Dressed Stone: Types of Stone, Details, Examples 9783034614641, 9783764372736

Citation preview

∂ Practice

Dressed Stone Types of stone Details Examples

Theodor Hugues Ludwig Steiger Johann Weber

Birkhäuser Edition Detail

∂ Praxis

Dressed Stone Types of stone Details Examples

Theodor Hugues Ludwig Steiger Johann Weber

Birkhäuser Edition Detail

Authors: Theodor Hugues, Prof. Dr.-Ing., Architect, Chair of Design, Construction and Building Materials, Technical University of Munich Ludwig Steiger, Dipl.-Ing., Architect Johann Weber, Dipl.-Ing. Technical consultant: Siegfried Weber German rock types, Prof. Grimm, Technical University of Munich European rock types, Willy Hafner, Callwey Verlag Drawings: Anna Gmelin, Dipl.-Ing. Secretarial services: Marga Cervinka Editing and proofreading: Friedemann Zeitler, Dipl.-Ing., Architect Nicola Kollmann, Dipl.-Ing. Translation (German/English): Gerd H. Söffker, Philip Thrift, Hanover © 2005 Institut für Internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co.KG ISBN-10: 3-7643-7273-7 ISBN-13: 978-3-763-7273-6 Printed on acid-free paper made from cellulose bleached without the use of chlorine. This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the right of translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in databases. For any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained. Typesetting and production: Peter Gensmantel, Andrea Linke, Roswitha Siegler, Simone Soesters Printed by: Wesel-Kommunikation Baden-Baden This book is also available in a German language edition (ISBN 3-920034-06-6). A CIP catalogue record for this book is avail– able from the Library of Congress, Washington D.C., USA Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliographie; detailed bibliographic data is available on the internet at http://dnb.ddb.de 1st edition 2005 Institut für internationale Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG Sonnenstrasse 17, 80331 Munich, Germany Tel.: +49 89 38 16 20-0 Fax: +49 89 39 86 70 Internet: www.detail.de Distribution Partner: Birkhäuser – Publishers for Architecture P.O. Box 133, CH-4010 Basel, Switzerland Tel.: +41 61 205 07 07 Fax: +41 61 205 07 92 email: [email protected] http://www.birkhauser.ch

∂ Practice Dressed stone

Theodor Hugues Ludwig Steiger Johann Weber

Contents 6 10 12 23

Introduction Genesis Types of stone Minerals

25 26 27 28 30 32 35 36 37 38 39 40 42

Building I, solid loadbearing walls Plinth Entrance Window Eaves Stairs Building II, frame construction Plinth Floor Parapet Rooftop terrace Entrance Stairs

45 46 48 51 52 53

Stone facades Stone cladding Fixings Repairs Soiling, weathering, cleaning Components

58 59 82 83 94 96

Stone sources in Germany Dressed stones (selection) Stone sources in Europe Dressed stones (selection) Properties Surface finishes

102 103 104 105 106 108

Screeds Mortar Joints, joint sealants Non-slip finishes Cleaning and care Damage to stone

110

Examples of stone applications

126 127 129 132 134

Standards and directives Books and information Useful addresses Index Index of names, picture credits

The authors wish to thank: Prof. Dr. Wolf-Dieter Grimm and his staff – Dr. N. Ballerstädt, Dipl.-Geol. S. Bayer, Dr. D. Beeger, Dr. E. Erfle, Dipl.-Geol. J. Haas, Dr. R. Lukas, Dr F. Niehaus, Dr. R. Schürmeister, Dr. U. Schwarz and Dr. M. Simper – for kindly providing the majority of illustrations of types of rock, which were supplemented by samples of dressed stone from the collection of building materials at the Faculty of Architecture, Munich Technical University; the School of Master Stonemasons, Stone and Wood Sculptors, Munich, the Director of Studies Klaus Cerny and the senior master Clemens Sohmen for the very supportive collaboration and for procuring the samples of Jurassic limestone, which were donated by the Juma company and worked using traditional stonemason techniques by the second-year students of the master course; Granit Metten GmbH for providing the granite panels and carrying out the mechanical surface treatment to these; the Photography Department of Munich Technical University, whose staff photographed the worked stone surfaces and also the other samples of stone from the collection of building materials at the Faculty of Architecture; the German Stone Association (DNV) and its managing director Mr Grafelmann ; Marga Cervinka for secretarial and editing services. The originals of the photographs provided by Prof. Grimm and his staff are on show to the public on the premises of the Bavarian State Palaeontology and Geology Collection, ground floor, Luisenstr. 37, 80333 Munich, Germany. The originals of the surface treatment samples, together with about 1500 samples of stone from Germany and other countries, form part of the collection of building materials at the Faculty of Architecture at Munich Technical University, and are on show to the public, room 0160, Theresienstr. 92, 80333 Munich, Germany. For details of opening times, visit the appropriate website or phone +49 (0)89 289 22355. The illustrations of European stone types have been taken from the stone index of Callwey Verlag.

7

Building I

Building II

8

Introduction

Introduction The purpose of this book is to encourage the interest in, and use of, stone, and to provide an overview of this material and its use in the teaching and practice of building.

with their associated parameters. Further illustrations show the various manual and mechanical surface treatments possible, and each one is described in brief.

Part 1 The first part of this book provides an overview of the various types of rock, their geological formation, a description of their chemical composition and appearance, plus the most relevant technical data.

Part 4 This chapter is dedicated to the principal topics associated with the use of stone in building, e.g. supporting constructions, joints. The most relevant information regarding suitability and the subsequent use of stone can also be found here.

Part 2 The second part of the book presents architectural details in their constructional context and describes the various assemblies, materials and operations. The details have been worked out for, and are demonstrated on, two different office buildings.

Part 5 The intention behind the brief, illustrated reports on 15 projects already completed is to convey an impression of the numerous potential applications and the different effects of various types of stone in building.

Building I is a conventional, monolithic structure with masonry internal and external walls and a rendered fenestrated facade. The design is typical for this type of building: two rows of offices, a central corridor, an open, single flight of stairs, two storeys, slate-covered pitched roof, no basement. The details are based on traditional, manual methods of building.

Part 6 The appendix presents a compilation of relevant directives and standards, a bibliography, the addresses of quarries and plants, associations and training colleges plus indexes.

Building II has a reinforced concrete frame and a service core for stability, non-loadbearing facade, a rooftop plant room and a flat roof which can be used as a terrace. The design is typical for this type of building: three bays, enclosed stairs, basement, underfloor heating. The frame construction permits the use of large areas of glass in the facade plus cladding with an air cavity. The details are in accordance with modern technical specifications. Both buildings have been conceived to comply with conventional standards in order to demonstrate details suitable for everyday use. A special chapter follows in which the various modern techniques of cladding walls with stone slabs are demonstrated and discussed. Part 3 The details are followed by an illustrated selection of 128 stone types generally available in Germany and a selection of 60 stone types common in Europe, together 9

Stone Genesis

Genesis Rocks are agglomerates of minerals whose coherence is guaranteed by a matrix or a binder. These agglomerates are the products of completed geological processes. About 4500 to 5000 types of rock are available to us today worldwide. This incredible number of rock types all belong to three large rock divisions: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. These divisions are further subdivided into about 30 different rock groups (granite, limestone, gneiss, etc.). Differentiation within these rock groups is sometimes due only to minor variations in the chemical composition or the pressure or temperature conditions. The origin of a rock forms the basis for its systematic classification into a rock division: ¤Igneous rocks (also called primary rocks) formed from cooled and crystallised magma from within the earth. ¤Sedimentary rocks (also called layered rocks) formed by precipitation out of solutions and from the erosion products of rock, although these then have to be cemented and compacted to form solid rock. ¤Metamorphic rocks formed by enormous pressure and temperature effects on buried sedimentary rocks, or from transformed and vitrified igneous rocks.

Igneous rocks Igneous rocks are formed from red-hot, viscous masses of magma from deep below the earth’s surface, as these silicate molten masses crystallise at the transition from the earth’s crust to the upper mantle. This is to some extent a quite heterogeneous molten silicate mixture containing considerable amounts of dissolved gas, as well as crystals or crystal aggregates. The magma slowly begins to solidify at temperatures between 900 and 1150°C. We can use the SiO2 (silicic acid) content of the individual types of magma to achieve a rough classification: ¤< 50% SiO2 ultrabasic basic ¤approx. 50% SiO2 ¤50–70% SiO2 intermediate acidic ¤> 70% SiO2 The most important magma – in terms of volume – has a basic composition and leads to the formation of dark rocks such as gabbro and basalt. A second important type of magma is formed by the melting of the acidic continental crust and leads to light-coloured rocks such as granite and rhyolite. Less important – in terms of volume – are the intermediate magmas. All other types of rock are the result of transformations of the original magmas. We also make distinctions according to the location and speed of solidification: ¤plutonic rocks ¤hypabyssal rocks ¤extrusive rocks Plutonic rocks are formed when the magma rising to the earth’s surface solidifies slowly at great depths (8 to 40+ km) below the surface over periods lasting millions of years. This allows the minerals contained therein to crystallise fully and achieve grain sizes that are visible with the naked eye (medium- to coarsegrained). The crystals are not aligned in any particular direction. These rocks are very compact and have a low pore volume. Plutonic rocks are forced upwards by geological processes (mountain building, continental drift) and are revealed through erosion and weathering. Types: granite, granodiorite, tonalite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, peridotite, monzonite, etc.

10

Hypabyssal rocks are formed when smaller amounts of magma solidify within the earth’s crust in volcanic vents or fissures. The more rapid solidification leads to these rocks having a more fine-grained structure. Types: lamprophyre, aplite, pegmatite, quartz porphyry, granite-porphyry, etc. There are between 500 and 800 common types of plutonic rock but only 50 to 80 types of extrusive rock. This latter type forms at the transition between the upper mantle (crust) and the surface of the earth. The volcanic magma encounters very different pressure and temperature conditions and these are essentially responsible for the various forms of rock, e.g. dense to porous or tuff-like, crystalline to vitreous, nonaligned rocks. Due to the relatively rapid cooling, only a few molecules are able to form distinct crystals. The majority remain amorphous, hidden within the matrix. Extrusive rocks that solidify deep in the ground differ only slightly from plutonic rocks with the same composition. However, the majority of the mineral components tend to exhibit a band-like structure. In the volcanic vents closer to the surface solidification takes place at moderate pressures and temperatures. Incomplete crystallisation is the result, i.e. individual crystals in an amorphous matrix with a greater or lesser content of volcanic glass. The gases dissolved in the magma are released in the lava flows and these form pores in the still fluid to viscous rock agglomerate. Now and again individual crystals can still form in the vitreous matrix. Volcanic tuffs are sediments of shattered igneous rocks in pyroclastic material. The particles undergo different internal cementation, similar to a sedimentary rock; stratification is frequently visible. Types: rhyolite, trachyte, basalt, diabase, dacite, andesite, phonolite, lava stone, volcanic tuff, etc.

Stone Genesis

The characteristic structural feature of sedimentary rocks is their horizontal stratification, caused by fluctuations or changes of materials; however, such changes are not always readily visible. The classification of sedimentary rocks is based on the degree of preparation of the sedimentary material.

Basically, we distinguish between clastic sedimentary rocks, which are formed by an accumulation of larger fragments and individual grains, and chemical sedimentary rocks, whose particles have separated out from solutions. However, clastic sedimentary rocks usually also contain chemically precipitated substances, and chemical sedimentary rocks likewise clastic material. Clastic sediments are deposits of rock fragments and particles that have been formed, transported and consolidated by mechanical means only. The clastic sedimentary rocks are classified according to their grain size: ¤conglomerates (> 2 mm), e.g. breccia; ¤sandstones (2–0.02 mm), e.g. sandstone, greywacke, calcareous sandstone ¤siltstones (< 0.02 mm), e.g. mudstone, clayey shale. In the chemical sediments it is not mineral or rock particles that are deposited but instead molecules that have separated out from solutions. Dissolved substances can remain in solution only until the solution is supersaturated, at which point they separate out in the form of crystals or gels, sink to the bottom of the solution and are consolidated by the pressure. Another form of separation takes place as a result of chemical reactions. For example, limestones are formed from the mineral calcite (calcium oxide + carbonic acid), and dolomite rocks from dolomite (double carbonate of calcium and magnesium). The separating-out of the calcium carbonate takes place mainly in shallow seas. In supersaturated solutions small calcium carbonate spheres form around the finest particles of organic calcareous shells which, once they reach a certain size, sink to the seabed and are consolidated. This gives rise to calcium carbonate sediments containing the calcareous remains of plants and animals. Types: limestone, shelly limestone, travertine, tuffaceous limestone, dolomite, limestone shale, etc.

Metamorphic rocks are formed by the transformation of igneous, sedimentary or older metamorphic rocks as a result of changing physical and chemical conditions over periods lasting millions of years. The causes of these transformations are varying temperatures or pressures or tectonic movements, and very frequently all three factors together. These stresses always cause changes to the mineral content and structures of the rocks involved. Besides the structural changes caused by unilateral pressure (foliation and cleavage), recrystallisation is also possible in this metamorphic process. However, the introduction of solutions and gases can lead to the formation of new minerals, e.g. garnet, serpentine, epidote, chlorite, etc., which are characteristic of metamorphic rocks and in most cases limited to this type of rock. Only those metamorphic processes that take place at a certain depth beneath the earth’s surface are classed as true metamorphic processes. Erosion processes and diagenesis are therefore not classed as processes leading to the formation of metamorphic rocks. In classifying metamorphic rocks we make a distinction according to the original rock material: orthorocks (formed from igneous rocks) and pararocks (formed from sedimentary rocks). This leads to the formation of the following: orthogneiss granite migmatite granite + gneiss chlorite schist gabbro basalt diabase serpentinite peridotite gabbro paragneiss quartzite greywacke venturine quartzite marble dolomite marble

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

These are formed through the destruction by mechanical, chemical and biological decomposition of existing igneous, metamorphic and also older sedimentary rocks, and their subsequent consolidation. The crushed rock substances are transported (glaciers, water, wind) and gradually deposited, sorted according to weight, as the transport mechanisms subside. The transported materials can settle, deflocculate to form colloids or separate out in chemical solutions, even passing through organisms first. Physical and chemical effects are necessary in order to allow the unconsolidated masses to form rocks because otherwise sediments such as gravel, chippings, coarse and fine sands, coarse and fine silts, clay, loam or loess tend to form. In the physical process of diagenesis the pressure of the overlying strata and rock masses ensures the compression of voids and individual particles. In the chemical process of cementation the water circulating in the remaining voids bonds together the individual particles by way of calcareous, argillaceous, dolomitic, siliceous, limonitic and ferruginous binders. These two processes transform: gravel ∫ conglomerate debris ∫ breccia sand ∫ sandstone clay ∫ mudstone calcium carbonate ∫ limestone The effects of diagenesis and cementation essentially depend on the length of time over which these processes take place. Older sedimentary rocks are usually harder and have a more coherent structure than younger rocks.

Metamorphic rocks

∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫

Sedimentary rocks

mudstone clayey shale sandstone mudstone clayey shale clayey sandstone limestone dolomite

11

Types of stone Igneous rocks

Granite

Syenite

• Formation: In terms of volume the slowly solidifying magmatic granites account for approx. 44% of all rock deposits and are also the most frequently occurring and most widespread of all plutonic rocks. They solidify slowly from silicon-rich molten masses along the lower border of the earth’s crust. • Appearance: Granites are small- to essentially mediumto coarse-grained massive and nonaligned rocks. The grain structure can be both consistent and inconsistent. • Constituents: Feldspar, quartz and mica (biotite), plus amphibole (hornblende) and pyroxene (augite) as secondary constituents. The various feldspars (alkaline feldspars or plagioclase), accounting for approx. 35–40%, form the largest, usually readily visible crystals. The quartz, making up 20–60%, fills the intermediate voids. The soft, usually dark, mica (3–10%) can be evenly distributed or accumulated and is responsible for the contrast. • Colours: The various feldspars determine the diverse appearance and, above all, the colour of the granites: bright red, reddish, pink, yellowish, whitish, grey, bluishgreenish, but never conspicuously dark. • Properties: The weathering resistance of the majority of granites is good to very good. Granites with a higher water absorption weather faster. • Uses: Paving, kerbstones, facades, internal/ external floor coverings, kitchen worktops. • Sources: Bavarian Forest, Fichtelgebirge, Upper Palatinate Forest, Black Forest, Harz Mountains.

• Formation: Like granite, syenite is a plutonic rock, solidifying from low-quartz, acidic molten masses along the lower border of the earth’s crust. We can refer to syenites as quartz-free and, at best, very-low-quartz “granites”. • Appearance: With their massive, non-aligned structure, syenites certainly look like granites, except that the quartz grains – gel-like grey in granite – are lacking. The structure is medium- to coarse-grained. Larvikite is a special type of syenite consisting of almost 80–90% of dark green, blue or grey anorthoclase feldspar. Its decorative effect is due to its extremely large and sparkling crystals. • Constituents: Mineral content similar to granite with a somewhat higher proportion of dark minerals (biotite, amphibole); 0–5% quartz. • Colours: The colour spectrum stretches from greyred, red-brown, reddish to bluish-violet, never dark grey or black. • Properties: Like granite, but owing to its lack of quartz, syenite is easier to work, although it exhibits the same strength as granite. • Uses: As for granite. • Sources: Norway, Finland, Italy.

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.6–2.8 g/cm3 Compressive strength 130–270 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 5–18 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 5–8 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.8 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.1–0.9% by wt Total porosity 0.4–1.5% by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 1.6–3.4 W/mK

Density Compressive strength Tensile bending strength Abrasion resistance Thermal expansion Water absorption Total porosity Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity

12

2.6–2.8 g/cm3 160–240 N/mm2 5–18 N/mm2 5–8 cm3/50cm2 0.8 mm/m100K 0.2–0.9% by wt -- % by vol. -- W/mK

Types of stone Igneous rocks

Diorite

Gabbro

• Formation: Related to granite, diorite is a plutonic rock formed from magma with a slightly different composition. Deposits of this rock are less common and limited to smaller quantities. • Appearance: The structure is massive, small- to mediumgrained. On the whole, diorite is darker and “calmer” than granite, and has little or no quartz. • Constituents: Essentially dark, white or even colourless feldspar (plagioclase), with biotite (mica) and amphibole as the dark constituents; 0–5% quartz. A quartz content of between 5% and 20% indicates the presence of a quartz diorite. • Colours: Mottled black-white to jet black, very often tending towards a green shade. • Properties: As for granite, but somewhat better. • Uses: As for granite. • Sources: Odenwald, Portugal, France, Poland, Czech Republic.

• Formation: Gabbro is a basic plutonic rock (approx. 50% SiO2 content) that has solidified slowly in magma chambers deep below the surface in the vicinity of the earth’s mantle. • Appearance: A mostly small-grained mottled to coarsegrained speckled rock in which the contrast between the light- and dark-coloured minerals is clearly visible. Plateau-like or elongated mineral inclusions can lend the rock a clear orientation. • Constituents: The main constituent is colourless alkaline feldspar, but the dark minerals augite or hornblende are responsible for the appearance (dark grey to black). Secondary constituents are the dark green to jet black olivine, and ores, which form shiny metallic flakes on polished surfaces. No quartz and almost no mica. • Colours: Dark to olive green, also greenish-grey or brownish-green, mottled or speckled. • Properties: Gabbro exhibits a high strength and toughness, and is easy to work. • Uses: Similar to granite, floor coverings, paving slabs, facades. • Sources: Finland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, South Africa.

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.8–3.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 170–300 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 6–22 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 5–8 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.88 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.2–0.4% by wt Total porosity 0.5–1.2% by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

Density 2.8–3.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 170–300 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 6–22 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 5–8 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.88 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.2–0.4% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK 13

Types of stone Extrusive rocks

Rhyolite (porphyry)

Trachyte

Basalt

• Formation: Rhyolite belongs to the group of extrusive rocks and in terms of its chemical composition is very similar to granite. The terms “quartz porphyry” or “porphyry” used in the past are reserved today for describing the structure of the rock • Appearance: Rhyolite is a mostly light-coloured, dense to fine-grained rock. Its structure can vary from fully crystallised to vitreous. The larger and lighter-coloured, well-formed phenocrysts of crystallised alkaline feldspar, the smaller and darker quartz grains, and the black flakes of biotite and amphibole can be readily identified among the uniform matrix consisting of finely distributed feldspar, quartz and mica. This is characteristic of a porphyritic structure. • Constituents: Alkaline feldspar (sanidine) 35–65%; plagioclase 10–65%; quartz 20%; secondary constituents are biotite, amphibole, augite 15%. • Colours: The rhyolites are whitish, reddish, greenish-brown, violet or grey. • Properties: Owing to its mineral content, rhyolite exhibits similar properties to granite. • Uses: Floor coverings, facades, wall linings. • Sources: Rhyolites form large lava plains; Europe’s largest lie in southern Tyrol (Etsch porphyries), Beucha and Löbejün (Saxony) and the Rhineland.

• Formation: Trachyte belongs to the group of extrusive rocks. It represents the extrusive form of syenite and is therefore also free from quartz. • Appearance: A characteristic feature of this variable rock is the roughness of its fracture planes and arrises, which is attributable to its fine pores. Also typical is the porphyritic structure with large, plateau-like phenocrysts of alkaline feldspars. Hornblende, augite and biotite can also occur as phenocrysts. The matrix is usually dense, partly vitreous. It generally consists of densely compacted, tiny alkaline feldspars which surround the larger phenocrysts. This fluidal orientation is known as a “trachytic structure”. • Constituents: The (often) very large crystals of white or colourless alkaline feldspar are characteristic. Plagioclase, containing scales of dark mica, prevails in the matrix. • Colours: Light colours (white to light grey) are typical, with yellowish, greenish or reddish shades. • Properties: Good weather resistance. • Uses: Trachyte is relatively soft, cannot be polished and therefore limited to uses in external facades. • Sources: Siebengebirge, Westerwald, Eifel, the former volcanic regions of Germany.

• Formation: Measured in terms of the size of its deposits, basalt is one of the most important basic extrusive rocks. Its mineral content is identical with that of gabbro. Therefore, a basalt that originates from the deepest regions of the outflow system is hardly distinguishable from a gabbro. • Appearance: Basalt is a dense, fine- to mediumgrained, non-aligned, mostly crystalline rock. • Constituents: The primary component is the whitish to colourless sodium carbonate feldspar (plagioclase). The appearance is essentially governed by dark minerals (pyroxenes, silicates) and ore minerals (e.g. magnetite) in the form of shiny metallic flakes. Secondary constituents are amphibole, olivine, biotite. Free quartz may be present in small amounts < 5%. • Colours: Dark grey to black. • Properties: Very weather-resistant, extremely difficult to work. • Uses: Floor coverings, paving slabs. • Sources: Greifenstein (Hesse), Sweden, Uruguay, India.

Technical data

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.5–2.8 g/cm3 Compressive strength 180–300 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 10–20 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 5–8 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 1.25 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.2–0.7% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

Density Compressive strength Tensile bending strength Abrasion resistance Thermal expansion Water absorption Total porosity Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity

14

2.5–2.8 g/cm3 180–300 N/mm2 15–20 N/mm2 5–8 cm3/50cm2 1.0 mm/m100K 0.2–0.7% by wt -- % by vol. -- W/mK

Density Compressive strength Tensile bending strength Abrasion resistance Thermal expansion Water absorption Total porosity Frost-resistant Thermal conductivity

2.9–3.0 g/cm3 240–400 N/mm2 13–25 N/mm2 5–8 cm3/50cm2 0.9 mm/m100K 0.1–0.3% by wt -- % by vol. 1.2–3.0 W/mK

Types of stone Extrusive rocks

Lava stone • Formation: Lava stone is formed as molten volcanic material escapes from the crater slopes. As soon as the pressure drops, as the molten material leaves the crater, the dissolved gases start to rise as bubbles. The more fluid the magma, the easier it is for these bubbles to rise through the material. However, solidification soon puts an end to the degassing process, and in doing so the bubbles are, to a certain extent, petrified; this results in a porous rock once it has cooled. • Appearance: Always porous, to a greater or lesser extent, but sometimes vitreous. • Constituents: These depend heavily on the type of molten volcanic material from which the respective rock was formed. They consist of various silicates accompanied by relatively low quantities of quartz and ores. • Colours: Grey-blue, reddish. • Properties: Very good weather resistance. • Uses: Facades, primarily plinths, floor coverings. • Sources: Londorf and Mayen (Rhineland-Palatinate)

Volcanic tuffs

• Formation: Volcanic tuffs are formed from initially loose deposits following volcanic eruptions. These strata undergo varying internal consolidation due to heat and their own weight. • Appearance: Volcanic tuffs have a porous structure. The matrix has a sandy to earthy appearance with a broad colour spectrum. • Constituents: The main constituents are the different original magmas with a considerable proportion of natural glass. • Colours: The colours are numerous and, depending on the type of magma, white, grey, yellow, green, red to black. • Properties: Depend on the mineral content of the respective magma. • Uses: Suitable as solid building blocks and for facade components. • Sources: Mayen (Rhineland-Palatinate), Saxony, Italy, Yugoslavia.

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.2–2.4 g/cm3 Compressive strength 80–150 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 8–12 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 12–15 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion -- mm/m100K Water absorption 4–10% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Virtually always frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

Density 1.8–2.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 20–30 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 2–6 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance low -- cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.4–1.0 mm/m100K Water absorption 6–15% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 0.4–1.7 W/mK 15

Types of stone Sedimentary rocks

Conglomerate (nagelfluh)

Breccia (ceppo)

• Formation: Conglomerates are formed from rounded debris, mostly from the boulders and crushed rock transported by water and glaciers, and contain diverse rock material. The differently sized and differently coloured boulders and crushed rock, which depend on the transport route, are cemented together to form a more or less compact material by binders. Nagelfluh is the name given to a conglomerate from the north side of the Alps. • Appearance: Conglomerates are rocks with differing degrees of porosity whose essentially rounded constituents vary in size from a few millimetres to 50 mm. • Constituents: Conglomerates contain various types of rock such as limestone, granite, gneiss, quartzite, diabase, etc. The boulders and crushed rock compressed by the load of the overlying material are generally cemented together with calcareous binders. Depending on the composition, quantity and type of binder, conglomerates exhibit differing degrees of compaction, or can even be solid. • Colours: Owing to the variability of the original material, conglomerates exhibit different shades of grey, blue, yellow to red adjacent one another. • Properties: Good to moderate weather resistance. The breakdown takes place through the dissolving or mellowing of the binder. What is disturbing is the often rapid formation of a thin film of pollution, which on older buildings can also grow to a thick gypsum-like crust. • Uses: Masonry, plinths, facades. • Sources: The foothills of the Alps along the rivers Inn (Brannenburg) and Salzach (Ternitz).

• Formation: Breccias are formed through the cementation of angular rock debris. The individual fragments are consolidated not far from their place of origin by argillaceous, siliceous or calcareous binders. • Appearance: Large-format, sharp-edged, often quite dissimilar fragments are characteristic. The boundary between conglomerate and breccia is not rigid. Ceppo is the name given to a breccia from the southern foothills of the Alps. • Constituents: Breccias can be made up of igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, limestones, sandstones or solidified volcanic sediments, but primarily limestone. A consistent structure from one type of rock is possible, but also agglomerates. The rock fragments are cemented together to a greater or lesser extent depending on the composition, quantity and type of binder. A siliceous binder is particularly resistant, calcareous binders are the most common type. • Colours: Very diverse, variegated, depending on the original rock material. • Properties: Depend on the original rock material and the binder • Uses: Primarily for decorative interior work: linings, tabletops, floor finishes, retail premises. • Sources: Italy (southern foothills of the Alps), Greece, Portugal.

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.3 g/cm3 Compressive strength 20–160 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 2–15 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 14–80 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion -- mm/m100K Water absorption 10% by wt Total porosity 0.5–30% by vol Frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 1.2–3.4 W/mK

Density -- g/cm3 Compressive strength -- N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance -- cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion -- mm/m100K Thermal expansion -- % by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Not normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

16

Types of stone Sedimentary rocks

Sandstone

Clayey shale

• Formation: Sandstone is the most widespread sedimentary rock, which is formed from loose sand grains (0.3 to 3 mm). The rounded to angular grains are cemented together by siliceous, calcareous, dolomitic or marlaceous binders. We distinguish between fine-, medium- and coarsegrained sandstones. The sandstones can form in various deposition planes (dunes, rivers, seas). • Appearance: Typical of sandstone is its solid but easily abraded, uniform consistency with little stratification. Differences within the individual types are due to grain size, colour and technical properties. • Constituents: Besides quartz, the main constituents are the feldspars (potash feldspar, plagioclase), the amount of which can equal or even exceed the quantity of quartz. In addition, phyllosilicates, shiny, silvery muscovite and green glauconite can also be present. • Colours: Not as colourful as limestones or magmatites because the grainy surface has an attenuating effect. Shades of red, yellowish, brown, greenish to almost white. These are mostly caused by secondary influences such as iron oxide, or in the case of greenish sandstones by the weathering product glauconite. • Properties: These depend on the binder, porosity, permeability and mineralogical nature of the grains of sand. • Uses: Facades, floor coverings, sculptures; cannot be polished. • Sources: Main-Neckar region, Württemberg, Lower Saxony, Swabia, Lower Bavaria, Franconia, Saxony.

• Formation: Clayey shale is formed by the deposition of very fine, soft and clayey sediments in water, which then consolidate, or are even transformed, under high pressure. • Appearance: Clayey shale is an extremely fine-grained, dense rock. The sedimentation cycle results in good to very good cleaving ability which permits flat slabs with a thickness of just 5–7 mm to be detached, e.g. for use as a roof covering material. • Constituents: The mineral content comprises, besides clay minerals, also tiny particles of quartz, feldspar and mica. The minerals that determine the colour are bitumens (black), chlorite (green) and haematite (red). • Colours: Dark grey to black, reddish, greenish. Cleavage planes sometimes exhibit a variegated sheen. • Properties: Black clayey shales (coloured by bitumen) fade; soft and easily scratched. • Uses: Roof covering, facade cladding, internal floor coverings, tabletops, in earlier times school blackboards were made from clayey shale. • Sources: Rhenish Slate Mountains, Thuringian Forest, Frankenwald, Harz Mountains, Portugal, Belgium, South Africa.

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.0–2.7 g/cm3 Compressive strength 30–150 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 9–35 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 1.2 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.2–10% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 1.2–3.4 W/mK

Density 2.7–2.8 g/cm3 Compressive strength -- N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 50–80 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance -- cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion -- mm/m100K Water absorption 0.5–0.6% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 1.2–2.1 W/mK 17

Types of stone Sedimentary rocks

Limestone

Shelly limestone

Travertine

• Formation: Limestones are formed in shallow seas with the help of organisms, supported and accompanied by physical-chemical processes. Algae, shells, corals, snails and other organisms build their skeletons from the calcium carbonate dissolved in the water. After these organisms die, the calcium carbonate collects in the form of skeletal remains, shells or sludge on the seabed. These sediments then undergo compaction and diagenesis due to the pressure from above. Besides the true calcium carbonate, there are small clay deposits, but primarily numerous pigments, which are responsible for the wide range of colours. • Appearance: The way in which they are formed leads to a variety of structures, textures and colours. The spectrum stretches from “dense limestone”, plain and devoid of structure, to limestones with clearly visible fossil inclusions. • Constituents: Primarily the mineral calcite. • Colours: Limestones are found in almost all colours, except for shades of green and blue. • Properties: The resistance depends on the porosity and any inclusions that may be present. Limestones fade due to the influence of the atmosphere. Polished surfaces lose their shine. • Uses: Depending on the frost resistance, limestones can be used externally for rubble or ashlar masonry, as facade cladding or (with caution) as floor coverings. Diverse internal uses are possible. Sensitivity to specific fluids (red wine, urine) must be taken into account. • Sources: Treuchtlingen and Eichstätt (Upper Bavaria), Kelheim (Lower Bavaria) and worldwide.

• Formation: Shelly limestone is a certain type of German limestone that contains shells and/or other fossils or their fragments, which formed in the Middle Triassic series of the geological timescale, some 200 to 215 million years ago. In shallow seas various animal groups (brachiopods) formed reefs; the calcium carbonate sludge filled the voids. The readily visible shell fragments gave rise to the name “shelly limestone”. • Appearance: Depending on the degree of compaction, the result is a dense Bankstein or a more porous Kernstein; stratification is not apparent, but certainly an aligned texture; shell fragments can be identified. • Constituents: The constituents are shells and animal remains plus calcium carbonate. Larger voids are frequently filled with a dense grey calcium carbonate matrix. • Colours: Kernstein, Goldbank, Blaubank light brown to grey-blue, all with plays of colour and transitions. • Properties: Kernstein is weather-resistant, Goldbank and Blaubank are preferred for internal uses. • Uses: Floor coverings, window sills, plinths, wall linings, fleuri cuts preferred externally. • Sources: Kleinrinderfeld, Kirchheim, Kleinziegenfeld (Lower Franconia).

• Formation: Travertines are freshwater calcium carbonates that accumulated in inland waters and were subsequently consolidated by the overlying strata and the water pressure. The calcium carbonate sediments occur in springs and rivers when the dissolved calcium carbonate separates out as the temperature rises. Likewise, plants, grasses, algae or even mineral springs containing carbon dioxide cause calcium carbonate to separate out. The pores arranged in bands in travertine may be due to gas inclusions or may be the result of former clay inclusions. • Appearance: Travertine is pitted and porous, usually with a clear band-like structure. Discounting the porosity, travertine is a solid, finegrained rock that can take grinding and polishing. • Constituents: The main constituent is calcite. • Colours: Light, yellowish to brownish, but also merging into pink, attributable to the mineral limonite, which is usually present. • Properties: Fades when used externally, suitable for facade panels. • Uses: Facade cladding, internal/external floor coverings. • Sources: Bad Cannstatt, Langensalza, Italy (Tivoli), Spain, Portugal.

Technical data

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.6–2.9 g/cm3 Compressive strength 75–240 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 3–19 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 15–40 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.75 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.1–3% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Frost resistance depends on type Thermal conductivity 2.0–3.4 W/mK

Density 2.6–2.9 g/cm3 Compressive strength 80–180 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 6–15 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 15–40 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.3–0.6 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.2–0.6% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Frost resistance varies Thermal conductivity 2.0–3.4 W/mK

Density 2.4–2.5 g/cm3 Compressive strength 20–60 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 2–13 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance -- cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.68 mm/m100K Water absorption 2–5% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

18

Types of stone Sedimentary rocks

Tuffaceous limestone

Solnhofen platy limestone

Dolomite

• Formation: Tuffaceous limestone is a very porous freshwater calcium carbonate. The boundary with travertine is indistinct, but we speak of tuffaceous limestone particularly when there is no clear band-like structure and the really quite large pores are distributed within the rock without any particular orientation. Tuffaceous limestones exhibit an essentially looser structure than travertine. Tuffaceous limestones usually form at springs (potholes, spring pits) where water containing large quantities of carbon dioxide and dissolved calcium carbonate (CaCO3) flows over accumulations of aquatic plants. The plants remove some of the carbon dioxide from the water and thus cause the dissolved calcium carbonate to separate out. In comparison with other types of rock, this whole rock formation process is very short, lasting just tens of thousands of years. • Appearance: Tuffaceous limestones are highly porous and pitted. • Constituents: The main constituent is calcite. • Colours: White to light grey or ivory; tuffaceous limestones darken over time. • Properties: Immediately after breaking, tuffs are very soft and therefore easy to work into sculptures; once exposed to the air they harden to form a solid stone material. Deposits containing gypsum can form due to the action of sulphur dioxide and precipitation. • Uses: Facades, masonry. • Sources: Polling (Upper Bavaria), Äpfelbach (Upper Franconia) and Yugoslavia.

• Formation: The deposition of suspensions over millennia in non-flowing waters not conducive to supporting life on the seabed between coral reefs gave rise to the Solnhofen platy limestones. During the Jurassic period sediments containing calcium carbonate were brought in primarily by the annual monsoon winds and were rapidly deposited and consolidated in many very fine strata, one above the other. Plate-like sediments of varying thickness, consisting of calcium carbonate form, separated by ultra-thin sediments of clayey marl, and it is this that leads to the good cleaving ability. Numerous well-preserved, fossilised organisms can be found in the layers of calcium carbonate. • Appearance: Very dense, consistently very-fine-grained limestone in sedimentation beds up to a maximum thickness of 300 mm. • Constituents: Almost exclusively calcium carbonate (CaCO3). • Colours: The stone has mostly a cream to pale yellow ochre (yellow, grey, brown) colour in fine nuances. Moss-like impressions can occur on the cleavage planes, due to inorganic precipitation of brown haematite or manganese oxide, so-called dendrites. • Properties: Relatively soft; split paving slabs wear down over time; can be polished. • Uses: Floor coverings (internal), wall linings, roof coverings (loose-laid slates), lithography, monuments. • Sources: In the region around Solnhofen, Eichstätt (Bavaria).

• Formation: Like limestone, dolomite is a sedimentary rock which forms in seawater due to the precipitation of calcium carbonate (= calcite). However, in contrast to limestone, the calcite is converted into dolomite (double carbonate of calcium and magnesium), with a simultaneous 13% reduction in volume. • Appearance: The rock is dense, fine- to coarse-grained and exhibits greater porosity than limestone, which is due to the conversion of the calcite into dolomite. But in terms of colour, grain size and structure, there is hardly any difference between dolomite and limestone. Dolomite is always lightly crystallised and therefore appears to have shiny grains, at least in close-up. • Constituents: Apart from the mineral dolomite, dolomite rock can also contain secondary constituents such as phyllite, marcasite and bituminous substances. • Colours: Compared with limestone, play of colours and decoration are very uniform. The colours range from white-yellowish to pink to brownish. There are also fewer fossils and veins than in limestone. • Properties: Compared with limestone, dolomite exhibits a greater hardness and a noticeably better resistance to aggressive substances in air and water. • Uses: Owing to its consistent porosity, dolomite is not polished, but instead just finely ground. Internal/external floor tiles, facades, window sills. • Sources: Kleinziegenfeld, Wachenzell (Lower Franconia).

Technical data

Technical data

Technical data

Density 1.7–2.2 g/cm3 Compressive strength 30–50 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance low -- cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.3–0.7 mm/m100K Water absorption -- % by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

Density 2.58 g/cm3 Compressive strength 215 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 28.6 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 15 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.48 mm/m100K Water absorption 1.47% by wt Total porosity 4.77% by vol. Not frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

Density 2.6–2.9 g/cm3 Compressive strength 75–240 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 3–19 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 15–40 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.75 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.1–3% by wt Total porosity -- % by vol. Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK 19

Gesteinsarten Metamorphic rocks

Orthogneiss

Paragneiss

Quartzite

• Formation: Orthogneisses are formed from siliconrich igneous rocks such as granite and rhyolite in a second geological process – metamorphosis. High pressures (mountain building) lead to compression, nappe involution, almost foliation, frequently also folding of the slowly solidifying magma, after which a more or less distinct orientation (foliation) appears. • Formation: Characteristic of this type of rock is the massive and oriented structure, rendered legible by way of the elongated feldspar crystals and the fibrous arrangement of the dark biotite around the feldspars. • Constituents: The main minerals are quartz, feldspar and mica, as in the case of granite and rhyolite. • Colours: The colours of the orthogneisses are similar to their original materials granite and rhyolite. However, the clearly visible mica content lends them a somewhat darker and more contrasted appearance. • Properties: See granite. • Uses: Very similar to granite; however, vein cuts should not be used on orthogneisses with a strongly aligned structure. The differences are attributable not only to the disparities between the types of rock but also the type of cut – fleuri (parallel with the bed) or vein (perpendicular to the bed). • Sources: Scandinavia, Finland, Russia, South America.

• Formation: The raw materials for paragneisses are clayey to sandy sediments (e.g. clayey shale, greywacke). These sedimentary rocks are compacted by high pressures and temperatures. In doing so, the molecules become layered and this gives rise to a crystalline rock structure. • Appearance: Tends to be medium-grained, frequently streaky and with wavy layers. The distinction between cleavage planes (parallel with the bedding plane) and fracture planes (perpendicular to the bedding plane) is more pronounced than with orthogneiss. The constituents arranged along the longitudinal axis to a greater or lesser extent form streaks, marks and bands on cleavage planes. Layers with a concentration of mica tend to cleave most readily. Therefore, in the case of, for example, mica-schist the mica content always appears to be higher than it really is. • Constituents: These rocks consist of at least 50% white feldspar, varying amounts of gel-like grey quartz and a high mica content consisting of black biotite and the silvery muscovite. • Colours: The mostly grey colour of the rock is essentially determined on the cleavage planes by the mica. Only in the case of vein cuts do the white feldspar and the colourless quartz appear as well. • Properties: The strength varies considerably depending on the direction of cut. • Uses: Facades, internal wall linings, floor coverings, masonry, roof coverings. • Sources: Northern Italy, Ticino, Grisons.

• Formation: The raw materials for quartzite are quartzrich sediments such as sandstone, quartz-rich clays and quartz conglomerates. The rocks are melted at different depths due to the action of heat and pressure. The quartz remains, unchanged in terms of quality and quantity. The secondary constituents are responsible for the colouring. As the mica content increases so the quartzite turns to micaschist, an increase in feldspars turns it into gneiss (paragneiss). • Appearance: Quartzites are usually light-coloured, fineto medium-grained rocks with roughly consistent grain sizes. Higher quantities of mica are concentrated in the foliation planes, which enable the rock to be cleaved into slabs just a few millimetres thick. • Constituents: The main constituent is quartz, which accounts for 85–95%. In addition, feldspar can account for 0– 5%, mica 3%, and ores can also be present. • Colours: Quartzites are customarily light in colour, sometimes almost white. The secondary minerals can lead to greenish (chlorite), dark grey (graphite), reddish (haematite), brownish and yellowish (limonite) shades. • Properties: Pure quartzites are very weather-resistant. Due to their high quartz content they are very hard and are therefore difficult to work. • Uses: Cleaved or cut for facades and internal walls, floor coverings, ideal for kitchen worktops. • Sources: Austria (Rauris, Pfunders), Switzerland, Brazil.

Technical data

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.6 – 3.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 100 – 200 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 4 – 10 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.5 – 0.8 mm/m 100K Water absorption 0.3 – 0.4 Masse-% Total porosity -- Vol-% Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 1.6 – 2.1 W/mK

Density 2.6 – 3.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 100 – 200 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 4 – 10 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.5 – 0.8 mm/m 100K Water absorption 0.3 – 0.4 Masse-% Total porosity -- Vol-% Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 1.6 – 2.1 W/mK

Density 2.6 – 2.7 g/cm3 Compressive strength 150 – 300 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 13 – 25 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 7 – 8 cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion 1.25 mm/m 100K Water absorption 0.2 – 0.5 Masse-% Total porosity -- Vol-% Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

20

Types of stone Metamorphic rocks

Mica-schist

Chlorite schist

Serpentinite

• Formation: Mica-schist is a metamorphic rock that originates from clayey sediments with mica and quartz components. • Appearance: The large, light-coloured mica crystals measuring at least 1 mm across lend the rock a vivid sparkle. • Constituents: More than 50% mica and less than 20% feldspar. The remainder is quartz, although this can account for up to 50%. As mica-schist is always cleaved along the mica layers, the cleavage planes do not show the true mineral content. • Colours: Grey, anthracite and bronze. • Properties: Readily cleaved, the abrasion resistance depends on the soft mica content. • Uses: Facades, internal floor coverings. • Sources: Norway, Sweden, Finland, Austria, Switzerland.

• Formation: Chlorite schist, owing to its colour also known as greenschist, is a silicate metamorphic rock that forms at great depths under high pressures and temperatures through the transformation of dark, basic rocks such as gabbro, basalt, diabase and peridotite. The pressures and temperatures cause the material to “flow” and lead to an alignment of the minerals, and to foliation. • Appearance: Chlorite schist exhibits a distinctly aligned, slaty, shadowed texture and a light sheen. It is partly grainy and occasionally exhibits white quartz veins. Heavily foliated in contrast to serpentinite, which is the same colour, it almost never has any veins and is also not broken down into breccias. • Constituents: The main constituent is the green, relatively soft mineral chlorite, but also epidote. • Colours: Dark green to blue-green, green-grey, green, green-yellow. • Properties: The orientation must be taken into account; pieces against the foliation can accommodate only low loads, whereas those parallel to the foliation exhibit a higher strength. A high polish is not possible; can be cleaved. • Uses: Facades, wall linings and internal floor coverings (also in swimming pools) not subjected to heavy loads, in contrast to serpentinite. • Sources: Italy (Lombardy), often erroneously called “verde serpentine” (which is not a serpentinite), Austria (Styria, East Tyrol, Carinthia).

• Formation: Serpentinites are formed by the metamorphosis of ultrabasic, olivine-rich rocks. During later tectonic stresses calcite was forced into the clefts and voids and filled them to create light-coloured veins. • Appearance: Serpentinites are fine-grained to dense. Their speckled or streaky texture with varying, partly lighter shades, plus their mostly brecciated appearance and the high proportion of light-green to white calcite veins are characteristic. • Constituents: The main constituent is the mineral serpentine. • Colours: Mostly greenish-black, seldom reddish. The surface exhibits a matt, wax-like sheen. • Properties: Owing to their low or highly variable hardness values, the weather resistance of serpentinites is limited. The absorption of moisture during laying can lead to deformations. • Uses: Primarily for decorative interior purposes, possibly for facades. • Sources: Italy, Austria, Greece.

Technical data

Technical data

Technical data

Density -- g/cm3 Compressive strength -- N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance gering -- cm3/50cm2 Thermal expansion -- mm/m100K Water absorption -- Masse-% Total porosity -- Vol-% Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity -- W/mK

Density 2.6 – 2.8 g/cm3 Compressive strength 140 – 250 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength -- N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 8 – 18 cm2/50cm3 Thermal expansion 0.5 – 1.0 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.3 – 2.0 Masse-% Total porosity -- Vol-% Not frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 3.4 W/mK

Density Compressive strength Tensile bending strength Abrasion resistance Thermal expansion Water absorption Total porosity Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity

2,74 g/cm3 -- N/mm2 -- N/mm2 -- cm3/50cm2 -- mm/m100K -- Masse-% -- Vol-% -- W/mK

21

Types of stone Metamorphic rocks

Marble

Migmatite

• Formation: Marble is the metamorphic product of sedimentary rocks containing significant amounts of calcium carbonate. During the metamorphosis the amorphous calcite molecules form crystals and a completely new type of rock: the fossilised components and also the stratification and the decorative elements (veins) disappear completely. The original colouring changes to white with coloured streaks. • Appearance: Marbles exhibit a non-aligned, fine- to coarse-grained texture. The crystalline, light-refracting and reflective structure is characteristic. • Constituents: The main constituent is calcite (50–80%). Occasional, secondary constituents are graphite (grey streaks), pyrite, ilmenite. • Colours: True marble is white, but it usually contains impurities and traces of colour in the form of stripes, patches, streaks, mottling, but also as shades of grey. Bright or conspicuous colours do not occur. • Properties: Incorrect floor assemblies can lead to discoloration of marble. When used as an external facade, curvature of the panels can occur due to the different longitudinal thermal expansion of the front and rear faces and also, for example, due to erosion by weathering (detrition). • Uses: Floor coverings, wall linings, stairs, facades, sculptures. • Sources: Wunsiedel (Bavaria), Italy (Carrara), Portugal, Austria, Greece (Thassos), Turkey.

• Formation: Migmatites are hybrid rocks whose formation involves both igneous and metamorphic rocks. These are extraordinarily heterogeneous rocks with partly metamorphic and partly igneous structures. • Appearance: Migmatites can have a very diverse appearance. • Constituents: The mineral constituents are somewhat similar to those of granites and orthogneisses, i.e. contain feldspar, quartz and mica, although the quantities can vary depending on the particular composition of the rock. • Colours: Red, red-brown, red-grey, grey, greenish. • Properties: Similar to granite. • Uses: Facades, internal and external floor coverings. • Sources: Brazil, India, South Africa.

Technical data

Technical data

Density 2.6 – 2.9 g/cm3 Compressive strength 75 – 240 N/mm2 Tensile bending strength 3 – 19 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 15 – 40 cm2/50cm2 Thermal expansion 0.3 – 0.6 mm/m100K Water absorption 0.1 – 3.0 Masse-% Total porosity -- Vol-% Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity 2.0 – 2.6 W/mK

Density Compressive strength Tensile bending strength Abrasion resistance Thermal expansion Water absorption Total porosity Normally frost-resistant Thermal conductivity

22

2.68 g/cm3 155 N/mm2 20,4 N/mm2 -- cm2/50cm2 -- mm/m100K 0.39 Masse-% -- Vol-% -- W/mK

Types of stone Minerals

Mineral Alkaline feldspar (KNa feldspar) Amphibole Hornblende Augite

Mineral class Opaque feldspar

Appearance, colour Translucent to colourless–milky cloudy

Colour in the rock whitish to red, bluish shimmer

Silicate

Thin opaque semimetallic sheen

jet black to dark green

Pyroxene

Biotite

Mica

Calcite CaCO3 (calcareous spar) Chlorite

Carbonate

Silicate

Opaque

Dolomite (magnesite) Glauconite

Carbonate

Sugar-grain structure

Mica

Opaque flakes and grains with a matt sheen

Garnet

Silicate

Risk of discoloration (formation of rust)

violets, brown-red

Graphite

Chemical element

Semi-metallic sheen, colour rubs off upon touching Red shading after flame treatment of yellow granites Recognisable in rock by way of needle-like, fine-fibre and bushy agglomerates Responsible for the yellow colouring of granite Metallic sheen, matt, oily, dull, opaque

anthracite, grey and black

Haematite (ore) Oxide Red ironstone Hornblende

Amphibole

Limonite (ore) Oxide Brown haematite Magnetite (ore) Oxide

Mother-of-pearl sheen, flaky metallic, soft Frequently a glassy sheen

black, mid-green, grey-green, brownish black, dark brown and dark green whitish-cream colour, frequently reddish to red and brown, less often black and green green, grey, brown to black yellowish to brown, whitish olive green, bluishgreen, black-green

marble

granulite, mica-schist, metamorphic rocks containing calcite marble, limestone, mudstone as a colouring mineral in all types of rock

green and dark green, also black-green and iron black

plutonic and extrusive rocks, volcanic tuffs

yellow, ochre, brown to black

igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks, sedimentary rocks diorite, gabbro, basalt, basaltic lava

black

Mica

Mother-of-pearl sheen, shiny, pliable

silvery shine, colourless and white-grey

Nepheline

Foid

Oily sheen, almost always cloudy

Olivine

Silicate

Glassy sheen

Plagioklase, Na-Cafeldspar

Feldspar

Glass-like sheen

Pyrite Iron pyrite

Sulphide

Quartz SiO2, silicic acid Serpentine

Oxide

Metallic-gold sheen, causes yellow discoloration Glassy sheen, very hard

mostly white to cream colours, grey-yellow, brown bottle green, olive or yellow-green, brown mostly white and greyish, occasionally greenish and pale reddish gold-yellow, brass colours

Oily to satin sheen, translucent to opaque

dolomite rock, limestone, slate, dolomite marble sandstone sandstone, calcareous sandstone

salmon colours, reddish to bright red

Muscovite

Silicate

Main constituent in Secondary constituent in igneous rocks, granite, granodiorite, syenite, rhyolite, sandstone trachyte, gneiss syenite, tonalite, metamorphic rocks diorite basic plutonic and extrusive rocks granite, syenite, diorite, gneiss limestone, travertine, sandstone, other shelly limestone, sedimentary rocks, marble, calcareous serpentinite breccia, conglomerate chlorite schist

colourless, white, milky grey, rarely other colours greenish/silvery, grey to black, yellow-brown, brownish

foyaite, phonolite

granite, sandstone, phyllite, marble, micaschist, gneiss, quartzite basalt, basaltic lava

ultrabasic igneous gabbro, basalt, rocks diabase igneous rocks, diorite, sedimentary rocks gabbro, basalt, diabase, gneiss, sandstone marble, limestone, slate, sandstone, plutonic rocks granite, rhyolite, igneous rocks, slate, sandstone, quartzite, venturine quartz gneiss serpentinite marble, limestone, slate

23

Building I Solid loadbearing walls

All the detail drawings have been drawn to a uniform scale of 1:10. The green squares indicate the details referred to in the text. The various components have been shown in a number of variations. They represent typical solutions which must be coordinated with the respective boundary conditions and types of stone, the relevant statutory instruments, standards and manufacturers’ information valid in each specific, individual case. Neither the authors nor the publisher shall be liable for any claims for damages arising from the use of any of the details. 24

Building I Solid loadbearing walls

Building I, solid loadbearing walls 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34

Plinth Entrance Window Window Eaves Eaves Stairs Stairs Stairs

25

Building I Plinth

a A stone plinth provides good protection against splashing water and mechanical damage at the especially vulnerable transition between the building and the surrounding ground. To achieve this protection, fit dressed stone slabs into a perimeter recess. Seat the bottom edge on mortar dabs and hold the slabs in position with stainless steel anchors placed in the vertical joints near the top of each slab, which are grouted in with a trass-cement mortar. The external masonry, 490 mm thick, cantilevers out by about 70–80 mm beyond the top of the concrete foundation, over the stone slabs, mortar joint, insulation and waterproofing. The stone plinth projects beyond the render and so the top edge of each slab should be stepped and sloped at about 60° to create a flush transition to the render and thus avoid creating a rainwater trap along the horizontal joint. Do not fill the joint between render and stone slabs with mortar, but instead fit a stop bead and seal the joint between render and stone with an elastic sealing compound. This prevents the stone slabs being subjected to compressive stresses caused by settlement of the building. b In order to include a stone skirting inside, do not continue the plaster down to the floor. Once the floor tiles have been laid, fix the skirting tiles in a thin bed of tile adhesive flush with the line of the plaster. Fill the vertical joints with grout, and plaster over the horizontal joint between skirting and plaster. Finally, seal the approx. 5 mm horizontal joint between the floor tiles and the skirting with an elastic sealing compound in order to separate the floor from the wall and thus guarantee the sound insulation value of the floating screed.

26

a

b

Building I Entrance

c This entrance detail uses solid blocks of stone for the two steps. Both blocks must incorporate a fall to the top surface, at least 1.5 to 3% depending on the particular conditions. Position the lower step clear of the building, and support it on cantilevering concrete corbels at each end. The door jambs frame the upper step. The shape of the lower step enables access from three sides. The peripheral stone plinth to the external wall finishes at the jambs. The top surfaces of the frostresistant stone blocks used for the entrance steps must be treated to create a non-slip finish. d The upper step must be worked in such a way that a “kerb” remains on three sides, on which the door jamb is seated, and fixed with stainless steel dowels. Fit the open-grid tread and its frame into a rebate cut in the stone kerb so that it is supported on three sides. The stone below the tread must incorporate a fall to drain rainwater away to the outside. e The stone step that finishes flush with the bottom edge of the door cannot be built in until after the doors have been fitted. The steel flat weather bar protects the edge of the stone. Seal the joint between weather bar and floor finishes with an elastic compound.

e d

c

27

Building I Window

a The stone linings to the reveal, window head and sill form a transition from the render to the window and allow the window to be built in after the rendering work has been finished. In contrast to the flush arrangement of the stone at the sides and head of the window, the sill projects beyond the line of the render and incorporates a fall and a rainwater drip. Some publications propose a hollow joint between sill and spandrel panel, with a mortar support for the window sill at the ends only, beneath the vertical linings, the idea being that damaging stresses can be prevented by omitting the mortar below the centre of the sill. The window sill is a component that has been worked by a stonemason and in– cludes a kerb along the back edge and at both ends in order to create a good junction with the window frame and the linings to the reveals. A stainless steel dowel at each end of the sill creates a shear-resistant connection between sill and vertical linings. Do not fit the window frame directly against the stonework, but instead fix it to the structural wall. Fill the joint between the window frame and the stone with a preformed cellular foam strip and seal it with a suitable sealing compound. Close off the joint between window frame and window sill with a timber or aluminium “flashing”.

b

b Fit a stainless steel fishtail anchor, angled back into the masonry, into the horizontal joints between the window head and the linings to the reveals to anchor the stonework back to the external masonry. In the joint between head and lintel, allow for the fact that the stone at the window head must be raised over the anchor when fitting it. To avoid transferring stresses in the masonry to the window head, fill the joint between the underside of the lintel and the top of the window head not with mortar, but rather with insulating material.

28

a

c

Building I Window

c Lay the stone window board, at least 20 mm, preferably 30 mm thick, in a bed of mortar on top of the spandrel panel and insert it into a rebate in the window surround. At the sides tuck the window board below the plaster. Allow the window board to overhang the inside edge of the spandrel panel by 20–30 mm to provide a good stop edge for the plaster below the window. The thermal insulation at the sides enables the window board to be fitted deep into the reveals. The traditional method of laying with a fall to the inside or with a condensation channel stems from the days of poorly insulated, frequently leaky, old windows. The exposed edges of the stone should be chamfered or radiused. The surface of the stone usually has a fine-ground or polished finish. d The internal thermal insulation on three sides of the window opening improves the thermal insulation at the reveals and the window head. The visible width of the window surround on the outside is uniform on all sides. Fill the vertical joints between the masonry and the stone jambs completely with mortar. Since the introduction of the Energy Economy Act in Germany in January 2002, external walls have had to comply with more stringent requirements. An uninterrupted airtight envelope must now be provided and verified. This applies to all junctions, above all those around the window. In accordance with the principle of a wall construction with layers whose openness to vapour increases towards the outside, it is advisable to employ a system with an “inner” waterproofing layer, e.g. in the form of a self-adhesive sheet. Attach this to the frame and reveals and afterwards cover it with expanded metal or similar material suitable as a plaster substrate. To create the “outer” waterproofing layer, more open to diffusion but protecting against driving rain, seal the junction between the window frame and the stone reveal linings and stone window head with preformed foam strips and a suitable sealing compound. Fill the rest of the joint completely with a thermal – if necessary also sound – insulating material, e.g. mineral wool. Repeat this detail similarly at the junctions on all sides of the window.

c

d

29

Building I Eaves

Stone cornices are among the primary means of expression in traditional architecture. They create horizontal terminations to structures and walls. However, besides its aesthetic function, the cornice also has a constructional purpose. Depending on the size of the overhang, the cornice can also protect the surface of the facade against the effects of the weather. a The cornice here forms the upper termination to a rendered external wall and forms a clear boundary between facade and roof. This aspect is further emphasised in this example by the fact that the gutter is set back. Positioning the gutter in this way means that the cornice is particularly exposed to the weather. Even if an especially resistant type of stone is used, there is still the problem of sealing the top of the vertical joints between the individual pieces of stone. It is therefore necessary to provide the stone cornice with a sheet metal capping. The top surface of cornice and sheet metal capping must have a obvious fall of 3–5°, and a rainwater drip 20–30 mm clear of the stone must be formed in the sheet metal to ensure that run-off water drains clear of the facade. Lay the sheet metal loose on the cornice in order to accommodate the thermal movements of the sheet metal. Bend the rainwater drip around a continuous clip fixed to the stone. Use clips to attach the vertical leg of the sheet metal capping to a fascia board fixed to the ends of the rafters. It is necessary to include a vertical slot in the wall and the cornice to accommodate the rainwater downpipe.

30

b The shape of the cornice depends not only on the architectural design of the building, but also the eaves detail. Lay the individual cornice stones in a bed of mortar on top of the masonry along the full length of the wall. It may be necessary to bed the stones on strips or dabs of mortar in order to accommodate stresses due to structural movements. In the case shown here, the stone cornice and the reinforced concrete attic floor slab are both supported on the 490 mm external wall, separated by thermal insulation. If possible, avoid subjecting the cornice to the compressive stresses due to the roof loads, as shown here. Fix the stone to the masonry or the edge of the reinforced concrete slab using stainless steel dowels and steel fishtail anchors. A cornice with a greater overhang, as is typical on many older buildings, must be properly tied back to the structure. Cornices of all shapes and sizes have been used throughout the history of architecture. The idea behind the design of this component was to accentuate and increase the relief at the transitions in the vertical wall and its horizontal delineation through a sequence of decorative convex and concave forms. These architectural elements will continue to be encountered during restoration work on historical buildings.

c Split clayey shale slates, 4–6 mm thick, form the covering to this pitched roof (pitch = 30°). For detailed instructions on how to lay this type of roof covering, which despite being labour-intensive and complex is still common in some regions, please refer to the guidelines published by the German Roofing Contractors Association. Besides “altdeutsche Deckung” (random slating) and “Schablonendeckung” (the use of standard size slates), methods which are distinguished by their rising courses of slates, rectangular double-lap slating is also widely used. In this latter method of slating the slates are laid parallel with the eaves, each slate overlapping its neighbour by half. Lay the square or rectangular slates either on battens or, as shown here, directly on a sheathing over the roof decking. Fix each slate with two slating nails or pins, or a hook made from hot-dip galvanised steel, stainless steel or copper. Like with doublelap tiling using clay bullnose tiles, there are always at least two slates covering every part of the roof. Depending on the pitch of the roof, every third course must overlap the slates in the next but one course below sufficiently (60–120 mm depending on the pitch). At the eaves, pack up the last course of slates or include a feather-edged board.

Building I Eaves

c

a

b

31

Building I Stairs

a The two sturdy strings (steel flats) to the single flight of stairs span from the ground floor slab to the upper floor slab without intermediate support. The depth of the string necessary for structural purposes results in a relatively wide intrusion into the ground floor finishes. Steel angles welded to the sides of the strings enable them to be fixed to the floor slabs using heavy-duty anchors. Align the stairs by means of steel wedges at the base of the stairs and grout these in place to accommodate any discrepancies in height. As the stair fixings penetrate the damp-proof membrane (dpm), the fixings must be suitably waterproofed. Around the base of the stairs, seal the junction with the stone floor finishes using an elastic sealing compound. Separate the underlying floating cement screed from the stairs by using strips of insulating material. b Lay the accurately cut stone treads between the strings on bent sheet steel bearers, which are welded to the stair strings. This arrangement stiffens the stair construction and enables the use of various types of stone irrespective of their load-carrying capacity and behaviour in fire. Fix the treads with steel shear studs. Also lay a neoprene pad between the stone and the metal to improve the impact sound insulation. Unsupported stair treads presuppose a material whose load-carrying capacity can be calculated and verified sufficiently accurately, and which also possesses adequate load-carrying capacity during a fire. To make the stairs more convenient to use and to protect the vulnerable front edge of the tread, a chamfer measuring 3 x 3 mm or a radius of at least 3 mm is required. In addition, on stairs with open risers each tread must overlap the tread below by at least 30 mm. The use of ground finish type C 120 (= R 9) ensures an adequate non-slip surface on stone stair treads. Such treads require neither corundum strips to be bonded to the surface nor hard rubber strips to be embedded in grooves. However, such features do improve the perception of the stairs when descending, which is advantageous for persons with poor vision.

32

c An open joint separates the top step from the adjoining floor finishes of the upper floor. The stair strings and the steel flat trim to the edge of the floor slab finish at the same level beneath the top step and the floor tiles. If the stone floor tiles to the upper floor overhang the edge of the floor slab, it is necessary to include a joint (min. 3 mm) between the steel flat and the stone tiles in order to allow for the compressibility of the impact sound insulation. Fix the steel flat trim to the edge of the floor slab with anchors fitted through angles or lugs. Bolt the stair strings – two bolts per string – to the steel flat lugs welded to the steel flat trim around the edge of the floor slab. d A handrail diameter of at least 30 mm but no more than 60 mm, generally 40 mm, feels comfortable and secure. Make this from welded tube or, for a more comfortable feel, a round timber section, e.g. a hardwood such as oak, ash or maple. In this example the handrail is supported on steel flats inserted into slots cut in the underside of the handrail. Use adhesive to achieve a secure fixing. Cut off the handrail straight at the ends. Fit the handrail supports (steel flats) on the outside to prevent stair-users catching their sleeves. Finish off the end of the handrail with a metal cap to conceal the joint between the two components.

Building I Stairs

d

c

b

a

33

Building I Stairs

e

g

Build the staircase after plastering the internal walls. Position the wall-side stair string clear of the wall. Do not fix the stair to the wall; this avoids transferring impact sound from the stair to the wall. The stair string itself prevents scuff marks on the wall. An elastic sealing compound is required between the end of each stone tread and the steel string. f Fix the balustrade to the side of the string not adjacent to the wall. The balustrade uprights consist of 6 x 50 mm steel flats at a centre-to-centre spacing of 90 mm. This divides the 270 mm wide going dimension into three. Finish the uprights top and bottom with steel flats of the same size to form a complete frame. Bolt the uprights to pairs of lugs made from steel flats welded to the string at regular intervals. If the width of the stairwell is not greater then the 120 mm permitted by the building regulations, the stair balustrade and the balustrade around the upper floor slab do not need to continue around the corner at the top of the stairs, but instead can be completely independent items. g A handrail on one side is adequate on stairs up to about 1000 mm wide, as in this example. In this case the handrail is a round timber section supported on pieces of steel flat welded to the balustrade in such a way that it is possible to hold on to the handrail without interruption while ascending and descending the stairs.

34

e

f

Building II Frame construction

Building II, frame construction 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45

Plinth Floor Parapet Rooftop terrace Entrance Entrance Stairs Stairs Stairs Stone facades

35

Building II Plinth

a The plinth is the transition between the “ground” and the “air”. This zone is therefore influenced by these two “elements” to different extents. The moisture load on the facade due to rain and snow can vary depending on the geographical location (DIN 4108 exposure groups I-III), severity of the weather, height of the building and the eaves detail. However, snowdrifts and splashing water are the typical, additional moisture loads to which the plinth is exposed. Below the splash zone there is a zone within the ground that is permanently damp. The moisture load in this zone depends on the type of soil and type of construction. The temperature gradients between the soil and the external air or the facade must be balanced here, and the thermal movements accommodated. An average soil temperature of between +8 and +11°C , with an amplitude of ±4K, must be assumed at a depth of 2.5 m, depending on the location, but from a depth of about 10 m onwards the ground temperature remains constant. The surface temperature of the facade fluctuates depending on orientation and colour; peak values of 40 and 80°C are normal for white and black respectively. In order to achieve uninterrupted thermal insulation, attach a layer of insulating material, which must be moisture-resistant, to the perimeter of unheated, “cold” basements as well. This should extend for a height of about 1.50 m and cover the waterproofing underneath. Bond it to the waterproofing with dabs of adhesive and protect it with a synthetic roofing felt or similar against possible damage during backfilling of the excavation. The continuation of the perimeter insulation above ground level must be protected against mechanical damage in the plinth zone. This is achieved with fibrecement slates or, as shown here, by sheet metal, bent to suit and with welted joints, held in position with the appropriate clips. To avoid corrosion caused by moisture seeping underneath, choose a type of metal that cannot be ruined through corrosion from inside. It is advisable to combine this with a vent (unobstructed opening 200 cm2/m).

36

b

a c

Building II Floor

The transition between the peripheral insulation and the thermal insulation to the ventilated facade takes place at the top of the plinth zone. No special demands are placed on the thermal insulation to the facade; however, insulation for buildings with more than two proper storeys must be verified as incombustible (building materials class A). b Fix the windows – in this example double glazing with aluminium frames incorporating a thermal break – with mechanical fasteners and seal them with a peripheral sealing skirt. From the building performance aspect, it is advisable to position the frames in the same plane as the thermal insulation. Cover the air cavity with sheet metal on all sides of the opening. The junction at the top should be such that ventilation and drainage are possible, but must include an insect screen. c Stone is the ideal floor finish when underfloor heating has been specified – equally good for conducting the heat as for storing it. And exhibiting all the positive properties of a floor finish: robust, easy to clean and maintain, virtually indestructible. However, a number of characteristics must be given due attention, e.g. the construction of “compact” areas of screed (ratio of sides: max. 1:2; surface area 40 m2). Such screeds must include adequate insulation around the edges that render possible expansion and contraction as the heating system heats up and cools down. After the work is complete, seal the edge joints and the expansion joints with an elastic compound. Form expansion joints within the floor area with expansion joint profiles of aluminium, stainless steel or brass. The thin-bed or thick-bed method can be used for laying the stone tiles. In the thick-bed method, spread a layer of stiff but workable cement mortar, 15–25 mm thick, and bed the tiles firmly in this with a rubber hammer. Any unevenness in the final surface may need to be ground level in a separate operation afterwards. Whereas the thick-bed method can readily accommodate unevenness in the screed containing the heating pipes – up to 8 mm is permissible measured on a 1 m grid, or 15 mm on a 10 m grid, in accordance with DIN 18202 –, when

using the thin-bed method with a 3–5 mm layer of tile adhesive, greater demands are placed on the dimensional accuracy of the screed – 3–4 mm measured on a 1 m grid, or 12 mm on a 10 m grid – because all differences in height make themselves known in the finished floor and can lead to protruding tile edges. It is easier to achieve a level surface with selflevelling screeds, e.g. made from anhydrite, than with floated cement screeds, but the self-levelling screed must be compatible with the heating system. Likewise, the thin-bed method is suitable only for tiles whose thickness complies with stringent tolerances: permissible deviation ≤ 0.5 mm. In both methods the joints are grouted afterwards. Fill and strike off the joints, generally 2–5 mm wide, with a rubber blade which is dragged through the grout. Clean the tiles without delay, but without using any aggressive substances. Joints > 10 mm wide require a special operation making use of a plastic grout which has to be forced into the joints with a trowel, struck off flush with a piece of wood and cleaned with a sponge. To provide a safe, level surface, both projections and depressions in the joints are undesirable.

grid pattern

stretcher pattern

To avoid damaging a stone tile finish, it is important to allow the heating system to heat up and cool down slowly, in a controlled fashion. Depending on the material of the screed, the prescribed times may require a not inconsiderable length of time. Record the sequence and the individual steps. It may be advisable to incorporate tell-tales in the screed to indicate the temperature and moisture conditions; the information obtained can be used as a basis for any evidence required in the case of damage. Prior to laying the screed, coordinate the movement joints with the pattern of the tiles. Basically, all movement and construction joints should continue through the floor finish. It is advantageous to combine the expansion joints with the pattern of the tiles in such a way that there is a deliberate interruption of the pattern at that point.

random coursed pattern

diagonal pattern 37

Building II Parapet a a Cappings of approx. 2 mm thick aluminium are self-supporting and are fixed to the parapet with straps every approx. 600 mm. The fall to the inside and the rainwater drip on the outside, positioned min. 30 mm clear of the facade, prevent or at least reduce the amount of rain that mixes with the dust and dirt that collects on the capping, and which can cause unattractive or even aggressive soiling of the facade. Depending on the texture of the facade panels, it is not necessarily just the “large” dust particles (1–1000 μm) that do damage; they usually have a mineral origin and due to their weight fall vertically and accumulate rapidly. Their covering power is weak. The “fine” dust particles (0.01-1 μm), which stem primarily from combustion residues, are especially problematic because they float in the air and possess a strong adhesion and covering power. These, together with other atmospheric particles, lead to damage through the formation of crusts, skins, etc. One unavoidable consequence of the projecting capping, however, is the fact that the “natural” cleansing and patination due to the weather does not take place in the zone immediately beneath the rainwater drip. To avoid this “colour variation”, the rain would have to be drained away behind the facade panels. However, such an approach would result in considerable, other problems. Special care is required when using capping materials whose patination by the weather releases particles that can cause discoloration. The irreparable, intensive blue-green discoloration caused by sheet copper is only too well known and has led to the recommendation to increase the overhang of copper cappings from 30 mm to at least 50 mm. It is therefore wise to use, for example, stainless steel, titaniumzinc or aluminium for the capping – materials which do not discolour significantly as a result of their patination. All sheet metal cappings with a thickness of approx. 0.7 mm require a stable support, e.g. waterproof-glued plywood, with a separating layer between this and the metal.

38

d

c

b

Building II Rooftop terrace

b At the head of the window, fix the frame to the soffit with cramps or angles and seal the connection with an elastic sheeting material. Continue the sheeting up the front side of the lintel to ensure an airtight seal between window frame and structure, and to exclude any moisture that may have penetrated through to the thermal insulation.

e At the sides it is necessary to continue the waterproofing to a flat roof at least 150 mm above the level of the stone paving. At the door, conceal the waterproofing behind a stone step, which is bedded in the chippings clear of the vertical waterproofing material.

c A thermal break is required between the precast or in situ reinforced concrete parapet and the reinforced concrete roof slab. This permits the use of an uninsulated, robust concrete wall as the boundary to the rooftop terrace. d On a non-ventilated flat roof suitable for foot traffic, lay the waterproofing directly on a bonded screed. According to the trade rules for such roofs, the screed must fall (min. 2%) to the outlets/gutters. However, special constructions without a fall are also possible.

e

The customary assembly of a non-ventilated flat roof requires the use of a noncompressible thermal insulating material (type WD), which must be covered with a robust protective mat, e.g. 10 mm thick rubber. Lay the paving of large-format, frostresistant stone flags on the protected waterproofing in a bed of chippings at least 30 mm thick. Brush sand, containing a little cement if required, into the joints. Lay the stone flags with a fall of min. 1.5%, preferably 3%, (to suit the type of stone and its surface finish) to an outlet or gutter positioned in a two-tier step. To avoid excessive cutting of the stone flags around gulley-like outlets, arrange the roof to fall to drainage channels. Doors leading onto the terrace must include a step 150 mm high. However, if there is a drainage channel at this point, this threshold may be reduced to 50 mm. Frost-resistant types of stone suitable for use as paving on such rooftop terraces include the large group of dense igneous or metamorphic rocks. The thickness of the material should be chosen to suit the size of the flags, but should not be less than 30 mm. The surface must have a non-slip finish. Brush quartz sand or an equivalent material into the joints. 39

Building II Entrance

A door without a threshold, i.e. suitable for disabled persons, can be protected against driving rain by incorporating a steep fall to the outside or a drainage channel with a fine-mesh grating plus an outlet or soakaway. In the example shown here the drainage channel is replaced by a lightwell extending over the full width, which must be covered and drained in a similar manner. a Granite, basalt or porphyry are suitable for use as frost-resistant, small-format setts. The customary dimensions lie between 90 x 80 x 70 mm and 110 x 100 x 90 mm (W x H x L). Lay the small-format setts in a bed of sand or chippings (min. 30 mm thick, grain size approx. 2–5 mm) and use a hammer to ensure they are firmly bedded, or compact and level them afterwards carefully with a vibratory plate. The sub-base consists of a roughly 400 mm thick layer of gravel to prevent frost heave. The backfilling, tipped and compacted in layers, consists of a water-permeable and easily compacted gravel with a suitable grain size and grading; it is sometimes replaced by an unbound macadam. The surfaces of external pavings have their own falls specific to the material, which guarantee drainage and hence cleaning; they also reduce growths of moss and algae, and also guarantee a non-slip surface at all times. The small-format setts together with their rough-split surfaces ensure a non-slip surface in all weathers. b The junction between the stone cladding and the ground normally requires a 300 mm high plinth, but at least 150 mm. However, if protected from the weather, a detail without a plinth is possible, provided a suitable type of stone is selected. A strip of gravel underneath prevents permanent saturation through capillary action.

40

c Most types of stone are ideal for use as internal floor finishes, but it is best to seek the advice of a specialist company or consultant in the case of excessive mechanical loads or where chemicals are present. Restrictions apply to heavily brecciated stones, those with numerous clay veins, and primarily those with a low grain cohesion or an excessively soft mineral content. It is recommended to take samples owing to the (permissible) variations in colour, structure and texture that can occur, even within the same rock deposit. The thickness of the tiles depends on the anticipated loads, the strength of the stone, the tile format, the method of laying and the substrate. Customary side lengths for tiles 20 and 30 mm thick are 200–400 mm. Tiles of Solnhofen platy limestone must be at least 10–15 mm thick, tiles for laying in the thin-bed method must be at least 10 mm thick. For details of the laying methods see p. 37. Lay floating screeds as continuous rigid slabs on resilient and compressive layers serving as impact sound insulation. To avoid acoustic bridges, separate walls, door frames, pipes, etc. from the screed with strips of insulating material approx. 6–8 mm thick. Protect the strips of insulation against moisture with suitable separating layers (e.g. polyethylene sheet, min. 0.1 mm) or against heat (e.g. corrugated cardboard). When deciding on the type of screed – wet screeds with a cement binder, self-levelling screeds with an anhydrite or gypsum binder, hot-laid mastic asphalt –, always follow the guidelines regarding screed thickness and bay size as well as the various maturing times. That also applies to the treatment of screed surfaces (e.g. cleaning, grinding, etc.) and the recommendations for achieving a good bond between the stone tiles and the screed (possibly through primers, bond enhancers, etc.). a

b

Building II Entrance

a

c

41

Building II Stairs

a The detailed design of a dog-leg staircase begins with the stairwell at the change of direction. This is the inevitable geometric meeting point between the two flights and the landing; likewise, the handrails of both flights, which should continue preferably horizontally around the stairwell, with distinct cranks and simple mitered joints or bends. Intermediate uprights are unavoidable at wide stairwells, and the holes for their fixings must be drilled with sufficient edge distance.

pads to separate the treads. The bed of mortar to the (usually) precisely formed risers may be reduced to about 20 mm if necessary. The joint between tread and riser should be at least 2 mm, preferably 3 mm. This joint dimension, the thickness of the stone and the rise-to-going ratio establishes our construction without allowing for tolerances. Exact levelling is therefore essential prior to cutting the stone in order to allow for the construction tolerances. c

The design parameters are usually: The ratio of rise S to going A and hence also the pitch (angle of line connecting the nosings of all treads); the tread thickness, the height of the balustrade, which as a safety barrier in public buildings is usually min. 1000 mm, measured vertically above the nosing. Handrails intended as “aids” for using the stairs may be 850 mm high, or for children 650 mm, again measured from the nosing. The overall depth of the upper floor – reinforced concrete slab plus finishes, screed and impact sound insulation – is frequently also specified. The depth of an intermediate reinforced concrete landing slab can often be adjusted, although the thickness of finishes, floating screed and impact sound insulation must be taken into account and the package suitably accommodated by the stairwell detail. By contrast, the variables are: The position of the cranks in the handrails, also the decision as to whether the ascending or descending flights should be aligned; the height of the safety barrier, which may be higher at the landing. b The thickness of stone finishes to the treads – normally 30 mm – and the risers – normally 15 mm – is identical in this example because the edges have been left exposed in the stairwell. When using the (customary) thick-bed method, a mortar bed of about 25–30 mm is required in order to accommodate differences in height and to ensure a path for the loads. This results in a thickness of finishes amounting to about 60 mm. Problems with “slipping” of treads mean that it is advisable to omit the impact sound insulation, even though it is very thin, below the mortar bed of each tread and to avoid the transmission of impact sound (= structureborne sound) to the enclosing walls by using approx. 10 mm thick hard rubber 42

This is the point where the first step of the next flight, laid using the thin- or thick-bed method on a bonded screed, meets the floor finishes of the landing, laid “floating” on impact sound insulation and screed. Depending on the size of the tiles used on the landing, their thickness will be about 20–25 mm and they will be laid using the thin-bed (max. 5 mm) or thick-bed (10– 20 mm) method on the screed, a grade ZE 20 cement screed which must be at least 45 mm thick. A change in height is therefore unavoidable, likewise an “elastic” joint at the edge of the floating floor finish, achieved with a preformed strip or round cord and sealed with a plastic/elastic compound. Select a sealing compound that will not discolour the stone floor finish. Please note that silicone sealants, the most usual choice, are available in only a limited range of colours, and that the sealants chosen must be compatible with the type of stone. c d In this example the balusters are round bars (12–16 mm dia., made from a rustproof material or primed and painted steel). They are inserted into 1 mm clearance holes drilled at least 40 mm from the edge of the structural step to a depth of 30-40 mm. Once in place, fix them with a rapid-hardening cement or silicone adhesive. A circular rosette (approx. 5 x 25 mm) conceals the joint at the base. e At the junction between the “floating” landing finishes and the wall, the skirting forms part of the wall, held in place with tile adhesive. Fill the joint along the top flush to match the plaster. To allow for movement, fill the joint between the floor finishes and the wall with a soft foam strip sealed with a suitable compound.

Building II Stairs

c

e

b

d a

43

Building II Stairs

f The aforementioned details also apply to the exposed ends of the treads in the stairwell. Lay the treads and risers to overhang the structural stair slab by about 40 mm and continue the plaster right up to the stone. This overhang helps to compensate for inaccuracies and also to feature the stair finishes. However, soiling caused by water running down the face while cleaning the stairs cannot be avoided entirely. Stairs should therefore be cleaned with a damp cloth only. Even a larger overhang incorporating a drip cannot prevent water stains completely. g The simplest way of avoiding the transmission of sound from the stairs to the walls enclosing the stair shaft and hence to the neighbouring rooms is to separate the stair flight from the walls by inserting a strip of insulating material (mineral fibre or foam) at least 10 mm thick. Careful workmanship is required here to ensure that the sound insulation provided by this soft joint is not rendered useless by debris caught in the gap. The sound insulation is only guaranteed when the separating joint continues uninterrupted through the subsequent layers of the stair finishes. The separating material should project beyond the treads and risers and be cut off only when the skirting tiles are being fixed. Like detail “e”, the skirting tiles are a permanent part of the wall and the joint with the treads and risers should be sealed with an elastic material. Thanks to developments in cutting technology, it is possible to produce accurate skirting tiles min. 7 mm thick, and hence a skirting that is almost flush with the plaster, which thus eliminates the dust and dirt trap formed by a projecting skirting. However, allowing the skirting to project 1-2 mm in front of the plaster does help to provide an accurate edge for painting and also helps to protect the skirting tiles when the plaster is finished off along the top edge.

44

g

f

Stone facades Types • Development

Stone facades New developments in the cutting and fixing of stone facades over recent decades were major factors that contributed to progress for stone facades and radical changes in their appearances. The solid wall of broken, split/cleft, cut or dressed stones was replaced at an early stage by wall constructions in which natural stone became the dominant architectural feature in the form of dimensionally accurate ashlar masonry. However, in order to save material, improve the thermal insulation or to suit the interior layout, the stone was always firmly connected to a masonry backing. In this faced masonry (DIN 1053 part 1) the functions of the external wall were shared more or less equally by the two “leaves” built up in a masonry bond and connected together with headers. Although the facing was self-supporting, it was no longer a loadbearing component. However, the very nature of this component meant that it was still clearly related to masonry. The majority of small-format masonry units were built in a masonry bond, with the connection between these precisely formed elements in the form of mortar joints with the appropriate strength. Openings were spanned by arches or beams. Regularly spaced headers formed the connection between the facing “leaf” and the “actual” external wall. The vertical wall joint between the leaves was generally filled with mortar. In the next stage of development towards a completely independent component, the facing became further detached from the true external wall. The free-standing, thin wall was now held by wall ties only – a certain distance from the external wall – and suitably secured to resist wind loads. The cavity created by this change now had to be ventilated, and also drained at the base. This change marked a watershed in traditional wall construction. The stone facade was no longer part of the true external wall. Detached from this, it was now merely an “envelope”. It provided protection against the weather and the wind, and was a prime feature in the appearance of the structure. Reducing the thickness of the stone to just a few centimetres enabled the use of large-format panels – no longer selfsupporting – with a system of fixings to “hang” the panels at a distance from the loadbearing external wall. The appear-

ance of stone cladding is determined by the arrangement of the elements in horizontal or vertical bands around the window configurations or as plain surfaces providing protection from the weather. The pattern of the joints in the small-format masonry bond has been replaced by the open joints between the large-format cladding panels and the decorative effect of their flat expanse. The colour, structure and texture of the stone material can realise their full effect and emphasise – in the form of a flat, frequently glistening skin – the noble appearance of the facade. The fixings – either exposed or concealed – allow for a ventilation cavity behind the building envelope which has advantages in terms of construction details, thermal movements and moisture control. The thermal insulation is also improved by attaching the thermal insulation to the cold side of the external wall. Not dissimilar to the way in which wood has changed from solid timber to a “veneer” over a substrate, there are also types of facade in which the stone in a thin, indeed ultra-thin, layer is bonded to, for example, a ceramic or aluminium substrate. The resulting composite elements are at the same time part of the fixing technology. The stone itself consists of an approx. 6–8 mm thick weather-resistant, low-wear and low-maintenance “veneer” and is hence just the protective and decorative covering to an independent, rigid framework. This “lightweight” composite technology opens up hitherto unattainable options for natural stone. It enables the use of stone on high-rise blocks – whether in Chicago or Frankfurt – that benefit from the “glamour” and beauty of this material. In Germany approval by the local building authority is required for every single use of this technique; the systems in use, the dimensions and the type of stone must be carefully verified for every construction project.

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Stone facades Cladding panels

Stone cladding The decision in favour of a facade with stone cladding panels begins with the clarification of the boundary conditions into which the configuration of the new building has to fit – in terms of colour, structure, texture, scale, profile, etc. The special demands specific to this noble material must also be taken into account. The stone itself must be suitable for this type of fixing; the panel format and the thickness must be established depending on the type of stone chosen. The preparation of the details and all junctions is also a necessary but worthwhile task. Only a few of the principles can be explained here; for further information please refer to DIN 18516 part 3 “Cladding for external walls, ventilated at rear – Natural stone; requirements, design” and the information given in publication 1.5 “Facade cladding” published by DNV, the German Stone Association, plus the information provided by the manufacturers of fixings and loadbearing framing systems, e.g. Halfen, Lutz, Keil. Principles The fixings for stone cladding to external walls with a ventilation cavity must be analysed and verified by a structural engineer or other competent person according to the provisions of DIN 18516. Test certificates issued by official materials testing institutes are required, specifying the bending strength, permissible pull-out loads and weather resistance of the material. The panel thicknesses and fastener dimensions plus their method of fixing are established based on the data specific to the materials and the anticipated wind loads, e.g. according to different wind zones, higher values at building corners, etc. Cladding thickness A minimum thickness of 30 mm is prescribed for vertical panels and those with an inclination of up to 60° from the vertical; those at a shallower angle must be at least 40 mm thick. A factor to allow for permanent loads and dynamic stresses must be taken into account for horizontal panels and those inclined at up to 15° from the horizontal.

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Stone facades Cladding panels

Fixing the cladding Attach the panels with at least three, usually four fixings, generally two supporting and two retaining fasteners. Supporting fasteners transfer the weight of the cladding to the structure by way of shear forces, the wind loads as axial forces (vertical steel flat). Retaining fasteners transfer the wind loads to the structure by way of axial forces (horizontal steel flat). The fixing points and types of support must be chosen in such a way that the thermal and moisture movements of the panels can take place without restraint. To calculate the thermal expansion, assume a temperature difference of ±35K and a coefficient of thermal expansion γt = 0.00001 mm/mK, which also takes into account swelling phenomena. The dowels of the supporting and retaining fasteners must extend approx. 25 mm into their approx. 1.5 mm clearance holes drilled in the edges of the panels. Each panel has both a rigid and a movable anchorage. Fix the dowel with grout or adhesive to provide a rigid anchorage. The movable anchorage is achieved with sliding sleeves fixed in the drilled holes with adhesive. The edge clearance between side of drilled hole and surface of panel should never be less than 10 mm. The standard distance from the centre of the dowel to the edge of the panel should be about 2.5 times the thickness of the panel. All fasteners should be made from stainless steel grade 1.4571 or 1.4401. Components such as windows, doors and balcony balustrades, but also scaffolding, may not be fixed to the stone cladding.

Joints The joints must accommodate the fasteners, any movements and the dimensional tolerances of the cladding panels. The normal joint width is therefore about 8 mm, preferably 10 mm. In the case of open, drained joints, protection against driving rain according to DIN 4108 part 3 must be ensured through the details of the construction, e.g. a laminated insulating material. Drainage at the lowest point of the facade must be guaranteed. The sealing compounds used in sealed joints must be – and remain – resilient and in practice accommodate movement of 20–25% (related to the width of the joint), in compliance with the provisions of DIN 18540 part 1. Joints with other components should be at least 10 mm wide. The joints in the structure for expansion or settlement must be taken into account. Ventilation cavity The provision of an air cavity between the facade cladding and the external wall, or rather the thermal insulation, is required primarily for reasons of moisture control; precipitation penetrating from the outside but also condensation water on the rear of the stone cladding must be able to drain away. The cladding and the wall are separated to prevent capillary action. Some studies have also shown a reduction in the transmission heat loss because the air cavity acts as a buffer with a temperature generally 3K higher than that of the exterior air. Ventilation also reduces the strains in the panels caused by the fact that one side is exposed to the weather but the rear is protected. These requirements are usually satisfied by a 20 mm wide air cavity, which may be reduced to as little as 5 mm due to the supporting construction or unevenness. When sizing the air cavity, take into account the permissible dimensional and flatness tolerances of walls and floors, insulation and cladding panels, likewise the potential “swelling” of fibrous insulating materials. The ventilation inlets and outlets – positioned at the lowest and highest points respectively – should have an area of 50 cm2 per 1 m of wall length (DIN 18516). It should be remembered that this refers to the unobstructed area (max. 40% reduction in the case of perforated sheet metal) and a check should be carried out to establish whether a network of open, drained joints can help to achieve the necessary unobstructed ventilation cross-

section. On the other hand, reinforcing the convection in the air cavity unnecessarily is undesirable because it leads to heat losses. Prior to erecting the cladding, all adjoining components, e.g. window and door frames, must be fitted with the necessary sound and thermal insulation, and sealed to prevent ingress of air and rain. Fixings The type and size of the fasteners depends on the format and weight of the cladding panels, their distance from the loadbearing wall and the material of the wall. The most common types of fastener up to now were the steel flat versions, which were positioned vertically in vertical joints, with horizontal dowels, or twisted into the vertical position for horizontal joints. Steel flat fasteners are still available, albeit to a lesser extent. This is because the tubular sections have now firmly established themselves in the marketplace. Their round cross-section allows them to be turned to suit every loading case. Furthermore, tubular sections cannot tilt or twist during erection. They therefore exhibit a more reliable loadbearing behaviour than steel flats, which have to be absolutely vertical to guarantee an optimum loadcarrying capacity. Another advantage is that the geometry of the tube usually results in a smaller hole being necessary (approx. 35mm dia.). To use the wall as the substrate for the fixings, it must exhibit the following minimum properties: concrete/reinforced concrete grade B 15 (C 16/20); masonry units type Mz 12 or HLz 15, density class ≥ 1.2, format max. 12 DF; calcium silicate bricks min. KS 12. All fixing systems must guarantee that the fasteners can accommodate dimensional tolerances in all three directions. The common systems include grouted dowels, bolted/screwed fixings and welded fixings. Besides the dowels used in all systems, however, a combination with undercut anchors or exposed bolts/ screws is also possible.

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Stone facades Fixings

Grouted dowels The grouted dowel is a type of fixing that anchors the cladding directly to the wall. Drill the holes for the fixings at the same time as erecting the cladding. Standard hole diameters for steel flats are 50-60 mm, but only about 35 mm for tubes. It is not necessary to establish the exact position beforehand. This is certainly also the reason why grouted dowels are the most popular type of fastener used in practice. However, in a reinforced concrete wall the fastener must be positioned to avoid the reinforcement. The size of the drilled hole and the depth of penetration must be verified. Align the fastener exactly prior to grouting it into the hole with cement mortar grade MG III. Fill the hole completely with the cement mortar and strike it off flush. The illustrations on the right represent a selection of common supporting and retaining fasteners. The steel flat versions include a small bearing plate to improve the transfer of the forces into the loadbearing substrate. This detail is unnecessary for the tubular versions (shown here are the fasteners supplied by Halfen). The retaining anchors in this selection can be distinguished by their smaller size. The corrugated form (flat or round fasteners) provides good pull-out resistance. The tubes are particularly suitable for combining with bolts or screws left exposed on the front of the stone cladding panels.

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Stone facades Fixings

Bolted/screwed fixings Bolts and screws transfer the loads of the stone cladding panels through a threaded connection to the load-carrying substrate. They are used in the form of anchors in concrete/reinforced concrete, or as T- or hexagon-head screws/bolts fitted into rails cast into the concrete beforehand. This latter arrangement permits maximum flexibility in the direction of the rail, but does require an axis for the fixings to be established at an early stage. The illustrations on the right show examples of supporting and retaining fasteners met with frequently in practice (shown here are the fasteners supplied by Halfen). Frequently, bolts and screws are used in conjunction with a framing system of steel square/rectangular hollow sections. Such constructions permit a greater independence from the loadbearing structure. For example, they enable larger distances between cladding and loadbearing structure, or enable the cladding to be fixed in areas where suitable loadbearing components are lacking. Such systems also permit faster erection of the facade and are less dependent on the weather.

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Stone facades Fixings

Welded fixings This type of fixing transfers the load of the cladding to the loadbearing structure via fasteners welded to plates attached to the structure. Joints welded on site can carry loads immediately. The fasteners are usually supplied longer than necessary and are bent and/or cut to suit on site. This results in good adjustability of the fixing in all three directions. The welding of stainless steel may be carried out only by welders tested to DIN EN 287 part 1. Weld the fasteners either to a cast-in plate of grade V-4A steel or to a plate that has been subsequently bolted to the concrete. Another possibility is to weld the fasteners to a steel framing system (of tees, angles or channels). Fillet welds are usually used. The sizes and types of the welds must take into account the structural requirements. The illustrations in the centre column on this page show examples of plates attached to the structure. The example at the bottom shows a supporting fastener strengthened with a diagonal tie, which enables especially high loads to be carried. The illustrations in the right-hand column show combinations of supporting anchors with steel framing systems, which have been designed to accommodate specific loads.

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Stone facades Fixings, repairs

Undercut anchors In contrast to the dowels, undercut anchors enable concealed fixings in the rear faces of the cladding panels instead of the edges. To do this, drill the hole in the rear of the panel using a special drill which creates a conical widening of the base of the hole. Owing to the minimal permissible dimensional tolerances and the associated demands on workmanship, such holes should not be drilled on site but instead by the manufacturer of the cladding panels. Insert an expansion anchor into the hole, and tighten the bolt/ screw using a torque wrench. This causes the anchor to expand to fit the conical base of the hole and thus create a rigid connection with the cladding panel. Owing to the precision with which the hole must be drilled, only certain types of dense stone are suitable for this method (granite and other plutonic rocks). The bolts/screws, normally with a hexagon head, are usually connected via steel angles, brackets, etc. to the loadbearing construction, or combined directly with a fixing system (grouted dowels, bolted/ screwed fixings, welded fixings). Exposed bolts/screws If fasteners cannot be positioned in the edges of the cladding panels, or the architectural style is such that exposed fixings are desirable, threaded fasteners can be used, screwed into drilled holes from the front of the panels. In this arrangement, the head of the bolt/screw may be countersunk or recessed by up to half the thickness of the panel. M10 is the minimum size for supporting fasteners, M8 for retaining fasteners. The distance from the centre of the hole to the edge of the panel in any direction must be at least 2.5 times the thickness of the panel. Resilient EPDM pads plus stainless steel washers are required underneath the head of the fastener and between the panel and the loadbearing structure. Exposed threaded fasteners represent a dominant architectural feature that requires careful detailing and workmanship.

Repairs Damage to stone facades may be due to various causes and hence take on diverse forms and effects. On the one hand, the damage may be to the panels themselves, whether of a mechanical nature, e.g. erosion, cracks, spalling, breakage, etc., or a physical-chemical and/or weather-related nature, e.g. frost, chemical or biological attack, soiling, discoloration. But on the other hand, the supporting construction and/or fasteners and fixings may become damaged. As an example, we shall consider here only the “simple” replacement of a damaged cladding panel fixed with grouted dowels. To replace the panel, we need to intervene in an interwoven, mutually stabilising system. The procedure can be compared with an operation in which the original condition cannot be reproduced. Firstly, the panel to be replaced has to be removed from the “bond”. To do this, hold it, or its remains, with suction cups (break it into smaller pieces if necessary) and lift it off the dowels. Cut off the dowels on one side and weld over the cuts. A clean opening must be created into which the new panel can be easily inserted from the front. Various methods are used to fix the new panel in place:

wards, grout four corbels, with the front ends likewise bent up at about 15°, into the holes drilled in the wall and align them accurately to match the slits with a frametype template. Once the grout has cured, replace the thermal insulation and slip the new panel onto the corbels, securing it with a suitable adhesive. This technique calls for the utmost precision and can be used only when the joints are sufficiently large (≥ 10 mm) and only with a dense type of stone. Compared with method a), this method is more complicated; however, the advantage of this method is that the thermal insulation can be replaced and the fixings can be checked. c) Fixing a replacement panel with threaded fasteners, i.e. with the heads remaining visible on the front of the panel, must also be carried out with a template to ensure that anchors and fasteners coincide exactly. The head details of the bolts/screws may vary: with or without washer, countersunk flush with the face of the stone, finished with colour, or recessed sufficiently deep to enable a stone disc to be fitted over the head. d) If the fasteners and dowels are still intact, cut slits sloping upwards in the replacement panel and slip this onto the four dowels. This resembles variation b). Extremely precise measurements and workmanship are necessary to accomplish this, plus a suitable type of stone.

a) Drill holes in the edges of the replacement panel at a sufficient distance from those in the existing panels. Grout the dowels of “one-sided” fasteners into these holes. Remove the thermal insulation local to the new holes that will have to be drilled in the loadbearing structure. Fill the adequately large holes with a suitable stiff but workable cement mortar and strike them off flush. Slide in the new panel with its fasteners from the front; adjust and secure its position exactly with the help of wedges. This method calls for good quality workmanship because after the mortar has cured, the procedure cannot be repeated, nor the panel readjusted. The fixing and retention of a panel can only be checked approximately in a pullout test; the thermal insulation that was removed cannot be replaced. b) Drill at least four large holes in the structural wall; remove the thermal insulation carefully beforehand. Cut at least two slits, inclined upwards at about 15°, in the rear face of the replacement panel. After51

Stone facades Soiling, weathering, cleaning, waterproofing, choice of stone, deformations

Soiling Like all materials, stone facades are subjected to the natural, complex influences of the weather. Accumulations of dust and dirt consist of quartz, calcite, gypsum, clays and soot particles that have been blown onto the stone. These particles floating in the atmosphere initially give rise to soiling, but depending on the characteristics of the stone can bring about a change in the surface. This phenomenon is particularly prevalent in limestone and sandstone, i.e. soft rocks. Patination The impaired appearance can lead to the particles adhering permanently to the surface and also to a change in the surface due to, for example, the effects of moisture and a chemical reaction. In addition, the colour of the surface can change due to the effects of sunshine, rain and wind – usually fading, darkening only rarely, and with gradual transitions. We speak of patination, a (usually) positive ageing process which enhances the character of the natural stone material and its threedimensional appearance. Weathering If parts of the material are washed away or if inclusions begin to appear as the binder disintegrates – caused by the effects of acid rain, gases or other chemicals –, the surface undergoes considerable changes. The weathering process depends on the surroundings (climate, orientation), height of building, type of stone, temperature and radiation, air and air movements, moisture, substances and organisms in air and water, and the exposure and angle of the cladding panels. This therefore results in the most diverse weathering phenomena, even within one facade. Deterioration can occur over many years, depending on the material. Weathering phenomena on carbonate rocks include, besides the formation of a gypsum crust, primarily the partial chemical dissolution of the surface of the stone. Such phenomena lead to a gradual roughening of the ground or polished surface, which resembles fading owing to the diffuse reflection of the light. Passive measures such as including overhangs, cornices, profiles and other protective forms, plus careful drainage of run-off water can help to prevent premature damage due to weathering. The treatment of the surface is also crucial: coarse, split or cleft, manually worked 52

surfaces are more vulnerable than ground or polished ones. Hard rocks (granite etc.) are considerably more resistant to weathering and deterioration. Cleaning As a rule, natural cleaning of the surface on the prevailing wind side is adequate. By contrast, soiling is often much more evident on the other sides of a building. Cleaning is therefore necessary from time to time. The aim of cleaning is the careful removal of deposits of dirt and dust which may impair the appearance or even attack the stone. The methods and procedures chosen must ensure that the original substance is preserved, and must not represent any long-term risks to the material. Remove dirt and dust by washing; water with or without additives applied under high pressure or in the form of steam are suitable methods. Sandblasting or reworking (bush-hammering) of the surface may be necessary to remove black gypsum crusts and other weathering-induced soiling. The use of acids or chemical cleaning agents can be hazardous and may only be carried out by appropriately skilled persons after carrying out suitable tests. Impregnation, waterproofing The treatment with substances that reduce the water absorption through the surface (pores, capillaries, moisture transport through capillary action) increases the water run-off and decreases wetting and soiling of the surface. Such treatment presupposes an absorbent type of stone and a vapourpermeable substance that changes neither the colour nor the surface characteristics. In recent years the chemicals industry has developed diverse preparations and methods of application. The principal and most critical goal is to preserve and protect the existing natural stone material. Sprayed, rolled or brushed preparations are available for consolidating, protecting and preserving the stone. Generally, the impregnations do not remain effective indefinitely (ultraviolet radiation) and have to be repeated at intervals. The cost of setting up a scaffold each time to do this work is not insignificant. Advice for choosing a type of stone The selection of the right type of stone in conjunction with a suitable type of surface finish is a vital issue when planning a stone facade. One decisive factor is the

minerals contained in the respective type of stone, e.g. unstable iron compounds, which can lead to unattractive brown streaks (rust). Minerals and elements can themselves discolour, or discolour other constituents or components. Minerals can break down, even disintegrate entirely, may lead to pitting, increase the soiling effects and promote undesirable plant growths. The choice of stone begins in the quarry. Many quarries contain varying deposits and contain both weather-resistant and also vulnerable beds and strata. A statement regarding the weather resistance of a particular sample of stone is certainly possible, but only after a thorough analysis. However, generalisation based on the investigation of a few samples is inapplicable in many cases owing to the scatter in the properties, and can lead to an underestimation but also overestimation of the desirable qualities. Whereas in the case of indigenous types of stone it is often possible to rely on many years of experience of the use of the material, there is frequently no knowledge regarding the long-term behaviour of many of the imported stones on offer these days. Deformations The fact that the front and rear faces of the cladding are subjected to different stresses is unavoidable. One-sided temperature effects or saturation lead to changes on the exposed side and that can easily result in curvature of the relatively thin panels. Reversible deformations do not cause any damage when the movements can be accommodated in the joints. However, in the case of marble, for example, irreversible deformations can occur because the minerals lose their cohesion and their strength; even breakage is possible. Types of damage associated with stone are described on p. 108.

Stone facades Components

Corner 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

butt-jointed mitred open splayed re-entrant acute rounded internal corner – butt

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8

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Column/Reveal 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

without reveal linings with reveal linings projecting reveal linings round with reveal linings, insulated internally diagonal column – mitred offset panels column exposed on four sides

Lintel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

without window head lining with window head lining projecting window head with stone frame with sunshade splayed with sheet metal cladding with cornice

Spandrel panel 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

without reveal splayed projecting window sill with stone frame with sheet metal window sill with stone window sill with deep sheet metal window sill with deep stone window sill

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Stone facades Corner

Corner – butt-jointed The external corner shown here illustrates a typical problem regarding the fixing of stone cladding panels at corners. Due to the space required for the ventilation cavity and the thermal insulation, the stone cladding panels overhang the corner by a considerable amount. Special fixings are often the only solution in such cases in order to maintain the edge distance (approx. 100 mm) for the drilled holes and reduce the unsupported end of the cladding panel to a minimum. The return panel shown here requires two dowels, either fixed to one supporting T-fastener, as shown here, or to two individual fasteners, the outer one of which has to be fixed at an angle and very close to the outer corner. Besides the technical problems, the question of the joint at a corner of the building has to be considered from the aesthetic aspect as well. In the solution shown here, the butt joints of successive panels alternate in a sort of bond.

Corner – mitred One alternative to the butt joint is the mitred corner. Chamfer the sharp arisses at the mitre to prevent unsightly damage. The edges of the panels are frequently given a larger chamfer at 90° to the outside face. This leads to a sort of “re-entrant corner” which can compensate to a certain extent for dimensional inaccuracies during erection of the panels. Another solution would be to use a narrow quoin to form a sort of solid corner. This would require an angled fixing back to the loadbearing structure. In any case, a rigid connection between the corner panels must be avoided because the two sides of the building that meet at this point are subjected to different thermal stresses owing to their different orientation (sunshine or shade).

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Stone facades Column

Column – without reveals When planning fixings in reinforced concrete structures, it is essential to refer to the structural engineer’s drawings showing the reinforcement. At the edges and corners in particular, where the steel reinforcement is concentrated, e.g. in columns, the arrangement of the reinforcement can determine the type and position of the fixings. On larger columns (≥ 400 mm) it will be possible to incorporate two fixings across the width. Tubular fixings are preferable owing to the smaller hole required. In the example shown here, the panel is held top and bottom by a T-shaped supporting fastener. A spacing of 300–400 mm between the dowels is thus possible. Fit an insect screen (screws preferred, but glue often used) on both sides to close off the gap between back of panel and window frame.

Column – with reveals In the detail shown here, the reveal linings are difficult to connect to the loadbearing structure with their own supporting fasteners owing to the narrowness of the column face available at this point. In such cases the reveal linings are usually fixed to the front panel with aluminium or stainless steel angles attached to the stone with undercut anchors. According to DIN 18516 reveal linings up to 300 mm deep can be fixed to the front panel in this way. The gap between the reveal lining and the window frame is 10 mm wide.

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Stone facades Lintel

Lintel – without window head The considerable concentration of reinforcement at the lintel often makes it necessary to shift the position of holes for fixings at this point. When designing the supporting fasteners, make sure that the stone cladding can overhang the lintel by 200–250 mm without any support. Larger distances will require a bracket to support the bottom edge. As with the reveals, an insect screen is required to close off the gap between window frame and cladding panel. This type of detail means that the thickness of the panels is readily visible at the windows and the cladding becomes a planar, two-dimensional envelope. In practice this cladding–window junction is occasionally finished with narrow pieces of stone at the reveals and the head. These are bonded to the main cladding panels with adhesive and secured with dowels. This changes the character of the cladding considerably.

Lintel – with window head In the situation shown here, the stone window head is fixed to the concrete lintel with an L-shaped fastener. If the edge distance is not sufficient, such a fixing must be positioned at an angle. A fixing via the reveal lining is impossible in this case because the lining itself is attached only indirectly, via the cladding at the front. In other situations the window head could be seated on the linings and secured with stainless steel dowels (shear studs) plus adhesive. However, such an arrangement presupposes no joints in the window head.

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Stone facades Spandrel panel

Spandrel panel – narrow window sill If the window is fitted close to the outside face (no reveal), only a narrow stone window sill is necessary, even though the overhang (rainwater drip) beyond the cladding to the spandrel panel is considerable. In such a situation fix the window sill to the cladding with dowels (shear studs) and adhesive, as shown here. Fit the stone window sill afterwards; even if there are joints in the cladding to the spandrel panel, a one-piece window sill the full width of the window is still possible. An alternative, especially useful with deeper window sills, is a fixing with aluminium angles and undercut anchors. However, such a detail calls for the window sill to be fixed at the same time as the spandrel panel cladding, something that is hardly possible when the spandrel panel cladding consists of several pieces. The cladding fixing shown in the drawing is a retaining fastener, which is intended to hold the panel in position (i.e. is subjected to pull-out, in other words tension), in contrast to the supporting fastener at the bottom edge of the panel.

Spandrel panel – splayed Fix the sloping stone window sill to the loadbearing structure at both ends with two “one-sided” supporting fasteners. However, if there is a joint in the window sill, additional fixings to the top of the concrete spandrel panel will be necessary. It is essential to cover the thermal insulation with a damp-proof course (dpc) material because of the open joint(s) in the window sill. In this case it is not possible to fix the window sill to the vertical spandrel panel cladding with aluminium angles and undercut anchors because of the depth of the reveal. At the front the rainwater drip is not deep enough and so the joint between the window sill and the spandrel panel cladding must be sealed.

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Dressed stone Sources in Germany (selection)

Igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Granite – Granodiorite – Diorite 1 Bauzing (Wolfenstein) granodiorite 2 Berbing granite 3 Birkenkopf granite 4 Blauenthal granite 5 Bobenholz (Achertal) granite 6 Demitz-Thumitz granodiorite 7 Eging granite 8 Eitzing granite 9 Epprechtstein granite 10 Flossenbürg granite 11 Fürstenstein diorite 12 Gertelbach granite 13 Herrenholz granodiorite 14 Kaltrum granite 15 Kamenz granodiorite 16 Knaupsholz granite 17 Kösseine granite 18 Kronreuth granodiorite 19 Meissen granite 20 Metten granite 21 Mittweida granite 22 Nammering granite 23 Raumünzach granite 24 Reinersreuth (Waldstein) granite 25 Rinchnach granite 26 Roggenstein granite 27 Thanstein granodiorite 28 Tittling (Bayerwald Rosa) granite 29 Zschorlau granite 30 Zufurt granite

Conglomerate – Sandstone 53 Brannenburger nagelfluh 54 Anröchter green sandstone 55 Baumberger sandstone 56 Bentheimer sandstone 57 Burgpreppacher sandstone 58 Cotta sandstone 59 Dorfprozelten sandstone 60 Eichenbühler sandstone 61 Friedewalder sandstone 62 Grüntenstein sandstone 63 Haardter (Neustadt) sandstone 64 Heilbronner sandstone 65 Heilgersdorf sandstone 66 Ibbenbürener sandstone 67 Ihrler green sandstone 68 Leistädter sandstone 69 Lindlarer greywacke 70 Maulbronner sandstone 71 Obernkirchener sandstone 72 Pfaffenhofener sandstone 73 Palatinate sandstone 74 Pfrondorfer sandstone 75 Pliezhausen sandstone 76 Ruhr sandstone 77 Rüthen sandstone 78 Sander sandstone 79 Schleerrieht sandstone 80 Schönbrunner sandstone 81 Schweinsthaler sandstone 82 Seeberger sandstone 83 Steigerwald sandstone 84 Udelfanger sandstone 85 Velpker sandstone 86 Weser sandstone 87 Worzeldorfer sandstone 88 Wüstenzeller sandstone

Hypabyssal rocks 31 32 33

Beucha rhyolite (granite-porphyry) Snowflake lamprophyre Sora lamprophyre

Extrusive rocks 34 Greifensteiner basalt 35 Oberscheld diabase 36 Hirzenhainer picrite (diabase) 37 Löbejün rhyolite 38 Reimerath trachyte 39 Selters trachyte 40 Weidenhahn trachyte 41 Würdinghauser dacite 42 Hohenfels tephritic lava 43 Londorfer basaltic lava 44 Mayener basaltic lava 45 Mendiger basaltic lava 46 Plaidt basaltic lava Volcanic tuff 47 Ettringer tuff 48 Michelnauer tuff 49 Riedener tuff 50 Rochlitzer rhyolitic tuff 51 Roman tuff 52 Weiberner tuff

58

Clayey shale 89 Fredeburger slate 90 Harzer slate 91 Holzmadener oil shale 92 Lehestener slate 93 Mayener slate 94 Moselle slate Limestone 95 Aachener bluestone 96 Elm calcite 97 Jura limestone 98 Kelheimer Aue calcite 99 Saalburger limestone 100 Salzhemmendorfer dolomite 101 Solnhofener limestone shale 102 Thüster limestone 103 Ziller limestone

Shelly limestone 104 Crailsheimer shelly limestone 105 Eibelstädter shelly limestone 106 Freyburger aphrite 107 Jena shelly limestone 108 Kirchheimer shelly limestone (Kernstein) 109 Kirchheimer shelly limestone (Blaubank) 110 Kirchheimer shelly limestone (Goldbank) 111 Kleinrinderfelder shelly limestone 112 Krensheimer shelly limestone 113 Oberdorla shelly limestone Travertine 114 Cannstatter travertine 115 Ehringsdorfer travertine 116 Gauinger travertine 117 Langensalzaer travertine Tuffaceous limestone 118 Bärenthal tuffaceous limestone 119 Gönninger tuffaceous limestone 120 Huglfinger (Pollinger) tuffaceous limestone Dolomite 121 Goldberg dolomite 122 Harzer (Nüxeier) dolomite 123 Kleinziegenfelder dolomite 124 Wachenzeller dolomite

Metamorphic rocks 125 126 127 128

Theumaer spotted slate Odenwald quartz Odenwald orthogneiss Zöblitz garnet-serpentinite

Dressed stone Sources in Germany (selection)

59

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Granite, granodiorite, diorite

Bauzing (Wolfenstein) granodiorite Bauzing, Hauzenberg, Lower Bavaria Georg Kusser Granitwerk GmbH medium grey fine-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls West wing of Messe Nürnberg Density 2.6 g / cm3 Compressive strength 206 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 7.0 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Berbing granite Berbing, Hauzenberg, Lower Bavaria Georg Zankl KG light grey consistently medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Pedestrian precinct, Hassfurt Density 2.62 g / cm3 Compressive strength 166 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Birkenkopf granite Birkenkopf, Blankenburg, Saxony-Anhalt Harz-Granit Natursteinwerke grey with red-brownish sheen medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.66 g / cm3 Compressive strength 210 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.1 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Blauenthal granite Blauenthal, Aue, Saxony Blauenthal Granitwerk yellow to shades of orange, or shades of pink medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.60 – 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength 175 – 194 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 7.1 – 7.3 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Bobenholz (Achertal) granite Kappelrodeck, Achern, Baden-Württemb. Schütz GmbH Natursteinwerk whitish to pale grey fine-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.60 g / cm3 Compressive strength 196 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Demitz-Thumitz granodiorite Demitz-Thumitz, Bischofswerda, Saxony Basalt-Actien-Gesellschaft bluish light grey to medium grey medium- to coarse-grained, no orientation Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.66 g / cm3 Compressive strength 202 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.1 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

60

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Granite, granodiorite, diorite

Eging granite Einzendobl, Eging, Tittling, Lower Bavaria Peter Neissendorfer Granitwerk Einzendobl white-grey coarse-/variable-grained, porphyritic Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Local goverment offices, Vilshofen Density 2.66g / cm3 Compressive strength 223 – 227 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Eitzing granite Eitzing, Hauzenberg, Lower Bavaria Georg Kusser Granitwerk GmbH light grey consistently medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Munich Airport Density 2.61 g / cm3 Compressive strength 152 – 159 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 7 – 7.5 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Epprechtstein granite Kirchenlamitz, Upper Franconia Bernhard Oppenrieder Steinmetzbetrieb yellow-grey to yellowish medium- to coarse-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls German parliament building, Berlin Density 2.66 g / cm3 Compressive strength 206 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 5.0 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Flossenbürg granite Flossenbürg, Weiden, Upper Franconia Zankl, Baumann Arbeitsgemeinschaft Natursteinwerke blue to yellow medium- to coarse-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls German Patents Office, Munich Density 2.63 – 2.75 g / cm3 Compressive strength 151 – 212 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 5 – 7.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Fürstenstein diorite Fürstenstein, Lower Bavaria Georg Kusser Granitwerk GmbH dark grey medium-grained, even-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Regensburg University Density 2.82 g / cm3 Compressive strength 205 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Gertelbach granite Bühl, Baden-Württemberg VSG Schwarzwald-Granit-Werke GmbH reddish coarse-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Schlosshotel Bühler Höhe, Baden-Baden Density 2.60 – 2.75 g / cm3 Compressive strength 184 – 190 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6 – 7 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion 0.80 mm / m100K

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

61

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Granite, granodiorite, diorite

Herrenholz granodiorite Oberreureuth, Hauzenberg, Lower Bavaria Georg Kusser Granitwerke GmbH medium grey to blue fine-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Neue Messe, Munich Density 2.64 g / cm3 Compressive strength 213 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 8.21 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kaltrum granite Kaltrum, Hauzenberg, Lower Bavaria Georg Kusser Granitwerk GmbH grey consistently fine-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, paving, facades Internal: floors, walls Pedestrian precinct, Passau Density 2.61 – 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength 110 – 153 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.8 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kamenz granodiorite Kamenz, Miltitz, Saxony Boral Granit light grey medium- to coarse-grained, no orientation Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.7 g / cm3 Compressive strength 168 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 7.3 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Knaupsholz granite Knaupsholz, Schierke, Saxony-Anhalt Harz-Granit Natursteinwerke pink to reddish-yellow, grey-yellowish medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength 149 – 161 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.6 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kösseine granite Kösseine, Schurbach, Upper Franconia Ludwig Popp Granitwerk bluish coarse-grained, porphyritic Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Munich Central Station Density 2.69 g / cm3 Compressive strength 221 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 4.7 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kronreuth granodiorite Wotzdorf-Hauzenberg, Lower Bavaria Georg Kusser Granitwerk GmbH medium grey to blue fine-grained, homogeneous Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Rechts der Isar Hospital, Pathology Dept, Munich Density 2.7 g / cm3 Compressive strength 175 – 183 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.6 – 7.3 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

62

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Granite, granodiorite, diorite

Meissen granite Meissen, Saxony Roter Granit Meissen GmbH Steingewinnung reddish to crimson medium- to giant-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Metten granite Innenstetten, Metten, Lower Bavaria Georg Bauer Granitwerk yellowish or light grey fine- to medium-grained, consistent Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Plinth of German parliament building, Berlin Density 2.57 g / cm3 Compressive strength 124 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Mittweida granite Mittweida, Chemnitz, Saxony Natursteinwerk Mittweida GmbH grey-red to medium red fine-grained, very consistent texture Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Bus terminal, Mittweida Density 2.61 g / cm3 Compressive strength 167 – 176 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Nammering granite Nammering, Aicha v. Wald, Lower Bavaria Alois Bauer Granitwerke KG blue-grey and pale yellow to grey-white medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Pedestrian precinct, Hassfurt Density 2.60 g / cm3 Compressive strength 149 – 183 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Raumünzach granite Raumünzach, Forbach, Baden-Württemb. Adam Schütz Granitwerk GmbH & Co. KG reddish or grey coarse-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Goethe/Schiller monument, Weimar Density 2.60 g / cm3 Compressive strength 188 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 5.3 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion 0.75 mm / m100K

Reinersreuth (Waldstein) granite Reinersreuth, Kirchenlamitz, Upper Franconia Reinersreuther Granitwerke yellowish-grey medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Wittenbergplatz, Berlin Density 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength 167 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 5.8 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

63

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Granite, granodiorite, diorite

Rinchnach granite Grub, Rinchnach, Regen, Lower Bavaria Kubitscheck Granit- & Schotterwerke light grey fine- to finest-grained, no orientation Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls ADAC headquarters, Munich Density 2.65 – 2.67 g / cm3 Compressive strength 210 – 251 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Roggenstein granite Roggenstein, Weiden, Upper Palatinate Leonhard Jakob Granitwerk grey to grey-white medium- to coarse-grained, porphyritic Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Roman Germanic Museum, Cologne Density 2.72 g / cm3 Compressive strength 191 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Thanstein granodiorite Thanstein, Schwandorf, Upper Palatinate Alois Herrmann Granitwerk grey consistently coarse-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.66 g / cm3 Compressive strength 202 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Tittling (Bayerwald Rosa) granite Höhenberg, Tittling, Lower Bavaria Hötzendorfer Granitwerk Merckenschlager grey-pink, beige-pink to grey-yellow coarse-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Fire Brigade Training School, Regensburg Density 2. 66 g / cm3 Compressive strength 242 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Zschorlau granite Zschorlau, Aue, Saxony Gunther Süss Granitwerk reddish, grey to shades of pink coarse-grained, partly porphyritic Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.57 g / cm3 Compressive strength 132 – 143 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Zufurt granite Zufurt, Tröstau, Wunsiedel, Upper Franconia Braun Natursteine yellowish medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls FAG headquarters, Erlangen Density 2.64 g / cm3 Compressive strength 279 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

64

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Granite, granodiorite, diorite

Beucha rhyolite (granite-porphyry) Beucha, Leipzig, Saxony Kies- & Natursteinbetriebe Leipzig grey, reddish or greenish porphyritic structure Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Battle of Nations monument, Leipzig Density 2.60 g / cm3 Compressive strength 111 – 224 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Snowflake lamprophyre Ottendorf, Bischofswerda, Saxony Hohwald Granit GmbH black, off-white coarse-grained, light-coloured phenocrysts Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 3.10g / cm3 Compressive strength 250 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Sora lamprophyre Sorau, Bautzen, Saxony Schuhmann Hartsteinwerk GmbH black-green fine- to medium-grained Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Mädlerpassage, Leipzig Density 2.93g / cm3 Compressive strength 283 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 6.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Greifensteiner basalt Greifenstein-Beilstein, Hesse Herhof Basalt-Diabas-Werk GmbH almost black fine-grained, dense Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, paving Internal: floors, walls Kennedy-Platz, Essen Density 2.98 g / cm3 Compressive strength 390 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 5 – 8.5 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

65

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Hypabyssal and extrusive rocks

Oberscheld diabase Oberscheld, Dillenburg, Hesse Herhof Basalt-Diabas-Werk GmbH light to dark greenish fine-grained, dense Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, paving Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.85g / cm3 Compressive strength 189 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 7.22 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Hirzenhain picrite (diabase) Hirzenhain, Dillenburg, Hesse Horst Pitzer Natursteinwerk black-green with lighter patches dense, variegated, cloudy, patchy Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 3.10 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Löbejün rhyolite Löbejün, Halle, Saxony-Anhalt SH Natursteine GmbH & Co. KG shades of orange to reddish porphyritic structure with phenocrysts Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Kaiser Wilhelm monument, Naumburg Density 2.55 g / cm3 Compressive strength 176.6 – 193.3 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Reimerath trachyte Reimerath, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate -greenish to yellowish dense matrix with phenocrysts Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.41 g / cm3 Compressive strength 90 – 95 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Selters trachyte Selters, Limburg, Rhineland-Palatinate Bell GmbH Natursteinwerk light bluish/light grey porphyritic structure with phenocrysts Surface: no high-gloss polish see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Stadtsparkasse bank, Lüdenscheid Density 2.42 g / cm3 Compressive strength 114 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 13.5 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Weidenhahn trachyte Selters, Limburg, Rhineland-Palatinate Bell GmbH Natursteinwerk shades of yellowish-beige porphyritic structure with phenocrysts Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Deutsche Bank, Mönchengladbach Density 2.45 N / mm2 Compressive strength 82 – 93 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 13 – 14 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

66

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Hypabyssal and extrusive rocks

Würdinghauser dacite Kirchhundem, Siegen, North Rhine-Westphalia Egon Behrle GmbH brown, red-brown, also brown-grey small-grained, porphyritic structure Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: solid construction, floors Internal: floors Pilgrims’ Church, Kohlhagen Density 2.6 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Hohenfels tephritic lava Hohenfels, Gerolstein, Rhineland-Palatinate Hans Schlink KG dark grey consistently fine to medium pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Postbank, Essen Density 2.81 g / cm3 Compressive strength 89.6 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Londorfer basaltic lava Rabenau, Giessen, Hesse Zeidler & Wimmel bluish grey/black fine pores, with denser streaks Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, Bildhauerei Internal: floors, walls Restoration of Cologne Cathedral Density 2.2 g / cm3 Compressive strength 135 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Mayener basaltic lava Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Mayko Natursteinwerke GmbH & Co.KG grey-blue, black-violet porous, partly vitreous Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls German National Library, Frankfurt Density 2.3 g / cm3 Compressive strength 85.6 – 112 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 2.1 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Mendinger basaltic lava Mendig, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Adorf Natursteinwerk GmbH & Co. KG dark grey–anthracite dense-grained, fine pores, phenocrysts Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Tram stops, Hannover Density 2.87 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Plaidt basaltic lava Plaidt, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate P. Engels Natursteinwerk dark grey–anthracite porous, with dark phenocrysts Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 3.09 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

67

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Volcanic tuff

Ettringer tuff Ettringen, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Villmar Natursteinwerk GmbH yellowish/grey/brown porous to pitted, with phenocrysts Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Olivandenhof, Cologne Density 1.64 g / cm3 Compressive strength 23.1 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion 2.0 mm / m100K

Michelnauer tuff (scoria agglomerate) Michelnau, Nidda, Hesse SHS Naturstein GmbH purple varying coarse pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Reference project: -Density 1.75–1.95 g/ cm3 Compressive strength 21.4 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Riedener tuff Rieden, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Werner Kalenborn Natursteinwerk shades of light beige fine pores, indistinct bedding Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Reference project: -Density 1.6–2.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 20 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Rochlitzer rhyolitic tuff Rochlitz, Chemnitz, Saxony Vereinigte Porphyrbrüche GmbH Rochlitz reddish, brownish small pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Old City Hall, Leipzig Density 1.8 g / cm3 Compressive strength 34 – 48 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 11.8 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Roman tuff Kruft, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Luxem Natursteine ochre-brown with darker particles rather porous, very lightweight, little strength Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, masonry Internal: walls Sacred Heart of Jesus Church, Leverkusen Density 1.4–1.85 g/cm3 Compressive strength 35 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Weiberner tuff Weibern, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Josef Porz Natursteinwerk beige-yellowish fine-grained, porous, with phenocrysts Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls City Hall, Cologne Density 1.6–1.8 g/cm3 Compressive strength 16.5–19 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

68

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Conglomerate, sandstone

Brannenburger nagelfluh Brannenburg, Rosenheim, Upper Bavaria Anton Huber Nagelfluh-Steinbruch coloured constituents and binders varying porosity Surface: can be polished to a certain extent see p. 96 External: facades Internal: floors, walls (with limitations) Plinth to Church of Our Lady, Munich Density 2.25–2.40 g/cm3 Compressive strength 35.3 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Anröchter green sandstone Anröchte, Lippstadt, North Rhine-Westphalia Albert Killing Natursteinbetrieb GmbH yellowish-green to dark blue-green dense, fine-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Church, Anröchte Density 2.48–2.74 g/cm3 Compressive strength 85–177 N/mm2 Abrasion resist. 13.4–25.8 cm3/50 cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Baumberger sandstone Billerbeck, Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia Bernd Dirks Natursteinbetrieb yellowish grey-beige fine- to medium-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades Internal: floors, walls Münster Cathedral Density 2.18 g/cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Bentheimer sandstone Bad Bentheim, Gronau, Lower Saxony Monser Natursteinwerk GmbH white to greyish-orange, pale red fine- to medium-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Courts building, Osnabrück Density 2.12 g/cm3 Compressive strength 78 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 16.4 cm3//50 cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Burgpreppacher sandstone Ebern, Bamberg, Lower Franconia Hermann Graser Bamberger Naturst. ochre-grey to yellowish-grey fine-grained, cloudy Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Cathedral and Palace, Bamberg Density 2.10–2.60 g/cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Cotta sandstone Cotta, Pirna, Saxony Sächsische Sandsteinwerke GmbH grey-white to yellowish, variations fine-grained, delicate, darker, wavy lines Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Semper Opera House, Dresden Density 2.0 g/cm3 Compressive strength 33.5–37.4 N/mm2 Abrasion resistance 32.7 cm3//50 cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

69

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Sandstone

Dorfprozelten sandstone Dorfprozelten, Miltenberg, Lower Franconia Winterhelt Naturstein pale red to brilliant red with white bands fine-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Town Hall, Aschaffenburg Density 2.27 – 2.34 g / cm3 Compressive strength 66 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 24 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Eichenbühlen sandstone Eichenbühl, Miltenberg, Lower Franconia Franz Zeller Natursteinwerke red fine-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Museum of Prehistory and Ancient History, Frankfurt Density 2.25 g / cm3 Compressive strength 107 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Friedewalder sandstone Bad Hersfeld, Fulda, Hesse Friedewalder Quarzsandstein GmbH very diverse light grey-variegated medium-grained, fine pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades Internal: floors, walls “Wasserschloss” Friedewald Density 2.20 – 2.25 g / cm3 Compressive strength 66 – 101 N / mm2 Abrasion resist. 10.3 – 11.4 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Grüntenstein sandstone Kranzegg, Sonthofen, Swabia Grüntensteinwerk Pelz & Halblaub blue-green-grey very fine-grained Surface: hardly polishable see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Military barracks, Sonthofen Density 2.72 g / cm3 Compressive strength 228 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 10.4 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Haardter (Neustadt) sandstone Neustadt a.d. Weinstr., Rhineland-Palatinate Leonhard Hanbuch & Söhne GmbH yellowish, brown-yellow, reddish fine-grained, bands, wavy Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.21 g / cm3 Compressive strength 75 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 21 – 27 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Heilbronner sandstone Heilbronn, Baden-Württemberg Harald Holz Natursteinwerk pale brownish-grey fine-grained, fine pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Station and Kilian Church, Heilbronn Density 2.18 – 2.34 g / cm3 Compressive strength 97.2 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

70

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Sandstone

Heigelsdorf sandstone Heilgersdorf, Coburg, Upper Franconia Vetter Steinindustrie GmbH pale olive green, buff coarse-grained slightly porous, wavy Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades Internal: walls Local authority complex, Frankfurt Density 2.05 g / cm3 Compressive strength 43 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Ibbenbürener sandstone Ibbenbüren, Osnabrück, North RhineWestphalia Schwabe Natursteinbetriebe light grey, yellowish, brownish fine-grained, delicate bands Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Cathedral and town hall, Osnabrück Density 2.44 g / cm3 Compressive strength 120.7 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Ihrler green sandstone Kelheim, Regensburg, Lower Bavaria Kelheimer Naturstein GmbH Essing light grey to light olive green-grey, khaki fine-grained, light-coloured waves, fossils Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Neue Pinakothek Art Gallery, Munich; Regensburg Cathedral Density 2.35 – 2.62 g / cm3 Compressive strength 45.6 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 32.3 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Leistädter sandstone Leistadt, Bad Dürkheim, Rhineland-Palatinate Leonhard Hanbuch & Söhne GmbH shades of light beige to yellowish fine- to medium-grained, delicate streaks Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Comic Opera House, Berlin Density 2.19 g / cm3 Compressive strength 66 – 75 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 20.9 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Lindlarer greywacke Lindlar, Gummersbach, North Rhine-Westphalia Otto Schiffarth Steinbruch GmbH dark red-grey fine-grained, dense, some fossils Surface: polish – internally only see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Rhine Promenade, Gürzenich, Cologne Density 2.57 g / cm3 Compressive strength 135 – 180 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Maulbronner sandstone Maulbronn, Pforzheim, Baden-Württemb. Lauster Steinbau GmbH red variegated, yellow, variations fine-grained, streaky, cloudy Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Monastery, Maulbronn; Karlsruhe station Density 2.08 g / cm3 Compressive strength 83 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 35.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

71

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Sandstone

Obernkirchener sandstone Obernkirchen, Lower Saxony Obernkirchener Sandsteinbrüche light grey, ivory fine-grained, delicate bands Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls City Hall, Bremen; Bückeburg Palace Density 2.11 – 2.26 g / cm3 Compressive strength 94 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 26.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Pfaffenhofener sandstone Pfaffenhofen, Heilbronn, Baden-Württemberg -yellow-brown with distinct brown pattern fine-grained and fine pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls “Figuren Schloss”, Ludwigsburg Density 2.04 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Palatinate sandstone Eselsführt, Kaiserslautern, RhinelandPalatinate Carl Picard Natursteinwerk GmbH reddish to red or yellowish fine-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Bode Museum, Berlin Density 2.12 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Pfrondorfer sandstone Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg Natursteinwerk Nagel pale yellow to brownish fine-grained, quartz binder Surface: easily polished see p. 96 External: facades, floors, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Riverbank protection along the Neckar, Stuttgart Density 2.28 g / cm3 Compressive strength 135 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 11.7 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Pliezhausen sandstone Pliezhausen, Reutlingen, Baden-Württemberg Rolf Fauser Natursteinbetrieb white to light grey-yellow medium- to coarse-grained, consistent Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Church, Sindelfingen Density 2.16 g / cm3 Compressive strength 47 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Ruhr sandstone Herdecke, Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia Hermann Rauen Natursteinwerk grey to bluish-grey, also rust brown fine- to medium-grained, bedding Surface: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Essen Cathedral Density 2.51 – 2.6 g / cm3 Compressive strength 106 – 163 N / mm2 Abrasion resist. 7.8 – 11.6 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

72

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Sandstone

Rüthen sandstone Rüthen, Warstein, North Rhine-Westphalia Rüthener Sandsteinwerke light yellow-grey to light green-grey fine- to medium-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Town halls in Warstein and Brilon Density 2.08 g / cm3 Compressive strength 59.2 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Sander sandstone Sand, Hassfurt, Lower Franconia Hermann Graser Bamberger Naturstein brown to olive green fine- to medium-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Palace and Ursuline Monastery, Würzburg Density 2.13 g / cm3 Compressive strength 82 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Schleerieht sandstone Schleerieht, Schweinfurt, Lower Franconia Kirchheimer Kalksteinwerke olive green-grey, greenish yellow-grey fine-grained, fine pores, consistent Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Palaces at Würzburg and Werneck Density 2.29 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Schönbrunner sandstone Schönbrunn, Bamberg, Upper Franconia Günther Gleussner Natursteinwerk light colour with reddish sheen fine- to medium-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors Cathedral, Bamberg; German parliament building, Berlin Density 2.3 g / cm3 Compressive strength 39 – 59 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 19.1-20.9 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Schweinsthaler sandstone Queidersbach, Schopp, Rhineland-Palatinate Konrad Müller Natursteinwerk GmbH pale red to light reddish brown-red medium- to coarse-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Trippstadt Palace Density 2.0 – 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength 40 – 60 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 10 – 14 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion 0.2 – 0.8 mm / m100K

Seeberger sandstone Seebergen, Gotha, Erfurt, Thuringia SBS Thüringer Natursteinverarbeitung white to yellow fine- to finest-grained, cloudy Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Wartburg Castle, Erfurt Cathedral Density 2.24 g / cm3 Compressive strength 83 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 9.4 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

73

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Sandstone

Steigerwald sandstone Obersteinbach, Ebrach, Lower Franconia Hermann Graser Bamberger Naturstein white to pale yellowish, reddish fine- to coarse-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Ebrach Palace Density 2.27 g / cm3 Compressive strength 73.5 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Udelfanger sandstone Kersch, Trier, Rhineland-Palatinate Hermann Graser Bamberger Naturstein light olive green-grey, light khaki fine-grained Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Porta Nigra city gate and St Mary’s Church, Trier Density 2.0 – 2.1g / cm3 Compressive strength 60 – 80 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 15 – 25 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Velpker sandstone Velpke, Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony C. Körner Natursteinwerk GmbH light grey-brownish to yellowish fine- to medium-grained, delicate bands Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Town hall and church, Helmstedt Density 2.29 g / cm3 Compressive strength 60 – 118 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Weser sandstone Stadtoldendorf, Holzminden, Lower Saxony Carl Linnenberg Natursteinwerk GmbH dark red-brown or grey fine-grained, fine pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, paving, facades Internal: floors, walls Cathedrals in Braunschweig and Minden Density 2.42 g / cm3 Compressive strength 135 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 12.3 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Worzeldorfer sandstone Worzeldorf, Nürnberg, Middle Franconia grey-red to grey-beige medium-grained, distinct bedding Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, Bildhauerei Internal: floors, walls Nürnberg Castle Density 2.14 g / cm3 Compressive strength 160 – 170 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Wüstenzeller sandstone Wüstenzell, Würzburg, Lower Franconia Hofmann GmbH & Co. KG pale red to red fine-grained, fine pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Mannheim Palace; Pfalz Theatre, Kaiserslautern Density 2.38 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

74

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Clayey shale

Fredeburger slate Fredeburg, Schmallenberg, North RhineWestphalia Magog Schiefergruben GmbH dark blue-grey finest-grained, foliated Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: roofs, floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Karlsruhe University Density 2.77 – 2.85 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Harzer slate Steinberg, Goslar, Lower Saxony -dark grey, fine sparkle finest-grained and dense Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: roofs, facades Internal: -Roofs and facades, Goslar Density 2.78 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Holzmadener oil shale Holzmaden, Kirchheim, Baden-Württemberg Paul Kirschmann GmbH black, dark grey shell remains fine pores, homogeneous Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.04 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Not frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Lehestener slate Wurzbach, Thuringia Vereinigte Thür. Schiefergruben GmbH black finest-grained, dense Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: roofs, floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.71 – 2.78 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Mayener slate Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Weber Natursteine blue-grey to anthracite fine-grained, shelly fracture planes Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: roofs, floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.77 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Moselle slate Katzenberg, Mayen, Rhineland-Palatinate Rathscheck Schiefer KG grey finest-grained, dense Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: roofs, floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Hotel Petersberg, Bad Godesberg Density 2.78 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

75

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Limestone, Dolomite

Aachener bluestone, limestone Hahn, Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia Gier Aachener Blausteinwerk dark grey with brownish sheen finest-grained, many fossils Surface: polished only for internal use see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Cathedral, churches and station, Aachen Density 2.70 g / cm3 Compressive strength 80 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 30 cm3 / 50cm2 Limited frost resistance Thermal expansion see p. 94

Elm calcite Königslutter, Lower Saxony Jürgen Metzner GmbH shades of beige to light brownish-grey fine to coarse pores, with fossils Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: walls Central State Bank, Braunschweig Density 1.9 – 2.1 g / cm3 Compressive strength 90 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Jura limestone Altmühl region, Franconia and Bavaria. Fachabt. Juramarmor, Solnhofer yellow, cream, red-brown, grey-blue dense, partly porous, some fossils Surface: polish – internally only see p. 96 External: facades Internal: floors, walls Glyptothek Museum of Sculpture and National Theatre, Munich Density 2.6 g / cm3 Compressive strength 163 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 13.1 cm3 / 50cm2 Limited frost resistance Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kehlheimer Aue limestone Kelheim, Regensburg, Lower Bavaria Kiefer-Reul-Teich Naturstein GmbH shades of ivory to shades of cream dense, with fossil inclusions Surface: polish – internally only see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Walhalla Temple, Regensburg; Propyläen Gate, Munich Density 2.58 – 2.62 g / cm3 Compressive strength 95.2 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 16.9 cm3 / 50cm2 Limited frost resistance Thermal expansion see p. 94

Saalburger limestone Tegau, Schleiz, Thuringia Saalburger Marmorwerke GmbH & Co. dark red with white calcite veins brecciated texture Surface: polished only for internal use see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Old Stock Exchange, Leipzig Density 2.72 g / cm3 Compressive strength 123 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 18.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Salzhemmendorfer dolomite Hameln, Lower Saxony Stichweh & Söhne GmbH light brownish-grey fine pores, homogeneous Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

76

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Platy calcite, limestone, shelly limestone

Solnhofener platy calcite Altmühl region, Franconia and Bavaria Fachabt. Juramarmor, Solnhofer shades of cream, pale ochre yellow extremely dense Surface: split or cleft, ground, polished External: -Internal: floors, walls Church of the Holy Cross and Palace, Munich Density 2.55 g / cm3 Compressive strength 215 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 14.8 cm3 / 50cm2 Not frost-resistant Thermal expansion 0.6 mm / m100K

Thüster limestone Thüste, Salzhemmendorf, Lower Saxony Stichweh & Söhne GmbH brownish-grey, greenish-grey medium-grained, fine pores, rich in pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Church, Wallensen Density 2.15 g / cm3 Compressive strength 116 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Ziller limestone Berchtesgaden, Upper Bavaria August Wolf Steinmetzbetrieb yellow-white-red brecciated structure Surface treatment: External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density Compressive strength Abrasion resistance Frost-resistant Thermal expansion

Crailsheimer shelly limestone Satteldorf, Crailsheim, Baden-Württemberg Schön & Hippelein GmbH & Co. light grey, blue-grey to brownish dense, fine pores, shell remains Surface: polish – internally only see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Stuttgart Central Station Density 2.17 g / cm3 Compressive strength 30.3 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Eibelstädter shelly limestone Eibelstadt, Würzburg, Lower Franconia C. Winterhelt GmbH & Co. dark brown with gold-brown accumulations spherical and band-like accumulations Surface: polished only for internal use see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Kreissparkasse bank, Rüsselsheim Density 2.52 g / cm3 Compressive strength 66 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 23.7 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Freyburger aphrite Naumburg, Saxony-Anhalt Blank Bau Freyburg GmbH shades of beige fine pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades Internal: walls Naumburg Cathedral Density 2.0 – 2.07 g / cm3 Compressive strength 24 – 25 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

see p. 96

see p. 94 see p. 94 see p. 94 see p. 94

77

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Shelly limestone

Jena shelly limestone Lichtenhain, Jena, Saxony Otto Kramer Muschelkalk-Steinbruch light beige to beige-yellow dense, with shell remains Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.66 g / cm3 Compressive strength 30 – 57 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kirchheimer shelly limestone (Kernstein) Kirchheim, Lower Franconia Kelheimer Naturstein GmbH Essing grey-brown dense, shell remains aligned Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Congress Centre, Weimar; River Isar bridges, Munich Density 2.64 g / cm3 Compressive strength 110 – 180 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kirchheimer shelly limestone (Blaubank) Kirchheim, Lower Franconia Kirchheimer Kalksteinwerke GmbH grey-bluish dense, shell debris, vivid texture Surface treatment: -see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.6 – 2.7 g / cm3 Compressive strength 110 –180 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 21 – 24 cm3 / cm3 Not frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kirchheimer shelly limestone (Goldbank) Kirchheim, Lower Franconia Albert Wirths GmbH & Co. KG yellow to brown dense, shell debris, vivid texture Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.6 – 2.7 g / cm3 Compressive strength 110 – 180 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 21 – 24 cm3 / 50cm2 Not frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kleinrinderfelder shelly limestone Kirchheim, Lower Franconia Dürr Steinwerk grey-brown dense, with shell remains Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.64 g / cm3 Compressive strength 70 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 22.7 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Krensheimer shelly limestone Tauberbischofsheim, Baden-Württemberg Kirchheimer Kalksteinwerke GmbH light grey dense, with shell remains Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Olympic Stadium and Moritz Church, Berlin Density 2.4 g / cm3 Compressive strength 65 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 35.6 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion 0.70mm / m / 100K

78

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Shelly limestone, travertine, tuffaceous limestone

Oberdorla shelly limestone Mühlhausen, Thuringia TRACO Deutsche Travertinwerke GmbH light grey-brown, grey-yellow partly porous, bands Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Spa gardens, Heiligenstadt Density 2.2 – 2.25 g / cm3 Compressive strength 20.6 – 30.5 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 30.8 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Cannstatter travertine Bad Cannstatt, Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg Lauster Steinbau GmbH brilliant yellow, grey-white or red-brown rich in contrasting bands, wavy, porous Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls New State Art Gallery, Stuttgart Density 2.2 – 2.4 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Ehringsdorfer travertine Ehringsdorf, Weimar, Thuringia TRACO Deutsche Travertinwerke GmbH yellowish, ochre yellow to brownish porous, delicate bands, chains of pores Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Gauinger, Riedlingen travertine Gauingen, Riedlingen, Baden-Württemberg Lauster, Zeidler & Wimmel GmbH beige-brown dense, with plant remains Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Zwiefalten Cathedral Density 2.3 – 2.4 g / cm3 Compressive strength 54 – 55 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Langensalzaer travertine Bad Langensalza, Gotha, Thuringia TRACO Deutsche Travertinwerke GmbH yellowish, ochre yellow to brownish porous, delicate bands, chains of pores Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Bahlsen Museum, Hannover Density 2.45 g / cm3 Compressive strength 51.5 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Bärenthal tuffaceous limestone Tuttlingen, Baden-Württemberg Wilhelm Beck Tuffsteinbetrieb almost white, also shades of cream to light brown large pores Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: facades Internal: walls Church, Balingen Density 1.8 – 2.2 g / cm3 Compressive strength 50 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

79

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Tuffaceous limestone, dolomite

Gönninger tuffaceous limestone Gönningen, Reutlingen, Baden-Württemberg -whitish to pale brown extremely porous, no bedding Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: solid construction, sculptures Internal: walls Amandus Church, Bad Urach Density 1.7 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Limited frost resistance Thermal expansion see p. 94

Huglfinger (Pollinger) tuffaceous limestone Polling, Weilheim, Upper Bavaria Frank Lindner Tuffsteinwerk shades of cream, white to ivory very porous and no orientation Surface: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: solid construction, sculptures Internal: walls Botanic Gardens, Munich Density 2.11 g / cm Compressive strength 27 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Goldberg dolomite Etterzhausen, Regensburg, Upper Palatinate Franken-Schotter GmbH & Co. grey-yellow-brown, grey-blue-yellow similar to a tectonic breccia Surface: polish – internally only see p. 96 External: limited suitability Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.72 g / cm3 Compressive strength 200 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 18.9 cm3 / 50cm2 Limited frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Harzer (Nüxeier) dolomite Nüxei, Bad Sachsa, Lower Saxony W. Georges Natursteinwerk light brownish-grey fine-grained, dense, weak bands Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Nordhausen Cathedral, Harz Mountains Density 2.7 g / cm3 Compressive strength 215 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 19.2 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Kleinziegenfelder dolomite Burgkunstadt, Kulmbach, Franconia Horst Diroll Natursteinwerk GmbH beige to grey-brown, dark clouds dense Surface: polishing possible see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Entrance to Technical University and Karlstor Gate, Munich Density 2.47 – 2.53 g / cm3 Compressive strength 115 – 141 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 20.4 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Wachenzeller dolomite Eichstätt, Upper Bavaria Kelheimer Naturstein GmbH Essing greyish-brown to brown dense to porous, evidence of bedding Surface: polishing possible see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors walls Dahlem Museum, Berlin Density 2.65 – 2.85 g / cm3 Compressive strength 137 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 15 – 40 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

80

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

Dressed stone sources in Germany (selection) Metamorphic rocks

Theumaer spotted slate Plauen, Saxony Natursteinwerk Theuma AG dark grey to black strip-like inclusions Surface: no high-gloss polish see p. 96 Internal: floors, walls External: floors, facades Railway station, Alexanderplatz, Berlin Density 2.74 g / cm3 Compressive strength 195 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance 40 – 80 cm3 / 50cm2 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Zöblitz garnet-serpentinite Marienberg, Görlitz, Saxony Erzgebirgische Bergbauagentur dark green to dark red-brown matrix characterised by red garnet Surface treatment: see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Cathedral choir, Freiburg Density 2.65 g / cm3 Compressive strength 135 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Odenwald quartz Lautertal, Bensheim, Hesse Naturstein Donderer yellowish, red fine- to coarse-grained Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: floors, facades, sculptures Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.4 – 2.5 g / cm3 Compressive strength see p. 94 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Odenwald orthogneiss Affhöllerbach, Heppenheim, Hesse Gerhard Röhrig Granitwerk e.K. red some orientation Surface: split or cleft see p. 96 External: paving, masonry Internal: floors Reference project: -Density 2.63 g / cm3 Compressive strength 253 N / mm2 Abrasion resistance see p. 94 Frost-resistant Thermal expansion see p. 94

Explanations: Trade name Quarry, location, federal state Stoneworks Colour Structure Surface treatment, with reference to table of types of stone and remarks concerning any special features Internal and external uses Reference project Technical data, sometimes with reference to table of types of stone

Original samples approx. 190 x 190 mm; fluctuations in colour, texture and structure are unavoidable.

81

Dressed stone Sources in Europe (selection)

Igneous rocks

Sedimentary rocks

Metamorphic rocks

Granite 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Balmoral granite Baltic Brown granite Bianco Cristal granite Bohus granite Claire du Tarn granite Gebhardt’s granite Grigio Sardo granite Kuru Grey granite Lanhelin granite Neuhauser granite Rosa Porrino granite Silvestre granite

Limestone – Travertine 19 Adneter limestone 20 Belgian Red limestone 21 Belgian Granite limestone 22 Botticino limestone 23 Comblanchien limestone 24 Nero Portoro limestone 25 Rojo Alicante limestone 26 Rosso Verona limestone 27 Savonnieres limestone 28 Trani limestone 29 Untersberger marble limestone 30 Travertino Romano travertine

Marble 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

Syenite – Foyaite – Anorthosite – Rhyolite 13 Basaltina volcanic rock 14 Blue Pearl syenite 15 Cincento Grey foyaite 16 Spectrolite anorthosite 17 Trientiner Porphyry rhyolite 18 Volga Blue anorthosite

Sandstone 31 Bateig sandstone 32 Bollinger sandstone 33 Nexö sandstone 34 Rorschacher sandstone 35 Sirkwitz-Rachwitzer sandstone 36 Warthauer sandstone

Mica-quartzite – Gneiss – Mica-schist Serpentinite – Quartzite – Calc-silicate rock 49 Alta mica-quartzite 50 Andeer orthogneiss 51 Calanca paragneiss 52 Castione calc-silicate rock 53 Cresciano paragneiss 54 Iragna paragneiss 55 Maggia paragneiss 56 Onsernone paragneiss 57 Otta mica-schist 58 Tauerngrün serpentinite 59 Verde Spluga quartzite 60 Verde Tinos serpentinite

82

Ajax marble Ariston marble Astir marble Bianco Sivec marble Blanco Macael marble Carrara marble Dionysos marble Estremoz marble Rauchkristall marble Rusita marble Sölk marble Thassos marble

Dressed stone Sources in Europe (selection)

•49

IS

FIN

N

•8 •57

•16 •2

•1

•14

RUS

S EST

•4

LV DK

IRL

•33

LT

GB

BLR NL PL B •27

•20 •21

D

•36 •35

•9

•18

CZ •23

F

•32 •34

CH

•12 •11

•17

•59 •5

P

•24

I

RO

•46

BIH YU

•13

•3

H

HR

•42

E

SK

•6 10 •19 • A •2947 • •45

SLO

•22 •26

•15

•44

•58

•51–56•50

UA

BG

•30

MK

•28 •41

•31 •25

•7

AL

•40

•37 39 •38• •48

TR

GR •43 •60

83

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Granite

Balmoral granite Turku, Vehma-Taivassalo, Finland Palin Granit Oy, 20101 Turku, Finland intensive red with black-brown phenocrysts medium- to coarse-grained Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.62 – 2.71 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 184 – 261 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Baltik Brown granite Lappeenranta, Finland Palin Granit Oy, 20101 Turku, Finland coarse- to large-grained brown with green-black interstices Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.68 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 170 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Bianco Cristal granite Caduleo de los Vidrios, Spain no delivery records fine-grained white with light grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Kerry Center, Shanghai, China Density 2.54 – 2.69 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 142 – 183 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Bohus granite Skarstad, Göteborg, Sweden Lundgrens Granit AB, Bohuslän, Sweden fine- to coarse-grained grey-white to grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Ludwig Museum, Cologne, Germany Density 2.64 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 155 – 158 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Clair du Tarn granite Castres, Toulouse, France no delivery records fine- to coarse-grained (pure) grey to bright red Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Terminal 2, Frankfurt Airport, Germany Density 2.7 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 171 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Gebhardt’s granite Schrems, Lower Austria Poschacher Natursteinwerke, 4222 St Georgen bei Linz, Austria fine-grained light grey to black Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Debis head office, Berlin, Germany Density 2.79 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 210 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

84

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Granite

Grigio Sardo granite Budduso, Sardinia, Italy no delivery records coarse-grained light grey with dark flakes Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Grand Plaza Hotel, Kornhill, Hong Kong Density 2.59 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 158 – 160 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Kuru Grey granite Kuru, Finland Palin Granit Oy, 20101 Turku, Finland fine-grained medium grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.7 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 297 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Lanhelin granite Lanhelin, Brittany, France no delivery records medium-grained dark grey to blue-grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls DG Bank, Mainzer Landstr., Frankfurt am Main, Germany Density 2.67 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 188 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Neuhauser granite Linz, Austria Poschacher Natursteinwerke, 4222 St Georgen bei Linz, Austria fine- to medium-grained white-grey with dark phenocrysts Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Floor finishes in pedestrian precinct, Grieskirchen, Austria Density 2.65 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 142 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Rosa Porrino granite Vigo, Spain no delivery records medium-grained pink with grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Station square, Salzburg, Austria Density 2.58 – 2.65 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 112 – 188 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Silvestre granite Pontevedra, Galicia, Spain no delivery records fine- to medium-grained light beige with grey and black Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Galician Centre for Contemporary Art, Santiago de Compostela, Spain Density 2.75 – 2.84 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 162 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

85

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Other igneous rocks

Basaltina tephrite volcanic rock Bagnoreggio, Viterbo, Italy no delivery records fine-grained medium grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Staircases, Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam, Netherlands Density 2.23 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 82 – 88 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Blue Pearl syenite Porsgrunn-Larvik, Oslo, Norway no delivery records coarse-grained grey-blue to silvery blue Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Mannheimer Insurance offices, Mannheim, Germany Density 2.68 – 2.73 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 143 – 196 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Cincento Grey foyaite Porto, Portugal no delivery records fine-grained uniform medium grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.73 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 195 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Spektrolite anorthosite Ylämaa, Kuopio, Finland no delivery records large-grained dark blue-grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: Density 2.78 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 215 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Trientiner Porphyry rhyolite Trento Province, Italy no delivery records Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Station square, Trento, Italy Density 2.54 – 2.55 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 274 – 280 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Wolga Blue anorthosite Cherniachov, Zhytomyr, Ukraine no delivery records very coarse-grained dark grey-blue Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.75 – 2.84 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 162 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

86

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Limestone

Adneter limestone Salzburg, Austria Marmor-Industrie Kiefer, 5411 Oberalm, Austria fine-grained dark red to rust brown Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: solid construction Internal: floors, walls Liechtenstein Palace Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Limited frost-resistant

Belgian Red limestone Vodecee, Rochefontaine, Belgium no delivery records fine-grained pink-red Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference projects: historical buildings in Belgium Density 2.69 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 90 – 150 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Belgisch Granite limestone Soignes, Hainaut, Belgium no delivery records fine-grained black with white-grey patches Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density: 2.68 kg/dm3 Compressive strength: 129 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Botticino limestone Brescia, Lombardy, Italy no delivery records fine-grained shades of cream to grey-beige Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.68 – 2.71 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 115 – 212 N/mm2 Limited frost-resistant

Comblanchien limestone Comblanchien, Dijon, Burgundy, France no delivery records very fine-grained shades of cream to pink-brownish Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Floor finishes in “Im Wasserturm” Hotel, Cologne, Germany Density 2.66 – 2.67 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 203 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Nero Portoro limestone La Spezia, Palmeria, Italy no delivery records fine-grained black with yellow veins Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Grand Plaza Hotel, Kornhill, Hong Kong Density 2.71 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 156 – 182 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

87

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Limestone, travertine

Rojo Alicante limestone Monovar, Alicante, Spain no delivery records very fine-grained ochre yellow-red to brick red Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.70 – 2.71 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 84 – 94 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

Rosso Verona limestone San Ambrogio di Valpolicella, Trentino, Italy no delivery records fine-grained bright ochre yellow-red Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Banca Populare, Verona, Italy Density 2.69 – 2.72 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 150 – 160 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

Savonnieres limestone Savonnieres-en-Perthois, France no delivery records fine-grained grey-yellow Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 1.6 – 2.1 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 6 – 27 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Trani limestone Trani, Bari, Apulia, Italy no delivery records fine-grained beige to cream-pink Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls San Giovanni Rotondo, Puglia, Italy Density 2.7 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 130 – 145 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Untersberger Marble limestone Fürstenbrunn, Salzburg, Austria Marmor-Industrie Kiefer, 5411 Oberalm, Austria fine-grained light beige with variegated patches Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Ringstrassengalerie (shopping arcade), Vienna, Austria Density 2.7 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 127 – 166 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Travertino Romano travertine Tivoli, Bagni di Tivoli, Italy no delivery records fine-grained light brown with delicate bands Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Getty Center, Los Angeles, USA Density 2.44 – 2.45 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 108 – 110 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

88

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Sandstone

Bateig sandstone Elda, Alicante, Spain Bateig s.a., Novolda, Spain fine-grained yellowish to grey Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Cathedral district, Berlin, Germany Density 2.5 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 18 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Bollinger sandstone Bollingen, Switzerland Gebrüder Müller A.G. Steinbruchbetrieb, 8732 Neuhaus, Switzerland fine- to medium-grained greenish-grey, grey-yellowish to bluish Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Cathedral, Lausanne, Switzerland Density 2.4 – 2.5 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 39 – 98 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Nexö sandstone Kroggard, Neksö, Bornholm, Denmark no delivery records dense, very hard red Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: -Reference project: -Density: see p. 94 Compressive strength: see p. 94 Limited frost resistance

Rorschacher sandstone Staad-Buchen, Switzerland Bärlocher Steinbruch & Steinhauerei AG, 9422 Staad, Switzerland fine-grained grey-bluish/yellowish/greenish Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Cathedral, Constance, Germany Density 2.27 – 2.67 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 113 – 136 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Sirkwitz-Rackwitzer sandstone Rackwitz, Poland no delivery records medium-grained cream-yellow with dark embellishment Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls German parliament building, Berlin, Germany Density 2.62 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 170 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Warthauer sandstone Wartowice, Poland no delivery records fine-grained yellow-brown to grey-white Surface treatment: cannot be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls German parliament building (restoration), Berlin, Germany Density see p. 94 Compressive strength 52 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

89

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Marble

Ajax marble Drama, Macedonia, Greece Lithos Marmor GmbH, Otto-Hahn-Str. 14, 68623 Lampertheim, Germany very fine-grained pure white with light clouds Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.7 – 2.84 kg/dm3 Compr. strength 96 – 129 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

Ariston marble Drama, Greece Pavlidis S.A., 66100 Drama P.O.B. 99, Greece fine-grained pure white Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.8 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 92 – 98 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Astir marble Kavala, Greece no delivery records medium-grained grey-white with light clouds Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Limited frost resistance

Bianco Sivec marble Sivec, Prilep, F.Y.R. of Macedonia F.H.L. Marmor- & Granitvertrieb GmbH, 63128 Dietzenbach, Germany very fine-grained uniform white Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls National Museum, Prague, Czech Republic Density 284 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 151 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Blanco Macael marble Macael, Almeria, Andalusia, Spain no delivery records medium-grained white Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.72 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 80 N/mm2 Limited frost resistance

Carrara marble Carrara, Massa Carrara Province, Italy no delivery records white Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls La Grande Arche, Paris, France Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Limited frost resistance

90

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Marble

Dionysos marble Dioniysos, Attica, Greece no delivery records fine-grained white to light grey with darker streaks Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Acropolis, Athens, Greece Density 2.71 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 111 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

Estremoz marble Estremoz Borba, Portugal no delivery records fine-grained cream to pink Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.7 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 70 – 95 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

Rauchkristall (smoke crystal) marble Treffen, Carinthia, Austria Lauster Steinbau GmbH, 70376 Stuttgart, Germany medium-grained white-grey to bluish Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.68 – 2.71 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 92 – 118 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Rusita marble Rusita, Rusca-Montana, Romania no delivery records fine- to medium-grained white to yellowish-pink Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.70 – 2.75 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 110 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Sölk marble Kleinsölk, Austria Sölker Marmor Ges.m.b.H., 8961 Kleinsölk, Austria fine-grained white with green or pink bedding Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Steigenberger Hotel, Bad Waltersdorf, Germany Density 2.80 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 138 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Thassos marble Thássos Island, Greece no delivery records fine-grained pure white without streaks Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.73 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 139 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

91

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Metamorphic rocks

Alta mica-quartzite Alta, Hammerfest, Norway Skifer & Naturstein, 9501 Alta, Norway fine-grained dark silvery green-grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: -Louvre, Paris, France Density 2.69 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 328 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Andeer orthogneiss Andeer, Grisons, Switzerland A. Conrad A.G., Granitwerk, 7440 Andeer, Switzerland fine-grained green-white to grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Haas House, Vienna, Austria Density 2.68 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 220 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Calanca paragneiss Val Calanca, Grisons, Switzerland no delivery records fine-grained dark grey Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Reference project: -Density 2.66 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 210 – 215 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Castione calc-silicate rock Castione, Ticino, Switzerland Antonini S.A. Graniti e Marmi, 6705 Cresciano, Switzerland medium-grained grey-green, white Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Zürich-Kloten Airport, Switzerland Density 2.8 - 2.9 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 180 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Cresciano paragneiss Cresciano, Ticino, Switzerland no delivery records fine-grained grey-white with fine clouds Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Opera House, Zürich, Switzerland Density 2.65 – 2.66 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 150 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Iragna paragneiss Iragna, Ticino, Switzerland no delivery records fine-grained light grey with darker streaks Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Hypobank International SA, Luxembourg Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Frost-resistant

92

Dressed stone sources in Europe (selection) Metamorphic rocks

Maggia paragneiss Locarno, Ticino, Switzerland no delivery records fine-grained dark grey-white Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Density 2.72 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 224 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Onsernone paragneiss Locarno, Ticino, Switzerland no delivery records fine-grained dark to medium grey with distinctive bands Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls 11-storey block, Kantdreieck, Berlin Density 2.73 – 2.78 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 214 – 234 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Otta mica-schist Otta, Norway Skifer & Naturstein, 9501 Alta, Norway fine-grained blue-black Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls West-Brabant University, Breda, Netherlands Density see p. 94 Compressive strength see p. 94 Frost-resistant

Tauerngrün serpentinite Hinterbichl, Austria Lauster Steinbau GmbH, 70376 Stuttgart, Germany fine-grained dark green with white veins Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Safe, Salzburg, Austria Density 2.72 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 191 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Verde Spluga quartzite Isolato, Splügen Pass, Italy no delivery records fine-grained light green-white with large clouds Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: floors, facades Internal: floors, walls Europol Gaz head office, Warsaw, Poland Density 2.67 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 183 – 193 N/mm2 Frost-resistant

Verde Tinos serpentinite Panormos, Tínos Island, Greece no delivery records fine-grained olive green Surface treatment: can be polished see p. 96 External: -Internal: floors, walls First Residence Hotel, Giza, Egypt Density 2.8 kg/dm3 Compressive strength 111 N/mm2 Not frost-resistant

93

Modulus of elasticity (kN/mm2)

Compressive strength (N/mm2)

Tensile bending strength (N/mm2)

Abrasion resistance (cm3/50 cm2)

Weight for design purposes (kN/m2)

Water absorption (Gew.-%)

Thermal conductivity (W/mK)

Granite

2.6 – 2.8

38 – 76

130 – 270

5 – 18

5–8

28

0.1 – 0.9

1.6 – 3.4

0.8

Syenite

2.6 – 2.8

64

130 – 270

5 – 18

5–8

28

0.1 – 0.9

--

0.8

Diorite

2.8 – 3.0

112 – 125

170 – 300

6 – 22

5–8

30

0.2 – 0.4

--

0.88

Gabbro

2.8 – 3.0

112 – 125

170 – 300

6 – 22

5–8

30

0.2 – 0.4

--

0.88

Rhyolite (porphyry)

2.5 – 2.8

25 – 65

180 – 300

10 – 22

5–8

28

0.2 – 0.7

--

1.25

Trachyte

2.5 – 2.8

20 – 70

180 – 300

15 – 20

5–8

26

0.2 – 0.7

--

1.00

Basalt

2.9 – 3.0

58 – 103

240 – 400

13 – 25

5–8

30

0.1 – 0.3

1.2 – 3.0

0.9

Diabase

2.8 – 2.9

78 – 115

180 – 250

15 – 25

5–8

29

0.1 – 0.4

--

0.75

Lava stone

2.2 – 2.4

--

80 – 150

8 – 12

12 – 15

24

4 – 10

--

--

Volcanic tuff

1.8 – 2.0

--

20 – 30

--

20

6 – 15

0.4 – 1.7

0.4 – 1.0

2.3

--

20 – 160

2 – 15

14 – 80

27

10

--

1.2 – 3.4

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Sandstone

2.0 – 2.7

8 – 18

30 – 150

--

9 – 35

27

0.2 – 10

1.2 – 3.4

1.2

Greywacke

2.6

74 – 77

15 – 30

11 – 25

7–8

27

0.2 – 1.0

--

--

Clayey shale

2.7 – 2.8

1 – 38

--

50 – 80

--

28

0.5 – 0.6

1.2 – 2.1

--

Limestone

2.6 – 2.9

40 – 92

75 – 240

3 – 19

15 – 40

28

0.1 – 3.0

2.0 – 3.4

0.75

Thermal expansion (mm/m100K)

Density (g/cm3)

Types of stone Properties

Igneous rocks

Type of rock

Conglomerate

Sedimentary rocks

Breccia*

Shelly limestone*

2.0 – 2.7

--

60 – 112

3 – 16

18 – 35

28

0.3 – 2.6

--

--

Travertine

2.4 – 2.5

--

20 – 60

2 – 13

--

26

2–5

--

0.68

Tuffaceous limest.

1.7 – 2.2

--

30 – 50

--

--

26

--

--

0.3 – 0.7

Solnh. platy limest.

2.55

--

215

28.6

14.8

--

1.4

--

0.5 – 0.6

2.6 – 2.9

--

75 – 240

3 – 19

15 – 40

28

0.1 – 3.0

--

0.75

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Ortho-/paragneiss

2.6 – 3.0

13 – 36

100 – 200

--

4 – 10

30

0.3 – 0.4

1.6 – 2.1

0.5 – 0.8

Quartzite

2.6 – 2.7

74 – 77

150 – 300

13 – 25

7–8

--

0.2 – 0.5

--

1.25

Dolomite

Metamorphic rocks

Onyx*

Mica-schist*

2.74

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Serpentinite

2.6 – 2.8

40 – 150

140 – 250

--

8 – 18

27

0.3 – 2.0

3.4

0.5 – 1.0

Marble

2.6 – 2.9

50 – 80

75 – 240

3 – 19

15 – 40

28

0.1 – 3.0

2.0 – 2.6

0.3 – 0.6

Migmatite

2.7

--

155

20.4

--

--

0.39

--

--

Phyllite*

2.74

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

Granulite

2.6 – 3.0

--

100 – 200

5 – 23

15 – 40

0.1 – 0.6

--

--

--

Chlorite schist*

* very variable values 94

0.5 – 5

Types of stone Properties

Density (DIN 52102) The weight of the oven-dry rock without taking into account any porosity. Unit of measurement: g / cm3. Modulus of elasticity The modulus of elasticity E is the material parameter used for calculating longitudinal and transverse strain under load. Unit of measurement: kN/mm2. Compressive strength (DIN EN 1926) Generally, the load acting perpendicular to a cross-section through a body of rock. Unit of measurement: N / mm2. Tensile bending strength (DIN 52112 and DIN EN 12372) The cohesion within the agglomerate plays a major role here, resulting in large differences in the load parallel with and perpendicular to the bedding plane. Unit of measurement: N / mm2.

sion of heat energy within a substance. Unit of measurement: W/mK. Frost resistance (DIN 52104) Frost resistance according to the DIN standard is assured when after at least 25 freeze-thaw cycles (cooling to -15°C and thawing out again) a rock exhibits extremely little or no spalling, dusting, etc. However, the experience of the quarry operator should be taken into account if the stone is to be used externally (guarantee). Specific heat capacity This specifies the amount of heat energy a substance can absorb. Unit of measurement: J/kgK. The specific heat capacity (c) of stone lies in the region 800-950 J/kgK.

Abrasion resistance (DIN 52108) This concerns the abrasion of a rock during grinding but also as a result of the action of foot traffic when used as a floor finish. The test involves spreading an abrasive medium on a rotating disc and applying pressure. Unit of measurement for abraded rock material: cm3 / 50 cm2. Weight for design purposes (DIN 1055) The characteristic value for determining dead loads is equal to the mass of the material multiplied by the gravitational acceleration. The values are used for calculating the stability and the dimensions of masonry structures made from natural stone. Unit of measurement: kN / m2. Water absorption (DIN 52103) This is the quantity of water present in cavities, pores and other interstitial spaces within the agglomerate or the crystals. Unit of measurement: % by vol. or % by wt. Thermal expansion (DIN 53752) The volume of a rock changes with the temperature. In types of rock without a clear orientation the expansion takes place evenly in all directions. But in types of rock with a clear orientation there are small but negligible differences between the different degrees of expansion in the three directions. Unit of measurement: mm/m100K. Thermal conductivity (DIN EN ISO 6846-1) The parameter describing the transmis95

Type of rock Granite Syenite Diorite Igneous rocks

Gabbro Rhyolite (porphyry) Trachyte Basalt Diabase Lava stone Volcanic tuff Conglomerate Breccia Sandstone (quartzitic) Sandstone Sedimentary rocks

Greywacke Clayey shale Limestone Shelly limestone Travertine Tuffaceous limestone Solnh. platy limestone Dolomite Onyx Ortho-/paragneiss Quartzite

Metamorphic rocks

Mica-schist Chlorite schist Serpentinite Marble Migmatite Phyllite Crystalline slate Slate Granulite

96

flamed

polished

semi-polished

fine-ground

ground

coarse-ground

fine-sanded

rough-sanded

milled

diamond-sawn

wire-sawn

steel shot-abraded

honed

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Modified according to standard specification 014 for stonework Customary surface treatment for this type of stone; however, this does not rule out the use of other forms of surface treatment.

•

rubbed

sandblasted

fine comb-chiselled

coarse comb-chiselled

tooth-chiselled

batted

scabbled

axed

fine bush-hammered

coarse bush-hammered

fine-pointed

pointed

pitched

split/cleft

Types of stone Surface finishes

Types of stone Surface finishes

Surface finishes These days, only in very special cases is stone direct from the quarry worked in such a way that a flat surface is produced. Even though after quarrying the surfaces of the sawn or cut blocks are worked by machine or with hand-held power tools, a knowledge of the manual surface treatments is useful due to the increasing amount of work on existing buildings, refurbishment projects and the preservation of historic buildings. The customary tools used today generally look much the same as they did in the Middle Ages. As in the past, their development and use are based on the type of material, its hardness and the effects that can be achieved bearing in mind the nature of the material. The choice of surface treatment is therefore just as dependent on the character of the component as it is on the type of stone selected. The right choice of surface treatment can enhance the expression and effect of a stone component.

Pointed Shown here is a special form of pointing in which the hammer and chisel are used to create wide bands, following a pattern that has been drawn on the stone.

Coarse-pointed

Pointed

The surface is broken away using a hammer and a pointed chisel (pyramidal form). The surface finish in this case is deliberately uneven, the angle and depth of cut being varied throughout. However, the whole surface must be worked. Fine pointing differs from this in that the finish is worked with regular blows, with the finished surfaces free from regular tracks and deeper cuts.

In this form of pointing the chisel is held almost perpendicular to the surface. (Normally, the chisel is held at an angle of about 45°.) The degree of surface finish can be varied from coarse to fine by altering the spacing between the tooling.

Pointed (bands in herringbone pattern)

Tooth-chiselled The chisel for this work has a flat end 2050 mm wide and usually between three and five “teeth”. A wide range of surface finishes is possible by varying the chiselling action (straight, curved, criss-cross).

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Types of stone Surface finishes

Comb-chiselled

Comb-chiselled (random)

Comb-chiselled (herringbone pattern)

A whole spectrum of surface finishes is possible by using chisels of different widths (80–150 mm), varying the spacing of the chiselling, changing the direction, using heavier or lighter blows, etc. Further variations can be achieved by altering the angle of the chisel, and also by reworking the “furrows”.

This surface finish is created by varying the direction and maybe also the depth of the chiselling action.

This surface finish was created with a 30 mm wide chisel.

Bush-hammered

Fine bush-hammered

Bush-hammered and ground

A bush-hammer creates a coarse-grained, flat surface. The spacing of the pyramidshaped teeth of the approx. 50 x 50 mm hammerhead varies from 4 to 15 mm. The hammerhead is interchangeable; it has 4 x 4 teeth for coarse finishes and 7 x 7 teeth for finer finishes.

For this finish, the spacing of the teeth on the (interchangeable) hammerhead should be 4–5 mm (corresponding to 12 x 12 teeth). This produces a flat, regular, plain surface.

When a follow-up surface treatment is employed, the result is usually one of dampening and refining the effect of the initial treatment.

98

Types of stone Surface finishes

Pointed and ground

Pointed, tooth-chiselled and ground

Pointed, bush-hammered, axed and ground

This is a combination of two types of surface treatment with very different characteristics. The effect of the follow-up treatment is to attenuate the intensity of the initial treatment.

Working the pointed surface with a toothed chisel tends to flatten the surface, which is then further enhanced by grinding.

Coarse-pointed and furrowed

Bush-hammered, brushed and semi-ground

Bush-hammered, brushed and waxed

Working the coarse-pointed surface with a special hammer (interchangeable head with five parallel ridges) creates a very vivid texture because the rather more regular linear furrows is superimposed on the coarse substrate.

The originally coarse surface of the stone is refined and flattened in three mechanical operations.

The colour of the surface worked in two operations is intensified by the wax treatment and simultaneously protected for jointing.

In this case four very different surface treatments are combined to create an attenuating or mutually enhancing effect. The result is a very diverse structure.

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Types of stone Surface finishes

Diamond-sawn

Ground

Polished

Diamond-tipped sawblades create accurate and relatively fine cut surfaces due to the horizontal, pushing and pulling movement when fitted in a frame, or in the form of circular or gang saws. The sawblades leave recognisable tracks on the surface. In some quarries a traditional method of cutting is still used: diamond-beaded steel wires – formerly steel wires in an abrasive slurry – to produce very vivid, albeit inaccurate, sawn surfaces.

Coarse and visible to microscopically fine circular marks are produced on the surface depending on the grit of the abrasive, made from very hard silicon carbide or diamond. As with all forms of stone surface treatment, the succession of treatments proceeds from coarse to fine: coarse grinding (C60), semi-fine (C120), fine (C220); wet method, dry method for small areas only. Sanded surfaces, produced by rubbing the surface with steel shot, can be classed as a special form of ground surface.

Polishing is the final refining process carried out on a surface that has been ground beforehand. The aim of polishing is to create an absolutely smooth and dense surface, which can even result in a glossy or reflective finish depending on the type of stone. Small holes or larger pores are filled with an epoxy resin or mineral substance.

Laser-treated

Ground

Polished

The laser treatment creates ultra-fine depressions in the polished or very finely ground surface. The brilliance of the colouring of the stone remains almost unaffected by this treatment. (Shown here is a sample of larvikite.)

The rule for ground surfaces is: the higher the grit number (C30 to C800), the finer the surface finish. Grinding marks are no longer visible with grits of C 220 and above. Finely ground surfaces bring out the full colour and texture of the stone.

Hard types of stone are polished with ceramic- or diamond-tipped discs. However, this presumes a dense type of stone suitable for this type of finish. A semi-gloss or satin gloss finish is also possible.

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Types of stone Surface finishes

Fine-pitched

Bush-hammered

Fine bush-hammered

The rough, “as quarried” surface is worked with a 30 mm wide flat chisel. The surface can be given a very vivid appearance by varying the direction and depth of the blows.

The machine-applied bush-hammering (head with 2 x 2 teeth) to the granite in this example illustrates quite clearly the differences between the same surface finish on different types of stone.

The sawn granite surface in this example was worked with a pneumatic hammer (head with 5 x 5 teeth).

Furrowed

Sandblasted

Flamed

This method is similar to bush-hammering. However, the special hammer employed has a striking surface with parallel ridges which – positioned parallel with the handle – leave behind more or less distinct marks depending on the material. A finer or coarser surface finish can be achieved by varying the number of furrows and their spacing. The sample shown here was furrowed with a head having fine “cutting edges”.

Steel shot or aluminium oxide abrasive is sprayed onto the rough-sawn surface to produce a coarse but even finish. Saw marks or other deep surface features remain visible after this treatment. The result is a “soft”, matt and regular surface finish.

An extremely hot flame from an oxyacetylene torch briefly heats the surface of the stone to cause small particles of stone to expand and break away. This regular “spalling” creates a surface resembling a split or cleft surface in which the crystalline structure is distinct. This technique presumes a type of rock containing quartz, and a minimum thickness for the piece being worked.

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Screeds

Screeds Screeds are planar building components that are laid directly on a loadbearing substrate or on a separating or insulating layer. They can be constructed in the form of in situ screeds (those containing binders, asphalt), or as “dry” screeds (flooring-grade plasterboard/chipboard). Bonded screeds are laid directly on a loadbearing substrate that has been hacked or scabbled beforehand to provide a good key. Unbonded screeds are laid on a (usually) thin separating layer (e.g. damp-proof membrane) for reasons of the type of construction or building performance requirements. Floating screeds are rigid layers with an adequate compressive strength that are laid on resilient thermal or sound insulating materials, and must be free to move. A separating layer between insulation and screed is essential; building components that pass through the insulation and screed must be separated from these with pieces of insulating material. The thickness of the screed depends on the type of screed, and must increase as the thickness of insulation increases. Owing to their high liquid consistency, self-levelling screeds (binders: anhydrite, gypsum, cement) can be pumped. Rapidhardening screeds are special cement screeds with particularly fast curing times. For such screeds, always follow the instructions of the manufacturers. Heated screeds containing underfloor heating systems (water-filled pipes or electric heating elements) are usually laid

on a layer of insulation. The floor finishes can only be laid after a controlled heating-up and cooling-down process has been completed. Granolithic screeds are cement screeds containing emery or carborundum powder to create a hard-wearing surface. Terrazzo is a smooth, hard, non-dusting cement screed laid in two layers, the upper layer of which contains stone chippings. Once it has cured sufficiently, it is usually ground twice in a wet process until the largest pieces of aggregate are visible. Screeds beneath stone floor finishes Cement screeds (ZE): Portland cement as binder, graded sand/gravel aggregate (grain size usually 0–8 mm), additives/ admixtures, mixing water, mesh reinforcement if required. The following cement screeds are used (listed in order of increasing compressive strength): ZE 12 as a bonded screed (d = 10–50 mm). ZE 20 as an unbonded screed (d = min. 35 mm), or as a floating screed for stone or ceramic floor finishes (d = min. 45 mm), or as a heated screed (d = min. 45 mm plus heating components). Joints for internal screeds every 4-7 m, bay size max. 40 m2. The screed is mature enough for laying the floor finishes when it contains no detrimental residual moisture and is free from cracks and distortion. Under normal conditions this maturity is reached after 28 days.

The following anhydrous screeds are used (listed in order of increasing compressive strength): AE 12 only to level an uneven surface. AE 20 as a bonded screed (d = max. 15 m), or as an unbonded screed (d = min. 30 mm), or as a floating screed for stone or ceramic floor finishes (d = min. 45 mm). AE 30 and AE 40 as wearing courses. Such screeds are mature enough for laying the floor finishes after about 28 days. Anhydrous screeds are sensitive to moisture; it is therefore necessary to treat the surface of the screed with a water-retardant substance and to verify that the residual moisture content is low. Mastic asphalt (GE) is a mixture of straightrun bitumen, sand or chippings and mineral fillers, laid “dry” at a temperature of 200–250°C. A GE 10 grade is necessary when laying like a bonded screed (one layer, d = 20– 40 mm) or as a floating screed (d = min. 20 mm) in normal, heated interiors. Mastic asphalt can accept traffic as soon as it has cooled down. To avoid discoloration, mastic asphalt should be separated from wet mortar, and laying finishes in suitable solvent-free adhesives is also possible. Always adhere to the flatness tolerances of DIN 18202 for the top surfaces of floors, concrete substrates and subfloor constructions. These tolerances always become relevant in disputes about the substrate or the finishes themselves.

Anhydrous screeds (AE) containing natural or synthetic anhydrite as the binder, graded sand/gravel aggregate (grain size 0–8 mm).

DIN 18202 flatness tolerances Table 3

Max. permissible rise [mm] measured at max. intervals [m] of 0.1 1 4 10 15

Top surfaces of floors, concrete substrates and subfloor constructions not finished for use

10

15

20

25

30

Top surfaces of floors, concrete substrates and subfloor constructions not finished for use, but to meet higher specifications, e.g. for laying floating screeds, industrial floors, tiles and flags, bonded screeds

5

8

12

15

20

Floors finished for use, e.g. screeds as wearing courses, screeds as bases for floor finishes, also floor finishes, tiled finishes, jointless or bonded floor finishes

2

4

10

12

15

Floors finished for use, as above but to meet higher specifications

1

3

9

12

15

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Mortar

Mortar Mortar is a mixture of binder, aggregate and water. If necessary, additives and/or admixtures can be included to influence certain properties of the mortar. The binder used is exclusively cement to DIN 1164, for thick-bed work in the form of trass cement (Portland pozzolanic cement) type CEM II/B-P, for thin-bed work in the form of rapid-hardening cement. The aggregate is sand (grain size 0–4 mm) to DIN 4226 and free from any constituents that might impair the setting. Such detrimental constituents are, for example, high levels of argillaceous substances, lumps of iron oxide, or organic contamination. The most important admixture is trass flour. This makes the microstructure of the mortar more dense and reduces the likelihood of efflorescence and leaching. Other notable admixtures include, for example, pigments to colour the mortar. Additives are used to modify certain properties of the mortar and are introduced only in very small amounts. These include air entrainers to improve the workability of the wet mortar, synthetic dispersions to improve the elasticity of the mortar when used over heated screeds, and additives to increase the water-retention capacity of the wet mortar. As suitability tests are always necessary when using chemical additives, they are generally used only in premixed mortars. Use clean tap water for mixing the mortar.

Stone finishes to floors, stairs and walls are laid using the thick- or thin-bed method. Thick-bed method Laying stone in a thick bed requires a sand aggregate with a grain size of 0–4 mm. According to DIN 18332, at least one bed of mortar 15–25 mm thick is necessary. When laying stone finishes over insulating and separating layers, a screed to DIN 18560 is essential to spread the loads. If in exceptional cases the screed is omitted for small areas, the mortar bed has to take over this load-spreading function and must therefore be at least 45 mm thick. Owing to the increased amount of moisture in such thick beds, avoid this method of laying when using types of stone that are vulnerable to discoloration. To compensate for differences in level or to create a fall, it may be necessary to employ a further layer of mortar. The quality of this must match that of the mortar for bedding the floor finishes, and if the thickness of the mortar is sufficient, use a screed aggregate (sand, max. grain size 8 mm).

cured sufficiently. With the thick-bed method this will be at least two weeks, but with a thin bed shorter curing times are adequate because of the smaller amount of mortar and water that has to dry out. Non-elastic, usually cement-based materials are worked into these “rigid joints”. The grout worked into the joints is made from trass cement and washed sand (fine sand, grain size 0–2 mm), or a suitable premixed product, provided the surface of the stone can accept such treatment. Note that there is an increased risk of scratching the surface of the stone when using quartz sand. Adjust the maximum grain size of the grout to suit the width of the joints. A water-repellent premixed mortar is recommended for wet rooms.

Thin-bed method Thin-bed mortar (DIN 18165) is always applied in layers 3–5 mm thick. We distinguish between three groups: Hydraulic-setting thin-bed mortar, containing a hydraulic binder and mineral aggregates. This is a premixed mortar mixed with water and, if necessary, synthetic emulsions. This results in a rapiddrying, rapid-curing and elastic, thin-bed, water-based mortar suitable for a diverse range of stone finish applications. Dispersion adhesives, comprising organic binders, dispersion powder (synthetic materials) and mineral fillers. Owing to the risk of discoloration caused by the softeners and preservatives in these adhesives, they are generally unsuitable for stone finishes. Reaction resin adhesives, which normally consist of two components (resin plus hardener) that have to be mixed together before curing can take place. Epoxy resin or polyurethane adhesives are the most common varieties. Between these two defined terms, thickbed and thin-bed, in practice the term “laid in medium bed” is often encountered, which means a thickness of 5–15 mm. After laying, the joints in the finishes should remain open until the bedding mortar has 103

Joints, joint sealants

Joints

Joint sealants

We must distinguish between rigid joints and movement joints when laying stone finishes. The rigid or “normal joints” between the individual tiles or flags accommodate the dimensional tolerances of the products. Such joints are usually 5-10 mm wide, and are mostly filled with a cement-based grout.

Joint sealants (ISO 6927, EN 26927) are compounds injected into joint voids to seal these “soft” joints against ingress of moisture and/or air/wind by adhering to the sides of the joints. Such joints are usually 3–5 mm wide. Wider joints, as are necessary for structural movement joints, can be sealed only with special profiles. DIN 18540 specifies the depth of the joint to be filled with sealant (e.g. 8 ± 2 mm deep for a joint 10 mm wide). The practical extensibility (max. 25%) must be taken into account when sizing the width of the joint.

Movement joints are further divided into those that separate complete sections of a building, allowing movement or settlement of the entire structure, and those movement joints that accommodate merely the strains and movement of individual components and materials, e.g. the individual bays of the screed and the associated perimeter joints. Structural movement joints must continue uninterrupted through the finishes – same position and same width. The width of such joints means it is usually necessary to seal them with special profiles. Screed joints divide the screed into bays not exceeding about 40 m2 in order to prevent stresses and cracks. The ratio of the sides of the bay should not exceed 2:1. A strip of insulation at least 5 mm thick interrupts finishes, mortar bed and screed, and continues through to the layer of insulation. Seal the top side of such a joint with an elastic compound. When planning the floor finishes, it is therefore essential to draw up a plan of the joints and match this to the pattern of stone tiles or flags chosen. Perimeter joints, 2–5 mm wide, separate a floating screed plus mortar bed and finishes from the walls and other components rising above floor level. Use a continuous strip of insulating material to form such a joint. At the walls, provide an approx. 5 mm elastic joint between the floor finishes and the stone skirting or the plaster. Dummy joints play a special role. Cut these in the wet screed (1/3 to 1/2 depth) to accommodate the contraction (i.e. shrinkage) of the material as it dries out. Once the screed is mature enough to lay the floor finishes, seal the joints with reaction resin, and dust with quartz sand to improve the bond. Such joints can be ignored in the floor finishes.

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Thanks to their inherent resilience, elastic sealing compounds can return to their original form and original size upon removing the deforming forces due to expansion, compression or shear movements. Although plastic sealing compounds can dissipate very quickly the stresses set up in the sealing compound due to movement at the joint, any deformation that takes place remains permanent. Sealing compounds can be supplied ready to use as one-part products, or as two-part products that need to be mixed first. Sealing compounds made from silicone rubber are the most popular type for stonework, followed by acrylic materials and polysulphide rubber compounds. The majority of the one-part silicone rubber sealing compounds in use consist of long chains of linear polydimethyl siloxanes, cross-linking agents and fillers plus a number of formulation-dependent auxiliary substances (e.g. pigment, solvent, bond enhancer, pesticide, softener, thickener, etc.). The moisture in the atmosphere causes these to set. The different types of cross-linking agents – acidic, basic, neutral – must be selected according to the type of stone being used in order to avoid irreparable damage caused by chemical reactions, migration of softener, etc. Clean the joints and remove all traces of oil or grease. It may be necessary to apply primer to smooth joint sides to improve the bond. Silicone sealants may contain pesticides; they cannot be painted.

Non-slip finishes

Non-slip finishes The provision of non-slip surfaces both inside and outside the building contributes greatly to the prevention of accidents. This is particularly relevant for all areas to which the public has access, circulation zones and commercial/industrial operations. For private premises, on the other hand, there are no definitive requirements regarding the need for non-slip floor surfaces. External In Germany the data sheet regarding the non-slip properties of paving materials for foot traffic (FGSV 407) published by the Roads and Highways Research Institute (Vehicles and Carriageways Working Group) specifies requirements for external footpaths. Places that are open to driving rain or drifting snow, e.g. covered entrances, also fall into this category. The method of measurement in this case is a calibrated pendulum that measures the micro surface roughness and a discharge meter for the macro surface roughness. Both values are converted to an SRT value. The minimum value always required is SRT 35. However, Deutsche Bahn AG, for instance, specifies a minimum value of SRT 45. Internal In Germany the data sheet for floors in work rooms and working areas with a risk of slippery floors defines utilisation areas in interiors, which must attain certain R-values (R 9 to R 13), according to the rules of the employers’ liability insurance associations (BGR 181, formerly ZH1/ 571). The R-values reflect the non-slip properties determined in an exclusively steady-state environment in a laboratory using samples of floor finishes. The assessment of the non-slip properties is carried out with the help of an adjustable, inclined plane to DIN 51130 for working areas and DIN 51097 for wet areas with barefoot traffic. Here, R 9 is the lowest, R 13 the highest degree of non-slip surface for flat interior surfaces.

Examples of the non-slip assessment groups

Overview and classification of grit numbers

R-group R9

C 30

R 10

R 11

R 12

R 13

Type of use (BGR 181) entrances stairs retail premises customer zones box office zones, banking halls corridors, common areas toilets changing and wash rooms tea kitchens laboratories industrial kitchens ≤ 100 servings/day meat processing areas industrial kitchens > 100 servings/day delicatessen production areas abattoirs

Achieving a non-slip surface In order to achieve the non-slip category R 9 on an internal stone floor, the surface must exhibit a certain roughness. This can be achieved by means of grinding, chemical treatment, laser treatment, or traditional methods such as sanding, sandblasting, fine bush-hammering and flame treatments. Owing to their rougher surface finish, these latter methods tend to leave dust and dirt traps, which then leads to the need for more frequent cleaning. Polished or finely ground stone surfaces cannot fulfil the non-slip requirements. The R 9 minimum requirement calls for grinding with a C 120 grit. However, some types of stone achieve the minimum requirement with an even finer grit. If standard R 10 or higher is required, a C 60 or even coarser grit is necessary. C stands for Carborundum, a company once involved in the development of abrasives. The higher the grit number, the smoother the surface finish and hence the lower is the non-slip effect.

C 60

C 90

C 120

C 180

C 220 C 320 C 400

C 600 C 800

very coarse: distinct grinding marks, saw marks still visible, colour and structure of stone almost invisible coarse: distinct grinding marks, colour and structure hardly visible medium: a few grinding marks, coarse structures visible, some pale colouring medium: no grinding marks visible, pale colours, structure visible hardly any difference between this and C 120, but the surface feels smoother finer: colours and structures readily visible matt satin surface finish matt satin, some constituents already shiny, colour readily visible almost polished depending on the type of stone, this degree of fine grinding can be called polishing

Chemical treatment A subsequent chemical treatment can be used to achieve an R 9 surface on polished stone floors. Such treatments employ acids to etch and dull the surface. The permanence of the etching is highly questionable because foot traffic tends to re-polish the surface over time; furthermore, cleaning is made more difficult. The method should always be tested beforehand; special care is essential with limestone and marble. Laser treatment The laser treatment creates ultra-fine depressions in the polished or finely ground surface of the stone in order to improve the non-slip properties. However, the brilliance of the colouring of the polished stone remains virtually undiminished.

Assessment groups to BGR 181 3° to 10° R9 10° to 19° R 10 19° to 27° R 11 27° to 35° R 12 >35° R 13

105

Cleaning and care

Floor and wall surfaces Depending on their origin and material composition, types of stone differ not only in terms of their external appearance, form and technical properties, but also with the respect to the way they react to environmental influences and different types of usage. This fact is particularly important for the upkeep, cleaning and care of the stone. A stone’s vulnerability to soiling is essentially determined by its porosity and the surface qualities imparted by the type of surface treatment. Cleaning of internal stone floor and wall surfaces Stone is a relatively easy-care material and, wherever possible, should be cleaned simply with clean water. The finer surface treatments (e.g. sanding, grinding) do not have any influence on cleaning. However, on heavily structured surfaces (e.g. bush-hammered, sandblasted, flame-treated) the cleaning options are severely restricted. During construction, stone already installed must be protected with plastic sheeting or other suitable means. Measures to intercept dust and dirt at the entrances to buildings should be incorporated at the planning stage in order to minimise the soiling of and damage to interior stone surfaces. Data sheet 3.2 published by the DNV (German Stone Association) distinguishes between the following types of cleaning and care of stone: • clean-up on completion of building works • primary cleaning • initial care • regular cleaning Clean-up on completion of building works This cleaning is carried out by the stonework contractor after the laying and jointing of the stone has been completed. This includes removing all mortar residue and drilling dust, but also protective sheeting and covers. Cleaning involves wiping with a damp cloth (tap water); if necessary, a neutral cleaning agent may be added, but its suitability must be verified beforehand by the manufacturer. DNV data sheet 3.2 provides useful advice.

106

Primary cleaning This is carried out before the building is occupied. Use a broom and/or vacuum cleaner to remove loose particles of dust, dirt and sand. Remove splashes of paint and mortar with a blade or wooden spatula. Make especially sure that the mortars containing quartz sand do not leave any scratches on the surface. Remove streaks of cement slurry by scrubbing with a brush or cleaning pads. Afterwards, clean the stone surface by wiping with a damp cloth (tap water). More severe soiling that requires the use of an acidic cleaning agent should be carried out by a specialist company prior to handover. Initial care The initial care is carried out in the first six months after installing the stone, after the finishes have dried out completely. This involves applying a suitable preservative to the surfaces in order to minimise soiling and ease the subsequent regular cleaning. This also helps to protect the stone against impacts. Regular cleaning The recurring regular cleaning carried out while the building is in use can consist of numerous procedures: • sweeping, vacuuming • wiping with a damp cloth, wet cleaning • wet scrubbing, cleaning pads • fibre pads. Sweeping with brooms or brushes removes loose, or relatively loose, dust and dirt. Any dust and dirt remaining on the surface after sweeping can then be removed with a vacuum cleaner. Wiping with a damp cloth is especially recommended for polished surfaces. Wiping with damp, prepared cleaning textiles removes loose fine dust and dirt. More permanent soiling such as dust and dirt from outside, heel marks or drinks stains are not eliminated completely by this method; but manual wet cleaning using clean water should be adequate. Upon completion, all surfaces should be free from streaks and marks due to cleaning. Nevertheless, heel marks usually still remain. Very persistent soiling must therefore be removed by manual or mechanical wet cleaning with brushes or cleaning pads. Such cleaning methods are especially recommended for coarse stone surface finishes.

One better method of cleaning is to use cleaning pads. Here, a floor cleaning machine spreads a cleaning agent over the areas with particularly persistent marks or stains. Those areas are then cleaned and polished mechanically with suitable cleaning pads. This method also removes heel marks and grinding marks, renovates those areas where the preservative has worn away, and generally improves all areas of the floor. Dampened fibre pads operated in a rotary floor cleaner can remove dust and dirt that has collected in pores and fissures without the use of chemical cleaning agents. Make sure that the machine does not leave any scratches on the floor. In addition, make sure that the floor construction can carry the load of the relatively heavy cleaning machine.

Cleaning and care

Cleaning, protective and care products The choice of cleaning and care products depends on the type of stone, the type of surface, the pattern of the joints, the jointing material, the condition of the stone surfaces, the use of the stone and the purpose of the cleaning.

gradually worn away. Furthermore, sealing closes off the pores and hampers the diffusion of water vapour, which can lead to damage to the stone. Sealing can also diminish the non-slip effects of a floor finish.

Cleaning agents Cleaning agents include products containing acids, alkalis and solvents. Acidic cleaning agents with a pH value of 1 to 7 are suitable for loosening and removing streaks of cement slurry, mortar residue, deposits of lime, efflorescence and rust, for instance. Such products are offered for sale with names like cement slurry remover, lime remover, stone cleaner or rust remover. Alkaline products with a pH value of 7 to 14 loosen and remove organic soiling such as oils, greases, protective treatments or thin wax films. These products are on sale with names like all-purpose cleaner, active cleaner or grease remover. Like the alkaline products, cleaning agents containing solvents are also used for removing organic soiling such as mineral oils, synthetic greases, resins, adhesives, tar, wax and paint. Such products are sold with names like intensive cleaner or wax remover. Special cleaners are available for removing certain types of contamination like algae, also heel marks and discoloration. These products are available with names like algae remover, mould remover, etc.

Care products We distinguish between care products that form a film and those that do not. All the care products that form a film are emulsions with an inherent shine and wipe-on waxes that leave behind a tough protective film that intensifies the shine and eases subsequent cleaning. The film closes off the pores in the stone and hence hampers the vapour diffusion. Products that form a film should not be used too often because there is a risk of a crust forming. On the other hand, care products that do not form a film can be used over and over again. Such care products contain washactive substances and leave behind no residue; however, they are soluble in water. They prevent leaching of substances from the floor and intensify the colouring when used regularly. Non-slip group R 9 cannot be checked on site. As the non-slip properties can be enhanced by the use of care products but, above all, can also be diminished, this aspect should not be ignored when choosing cleaning and care products.

Protective products The various protective products available are intended to improve the serviceability properties as well as simplify the care of the stone surfaces and enhance their appearance. Generally, these products are applied just once or periodically. They may be used on dry stone only. Impregnation is another type of protective treatment. The impregnation substance usually contains silicone or siloxane, which have water- and possibly even oilrepellent properties. Such treatment eases the subsequent care considerably. Impregnation can be used internally and externally. In contrast to impregnation, sealing is a form of treatment that always forms a film on the surface. This film protects the stone and eases the subsequent care. Sealing intensifies the colouring of the stone and results in a glossy surface. However, sealing does not last particularly long on floors because the film is 107

Damage to stone

Damage to stone Water damage Water – whether in liquid, vapour, solid or a rapidly changing state – is one of the main causes of damage. The damage can take on many forms. Water can dissolve the binder in the stone; leaching or efflorescence is the result. The dissolved substances form thick crusts in places protected from the weather (i.e. cannot be washed off by rain), and these can damage the structure of the underlying stone. Water can transport hazardous salts, contamination or gases into the stone itself, where it brings about chemical changes. Efflorescence is caused by the substances dissolved in water, mostly salts, being transported by capillary action to the surface, where they crystallise as the water evaporates. If this crystallisation takes place on the surface only, there is not usually any damage to the building material itself. However, if the surface is attacked or – what happens more frequently – if the salts form a crust on the surface, beneath which more salts are deposited, the ensuing concentration of salt leads to spalling of the crust and damage to the surface of the stone. This spalling is due to the increase in volume that leads to a bursting pressure building up during this crystallisation process, the order of magnitude of which is similar to that of water as it freezes. In contrast to efflorescence, streaks of cement slurry are caused by the depositing of cement particles washed out from the mortar or concrete. The unattractive grey marks left behind after the water evaporates can usually be removed with special cleaners without causing any damage to the stone. If damage does occur, this is usually due to the incorrect use of the acidic cleaning agents, e.g. leaving the cleaner on the surface for too long, inadequate washing afterwards, etc. Water fills the voids – fissures, capillaries, pores – and can have a bursting effect upon freezing. The cause of this frost damage is the increase in volume as water turns to ice – in an order of magnitude of 1/11 = 109%. Frequent freezethaw cycles represent a particular risk. Stones saturated with water exhibit a much lower strength (sandstone up to 70% less). Condensation water can cause permanent saturation, e.g. in window sills due to leaking window frames, in floor finishes on concrete ground slabs with inade108

quate thermal insulation in the floor construction, or in external walls without a ventilation cavity. Moisture damage can also occur if the pores/joints of floor finishes are sealed too soon, thus preventing the proper drying-out of the mortar bed. Implications: Check constructions and configurations for the different types of stresses and strains imposed by water, and choose the types of stone, ancillary materials and methods of working accordingly. Ponding must be avoided, particularly in the open air, surfaces at a shallow angle must be covered by other components. Thermal damage Temperatures, the supply or removal of energy, particularly extreme temperature fluctuations, can lead to cracking. Changes in length caused by incident solar radiation must be taken into account when planning expansion joints, considering the orientation and colour of the stone. Fires can lead to spalling (e.g. in the case of stones with a fine-pore structure, or through the increase in volume of minerals such as quartz in granite). Only a few types of stone are naturally fire-resistant (e.g. volcanic tuffs). Fire-extinguishing measures involving cold water and high water pressures can cause damage. Erosion Incessant winds can cause damage in the form of erosion due to the sand particles carried in the air. However, even more damaging are substances like soot and dust, which can form permanent layers and crusts that spall off later. Damage caused by plants and animals Damage caused by bird excrement and also urine, e.g. dogs on stone plinths, WC facilities with urinals, are all too familiar. Plants can loosen the structure of the stone and their roots can cause spalling. Bacteria can colonise stone, likewise algae and lichens, whose products of metabolism and acids can bring about chemical changes in the stone. Compatibility issues When assembling different types of stone, it is necessary to consider their compatibility. The same is true when combining stone with other building materials. The damage caused by rusting steel parts is

all too familiar; it is not only the discoloration, but also the spalling caused by the increase in volume of the steel parts as they corrode. All fixings and fasteners should therefore be made from stainless steel. In external applications, the constituents of some timber, e.g. oak, can cause a discoloration of stone which is difficult to remove. The damage caused by using the wrong mortar for bedding and jointing stone components, or improper cleaning and care, has been dealt with elsewhere in this book. Weathering The summation of all destructive mechanisms acting on stone used externally is called weathering. Prof. Helmut Weber distinguishes between two typical weathering processes: dense materials erode away from the surface; the weathering process consists of a loss of substance in the surfaces affected. Typical examples of this type are marble and dense limestones, whose surfaces become dusty or are covered with a dense coating of gypsum that gradually disintegrates. In the case of absorbent materials – the other group, with sandstones as the typical example – the damaging substances can penetrate deeper into the structure of the stone. This leads to the formation of crusts and zones with differing strengths, characterised by conversion and/or loss of binder. Impregnation, water-repellent treatments, immersion in organic resins and similar preventive measures cannot always solve the problems, or at best provide only short-term solutions. Proper design and construction using suitable types of stone is the only way to prevent damage.

Examples of stone applications Contents

Examples of stone applications 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122

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Granite Jamers Plads, Copenhagen Gabbro Office of the Federal President, Berlin Basalt Museum of Modern Art, Vienna Volcanic tuff House in Latien, Italy Clayey slate panels House near Sarzeau, France Limestone House in Eichstätt, Germany Limestone Town restoration in Salemi, Italy Shelly limestone Wine store in Vauvert, France Shelly limestone Museum in Korbach, Germany Travertine Bank extension in Schönaich, Germany Paragneiss Chapel of rest, Munich-Riem Paragneiss Community buildings in Iragna, Switzerland Quartzite Thermal baths in Vals, Switzerland Quartzite City and regional library, Dortmund Marble Carinthia state archives, Austria

Examples of stone applications Granite

Jamers Plads, Copenhagen Stone: “Idde Fjord granite”, Norway Construction: raised paving, with open drained joints

Brandt Hell Hansted Holscher, Copenhagen In terms of materials, geometry and details, the redesign of the plaza in front of offices belonging to an insurance company expresses a close affinity with the architecture and the materials of the existing building. Several overlapping motifs govern the design, giving the plaza a new identity and also adding an open-air foyer to the building. The paving, consisting of rows of setts laid perpendicular to the main axis of the building, surrounds a large open area with stone flags whose layout reflects the modular grid of the building itself. The large stone flags of grey Norwegian granite with a coarse,

hammered surface finish measure 3.40 x 0.85 x 0.12 m. They were laid raised clear of the ground with open drained joints. Along the south-western edge the adjoining setts are at a lower level than the stone flags. Low walls separate the plaza from the road at this point; there are also low walls on the north-eastern side separating the plaza from a low-level courtyard. The horizontal top edges of the walls highlight the gentle slope (0.9%) of the plaza. These walls are clad in ground Norwegian marble obtained from the same quarry as the cladding on the facade of the building itself. At selected

points, certain granite paving flags have been replaced by raised plinths made from the same stone but with a finer hammered finish. These plinths serve as benches and lend the flat plaza a degree of relief. Integrated into these plinths are special lights; further lighting elements are located along the marble walls below the granite paving and in the form of illuminated bollards within the newly planted grove of plane trees. º DETAIL 4 / 2000

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Examples of stone applications Gabbro

Office of the Federal President, Berlin Stone: “Nero Impala”, Brazil Construction: cladding

Gruber + Kleine-Kraneburg Frankfurt am Main/Berlin Martin Gruber, Helmut Kleine-Kraneburg This is the new administrative wing of Bellevue Palace, the residence of the German Federal President at Tiergarten in Berlin. The new building is situated at a distance from the Palace, merging tastefully into this sensitive site. The elliptical plan shape unites the directional rectangular form with the non-directional circular form. The major axis of the building follows the line of earlier buildings on this site, the curving form simplifies the integration into the surroundings. The concept behind the plan layout is simple: all the offices have equal status, are located on the perimeter and enjoy views over the park. The open core containing rooms for ancillary and special functions is reached via bridges from the galleries that provide access to the offices. The disciplined, introverted space between the two parts of the building is brought to life by the daylight entering through the glass roof and the ensuing changing shadows. The material of the facade – dark, polished stone (Nero Impala) – helps to integrate the building into the park landscape; the reflections of the majestic deciduous trees in the polished, smooth external skin change continuously depending on the wind, time of day and time of year. º DETAIL 6 / 1999

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Examples of stone applications Basalt

Museum of Modern Art, Vienna Stone: “Mendinger basaltic lava”, Germany Construction: cladding a

Ortner & Ortner, Vienna Laurids and Manfred Ortner with Christian Lichtenwagner

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This museum is one of three monolithic edifices where roof surfaces and facades have been treated in identical fashion. The colouring of the new structures and floor finishes has been reduced to the shades of colour present at this location. Eifel basalt has been used for the facades and the roof surface of the museum. The diamond-sawn stone has a porous but smooth surface which, in rain, changes from shimmering anthracite to jet black. The cladding panels become larger towards the top of the building, counteracting the natural perspective. This irritation is reinforced by the corner details: at street level the corners are rounded, with a radius of 300 mm, but this radius reduces towards the top of the building, terminating with a sharp point at the eaves; the facade appears to overhang slightly. The stone panels on the outside are 100 mm thick and give the appearance of a solid masonry wall. However, they are hung on metal fasteners in front of the structural wall, with a permanently elastic sealant in the bed joints. The entrance hall is 41 m high and is clad internally with 50 mm thick stone panels. The mitred joints at the junctions with the ceilings lend the basalt stone the appearance of thin “wallpaper”. º DETAIL 7 / 2001 113

Examples of stone applications Volcanic tuff

House in Latien, Italy Stone: Tuff, Latium, Italy Construction: ashlar masonry facing leaf

Döring Dahmen Joeressen, Düsseldorf Wolfgang Döring, Michael Dahmen, Elmar Joeressen

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Embedded in the gently undulating landscape of Latium is this building with its simple geometry whose appearance is distinguished by the almost defiantlooking stone walls. The two-storey construction forms the main living quarters for an agricultural business. In terms of its design, the architects imitated the traditional methods of building in this region: stone walls, shallow-pitched roofs and gables. Despite the unassuming design of the house, the interior is very varied, with a two-storey courtyard enclosed on three sides and a high-level terrace. The main access is on the valley side at the lower level. The courtyard forms an open reception area from where the office and utility rooms can be reached. The living quarters are on the upper floor, with direct access to the terrace. Designed to withstand seismic loads, the construction consists of a reinforced concrete frame with clay brick infill panels and a facing leaf of accurately cut blocks of tuff stone. The heat storage capacity of the masonry, which is interrupted only by a few carefully sized openings, prevents overheating of the interior in summer, and excessive cooling in winter. º DETAIL 1•2 / 2002

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Examples of stone applications Clayey slate

House near Sarzeau, France Stone: Clayey slate panels, Bretagne, France Construction: cladding

Eric Gouesnard, Nantes

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Two factors led to the design concept for this house, which from a distance looks like a pair of monoliths hewn from black stone. Firstly, the traditional form with its pitched slate roof. The architect paid heed to this requirement by turning it into a feature and cladding the entire building in slate. Secondly, the site itself, a barren moor landscape at the mouth of the River Pernef, meant that house could not avoid being distinctive. The robust outer form of the house is intended to ensure that it stands out from its wild, natural surroundings, a fact that is further emphasised by placing the two monoliths in a circle of

sand – preventing possible encroachment from those surroundings! Raised wooden walkways dictate the access to the house. A corridor of glass and preweathered steel connects the two parts of the house, both of which feature a great expanse of glass on the south side, facing the river. As we approach the house, the play of light on the 500 x 500 mm slates becomes visible, but from further away the slates merge together to create a uniform black surface. º DETAIL 6 / 1999

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Examples of stone applications Limestone

House in Eichstätt, Germany Stone: “Jurassic limestone”, Germany Construction: ashlar masonry facing leaf

Theodor Hugues, Munich

A quarry owner had this house built next to his own quarry, just one of many limestone quarries in this region. The blocks used for the facade were cut directly from the yellow Jurassic stone of this region, which previously had not been worked in any way – because it is too sandy and porous – but rather blasted and dumped as waste or broken up and used as ballast. The beauty of the house lies in its compactness, its distinct lines and the use of just a few materials. The roughness of the surrounding landscape provides the contrast that results in this introverted form,

with its south-facing atrium and the taller outer, “screening” walls. The stone cladding to these walls, with its soft, sandblasted surface, emphasises the porous texture of the stone used, encourages rapid patination of the surface and, through the colouring, helps to fuse the building into the landscape. The cost of the materials was not critical in this case, and 80 mm thick, vein-cut panels were chosen. The varying lengths (max. approx. 800 mm) and different course heights (150–400 mm) of the masonry bond enabled optimum utilisation of the blocks.

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Examples of stone applications Limestone

Town restoration in Salemi, Italy Stone: “Pietra bianca di Trapani”, Italy Construction: solid steps

Alvaro Siza Vieira, Porto Roberto Collova, Palermo

In 1968 an earthquake destroyed large parts of the Sicilian town of Salemi. Following years of political and official opposition, the architects were finally able to renew the public areas of the town. The building works began at various places within the historical town centre. By creating new paths and new links in the form of stairs and passages it was possible to reorganise the structure of the urban layout. The design extended from various types of paving to new street lamps and safety barriers. The work centred on the town’s main square, on the hill alongside the ruins of the cathedral destroyed in the earthquake. The cathedral was not rebuilt but, keeping the intervention to a minimum, was converted into an open public space. The cathedral foundations therefore became a focus for life in the town, with the walls of the apse forming the backdrop. The raised platform was given new paving and the positions of the former columns were marked with stone plinths. º DETAIL 4 / 2000

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Examples of stone applications Shelly limestone

Wine store in Vauvert, France Stone: Shelly limestone, Gard, France Construction: masonry walls

Perraudin Architectes, Vauvert Gilles Perraudin Françoise Jourda

The sensitive handling of natural resources for the construction of buildings has been the aim of this practice for the past 20 years. This means devising economical building forms and using natural sources of energy for operating the facilities. The choice of material is governed by factors such as durability, renewability and recyclability. The preferred materials are, for example, timber, earth and stone. These principles were intrinsic to the design of this wine store, too. The store, which is subjected to the Mediterranean climate of the Camargue, requires a high heat storage mass in order to absorb the temperature fluctuations which can be problematic for the wine. The solid external walls are made from 520 mm thick shelly limestone blocks weighing up to 2.5 tonnes obtained from quarries in the region. The walls were erected without mortar (dry walling) and in this case function like a “refrigeration plant”, absorbing heat during the day and, through the action of the fresh sea breeze, releasing it again at night. The high cost of the stone was balanced by the simple structure of the building and the resulting short construction time – just one month from foundation to roof. º DETAIL 6 / 1999 118

Examples of stone applications Shelly limestone

Museum in Korbach, Germany Stone: “Kirchheimer kernstein shelly limestone”, Germany Construction: cladding

Penkhues Architekten Berthold H. Penkhues, Kassel The old museum in Korbach comprises a group of stone and timber-framed houses dating from the Middle Ages, some of which are covered by a preservation order. It was therefore not only high time to extend the museum, but also to carry out refurbishment work. The new extension reflects the small-format structures of the old building fabric in the form of four monolith-like cubes. Glazed access corridors, which permit numerous visual links and hence ease orientation within the museum, form the seams between the various parts of the building. Much of the light within the museum enters through rooflights, which project beyond the building envelope, helping to shape the structure as well as direct daylight into the interior. The main entrance to the complex is from the church square side and is turned slightly to face the portal of the Gothic St Kilian Church. Furthermore, a spacious staircase between the market square and the church square has been inserted in order to re-establish the link between these two important urban spaces. The difference in levels was exploited to limit and define the market square. The new sections of the museum, called “cabinets”, are distinguished by their uniform shelly limestone cladding. A special feature here is the stone covering to the roofs. Internally, the stone was bonded to the ground slab with adhesive, but on the stairs it was laid in a bed of trass cement mortar. Stainless steel fixings were used on the facade. The Kirchheimer kernstein shelly limestone consists primarily of consolidated, small animal shells with relatively few voids but a high number of calcite formations and also fillings of calcite substances. The stone is mainly used in solid form for sculptures, but also in architecture for floor and wall finishes. º DETAIL 6 / 1999

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Examples of stone applications Travertine

Bank extension in Schönaich, Germany

Stone: “Gauinger travertine”, Germany Construction: ashlar masonry facing leaf

Kaag & Schwarz, Stuttgart Werner Kaag, Rudolf Schwarz The stone-clad new extension reflects the width and orientation of the neighbouring farmhouses and, like these, is positioned directly on the edge of the footpath. Positioning the new extension a few metres in front of the existing building dating from the 1970s has created a distinct forecourt area which is continued by the glazed foyer. The use of a coarse bush-hammered surface finish to the 115 mm thick Gauinger travertine masonry of the facade avoids the often unapproachable, prestige character of polished stone, and the vertical window slots sets the extension apart

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from the horizontal bands of smooth aluminium on the existing bank building. The lintels over the topmost row of windows and the doors are each surmounted by a cambered arch to relieve the loads. The use of the same materials internally and the walkways linking the two parts of the bank lend uniformity to the interior design. Maple was chosen for the partitions, doors and the large area of louvre-type cladding on the old building, facing the new atrium. A green stone floor finish, laid in a bed of mortar, extends from the parking in the forecourt right through the entire ground floor and continues into the

tea kitchens in the form of the worktops to the fitted cupboards. Some areas of the internal walls also make use of local travertine stone. The size of the blocks diminishes towards the top of the facade, which resulted in an economic solution because there was less waste. The solid stone blocks are exploited for storing heat and therefore promote the interior climate concept of ventilation via the windows, night-time cooling and natural thermals in the atrium. The fresh-air supply is preheated via floor-mounted collectors. º DETAIL 6 / 1999

Examples of stone applications Paragneiss

Chapel of rest, Munich-Riem Stone: “Gneiss Gloria”, Bulgaria Construction: facing leaf of squared rubble stone masonry

Andreas Meck, Stephan Köppel, Munich The new extension to the cemetery with its chapel of rest was integrated into the landscaped park in this suburb of Munich. A rubble stone wall encloses a distinct sequence of rooms and open spaces to form a clearly defined layout. The spatial transitions in the monasterylike courtyard are not strict. The windows employ storey-high, frameless, fixed glazing, thus making the building envelope hardly perceivable at these positions. Doors and gates of Cor-Ten weathering steel or oak provide largeformat contrasts or openings. The different ways in which the light enters

results in all areas having their own special atmosphere. The deliberate way in which the light “grazes” the walls helps to emphasise the textures of the materials used. The chapel of rest itself is not an enclosed room but instead opens out – at least in a visual sense – on to the external ponds. The surface of the water is at floor level, and the rubble stone masonry of the rear wall continues through the glass facade without interruption. All the materials are solid and untreated. Their natural ageing, the accumulation of a patina, is intended to represent the cycle of life. º DETAIL 2 / 2001

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Examples of stone applications Paragneiss

In this town in Ticino, situated in a traditional stone-quarrying region, three targeted measures resulted in a new infrastructure, which satisfies modern requirements and, at the same time, is also sensitive to the existing structure of the old town. The architect designed a chapel of rest and a town hall, and also redesigned a square in the southern part of the town. Thanks to the use of a local vivid-textured stone for the walls, these solid buildings achieve close ties with the town’s traditions. Nevertheless, their simple, clearly accentuated outlines give the new buildings a contemporary self-assuredness

Community buildings in Iragna, Switzerland Stone: “Iragna gneiss”, Switzerland Construction: facing leaf of random rubble stone masonry

Raffaele Cavadini, Locarno

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that enables them to stand out from their neighbours. The chapel and its associated enclosing walls mark the north-eastern edge of the town. The town hall has been positioned alongside a new, threesided, sloping, open area paved with local gneiss flags. A light-coloured, fairfaced concrete plinth separates the paving from the masonry of the walls. The edges of the floors penetrate the masonry walls and divide up the stonework, and permit experimentation with different window formats, including a long horizontal window, in the heavyweight masonry. º Detail 6/1999

Examples of stone applications Quarztite

Thermal baths in Vals, Switzerland Stone: »Valser quarzite«, Switzerland Construction: facing leaf of ashlar stone masonary

Peter Zumthor, Haldenstein Currently, the essential stimuli for building with stone do not emanate from the urban centres but rather from innumerable, often small, structures in rural districts, where stone is used not merely as a cladding material but instead to comply with local traditions or to satisfy functional requirements. One of these examples is Peter Zumthor’s thermal baths in Vals. Like virtually no other stone building erected in recent years, this has attracted the attention of the whole industry. The material fulfils two functions here: the stone is local, and therefore creates a bond with the mountainous surroundings. Furthermore, the stone guarantees numerous aesthetic and physical experiences. Zumthor’s elementary design is a response to the customary health spa architecture, which lies somewhere between that of a hospital and a leisure pool with Mediterranean trappings. However, he has also tried to formulate an answer to the virtual world of bits and bytes of the information age. Solid walls – courses of Valser quartzite – give the building the impression of being one huge monolith growing out of the mountainside. For this purpose, 60,000 slabs up to 3.20 m long were sawn with millimetre precision and then laid carefully on top of each other. As all surfaces – walls, floors, even the inside of the pools – are of stone, users experience the physical presence of the material everywhere. They experience the different colouring as the light changes and can feel the stone with their hands and feet while bathing. The overall concept is one of the creation of a contemplative atmosphere. Only a few buildings of the recent past have made stone so popular; one of these is the thermal baths in Vals. However, only a few of those architects inspired by Peter Zumthor will ever find clients who are prepared to finance such a venture. 123

Examples of stone applications Quarztite

City and regional library, Dortmund Stone: “Alvdals quartzite”, Sweden Construction: cladding

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The stone-clad, elongated wing of the new library building marks and frames one edge of the old quarter of the city; at the western end it also adopts the building line and the level of the eaves of the adjoining buildings surrounding the square. Growing out of this block with offices and archives (plus other functions not related to the library) is the glazed, semi-circular public part of the library, extending into the public square. The “stone” block supported on set-back columns between the display windows on the north side at ground-floor level is terraced on the south side – a feature that is revealed at the plain, narrow ends of the building. This is a reinforced concrete construction clad in a reddish Swedish quartzite stone, with a ventilation cavity between the two. The floors of the semicircular section are supported on reinforced concrete columns, the glazed envelope carried by a robust steel structure. Besides the contrast generated by the two parts of the building and their positioning within the urban space, it is primarily the interplay between the calm sequence of identical window formats and the pattern of the stone facade with its vivid texture that gives this structure its effect. º Detail 6/1999 124

Examples of stone applications Marble

Carinthia state archives, Austria Stone: “Rauchkristall”, Austria Construction: cladding

Horst Aichernig, Villach Edwin Pinteritsch, Spittal a.d. Drau The different functions of the Carinthia state archives are readily apparent from outside; in particular, the clear, restrained design of the archives located within the white marble cube. Behind a 30 mm thick cladding of local marble lies the real heart of this complex. Only three narrow glass slits break up the main facade and allow a little light into the otherwise “photophobic” store. The light-coloured facade construction with its ventilation cavity contributes greatly to controlling the interior climate of the building.

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Dressed stone Standards and directives

Standards and directives DIN EN 1341, Apr 2002 Slabs of natural stone for external paving – Requirements and test methods

DIN EN 12371, Jan 2002 Natural stone test methods – Determination of frost resistance

DIN EN 14157, Jan 2005 Natural stone test methods – Determination of the abrasion resistance

DIN EN 1342, Apr 2002 Setts of natural stone for external paving – Requirements and test methods

DIN EN 12372, Jun 1999 Natural stones test methods – Determination of flexural strength under concentrated load

DIN EN 14158, Jun 2004 Natural stone test methods – Determination of rupture energy

DIN EN 1343, Apr 2002 Kerbs of natural stone for external paving – Requirements and test methods DIN EN 1467, Mar 2004 Natural stone – Rough blocks – Requirements DIN EN 1468, Mar 2004 Natural stone – Rough slabs – Requirements

DIN EN 12407, Aug 2000 Natural stone test methods – Petrographic examination DIN EN 12440, Jan 2001 Natural stone – Denomination criteria (Pre-standard) DIN V ENV 12633, Apr 2003 Method of determination of unpolished and polished slip/skid resistance value

DIN EN 1469, Jan 2003 Natural stone products – Slabs for cladding – Requirements

DIN EN 12670, Mar 2002 Natural stone – Terminology

DIN EN 1925, May 1999 Natural stone test methods – Determination of water absorption coefficient capillarity

DIN EN 13161, Feb 2002 Natural stone test methods – Determination of flexural strength under constant moment

DIN EN 1926, May 1999 Natural stone test methods – Determination of compressive strength

DIN EN 13364, Mar 2002 Natural stone test methods – Determination of the breaking load at dowel hole

DIN EN 1936, Jul 1999 Natural stone test methods – Determination of real density and apparent density and of total and open porosity

DIN EN 13373, Aug 2003 Natural stone test methods – Determination of geometric characteristics on units

DIN EN 12057, Jan 2005 Natural stone products – Modular tiles – Requirements DIN EN 12058, Jan 2005 Natural stone products – Slabs for floors and stairs – Requirements DIN EN 12326 pt 1, Aug 1999 Slate and stone products for discontinuous roofing and cladding – Part 1: Product specifications DIN EN 12326 pt 2, Jun 2000 Slate and stone products for discontinuous roofing and cladding – Part 2: Methods of test DIN EN 12370, Jun 1999 Natural stone test methods – Determination of resistance to salt crystallisation

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DIN EN 13755, Mar 2002 Natural stone test methods – Determination of water absorption at atmospheric pressure DIN EN 13919, Mar 2003 Natural stone test methods – Determination of resistance to ageing by SO2 action in the presence of humidity DIN EN 14066, Aug 2003 Natural stone test methods – Determination of resistance to ageing by thermal shock DIN EN 14146, Jun 2004 Natural stone test methods – Determination of the dynamic modulus of elasticity (by measuring the fundamental resonance frequency) DIN EN 14147, Feb 2004 Natural stone test methods – Determination of resistance to ageing by salt mist

DIN EN 14205, Feb 2004 Natural stone test methods – Determination of Knoop hardness DIN EN 14231, Jul 2003 Natural stone test methods – Determination of the slip resistance by means of the pendulum tester DIN EN 14579, Jan 2005 Natural stone test methods – Determination of sound speed propagation DIN EN 14581, Mar 2005 Natural stone test methods – Determination of linear thermal expansion coefficient DIN 18332, Dec 2002 Contract procedures for building works – Part C: General technical specifications for building works; ashlar works DIN 18516 pt 3, Dec 1999 Cladding for external walls, ventilated at rear – Part 3: Natural stone; requirements, design DIN 18540, Feb 1995 Sealing of exterior wall joints in building using joint sealants (Draft standard) DIN 52008, Nov 2004 Natural stone test methods – Assessment of the weathering resistance DIN 52102, Aug 1988 Determination of absolute density, dry density, compactness and porosity of natural stone and mineral aggregates DIN 52104 pt 1, Nov 1982 Testing of natural stone; freeze-thaw cyclic test; methods A to Q StLB Standard Specification 014: Natural stone works, reconstituted stone works, Apr 1995 edition

Dressed stone Books and information

Books and information Berufsbildungswerk des Steinmetz- und Bildhauerhandwerks e.V.: Der Steinmetz und Steinbildhauer, vol. 2, Die Arbeit am Stein; Callwey-Verlag, Munich, 1998 Börner, Klaus; Hill, Detlev: Lexikon der Natursteine, CD-ROM; Abraxas Verlag, 1999 Breadley, Frederick: Natural Stone – a Guide to selection, WW Norton & Co. 1998 Conservation of natural stone: Guidelines to consolidation, restoration and preservation, Expert 1991 Deutscher Naturwerkstein-Verband e.V. (DNV): technical information on natural stone Fahrenkrog, Herbert: Bodenbeläge aus Natur- und Betonwerkstein: Verlegetechnik; Callwey-Verlag, Munich, 2001 Frieder, Bernhard: Der Steinmetz und Steinbildhauer, vol. 1, Ausbildung und Praxis; Callwey-Verlag, Munich, 1996 Fuchs, Karlfried: Natursteine aus aller Welt, in 2 files (Callwey Stone Index); Callwey-Verlag, Munich, 1997 Geldhauser, Josef; Hugues, Theodor; Weber, Johann: Natursteinführer München; Faktum-Verlag, Munich, 1992 Gere, Alex S.: Recommended practices for the use of natural stone in construction, Building Stone Institute 1998 Grimm, Wolf-Dieter: Bildatlas wichtiger Denkmalgesteine der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Booklet No. 50 pub. by Bavarian Department for Historical Buildings; Munich, 1990 Haefele, Gottfried; Oed, Wolfgang; Sambeth, M. Burkhard: Baustoffe und Ökologie, Bewertungskriterien für Architekten und Bauherren; Ernst Wasmuth Verlag, Tübingen, 1996 Hart, Franz: Baukonstruktion für Architekten; Julius Hoffmann Verlag, Stuttgart, 1950 Huberty, J. M.: Fassaden in der Witterung; Beton-Verlag, Düsseldorf, 1983 Matthes, Siegfried: Mineralogie, Eine Einführung in die spezielle Mineralogie, Petrologie und Lagerstättenkunde; Springer Verlag, Berlin/Heidelberg, 1987

Mehling, Günther: Natursteinlexikon; Callwey-Verlag, Munich, 1993 Meisel, Ulli: Naturstein, Erhaltung und Restaurierung von Aussenbauteilen; Bauverlag, Wiesbaden/Berlin, 1988 Mottana, Annibale: Der grosse BLV Mineralienführer: Gesteine und Mineralien in 576 Farbfotos; BLV-Verlagsgesellschaft, Munich, 1982 Müller, Friedrich: Gesteinskunde. Lehrbuch und Nachschlagewerk über Gesteine für Hochbau, Innenarchitektur, Kunst und Restauration; Ebner-Verlag, Ulm, 2004 Müller, Friedrich: INSK Internationale Naturstein-Kartei; Ebner Verlag, Ulm, 1982 Pape, Hansgeorg: Leitfaden zur Gesteinsbestimmung; Enke Verlag, Stuttgart, 1975 Reinsch, D.: Natursteinkunde – Eine Einführung für Bauingenieure, Architekten; Ferdinand Enke Verlag, Stuttgart, 1991 Scholz, Wilhelm: Baustoffkenntnis; Werner Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2003 Siegesmund, S. u.a.: Natural Stone, Wheathering Phenomena, Conservation Strategies and Case Studies, Geological Society Pub House, 2003

Zentralverband des Deutschen Dachdeckerhandwerks – Fachverband Dach-, Wand- & Abdichtungstechnik – e.V.: technical rules for German roofing industry; Rudolf Müller Verlag, Cologne, 2004

Journals and periodicals Bautenschutz + Bausanierung: Zeitschrift für Bauinstandhaltung und Denkmalpflege; Verlagsgesellschaft Rudolf Müller, Cologne Naturstein. Zeitschrift für die gesamte Natursteinwirtschaft; Ebner Verlag, Ulm Stein. Bauen – Gestalten – Erhalten; Callwey-Verlag, Munich

Useful Internet addresses www.dnv.naturstein-netz.de www.biv.naturstein-netz.de www.naturstein-netz.de www.naturstein-netz.de/bv-naturstein www.deutsches-natursteinarchiv.de www.natursteinonline.de www.geodienst.de www.acs-computer.net/inetdb/english/ index.php www.stoneinfo.com www.stoneexpozone.com

Snethlage, Rolf: Natursteinkonservierung, Internationales Kolloquium, Munich; Booklet No. 31 pub. by Bavarian Department for Historical Buildings, Lipp Verlag, Munich, 1985 Snethlage, Rolf; Fitzner, Bernd: Natursteinkonservierung in der Denkmalpflege; Booklet No. 80 pub. by Bavarian Department for Historical Buildings, Ernst Verlag, Berlin, 1995 Wanetschek, Margret & Horst: Naturstein und Architektur. Materialkunde, Anwendung, Steintechnik; Callwey-Verlag, Munich, 2000 Weber, Helmut: Fassadenschutz; Expert Verlag, Grafenau, 1980 Weber, Rainer; Hill Detlev: Naturstein für Anwender. Beurteilen, verkaufen, verlegen; Ebner Verlag, Ulm, 2002 127

Companies (selection) Useful addresses

Aachener Blausteinwerk Gier Hahnerstraße 23 D–52076 Aachen-Hahn Tel.: +49 2408 5691 Fax.: +49 2408 5525 AT Naturstein GmbH & Co.KG Auf dem steinigen Acker D–56736 Kottenheim www.at-naturstein.de Tel.: +49 2651 94251-0 Fax.: +49 2651 94251-30 AG Natursteinwerke Rosner & Schedl Flossenbürger Straße 17 D–92696 Flossenbürg-Althamm. www.natursteinwerke.de Tel.: +49 9603 1091 Fax.: +49 9603 2575 Basalt-Actien-Gesellschaft Naturwerksteinbetrieb Am Granitwerk 8 D–01877 Demitz-Thumitz www.basalt-ag.de Tel.: +49 3594 758-0 Fax.: +49 3594 758-264 Bauer Alois Granitwerk KG Nammering Zum Alten Sportplatz 4 D–94538 Fürstenstein www.bauer-granit.de Tel.: +49 8544 96190 Fax.: +49 8544 8977 Bauer Granitwerk Metten GmbH Innenstetten 14a D–94505 Bernried www.Granitwerk-Metten.de Tel.: +49 9905 330 Fax: +49 9905 8899 Beck Wilhelm Tuffsteinbetrieb Nusplinger Str. 27 D–78580 Bärenthal Tel.: +49 7466 1318 Fax.: +49 7466 496 Behrle Egon GmbH Wiesenweg 22 D–57399 Kirchhundem-Würdi. Tel.: +49 2723 2081 Fax.: +49 2723 2607 Bell GmbH Natursteinwerk Saynstraße 29 D–56242 Selters (Westerwald) www.bell-naturstein.de Tel.: +49 2626 76060 Fax.: +49 2626 78306 Blank Bau Freyburg GmbH Mersenburger Str. D–06632 Freyburg Tel.: +49 34464 705-0 Fax.: +49 34464 705-59 128

Blauenthal Granitwerk Inh. Manfred Hahn Bockauer Talstraße D–08318 Blauenthal Tel.: +49 37752 3085 Fax.: +49 37752 3083 Boral Granit Bahnhofstr. 21 D–01920 Gersdorf Tel.: +49 3578 71002 Fax.: +49 3578 71068 Braun Johann OHG Baustoffwerke Neuenhammer 7 D–95709 Tröstau Tel.: +49 9232 99610 Fax.: +49 9232 2946 Buhr-Verankerungstechnik Keltenstraße 22a D–56736 Kottenheim Tel.: +49 2651 4433 Fax.: +49 2651 42500 Diabaswerk Hartenrod GmbH & Co.KG Ebeltstraß 10 D–35080 Bad Endbach Tel.: +49 2776 9113 Fax.: +49 2776 9113 Dirks Bernd Natursteinbetrieb Beerlager Str. 20 D–48727 Billerbeck www. dirks-billerbeck.de Tel.: +49 2543 2321-0 Fax.: +49 2543 2321-20 Diroll Horst Natursteinwerk GmbH Po Box 1155 D–96219 Burgkunstadt Tel.: +49 9572 847 Fax.: +49 9572 4720 Dürr A. Steinwerk Inh. Dipl. Ing. Hubert Schäfer Maisenbacher Str. 5 D–97271 Kleinrinderfeld www.natursteine-duerr.de Tel.: +49 9366 283 Fax.: +49 9366 7632 Engels P. Natursteinwerk Eicherstr. 33 D–56637 Plaidt Tel.: +49 2632 5623 Fax.: +49 2632 72983 Erzgebirgische Bergbauagentur Freiberger Str. 18 D–09517 Zöblitz www.bergbau-agentur.de Tel.: +49 37363 7579 Fax.: +49 37363 7599

Fauser Rolf Natursteinbetrieb Hohenheimer Straße 93/3 D–73734 Esslingen www.fauser-steinmetz.de Tel.: +49 711 382300 Fax.: +49 711 382992 Frankenschotter GmbH & Co. Hungerbachtal 1 D–91757 TreuchtlingenDietfurt Tel.: +49 9142 802-0 Fax.: +49 9142 802-10 Friedewalder Quarzsandstein GmbH Hof Weißenborn 6 D–36289 Friedewald Tel.: +49 6674 8333 Fax.: +49 6674 8409 Füssel Lausitzer Granitwerke Höckendorfer Str. 95 D–01936 Königsbrück www.fuessel-granit.de Tel.: +49 35795 342-0 Fax.: +49 35795 342-25 Georges W. Natursteinwerk Scharzfeld Harzstraße 181 D–37412 Herzberg am Harz Tel.: +49 5521 2250 Fax.: +49 5521 5307 Gleussner Günther Natursteinwerk GmbH & Co.KG Industriestr. 11–13 D–97483 Eltmann www.gleussner.de Tel.: +49 9522 7260 Fax.: +49 9522 72660 Graser Hermann Bamberger Natursteinwerk GmbH & Co Dr. Robert-Pfleger-Str. 25 D–96052 Bamberg Tel.: +49 951 9648-0 Fax.: +49 951 9648-100 Pelz & Halblaub GmbH & Co. Grüntensteinwerk Kammeregger Weg 9 D–87549 Rettenberg/ Kranzegg www.gruentensteinwerk.de Tel.: +49 8327 922-0 Fax: +49 8327 922-33 Grünzig Marmorwerk Sittarder Straße 30 D–52078 Aachen www.gruenzig-marmor.de Tel.: +49 241 70564-0 Fax: +49 241 70564-50

Halfen-Deha Vertriebsgesellschaft mbH Liebigstr. 14 D–40764 Langenfeld www.halfen-deha.de Tel.: +49 2173 970-0 Fax: +49 2173 970-123 Hanbuch Leonhard u. Söhne Natursandsteinwerk Eichkehle 62 – 66 D–67433 Neustadt Tel.: +49 6321 9633-0 Fax.: +49 6321 9633-33 Harz-Granit Natursteinwerke Ilsenburger-Str. 42 D–38855 Wernigerode Tel.: +49 3943 6010-32 Fax.: +49 3943 6010-33 Hemm Natursteinwerke Mergentheimer Straße D–97268 Kirchheim www.hemm.de Tel.: +49 9366 82-0 Fax.: +49 936 82-33 Herhof Basalt- und DiabasWerk GmbH Auf der Ley D–35753 Greifenstein-Beilstein Tel.: +49 2779 1627 Fax.: +49 2779 1485 Herrmann Granit- und Naturstein GmbH Krähhof 1 D–92554 Thanstein-Kulz Tel.: +49 9676 277 Fax.: +49 9676 785 Hofmann GmbH & Co.KG Natursteinwerke Höhefelder Weg 2 D–97956 Werbach-Gamburg Tel.: +49 9348 81-0 Fax.: +49 9348 81-48 Hohwald Granit GmbH Dresdner Str. 65 D–01904 Steinigtwolmsdorf www.hohwald-granit.de Tel.: +49 35951 31426 Fax.: +49 35951 32008 Holz Harald Natursteinwerke Kaltenbergstraße 15 D–75031 Eppingen-Mühlbach www.natursteinwerk-holz.de Tel.: +49 7262 5244 Fax.: +49 7262 4112

Companies (selection) Useful addresses

Hötzendorfer Granitwerke Merckenschlager GmbH&Co. Hötzendorf D–94104 Tittling www.hoetzendorfergranitwerke.de Tel.: +49 8504 91862-0 Fax.: +49 8504 8547 Huber Anton Nagelfluh-Steinbruch Biberstraße 22 D–83098 Brannenburg www.nagelfluh.de Tel.: +49 8034 1831 Fax.: +49 8034 8051 Jakob Leonard Granitwerk D–92682 Floß Tel.: +49 89 81165-41 Fax.: +49 89 81165-91 JUMA Natursteinwerke Po Box 5 D–85108 Kipfenberg www.juma.com Tel.: +49 8465 950-0 Fax.: +49 8465 950-168 Kalenborn Werner Natursteinwerk Suhrstr. 20 D–56745 Rieden www.kalenborn-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 2655 1323 Fax.: +49 2655 3322 Keil Werkzeugfabrik PO Box 1158 D–51751 Engelskirchen www.keil-werkzeuge.com Tel.: +49 2263 807-0 Fax.: +49 2263 807-333 Kelheimer Naturstein GmbH Essing Oberau 5 D–93343 Essing www.kelheimer-naturstein.de Tel.: +49 9441 6769-0 Fax.: +49 9441 6769-11 Kies- u. Natursteinbetriebe Readymix GmbH & Co.KG Albert-Kuntz-Str. 26 D–04824 Beucha Tel.: +49 34292 620 Fax.: +49 34292 73157 Killing Albert Naturstein GmbH Lippstädter Str. 22 D–59609 Anröchte www.akn-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 2947 9767-0 Fax.: +49 2947 9767-17

Kirchheimer Kalksteinwerke GmbH Egenburgstr. 12 D–97268 Kirchheim www.kkw-stein.de Tel.: +49 9366 9066-0 Fax.: +49 9366 9066-66 STK Steintechnik Kirschmann Marmor- u. Schieferwerk Neue Weilheimer Straße 114 D–73230 Kirchheim-Jesingen Tel.: +49 7023 900680 Fax.: +49 7023 2260 Körner C. Naturstein- und Sandsteinwerk GmbH Neuhäuser Weg D–38458 Velpke Tel.: +49 5364 4774 Fax.: +49 5364 8049 Kramer Otto Muschelkalk-Steinbruch Mühlenstr. 44 D–07745 Jena Tel.: +49 3641 615176 Fax.: +49 3641 615176 Kubitscheck Granit und Schotterwerke Am Weiherfeld 4 D–94538 Fürstenstein 1 www.kubitschek.com Tel.: +49 8504 9133-0 Fax.: +49 8504 9133-23 Külpmann Wilhelm GmbH Ruhrsandsteinbrüche Zechenweg 20 D–58300 Wetter www.kuelpmann.com Tel.: +49 2335 742-1 Fax.: +49 2335 742-4 Kusser Georg Granitwerke GmbH & Co.KG Knödlsederhof 18 D–94049 Hauzenberg www.kusser.de Tel.: +49 8586 970-3 Fax.: +49 8586 970-590 Lauster Steinbau GmbH Enzstr. 46 D–70376 Stuttgart Tel.: +49 711 5967-0 Fax.: +49 711 5967-50 Lauster Steinbau GmbH Stuttgarter Str. 73/1 D–75433 Maulbronn Tel.: +49 7043 6064 Fax.: +49 7043 5657 Lindner Frank Tuffsteinwerk Steinbruchstraße 30 D–82398 Polling Tel.: +49 881 8873 Fax.: +49 881 2889

Linnenberg Carl Natursteinwerk GmbH Warteweg 44 D–37627 Stadtoldendorf www.linnenberg.de Tel.: +49 5532 2231 Fax.: +49 5532 5982 Luxem Natursteine Hausener Sitze D–56727 Mayen Tel.: +49 2651 4421 Fax.: +49 2651 4648 Magog Schiefergruben GmbH & Co.KG Alter Bahnhof 9 D–57392 Bad Fredeburg www.magog.de Tel.: +49 2974 9620-0 Fax.: +49 2974 9620-20 Mayko Natursteinwerke GmbH & Co.KG Industriegebiet Mayener Tal/ Seekante D–56727 Mayen www.mayko.de Tel.: +49 2651 9622-0 Fax.: +49 2651 9622-22 Merge Naturstein GmbH Rheiner Straße 280 D–49479 Ibbenbüren www.merge-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 5451 9438-0 Fax.: +49 5451 9438-23 Metzner Jürgen GmbH Natursteine Helmstedter Str. 31 D–38154 Königslutter Tel.: +49 5353 966-11 Fax.: +49 5353 966-13 Monser Natursteinwerk GmbH Almelostraße 3 D–48529 Nordhorn www.monser.de Tel.: +49 5921 8083-0 Fax.: +49 5921 8083-20 Müller Konrad Natursandsteinwerk GmbH Eselsfürth 2 D–67657 Kaiserslautern www.konradmuellergmbh.de Tel.: +49 631 40105 Fax.: +49 631 44922 Nagel Natursteinwerk Steinbösstr. 56 D–72074 Tübingen-Lustnau www.naturstein-online.de Tel.: +49 7071 81531 Fax.: +49 7071 83051

Naturstein Donderer Industriegebiet Mittte D–88605 Meßkirch www.natursteinedonderer.de Tel.: +49 7575 926592 Fax.: +49 7575 927501 Natursteinwerk Reinhold Meister GmbH Weinsdorfer Str. 34 D–09648 Mittweida Tel.: +49 3727 6213-0 Fax.: +49 3727 90995 Natursteinwerk Theuma AG Zum Plattenbruch 6 – 8 D–08541 Theuma www.natursteinwerktheuma.de Tel.: +49 37463 224-20 Fax.: +49 37463 224-70 Neißendorfer Peter Granitwerk Einzendobl Einzendobl 1 D–94535 Eging Tel.: +49 8544 1866 Fax.: +49 8544 7365 Obernkirchener Sandsteinbrüche GmbH Am Steinhauerplatz 1 D–31683 Obernkirchen www.obernkirchenersandstein.de Tel.: +49 5724 1007 Fax.: +49 5724 1000 Oppenrieder Bernhard Steinmetzbetrieb Bahnhofstr. 18 D–95158 Kirchenlamitz Tel.: +49 9285 6664 Fax.: +49 9285 6664 Picard Carl Natursteinwerk GmbH Schweinstal D–67706 Schopp/Krickenbach www.picard-natursteinwerk.de Tel.: +49 6307 337 Fax.: +49 6307 7070 Pitzer Horst Natursteinwerk D–35719 AngelburgFrechenhausen Tel.: +49 6464 7221 Fax.: +49 6464 7655 Popp Ludwig Granitwerk Kleinwendener Str. 11 D–95679 Waldershof-Schurbach www.koesseine-granit.de Tel.: +49 9234 718 Fax.: +49 9234 8171

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Companies (selection) Useful addresses

Porz Josef, Inh, Therese Porz Natursteinwerk Bahnhofstraße 98 D–56745 Weibern Tel.: +49 2655 1441 Fax.: +49 2655 1441 Quirrenbach Heinrich Natursteinbetrieb GmbH Eremitage 5 – 6 D–51789 Lindlar www.quirrenbach.de Tel.: +49 2266 4746-0 Fax.: +49 2266 4746-47 Rathscheck Schiefer KG PO Box 1752 D–56707 Mayen-Katzenberg Tel.: +49 2651 955-0 Fax.: +49 2651 955-100 Rauen Hermann Natursteinwerk Felsenstr. 32 D–45479 Mühlheim/Ruhr Tel.: +49 208 4198-0 Fax.: +49 208 425614 Röhrig Granit Am Sonderbach 78 D–64646 HeppenheimSonder. www.roehrig-granit.de Tel.: +49 6252 7009-0 Fax.: +49 6252 7009-11 Roter Granit Meißen GmbH Steingewinnung Steinweg 17 D–01662 Meissen www.roter-granit.de Tel.: +49 3521 7612-0 Fax.: +49 3521 733896 Rüthener Grünsandsteinwerke Kirsch GmbH Sauerdrift 9 D–59602 Rüthen Tel.: +49 2952 1661 Fax.: +49 2952 3184 Saalburger Marmorwerke GmbH+Co.KG Bahnhofstr. 12 D–07929 Saalburg www.saalburgermarmorwerk.de Tel.: +49 36647 300-0 Fax.: +49 36647 300-30 Sächsische Sandsteinwerke Bahnhofstr. 12 b D–01796 Pirna www.sandsteine.de Tel.: +49 3501 56100 Fax.: +49 3501 561021

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SBS Thüringer Natursteinverarbeitung GmbH Projektierte Str. 18 D–99880 Waltershausen www.sbs-gruppe.de Tel.: +49 3622 6504-0 Fax.: +49 3622 6504-11 Schiffarth Otto Steinbruch GmbH & Co.KG PO Box 1246 D–51780 Lindlar www.schiffarth-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 2266 47193-0 Fax.: +49 2266 47193-10 Schlink Hans KG Kottenheimerweg 6 D–56727 Mayen Tel.: +49 2651 42022 Fax.: +49 2651 43650 Schmitz Naturstein GmbH & Co.KG Ernst-Abbe-Strasse 2 D–56743 Mendig www.mendiger-basalt.de Tel.: +49 2652 9702-0 Fax.: +49 2652 9702-22 Schömig W. Schwalbenweg 7 D–51789 Lindlar Tel.: +49 2266 6155 Fax.: +49 2266 45123 Schön & Hippelein GmbH & Co. Natursteinwerk Industriestr. 1 D–74589 Satteldorf www.schoen-hippelein.de Tel.: +49 7951 498-0 Fax.: +49 7951 498-98 Schuhmann Hartsteinwerk GmbH Hartsteinwerk Sora D–02633 Sora www.diabas.de Tel.: +49 3592 370-0 Fax.: +49 3592 370-30 Schwabe Natursteinbetriebe Grenzweg 10 D–49479 Ibbenbüren www.naturstein-schwabe.de Tel.: +49 5451 2964 Fax.: +49 5351 7964 SH Natursteine GmbH & Co.KG Bahnhofstr. 7 D–06193 Löbejün www.sh-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 34603 75-0 Fax.: +49 34603 75-149

SHS Naturstein GmbH An den Mühlsteinen D–56708 Mayen www.shs-naturstein.de Tel.: +49 2651 9644-0 Fax.: +49 2651 9644-22 Steinbach Adolf Steinindustrie GmbH & Co.KG PO Box 16 44 D–97606 Bad Neustadt www.steinindustrie.de Tel.: +49 9771 6212-0 Fax.: +49 9771 6202-62 Stichweh & Söhne GmbH Thüster Kalkstein Mühlgraben 24 D–31020 Salzhemmendorf www.thuesterkalkstein.de Tel.: +49 5186 9404-0 Fax.: +49 5186 9404-20 Süss Granitwerk Hundshübler Str. 1 D–08321 Zschorlau www.granitwerk-suess.de Tel.: +49 3771 458135 Fax.: +49 3771 458091 TRACO Deutsche Travertinwerke GmbH Poststr. 14 D–99947 Bad Langensalza www.traco.de Tel.: +49 3603 852-121 Fax.: +49 3603 852-120 Vereinigte Porphyrbrüche GmbH Rochlitz Pappelhöhe 1 D–09306 Rochlitz www.porphyr-rochlitz.de Tel.: +49 34346 690-0 Fax.: +49 34346 690-10 Vereinigte Thür. Schiefergruben GmbH & Co.KG Ortstraße 44b D–07330 Unterloquitz www.vts-unterloquitz.de Tel.: +49 36731 250 Fax.: +49 36731 25284 Vetter Steinindustrie Industriestr. 16 D–97483 Eltmann www.stein-vetter.de Tel.: +49 9522 7290 Fax.: +49 9522 2999 Villmar Natursteinwerk GmbH Antoniusstraße 2 D–56736 Kottenheim Tel.: +49 2651 9588-0 Fax.: +49 2651 9588-20

VSG Schwarzwald-GranitWerke GmbH & Co.KG Steinfeldweg 1 D–77815 Bühl www.vsg-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 7223 999096-0 Fax.: +49 7223 24076 Wachenfeld KG Natursteinwerk Am Steinbruch 10 D–34471 Volkmarsen-Külte www.wachenfeldnatursteine.de Tel.: +49 5691 80460 Fax.: +49 5691 804680 Weber Natursteine Zum Steinbruch 28-32 D–54317 Korlingen www.weber-natursteine.de Tel.: +49 6588 2560 Fax.: +49 6588 7602 Wesling Ferdinand GmbH & Co.KG Hannoversche Straße 23 D–31547 Rehburg-Loccum www.fw-wesling.de Tel.: +49 5037 304-0 Fax.: +49 5037 304-12 Winterhelt Naturwerkstein GmbH Burgweg 79 D–63897 Miltenberg www.winterheit.de Tel.: +49 9371 9767-0 Fax.: +49 9371 9767-27 Wirths Albert GmbH & Co.KG Steinwerke Industriestraße 6 D–97256 Geroldshausen www.steinwerke-wirts.de Tel.: +49 9366 9819-0 Fax.: +49 9366 9819-29 Wolf Christian Steinmetzbetrieb Im Stangenwald 16 D–83471 Berchtesgaden/ Engedey Tel.: +49 8652 3367 Fax.: +49 8652 64463 Zeidler & Wimmel Steinbruch GmbH & Co. Konsul-Metzing-Str. 7–9 D–97268 Kirchheim bei Würzburg www.zeidler-wimmel.de Tel.: +49 9366 9069-0 Fax.: +49 9366 1329 Zeller Franz Natursteinwerke PO Box 1850 D–63888 Miltenberg Tel.: +49 9378 777 Fax.: +49 9378 779

Associations (selection) Useful addresses

German associations: Bayerischer Industrieverband Steine & Erden e.V. Granite Industry Dept D–80336 Munich www.steine-erden.by.de Tel: +49 89 51403-0 Fax: +49 89 51403-161 Bundesinnungsverband des Deutschen Steinmetzhandwerks Weisskirchener Weg 16 D–60439 Frankfurt am Main www.biv-steinmetz.de Tel: +49 69 576098 Fax: +49 69 576090 Bundesverband NatursteinIndustrie e.V. Annastr. 71–76 D–50968 Cologne www.bv-naturstein.org Tel: +49 221 93467460 Fax: +49 221 93647464 BVT-Bundesverband Trittsicherheit e.V D–86899 Landsberg am Lech www.praevention-online.de Tel: +49 8191 22507 Fax: +49 8191 22517 Deutscher NaturwerksteinVerband e.V. Sanderstr. 4 D–97070 Würzburg www.natursteinverband.de Tel.: +49 931 12061 Fax: +49 931 14549 Bayerischer Industrieverband Steine und Erden e.V. Fachabteilung Juramarmor & Solnhofer Naturstein-Platten Marktplatz 5 D–91788 Pappenheim www.biv-juramarmor.de Tel: +49 9143 588 Fax: +49 9143 6412

International umbrella associations: VÖN Vereinigung Österreichischer Natursteinwerke Scharitzerstr. 5/II A–4020 Linz www.naturstein.at Tel.: +43 732 656048 Fax: +43 7612 89433 Fachverband für Steinmetze PO box 359 A–1045 Vienna Tel: +43 1 50105-3241 Fax: +43 1 50105-284 Federation Bèlge des Associations de Maitres Tailleurs des Pierres Rue de Lombard 34 - 42 B–1000 Bruxelles www.pierresetmarbres.be Tel.: +32 2 2230647 Fax: +32 2 2230538 National Association of Master Masons 27 a Albert Street, Rugby GB–Warwickshire CV21 2CG www.namm.org.uk Tel.: +44 1 788542264 Fax: +44 1 788 542276 The Finnish Natural Stone Association FIN–PL 999, 00101 Helsinki P.O. Box 999 www.linstone.com Tel.: +358 9 22922968 Fax: +358 9 22922969 SN.ROC 3, rue Alfred Roll F–75849 Paris Cedex 17 Tel.: +33 1 44014701 Fax: +33 1 40540328 Mc Keon Stone Federation Stradbally Co. IRL–Laois, Irland Tel.: +353 0 502 25151 Fax: +353 0 502 25301 Associazione Italiana Marmomacchine Via Cenisio No. 49 I–20154 Mailand www.assomarmomacchine.com Tel.: +39 02 315360 Fax: +39 02 315354 Algemene Nederlandse Bond Van Natuursteenbewerkendebedrijven Kastanjelaan 6b NL–P-B 3833 AN LEUSDEN Tel.: +31 33 4947518 Fax: +31 33 4948350

The Norwegian Mining and Quarrying Industries Essendropsgt 3 N–Majorstuen Tel.: +47 2308778587 Fax: +47 23087894 The Employers’ Association of Stone Industry Niedziakowskiego 16a/1 Pl–45-085 Opole Tel.: +48 77 4021459 Fax: +48 77 4567349 ASSIMAGRA R. Aristides de Sousa Mendes, 3B P–1600 Lissabon www.assimagra.com Tel.: +351 21 7121930 Fax: +351 21 7121939 Pro Naturstein Schweizerische AG für den Naturstein PO box 6922 CH–3001 Bern Switzerland www.pronaturstein.ch Tel: +31 31 262322 Fax: +31 31 262670 Naturstein Verband Schweiz Konradstr. 9 Postfach 7190 CH–8023 Zürich www.nvs.ch/nvs/ Tel.: +41 433666600 Fax: +41 433666601 SSF Industrigatan 6 S–29236 Kristianstad Schweden Federacion Espanola de la Piedra Natural Avenida de los Madronos, 39 E–28003 Madris www.fdp.es Tel.: +34 91 3881467 Fax: +34 91 3005055

131

Index

Index abrasion resistance 94, 95 adhesive 37, 51 agglomerate 10, 68, 95 air cavity 26, 37, 47 aluminium 37, 45, 55, 57, 101 amphibole 12, 13, 14 anorthosite 82 aphrite 58, 77 arch 120 ashlar masonry 18, 45, 114, 116, 120 augite 12, 13, 14 balcony 47 balustrade 34, 42 basalt 10, 14, 40, 58, 65 basaltic lava 23, 58, 67, 113 binder 10, 52, 102, 103, 108 biotite 12, 13, 14, 20 bitumen 17, 102 bluestone 58, 76 brecciated stone 40 brown haematite 19 brushed 52, 99 calc-silicate rock 82 calcareous binder 16 calcite 11, 23, 52, 58 calcium carbonate 11, 18, 19, 22 capillary action 40, 47, 52, 108 capping 30, 38 cement 37, 51, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108 cement mortar 26, 37, 48, 51 cement screed 32, 37, 42, 102 chemical sedimentary rock 11 chlorite 11, 23 chlorite schist 11, 23 cladding 17, 18, 45–57 cladding panel 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52 clastic sedimentary rock 11 clayey shale 11, 17, 20, 30 cleaning 52, 105, 106, 107, 108 column 50, 53, 55 composite element 45 compressive strength 94, 95 concrete 102, 108 condensation 29, 47 conglomerate 11, 16, 23 construction joint 37 copper 30, 38 corner 34, 53, 54, 113 cornice 30, 53 crystal 10, 91 dacite 10, 58, 67 damp-proof course 57 deformation 104 132

diabase diorite

10, 11, 58, 66 10, 13, 58, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65 disabled person 39 dog-leg staircase 42 dolomite 11, 19, 23, 58, 76, 80 door 27, 39, 40, 47 dowel 28, 47, 48 drainage 37, 39, 40, 52 driving rain 29, 39, 47, 105 eaves 30, 36, 113, 124 edge clearance 47 expansion joint 37, 108 exposed fixings 51 external wall 27, 29, 30, 45, 46, 47, 108, 118 extrusive rock 10, 14, 23, 66, 67 facade 45, 46, 47, 49, 52 faced masonry 45 facing 45 feldspar 12, 23 fire 32, 108 fishtail anchor 28, 30 fixings 45–51, 54–57, 108 flamed 101 flashing 28 flat roof 39 floating screed 26, 40, 42, 102, 104 floor covering 12, 13, 15, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22 floor finish 16, 95, 102–105, 107, 108 floor tile 19, 26, 32 foundation 26 foyaite 23, 82, 86 framing system 46, 49, 50 frost heave 40 frost resistance 95 furrowed 99, 101 gabbro 10, 11, 14, 21, 23 garnet 58, 81 glass 10, 15 glauconite 17 gneiss 10, 11, 16, 20, 23 grain 10, 11, 102, 103 granite 10–12, 40, 51, 52, 58, 60–65, 82, 84, 85, 101, 108 granodiorite 10, 23, 58, 60–65 graphite 20, 22 gravel 11, 40, 102 greywacke 11, 20, 58, 71 grout 47, 51, 103, 104 grouted dowel 47, 48, 51 gutter 30, 39 gypsum 16, 19, 40, 52, 102, 108 haematite 17, 19, 20, 23

handrail 32, 34 hornblende 12, 13 hypabyssal rock 10 Igneous rock 10, 12, 13, 58, 82, 94, 96 ilmenite 22 impact sound insulation 32, 40, 42 Impregnation 52, 107, 108 internal wall 20, 34, 120 iron pyrite 23 jamb 27 joint 45, 47, 54, 57, 104 lamprophyre 10, 58, 65 larvikite 12 lava stone 10 lightwell 39 limestone 10, 11, 18, 19, 23, 52, 58, 76–80, 82, 87, 88, 94, 96, 105 limonite 18, 20 lining 53, 55, 56 lintel 28, 39, 56 magma 10, 13, 15, 20 magnetite 14 marble 11, 23, 52, 82, 90, 91, 105, 108 marcasite 19 marlaceous binder 17 mastic asphalt 40, 102 matrix 10, 14, 15, 18, 66, 81 mechanical damage 26, 36 metamorphic rock 10, 11, 16, 21, 22, 23, 39 mica 21, 23, 82, 92, 93 migmatite 11 mineral 10, 11, 23, 102, 103, 107 modulus of elasticity 94, 95 moisture load 36 molten mass 10, 12 mortar 45, 48, 51, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108 movement joint 37, 104 muscovite 17, 20 nepheline 23 non-slip finish 27, 39 oil shale 58, 75 olivine 13, 14, 21 open riser 32 orthogneiss 11, 20, 58, 81, 82, 92 paragneiss 11, 20, 82, 92, 93, 94, 96 parapet 35, 38 patination 38, 52, 116 paving 12 peridotite 10, 11, 21 phyllite 19, 23 picrite 58, 66 plagioclase 12, 13, 14, 17 plaster 26, 29, 42, 44, 104

Index

plinth 26, 27, 36, 37, 40, 122 plutonic rock 10, 12, 13, 23, 51 ointed 97, 99 polished 52, 96, 100, 105, 106 pore 10, 108 porphyry 10, 14, 40, 58, 65, 94, 96 pressure 10, 11, 52, 95, 108 pyrite 22, 23 quartz 10, 23, 58, 72, 81 quartzite 11, 20, 23, 82, 92, 93 rainwater drip 28, 30, 38, 57 red ironstone 23 render 26, 28, 37 retaining fastener 47, 49, 51, 57 reveal 28, 29, 53, 55, 56, 57 rhyolite 10, 14, 58, 65, 66, 82, 86 riser 42 rock division 10 rock group 10 rock type 10 roof 17, 19, 20, 30, 39 sandblasted 101 sandstone 11, 17, 20, 23, 52, 58, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 82, 89, 108 sanidine 14 screed 37, 102, 103, 104 sealing compound 47, 104 sedimentary rock 10, 11, 58, 82, 94, 96 self-levelling screed 37, 40, 102 serpentine 11, 21 serpentinite 11, 21, 23, 58, 81, 82, 93 sheet metal 30, 36, 37, 38, 47, 53 silicate 10, 21, 47, 82, 92 silicic acid 10, 23 skirting 26, 42, 44, 104 slate 23, 30, 58, 75, 81, 96 slating 30 soiling 38, 44, 51, 52, 106, 107 sound insulation 26, 32, 40, 42, 44 spandrel panel 28, 29, 57 specific heat capacity 95 splashing water 26, 36 splash zone 36 stainless steel 47, 50, 51, 56, 108 stairs 22, 32, 34, 42, 44, 103, 105 stair string 32, 34 steel 47–50, 51, 108 step 27, 32, 39, 42 stone flag 39, 111 stone slab 26 supporting fastener 47 surface finish 52, 97, 98, 100, 101, 105, 106 surface treatment 60–67, 76–81, 84–93 syenite 10, 12, 14, 23, 82, 86

temperature 10, 47, 52, 95, 102, 108 temperature gradient 36 tensile bending strength 94, 95 tephritic lava 58, 67 thermal conductivity 94, 95 thermal expansion 12–22, 60–81, 94, 95 thermal insulation 47, 51, 54, 57, 108 thick-bed method 37, 42, 103 thin-bed method 37, 40, 103 threaded fastener 51 trachyte 10, 23, 58, 66 travertine 11, 18, 19, 23, 58, 79, 82, 88 tread 27, 32, 34, 42 tuff 10, 58, 68, 94, 96 undercut anchor 47, 51, 55, 57 underfloor heating 37, 102 upper mantle 10 ventilation 37, 45, 46, 47, 54, 108 ventilation cavity 45, 46, 54, 108 volcanic tuff 10, 15, 58, 68, 94, 96 wall tie 45 waterproofing 26, 29, 36, 39, 52 water absorption 12, 52 waxed 99 weathering 10, 12, 17, 22, 52, 108 window board 29 window frame 28, 29, 39, 55, 56, 108 window head 28, 29, 53, 56 window sill 18, 19, 28, 53, 57, 108 wind load 45, 46, 47 wood 37, 45 workmanship 44, 51

133

Index of names Picture credits

Index of names page 111 Jamers Plads, Copenhagen • Client: Realkredit Danmark, Copenhagen • Architects: Brandt Hell Hansted Holscher, Copenhagen Project architect: Erik Brandt Dam Assistant: Carsten Lassen • Structural engineers: Berthelsen + Holck A/S, Copenhagen page 112 Office of the Federal President, Berlin • Client: Federal Republic of Germany • Architects: Gruber + Kleine-Kraneburg, Frankfurt a.M./Berlin Martin Gruber, Helmut Kleine-Kraneburg Assistants: P. Kretz and M. Schmidt-Skadborg (project managers), G. Brennert, N. Brockenhuus-Schack, L. Haas, H. Hess, J. Kimplinger, I. Klitsch, S. Köbele, O. Langer, S. Lau, H. Nerger, B. Reiners, T. Schaadt • Tender management and site supervision: Architects from BKSP Projektpartner GmbH, Hanover • Structural engineers: Ingenieurbüro Polónyi & Fink, Berlin page 113 Museum of Modern Art, Vienna • Client: Republic of Austria, MuseumsQuartier Errichtungs- & Betriebsgesellschaft • Architects: Ortner & Ortner, Vienna Laurids and Manfred Ortner, with Christian Lichtenwagner Assistants: Angela Hareiter, Joseph Zapletal, Helmut Kirchhofer, Rosa Borscova, Mona El Khaf if, Christian Nuhsbaumer, Georg Smolle, Roswitha Kauer, Szczepan Sommer, Wolfgang Steininger, Phillip Tiller, Natalie Arzt • Structural engineers: Fritsch, Chiari & Partner, Vienna page 114 House in Latien, Italy • Client: not specified • Architects: Döring Dahmen Joeressen, Düsseldorf Wolfgang Döring, Michael Dahmen, Elmar Joeressen Assistants: Mark Altgassen • Structural engineer: Giorgio Marziali, Acquapendente Prov. Viterbo, Italy page 115 House near Sarzeau, France • Clients: Babette Soulie, Jean Paul Bertho • Architect: Eric Gouesnard, Nantes • Structural engineers: INGETEC, Nantes page 116 House in Eichstätt, Germany • Clients: Mr & Mrs Schöpfel • Architects: Theodor + Heide Hugues, Munich Assistant: Ulrich Blickle • Structural engineer: Christos Michael, Munich

134

page 117 Town restoration in Salemi, Italy • Client: Diocesan Status of Ordinary of Mazara del Vallo, Italy • Architects: Álvaro Siza Vieira, Porto, Portugal Roberto Collovà, Palermo, Italy Assistants: Oreste Marrone, Viviana Trapani, Ettore Tocco, Giambruno Ruggieri, Francesca Tramonte, Ketti Muscarella, Marco Ciaccio, Guiseppe Malventano, Alba Lo Sardo, Renato Viviano Arch., Allessandro D`Amico, Pierangelo Traballi, Angela Argento, Melchiorre Armata • Structural engineer (cathedral): Sergio De Cola, Palermo page 118 Wine store in Vauvert, France • Client: not specified • Architect: Perraudin Architectes, Vauvert Gilles Perraudin, Françoise Jourda • Structural engineers: AGIBAT/MTI, Lyon, François Marre

page 123 Thermal baths in Vals, Switzerland • Client: Gesellschaft Hotel & Thermalbad Vals AG (Hoteba) • Architect: Peter Zumthor, Haldenstein, Switzerland Assistants: Marc Löliger, Rainer Weitschies, Thomas Durich • Structural engineers: Jürg Buchli, Haldenstein, Switzerland Casanova + Blumenthal AG, Ilanz, Switzerland page 124 City and regional library, Dortmund • Client: Odeum Grundstücksverwaltungs-GmbH & Co., a subsidiary of Deutschen-Anlage-Leasing GmbH, Mainz • Architect: Mario Botta, Lugano Assistants: Davide Macullo, Carlo Falconi Partner architect: Gerd Vette, Cologne • Structural engineer: Klemens Pelle, Dortmund

page 119 Museum in Korbach, Germany • Client: Korbach Local Authority • Architects: Penkhues Architekten, Kassel Prof. Berthold Penkhues Assistants: Siegfried Wendtker, Johannes Wettengel, Antje Niebergall, Annika Saenger,Katharina Badorek, Peter Becker • Structural engineers: EHS Ingenieure, Lohfelden/Kassel

page 125 Carinthia state archives, Austria • Client: Federal State of Carinthia • Architects: Horst Aichernig, Villach, Austria Edwin Pinteritsch, Spittal a.d. Drau, Austria • Structural engineer: Günter Ertel, Klagenfurt, Austria

page 120 Bank extension in Schönaich, Germany • Client: Volksbank Schönbuch, Schönaich • Architects: Kaag und Schwarz, Stuttgart Werner Kaag, Rudolf Schwarz Assistants: Thorsten Kock, Almut Schwabe, Horst Fischer, Marcus Lembach • Structural engineers: Merkt und Le, Böblingen

Picture credits

page 121 Chapel of rest, Munich-Riem • Client: MRG – Massnahmenträger Munich-Riem GmbH • Architects: Andreas Meck, Stefan Köppel, Munich Assistants: Werner Schad, Peter Fretschner, Susanne Frank, Evi Krebs, Alfred Flossmann • Structural engineer: Dieter Herrschmann, Munich page 122 Community buildings in Iragna, Switzerland • Architect: Iragna Local Authority • Architect: Raffaele Cavadini, Locarno Assistants: Fabio Trisconi, Silvana Marzari • Structural engineer: Giorgio Masotti, Bellinzona

Photos not specifically credited were taken by the architects, provided by the manufacturer, or supplied from the DETAIL archives. page 7: Shinkenchiku-Sha, Tokyo pages 109, 113: Frank Kaltenbach, Munich page 111: Jens Lindhe, Copenhagen page 112: Stefan Müller, Berlin page 114: Manos Meisen, Düsseldorf page 115: Philippe Rault, Nantes page 116: Gert von Bassewitz, Hamburg page 117: Roberto Collovà, Palermo page 118: Serge Demailly, Saint Cyr Sur Mer page 119: Klemens Ortmeyer / Architekturphoto, Düsseldorf page 120: Oliver Schuster, Stuttgart page 121: Michael Heinrich, Munich page 122: Filippo Simonetti, Brunate page 123: Ralph Richter / Architekturphoto, Düsseldorf page 124 top: Cornelia Suhan, Dortmund page 124 bottom: Jochen Helle, Dortmund page 125: Wolf-Dieter Gericke, Waiblingen