Your California Governments in Action [2nd ed., 3rd printing, Reprint 2019] 9780520328303

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Your California Governments in Action

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CALIFORNIA COUNTIES: ORGANIZATION, HEADQUARTERS, AREA, POPULATION

County Alameda Alpine Amador Butte Calaveras Colusa Contra Costa Del Norte El Dorado Fresno Glenn Humboldt Imperial Inyo Kern Kings Lake Lassen Los Angeles Madera Marin Mariposa Mendocino Merced Modoc Mono Monterey Napa Nevada Orange Placer Plumas Riverside Sacramento San Benito San Bernardino Sgn Diego San Francisco City-County Sa|t Joaquin San Luis Obispo San Mateo Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Shasta Sierra Siskiyou Solano Sonoma Stanislaus Sutter Tehama Trinity Tulare Tuolumne Ventura Yolo Yuba

Organization (GL means general law organization; C means charter organization) C GL GL C GL GL GL GL GL C GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL C GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL C GL C C C GL GL C GL C GL GL GL GL GL GL GL GL C GL GL GL GL GL GL

Headquarters location Oakland Markleeville Jackson Oroville San Andreas Colusa Martinez Crescent City Placerville Fresno Willows Eureka El Centro Independence Bakersfield Hanford Lakeport Susanville Los Angeles Madera San Rafael Mariposa Ukiah Merced Alturas Bridgeport Salinas Napa Nevada City Santa Ana Auburn Quincy Riverside Sacramento Hollister San Bernardino San Diego San Francisco Stockton San Luis Obispo Redwood City Santa Barbara San Jose Santa Cruz Redding Downieville Yreka Fairfield Santa Rosa Modesto Yuba City Red Bluff Weaverville Visalia Sonora Ventura

Woodland Marysville

* E s t i m a t e of the C a l i f o r n i a D e p a r t m e n t o f F i n a n c e f o r 1959.

Area in square miles 732 776 601 1.698 1,027 1,140 714 1,024 1,737 5,950 1,337 3,575 4,089 9,991 8,003 1,159 1,238 4,531 4,115 2,112 529 1,463 3,539 1,995 3,823 3,030 3,330 783 974 795 1,411 2,593 7,223 983 1.392 20,175 4,221 42 1,448 3,334 447 2.740 1,328 435 3,858 923 6,256 822 1,582 1,450 608 2,925 3,096 4,856 2.190 1,858 1,014 632

Latest population estimate* 892,300 400 9,000 74,300 9,400 11,500 377,100 18,900 22,400 348,000 16,800 95,800 71,200 10,600 282,400 48,200 12,400 13,600 5,880,000 40.400 140.200 4,100 51,400 89,300 9,100 2,200 194,600 64,500 17,700 634,100 52,100 11,700 265,300 461,700 15,600 483,900 965,100 797,000 242,400 68.500 408,400 126,900 595,800 71,600 52,200 2.400 30,400 128.800 146,100 150,500 31,200 23,200 10,300 152,800 12,900 180,400 58,400 26,500

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during the first years of statehood, is the largest county. Its more than 20,000 square miles stretch from the Orange Belt into the Mojave Desert and make it the largest county in area in the United States. At the other extreme, the combined citycounty of San Francisco covers forty-two square miles, which is less than one-tenth the size of the city of Los Angeles. T h e smallest regular county is Santa Cruz, with 435 square miles. There are great differences in population as well. Alpine County, high in the Sierra Nevada, has four hundred people, which is fewer than it had in 1900. Los Angeles County, on the other hand, has almost six million residents, and thousands of people are continuing to move into the county. In comparison, most California cities contain less than five square miles and have fewer than 10,000 people.

TWO KINDS OF ORGANIZATION Under the constitution of 1849, the State Legislature had relative freedom in making laws about counties. During the early years, some general laws about the powers and the organization of all counties were passed, but special laws pertaining to one or to a few counties were more frequent. This was changed by the new and present constitution of 1879, which required that a uniform system of county government be established. Later, legislators were forbidden specifically to pass special laws affecting activities and elections in only a few counties. As a result, the State Legislature must now deal with counties as a group by passing general state laws.

General Law Organization Forty-seven counties are organized under general state laws, which provide the form and functions of government in effect in all of them. About four out of every five counties in California, therefore, function under general law organization.

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Charter Organization A second type of county organization became possible in 1911, when the voters approved a state constitutional amendment. This county home-rule amendment permitted any county in the state, regardless of population, to draw up a charter. The election of fifteen people to write a charter is the first step. This is usually done after a certain number of county voters request such an election. The governing board, called the board of supervisors, may also start the process. The charter drafters are given one year to decide what should and should not be in the charter. The finished document is then submitted to the voters and is adopted if a majority vote "yes." The charter goes into effect after approval by the State Legislature, which has yet to reject such a document. A charter does not free a county from its dependence upon many general state laws and state constitutional provisions. Certain matters must be in the charter. Various county offices cannot be abolished or their powers taken away from them. Furthermore, a charter county may give itself only such new powers as do not conflict with the general state laws. You may well ask why the residents of any county should go to the trouble of trying to get a charter. There are two main reasons. It permits a county to take account of local conditions that cannot be covered in general laws. It enables a county to simplify its organization. For example, it could make more officials appointed and responsible to the persons appointing them. Charters in Most Populous Counties.—The desire to deal in a different way with some matters is greatest in counties having large populations. Most of them have adopted charters. These populous counties having charters are Los Angeles, San Bernardino, Alameda, Fresno, Sacramento, San Diego, San Mateo, and Santa Clara. The city-county of San Francisco also has a charter. The heavily populated noncharter counties continuing under the general law organization are Contra Costa, Kern, Orange, Riverside, and San Joaquin. Only two lightly

CHARTER OF THE

COUNTY OF SACRAMENTO STATE OF CALIFORNIA ¿s in Effect July

1,1933

A R T I C L E I. Name and Rights of the County SECTION 1. The County of Sacramento, as it now exists, is a body corporate and politic, and as such has and shall have all the rights and powers which are now or may be hereafter provided by the constitution and laws of the State of California, and by this Charter, including the right and power to acquire, own and operate public utilities; and it shall have such other powers as are necessarily implied. SECTION 2. The powers mentioned in the preceding section can be exercised only by a Board of Supervisors, or by agents or officers acting under their authority, or by authority of law, or of this Charter. SECTION 3. The corporate name shall be County of Sacramento, and by that name it must be designated in all actions and proceedings affecting its corporate rights, properties, powers and duties. A R T I C L E II. Supervisors SECTION 4. The Board of Supervisors, shall consist of five members, one from each supervisorial district. Each Supervisor shall be nominated by the electors of this district at the time and in the manner provided by the primary laws of the State. All Supervisors shall be elected by the electors of their respective districts. A R T I C L E III. Supervisors Districts SECTION 5. The County of Sacramento is hereby divided into five supervisorial districts, designated as First, Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Supervisor Districts, respectively, and they are established and bounded and described as follows: F I R S T SUPERVISOR DISTRICT shall comprise all that portion of the City of Sacramento lying north of a line drawn from the Sacramento Riyer easterly along the center line of " K " Street This is the beginning of the Sacramento County charter, which contains the county manager form of government.

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settled counties operate under the charter organization. They are Butte and Tehama. In 1912, Los Angeles County became the first to adopt a charter. Santa Clara County has the newest one, adopted thirty-eight years later. Unsuccessful attempts to obtain charters have been made bv citizens of ten other counties, including Merced, Napa, Santa Barbara, and Siskiyou. T h e most recent defeats of county charters took place in Marin and Riverside counties in 1958.

TWO FORMS OF COUNTY GOVERNMENT Most California counties function under the supervisor form of government. This is the type in operation in all general law counties and most charter counties. It is the only form available to counties existing under the general law organization.

The Supervisor Form Under the supervisor form, the main governing body is the board of supervisors, whose five members are always elected for four-year terms. This board makes the laws of the county and tries to cooordinate the work of other county officials. In this form of county government , there is no executive similar to the Governor. Instead, the supervisors together are the main county executive group as well as the major county legislative body. T h e supervisors usually have a difficult job in coordination efforts, since many other county officials are independently elected and are therefore not required to cooperate with other parts of the county government if they do not want to. Thirteen county officers, in addition to the board of supervisors, must be elected in general law counties. T h e y are the assessor, auditor, clerk, coroner, district attorney, public administrator, public defender, recorder, sheriff, superintendent of schools, surveyor, tax collector, and treasurer. Their duties will be discussed later. Many of these officials are also elected in many charter counties, although any of them, except the supervisors,

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can be made appointive if the county voters want to change parts of the charter. T h e supervisors of twenty-five general law counties, all of which must have the supervisor form and many elected officials, have hired an assistant. This development has occurred in most of these counties since 1955. This action has been taken in an

THE SUPERVISOR FORM

BOARD OF SUPERVISORS ®

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MANY ELECTED OFFICIALS

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effort to increase coordination of county governmental activities. T h e assistant is known as the county administrator or county chief administrative officer. H e is operating in such general law counties as Contra Costa, Kern, Monterey, Sonoma, and Stanislaus. T h e board of supervisors in a general law county cannot give any of its authority to such a person, but he can act as an adviser. He makes recommendations on financial matters, including the annual financial plan or budget. H e can also make suggestions as to how the work of the county can be improved. Most charter countics also have the supervisor form of county government. Several of them, however, have used their home-rule powers to make a number of officials appointed by the supervisors rather than elected. In addition, six have hired THE COUNTY MANAGER FORM IN SANTA CLARA COUNTY

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a chief administrative officer. T h e charter counties with chief administrative officers are Alameda, Butte, Fresno, Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and San Diego. Both of these developments have sometimes taken place in the same charter county. Los Angeles County is a good example of a charter county with the supervisor form which has both reduced its number of elected officials and employed a chief administrative officer.

The County Manager Form Three counties function under the second kind of county governmental form, the county manager or county executive plan. This form is possible only in counties that have adopted their own charters and therefore function under the county charter organization. T h e three are Sacramento, San Mateo, and Santa Clara counties. Under this system there is again a board of five supervisors elected for four-year terms. As under the supervisor form, they pass laws and regulations for the county. H o w ever, in addition, they hire, and may at any time remove, the manager or executive, who is responsible to them for the quality of county services. In turn, the supervisors are responsible to the people. The powers of the manager arc largely laid out in the charter. H e appoints many of the county officials who arc generally elected under the other form of county government. H e makes the first draft of the budget, which can be changed by the supervisors before they put it into effect. He keeps a check on the spending of county money.

IMPORTANCE OF THE SUPERVISORS' JOB T h e board of supervisors is always important in county government. This is because supervisors work out the details of many county activities which are laid out in general terms in the state laws and also in the charter, if the county has adopted one. Five supervisors make up the board, and they are elected

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for four-year terms, generally from different sections of the county called supervisorial districts. For example, generally the voters who live in the northern part of a county elect a resident of their section of the county to be their supervisor. T h e names of the candidates for the office appear on the ballot without any political party label. T h e supervisors meet at the county seat at regularly scheduled times. In most countics, the board will hold meetings once or twicc a month. In some larger countics, however, there are one or two meetings every week. In addition, many supervisors spend a number of days each month at the county seat, talking with citizens and county officials and taking care of minor matters. T h e job of being a member of the board of supervisors is full-time only in Los Angeles County. Practically all people elected as supervisors, therefore, continue their own occupations during their term of office. Many of them come from rural areas of the county and are ranchers or farmers. Some live in cities and are in a business, such as operating a store, or in a profession, such as law or medicine. Quite often several supervisors run for reelection, and, in a number of countics, one or more of them have been on the board for many years. Some supervisors receive several hundred dollars a year in salary, most are paid several thousand dollars, and in Los Angeles County, the annual salary of a supervisor is $21,000. T h e board of supervisors chooses one of its members to serve as chairman. In most counties, this gives the chairman the added duties of presiding at board meetings and acting as the representative of the county government in signing various official papers. In San Bernardino County, however, the chairman is also assigned financial and purchasing tasks. Making Decisions into Ordinances Many questions come before the supervisors which require answers. W h a t salaries should certain county officials get?

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Should more voting placcs be established? Should an official county band be hired to give musical concerts? H o w can the attractions of the county be best advertised? Are improvements necessary in the county fair buildings? Is a new bridge needed more on the county road in the west side or on the one in the south? W h a t about reducing or increasing taxes? W h e n a decision has been reached on such problems, it is expressed in a proposed law, which is called an ordinance. T h e content and wording of the suggested ordinance are discusscd b y the supervisors. Opinions may also be presented by any interested citizen of the county. T h e supervisors then vote " y e s " or " n o , " and if three of them favor it, the ordinance is passed. T h e voting record on each proposal is kept. Each ordinance begins with the words " T h e Board of Supervisors of the County of do ordain as follows." T o ordain means to enact or decree or, in other words, to pass a law on a certain subject. Within fifteen days after an ordinance is passed, it is published once in a newspaper issued within the county. If no newspaper is published in the county, the ordinance is posted at the courthouse door. Ordinances usually go into effect thirty days after approval has been given by a majority of the supervisors.

SERVICES TO THE PEOPLE More and Different Functions T h e r e have been important changes in county governmental functions over the years. This should not surprise us, since county governments were organized to provide services to people, and the services which people want vary from time to time. Counties in California were crcatcd as subdivisions of the state government. T h e y were established to perform, in local areas, basic functions of state-wide importance. In these

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early years, therefore, the State Legislature gave counties a number of duties that were significant to the entire state but which could be better handled on a local basis. These included the recording of property rights, building and repairing roads, and providing court services. As can be seen, these are services of both local and state-wide interest. Down through the years, most of these matters have remained services performed by the county governments. Once in a while, however, the state government takes over the major responsibility for supplying a particular service, such as building highways, although the counties continue to help out in the work. In more recent years, as the population of California has grown rapidly, the State Legislature has given the counties added functions. Sometimes the state has said that counties must supply a particular service. Other times it has said that counties may do so. Some of these new county functions help the state government carry out its work, but many of them largely benefit the residents of individual counties. These newer services include parks, recreation, libraries, and public health. Because of the many kinds of county governmental functions, a county government now helps the state government supply state-wide services and also satisfies many local needs in a particular county. Some of these latter services are provided to all the people in the county; others are furnished to county residents who live outside cities. Supplying Help to People Public welfare services are among the most important of many functions that counties perform. There are four major welfare programs carried out by the counties. Each one involves help, usually in the form of money, to a different group. The first is aid to old people. The second is aid to the needy blind and to blind residents who can earn part of their living. The third is aid to needy young people under eighteen years of age whose

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parents are dead, missing, or unable to provide for them. T h e fourth is general relief to poor people in the county who need food, clothing, or certain services. T h e county takes care of the cost of the last program, but the other three are largely paid for by the national and state governments. In giving money to counties for these programs, the state and national governments set up general rules that must be followed. Counties have significant duties in all four programs, however, since they handle the details and deal directly with the people needing help. These programs are carried out in each county by a welfare department working with the board of supervisors or the county board of public welfare. More money More than 25,000 individual tests are run each year on blood and other body fluids in the Los Angeles Comity Hospital. The laboratory technician is running a serum test. DON HOSTER, COUNTY OF LOS ANGELES

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goes into these four types of aid than into any other county governmental service. Most counties also have a county hospital with a county physician and medical staff to improve the health of the poor. In addition, all counties take care of the housing needs of the aged in some way, sometimes through establishing a county home. Main Roads and Side Roads Building and keeping up county roads arc functions of county government. T h e state now builds the main highways, but counties maintain the less traveled roads with financial aid from the state government. Counties are responsible for almost two of each three miles kept up by state and local governments. An important part of the money available to counties for all purposes is spent on roads. T h e county road work of each county is now in the hands of a road commissioner. H e is selected by the board of supervisors and usually is a registered engineer. Many times the county surveyor, whose regular duties include making studies and maps of land in the county, is chosen as the road commissioner. Keeping the Records The county government records and preserves documents and other information to protect property and personal interests. A county official, known as the recorder, records marriages, wills, land titles, military discharges, births, and deaths. Another county official, the clerk, performs other recording activities. Many matters are first filed with the recorder and then given over for safekeeping to the county clerk. The clerk also keeps lists of voters in the county, election returns, naturalization information, and facts about certain county offices. In addition, in most counties, he keeps records of the work of the board of supervisors and the superior court, and acts as the chief county

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election officer. In some larger counties, separate clerks arc assigned these last three functions. Holding Elections The county government has work to do whenever a President of the United States, representatives in the State Legislature, or county officers are being elected. The clerk registers people who want to vote, and the election returns are filed with him. The board of supervisors appoints individuals to run the polling places. After the election, the supervisors look over the results to make sure everything has been in legal order and then send the totals to officials of the national or state government. A i d to the Schools County government is active in education, too, through the county superintendent of schools and the county board of education. The county supplies three types of services to the local school district. First, the county superintendent and his staff visit the schools and make suggestions on courscs of study, textbooks, records, and reports. Second, the county government furnishes various aids to the schools. These may include motion pictures and maps, job placement of students, and library books and materials. Third, the county occasionally sets up special classes for people with physical handicaps. Furnishing Books Books are lent to people living in the county outside of cities, from libraries headed by the county librarian. Small centers are often set up so that people can get the books they want easily and quickly. Some counties have bookmobiles. These vehicles, resembling buses and stocked with books, travel to many parts of the county. Some cities receive books through the county

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library system because of contracts signed by them and the county. Cities pay the county a sum of money for supplying books.

A bookmobile brings many books ixithin easy reach of residents living in remote parts of a county.

Fighting Disease and Dirt Health and sanitation work is carried on by the county government. T h e types of services vary from county to county. A few hire a part-time health officer, who also has a private medical practice. These counties feel that they cannot afford to buy and keep up costly equipment. Most counties have a health department, directed b y a county health officer. T h e workers in such a department have many activities. T h e y collect and use health information and figures, and give talks and make reports on health education. T h e y control diseases, such as

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scarlet fever, smallpox, and tuberculosis, that can spread from person to person. T h e y furnish help to mothers on the care of children. T h e y inspect food, water, and sewage disposal. T h e y have laboratories to check on diseases, the pureness of water, and the pollution of swimming areas., T h e health department in many counties provides services not only to people w h o live in the county outside cities but also to those residing within cities. T h i s is because a number of cities have signed contracts with the county government. T h e county then takes care of the public health needs of city people, f o r which the city government pays a sum of money to the county. This is Whittier Narrows Recreation Area, one of the numerous facilities operated by the Los Angeles County Parks and Recreation Department. DON HOSTER, C O U N T Y OF I.OS

ANGELES

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A Friend to the Rancher and Farmer Several county services are of greatest help to persons living in rural parts of the county. T h e county agricultural commissioner inspects orchards and tree nurseries, and fights insects and pests so that they will not hurt animals and plants. T h e county inspects livestock, sends out information to ranchcrs and farmers, and does away with wild animals that harm people and domestic animals. T h e county also fights forest, brush, and grass fires, which spread very fast in rural sections. Some counties have a fish-and-game warden, who sees that hunters and fishermen observe the state fish-and-game laws.

Let's Have a Picnic! Recreational facilities are also furnished by many county governments. Parks, playfields, and camping-and-picnic grounds are provided. W h e n possible, beach areas are improved and opened to the public. Sometimes, instead of the county offering such services by itself, it cooperates with cities and school districts within the county. In this way, a much larger program can be presented.

The Puzzle Solvers T w o other county officers, the coroner and the public administrator, furnish help when people die under unusual circumstances. W h e n a person dies from violence or in a suspicious manner, the coroner holds an investigation to determine the cause of death. If an individual dies without leaving a will and none of his relatives is known, the public administrator disposes of the property. T h e two offices are often combined.

Assisting the Courts T h e judicial system—the organization and work of judges—is part of the state government and has been discussed in an

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earlier chapter. T h e county government, however, takes part in the activities of superior, municipal, and justice courts in several ways. Furthermore, all or part of the county is used as the area of operation of these three types of courts. Here arc several examples of county governmental action in judicial matters. T h e county clerk often serves as clerk to the superior court and keeps court records on several types of proceedings. A district attorney is elected in each county, and he presents to the court cases that result from apparent violations of either state laws or county ordinances. H e is the public prosecutor, representing the public in court actions. H e also advises county officials, unless the post of county counsel has been set up for this purpose. T h e counties pay part of the salary of the superior court judges. T h e y pay the entire salary of the judges and other officials in the municipal and justice courts. Legal aid is available from some of the county governments. A man may have to appear in court and present a defense against one or several charges. Yet, he may not have money to hire a lawyer for his defense. This is a serious problem, and, if he had nowhere to turn for help, he would have to present his own case, although the charges against him were being presented by a person trained in law. T o take care of this situation, some counties have set up the position of public defender. In counties where this post has not been created, the court appoints a private lawyer who defends the person without charge. Another county official, the sheriff, calls citizens to service on juries. T h e sheriff and his deputies arrest people who are believed to have done wrong, and bring them to court. T h e sheriff also serves statements of charges on people and carries out court orders. Both before and after court proceedings, the county government has work to do. Again, the sheriff provides a good illustration. H e is the chief law enforcer in the county, outside city limits. H e preserves the peace, investigates public offenses, and

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arrests wrongdoers. After being found guilty, some people are sent to the county jail, which is run by the sheriff. Sometimes when an individual has been judged to be at fault, lie is not sentenced to jail or prison. Instead, he is put on probation. This means that he reports for a time to a specially trained person who guides him so that he will not make a mistake again. T h e idea behind probation is that some people can be more easily helped outside jail than in jail. Probation workis carried on by the county government for both adults and young people. A probation officer is in charge of this work.

Necessary Services Additional county officials are needed to make it possible to carry out the functions just discussed. For example, a county must collect money and decide how it is to be parceled out to meet the various needs. T h e auditor is a major officer in several financial activities. Each year the estimated cost and estimated income of each county agency for the next year are sent to the auditor. H e places them in tables along with similar figures for past years. H e then sends all these figures to the supervisors, who can change any of the estimates in adopting the budget or financial plan of the county for the next twelve months. If a county manager or chief administrative officer exists in the county, he helps the supervisors revise the figures for the final budget. T h e auditor also has a major task after the budget goes into effect. T h e n he must approve the spending of money by any county agency, checking to see that it is legal and not more than has been allowed for a particular purpose. Furthermore, the auditor must approve the receiving of money by the county, before it is placed in the county treasury. In other words, the auditor keeps records of all money received or paid out by the county government. T h e value of property for taxation purposes is set by the

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assessor. T h e supervisors then decide the rate of taxes. T h e amount paid by persons or companies depends upon the value set by the assessor and the rate decided upon by the supervisors. Most county taxes are paid to the county tax collector and deposited with the county treasurer. T h e county often places a value on property and collects the taxes on it for cities within the county. This is done through a contract signed by the county and the cities, under which the cities pay for having these duties performed. Additional people work for the county government to carry out the many county activities. In most counties, each county officer selects and fires his own helpers. H e may choose anyone he wishes, although sometimes he will be guided by definite standards. Some counties, however, have set up a unified civil service system, headed by a civil service commission or a personnel officer. In these counties, general rules are made for employing people through examination, setting their salaries, and removing them. People in the welfare department of a county which does not have a civil service program come under a similar system run by the state's Department of Social W e l fare. Counties are becoming increasingly interested in trying to chart the best course for their future development. This is being done through county planning commissions, made up of five to seven private citizens. One or more trained staff members are frequently hired by the commission. It makes regulations that apply to the use of land and to the quality of home and industrial construction in sections of the county outside the boundaries of cities. PAYING FOR THE SERVICES T h e county governments must have considerable money to carry out the various services expected of them. T h e money comes both from funds collected directly by the counties and from funds collected by the state and national governments and

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given over to the counties. T h e largest amount of money collected directly by the counties is obtained from the property tax. Since 1956 counties have been able to levy a sales tax outside cities as well as in cities that do not have such a tax of their own. This type of tax is of growing importance to counties. Counties get much smaller amounts of money from fees and charges for certain services, fines and penalties, and licenses and permits. Considerable money is also given over to the counties by the state and national governments. Some of this money is collected by the state through gasoline and motor vehicle taxes and liquor license fees, a share of it being returned to the counties. T h e remainder of the money comes from grants by the state or national government. This aid is used to support such activities as public welfare, forest protection, highways, and health. BY THE GOLDEN GATE San Francisco is the only governmental unit of its kind in California and one of the few in the United States. It is a combined city and county. This arrangement has been in cffcct for more than a century. In 1856, most of the original San Francisco County was trimmed away to form San Alateo County. The boundaries of the city of San Francisco were made the same as the boundaries of the remainder of the county, the governments of the city and county were combined, and the new city-county of San Francisco came into existence. Although in size the city-county looks like a city, it performs both county and city functions. T h e government of the city-county uses terms from both county government and city government. Under the charter adopted by the local voters in 1931, the governing body of San Francisco is called the board of supervisors. It consists of eleven members, six more than serve in any regular county and more nearly the number on some city councils. It combines the duties of the ordinary board of supervisors and the city

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council. T h e chief official is a separately elected mayor, a title used in most city governments but u n k n o w n in county government. T h e m a y o r has major powers, including the authority to appoint a number of officials. O n e of them is k n o w n as the chief administrative officer, a name used in many counties and cities. T h e r e are other officials, some with county titles and others with city ones. F o r example, the county clerk and the coroner p e r f o r m regular county functions, but the police chief and fire chicf supply regular city services. Sometimes both city and county officials have been retained in San Francisco, and their tasks divided between them. T h e district attorney of San Francisco, f o r example, handles cases against offenders, and the city attorney gives legal advice to officials of the combined c i t y county. San Francisco is different! It is the second most populous city and the fourth most populous county in California. It is The city-county of San Francisco is located at the tip of a peninsula. At right foreground is the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge and in the background is Marin County. SAN

F R A N C I S C O CMAMHI R OF

COMMERCE

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both a county and a city, and covers the entire area of the county in which it is located.

Counties first served as helpers to the state government in providing state governmental services to people in local areas. T h e original number of counties into which the State Legislature divided the state was eventually more than doubled. T h e r e is wide difference in their area and population. T h e y are organized under either general state laws or local charters. Most counties containing large populations have charters. T h e two forms of county government are supervisor and county manager. Under either governmental form, the work of the board of supervisors is important. T h e r e is growing use of a chief administrative officer or county administrator to assist the board. T h e board puts many of its decisions into ordinances. County governmental functions have increased in number and variety over the years. M a n y of the newer ones are designed to satisfy local needs. Public welfare services are among the most important. Counties also construct and maintain many roads, keep records, help in elections, assist schools, provide libraries, and carry on health and sanitation activities. In addition, they aid agricultural areas, establish park and recreational facilities, investigate suspicious deaths and unsettled estates, and participate in court matters. Some officials must perform services so that other functions can be carried out. County functions are largely financed through property and sales taxes and through money collected b y the state and national governments. San Francisco is the only combined city-county in California. INFORMATION PLEASE 1. W h y were counties created in California? 2. Where is the county seat of your county government located? Is it the most convenient location for people f r o m all parts of the county?

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3. H o w docs your county compare in population and area with neighboring counties? 4. Under what kind of governmental organization and governmental form does your county operate? Would you favor a change for your county to another organization or form? W h y ? 5. Does your county have a chief administrative officer or a county administrator? If so, what arc his main duties? 6. W h a t are several of the newer functions of county government? 7. W h a t are the four major public welfare programs performed by counties? 8. In what ways does the county help in local school matters? 9. W h a t county officials take part in court activities? 10. W h y is the work of the county auditor significant? 11. W h a t are the sources of money for counties? 12. W h a t features of the government of San Francisco are different from those of county governments? A. Find out the names, job backgrounds, and length of service of the members of the board of supervisors of your county. B. Look through recent issues of your local newspaper or one of a nearby community and read the articles in which county officials are mentioned. Name the officials and tell what was said about their activities. Important Words and Tains: county scat, city-county, general state laws, charter, board of supervisors, chief administrative officer, county manager, supervisorial districts, ordinance, probation, civil service.

City Government

Most Californians live in cities. Our total population is more than fifteen million, and three-fourths of us are city dwellers. Although our cities contain most of the people, they occupy a small part of the total land. W h e n the land of all California cities is added together, it amounts to only about 1 per cent of the area of the third largest state in the nation. Because city living brings people close together, serious and numerous needs arise and require organized action. A fire can break out and spread very quickly, when a small amount of land is heavily populated. Problems such as sewage-and-garbage disposal and police-and-fire protection also become greater. People living near one another cannot easily work out many of their problems by themselves. They therefore often band together and form a city government. The government of cities is extremely important, because people want the services such public organizations provide.

HOW TO CREATE A CITY Any area in California that has at least five hundred individuals (five hundred registered voters in Los Angeles County) can become a city. Of course, none of the land included may be part 239

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of an existing city. Creating a city takes several steps. People who own a substantial share of the land must act first. They must sign a request to be established as a city. This written statement, called a petition, sets forth the boundaries and the number of residents. The petition is sent to the county board of supervisors, whose clerk reviews the signatures and the description of the boundaries. If the petition is acceptable, the supervisors set a date for a hearing. The board of supervisors may decrease but not increase the size of the proposed city described in the petition. After agreeing on the limits and population, the supervisors announce that an election shall be held in the area to decide whether the territory shall become a city. If a majority of the votes favor the proposal, the board of supervisors declares the territory a city. This procedure is called incorporation, and an incorporated area is a city.

Differences in Population and Area There are 358 incorporated citics, including San Francisco, which is both a city and a county. Cities, also called municipalities, differ in both size and population. Los Angeles has about 460 square miles and is the largest in area in the United States. San Diego, the second largest in area in the state, has almost two hundred square miles. Numerous cities, however, have small areas. Some, for example, possess only one-half square mile of territory. Most municipalities cover two to five square miles. Los Angeles is also the most populous, containing about 2,400,000 people. At the other extreme, Amador in Amador County has only 151 inhabitants, and several others have less than five hundred. Most cities have fewer than 10,000 people. T w o points about area and population differences should be explained. First, many municipalities increase in area after they are established as cities. They usually enlarge through adding land that is not part of another city. This procedure, termed

WESTERN

The contrasting

CITY

size of the city halls of Los Angeles (top) and Rio Vista (bottom) demonstrates the difference in amount of governmental activities of a large and a small city

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annexation, accounts for the large size of such places as Los Angeles, Oakland, and San Diego. Second, the population figure of five hundred is not a requirement once an area becomes a city. This is the reason Amador and other municipalities which do not have five hundred residents can continue to exist as cities. THREE KINDS OF O R G A N I Z A T I O N The structure and powers of California citics arc influcnccd by the type of organization under which they function. Today, our active cities are legally known as special charter cities, general law cities, and freeholder or charter cities. Special Charter Organization During the period of the first state constitution from 1849 to 1879, practically all cities were governed by special, individual charters granted by the State Legislature. The structure, functions, and financing of a city, set out in a special charter, could be changed by the Legislature at any time. Opposition to such detailed state interference grew in the cities, especially in San Francisco. The result was that the new constitution of 1879 prohibited the Legislature from passing special charters or special laws relating to cities. However, municipalities possessing special charters at that time were permitted to continue to have them if they wished. Only Alviso in Santa Clara County retains its special pre-1879 legislative charter, and it, like all municipalities, is protected from additional special laws. There is only one city, then, organized under a special charter. General Law Cities Although the constitution framers wrote in a prohibition against special charters and special laws, they inserted a section directing the Legislature to organize cities by population

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classes. T h e y reasoned that some uniformity in the organization and powers of municipalities was desirable, but variations should be permitted. This provision enables the Legislature to pass general laws about cities. T h e y are general laws because they apply to all cities within a particular class. Following the instruction of the constitution-makers, the State Legislature enacted the Municipal Corporations Bill in 1883. It grouped cities into classes according to population and provided for the organization and powers of each class. A t present, only one general law class that was set up is being used. It consists of sixth-class cities which were renamed general law cities by the State Legislature in 1955. T h e r e are 290 of them. Despite the legislative action, the terms "sixthclass cities" and "general law cities" are still used interchangeably. More than four-fifths of all California cities are operating under general laws. Local Charter Municipalities T h e remaining cities in the state operate under the third and final type of organization. This is the local charter kind and is another result of the reasoning of the framers of the constitution of 1879. You will remember that these constitution-makers prohibited the Legislature from passing special laws but instructed it to pass general legislation relating to cities so that there would be uniformity in many of the laws about municipalities. In addition, they concluded that all cities should not be subjected to general state laws. This is because certain cities, especially the larger ones, have individual and unique needs that can be better handled through decisions of the local residents. T h e y , therefore, inserted a section permitting any city of more than 100,000 people to frame its own charter. T h e voters of the state later amended the provision so as to make any city having more than 3,500 population eligible. A charter gives a city the right to deal with strictly municipal or city matters. In drawing up and adopting such a document,

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the inhabitants themselves decide what type of governmental structure they want and what services should be provided. A charter, then, gives a city partial independence from the State Legislature, but this independence is confined to city affairs and does not carry over to matters of state-wide importance. For example, a city that has a charter can pass laws about the election and removal of its own officers, but it cannot make its own laws for annexing land. The annexation of land is of state-wide concern and is subject to action by the State Legislature. Charter cities therefore have partial, but far from complete, freedom from the State Legislature. The Legislature continues to pass laws affecting charter municipalities on matters that are not wholly municipal affairs. Writing a City Charter.—In your county or a nearby one, there is probably at least one city of more than 3,500 people which does not have a local charter. Possibly this is true of your own city. Now, if there is interest in getting a local charter to replace the general state laws, how is this done? The starting point is for the voters of the city to decide at an election if they want to have a charter drawn up and, if so, which fifteen city residents should do the job. If more of the voters favor the preparation of a charter than oppose it, the fifteen people getting the highest number of votes are given one year to complete the task. After the work is done, the voters decide whether or not they want the finished product to be their city charter. Have the drafters put into the charter the kinds of functions and the type of organization that most of the voters desire their city government to have? This is the question which people are answering when they cast their ballots on the proposal. If a majority of the voters favor the charter, it is sent to the State Legislature. So far the Legislature has approved each charter submitted to it, unless a serious error has been discovered. With favorable action by the Legislature, the charter which has been written by local individuals becomes the basic rules of the government of the city.

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Charters in Most Large Cities Sixty-seven citics, or almost one of every five, have charters. As can be seen in the table, almost all of the large municipalities have adopted them. However, many cities which could obtain charters have not done so. There are two reasons for this. First, many are satisfied with the general laws relating to them which have been passed by the State Legislature. Second, in some localities there has not yet been adequate citizen interest in acquiring a charter. CALIFORNIA LOCAL C H A R T E R CITIES

City Alameda Albany Alhambra Arcadia Bakers field Berkeley Burbank Chico Chula Vista Compton Culver City Dairy Valley Eureka Fresno Gilroy Glendale Grass Valley Hayward Huntington Beach Inglewood Long Beach Los Angeles Marysville Merced Modesto Monterey Mountain View Napa Needles N e w p o r t Beach Oakland Oroville Pacific G r o v e Palo Alto

Latest popula- Date of first and present tion charter estimates 70,642 17,590 53,558 37,271 54,381 121,900 90,966 15,263 35,557 63,877 31,370 3,454 28,011 123,238 6,106 114,460 5,859 65,100 10,067 61,001 324,822 2,397,000 7,826 20,394 38,200 21,840 26,143 19,793 4,776 23,500 405,200 7,025 10,741 48,003

1907, 1937 1927 1915 1951 1915 1895, 1909 1927 1923 1949 1925 1947 1959 1895,1959 1901,1957 1960 1921 1893, 1952 1956 1937 1927 1907,1921 1889, 1925 1919 1949 1911, 1951 1911,1925 1952 1893, 1915 1958 1955 1889,1911 1933 1927, 1955 1909

City Pasadena Petaluma Piedmont Pomona Porterville R e d o n d o Beach R e d w o o d City Richmond Riverside Rosevillc Sacramento Salinas San Bernardino San Diego San Francisco San Jose San Leandro San Luis Obispo San Mateo San Rafael Santa Ana Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Santa Monica Santa Rosa Stockton Sunnyvale Torrance Tulare Valleio Ventura Visalia YVatsonville Whittier

Latest Date of first popula- and present tion charter estimates 123,000 12,595 10,639 62,138 8,018 41,723 43,700 102,944 84,000 11,685 170,949 25,100 90,200 501,851 775,357 160,719 64,649 19,000 65,999 16,526 76,300 55,675 43,281 22,794 87,200 29,980 82,507 41,867 93,372 13,322 68,183 25,985 14,551 13,700 34,100

1901 1911, 1947 1923 1911 1927 1935, 1949 1929 1909 1907, 1953 1935, 1955 1893, 1921 1903, 1919 1905 1889, 1931 1898, 1931 1897, 1915 1933, 1949 1911, 1955 1923 1913 1953 1899, 1927 1927, 1951 1907, 1948 1907, 1947 1903, 1923 1889, 1923 1949 1947 1923 1899, 1946 1931, 1933 1923 1903 1955

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THREE FORMS OF CITY GOVERNMENT T h e structure set up to supply city governmental services to the people may take one of three general forms. T h e y arc called the mayor-council, the commission, and the councilmanager forms.

The Mayor-Council Form T h e mayor-council plan is the oldest and is very often used. In most California cities, it means the election of five individuals to the council to serve as makers of laws for the city. T h e council members select one of their group to be mayor and give him the responsibility of presiding at their meetings. Under a recent state legislative act, a person in a general law city may be directly elected to the office of mayor if the voters approve THE MOST COMMON MAYOR-COUNCIL FORM IN CALIFORNIA

VOTERS

r$i

SI

DEPARTMENTS

M

ETC.

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the proposal. A mayor chosen in this way, however, has the same powers he would have if he were selected for the post by the council. In all general law mayor-council municipalities, the mayor votes as a member of the council and has the added duty of presiding. This is also the situation in a number of charter cities. T h e mayor is more powerful in some charter cities using the mayor-council form. Sometimes he is elected directly to the office of mayor by the people. H e may possess the right to veto legislation passed by the city council, much as the Governor may do with the Legislature. H e may also be similar to the Governor in one or two other ways. T h e mayor may have the right to appoint persons to various positions, such as chief of police or head of the park department. H e may prepare the budget, which is reviewed by the council. T h e budget consists of proposals for spending public money and statements about how much money comes from various sources. T h e budget shows the course of action proposed for the city government for the next year. H o w much money should be spent for different functions and how the money should be obtained are two of the most important decisions made by city officials. The Commission System T h e commission form was the second to come into existence. Although Sacramento became the first commission city in the United States in 1863, this form did not gain much favor until the early years of the twentieth century. Under this system, five or more people are elected as commissioners. T h e y serve as the legislature of the city, just as the council does in the mayor-council form, but in addition each commissioner personally directs an important department of the city, such as police, fire, public works, parks and recreation, or water. Thus, the commissioners as a group carry out the duties of a city council, and separately they supervise the work of individual departments. One of the commissioners is usually picked to be

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the mayor, so that when the commission makes laws it will have a presiding officer. Having commissioners who made laws and directed departments did not work out nearly so well as was expected. The greatest weakness was that each commissioner paid attention almost wholly to his own department. There was little effort THE COUNCIL-MANAGER FORM

VOTERS

MAYOR A N D COUNCIL

DEPARTMENTS

to relate activities to each other or to decide which should receive more money. Then, too, commissioners often tried to increase the importance of their own departments. In doing this, one department sometimes began to perform functions already taken care of by another. These defects led city after city to do away with the commission form. General law cities are not allowed to use the commis-

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sion plan. Many charter municipalities changed their charters to provide for another form of government. W h e n Santa Monica and Vallejo did away with the commission system in 1947, Fresno was left as the sole commission city in the state. Fresno replaced its commission charter in 1957. There is no widespread interest in any city to adopt the plan. T h e commission form of city government is nonexistent in California today, but it remains one of three general forms available to charter cities, if any of them wishes to adopt it. The Council-Manager

Plan

An important reason for the decline of the commission plan has been the fast-rising popularity of another form, the councilmanager plan. Under this system an elected council passes laws, decides what services should be performed by the city, and determines what kinds of taxes should be raised. These are some of the duties that the mayor and council in the mayorcouncil form and the commissioners in the commission system perform. However, the council in the council-manager plan has an additional, significant task. It chooses a city manager who directs the work of the departments and assists the council in carrying out its tasks. In some cities, this person is called the chief administrative officer. T h e mayor is usually selected from the council membership and presides over its meetings. The Manager's Work.—The manager has a number of responsibilities. He puts together the proposed annual budget. In doing this, he discusses with department heads their various needs for money to supply services, decides which requests are most worthy—since the city does not have unlimited funds— and submits his recommendations to the council as a proposed budget for the next year of city business. A second responsibility of the city manager is to appoint the heads of the city departments. If they do not do their work properly, he removes them and hires new ones. He also makes suggestions on how departments can improve their work.

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T h e city manager makes reports to the council on matters about which it desires more information before reaching a decision. This may be a report on any city affair, such as the merits and demerits of having one-man police cars or installing parking meters. In addition, he may prepare a report or statement on a matter which he feels should receive the attention of the council. T h e council may choose any person to be manager, but usually sclects an individual because of his educational training and previous experience. Many managers make a career of such work. A manager usually starts as a city employee, then becomes a department head or works in a manager's office, and finally gets a manager job in a small city. A medium-sizxd or large municipality wanting to hire a manager often hires someone who is the manager of a small city. Thus, city managers are in a profession much as doctors and lawyers are. A majority vote of the council can remove the manager at any time. T h e council-manager plan is the newest form of city government. T h e first city manager in California was hired at Inglewood in 1914. N o w , about three-fifths of our municipalities have managers or chief administrative officers, including San Diego, Oakland, Long Beach, Sacramento, Berkeley, Glendale, and Pasadena.

THE IMPORTANT WORK OF THE COUNCIL T h e governing board, usually called the council, is important no matter what governmental form is in use. Because this is the group that makes the final decisions about all major city matters, its members are always elected by the voters of the municipality. T h e council usually consists of five members, but sometimes there are seven or nine, and once in a while, fifteen. Elected without political party label for a term of two or four years, many of them stand for reelection and serve two or three terms. Since council work is almost always a part-time job, people elected to the positions earn their livelihoods in

WESTERN CITY

The Carmel-by-the-Sea City Council records its sessions on magnetic tapes. The tapes are available to schools, interested citizens, and organizations. The city clerk is operating the recording machine and the mayor is reading a proposed ordinance.

many types of occupations. Councilmcn arc frequently merchants, contractors, engineers, lawyers, or insurance agents. Less often they arc ranchers or farmers, realtors, manufacturers, or teachers. Most of them comc from businesses or professions.

Meetings and Questions Council meetings generally take place one to four times a month. Alost councilmen receive $25 to $50 a month in salary, hut in some municipalities thev receive no money except for ncccssarv expenses. T h e city council of Los Angeles, however, meets every weekday, and its members arc paid a salary of $1 2,000 a year. Most people serve on a council because of their sense of civic duty; that is, they want to study the city's problems and work out solutions helpful to the people. During a term of office, a councilman has to deal with many problems and make many decisions. Should a particular street be widened? Does Main Street require more stop-and-go lights? Should an undeveloped area be given over to the building of homes or of industrial plants? Are more firemen needed? Should

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more swimming pools be constructed? H o w much taxes are required? W h a t kinds of taxes should be collected?

Making a Decision into Law W h e n an answer has been reached on such questions b y one or more members of the council, the decision is put in the form of a proposed ordinance which, if adopted, is a written law. In order for such a proposal to become a law, it must be introduced at one council meeting and passed with majority approval at a later one. Sometimes there is much discussion of the matter because of sharp differences of opinion among council members or citizens. A copy of the ordinance is published in a newspaper or posted in public places. Such legislation begins does orwith a statement such as " T h e City Council of dain as follows." It usually goes into effect thirty days after it is passed.

SERVICES TO THE PEOPLE A city furnishes many services to the people living within its boundaries. This requires it to have numerous officials and employees assigned to various departments and offices, so that the work can be carried out most efficiently. Cities spend more money on supplying protection to persons and property than on any other type of municipal service. Police and fire are the two major kinds of protective work, and they are so important that they are often organized into separate departments headed by a police chief and a fire chief.

The Man with the Badge In protecting life and property and preserving the peace, the personnel of the police department perform several different tasks. Uniformed patrolmen watch for and suppress illegal activity, regulate conduct, and respond to routine and emergency

LONG

REACH

POLICE

DF.PART.YIKNT

Police captain (top) gives out training materials to recruits. Crime laboratory technician (bottom) makes chemical analysis.

LONC REACH POLICE

Member

DEPARTMENT

of junior rifle club organized by police department (top) checks his score n'ith police officer. Police officers (bottom) make a shakedown of two suspects.

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calls for help. In carrying out these duties, patrolmen cover a definite area or beat. Some of them do so on foot, but increasingly they are using two-way-radio-equipped motorcycles and automobiles. Sometimes a thorough, time-consuming investigation must be made of a crime or a suspicious matter. This requires detective work, and, in the larger municipalities, the assignment is turned over to detectives on the police force. T h e immediate job is to find out who the offender is and to capture him. In the larger cities, plainclothesmen are constantly watching for vice, gambling, and narcotics activities. The regulation of traffic is another duty of the police. W r i t ing tickets for speeding, for reckless driving, and for parking violations is only part of this work. Police officers speed up the movement of vehicles and pedestrians at busy intersections. In addition, they gather information at the scene of an accident and make investigations. The police are also active in discovering juvenile delinquents and trying to help them. Many city police departments stay in touch with young people who have committed offenses, and encourage them to develop worthwhile interests. A number of police forces have a special officer or unit working with juveniles in organizing youth programs and school traffic patrols. Fewer than ten individuals often make up the police department of a small city. Los Angeles, however, has more than 6,000 full-time police workers, and San Francisco has more than 1,800. T h e police chief is usually appointed to the post, either by the council, the mayor, or the city manager. Occasionally he is elected by the voters.

Watch That Match! T h e work of the fire department consists of both fire prevention and fire fighting. Since "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," an increasing amount of fire department time is spent on eliminating sources of possible outbreaks. Firemen

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in many departments now make regular inspections of business and industrial locations and private homes. General educational campaigns arc undertaken. In addition, fires arc studied so as to determine the cause and decrease the chances of another one.

CITY OF

Practicing

RICHMOND

the big jimtp is part of the drill training program conducted by the Richmond Fire Department.

Fire-prevention work has been very helpful in reducing the number of fires, but, never knowing where a fire will start, the department must still have sufficient men and equipment ready at all hours to put out fires anywhere in the city. A good alarm or telephone system must also be available. Large cities have a number of fire stations because of the difficulty of quickly covering a sizable area from one central place. T h e fire departments of many small cities are made up of a few full-time paid employees and many volunteers. Volunteers for stand-by duty in case of a major disaster are also part of the

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department in most large municipalities. The more populous cities, however, have large, regular forces whose members specialize in one or more aspects of fire prevention and fire fighting. T h e fire chicf is appointed by the council, the mayor, or the city manager. H e is never elected. It is a part of city life to hear the siren of the fire engine responding to an alarm, see the truck race down the street like a red flash, and watch the fireman on the back of the engine swing in a wide arc at the turn of the corner. W e should remember that the work of the fire department is expensive and dangerous. Numerous firemen have been killed in hurrying to the location of a false alarm. W e should do all we can to prevent fires and to help firemen keep the loss of life and property as low as possible after a fire develops.

Protecting Your Health Health work is another valuable protective service. It includes recording births and deaths, sending out health information, controlling diseases that can spread from one person to another, supplying care to mothers and young children, and making laboratory studies. Most cities make arrangements with the government of the county in which they are located to obtain such services for their inhabitants. Only thirteen municipalities have their own health departments, but most of them are the largest cities in the state. T h e health department is headed by the health officer or director, who is a doctor of medicine, appointed by the council, the mayor, or the city manager.

The Need for Public Works Cities spend much money on public works. T h e two most important ones are streets and sanitation facilities. T h e construction of paved streets became a necessity with the growing use of motor vehicles. Frequent repairing of streets was made necessary by the traffic of heavy trucks, buses, and automo-

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biles. Furthermore, as traffic increased, some streets required widening. T h e s e are the reasons why building and fixing streets are the costliest public works services. T a k i n g care of sewage and refuse is a basic responsibility of a city government, and it also costs much money. G o o d sewerage service calls for piping sewage from homes and indus-

CITV

Street

OF

RICHMOND

construction and repair are major city governmental activities. Here the process of const meting a plant mix asphalt pavement is wider way.

trial places and getting rid of it. More and more cities arc building disposal plants or treating the waste. If the disposal method is poor, water pollution and health problems sometimes develop. A lost cities in southern California themselves collect and dispose of refuse consisting of garbage and rubbish. In the northern part of the state, however, many municipalities sign contracts with private companies, which then provide this service to the people of the city. Although outside burning b y the city or the private firm is still the most common type of

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refuse disposal, it is unsightly and sometimes pollutes the air. Burying refuse or burning it in a huge furnace is becoming more popular. Whether public works are grouped into one department or divided among several, the functions are in the charge of officials such as the public works director, the city engineer, and the street superintendent. They are always appointed by the council, the mayor, or the city manager.

Mental and Physical Growth The educational work of the city government is limited almost entirely to furnishing public libraries. A few municipalities, however, help to support the local school districts, which provide most of the educational services. All the larger cities have their own libraries, run by the city librarian. Many of the smaller cities make agreements with the county library system to handle this work. Charities and corrections are not important activities of the city government; most cities provide hospital facilities only for emergency cases. City recreational activities add to the health and happiness of many young pcopie and adults. Most of these programs include the construction and care of playgrounds and swimming pools, and a schedule of organized games. Some of the larger cities sponsor day camping, folk dancing, hobby clubs, social events, conccrts, and exhibits. Increasingly, city governments and school districts are cooperating in recreation work. More school buildings and grounds are being kept open after regular class hours and during the summer, and sometimes the schools pay part of the salary of the recreation director.

What Some Cities Supply Many cities engage in what are generally known as public service enterprises. These include waterworks, electric light sys-

OAKLAND

City parks frequently

PARK

DEPARTMENT

contain more than grass and trees. In one of the Oakland parks is Willie, the blue iihale, who is a delight to people of all ages.

terns, wharves, docks and landings, rapid transit facilities, and gas plants. In a number of municipalities, these services are provided by private companies; in others the municipal government handles one or more of them. 1 he public service enterprise most often owned and operated by the city government is the waterworks. About one-half of our cities supply water directly to their residents. O n l y a few municipalities own and run any other public service enterprise. T w e n t y - t h r e e have city-owned electriclight plants. Despite this small number, their total output is large because Los Angeles is one of the cities. T w e l v e operate wharves, docks, and landings. Eleven own and operate the bus system. A few, such as San Francisco, provide streetcars. T h e gas plant is run by the city government in five localities, including Long Beach and Palo Alto. T h e money spent b y municipalities on these enterprises is a substantial part o f the total spent by them on all city governmental functions. T h e s e enterprises, however, usually show substantial annual profits.

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Functions Aiding Other Services Other help is needed to carry out the work of the city government. T h e city council needs assistance in keeping problems and decisions in order, and in staying in touch with private citizens. T h e city clerk, appointed by the city council in some cities and elected in others, performs these duties. Municipal elections are an important part of our local governmental system, and the city clerk is the chief election officer in city elections. Then, too, a value must be set on property to be taxed, tax bills and license charges must be sent out, and the money must be collected. W h e n the city does these jobs, the city clerk often receives the assignments. Sometimes an official called the assessor performs the value-setting task. Occasionally the police chief acts as tax collector. Many people are needed to furnish the services that citizens want. A city must, therefore, have definite rules for employing, promoting, paying, and firing persons. This is known as a personnel system, and it, too—like clerical, financial, and legal matters—costs money to operate. T h e personnel system is usually directed by a personnel or civil service board, appointed by the mayor or council. T h e details of the system, however, are often placed in the hands of an appointed personnel officer or the city manager. T h e continuing population increase in California has prompted an increasing number of municipalities to plan for their future growth. Many city governments in the state have appointed planning commissions or boards made up of local citizens to handle this matter. Some of these commissions have in turn hired persons trained in planning to help them. At the end of each year, a check is made of the city's finances. This is done by the auditor or the clerk, or by a private firm of accountants.

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FINANCING THE FUNCTIONS Increased Number of Sources City governments need much money to pay for the services they furnish. A large part of city money, or revenue, comes from taxes on property. Until the depression years of the 1930's, the property tax was far more important for cities than any other revenue producer. Its significance, however, has been decreasing in recent years. It now supplies less than two-fifths of all city funds. Other sources of revenue have partly taken the place of the property tax. A significant new source of city revenue is the city sales tax. In 1945, San Bernardino became the first city in California to adopt a sales tax. Its example was quickly followed in many localities throughout the state, and now three hundred cities have such a tax. In most cities the sales-tax rate has been set at three-fourths of a cent or one cent for each dollar of retail purchase. Business and occupation licenses have also been growing in importance as suppliers of money for cities. T h e cost of the license is often based either upon total receipts or upon number of employees. In addition, fees and charges for other types of licenses and permits, property rentals and sales, grants of privileges, fines and penalties, and specific services, such as garbage or refuse collection, together bring in a substantial amount of money. Cities receive sizable amounts of money that are collected by other governments. T h e principal sources of these funds —largely obtained by the state government and shared with the cities—are liquor licenses, gasoline taxes, and motorvchicle-registration and -license fees. From what has been said, it can be seen that cities finance public services with money acquired from a wide variety of sources. The revenue base of cities is generally broader than that of counties or special purpose districts.

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Most people live in cities, which account for only a small part of the area of the state. A n y area of five hundred or more residents can become a city, if the incorporation proposal is approved by the local voters. Cities differ in area and population. T h e y are organized under special charters, general state laws, and local charters. Mayor-council, commission, and council-manager are the three forms of city government. T h e council-manager form is the newest and has become very popular. T h e activities of the governing board are significant under each of these governmental forms. Its judgments often take the form of ordinances. T h e greater part of city money is spent on protective services. T h e two most important relate to police and fire. Health work is also a valuable protective service. Public works, especially streets and sanitation facilities, are prominent. City educational activities are largely confined to libraries. Many types of recreational activity are supplied. Numerous cities own and operate one or more public service enterprises. Some services must be supplied so that other functions can be performed. City money comes from many sources, of which property and sales taxes and state government funds are the most important.

INFORMATION

PLEASE

1. W h y is it necessary to have c i t y g o v e r n m e n t ? 2. W h a t are the i m p o r t a n t steps that m u s t be f o l l o w e d b e f o r e an area becomes a city? 3. In y o u r c i t y ( o r the one nearest y o u ) , w h a t g o v e r n m e n t a l organization a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l f o r m are in use? W o u l d y o u p r e f e r a different organization or f o r m ? W h y ? 4. H o w does a c i t y g o a b o u t o b t a i n i n g a charter? W h a t p o p u l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t m u s t be met b e f o r e it can start s u c h a p r o j e c t ? 5. If y o u live in o r near a c i t y that has a local charter, h o w d o e s the city c o m p a r e in n u m b e r of p e o p l e a n d the a g e o f its c h a r t e r w i t h other c h a r t e r cities? 6. W h y is the w o r k of the c i t y council i m p o r t a n t ? 7. W h a t activity carried on b y the p o l i c e d e p a r t m e n t a n d w h a t one

City Government

8.

9. 10.

11. 12.

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performed by the fire department do you consider most important? Why? Does the city in which you live (or the one nearest you) operate its own health department; or does the county government furnish health service in the city? Does most of the street work that is now under way in your city (or the one nearest you) consist of repairing, widening, or new construction? Does your city (or the one nearest you) operate any public service enterprises? Which ones? Has it acquired any such enterprises in recent years? W h y is it important for a city to have a personnel system? Does your city (or the one nearest you) have a sales tax? If so, how much money did this source bring in last year?

A. Obtain a copy of the latest budget of your city (or the one nearest you) and write down the four functions that are receiving the largest amounts of money and the number of dollars assigned to each of these functions. B. Attend a meeting of the council of your city (or the one nearest you) and report on the topics that were discussed. Important Words and Terms: incorporation, municipalities, special charter, general law cities, local charter, city manager, council, public service enterprises, assessor, revenue, auditor.

Special Districts

Practically all Californians reside within the area of one or several spccial districts, of which the best-known type is the school district. In some ways, special districts are similar to the other local governmental units previously discussed. Like county and city governments, spccial districts occupy a definite area that may contain many or few people. There are other likenesses. Districts have a governing board, a separate legal existence, the power to raise all or part of their own money, and the right to provide public service. THE MAJOR DIFFERENCES Performing One or a Few Functions Although special districts and other local governments resemble one another in some important ways, they differ in several respects. One of the most important differences is the number of services that each provides. Although counties, cities, and special districts all take care of certain needs of the people, a special district generally furnishes only one or a few services, but a county or city supplies a great many. You have seen in earlier chapters the great number of functions performed by 265

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individual counties and cities. Taken all together, special districts participate in many types of activity, but usually each is limited to one or a few services. Often when a district offers a single service, its function shows in the name of the district. For example, a school district is concerned with education; a fire protection district, with preventing and putting out fires; and a sanitary district, with maintaining good sanitation through disposing of sewage. Some districts furnish more than one service, but far fewer than a city or county does. B y way of illustration, an irrigation district obtains and distributes water, but it can also furnish electric power. It is limited, however, to these services and cannot offer others. In addition, several types of districts sometimes furnish the same kind of service. Sanitary, sanitation, and sewer districts are illustrations of different types performing the same function. A special district is so called because it is created for a special purpose. It is not a general unit of local government, as counties and cities arc, supplying many services, but rather it is a special local government or district handling a single or few functions.

Sometimes Occupying Area of Other Units A second major difference between special districts and other types of local government relates to area. Although no county or city can overlap another county or city, a special district may include within its boundaries all or part of the area of one or more special districts. In certain sections of the state, four, six, or even eight special districts have pyramided one upon another. Each serves many of the same people, but they are all separate governmental operations. A special district can also cross the limits of a city or a county. One special district, for example, may include all or part of the area of several other districts, cities, and counties. Usually, however, districts that pyramid on one another in

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the same area do not perform any of the same services. One irrigation district, for example, will not usually occupy all or part of the territory of another irrigation district. Nevertheless, it may cover some land in other districts, cities, and counties. Similarly, one school district providing both elementary and high school education will usually not overlap any part of the territory of a similar district. Yet it may cover part or all of the area of other districts and local governments performing different functions. T h e boundaries, and even the existence, of many special districts are unknown to most people. Unlike counties and cities, most special districts do not have signs along the highways marking their limits. If they did, you would find a number of them side by side, or within a few miles of each other, while you were traveling certain roads. Also, special districts are not shown on the maps that are in common use. Many in Number A third difference is the number of special districts as compared to the number of countics and cities. California has fifty-seven countics and 358 cities, including one city-county. Special districts, however, total 4,727. This is one of the largest number of special districts in any state of the United States. More than eleven times as many special districts are functioning in this state as counties and cities combined. Elementary, high school, and unified districts furnishing both elementary and high school education account for 1,716 of the total.

Reasons

for So Many Districts.—Why

do we have local

governmental units known as special districts? N o single, general answer can be given that applies to the various kinds. There are several major reasons, but usually only one or t w o have been important to the establishment of a particular type of district. Sometimes the compelling reason is community opinion about the importance of the function to be provided.

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T h e creation of many school districts can be traced to the local decision that education is a very important service and should be set apart from general local government. Other times the reason is that counties and cities do not supply the function needed. This is why irrigation districts, established to provide water for agricultural purposes, were among the first districts organized in California. Another reason for the creation of certain kinds of special districts is that the area of existing local governments is not suitable to the function desired. Thus, when a number of cities in southern California needed to build hundreds of miles of pipeline to get an adequate water supply, they formed a large water district, called the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, to carry out the work. Other reasons may govern under other circumstances. Residents of a new suburban area, for example, often decide that they do not need to incorporate as a city or annex to an existing one, because they require only a few services. Therefore, rather than establishing a city government or becoming part of one, they organize one or more special districts to obtain one or more services, such as fire protection, sewage disposal, or street lighting. Occasionally, the area of a special district will be exactly the same as that of a city or a county and yet will be a separate unit of local government. In this situation, a district may be organized because the other local government has reached its legal taxing limit. T h e limit can be bypassed by setting up a special district that occupies the same area and serves the same people, but is a separate unit for taxing purposes. The Importance of Special Districts T h e characteristics of special districts and the reasons for their creation demonstrate that they are a significant part of California local government. W e should not think them unimportant because each performs only one or a few services. In the

This Imilt-up area looks like part of a city, but it is not within the boundaries of any city. Such areas frequently obtain a number of services from special districts.

first place, the one or few functions provided b y a special district may be very meaningful. Education is the most important service of government and much of it, especially at the elementary and high school levels, is provided by school districts. Likew ise, irrigation districts are significant because the agricultural prosperity of the state depends largely upon water made available by irrigation. Another way of realizing the importance of special districts is to consider the number of functions that all of them together provide. In addition to education and irrigation, these include cemeteries, drainage, fire protection, flood control, garbage collection, hospitals, libraries, lighting, mosquito con-

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trol, parks, police, sewage disposal, soil and water conservation, water, and many others. More than thirty functions are provided b y special districts. T h e i r importance is also revealed in the total amount of money they spend. Each year special districts in California spend hundreds of millions of dollars.

ORGANIZING AND FINANCING Most special districts are created under a general law passed by the State Legislature. T h e Legislature has enacted more than a hundred laws providing methods b y which various kinds of districts can be established. Usually the law does not limit setting up a particular kind of district to only one area. Most of the laws are general and can be used in different parts of the state, if the legal requirements are met. All of them set forth a method of organizing, the procedure for choosing officers and employees, their powers and duties, and the means of financing. Most of them also provide for changing or doing away with the district.

How To Organize a District T h e r e is a general pattern for organizing special districts, although the details of the procedure sometimes vary. T h e usual way that people go about organizing a special district is to circulate a petition in the proposed area. This must be signed by a specific number of residents. T h e percentage of required signatures varies. Sometimes, as in the formation of pest-control and flood-control districts, only people who arc landowners can sign. T h e petition, which describes the territory to be placed within the district and its powers, is sent to the county board of supervisors. Public hearings are held after the supervisors make certain that the number of signatures is adequate. This is followed by an election in the area of the proposed district. If a majority of those voting approve

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the proposal, the county supervisors declare the district to be in existence.

The Governing Boards T h e governing board of most special districts consists of three or five members clcctcd by the district voters. In some districts, however, such as ccmctcry and mosquito-abatement districts, they arc appointed by the county supervisors. In others, the governing board of the county or the city serves as the directors of the district. F o r example, county supervisors make up the governing body of county fire-protection and highway-lighting districts.

Financing and Annexing Most districts are restricted to performing one or a few functions outlined in the general law under which they organized. Several methods of financing services are available to spccial districts. These are taxing property, charging fees and rates, and issuing bonds. Some districts can use all these means; others are permitted to use only one or two of them. Districts can generally be enlarged, after getting the approval of more than one-half of the owners of the area to be annexed. Most districts can be abolished through action of their voters.

FOUR M A I N CLASSES OF DISTRICTS Although there are thousands of special districts in California, they can be grouped into four major classes. T h e first class consists of school districts. T h e second may be called agricultural districts, since they provide services to rural sections of the state. T h e third may be termed suburban districts, because they operate in populated areas outside the boundaries of a city. T h e fourth group is known as metropolitan districts.

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T h e y provide one or more functions to a large area that includes a number of cities and one or more counties.

THE BEST-KNOWN CLASS: SCHOOL DISTRICTS School districts are easily the best known of these four classes of special districts. T h e r e are several reasons why this is true. School districts furnish the most important service of any governmental unit. T h e y are the most numerous type of special district. T h e y cover a larger part of the entire state than any other kind of special district. T h e y spend more than fourfifths of all district money. Usually there are separate school districts functioning at the elementary, high school, and junior college levels. H o w ever, unified school districts providing both elementary and high school education—and occasionally junior college work —have been growing in number in recent years, especially in heavily populated areas. T h e r e are several kinds of elementary school districts: city, regular, joint, union, and joint-union. In addition, there are several kinds of high school districts: city, union, joint-union, and county. T h e difference in names is important mainly to show the state law that was used in organizing the district and to indicate the other local governments functioning in the same area. For example, a union high school district covers the territory of two or more separate elementary districts located in the same county, whereas a joint-union district contains area in more than one county.

The Governing Board's Important Work T h e board of school trustees or board of education is the governing body of the school district. T h e r e are usually three or five members, and most always they are elected by the voters of the district. T h e State Legislature has passed many laws relating to school districts, but the district governing board can exercise independent judgment in carrying out much of its

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work. T h e governing board of the school district has many important functions. It hires and dismisses teachers and other employees. It determines the size of the budget for the school year. It purchases supplies and equipment. T h e board also chooses the site for new schools, approves building plans that meet state requirements, and, within limits, issues bonds to finance the structures. If a high school district, it chooses textbooks from lists approved by the state government. Most important of all, the governing board of the school district makes the final decision about the extent and quality of the school program. T h e governing board often employs a superintendent and other aides, such as principals, to assist in performing its tasks.

State Government Activities As has been noted in earlier chapters, officials of both state and county governments have significant functions to perform in connection with the activities of local school districts. T h e main educational efforts of the state government arc carried out through the State Board of Education and the Superintendent of Public Instruction and his staff. T h e state board, appointed by the Governor, adopts elementary textbooks, which are furnished to school districts, and approves lists of books for use in high schools. It also has authority to issue educational credentials and to approve courses of study for high schools and junior colleges. T h e staff of the state's Department of Education, headed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, advises and assists the school districts.

The County Superintendent and Board Various other responsibilities have been assigned b y the state government to the county superintendent of schools and the county board of education. T h e man or woman serving as county school superintendent visits and inspects the schools

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within the county. This county school official studies the curriculum, textbooks, and qualifications of teachers. He or she also sends attendance and financial records of school districts in the county to the Superintendent of Public Instruction. T h e office of county superintendent of schools provides certain services to school districts that otherwise could be available only to large, wealthy districts. These include audio-visual aids, course improvement, budget assistance, and school structure planning. There is also a county board of education consisting of four elected or appointed members and the county superintendent of schools. T h e board examines and awards certificates to people who want to teach within the county. Although the State Board of Education awards credentials, anyone wanting to teach in a particular county must be approved by the county board of education. Getting and Spending Money School districts obtain money to provide educational services from two main sources. These sources arc taxes paid by owners of property within the boundaries of the district and grants made by the state government. Financial aid for new construction is an important part of state assistance. Small additional amounts are acquired from fees, sales, and national governmental grants. Grants by the state government to school districts are for several purposes. One is for general financial aid to all districts. Another is to help the less well-to-do districts. Others are to assist in financing the education of physically handicapped or mentally retarded students, the transportation of all students, and the work of the county superintendent of schools. Still others help in paying for the maintenance of automobile driver education programs, the attendance of adults receiving educational services, and the building and improving of the facilities of districts whose funds are inadequate.

STATE D E P A R T M E N T

O F EDUCATION, BUREAU

OF AUDIO-VISUAL

EDUCATION

The school building (top) was used before the school district was combined with others. The much larger, newer structure (bottom) was made possible by the formation of a unified school district.

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Fewer and Larger School Districts There is a noticeable trend toward fewer school districts in California. This is coming about in two ways. The first is through merging several elementary districts into one larger elementary district. T h e second is through combining one or more elementary districts and high school districts into a unified district, which supplies both levels of education and possibly junior college training as well. This movement toward larger school areas can be seen best in terms of the number of elementary and unified districts. There are now less than one-half as many elementary districts as existed twenty-five years ago. Furthermore, unified school districts, which were unknown in California until 1936, now number 109. A proposal for establishing a larger school district must be presented to the voters of the districts involved. THE S E C O N D CLASS: AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS Agricultural districts, the second class of special districts, serve people living on ranches and farms and in rural areas. The most important kinds are irrigation, soil conservation, reclamation, and drainage. T h e first two kinds will receive detailed treatment. The Oldest Agricultural Type: Irrigation Districts Next to school districts, irrigation districts are the oldest type in the state. This is because agriculture was important to the well-being of Californians from the early years and water in turn was essential to the development of agriculture. Irrigation districts provided a means of governmental action by which water could be distributed to ranchers and farmers over a wide area. In the absence of such a local governmental unit, the few landowners located along streams would have been in a position to control the water solely for their own use.

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Bringing Water to the Land.—The major function of irrigation districts is to obtain and distribute water for agricultural use. The water is generally obtained from rivers, but occasionally from wells and lakes. For example, the Turlock Irrigation District in the Central Valley gets its water supply from the Tuolumne River and from wells, but the Vista Irrigation District in San Diego County derives its supply from the San Luis Rey River and Lake Hcnshaw. An irrigation district must make arrangements for getting its supply, build and maintain canals and distribution facilities, and sometimes operate pumping lifts. In addition, the district allots water to the members and provides drainage facilities. The largest part of the acreage serviced by irrigation districts is used for alfalfa, clover and cattle grass, and grain and grain hay. Very few irrigation districts engage in another function which has been granted them by state legislation, namely, to produce or buy electric power and to sell it. Although the number of irrigation districts exercising this function is small, their activities are significant. The sale of electric power makes up almost one-third of the money received by all irrigation districts. The Report by the State Engineer.—Before an irrigation district can be created, the State Engineer makes a report on the merits and demerits of the proposal. This is to prevent a repetition of the financial failure of a number of earlier districts. His report includes a thorough study of the proposed district's financial, agricultural, and engineering characteristics. The territory of the district may include any land that can be irrigated from a common source and by the same irrigation system. If the State Engineer does not issue a favorable report, it requires a three-fourths vote at an election to organize the district. The district is governed by elected directors. Once the district is organized, its directors have much freedom of action. The principal restriction is that any loan that the district desires must first be approved by a state governmental

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agency, called the District Securities Commission. Again, this is a means of helping the district avoid financial difficulties. T h e r e are about one hundred irrigation districts providing valuable service to large numbers of people in California. T h c v extend f r o m the Butte Valley Irrigation District near the Oregon state line to the Imperial Irrigation District, which operates the eighty-mile AIl-American Canal to the Mexican border.

A Second Important Agricultural Type: Soil Conservation Soil conservation districts are a second important type of agricultural district. Although irrigation districts were created

U . S. D E P A R T M E N T

OF

AGRICULTURE, SOU. CONSERVATION

SERVICE

A soil conservation district icorks to correct this type of erosion, zchich us as caused by storms.

early in the history of the state, soil conservation districts are fairly recent. It was not until 1937 that the first one was established, and most of them have been organized since 1941.

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As their name indicates, their purpose is to conserve or safeguard agricultural lands. T h e Soil Conservation Service of the national government is interested in such conservation and assists landowners who have organized a soil conservation district. Each district is governed by five elected directors. Wise Land Use.—In this type of agricultural district, residents are encouraged to use wise land practices, such as crop rotation, to prevent the loss of valuable topsoil and water.

L.

S.

DEPARTM KNI

OF

AGRICULTURE,

SOII. CONSERVATION

SERVICE

This forty-acre field, located in a soil conservation district, has been strip-cropped. Crops groivn in a systematic arrangement of strips or bands serve as barriers to ivind and ivater erosion.

Following these rules eliminates the development of deep, useless gullies on ranchcs and farms and increases the productivity of the land. Assistance is also given on engineering problems in connection with irrigation systems, dams, stock ponds, and reservoirs. Some soil conservation districts are very large. One of the largest in the United States is the Mojave Soil Conservation

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District, which came into existence in 1951. The district includes nearly all of San Bernadino County north and east of the San Bernardino Mountains. Its territory contains most of the largest county in the nation and covers almost 18,000 square miles.

THE THIRD CLASS: SUBURBAN DISTRICTS T h e third class of special districts consists of suburban districts. They include many types, such as fire protection, parks and recreation, street lighting, sanitation, and water supply. One or more suburban districts are generally found in a populated area that borders a city but is not part of it. Most suburban districts furnish a single service similar to one of many functions provided by a city government to its residents.

A Catastrophe or Danger W h e n an area near a city is first being built up, there is little need for the many services supplied regularly by a city government to city inhabitants. This is because only a few people are living in the new development. As the construction of houses continues, however, and more people come to live in the area, the desire for public services increases. Usually the need for one service seems urgent to the residents. This may result from a recent catastrophe or fear of a possible danger. For example, a fire may break out and spread rapidly, damaging several new homes in the same block. There arc not enough firemen and fire-fighting equipment to handle the emergency. H o w is the community to get proper fire protection? Most people living there often feel that this is the only service of its type they are going to want. Therefore, they agree that it is unnecessary to become part of a city government or to establish one of their own, since they do not need very many services. T h e usual decision is to form a spe-

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cial district to perform one function. In this situation, it would be a fire protection district. Frequently the urgent demand for other services grows quickly, because the area continues to increase in population. Sewage disposal may be the next community problem that bccomes serious. Again, most of the residents may decide that this will be the last matter that requires community-wide action, since the community is not going to grow much more. Again, the decision is made to create a special purpose district. This time the purpose is sanitation.

More People, More Problems This has not usually been the end of the story of suburban districts in such areas. In recent years, most new residential developments in California have not stopped growing. Continuing growth has meant that more and more services are demanded as the number of people swells. T h e result is that what started out to be one suburban district in an area adjacent to a city has frequently increased to six or eight different types. This is the main reason that suburban districts are second only in total number to school districts. It also helps to explain why a large number of these districts are located in counties such as Contra Costa, Fresno, Los Angeles, Orange, Sacramcnto, San Mateo, and San Diego, since these counties have experienced heavy population gains in areas close to existing cities. Some of these communities, burdened by a large number of districts, have either become part of an existing city through annexation or organized a city of their own through incorporating.

THE FOURTH CLASS: METROPOLITAN DISTRICTS T h e fourth and final class of special districts is made up of metropolitan districts. Many people in California live in a city or county area that has several problems in common with

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nearby cities and possibly another county. By way of illustration, a number of neighboring cities and counties may need additional water from a distant source that is too expensive for one or a few of them to tap alone. Such densely populated clusters of cities are known as metropolitan areas. Bakersfield, Fresno, Los Angeles-Long Beach, Sacramento, San Bernardino-Rivcrsidc-Ontario, San Diego, San Francisco-Oakland, San Jose, Santa Barbara, and Stockton are the main cities of the metropolitan areas in the state. N o one local government covcrs the entire territory of any of these metropolitan areas. As a result, a problem will sometimes arise that cannot be solved by any one city or county acting alone. The metropolitan-type special district is often used to supply a service to residents of the metropolitan area which cannot be adequately furnished by an existing local government. Services provided by metropolitan districts include sewage treatment and disposal, bridge construction and maintenance, port and harbor facilities, air-pollution control, water, electricity, regional parks, and rapid transit. The Quest for Water and Parks Here are several examples of metropolitan districts in action in California. T h e first two operate in the East Bay section of the San Francisco-Oakland metropolitan area and relate to water and parks. Earlier in the century, it became apparent that a number of East Bay cities were going to need a larger water supply and that it would have to come from a distant point because local sources were no longer adequate. N o one of these municipalities by itself, however, could pay the cost of obtaining the new supply. Therefore, the voters decided in 1923 to create the East Bay Municipal Utility District. T h e Mokelumne River in the Sierra Nevada was chosen as the source, and a dam and aqueduct were built to bring the water about one hundred miles to the residents of the district. T h e area of the district contains the territory of nine cities, includ-

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ing Alameda, Berkeley, Oakland, and Richmond, and that of many other sections of Alameda and Contra Costa counties. T h e desire for larger park areas to accommodate residents of different parts of the East Bay brought another metropolitan district into existence several years later. This is the East Bay Regional Park District, which was approved by the local voters in 1934. It contains the territory of Albany, Berkeley, Emeryville, Oakland, Piedmont, and San Leandro, and furnishes about five thousand acres of park lands in the OaklandBerkeley hills. Bridge and Power T h e west side of the San Francisco-Oakland metropolitan area has a significant metropolitan district performing a different kind of service for a large number of people. T h e Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, organized in 1928, built and maintains the much photographed structure that spans the entrance of San Francisco Bay from San Francisco to Marin County. Several other counties which felt that they would benefit from the building of the bridge also became part of the district. T h e territory of the district includes all of the city-county of San Francisco, the counties of Marin, Sonoma, Napa, part of Mendocino County, and all of Del Norte County, which touches the Oregon state line. Another metropolitan district is active in the Sacramento metropolitan area and offers still a different kind of service. Started in 1947, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District distributes electric power to people living in an area of about 650 square miles. O n to the Colorado River T h e final metropolitan district that will be discussed here is located in southern California. It is the Metropolitan Water District of Southern California, which provides water to people residing in a five-county area stretching south from the

EAST BAY

MUNICIPAL

UTILITY

DISTRICT

The Mokelumne River watershed (top), on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, contains 515 square miles. This extensive area furnishes water for almost one million people served by the East Bay Municipal Utility District. The East Bay Municipal Utility District's Pardee Dam (bottom), located 38 miles northeast of Stockton in a narrow gorge of the Mokelumne River, impounds billions of gallons of mountain water for people in the East Bay cities 100 miles away.

F.ASl

HAY

.MUNICIPAL

UTILITY

DISTRICT

Twin aqueducts (top), approximately five and a half feet in diameter and stretching for ninety-three miles across the Central Valley lowlands of California, transport water from the Pardee Dam to the Orinda filter plant, just cast of the cities on the eastern shore of San Francisco Bay. The Orinda filter plant (bottom) is the largest of the five water purification facilities in the East Bay Municipal Utility District's distribution system. This plant has a daily filtering capacity of 105,000,000 gallons.

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Ventura County line to the Mexican border and cast to beyond Hemet in Riverside County. T h e situation bringing about its organization was largely the same as that mentioned earlier in connection with the East Bay Municipal Utility District. Several decades ago, a dozen municipalities in the Los Angeles metropolitan area needed to add to their dwindling water supply and decided that the wisest way to do this was through combined action. Consequently, in 1928, they established the Metropolitan W a t e r District of Southern California. T h e district obtains water from the Colorado River and transports it hundreds of miles to people living in a large section of the southern part of the state. Almost seven million individuals reside within the boundaries of the district, which contains more than 3,000 square miles.

Special districts are similar in several ways to counties and cities, but there are also major differences. Various reasons explain the widespread use of the special district unit of local government. Special districts are significant because of their varied types and the total number of functions they perform. Many districts are created by following a general pattern for organizing. T h e four main classes of districts are school, agricultural, suburban, and metropolitan. School districts arc the most numerous and best known. There are many kinds of school districts, and the board of school trustees or education has important responsibilities in each of them. State and county superintendents and boards assist school districts. T h e main sources of school district money are property taxes and state government grants. T h e r e is a trend toward fewer and larger school districts. Irrigation and soil conservation districts are the major types in the agricultural class. Their principal functions are bringing water to the land and saving and improving the land. Suburban districts include numerous types. T h e y are located in areas near, but not part of, cities. Metropolitan districts are found in several

Special Districts

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sections of the state that contain clusters of cities and other local governments. INFORMATION PLEASE 1. W h a t is meant by the term "special districts"? 2. In what ways are special districts similar to counties and cities? 3. W h a t are the main differences between special districts and other local governments? 4. W h y are special districts an important part of our local governmental system? 5. W h a t kinds of special districts are found in your locality? W h y were they established? 6. W h a t steps must be taken in order to organize a special district? 7. W h a t are the methods of selecting the governing board members of special districts? 8. In what kind of school district are you located? 9. H o w does the state government aid school districts? 10. W h a t functions are performed by irrigation districts? 11. W h y is the work of soil conservation districts significant to many people living in agricultural areas? 12. Compare the areas of three metropolitan districts. A. Attend a meeting of the governing board of your local school district and report on the matters that were considered. B. If a nearby area that is not a city is building up rapidly with homes, find out how many kinds of special districts are in operation and whether annexing to another city or incorporating as a separate city is being seriously considered. Important Words and Terms: Suburban districts, union high school district, unified school district, board of school trustees, superintendent, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, county superintendent of schools, irrigation district, State Engineer, District Securities Commission, Soil Conservation Service, metropolitan area.

Index

Adjutant General, 128 Administration bills, 99 Admission to Union, 8, 40 Adult Authority, 201 Agricultural districts: irrigation, 276278; soil conservation, 278-280; types, 276-280 Agricultural inspector, county, 231 Agriculture, 10; state director, 143, 193 Alameda: city charter, 245; part of utility district, 282-283 Alameda County, 132; area, 215; chief administrative officer, 222; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215; state legislative representation, 82 Alameda State College, 206 Albany: city charter, 245; part of park district, 283 Alcoholic Beverage Control, Department of, 167-168, 192 Alhambra, city charter, 245 Alpine County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental headquarters, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Alturas, county headquarters, 215 Alviso, special charter, 242 Amador, 240 Amador County, 201; area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215

Anderson, Lieutenant Governor Glenn, 151, 154 Annexation, 242 Annual legislative session, 72-74 Arcadia, city chartcr, 245 Assembly, 16, 71-72; speaker, 90, 95-96, 152 Assessor: city, 261; county, 234 Attorney General, 19, 20-21, 118, 129, 144, 150, 152, 156-159 Auburn, county headquarters, 215 Auditor: city, 261; county, 233 Bakersfield, 189; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 Bartlett, Governor Washington, 133 Bear Flag Republic, 1 Benicia, state capital, 71 Berkeley, 132; city charter, 245; city manager, 250; part of park district, 283; part of utility district, 283 Betts, Bert A., 165 Bicameralism, 71 Biennial legislative session, 72 Bigler, Governor John, 132, 133 Bill, state legislative stages, 87-95 Board of Education: county, 228, 273274; state, 141, 169, 273-274 Board of Equalization, 150, 166-168, 193 Bonds, 107, 163 Booth, Governor Newton, 133 Bridgeport, county headquarters, 215 Brown, Governor Edmund G., 132, 133, 151, 159

Index Budd, Governor James H., 133 Budget: city, 247; county, 221; state, 20, 27, 135, 139, 208-209 Budget legislative session, 73-74 Burbank, city charter, 245 Burnett, Governor Peter H., 7, 133 Business liccnsc, city, 262 Business regulation, 8, 157 Butte County: area, 215; chief administrative officer, 222; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Calaveras County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 California Commission on Interstate Cooperation, 47 California Teachers' Association, 48 Capitol, location of, 71 Carmel-by-the-Sea, city council, 251 Charter cities, 242-245 Charter counties, 215, 217-219 Chico, city charter, 245 Chico State College, 206 Chinese, 10, 11, 24 Chino, 201 Chula Vista, city charter, 245 Cities: area, 239, 240; legal creation, 239-240; population, 240-242 Citizens Legislative Advisory Commission, 30 City charter, 242-245 City chief administrative officers. See City managers City council: salary, 251-252; work, 250-252 City-county. See San Francisco City engineer, 259 City government, 239-264; forms, 246250; functions, 252-261; money from other governments, 262-263; organization types, 242 City managers, 249-250 Civil court cases, 172-173, 182-183 Civil service, state, 27, 193-195 Civil service commission: city, 261; county, 234 Civilian defense, 145 Clerk: city, 261; county, 227-228, 232 Coloma, 3, 208 Colorado River, 286 Colorado River Compact, 44 Colusa, county headquarters, 215

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Colusa County: area, 215; district court of appeals, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Commission form of city government, 247-249 Commonwealth Club, 20 Compact, interstate, 43-44 Compton, city charter, 245 Conference committee, 93 Congressional districts, 82-83 Constitution: amending process, 16-23, 107; amendments to, 7; Bill of Rights, 6; length, 26; ratification, 7, 13; revising methods, 28-30 Constitutional commission, 26 Constitutional convention, 3, 12-13, 28; delegates, 5 Contra Costa County: area, 215; chief administrative officer, 221; district court of appeals, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215; suburban districts, 281 Controller, 129, 150, 152, 165-166 Controversies between governments, 4849 Corona, 201 Coroner, county, 231 Corrections, Department of, 201 Council, legislative, 101 Council-manager form of city government, 249-250 Council of State Governments, 46 Counties: area, 212-216; governmental organization, 215, 216-219; headquarters locations, 215; number, 212-213; population, 213-216 County administrator, 221-222 County chief administrative officers, 221-222

County counsel, 232 County government, 212-238; forms, 219-222; functions, 223-235; kinds of organization, 216-219; money from other governments, 234-235; newer services, 225; older services, 225 County manager form, 222 County managers, 222 County road commissioners, 227 County supervisors: election of, 219, 222-223; occupations, 223; salaries, 223; work, 222-224 County Supervisors' Association of California, 48 County surveyor, 227

Index Court, California Supreme, 23, 24, 29, 140; membership, 179-180; salaries, 180; selection of judges, 178-179 Courts: assistance by counties, 231-233; popular control of, 180-181; popular participation in, 181-185; types, 173— 180; work, 172-173 Courts, district appeal, 177; salaries, 178; selection of judges, 178 Courts, municipal and justice, 174-175; election of judges, 175; salaries, 175 Courts, state, 22-23, 140 Courts, superior, 175-177; election of judges, 177; salaries, 177 Cranston, Alan, 166 Crcsccnt City, county headquarters, 215 Crime Compact of 1934, 45 Criminal court eases, 173, 184 Culver City, city charter, 245 Curriculum Commission, 169

Extradition, 42, 146

Del N o r t e County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; part of bridge district, 283; population, 215 Democratic Party, 12, 63, 65, 96-97 District attorney, 232 District Securities Commission, 278 Domestic violence, protection against, 39 Downey, Governor John G., 133 Downieville, county headquarters, 215

Fresno State College, 206 Full faith and credit, 41-42

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Fairfield, county headquarters, 215 Federal plan of representation, 80-83 Federal system, 34-41 Finance, state director, 135, 139, 142 Fire protection, 255-257 Fish and Game Commission, 141, 142 Folsom, 146, 199 Foreign invasion, protection against, 39-40 Fremont, General John C., 7 Fresno, 189; city chartcr, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 Fresno County: area, 215; chicf administrative officer, 222; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215; suburban districts, 281

East

Bay Municipal

Utility

District,

282-286

East Bay Regional Park District, 283 Education, Department of, 168, 193, 203, 273 El Centro, county headquarters, 215 El Dorado County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Elections: absentee ballots, 58-59; ballots, 57-61, 161; California procedure, 56-59; counting votes, 57; nonpartisan, 64; primary, 62-63; Secretary of State's duties, 160-162; voting, 53-55 Electoral College, 36 Electric light plants, city, 259-260 Emeryville, part of park district, 283 Enumerated powers, 35-36 Equal state representation, 40 Eureka, 189; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215

Gage, Governor H e n r y T., 133 Gas plant, city, 260 General law cities, 242-243 General law counties, 216 General legislative session, 72-73, 74-75 Gibson, Phil S., 179 Gillett, Governor James N., 133 Gilroy, city chartcr, 245 Glendale: city charter, 245; city manager, 250; recall elections, 123 Glenn County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, 283 Governing board, irrigation districts, 277-278 Governing board, school districts, 272273. See also City council; County supervisors; Legislature Governor: action on state legislation, 95, 98-101; appointing powers, 127, 140-144; extradition powers, 146; law enforcement duties, 144-146; pardon powers, 22, 147; political leader, 133134; qualifications, 130; salary, 129; term, 8, 132; veto powers, 127, 137139 Governors' Conference, 46 Grand jury. See Jury, grand Grants-in-aid, 35

Index Grass Valley, city chartcr, 245 Guadalupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 2 Gwin, W . M., 3, 4, 5, 7 Haight, Governor H e n r y H., 133 Hanford, county headquarters, 215 Health activities: city, 257; county, 229-230 Highways, 141, 190, 195-197, 198-199 Hollister, county headquarters, 215 Howser, Frederick N., 159 Humboldt County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Humboldt State College, 206 Huntington Beach, city charter, 245 Imperial County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; formation, 213; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215; state legislative representation, 82 Incorporation, 239-240 Independence, county headquarters, 215 Inglewood: city charter, 245; first council-manager city, 250 Initiative petitions, 118-120; types, 117— 118; uses, 120-122 Interstate agreements, 43-45; cooperation, 41-47; rules, 41-47 Inyo County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Irrigation districts: activities, 276-278; creation, 277; governing board, 277278 Irwin, Governor William, 133 Item veto, 138-139 Jackson, county headquarters, 215 Johnson, Governor Hiram, 18, 111, 130, 133, 156 Johnson, Governor J. Ncely, 133 Joint legislative budget committee, 101 Jones, J. M„ 3 Jordan, Frank M., 162 Judicial Council, 186-187 Jury, grand, 184-185 Jury, trial, 181-184 Juvenile delinquency, 155 Kearney, Denis, 11, 12 Kearny, General Stephen W „ 2 Kern County: area, 215; change

of

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name, 213; chief administrative officer, 221; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 • Kings County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Knight, Governor Goodwin J., 133, 156 Lake County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Lakeport, county headquarters, 215 Lassen County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Latham, Governor Milton S., 133 Law enforcement, 144-146, 156-160, 190, 198-201 League of California Cities, 48 Legislation, city, 251-252 Legislation, county, 223-224 Legislation, state, 94-101; influences on, 96-101; part played by Governor, 94-95, 98-101 Legislative Counsel Bureau, 87-89 Legislative interim committees, 102 Legislators, state, 71-105; aids to, 101102; experience, 76-77; job difficulty, 102-104; political parries and, 96-97; preparations for, 84-85; pressure groups and, 97-98; qualifications, 7576; salaries, 75; terms, 75 Legislature: activities, 87-105; basis of representation, 78-83; committees, 8992; conference committee, 93; officers, 95-96; organization, 71-86; recess, 74; sessions, 72-74; structure, 71-72; voting, 92-93 Librarian: city, 259; county, 228-229 Lieutenant Governor, 95, 129, 150-156 Lincoln-Roosevelt League, 18, 110 Liquor regulation, 167-168, 190 Lobbyists, 97-101 Long Beach, 123, 132, 146; city charter, 245; city manager, 250; gas plant, 260; main city of metropolitan area, 282; police activity, 253-254 Long Beach State College, 206-207 Los Angeles, 108, 109, 123, 132, 155, 189, 196; area, 240; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city

Index of metropolitan area, 282; police department, 255 Los Angeles County, 53, 54, 159, 201; area, 215; chief administrative officer, 222; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; number of superior court judges, 176; population, 215; state legislative representation, 80-82; suburban districts, 281 L o s Angeles State College, 207 L o w , Governor Frederic F., 8, 133 Madera, county headquarters, 215 Madera County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Marin County, 199; area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; part of bridge district, 283; population, 215 Mariposa, county headquarters, 215 Mariposa County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Markham, Governor Henry W „ 133 Markleeville, county headquarters, 215 Marshall, James, 2 Martinez, county headquarters, 215 Marysville: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Mass transit, 260 Mayor, 249 Mayor-council f o r m of city government, 246-247 McDougal, Governor John, 3, 133 Mendocino County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; part of bridge district, 283; population, 215 Merced, 195; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Merced County, 164; area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Merriam, Governor Frank F., 132, 133, 156 Metropolitan area, nature of, 281-282 Metropolitan districts, 281-287 Metropolitan W a t e r District of Southe m California, 283-286

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Military government, 1 Modesto: city charter, 245; count)' headquarters, 215 M o d o c County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Money bills, 139-140 Mono County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Monterey, 3, 11; city charter, 245 Monterey County: area, 215; chief administrative officer, 221; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Mosk, Stanley, 159 Motor Vehicles, State Department of, 198; state director, 140 Mountain View, city charter, 245 Municipal Corporations Bill, 243 N a p a : city chartcr, 245; county headquarters, 215 N a p a County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; part of bridge district, 283; population, 215 National Conference of Commissioners on U n i f o r m State Laws, 45 National government: executive activities, 34-35; increased power, 35-36 National G u a r d , 128 National-state relations, 34—41 Natural resources, state director, 140 N e v a d a City, county headquarters, 215 N e v a d a C o u n t y : area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Nominations, 62-64; presidential, 64 Norwalk, 202 Oakland, 108, 123, 189; city charter, 245; city manager, 250; city park, 260; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 281; part of park district, 283; part of utility district, 283 Occupation license, city, 262 Olson, G o v e r n o r Culbert, 96, 132, 133 Ontario, main city of metropolitan area, 282

Index Orange County, 159; area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215; suburban districts, 281 Orange State College, 207 Ord, Pacificus, 3 Oroville: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Pacheco, Governor Romualdo, 133 Pacific Grove, city charter, 245 Pacific Marine Fisheries Compact, 44 Palo Alto: city charter, 245; gas plant, 260 Pardee, Governor George C., 133 Pasadena, 123; city charter, 245; city manager, 250 Perkins, Governor George C , 133 Permanent registration, 55 Personnel board: city, 261; state, 141, 193-195 Personnel officer, county, 234 Petaluma, city charter, 245 Petitions, initiative, 19-21, 118-119 Petit jury. See Jury, trial Piedmont: city charter, 245; part of park district, 283 Placer County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Placerville, county headquarters, 215 Planning commission: city, 261; county, 234 Plumas County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Pocket veto, 137-138 Police protection, 252-255 Political parties: legislators and, 96-97; membership, 65-67; organization, 6567 Pomona, city charter, 245 Porterville, city charter, 245 President, election of, 36-37 Pressure groups, legislators and, 97-98 Preston, 201 Prisons, 190, 199-201 Privileges and immunities, 42-43 Probation, 233 Progressive movement, 96 Property taxes: city, 262; county, 235; special districts, 271 Public administrator, county, 231

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Public defender, 232 Public Health, State Department of, 199, 202, 204 Public libraries, 208 Public scrvice enterprises, city, 259-260 Public Utilities Commission, 141, 193 Public welfare services, 225-227 Public works: city, 257-259; State Department of, 195-197 Public works director: city, 259; state, 140, 142, 193 Quincy, county headquarters, 215 Railroad Commission, 9 Reapportionment commission, 80 Recall of judges, 180-181 Recall of public officers, 122-124 Recorder, county, 227-228 Recreation: city, 259; county, 231 Red Bluff, county headquarters, 215 Redding, county headquarters, 215 Redondo Beach, city charter, 245 Redwood City: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Referendum: bond issues, 107; city, 108-110, 115-116; constitutional amendments, 110-111; emergency clause, 114; history, 106-116; types, 111; use, 111-116 Registrar of voters, 54 Republican form of government, 39 Republican Party, 12, 65, 96 Residual powers, 35-36 Revenue and taxation, 22, 23, 157, 163165, 208-209 Revenues: city, 262-263; county, 234235; school districts, 274; special districts, 271 Richardson, Governor Friend W . , 130, 133, 156 Richmond: city charter, 245; part of utility district, 282-283 Riley, General Bennett, 3 Riverside: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 Riverside County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Roads, county, 227 Roll call, 92-93 Rolph, Governor James, Jr., 132, 133, 156 Roseville, city charter, 245

Index Sacramento, 11, 12, 189, 202, 208; city charter, 245; city manager, 250; county headquarters, 215; first commission city, 247; main city of metropolitan area, 282; part of utility district, 283; State Capitol, 71 Sacramento County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; manager, 222; population, 215; suburban districts, 281 Sacramento Municipal Utility District, 283 Sacramento State College, 207 Sales tax, city, 262 Salinas: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; municipal court, 174 San Andreas, county headquarters, 215 San Benito C o u n t y : area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 San Bernardino: city charter, 245; city sales tax, 262; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 San Bernardino County, 146, 201; area, 215; chief administrative officer, 222; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 San Diego: area, 240, 242; city charter, 245; city manager, 250; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 San Diego County: area, 215; chief administrative officer, 222; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215; reduced in size, 213; suburban districts, 281 San Diego State College, 207 San Fernando, 123, 124 San Fernando Valley State College, 207 San Francisco (city-county), 11, 53, 54, 109, 132, 155; area, 215; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; district court of appeal, 177; formation, 213; government, 235-237; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282; mass transit, 260; part of bridge district, 283; police department, 255; population, 215; state legislative representation, 80-82

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San Francisco State College, 207 Sanitation: city, 257-259; county, 229230 San Joaquin C o u n t y : area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 San Jose, 7; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282; state capital, 71 San Jose State College, 207 San Leandro: city charter, 245; part of park district, 283 San Luis Obispo: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 San Luis Obispo County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 San Mateo, city charter, 245 San Mateo County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; formation, 213; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; manager, 222; population, 215; suburban districts, 281

San Quentin, 199 San Rafael, 199; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Santa Ana: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Santa Barbara: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 Santa Barbara County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Santa Clara, city charter, 245 Santa Clara County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; manager, 221-222; population, 215 Santa Cruz: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Santa Cruz County: area, 215; change of name, 213; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Santa Monica: abolition of commission form, 249; city charter, 245 Santa Rosa, 201; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 School districts: county government

Index activities, 273-274; governing board, 272-273; grants, 274; merger, 276; revenues, 274; state government activities, 273; types, 272 Seal, T h e Great, 162-163 Secretary of State, 8, 17, 19, 113, 115, 150, 152, 160-163 Semple, Dr. Robert, 4 Senate: President pro tempore of, 90, 95, 152; rules committee, 90, 153; state, 71-72 Shasta County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Shenk, John W . , 180 Sheriff, 232-233 Sierra County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Simpson, Roy E., 169 Siskiyou County, 160; area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Slavery question, 4-5 Social welfare, state director, 140, 192 Soil conservation districts, 278-280 Solano County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Sonoma, 1 Sonoma County: area, 215; chief administrative officer, 221; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; part of bridge district, 285; population, 215 Sonora, county headquarters, 215 Speaker of Assembly, 90, 95, 152 Special charter cities, 242 Spccial districts: agricultural, 276-280; area, 266-267; characteristics, 265-271; differences from other governments, 265-270; functions, 265-2C.6; governing board, 271; major types, 271-287; metropolitan, 281-286; number, 267; organization, 270-271; reasons for, 267-268; revenues, 271; school, 272— 276; suburban, 280-281 Spccial legislative session, 74 Special units of government. See Special districts Stanford, Governor Leland, 133

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Stanislaus County: area, 215; chief administrative officer, 221; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 State aid to education, 206-208 State Architect, 197 State area, protection of, 40-41 State Board of Education, 141, 168, 273274 State colleges, 206-207 State Department of Education, 168, 193, 203, 273 State Department of Justice, 159-160, 199 State government: exclusive activities of, 35; national guarantees to, 39-40; obligations to national government, 36-38 State Highway Commission, 141 State Highway Patrol, 139, 164, 189, 198-199 State lands, 9, 157-158 State Lands Commission, 155 State laws, uniformity of, 45-46 State Library, 101 State-local relations, nature of, 47 State Militia, 145-146 State Personnel Board, 141, 193-195 State Printer, 130 State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 68, 129, 150, 168-169, 273 State Supreme Court, 24, 29, 140, 179180, 181

State Treasurer, 63, 129, 130, 150, 152, 163-165 State Water Pollution Board, 204 Stephens, Governor William D., 130, 133, 156 Stockton, 11; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215; main city of metropolitan area, 282 Stockton, Commodore Robert F., 1 Stoneman, Governor George, 133 Streets, city, 258 Street superintendent, city, 259 Suburban districts, 280-281 Suffrage, California requirements, 52-55 Sunnyvale, city charter, 245 Superintendent of schools: city, 273; county, 228, 273-274 Supervisor form of county government, 219-222 Supervisors, county, 219-222 Supreme Court, United States, 24 Surveyor-General, 129

Index Susanville, county headquarters, 215 Sutter County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Swett, John, 168 Tax collector, county, 234 Taxes, 8, 157, 163, 165-167, 208-209; city, 262; county, 234-235; special districts, 271 Tehama County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Tidelands oil controversy, 48-49 Toll Bridge Authority, 155 Torrance, city charter, 245 Trade barriers, state, 49 Traffic regulation, 255 Treasurer, county, 234 Trinity County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Tulare, city charter, 245 Tulare County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Tule Lake, 160 Tuolumne County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Ukiah, county headquarters, 215 Uniform state laws, 45-46 United States Constitution, amending, 37-39 University of California, 122, 141, 155, 168, 197, 207-208

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Vallejo, 109; abolition of commission form, 249; city charter, 245; state capital, 71 Ventura, 201; city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Ventura County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Veterans affairs, state director, 140 Vice-president, election of, 36-37 Visalia: city charter, 245; county headquarters, 215 Voting requirements to elect Congressmen, 36 Warren, Governor Earl, 132, 133, 156 Waterman, Governor Robert W., 133 Water supply, city, 259-260 Watsonville, city charter, 245 Weaverville, county headquarters, 215 Webb, U. S., 159 Weiler, Governor John B., 133 Whittier, 201 Willows, county headquarters, 215 Wood, Will C., 168 Woodland, county headquarters, 215 Workingmen's Party, 11, 12 Yolo County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215 Young, Governor C. C., 26, 29, 130, 133, 156 Youth Authority, 201 Yreka, county headquarters, 215 Yuba City, county headquarters, 215 Yuba County: area, 215; district court of appeal, 177; governmental organization, 215; headquarters location, 215; population, 215

Your California Governments in Action