts of rye, wheat and wild plants) indicate that the area to the southwest was used for food preparation and cooking. The possible kiln flues tentatively indicate cereal-drying in this area as well. The Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta - 201060 Beta - 201061 Beta - 201062 Beta - 201063 Beta - 201064

Context Charcoal – identified as oak – from fill of C-shaped trench Charcoal – identified as oak – from fill of hearth to southeast of C-shaped trench

14C

Charcoal – identified as ash, hazel and oak – from lower fill of secondary pit cut into top fill of pit Charcoal – identified as oak – from hearth inside Cshaped structure Charcoal – identified as ash – from basal fill of enclosing ditch

1440±50 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Date 1240±60 BP 1240±70 BP

1290±60 BP 1380±40 BP

Object Iron object Copper-alloy grooming implement Copper-alloy object

Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table 655

A.D. 582–694; A.D. 704–705; A.D. 748–765

Radiocarbon Dates

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 660–896; A.D. 923–940 A.D. 657–899; A.D. 918–954; A.D. 956–961 A.D. 471–477; A.D. 535–673 A.D. 649–878

Dates

stake-holes associated with patches of burnt earth and a hearth may represent the remains of a structure.

Sluggary, Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R55905355 (155907/153550) SMR No: LI013-038 Reference: Shee Twohig 2000.

The finds were mainly recovered on the surface of the red clay banks or within or associated with the pits cut into it. Finds from the site consisted of ten knives, two needles, one saw, one key and bars, awls and nails. A copper-alloy ringed pin, button/stud and thin strip (from a composite object) and two fragments of fired clay, one a possible mould, were also recovered.

A large trivallate enclosure at Sluggary, partially excavated in 1973 and 1974 in advance of a residential development, revealed internal habitation consisting mainly of a hearth, pits, stake-holes, animal bone and early medieval finds. The site was situated on welldrained boulder clay just above 15m OD on the northern edge of Sluggary townland, 5km from Limerick city centre.

Four furnace bottoms and one piece of slag from the interior of the enclosure suggest on-site iron smelting while one possible clay mould could also indicate metalworking. The animal bone assemblage originated mainly from ditch deposits and pit fills and was dominated by cattle bone (60%), followed by pig, sheep and other animals including horse, dog and red deer.

Pre-enclosure habitation on the site was minimal except for the presence of animal bone inside the banks and the recovery of some post-holes under the middle bank. Another possible early feature consisted of a red clay bank (0.15m thick and 2m wide) which ran east-west across the site and appeared to be edged by a line of stones along the south side of its eastern end. The trivallate enclosure was polygonal in plan and had a diameter of 40m–48m internally and 70m–80m externally. The inner (0.8m high by 3.8m wide), middle (0.5m high by 2.3m wide) and outer (0.35m high by 2.5m wide) concentric banks were originally revetted with stone. External ditches were excavated outside the inner and middle banks and had maximum measurements of 1.5m deep by 2.6m wide, and 0.8m deep by 2.3m wide, respectively. A single-edged decorated bone comb and a possible bone handle were recovered inside the fill of the southern perimeter of the inner ditch. Internal features consisted mainly of stake-holes, postpits and pits, some rich in animal bone and charcoal and cut into the red clay bank principally in the centre of the enclosure. Attempts to identify the ground plans of individual houses were unsuccessful though a number of Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Four furnace bottoms One piece of slag

Fig. G.348: Plan of Sluggary showing areas excavated (after Shee Twohig 2000, 4)

Indirect Evidence

Saw?

Iron needles

Industrial Processing Table

656

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object 10 iron knives Possible saw Five possible awls Two needles Copper-alloy strip Copper-alloy pin Copper-alloy stud

Dates

Clay mould?

Bone comb (Dunlevy’s Class C1) Bone handle

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.349: Iron knives from Sluggary (after Shee Twohig 2000)

Fig. G.350: Bronze and bone objects from Sluggary (after Shee Twohig 2000)

657

side walls were noticeably corbelled inwards and it was back-filled with three layers of loose, humic, ash and charcoal-flecked soil.

Smithstown, Co. Meath Grid Ref: O13037049 (313036/270490) SMR No: ME028-022 Reference: Gowen 1988:055.

The escarpment ran east-west across the pipeline corridor and had a maximum depth of 0.8m at its northern edge and was 1.8m wide. It was filled with two deposits; the upper contained animal bone, shell, ash lenses and charcoal and the lower deposit also contained some animal bone and shell. No trace of the escarpment survived to the south of the site.

Excavation at Smithstown in advance of the north eastern gas pipeline revealed portions of four potentially unenclosed souterrains and a series of possiblycontemporary gullies and ditches to the north. The site was situated at the top of a south-facing rise in ground extending north of the River Nanny.

A series of ditches, gullies and related features were revealed to the north of the souterrains. An annular gully – of which only a quarter was excavated – measured between 7m and 8m in diameter. A sherd of E-ware was recovered from its fill. A keyhole-shaped potential cerealdrying kiln abutted the inner edge of the gully close to its southern and only terminal. Keyhole-shaped cerealdrying kilns usually date to the latter stages of the early medieval period and the late middle ages so this probably post-dates the construction of the annular gully. The gully potentially enclosed an early medieval dwelling or structure, abandoned centuries before the construction of the kiln, which has not survived archaeologically. A second curvilinear gully, traced for 11m, lay to the southwest of the first. No finds were recovered from its fill. The relationships between the escarpment and gullies are unclear, as is their relationship with the souterrains, although as Souterrains 2 and 3 were built into the escarpment ditch fill they must be chronologically later.

Souterrain 1 consisted of a gently sloped and cobbled 2.5m-long entrance ramp that led to a gallery. The latter was exposed for a length of 6m and measured 1.4m in width. The souterrain was filled with two deposits and the only finds were fragments of animal bone. Souterrain 2 had no obvious entrance and was approximately 7m in length. It was 0.6m wide and up to l.4m deep and had a slightly-expanded terminal at the west. A number of posthole-type pits were evident within the souterrain and may have predated its construction. The fill of one pit produced a decorated bone spindle whorl. The souterrain was constructed into a ditch-like escarpment at the south side of the site. The third souterrain – like Souterrain 2 – was also built into the loose fill of the escarpment. Only a small portion was excavated, revealing a stone structure 5.5m in length. Souterrain 4 was revealed in the eastern section face of the pipeline trench and was 1.4m wide and lm high. The Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Sherd of E-ware

Spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table 658

Spittle Ballee, Co. Down Grid Ref: J52614152 (35261/34152) SMR No: DOW 038:028 Reference: Waterman 1958b. In November 1955, the summit of a low, natural eminence was bulldozed to provide filling for a waterlogged area. During the course of this work the owner noticed an area of dark soil exposed after the passage of the bulldozer, and on investigation recovered from it a stone spindle whorl and a potsherd of wheel-thrown pottery. The dark soil could be traced, as a narrow band about 1.5m wide, for a distance of 18m–21m, following the arc of a circle about 24m in diameter. It seemed clear that the band of dark soil represented the filling of the ditch of a ploughed-out rath or ring-fort, although no superficial indications of such an earthwork had previously been observed.

Fig. G.351: Finds from Spittle Ballee (after Waterman 1958b, plate VI) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone disc?

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Sherd of E-ware Sandstone spindle whorl Bone disc – bow-drill pulley wheel?

‘Small finds’ Table

659

Sroove (Lough Gara td), Co. Sligo Grid Ref: M70059999 (170055/299996) SMR No: SL046-029 References: Fredengren 1998; 2001; 2002.

Phase 3 was a stony-surfaced crannog, with radiocarbon dates from A.D. 600–900. The crannog surface was rebuilt with a floor of flagstones and smaller boulders, in two/three layers, with an outer deck of timbers laid around the edges of the site. Although there was no clear structural evidence for a house, palaeoecological and other studies suggest that there was a house on this floor. The hearth was re-used, suggesting a strong symbolic link with the previous phase’s house. The palisade may have been pulled up towards the end of this phase. Large amounts of animal bone were also found, particularly in front of the door of the house and to the left towards the lake. This comprised a major proportion of the site’s bone assemblage (56%), representing the remains of at least sixteen cattle, twelve pig, eight sheep, six horse, one deer, one wild duck, and one hare. Finds from inside the house in this phase are more representative of personal possessions, including a lignite bracelet, a comb fragment from near the fireplace, bone beads, as well as iron nails and a bone pin towards the back of the house. A small bone needle and knife were also found at the back of the house. Finds from outside the house included iron nails, the head of a ringed pin and bronze studs from a leather strap.

Sroove crannog, Co. Sligo was a small, multi-phase crannog, situated on the western shore of Lough Gara. The crannog was originally located in very shallow water (now exposed as a water meadow due to modern drainage), on top of an earlier stone causeway. There was also a Bronze Age crannog cairn out in the water, with a similar, probably early medieval, crannog situated directly to the north on the shoreline. The early medieval crannog at Sroove was 15m in diameter and 1.2m in height. Prior to excavation, it appeared as a cairn of loosely-set angular stones, with some kerbstones and a circle of stones beside it. In Phase 1 there was a stone-built causeway leading out into the lake, 18m in length. The causeway was built over blue lake clays, and a sandy surface produced by trampling lay on its upper surface. There were a few fragments of animal bone (cattle, pig and sheep) from its surface. Its date is unknown.

Phase 4 was an open stony platform devoted to iron working, with radiocarbon dates between A.D. 600 and A.D. 900. The site had a uniform floor of stone and bone, and was covered with small shattered and fire-cracked stones (0.1m thick). The stones were mixed with animal bones, suggesting that this was a deliberate floor deposit. There was no house on the platform, which was probably open to the air. Neither was there a palisade, suggesting a decreasing role of the island’s boundary. There was a bowl-shaped depression in the southwest corner of the crannog, possibly in origin a furnace for iron-working, set in a floor of fire-cracked stones. There was some iron slag in this area, but not large amounts. A heavy stone may have been used as an anvil. There were deposits of animal bone all over the site (comprising 30% of the site assemblage), with large amounts comprising a floor at the eastern edge of the crannog. The bone was frequently fragmented, suggesting that it had been walked into the crannog’s surface. The Phase 4 burnt and un-burnt bone included at least 20 cattle, nine pig, seven sheep, four horse, one deer and one dog. Finds from across the site included an antler ring, smooth white stones (possibly used in crafts), a tracked stone (for sharpening pins) and a lignite bracelet in the sand.

Phase 2 was an early medieval wooden crannog with a stone causeway, palisade and house. The phase’s brushwood floor produced a radiocarbon date of A.D. 770–970. The site was enclosed within a circular palisade, measuring 17m in diameter, of double and single rows of ash-wood posts driven to a depth of 0.4m into the clay. There was a possible rectangular jetty at the north side of the crannog. After the construction of the palisade, an oval to rectangular house with rounded corners was built on the crannog’s surface. This house measured 6.5m by 8m internally, and was defined by closely-spaced posts and protected by stones on the lake side. The house floor was a thick (0.2m) layer of hazel brushwood, intermixed with clay. The floor produced evidence for blackberries, raspberries and elder berries (suggesting a summer occupation) and grain (four types), although there was relatively little evidence for animal bone. There were 1,511 pieces of bone (8.82% of site total), representing at least four cattle (two adults, two juveniles), four sheep/goat, three pig, one young horse, and one deer. There was a possible entrance (1m wide) at the southwest wall of the house, effectively hidden from view from the probable crannog entrance (at the causeway). A possible hearth was represented by a firereddened stone at the centre of the house. Outside the house, the space between it and the palisade was narrow. Finds from Phase 2 included a bone pin (found in stone packing at the house wall), a thumb-scraper of flint (a probable late Neolithic/early Bronze Age type) near a post and a black chert arrowhead found in floor clays. These objects were probably carried onto the site.

Phase 5 was the final phase of occupation in the early middle ages, probably no later than AD 1000. A stone cairn was constructed across the site, with angular stones and boulders laid on it, with a mid-cairn on the lakeward site. It is possible that it had a superstructure of planks or that it was unfinished.

660

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Gr-25306 Gr-25309 Gr-25267

Context Phase 4: Cattle bone from fire-cracked stone floor (F18) Phase 2: Vertical wooden post from southern house wall (F4) Phase 3: Wood from timber floor (F13)

14C Date 1290±30 BP 1240±30 BP 1180±40 BP

Gr-25367

Phase 2: Wood from brushwood floor (F6)

1170±30 BP

Gr-25308

Phase 3: Wood from timber floor (F13)

1170±30 BP

Gr-23305

Phase 4: Charcoal from fire-cracked stone floor (F18)

1160±30 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Bowl furnace

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 663–775 A.D. 686–873 A.D. 717–743; A.D. 768–907; A.D. 911–971 A.D. 776–901; A.D. 917–966 A.D. 776–901; A.D. 917–966 A.D. 778–903; A.D. 914–969

Radiocarbon Dates

Pins Needle Smooth white stones – vellum production?

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron nails Iron knife Bronze ringed pin Bronze studs Bronze fragments

Dates

Lignite bracelets Pin sharpener Smooth white stones Bone comb fragment Bone beads Bone pins Bone needle Antler ring

‘Small finds’ Table

661

‘St. Gobnet’s House’ (Glebe td), Ballyvourney, Co. Cork Grid Ref: W19757684 (119751/076844) SMR No: CO058-034001 Reference: O’Kelly 1951–52a.

The second phase was particularly associated with iron and metalworking. A hearth and several pits rich in charcoal, lumps of slag and potential furnace bottoms were excavated in the interior of the roundhouse and were also probably used in connection with iron smelting. Numerous post-holes of various sizes were excavated between and around the pits and may have held short stakes to support some form of structures associated with the iron-smelting process. Two crucible fragments containing traces of bronze indicate that a small amount of bronze-working was also undertaken on site.

St. Gobnet’s House, a circular stone structure to the west of a medieval church site situated on a level area on a hillside, was excavated over the course of eight weeks between June and August 1951. The excavation was financed by means of a Special Employment Scheme and administered through the Commissioners of Public Works and the Royal Irish Academy.

A blue glass bead, possibly an iron spear-head, and an iron brad belong to the primary period of occupation. The finds from the roundhouse stratum consisted of two crucibles, two short lengths of bronze wire, three fragments of a jet bracelet, five iron knives, two ferrules, several corroded iron nails, a brad, a spindle whorl, four shale discs, seventeen whetstones, two spherical stones and flint and chert cores. The site also produced a large quantity of iron slag, 57 furnace bottoms and fragments of 80 others, clay furnace covers and a small fragment of a possible tuyère, although these may belong to the primary phase. Animal bone was poorly preserved due to the acidic nature of the soil but the meagre evidence appeared to belong to sheep and cattle.

The excavation revealed two phases of occupation with little or no interval between them. The earlier phase is associated with a wooden rectangular house (or houses) defined by several large post-holes. A number of pits containing lumps of slag and furnace bottoms were found inside the floor plan of this structure; a hollow, filled with habitation refuse and clusters of large stones, also belonged to this phase. An elaborate system of stonelined drains and trenches was also constructed to trap and draw off surface water coming down from a hill rising to the north and north-west of the site. The wooden structure was subsequently removed and replaced by the round stone building, after the level of the ground was first raised by the laying down of a charcoalrich soil deposit (0.15m thick). One pit found inside the south wall of the stone roundhouse belonged to the early phase of occupation. This appeared to have been in use during the laying down of the levelling-deposit, suggesting that there was little or no interval between the abandonment of the primary structure and the construction of the secondary stone building. The round stone building had a floor diameter of 6.1m. Its walls averaged 1.5m thick at the base and contained an inner and outer face with a rubble core. A central post in the centre of the structure supported the roof while two smaller posts set at the inner edges of the entrance jamb slabs evidently formed part of a frame for a wooden door. A well was excavated 1.8m outside the roundhouse door and consisted of a circular hole, 0.45m in diameter and dug to a depth of 0.75m in the soil.

Fig. G.352: Plan of St. Gobnet’s, Ballyvourney (after O’Kelly 1951–52a, fig. 4)

662

Material

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Iron-working

Iron slag 57 furnace bottoms Fragments of further 80 furnace bottoms Fragments of 12 furnace covers Tuyère Crucible with copper/bronze residue

Charcoal

Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery

Radiocarbon Dates

Kneaded white clay – for tuyère manufacture or furnace lining?

Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

17 whetstones

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Object Iron spear-head Two iron brads Five iron knives Two iron ferrules Iron nails Bronze wire Glass bead

Dates

Three fragments of ‘jet’ bracelet Spindle whorl Four stone discs 17 whetstones Fragments of seven quernstones

Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

663

Steeple Road, Antrim, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: J16068822 (31606/38822) SMR No: N/A References: Doyle 2005:002; Anon. 2011. The development site consisted of several fields, some on sloping or low-lying ground. After topsoil-stripping, archaeological material began to appear. These consisted of several ring-barrows, large unidentified circular features, curving ditches, individual cremation pit burials with associated pottery and at least one very large elliptical ditched feature up to 60m across with a ditch up to 5m wide. This may be associated with an entrance approaching from the east, and two internal circular features up to 10m across could be the remains of structures. As well as this there were several hundred other pits and post-holes, with associated coarse pottery and cremated bone. Fig. G.353: Plan of features at Steeple Road, Antrim (after Anon. 2011)

The largest and most complex feature uncovered was a ‘plectrum-shaped’ enclosure of early medieval date which enclosed an area of approximately 70m by 70m. The ditch was crossed by a metalled entranceway in the south-west side. During excavation of the ditch a significant amount of souterrain ware was recovered, along with evidence of cereal processing (charred grains and the upper stone of a rotary quern). Radiocarbon dates from the ditch have ranged from A.D. 780 to 968.

Fig. G.354: Bronze ringed pin from Steeple Road (after Anon. 2011)

Excavation of the internal area revealed at least four houses of early medieval date, and four structures that are interpreted as wood-built souterrains. A surviving timber from one of these was dendrochronologically dated to A.D. 675±9. Within the enclosure area a bronze ringed pin was found. This is similar to a number of pins from Dublin dating to the late tenth century AD.

Fig. G.355: Lignite bead/pendant from Steeple Road (after Anon. 2011) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table

664

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Bronze ringed pin Souterrain ware Lignite bead/pendant

‘Small finds’ Table

665

Tateetra, Co. Louth Grid Ref: 302587/309824 SMR No: N/A Reference: Collins et al 2011. A souterrain was discovered during preliminary works on the M1 motorway. It was drystone-built, with a total length of 67m, and incorporated four galleries and a chamber. Two of the roof lintels were re-used cross slabs, while a third was inscribed with Neolithic art. No associated above-ground settlement was uncovered during the excavation. Fig. G.356: Plan of souterrain at Tateetra (after Collins et al 2011) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. Beta-217955 Beta-217956 Beta-217957 Beta-217958 Beta-207959 Beta-217960

Context Charcoal from fill of intersection galleries 1 and 3 Charcoal from floor of gallery 1 Charcoal from fill of pit on surface Charcoal from pit in gallery 2 Charcoal from fill of intersection galleries 3 and 4 Charcoal from floor of gallery 1

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

14C

Date

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 780–990 A.D. 970–1040 A.D. 1220–1300 A.D. 1030–1250 A.D. 1040–1260 A.D. 640–770

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

White paste bead 63 sherds of souterrain ware

8th–10th C

‘Small finds’ Table 666

Terryhoogan, Co. Armagh Grid Ref: J05404430 (30540/34430) SMR No: N/A References: McSparron 2004; 2007. An unenclosed early medieval house was uncovered on the west slope of a drumlin during the construction of a private dwelling. The structure was identified by the presence of a circular gully which may have acted as a drip-trench for a roundhouse. The gully contained quantities of souterrain ware, suggesting a terminus post quem occupation date from the eighth century. No structural remains for the roundhouse were discovered due to truncation of the upper soil layers, but the gully enclosed an area 8m in diameter, implying that the roundhouse was slightly smaller than this.

Fig. G.358: Circular gully at Terryhoogan (after McSparron 2004, 18)

Fig. G.357: Souterrain ware sherds from Terryhoogan (after McSparron 2007, plates 1–3)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-6994

Context Cereal grain from gully fill

14C

UB-6995 UB-6996

Hazelnut shell from gully fill Hazelnut shell from gully

1287±29 BP 1193±29 BP

Date 1192±29 BP

667

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 721–741; A.D. 770–896; A.D. 923–940 A.D. 665–775 A.D. 720–741; A.D. 769–896; A.D. 923–940

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Two iron objects

Dates

Approx. 500 souterrain ware sherds

‘Small finds’ Table

668

rectangular in plan, measuring 4.25m by 3.65m, with its walls faced with stones and containing a clay rubble fill. A paved area and a hearth were uncovered in the interior. Several post-holes and cobbled areas suggest possible outhouses between House D and the cliff edge. The fields containing the houses were enclosed by parallel fences. Four were built of a double stone facing with a stone rubble core while the fifth and most southerly was an earthen bank. These enclosed fields were very small (average area 1/7 of an acre) and may have contained the tillage patches belonging to the houses. Larger enclosed spaces further away from the houses on the upper hillside were interpreted as field systems for cattle.

The ‘Spectacles’ (Lough Gur td), Co. Limerick Grid Ref: R64654149 (164653/141497) SMR No: LI032-014012 Reference: Ó Ríordáin 1949a. The ‘Spectacles’, excavated as part of a University College Cork research dig, is an unenclosed early medieval settlement containing one rectangular and two circular houses as well as an animal shelter and other structures within an arrangement of small and large early medieval field systems. The site was situated on a shelf of land (91m by 32m) which slopes gradually to the lake of Knockadoon to the west and is bounded on the east by a hill-side rock face.

Finds from these houses and structures included two bronze pins, six iron knives, an iron pin, iron slag, bone comb fragments, bone and stone spindle whorls, a fragment of rotary quern, eight whetstones, four fragments of jet bracelets, and two glass beads (one light blue, one dark blue). Ten pieces of flint and one of chert, as well as some sherds of Neolithic pottery, were also recovered. A quarter of a ton of animal bone was recovered from the site, with cattle accounting for the bulk followed by pig and sheep/goat and, to a lesser extent, horse and dog.

House A was situated in the most northerly of the ancient fields and was approximately circular in plan with an internal diameter of 4.5m. The walls were over 0.9m thick and were faced with large upright stone slabs containing an earthen and stone rubble core. The western entrance was marked by two in-turned stones and was defined by two large post-holes which evidently formed part of a wide eave or entrance porch. Twelve internal post-holes (mostly close to the walls) as well as a further six (close to the outside of the walls) may have supported a roof. Two well-defined hearths were also excavated within the eastern and northern sides of the interior. The House A entrance was paved with large flat stones which continued outside to the west, forming a paved approach (1.5m wide) edged by upright stones. To the west, the paving ended at and butted against the upright stones of the terminal of a field wall which formed one of the boundaries of the field containing House A. Excavation of this pre-existing field wall showed that its wall was originally 0.9m wide with an entrance directly south of the House A door. House B was built against the facing of this pre-existing field wall and partially used this structure as one side of a circular building. A double line of post-holes extended out from the stone-built portion of the wall suggesting that the remainder of the structure was built using wood or turves. A hearth defined by stones and burnt material was found in the southern interior of the house. Structure C was situated to the west of House B and was interpreted as an animal shelter. It was about 4.25m in length and 0.9m in width internally and used the surrounding rock outcrops as part of its walls. A number of post-holes associated with an area of cobbling were excavated between House B and C, but none formed any coherent structural pattern.

Fig. G.359: Plan of ‘The Spectacles’ (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, plate XII)

House D was situated in the next ancient field south of that containing Houses B and C. The house was

669

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Pottery bead

Bone scoops Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Six iron knives Iron pin Two bronze ring pins Two glass beads Pottery bead Four fragments of jet bracelet Three stone spindle whorls Eight whetstones

Bone scoops Bone handle? Bone comb fragments Bone spindle whorl Bone pin

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.360: Objects from ‘The Spectacles’ (after Ó Ríordáin 1949a, fig. 22)

670

Dates

Togherstown, Co. Westmeath Grid Ref: N29514986 (229517/249864) SMR No: WM024-028 Reference: Macalister & Praeger 1931. The site consists of a central area, raised approximately 1.5m above the ground surface, with two concentric rings of banks and ditches. Excavations on the outer ditch revealed a layer of stones at the base of the ditch. The outer face of the outer bank has a revetment of stones, but this appears to have been added after the outer ditch had been filled. A number of enigmatic structural features were located in the intervening space between the outer and inner bank-and-ditch. The inner ditch is a maximum of 1.8m deep and the outer face of the inner bank also appears to have had a stone revetment. The interior of the site was subdivided by cross-walls. A large fire pit – approximately 2.1m in diameter, with up to 0.6m depth of ash – was located in one of these courts. Un-burnt bone was associated with this layer of ash. A series of post-holes presumably marks the location of a house and this appears to have been associated with access to one of the souterrains on site. This souterrain – the ‘Greater Souterrain’ – consisted of a number of chambers and creeps. An Anglo-Saxoninfluenced saucer brooch was found in one of the chambers. No finds are recorded for the ‘Lesser Souterrain’.

Fig. G.361: Plan of Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, plate IV)

Fig. G.362: Iron knives and sickle from Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, plate XIX) Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Industrial Processing Table 671

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Seven iron knives Iron sickle Bronze saucer brooch Bronze pin

Dates

Rotary quernstone Honestone Bone comb Bone button

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.363: Bone comb and button from Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, plate XIX)

Fig. G.364: Bronze pin and brooch from Togherstown (after Macalister & Praeger 1931, fig. 6)

672

within a probable ring-barrow, whereas the early medieval burials are typical extended inhumations. Radiocarbon dates for these revealed that the cemetery was in use between the seventh and thirteenth centuries AD. It would appear that the early medieval cemetery represents a ferta, a kin-based burial ground which was focused on, and re-used, an earlier burial ground, and which was placed on, or near, the boundary of a polity.

Treanbaun, Co. Galway Grid Ref: 169136/226170 SMR No: N/A References: Pérez 2009; Lehane et al 2010. Treanbaun is a multi-period site with the Early Bronze Age, Iron Age and early medieval periods producing the majority of the archaeological remains. The Early Bronze Age is represented by two cist burials containing cremation urns. A possible lead, or silver, mining pit also appears to belong to this period.

It is possible that the early medieval burials at Treanbaun were part of a settlement-cemetery complex, since a souterrain cut into the fill of the enclosure ditch seems to be roughly contemporary with the burials. The domestic finds recovered from both features (ditch and souterrain), such as a green glass bead, a loom weight and a whetstone, indicate that they are contemporary with the early medieval burial site.

The highest part of the hill was used as a burial site from the early Iron Age until the end of the early medieval period. This was demarcated by a ditch enclosing an area approximately 80m by 70m on the top of the hill. The early Iron Age burials are represented by a cremation

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. Wk21778

Context Human bone (right tibia fragment) from SK 21

Date 1085±47 BP

Wk21779 Wk21780

Human bone (right tibia fragment) from SK 14/16 Human bone (right radius fragment) from SK 24

1140±45 BP 1187±45 BP

Wk21781 Wk21783

Human bone (right femur fragment) from SK 11 Human bone (left femur) from SK 10

904±46 BP 1221±46 BP

Wk21784 Wk21785

Human bone (rib fragment) from SK 30 Human bone (left femur fragment) from SK 18

895±45 BP 1054±46 BP

Wk21786 Wk21787 Wk21788

Human bone (right femur fragment) from SK 13 Human bone (rib fragment) from SK 29 Charcoal (pomoideae) from tertiary fill F71 of ring-ditch

1139±46 BP 1142±46 BP 1168±27 BP

Wk21789

Charcoal (prunus) from shallow cut tertiary fill F62

950±26 BP

Wk21790 Wk21791

Charcoal (prunus) from souterrain fill F151 Charcoal (pomoideae) from ring-ditch tertiary fill

749±26 BP 634±26 BP

Wk21792

Charcoal (hazel, pomoideae, alder) from possible mine secondary fill F1020 Charcoal from ring-ditch primary fill F238

1245±27 BP

Charcoal from shallow pit secondary fill F205 (sample 109)

1263±30 BP

Wk22713 Wk22714

673

1369±30 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 784–787; A.D. 825–841; A.D. 862–1028 A.D. 777–990 A.D. 694–703; A.D. 706–748; A.D. 765–904; A.D. 912–970 A.D. 1029–1216 A.D. 676–895; A.D. 926–936 A.D. 1029–1220 A.D. 885–1044; A.D. 1102–1118; A.D. 1143–1146 A.D. 776–993 A.D. 776–992 A.D. 777–900; A.D. 918–962 A.D. 1024–1059; A.D. 1063–1155 A.D. 1225–1284 A.D. 1286–1329; A.D. 1340–1396 A.D. 683–831; A.D. 836–869 A.D. 609–688; A.D. 755–756 A.D. 668–783; A.D. 788–822; A.D. 842–860

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Bone spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Two glass beads Loom weight Honestone Bone spindle whorl

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.365: Plan of enclosure at Treanbaun (after Pérez 2009)

674

stone structure at the west. During cleaning it was discovered that this structure was the remains of a passage. The area beneath a lintel was cleared of debris, and the presence of voids beyond suggested that the passage continued further north and that substantial remains may be preserved beneath the ground surface. Upon return to the site, the lintels of the souterrain were exposed, as well as a sub-circular depression to the east, delimited by curving stone-lined cuts and arcs of stakeholes and containing sizeable quantities of souterrain ware.

Tullaghgarley, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D095015 (30950/40150) SMR No: ANT 032:071 Reference: McQuillan & Long 1999:018. During the construction of a road at this site near Ballymena, the remains of a souterrain had been exposed in a south-facing section. The cut for a creep was revealed in the section face. This was c. 14m long, ranged from 0.6m to 1.7m deep, and yielded sherds of souterrain ware. It ran from the east to the upstanding remains of a

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

675

Tullahedy, Co. Tipperary Grid Ref: 18413/17828 SMR No: N/A Reference: Murphy & Clarke 2001. A rath was uncovered during pre-construction work on the N52 roadway. The original entranceway was uncovered, but appears to have had no associated features. The interior of the rath included one small area of burning, three stake- or post-holes, three linear slottrenches, eight pits and a robbed-out souterrain.

Fig. G.366: Plan of enclosure and souterrain at Tullahedy (after Murphy & Clarke 2001) Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. 14C

Sample No. UCD-0130 UCD-0127 UB-4580

Context Bone from ditch Bone from souterrain back-fill Timber base plate from souterrain support

Date 880±60 BP 1555±45 BP 1321±35 BP

UCD-0129 UCD-0131

Bone from linear feature Bone from ditch abutting rath

1440±45 BP 1210±60 BP

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Cut antler

Industrial Processing Table 676

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 1032–1256 A.D. 415–598 A.D. 650–730; A.D. 735–772 A.D. 544–662 A.D. 675–901; A.D. 916–967

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Jet bracelet fragment Decorated rotary quernstone

‘Small finds’ Table

677

Tullykevin, Co. Down Grid Ref: J59926977 (35992/36977) SMR No: N/A Reference: Sloan 2008. Excavations at Tullykevin were conducted prior to the development of a replacement dwelling. Two ditches near an upstanding early medieval monument were encountered during the excavation of the development area. The earliest discernible phase (Phase 1) would be the construction of the rath (DOW 012:005). It is suggested that the ditches uncovered during the investigation were excavated after the construction of the rath, possibly between the ninth and thirteenth centuries. The function of these ditches is currently unclear, and it is hoped that post-excavation work might shed light on this aspect of the archaeology. The ditches were deliberately filled in (Phase 2) rather than being allowed to silt up naturally. Fig. G.367: Early medieval ditches excavated near the raised rath at Tullykevin (after Sloan 2008)

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

1,800 souterrain ware sherds

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

1,800 souterrain ware sherds

‘Small finds’ Table

678

Tulsk, Co. Roscommon Grid Ref: M83418106 (183412/281068) SMR No: RO022-114003 References: Brady & Gibson 2005; Brady 2005:1352; 2008.

accommodate the later stone tower. Underlying this redeposited level was a clean cut into compact yellow boulder clay that is considered to be the original profile of the enclosure ditch. This layer disappears under the base of the later tower wall. It appears to be sterile, insofar as no artefacts or bone were visible in its matrix.

The site consists of a raised mound (36m by 27m on the summit), and a maximum height of 5.3m. The site was subject to a series of surveys and research excavations from 2002 to 2009. An early result from survey was the identification of an outer ditch, which suggested an overall internal diameter of 55m for the site. Geophysical survey also identified several anomalies which provided the focus for excavations in 2004. These identified the presence of the ditch suggested by the earlier survey, and resolved an anomaly on the summit of the mound as the foundations of a stone tower associated with the motte.

The early medieval levels were most fully exposed in the western part of the site, although these were somewhat truncated, suggesting that this part of the site was levelled to accommodate the Elizabethan structures. A layer of dark grey/black-coloured clay represents a continuous horizon of early medieval occupation. Above this was located a complex of ash spreads and two firing pits. A stone-lined flue attached to the northern pit suggested that both pits might have formed part of a corn-drying kiln, although the kiln superstructure did not survive and was presumably removed during the Elizabethan redevelopment.

Excavations in the 2007 season identified an earlier ditch underlying the interior of the medieval tower, and the later medieval ditch. The in situ remains of a dry-stone revetment associated with an area of harder clay, which presumably served as a bank, were also identified beneath the medieval tower. The dry-stone wall appears to have been an internal revetment feature, and there was no indication of post-holes or other cuts into the bank clays. The early medieval ditch and enclosure were subsequently further investigated in 2008 and 2009. The early medieval ditch had a steeply-sloping V-shaped profile, and was both deeper and narrower than the later ditch. In the west of the site, the fill of the early medieval ditch forms the east-facing side to the later medieval ditch. This fill is homogenous in form and in depth, suggesting that it had been pushed into the earlier ditch when the earlier enclosure was being transformed to

Fig. G.368: Corn-drying kiln at Tulsk (after Brady 2008)

Fig. G.369: Summary of 2004 excavation at Tulsk (after Brady & Gibson 2005, 71)

679

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Pins

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron penannular pin Two bronze pins Glass beads

Dates

Lignite bracelet fragments

Bone pins

‘Small finds’ Table

680

archaeological features were exposed. These included a souterrain, on which the rescue work was concentrated. The roof lintels had been removed in antiquity and the drystone-walled chamber, about 1.4m deep, had been filled with earth and stones. A side chamber set at a slightly higher level survived in places to a height of 0.4m, or two courses. Finds consisted of sherds of souterrain ware, a furnace bottom and human bones.

Turnarobert, Co. Antrim Grid Ref: D077332 (30770/43320) SMR No: ANT 013:089 Reference: Williams 1991:011. South of Armoy round tower, the northern end of the natural hill with traces of an enclosing perimeter bank on its summit was removed in a road scheme and Radiocarbon Dates:

Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. UB-3484

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

14C

Context Charcoal from floor of souterrain

Direct Evidence Furnace bottom

Date 1372±55 BP

Indirect Evidence

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 572–730; A.D. 735–772

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table

Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table

681

structure – the ‘Eastern House’ – was attributed to this period. This building was subdivided into a number of chambers.

‘Uisneach’ (Rathnew td), Co. Westmeath Grid Ref: N29574875 (229572/248795) SMR No: WM024-066 Reference: Macalister & Praeger 1928.

In Phase IV the western annex was added to the site. Within this was a stone-walled house of indefinite form – the ‘Western House’ – and an associated souterrain which must have been entered from the house.

The site consists of two areas – the main circular enclosure and a semi-circular annex. The main enclosure is further subdivided into three sections – western; central; and eastern. Excavation revealed that the site had four separate periods of occupation.

The site was totally aceramic. Animal bones were recovered for cattle, sheep, pig, horse, red deer, dog/wolf, cat, fox, rabbit, stoat, hedgehog, frog and birds.

Phase I is indicated by a ditched enclosure, approximately 47m in diameter. The ditch appears to have been allowed to silt-up gradually over a period of time. A stone wall appears to have been located on the outer lip of the ditch. Finds from this ditch consisted of a bronze pin, and a silver-inlaid pin of a penannular brooch. An outer ditch was also identified from this period. Inside the area enclosed by the inner ditch, a number of pits, roughly 1.5m deep, were uncovered. A small iron knife was recovered from the fill of one of these pits. A scatter of post-holes in the interior has also been assigned to the Phase I occupation. Phase II witnessed a number of constructions, including a roadway up to the site. The souterrain on site is also placed in this occupation phase. Fig. G.370: Enclosure at Uisneach (after Macalister & Praeger 1928)

In Phase III the site took on most of its present shape. The internally-stone-revetted banks were created – including an intervening ditch – and the internal subdivisions were established. A circular earthen-walled

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Pin Cut antler Spindle whorl Needle

Industrial Processing Table

682

Radiocarbon Dates

Material Iron

Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone

Amber Worked wood Worked bone

Object Three iron rings Three iron sickles 20 iron knives Nine iron pins/fibulae Four bronze pins Bronze penannular brooch Lead disc

Dates

Four jet bracelets Sandstone disc Spindle whorl Four whetstones Five quernstones

Bone scoop Bone pin Bone needle

Worked antler Leather Cloth

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.371: Quernstones, jet bracelets, bone scoop, spindle whorl and honestone from Uisneach (after Macalister & Praeger 1928, plate XVII)

683

Urney, Co. Tyrone Grid Ref: H31229464 (23122/39464) SMR No: TYR 009:003 References: Scott 1970:034, 1971:034.

that the facing and platform are contemporary with the construction of the bank. The bank-and-ditch section opened in 1970 was completed in 1971, and the sections obtained confirmed that the bank and ditch had only one phase of building.

The first season of excavations was carried out at Easter 1970 by pupils and staff from Strabane Grammar School. In the interior, excavations showed two shallow pits, each containing charcoal, and a hearth. The only finds from the interior were a sherd of modern black-glazed pottery and a halfpenny of Queen Victoria dated 1863, both from the superficial deposit.

i) The bank is made up of boulder clay with, near the base, a black layer containing a small amount of occupation debris. Three or four small lenses of the same material occurred just above the main layer, but these produced nothing apart from a few pieces of charcoal. It was from this black deposit that the only significant finds of the season were made, a large fragment of cinder from smelting operations, and a rim-sherd of coarse pottery. This layer also produced a large amount of charcoal, and a few tiny fragments of bone. At the interior end of the section, and covered by internal bank slip, a pit (93cm long, 31cm at the widest point, and 41cm deep) covered by two large flat slabs of slate and filled with clean, sharp, angular stones and clean sand was found. As the pit contained absolutely nothing else, it is impossible to suggest a purpose for it.

The main bank section showed an apparent one-phase construction (the section is otherwise incomplete due to the conditions prevailing), with a thick occupation deposit at the base of the bank, resting on bedrock (in this case, boulder clay). It was from this deposit that the only ‘identifiable’ find came. This was a large body sherd of coarse, black, unglazed pottery, of the ‘Souterrain Ware’ type so common from Irish ringforts.

ii) The fill of the ditch was made up of a layer of topsoil, underlain by a brown, sandy layer, which contained a large number of boulders, fallen from the original outer stone facing of the bank. The brown layer gradually merged into a grey, sandy silt which filled the rest of the ditch and was, apart from one piece of slag, totally sterile.

Removal of the superficial soil from other areas of the bank revealed that it has internal and external stone facing. The internal stone facing is stepped in two areas, with a platform c.2ft wide running between the upper and lower steps. It is fairly certain that this platform ran the whole way round the interior of the fort. From the bank section so far obtained, there seems no reason to doubt Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Cinder from smelting

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object

Dates

Souterrain ware

‘Small finds’ Table 684

‘White Fort’ (Drumaroad td), Co. Down Grid Ref: J36534397 (33653/34397) SMR No: DOW 036:008 Reference: Waterman 1956b. The site is a broadly pear-shaped cashel (50m east-west) located on top of an isolated knoll of rock, and was excavated as part of the Archaeological Survey of Northern Ireland. The original stone wall is largely scattered, or reduced to ground-level, but appears to have been approximately 3m–3.75m thick. A central raised area was identified as a house platform. This was excavated and found to be a multi-phase structure. A pit, partially paved with flat stones which were covered in a deposit of charcoal, represented the first phase of occupation. This pit has been identified as a cooking-pit, and the sherds of souterrain ware from the charcoal deposit were indistinguishable from pottery found in later house deposits, suggesting that this pit also belongs to the early medieval period.

Fig. G.372: Excavation at White Fort cashel, Drumaroad (after Waterman 1956b, 74)

The Phase 1 house was probably square-shaped, although the structural evidence is rather inconclusive. Three postholes were uncovered from this phase, as well as a considerable deposit of charcoal. Numerous sherds of souterrain ware and an iron plough coulter were also recovered from this phase. The Phase 2 house was also square-shaped, and the flat stone paving associated with it suggests that it was approximately 6 metres squared. Two post-holes were located in the middle of the south wall, presumably representing door posts. The roof of the house was supported by four free-standing internal posts. The only other feature within the Phase 2 house was a stone-lined hearth in the centre of the house. Occupation debris outside the Phase 2 house, but associated with it, included numerous sherds of souterrain ware, an annular glass bead (clear green with opaque yellow paste), a fragment of shale/jet/lignite bracelet and two broken quernstones. A souterrain was located approximately 1.75m north of the house platform. It was not possible to definitively link the souterrain with any of the house phases, although the excavator suggested that it may have been in existence during the occupancy of the Phase 1 house.

Fig. G.373: Excavation of Phase 2 house at White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, 78)

Radiocarbon Dates: Reimer, P.J.; Baillie, M.G.L.; Bard, E.; Bayliss, A.; Beck, J.W.; Blackwell, P.G.; Bronk Ramsey, C; Buck, C.E.; Burr, G.S.; Edwards, R.L.; Friedrich, M.; Grootes, P.M.; Guilderson, T.P.; Hajdas, I.; Heaton, T.J.; Hogg, A.G.; Hughen, K.A.; Kaiser, K.F.; Kromer, B.; McCormac, F.G.; Manning, S.W.; Reimer, R.W.; Richards, D.A.; Southon, J.R.; Talamo, S.; Turney, C.S.M.; van der Plicht, J.; Weyhenmeyer, C.E. 2009. Radiocarbon 51, 1111–1150. Sample No. D-65

Context From house – associated with souterrain ware

685

14C

Date 900±120 BP

Cal. 2 Σ A.D. 890–1298; A.D. 1372–1378

Material Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence

Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Spindle whorl

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron plough coulter

Dates

Green glass bead Souterrain ware Lignite bracelet Shale spindle whorl Quernstones

‘Small finds’ Table

Fig. G.376: Small finds from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 10) Fig. G.374: Souterrain ware from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 8)

Fig. G.375: Iron coulter from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 9)

Fig. G.377: Quernstones from White Fort (after Waterman 1956b, fig. 11) 686

head, iron hooks, an iron reaping hook, iron slag and a large quantity of animal bone. The outer ditch may be related to a later occupation phase associated with the souterrain.

Whiterath, Co. Louth Grid Ref: O04199852 (304195/298525) SMR No: N/A References: Ó Drisceoil 2000:0721; 2005:1095.

The dry-stone souterrain was an irregular U-shape in plan. It measured 28m long and was, on average, 1m wide. Two entrances were revealed which led into a low passage that turned sharply to a stepped feature. A hidden compartment, that contained a large quantity of animal bone, was discovered underneath the step and a bonebead necklace was found outside it. A passage leading to a chamber formed the lower level. The chamber contained two jambs which were associated with large post-holes. Evidence indicative of occupation was revealed on the souterrain floor and included a large quantity of animal bone, a bronze panel with an enamel interlace decoration, souterrain ware and iron slag.

Excavation at Whiterath in advance of the Dunleer– Dundalk Bypass revealed a settlement enclosure and possible outer enclosure ditch, a souterrain, a large pit and a possible cereal-drying kiln. Artefactual analysis suggests the site was occupied during the ninth and tenth centuries. Two ditches, 41m apart to the east and west, were revealed and geophysical survey (and later test excavation) showed that they joined to form an enclosure. A third ditch ran parallel to the western ditch and was within 1m of the souterrain (see below). Geophysical prospection failed to reveal the remainder of this ditch. Finds from the ditches indicated settlement and industrial activity and included ringed pins, iron knives, souterrain ware and later medieval pottery, a polished stone axeMaterial Iron-working Other metal-working Ore processing Glass-making Glass-working Pottery Lignite/shale-working Other stone-working Amber-working Wood-working Bone-working Antler-working Leather-working Cloth-working

Direct Evidence Iron slag

Other features at Whiterath included a large pit, which contained a broken blue glass armlet in one of its fills, and a possible keyhole-shaped cereal-drying kiln. Indirect Evidence

Radiocarbon Dates

Souterrain ware

Industrial Processing Table Material Iron Other metal Glass Pottery Lignite/shale Other worked stone Amber Worked wood Worked bone Worked antler Leather Cloth

Object Iron knives Iron hooks Iron reaping tool Ringed pins Bronze panel with enamel inlay Blue glass armlet Souterrain ware

Bone bead necklace

‘Small finds’ Table

687

Dates

earliest, shallower ditch was associated with an internal bank covered with a pattern of stake-holes which may possibly represent some form of palisade at its top. The ditch was truncated by ploughing and the larger, outer ditch was at least 2.2m wide and 0.6m deep.

Woodstown 6, Co. Waterford Grid Ref: S55021127 (255022/111276) SMR No: N/A References: Russell 2003; O'Brien & Russell 2004; 2005; McNamara 2005; Eogan 2006; 2007; Russell et al 2007.

The inner ditch remained open for a period of time as the bank appears to have slipped back into it, and also seems to have been re-cut at least once. The inner ditch was subsequently back-filled and stake-holes were inserted into this fill to form a palisade for a larger ditch which was uncovered immediately outside the line of the smaller, earlier one. The larger outer ditch measured 3m wide and 1.3m deep at the culvert and was re-cut several times. Away from the culvert (1) trench, the outer ditch was even wider – 4.1m wide and 1.2m deep.

Woodstown 6, excavated in advance of the proposed N25 Waterford Bypass, revealed evidence for a possible ninth/tenth-century Scandinavian longphort associated with considerable industrial, craftworking and mercantile activities. The site is situated close to the point of confluence of the River Suir and an area of marshland containing the Killoteran stream, approximately 6 km south-west of Waterford city.

A stone-metalled entrance-way, 7.5m wide, was uncovered on the eastern, landward side of this complex stratigraphy in culvert (1). One ditch was exposed on the opposite landward side of this entranceway and appears to belong to the line of the larger ‘outer’ ditch. The inner, shallower ditch also continued on the opposite side of the entranceway but this could not be confirmed as its projected route lay outside the culvert (1) trench. The two ditches forming the eastern enclosure were excavated within the road-take at the northern end of the site.

Excavations focused on two low-lying (7.97m OD) fields on the south bank of the Suir. Initial testing was undertaken within the two fields in 2003 with further monitoring in 2004. A series of small investigations was undertaken in 2007 in fulfilment of the Woodstown 6 Supplementary Research Project, carried out on behalf of the Department of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government. The site was partially truncated by cultivation activity and the construction of the nineteenthcentury Waterford-Lismore-Dungarvan railway line which ran along the south bank of the River Suir.

Excavations at the southwestern end of the site overlooking the Killoteran stream also uncovered a ditch 2m by 1m. The fill of this ditch/pit produced a two-sigma date of A.D. 675–901. It was subsequently sealed by a deposit of burnt stones dated to A.D. 860–1018. After this spread was laid down in the southwestern field, the site appears to have been open in this area (Russell et al 2007, 43).

Prehistoric activity at the site was indicated by a number of disturbed flint artefacts including a barbed-and-tanged arrowhead and a possible Bronze Age corn-drying kiln found outside the early medieval enclosure in culvert (1) at the northern end of the site. The possible kiln or oven represented at the site is one of the earliest of its kind in Ireland. The possible Scandinavian longphort was bounded by the southeast bank of the River Suir and two concentric ditches which appear to enclose a roughly D-shaped area, 480m by 120m. A smaller D-shaped enclosure defined by a shallow ditch in the northern field could also be contemporary with the main double-ditched enclosure. The chronological developments of the two ditches of the main enclosure are not yet completely understood though excavations indicate that they were consecutive rather than contemporary, with the larger, outer ditch being cut after the inner, shallower ditch was backfilled.

The earliest stratified finds in the excavated ditches included a possible hone-stone and a small fragment of lead (