You Know the Fair Rule: Strategies for Positive and Effective Behaviour Management and Discipline in Schools [3. ed] 9781408296011, 1408296012

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YOU KNOW THE FAIR RULE THIRD EDITION

EFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS Classroom management and discipline can be the most challenging part of an already demanding job. Every day teachers face defiance, baiting, procrastination, argumentative behaviour, swearing and aggression, as well as the more typical disruptive behaviours like calling out and task avoidance.

★★★★★ Amazon 5 STAR reviews for last edition: “I wish I had been told about this book before … I cannot recommend this book enough.” “If you buy and read only one book on behaviour, you wouldn't go wrong with this one!” “This book is truly excellent … If you buy one book about teaching, buy this!” “Lots of practical advice that actually works ... I haven't got into a row with a student in the last two terms having read this.”

You Know the Fair Rule is a comprehensive, practical, and realistic guide to effective practice. It acknowledges and addresses the challenges faced by teachers in dealing with these behaviour patterns and issues, and provides practical advice on areas such as: Establishing classes effectively Positive discipline practice in the classroom Working with children with behavioural disorders Developing individual behaviour plans Managing anger and conflict Working with the challenging and hard-to-manage class How to follow up with students beyond the classroom Effective colleague support

THIRD EDITION

       

YOU KNOW THE FAIR RULE

BILL ROGERS

ABOUT THE AUTHOR After years of teaching, Bill Rogers now works as a consultant specialising in discipline, classroom management and teacher stress, and is the author of a number of successful books including The Essential Guide to Managing Teacher Stress, also published by Pearson.

RO GER S

Providing practical classroom strategies for use both in individual classes and across the school, You Know the Fair Rule will be welcomed by those who take on the most demanding job of all – teaching.

BILL

ROGERS

YOU KNOW THE FAIR RULE THIRD EDITION

EFFECTIVE BEHAVIOUR MANAGEMENT IN SCHOOLS

www.pearson-books.com

CVR_ROGE6011_03_SE_CVR.indd 1

16/12/2011 11:55

Bill Rogers has gained wide respect through his work as a consultant running in-service activities for teachers on classroom and whole-school discipline approaches. You Know the Fair Rule provides the depth of discussion and detail required to understand and implement Rogers’ strategies. How many of us have consciously planned how to respond to specific disruptive behaviour, such as students calling out or farting? Through detailed and realistic descriptions and discussions of classroom situations, Rogers builds up a wide repertoire of possible teacher actions. Throughout the book, Rogers exhibits a compassionate understanding of the difficulties faced by teachers – who have ‘one of the most demanding of all jobs’. This book could (and should) usefully form the basis for teacher training programs on discipline. For those of us in the classroom – from kindergarten to secondary schools – it provides practical strategies for less stressful and more effective classes (and schools) for both students and teachers. Joy Kite, Education Quarterly

Bill Rogers’ You Know the Fair Rule is a very practical document; one can imagine a harassed teacher hastily consulting a relevant section before facing a difficult class. At the same time, the book is a logical text which deserves leisurely and thoughtful digestion. The writing is relaxed without being colloquial, informative without being didactic. The text is set under clear headings and often expressed in point form, clarified by use of diagrams and flow charts and enlivened by Kevin Burgemeestre’s humorous line drawings. This book is, I feel, compulsory reading for all educators. Anna Abbott, Sydney Morning Herald

Rogers is no starry-eyed idealist and has obviously confronted many of the situations he describes. He is firm on the essential importance of respecting all students, no matter how unlikeable their behaviour may be, and he is actually able to define respect in operational terms. As a teacher working exclusively with ‘at risk’ or ‘disinclined’ students, I can endorse his views. The section on the need for self-esteem should be read by all teachers. Sue Nichols, Bowden Brompton Community School

The author knows what he is writing about from personal experience and is essentially practical in dealing with the problems we face in our classrooms every day. This is a most highly recommended book for all involved in teaching. Many teachers will want a personal copy but every school should have a copy in its Professional Development library if it is serious about its discipline policy. Derek Robson, Staff Development Association Journal

Rogers uses many examples that are easy to relate to and highlights differences and alternatives that could be used for any class from kinder through to high school. I recognised many different teacher reactions and realised how easy it is to establish more succinct and accepted behaviour management strategies in any class. I found this book to be very ‘reader friendly’ and accessible, making it a must-read for beginning teachers or those needing some inspiration to make their classroom more equitable and learning focused. Charlie White, AEU, Ed. Lines

You Know The Fair rule Effective behaviour management in schools Third edition

Bill rogers

PEARSON EDUCATION LIMITED Edinburgh Gate Harlow CM20 2JE Tel: +44 (0)1279 623623 Fax: +44 (0)1279 431059 Website: www.pearson.com/uk First published in Australia in 1990 by ACER Press, an imprint of the Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd, and in Great Britain in 1991 by Longman Industry and Public Service Management. Second edition published in Australia in 1998 by ACER Press, and in Great Britain by Pitman Publishing. This edition published in Australia in 2011 by ACER Press, and in Great Britain in 2012 by Pearson Education Limited. © William A. Rogers 1990, 1998, 2011, 2012 The right of William A. Rogers to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Pearson Education is not responsible for the content of third-party internet sites. ISBN: 978-1-4082-9601-1 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. This book may not be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published, without the prior consent of the Publishers. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 15 14 13 12 11 Illustrations by Kevin Burgemeestre (Chapters 1–10), Bill Rogers (Appendices) and Sarah Rogers (p.viii) Figures 5.1 and 6.1 reprinted courtesy of Ms Ros Daniels and Ms Debbie Hoy, Brookland Infant and Nursery School, Cheshunt, UK Text design © ACER Press 2011 Typeset by 30 Printed in Great Britain by Henry Ling Ltd., at the Dorset Press, Dorchester, Dorset

Contents About the author

vii

Acknowledgements

ix

Preface

x

Introduction

xiv

Chapter 1

Discipline: Definition and protocols

Chapter 2

Disruptive behaviour and teacher management style

21

Chapter 3

Classroom management: Planning and skills

49

Chapter 4

Planning discipline interventions

96

Chapter 5

Rights, responsibilities and rules in the classroom and the playground

120

Chapter 6

The if–then dynamic

152

Chapter 7

Building a positive classroom climate

191

Chapter 8

The basis of a positive classroom climate: Self-esteem and self-concept

215

The hard-to-manage class

248

Chapter 9

1

Chapter 10 Conflict resolution and managing anger

272

Conclusion

293

Appendices I

Personal running records

296

v

Contents

II

The 4W form

298

III

Behaviour plans

299

IV Behaviour goals

301

V

Success criteria for school assemblies

302

VI Playground questionnaire

304

VII Establishing a class

305

VIII Noise meters

306

References

308

Index

312

vi

About the author Bill Rogers’ concern with discipline and behaviour management in schools began in the classroom. As a beginning teacher he was troubled by the absence of training in discipline strategies and by the lack of support given to teachers in this difficult aspect of an already demanding profession. As his career and studies progressed, he began researching the issues of discipline, classroom management and teacher stress. His Masters degree (Melbourne University) concentrated on conflict and conflict resolution among pre-adolescents; his PhD (Melbourne University) focused on the nature, extent and utility of colleague support in schools and how colleague support enables positive coping (in a stressful profession). ACER Press has published the book drawn from that research (I Get By With a Little Help: Colleague support in schools, 2002). Bill now works as a consultant in all areas of education (primary, postprimary and tertiary), running in-service programs for teachers, lecturing at universities and working with parent groups and students. He lectures widely on discipline, classroom management, stress and teaching, developing peersupport programs for teachers and developing community-based policies on discipline and student welfare. He has been a mentor–teacher in many Australian and British schools, and has worked with teachers throughout Australasia and the United Kingdom in the last 20 years. He travels frequently to New Zealand, Britain and Europe to conduct seminars and professional development courses with schools and universities. He has conducted a number of summer schools at Cambridge University. Bill Rogers holds degrees in theology and education (from Ridley College, Melbourne University), and was a parish minister in the western suburbs of Melbourne for seven years, a role which included chaplaincy in hospitals, prisons and schools. He has published over a dozen books and a number of videos

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About the author

on behaviour management and classroom discipline. A number of his books have been translated into other languages (including the ACER Press title, Behaviour Recovery). He is a Fellow of the Australian College of Education, an Honorary Fellow of Melbourne University (Graduate School of Education) and an Honorary Life Fellow of Trinity College (University of Leeds, UK).

viii

Acknowledgements Putting a book together takes a long time and, apart from the personal effort involved, requires the assistance of many people. From the outset, the Australian Council for Educational Research was especially supportive. My thanks in the first instance to Ian Fraser and John King. I’d also like to thank Annemarie Rolls, Ralph Saubern, Elisa Webb, Yana Gotmaker, Amanda Pinches and Holly Proctor in the planning and development of this major third edition. I particularly want to thank Felicia Schmidt who with patience, goodwill and great care typed this third edition. I doubt whether the many hundreds of students in schools where I have taught will ever read this book (who knows, some of them may want to teach!), however I thank them for the times we had together. As well as ‘disciplining’ them, I’ve discussed the purpose of discipline and why they prefer one sort of discipline over another; some of their stories are in this book. I’ve also been teaching the practices and skills covered herein to teachers (and trainee teachers) in schools and universities in Australia and overseas for the last 20 years. My thanks to those who now are slogging it out day after day with skill and good humour at the ‘chalkface’. My special thanks to my wife Lora (a teacher) and our daughters (one a teacher); we’ve had many chats around the meal table about discipline and behaviour.

ix

Preface Nobody actually taught me how to discipline. Of course I’ve been disciplined; everything from smacks, canings and a ‘thick ear’ (ouch!) to the occasional wearing of a dunce’s hat in the corner of the classroom in London (aged seven in 1954). When I went to teachers’ college and university I expected to learn how to discipline. Regularly I asked my lecturers questions such as, ‘Well, what do you do when students persistently call out in class or rudely butt in on your delivery?’, ‘What do you do with students who say the work is boring, swear or mess around?’ and ‘How do you deal with those who are regularly out of their seats and are chattering away to their friends during classwork time?’ When I asked such questions, few answers came. Now, as a consultant, I spend my time, along with others, trying to explore answers to those questions and offering possible solutions to the challenge of behaviour leadership and discipline in today’s classrooms. This book came about as a result of countless hours of in-servicing and peer-support work with teachers. In order to share concerns about disruptive behaviour, behaviour management and discipline more widely across the school, support groups were formed to explore common concerns and begin to build better solutions. These were established in a wide range of schools from kindergarten to Year 12 and the results of that work are collected here. I have also worked as a mentor with hundreds of teachers, team-teaching in challenging classes; I remember. This book seeks to answer – in the most practical way – the question: How can I manage behaviour (both mine and my students) more effectively, positively, less stressfully, in that busy place called a classroom? And beyond the classroom in busy corridors and playgrounds? This is not a book about particular discipline theories – although certain theories are alluded to in the text.1 This is a book about practical classroom

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management and discipline strategies for use both in individual classes and across the school. It is written for those who choose to take on one of the most demanding of all professions – teaching. Chapter 1 clarifies the meanings given for behaviour leadership and discipline throughout the text and argues for some fundamental protocols or accepted practices that ought to form the bottom line in our behaviour leadership. The central protocol is that all discipline should proceed from the due rights, rules and responsibilities of all members of the classroom group. Discipline and behaviour management is explored as a function of teacher leadership that aims to give students maximum self-control. The goals of discipline are also outlined. Chapter 2 explores distracting and disruptive behaviour within the always dynamic nature of a group of students, as well as ‘individual’ phenomena. Several teacher management approaches are explored with special emphasis on the decisive, positive management approach that balances necessary corrective discipline with dignity, encouragement and support. Chapter 3 is devoted entirely to classroom management skills and explores the fundamental premise that positive behaviour leadership and discipline is rarely fortuitous, or accidental; it needs to be planned. It is the largest chapter in the book. Special reference is made to (a) the kind of characteristic language we use in discipline transactions, (b) the effect of our nonverbal behaviour and (c) the importance of relational dynamics between teacher and student(s). A range of discipline strategies is explored which adopt a decisive but positive stance, enabling the goals of discipline to be realised – goals such as behaviour awareness, self-control, respect for mutual rights, personal accountability and self-esteem. Chapter 4 addresses the planning of discipline in the key phases of the lesson: the establishment and whole-class teaching phase; on-task learning time and the relinquishing phase of a lesson (including an orderly exit from the classroom). The issue of how we follow up and follow through with more challenging behaviours beyond the classroom context is also discussed at some length. Chapter 5 explores the essential basis for all aspects of behaviour leadership and discipline: the core rights and responsibilities in a school community. Rights, responsibilities and the rules that seek to protect and encourage those

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Preface

rights are developed in this chapter. The issue of playground rules and behaviour management in the playground is also addressed. Chapter 6 discusses the essential nature and use of behaviour consequences within classroom and whole-class contexts. The particular consequence of time-out is explored and a whole-school approach is developed. Students with diagnosed or symptomatic behaviour disorders often need individual behaviour plans. How we develop and utilise such plans is discussed here. Chapter 7 develops the key understanding and practices that build a positive classroom climate. Particular emphasis is given to how we establish our classes in the critical first meetings with our students. The essential routines that enable positive teaching and learning are developed in this chapter. Chapter 8 addresses the self-esteem of our students. Our characteristic language, how we encourage our students and how we give feedback and support are discussed here. Many teachers use classroom meetings to enhance and develop a sense of class ownership over issues of common concern. How we develop and utilise classroom meetings is discussed in this chapter. Chapter 9 addresses the harder-than-average class, asking why some classes are more difficult to lead, teach and manage. Collegial strategies are explored that enable teachers to refocus student commitment to learning and behaviour. Particular reference is made to first-year teachers and hard-to-manage classes. Chapter 10 explores the issues of conflict and anger management. Many of us have struggled with challenging students over the years. This chapter acknowledges the natural frustration and anger that occurs with teachers and students and develops anger management practices that legitimise one’s anger in constructive ways. As an example of how first-year teachers generally respond to peer support, I’ve let some of them tell their own story in this chapter. I thank them for their contribution. It is some ten years since I wrote the second edition of You Know the Fair Rule. I’ve taken many, many demonstration lessons in high schools and primary schools, and engaged in countless hours of team-teaching during those years as part of my direct consultancy to schools. These ongoing classes have taught me much about myself, about the changing role of teachers, about student behaviour, about the profession – and the art – of teaching itself. Having

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Preface

colleagues regularly observe my teaching practice has certainly helped to keep me ‘on my reflective toes’ as it were.

Case examples and case studies There are many case examples and case studies that inform and extend the text. I’ve written in this way because I want to convey – as much as one can in print – the dynamic nature of students’ behaviour and teachers’ behaviour leadership and discipline; what it ‘sounds’ and ‘feels’ like. All the case examples and case studies are drawn directly from my teaching practice as a mentor–teacher; most often in challenging classes, in challenging schools. They cover classroom and non-classroom settings (corridor and playground) and one-to-one follow-up and counselling settings. I have changed the names of students and teachers for ethical probity. This approach to writing means a larger book – I hope, of course, still a very readable and practical book. I trust the case studies and the practices and skills that can be drawn from them will enable positive, collegial reflection and a useful informing of your behaviour leadership.

Endnote 1.

There are a number of theoretical models that inform this text: those of Rudolf Dreikurs (1982), William Glasser (1986), Jane Nelson (1987), Jacob Kounin (1977) and particularly Haim Ginott (1971). My own position, theoretically, is described in other texts as ‘interactionist’, ‘democratic–decisive’ or ‘positive behaviour leadership’. See notably: Edwards and Watts (2008) and Taubers (1995).

xiii

Introduction ‘The secret of success is the ability to survive failure.’ Noël Coward

Form 4, 1961: England When I was at secondary school, a particular student had the reputation of being the school tough, the school bully and the bane of the teachers’ lives. He once half-hanged a Form 4 boy upside down by a rope from a tree just for refusing to do a job for him. He was caned many, many times in front of form assemblies. Every child watched while he and some of his mates received their canings on both hands by the ‘discipline master’ or one of the deputies. On the last occasion, he was publicly caned in front of the whole school. We watched him walk on to the school stage (after public singing and school anthem and a grave, determined speech). The principal, dressed in his black gown, twitching eyes behind his thick glasses, lifted the cane to belt the impassive student, who stood facing the whole school. It happened so quickly! Down whooshed the cane. As it hit the student’s hand, he grabbed the cane from the principal and with visible pride broke it across his knee, threw it on the floor and marched off the stage. There were several seconds of stunned silence, then the Form 4, 5 and 6 classes began to cheer. It took the school staff five minutes to restore order and that was mostly by yelling threats. Who ‘won’? And what was the battle? It was our weekly music class. I was 14 at the time. The music teacher was a thin, tall man; nervous, with a shock of Beethoven-style hair. He had a

xiv

Introduction

reputation in the school for being a ‘weak disciplinarian’; his classes ranging from moderate to significant disorder (even by 1960s standards). From time to time, during music lessons, I managed to score a seat next to a rather pretty girl (in 14-year-old terms). OK – so far – except for the aforementioned school bully who was nearly as tall as the music teacher, but twice as broad. He smoked like a chimney, had freckles and flaming red hair and threw a punch like a heavyweight boxer. It was the first few minutes of settling in to our places before we were to begin another music lesson. The bully came over to me and said coolly, ‘You sit over that side, Rogers. I sit here.’ (We weren’t on first name terms!) Not only did you not say ‘no’ to him, you also didn’t waste time with discussion. I did as he said. ‘OK.’ The music teacher saw this ‘seat cross-over’ and called out to the student to get back into the seat whence he had come. He just refused. He sat and smiled at the girl and at me. I gave an ‘It’s nothing to do with me, sir’ look. This was, in effect, a minor contretemps. Clearly our music teacher didn’t see it this way! The teacher marched up to the lad and demanded that he move, ‘Now!’ Freckle-faced and fearless, the boy simply replied, ‘Make me!’ So calm, so cool. There was a brief, stunned silence. ‘Don’t you defy me!’, screamed the teacher. ‘If you don’t get up and move now, I’ll make you!’ ‘Yeah, you and who else?’ (This was better than a music lesson!) The teacher grabbed the boy and tried to pull him out of the seat. In the ensuing scuffle, chairs went flying and soon a ring of Form 4 children watched as teacher and student actually wrestled on the floor. A couple of girls raced to the staffroom in tears and the science and geography teachers managed to drag the warring pair apart. To get back at the music teacher, the bully let the tyres down on his car. He was finally expelled and ended up in a ‘boys’ home’. The music teacher left at the end of term. Public canings, I recall, diminished within weeks following these incidents. How would this student fare a decade into the ‘new’ millennium – in a society that aims for social justice, elimination of sexism, democracy in schools and (thankfully) the abolition of corporal punishment? Psychologists and social

xv

Introduction

workers would, no doubt, explain his behaviour as the result of social or emotional deprivation, or economic disadvantage. In part they’d be right. Students are acutely aware of, and vocal about, their rights. We have an inclusive policy for students with behaviour and learning disorders. And we still have bullying in schools. The schooling system still legally requires children and young people to sit and work in a classroom up to six periods a day, five days a week, three or more terms a year. Students have disparate personalities and needs; some students have learning challenges (and disorders); some children come from unsupportive and very stressful home environments; and we are required to teach (within a national curriculum) to diverse needs … why wouldn’t there be distracting and disruptive behaviours? It’s natural. However, the degree of distracting and disruptive behaviour – even in very challenging schools – varies significantly depending on the kind of teacher leadership exercised in those schools (Rogers 2002). There are many students who will simply not do what they are asked the first time, or ‘because the teacher said so’. They will argue, answer back, challenge, procrastinate or ‘debate’. In the seminal UK ‘Elton’ report, Discipline in schools (Department of Education and Science 1989), it was noted that ‘talking out of turn’, ‘distracting others’, ‘making unnecessary (nonverbal) noises’, ‘getting out of seats without permission’ and ‘general rowdiness’ most concerned teachers, and that these behaviours occurred right across the school spectrum (see also Rogers 2006a). Without clear direction and confident and respectful leadership from a teacher, some class members will find ways to ‘take over’ (p. 241). It’s unfortunate, but children are not naturally democratic, and ideologues who have either forgotten what a robust Year 7 class is like or, more likely, never taught in one, don’t help by peddling slogans of ‘relevance in the curriculum’, ‘democracy in learning’ and ‘student participation’ as if these were the answer. They are not – in themselves. While student rights, a democratic curriculum, cooperative learning, participation and equity, inclusion, access and success are worthy goals of education, those goals need to be supported by a clear teaching and learning structure, within a framework of rights and responsibilities. Respectful

xvi

Introduction

discipline is a significant aspect of that overall ‘structure’. Not autocratic discipline, not the martinet-style that many of us knew in our schooling, but democratic leadership. Times have changed; students no longer easily or naturally respect the teacher role; any respect we garner has (rightfully) to be earned. Even that universal culprit, ‘society’, no longer rates teaching as a significant profession. It is certainly a stressful profession, and more demands are being made on teachers all the time – with Departments of Education governed by economically rationalist constraints, there are frequent demands on an already overloaded curriculum, and teachers have more evaluative and appraisal criteria to process. Many teachers, finding discipline difficult, complain that their college or university did not adequately prepare them for what they have to face. They may well be right. Many teachers plan well for curriculum but tend not to plan as rigorously for behaviour management issues and necessary discipline, even though they know what the common distractions and disruptions are that they are likely to face. I believe we ill-serve trainee teachers if we do not teach behaviour management and discipline skills. While thorough preparation of curriculum is essential, so is preparation for discipline. We need to discipline even if it’s only calling out, chattering, lateness, task-avoidance and ‘mobility’ we have to contend with. With some of the worst case scenarios discussed later in this book, a thorough and detailed discipline plan is vital. When I became a teacher I quickly realised the need for discipline skills. I read, I practised, I evaluated, I failed, I revised and, in time, I began to discuss successes and failures with interested and supportive colleagues. Each edition of this book is the result of that reflection and colleague mentoring. One of the more optimistic signs in the current educational climate is the renewed emphasis on colleague support; a move away from the assumption that a teacher is weak or inefficient in wanting to discuss behaviour and discipline concerns and to access assistance from their fellow teachers. Discipline (as a major facet of classroom management) is not easy. It is emotionally taxing at times, straining relationships between staff and students and even between members of staff. Making discipline a positive feature of our teaching practice, and school life, such that students have maximum self-control

xvii

Introduction

and responsibility with minimum damage to self-esteem and the due rights of all, is no mean feat. It requires skill, planning and colleague support. There are no simple formulas and no infallible techniques of achieving effective discipline; nor are there any guarantees. It takes hard work. But that work is made easier with knowledge, skills, planning and support. I have seen countless teachers use the approaches developed in this book with success. That success has required changes in organisation, as well as changes in behaviour and approach by the teacher, which in turn has changed the working relationship between students and their teacher for positive good. It is my hope that teachers – however long they have been in the profession – will benefit from using the ideas, skills and resources in this book to build more positive, workable relationships that enhance the educational climate of our schools. After all, isn’t that the fundamental goal of all behaviour management and discipline?

No one should be without colleague support

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Chapter 1 Discipline: Definition and protocols

‘Everyone who remembers [their] own educational experience remembers teachers, not methods and techniques.’ Sydney Hook (Magnusson 2004, p. 67) In the first and second editions of this book I devoted a few pages to the issue of corporal (physical) punishment: the application of pain in order to control or punish. There are still some schools (even in the Western world) that have not accepted, acceded to and built their practice from the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989).1 When I sported thin white legs with knobbly knees, a baggy pair of shorts, and blazer with cap to boot (circa 1950), discipline was a ‘thick ear’ (ouch!), respect for our ‘masters’, a cane across the hand or legs or the dreaded trip to the principal’s office. That trip was a narrow flight of stairs, and involved a pronouncement of doom by this fearsome, awesome, black-robed stranger and the holding back of tears as he lashed out across the back of the knees or across the open hands. I was caned at school for lateness, breaking a pencil, answering back and going out of the school grounds to the shops at play time. It did not teach me to respect my elders, the system or authority; ever. The application of corporal punishment may have relieved the frustration of some of my teachers but their behaviour totally disenfranchised me of my due rights. Many children in the 1950s were not aware they had such things as ‘rights’.

1

You Know the Fair Rule

The essential abolition of corporal punishment (in the mid-1980s) coincided with the emergence of a more open, less repressive society in the West. However, there are still some parents (even some teachers) who pine for the ‘good old days’ when they had ‘real’ power over children; when they could ‘teach’ them to obey via the strap or cane. I still hear the asinine statement, ‘They’ve taken our power away’. We need to learn to see, and use, our role and relational power for and with our students; not merely seeing power as power over our students. There is a view still common in the media and among some parents that corporal punishment is a necessary, fundamental discipline tool. Whenever I speak to parents (especially fathers) about discipline, I often hear statements like, ‘I know what I’d do with some of these kids …’ The suggestion is that control by force is a necessary ingredient in discipline. The basic argument still tendered for corporal punishment is that it shows that the child (and their behaviour) is wrong by associating pain with unacceptable behaviour. It is also supposed to act as a ‘red light’ to the other students and, of course, it relieves the frustration of the teacher. It looks as if something is being done. Corporal punishment may solve the situation temporarily, but it is ineffective in the long term, especially with those students whose background is already one of socio-emotional deprivation, aggression or hostility and who are under stresses often not of their own making. If a child is already being maltreated or emotionally neglected at home, how will further adult physical punishment help the resolution of inner turmoil? What do students learn about problem-solving if teachers use intentional physical force to deal with external conflicts? Is it not teaching them to solve a problem by force? Corporal punishment clearly does not work for the ‘harder’ student – the recidivist. It teaches such students nothing about the resolution of inner turmoil or conflict. Most of all, it teaches students nothing about the positive social behaviours that they should be employing to cope effectively at school. A policy of accepting the responsibility and consequences for one’s actions – as distinct from corporal punishment by pain – seeks to enhance accountability and self-control. Even if corporal punishment temporarily works in some cases, it doesn’t make such discipline right.

2

Discipline: Definition and protocols

When physical pain is being used as a form of control, the ‘recipient’ needs to be in some sense passive. The degree to which, in the past, even recidivist children submitted to hair-pulling, caning, belting around the ear and so on was staggering. Such behaviours exhibited today would not only be (rightly) resisted by students, they would be tantamount to child abuse. It is very difficult to smack a struggling, resistant child. It is my view that those who still hark back to the ‘good old days’ forget how degrading it is to hurt another human being in order to discipline them. Are there no other options? Are we so bereft of discipline and management skills that the touting of physical punishment is still a panacea for behaviour problems? There is no convincing evidence to demonstrate that physical punishment (as distinct from behaviour management built on rights, rules, responsibilities, consequences and support for behaviour change) leads to self-control and selfdiscipline. It has been my experience that teachers (and parents) who call for the reintroduction of corporal punishment often betray a singular lack of skill in the areas of discipline, classroom management and curriculum planning. When children come to school, they should expect to feel safe and have a right to fair and respectful treatment by their teachers. We can no longer walk into a classroom and anticipate students will respect us because of our role; we earn the respect of our students through how we lead, teach, encourage – and discipline. Many children will not just sit still and do as they’re told. We have to learn to work with our students and discipline them in a way that makes it clear that self-control and respect for rights are the norm in the classroom.

Discipline: Its meaning used in this book The word ‘discipline’ is used in this book in these ways: • Preventative discipline is concerned with basic rights and clear and fair rules and behaviour consequences. It involves developing positive routines for teaching and learning, room organisation and curriculum planning. • Corrective discipline is concerned with teacher actions – what we say and do to correct distracting, disruptive, antisocial or deviant behaviour. Crucial to

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You Know the Fair Rule

this aspect of discipline is our characteristic use of language under emotional pressure (p. 51) and appropriate use of school-wide time-out procedures. • Supportive discipline ensures that correction is received as fairly as is possible. It involves repairing, rebuilding and re-establishing working relationships with students who have been disciplined.

Preventative discipline • clear rules and routines established with the class • clear expectations and routines about learning tasks and behaviour • well-planned room organisation (seating, movement capability, access to equipment, clearly labelled cupboards etc.); an attempt to build an aesthetically attractive and positive environment • adequate resources • organising curriculum to cater for mixed abilities/differentiation • back-up support for teachers when students are repeatedly disruptive or dangerous (including appropriate use of time-out procedures).

Corrective discipline • tactically ignoring some behaviours/selective attention • using descriptive and non-verbal cueing • reminding or restating classroom rules • simple behavioural directions or warnings • casual or direct questioning • defusing or redirecting potential conflict • giving directed choices • directing students away from the group • using time-out in class and out of class if necessary.

Supportive discipline • consciously building, developing and maintaining a climate of respect • building a positive classroom ‘tone’ • following up with disruptive student(s) later when the initial ‘interpersonal heat’ has subsided • re-establishing working relationships with a disciplined student • encouraging students wherever possible

4

Discipline: Definition and protocols

• developing individual behaviour agreements with a student • applying a team approach to solving discipline problems.

Discipline (in these senses) is a teacher-directed activity whereby we seek to lead, guide, direct, manage and (where necessary) confront a student about behaviour that disrupts the rights of others. This teacher behaviour has goals beyond mere control, retaliation or punishment. It aims to lead a student towards self-control and personal accountability. In fact, the test of good or positive discipline is this: how does what I do and say enable a student to reach socially responsible objectives?

Goals of discipline • to develop students’ behaviour awareness, self-discipline, responsibility, selfcontrol and accountability for behaviour • to enable students to be on-task with their learning • to enhance students’ self-esteem • to encourage individual students to understand and respect the rights of others • to affirm cooperation, as well as responsible independence, in learning • to promote the values of honesty, fairness, respect for others • to enable rational conflict resolution.

Discipline also affects children’s development, in a number of ways. • Socialisation: it is important that children see stability, and develop stability, in social conduct. Respect for the rights of others, accountability for one’s actions as they affect others, cooperation, self-direction, achievement of a balance between freedom and social order and tolerance for others (their views and backgrounds) are important social realities that can be usefully learned in a classroom and school environment. One of the essential skills of life is the ability to get on with others. As teachers, we need to model that and teach it. We also need to teach some students how to live with inner conflict and tension. Of course we don’t always have a lot of time to do this but by the manner of discipline we choose to exercise, we can give students better options for taking control of their behaviour (see Chapter 8).

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You Know the Fair Rule

• Personal maturation: children need to develop a sense of responsibility; tolerance for the natural, and normal, frustrations of learning and social relationships; a sense of individual effort; and fair pride in themselves and their potential. Positive discipline enables that development. • Moral development: this is bound up with the ‘socialisation process’. Manners, standards, rules and boundaries of right and wrong are required to enable all members of a group to enjoy their rights. This assurance comes about when children know what the clear, fair rules are and why those rules are in place: to support, enable and protect their rights and call forth their responsibilities. Children care very much about justice, and discipline will be better received when it is seen to be just (pp. 15, 122). • Emotional security: discipline can provide that sense of security which enhances effective learning. We learn best when we feel safe, and when we feel good about ourselves; this is why self-esteem is an important goal of discipline. Encouragement, positive reinforcement, helpful guiding, questioning and listening are the sorts of teacher behaviours that assist the achievement of this goal. Even when a teacher needs to be firm, assertive or angry, it is possible to discipline and still uphold this goal (see Chapter 10). Discipline is not merely an end in itself. It is a process to enable students to be aware of where their behaviour infringes or affects others’ rights; engage selfcontrol; and give an appropriate sense of ‘choice’ over their own behaviour. It is more than mere punishment – discipline is about longer term goals. In this sense, corrective discipline can be both corrective and guiding and still positive. If a primary student asks if she can do her project on the computer, a teacher might say, ‘No, you haven’t even started your first draft’, or he could say, ‘Yes, when you’ve started your first draft’. One approach is more invitational than the other (depending, of course, on the teacher’s tone of voice, body language and the quality of the relationship: see Chapter 3). Discipline is needed in a classroom for the security and protection of the rights of all its members. It is necessary that a class run as smoothly as possible so that all students can benefit from the learning environment. However, discipline technique is not an answer in itself. Discipline occurs in a dynamic relationship which can at times be seriously strained. Technique, without

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

due consideration for the fact that we are dealing with individuals, will often increase the conflict and further strain the relationship. Technique, strategy and practices are only as good as the human relationships in which they occur, and they are not value-free; if we believe that the dignity of the individual is important, we will eschew discipline that uses humiliation, sarcasm, ridicule, verbal aggression and put-downs.

Protocols of discipline Everyone has a view about discipline – everyone has been disciplined at some point in their life. The case for discipline can be argued on a continuum, from physical punishment to maximum freedom; as has been demonstrated by experiments such as Summerhill (Neill 1960). It means different things to different people. Even within the teaching community and within faculties of education, there can be wide variation of opinion. When we act to address or correct unacceptable behaviour in our students, we act on the basis of certain beliefs or philosophical assumptions. These assumptions may be stated or unstated but they are certainly there in our actions. If we believe children must respect their teachers, our behaviour will be different when a student says, ‘This work sucks!’ from that of a teacher who believes that we earn respect from our students by the kind of leadership we display and the relationships we build. The teacher who believes that intentionally embarrassing students in front of their peers is OK (as long as it ‘shuts the student up’) will act very differently from the teacher who believes in giving students their due rights, especially the right of respectful treatment. There are several major approaches taken to discipline in the published literature. These reflect the degree of intervention teachers believe they ought to exercise and how that intervention is exercised. Behind each position is a philosophy of human interaction. This book is not a discussion about those approaches or philosophical positions (see pp. xiii, 29). It is my argument – an argument that will be sustained through every practical example of discipline given – that there are central protocols of discipline. These protocols delineate the underlying discipline practice; the how of discipline.

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You Know the Fair Rule

Of course there is a philosophical position behind these protocols. (No teacher’s professional practice is free from values. Even if they are unstated, they can be seen in a teacher’s characteristic practice.) I will need to leave my philosophical position undefended at this point and allow the protocols and practices to defend themselves, save to say that I hold the dignity of the individual and the fundamental nature of human rights to be pivotal in the practice of any discipline. The protocols outlined here enable a value position to be held even if, for example, a behavioural approach (say, behaviour modification) is used. When we embrace due rights, ensure we minimise embarrassment (wherever possible), maintain respect and give appropriate behavioural choices, we maintain the dignity of the individual while engaging necessary discipline. Even when we need to be assertive with a student (or a group) or exercise appropriate anger, if we embrace these protocols, we have done the best we can do in the human transaction. These protocols are the starting point for a positive teacher–student interaction that supports the goals discussed earlier (see p. 5). They do not always make such discipline easier. They make the practice of our behaviour leadership, and discipline with dignity achievable.

Approach all discipline from the perspective of joint rights, responsibilities and rules This means that the focus of discipline is not merely the teacher’s relative power and authority (earned rather than imposed), but the joint rights of all members of the class. The most fundamental rights of a classroom member are those of emotional and physical safety, mutual respect and fair treatment. These rights are not automatic. They relate to due responsibility, and fair and agreed rules (see Chapter 5). This ‘3Rs’ focus provides a positive and just basis for any corrective discipline. Teachers need to explain – and discuss – these rights, responsibilities and rules with their students in the establishment phase of the year. They are the basis of all school and classroom life and will largely determine how due rights will be enjoyed by students.

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

Speak and act in such a way as to minimise embarrassment, undue confrontation and hostility Sarcasm, put-downs and critical or caustic language are disturbing features of some teachers’ disciplinary style. When verbal and nonverbal hostility (slamming hands on desks, snatching up objects such as pens, food, iPods, mobile phones, toys, waving a pointed finger, yelling) is a feature of a teacher’s discipline style, it not only reveals a tragic professional weakness, it models a distinctly unprofessional approach to behaviour management and conflict resolution. Witness the teacher who screams at the student, ‘Don’t you dare scream at me! Who the hell do you think you’re talking to?’ Emotional management is never easy but it is possible to speak firmly and assertively without unnecessary or intentional hostility; even when frustrated or angry (Chapter 10). It is a basic maxim of respectful conflict management and resolution that a teacher can assert their rights without trampling on the other person’s rights. The ability to communicate calmness in tone of voice – a relaxed and confident body language – is essential in any behaviour leadership context. When we seek to initiate and sustain whole-class settling and focus, our calmness will enable a returned calmness in our students. The class files in noisily; there’s some play punching by the boys. Several students are talking loudly, seemingly ignoring their teacher. Walking to the front of the room the teacher raises his voice, ‘Can you face this way and listen, PLEASE!’ As he says this, he is moving – quite restlessly – back and forth across the front of the classroom. He is unaware that his physical movement is itself telegraphing restlessness to the more restless boys. He singles out the most talkative, ‘Noah, Jack do you have you keep talking? Can’t you see I’m trying to get started here?’ His frustration is understandable, but the form of questioning to the class (and the individuals) is unhelpful. The two boys answer back, ‘Come on – we weren’t the only ones talking!’ A pattern has now developed. As the teacher seeks to address chatting, calling out, etc., he starts minor debates or squabbles with his students. He ends up shouting, ‘Look – just shut it, all right!’ ››

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His voice is tense, frequently loud – at times hectoring. They are a hard class, yet his own behaviour is a significant factor in their restlessness; their querulousness.

NB Some teachers get into a habit of talking ‘over’ or seeking to talk ‘through’ the residual noise of students during whole-class settling time. This, naturally, habituates that it’s OK for students to talk while the teacher is talking; to engage in private chatter; fiddle noisily with water bottles, pencil cases, etc.

Same class, same day, different teacher. As the students file in the teacher reminds them – quietly – about hats and play punching. ‘Fellas … come on, playtime’s over.’ She beckons with her hand to her head to signal to the students with hats to remove them. She looks relaxed; she smiles as she greets students entering. She reminds them to take their seats. She stands near the front centre of the classroom, ready to cue the whole class. She scans the group – even this seemingly small connective gaze signals her readiness. She cues the class a little louder (there is some chatting and natural restlessness in their seats), ‘Settling down, everyone …’ (She tactically and briefly pauses to allow some take-up.) She repeats the cue, ‘Settling down … eyes and ears this way.’ She cues the halfdozen still chatting, ‘A number of students are still chatting … (she pauses briefly) … eyes and ears this way. Thanks.’ • She is aware of her physical presence at the front of the room; her body language is open and relaxed, not tense. • She uses directional language: ‘Settling … looking … listening …’; she doesn’t use request language: ‘Will you?’, ‘Can you (stop talking)?’ • She uses descriptive language when cueing the group or individuals, e.g. ‘A number of students are chatting (brief description of reality), you need to be looking this way and listening (the directional cue). Thanks.’ She is aware ‘thanks’ is more expectational than ‘please’. • She is aware that her tone of voice is relaxed, and positive, where possible. When a couple of boys are fiddling with the window blinds, she cues the class, briefly. ‘Excuse me for a moment …’ She turns to face the two lads (without moving across to them). ‘Bilal … Max … you’re fiddling with the blinds. It’s

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

distracting … (a brief description). Leave the blinds now, thanks, and facing this way (the direction)’. They sigh, raise their eyes to the ceiling, fold their arms and lean back, as if to say, ‘OK, OK, we’ll do it!’ She tactically ignores their body language and she refocuses the class group. ‘Thanks, everyone. You’re much more relaxed and settled. Good morning.’ She saves the formal, wholeclass, greeting until the class is settled. • She is aware of not talking ‘over’ or ‘through’ residual chatter, kinaesthetic fiddling or serious seat-leaning. The cueing of the group hasn’t taken long – a couple of minutes. Is her management and discipline approach mere personality, or are there practices and skills that enable this teacher to positively begin another lesson?

Use a least-to-most intervention approach When walking down the crowded corridor one morning (on my way to ‘registration class’) I saw a colleague stop a student who wasn’t wearing a tie (this was a school with a firm uniform policy). ‘Oi! Why aren’t you wearing a tie? Eh?’ I could hear him ten metres away. He didn’t even address the student by name, or ask him to step to the side of the corridor and then keep his voice down while addressing the situation. It could have been far less intrusive if the teacher had beckoned the student quietly to one side, said good morning and asked him his name: ‘Byron, I notice you’re not wearing a tie …’ ‘Yeah … well, I forgot.’ ‘So, what do you think you can do about it?’ ‘Go home?’ ‘Anything quicker?’ ‘I dunno.’ ‘I’ve got a spare tie box in my office. Meet me there in five minutes.’ I’ve seen colleagues reach over a student’s desk, tap several times with forefinger on the student’s work and ‘interrogate’ them: ‘Why haven’t you started work, eh?’, ‘Why haven’t you done a margin?’ or ‘What do you call this, then, eh?’ Don’t they realise how confrontational and intrusive such actions are? Imagine if the experience was reversed – say if a head teacher were to treat a fellow staff member in the same way. They would rightfully be angry; even livid.

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A student arrives late to class; his ‘entry’ is a little attentional. Teacher A leaves off his whole-class teaching and challenges the boy: ‘Why are you late?’ The student starts whingeing, his body language is tense, ‘Jeez, I got here as quick as I could!’ The teacher perceives this as confronting. ‘Don’t argue with me. I asked you why you were late!’ ‘You’re always picking on me – you don’t pick on the girls when they’re late!’ The teacher is getting really annoyed now. ‘Look – I’m sick of you arriving late to class; this is the third time you’ve come late to my class … 5 minutes! If you can’t get to class on time – with a note – you can leave right now and go to the co-ordinator!’ The student looks around at his classmates, from the door, and says, ‘Well, I’m going. It’s a shit class anyway!’ The teacher follows him into the corridor (leaving his class unsupervised) and yells out his last word, ‘You’ll be on detention!’ The student ignores him and walks on … Teacher B. Same issue: student lateness in a student known to be difficult. He enters (without knocking) 5 minutes late, grinning. The teacher says, ‘Excuse me’ to the class, and turns and faces the boy. ‘Welcome, Dane. I notice you’re late (she says this in a quieter voice). Take a seat – we’ll have a chat later.’ She refocuses her attention to whole-class engagement and teaching. The whole episode looks relaxed. She has refocused the issue of his lateness and instead of arguing with the student (in the emotional moment) she has made it easier for the student to cooperate. She’ll address the reason for his lateness later (either in the on-task phase of the lesson, or even at the end of the lesson, i.e. when she chooses). Her basic working maxim for lateness is ‘meet, greet, seat’. Deal with reasons later. If the student makes a habit of coming late to class she will follow-up one-toone with the student (in non-class time, see p. 105) and check with other colleagues if this is a common feature of the student’s behaviour.

The teacher comes up to the Year 2s sitting at their work area. They’re using playdough, scissors, paper, etc. ‘Look at this mess. Why is it so messy here, eh? And look at the playdough everywhere. Why isn’t the lid on, eh?’ Quite apart from the use of the interrogative ‘why?’, the teacher then adds, ‘Look at this mess. When the lid’s off the playdough container it gets hard, doesn’t it? And

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

who makes the playdough, eh? Not you. And those felt-tip pens … they cost money, don’t they, how long are they going to last if you leave the lids off?’ Most children will turn off after the first question. This teacher may not mean to be a nag but that’s how it sounds to the children. Also, it’s too many words; they can’t take it all in. It might have been more effective to remind them: ‘Remember to …’ (be specific and brief), or use a direct question, ‘What do we need to do to keep the felttip pens working well? And to keep the play dough workable?’ Here the teacher gives a nonverbal signal demonstration of pliability using two hands. (See Chapter 3 on the language of correction.)

In each of these actual case examples it can be observed that the way the teacher addresses the student’s behaviour has a significant effect on how cooperatively the issue – and the student’s behaviour – progresses.

Give appropriate ‘choices’ when disciplining students It is an important feature of positive discipline that teachers seek to direct students to responsibility for their own behaviour. Teachers can do this by using language that emphasises the student’s ‘choice’ rather than the teacher’s force or threat. Mobile phones and iPods are an annoying feature of distractive behaviour in many high schools I work in. Whenever I hear a ‘music buzz’, or see surreptitious texting, I walk over and initially ask how the student’s work is going. Most students sense I’m probably going to speak about the phone, iPod or other objet d’art(!). After a brief chat about the work, I’ll describe what I’ve seen: ‘I notice you’ve got an iPhone (or …).’ Often, before I clarify further, the student will add, ‘Other teachers don’t mind as long as …’, or, ‘I wasn’t using the phone …’, or … Rather than argue, ‘I don’t care if every bleedin’ teacher in the school lets you!’, I’ve found partial agreement and refocusing is more ‘invitational’, for example: ‘Even if you weren’t using it (the partial agreement), I want you to put the phone on my table or in your bag (or pencil case).’ At that point I find it helpful to walk away, giving the student some take-up time (see p. 55). This generally sees the student sigh, mutter, whinge or raise their eyes to the ceiling as they put the phone away. These ‘secondary’ behaviours I’ll tactically ignore (p. 25).

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If a student refuses to put the objet away, then I’ll go back – a little later – and clarify the deferred consequence. After all it’s only a phone, or iPod, or a loud keyring or … In schools with a ‘confiscation policy’, the approach is still invitational using similar language forms. This invitational approach is explored more fully in Chapter 3. Even when speaking to a student aside from the group, the teacher should seek to enable the student to: • be aware of their behaviour, seek to act responsibly and ‘own’ their behaviour • move into a solution-oriented focus that puts primary responsibility on the student choosing the better option(s). When we give appropriate ‘choices’, we develop an approach to discipline that emphasises self-control rather than merely teacher control. ‘I said move!’ is different – in kind – from saying, ‘Nam, you can either work quietly here or I’ll have to ask you to work over there.’ Expressed as a directed choice, it gives the student an option, or options, within the rights-rules framework. Apart from students involved in ongoing disruptive behaviours, physical fighting or unsafe behaviour, it is better practice to give a directed ‘choice’ before imposing consequences such as relocation in the room, or time out. Our interaction style ought to try to help students choose the better option or realise the consequences of their actions. Sometimes the consequences will be deferred (after the lesson, or when the interpersonal heat has gone down). When a male student in one of my classes referred to a Muslim girl’s headdress as a tea towel, the immediate discipline I gave was a firm corrective assertion (his putdown had been heard by all): ‘Lee, that’s a put-down and that stops right now.’ He argued that it was just a joke. I replied, ‘It may have been a joke to you; in our class that’s a put-down. I’ll speak to you after class.’ He (indeed the whole class) could hear the assertion in my voice. He sulked. Later, at the close of the lesson, I asked both students to stay back and we had a short ‘accountability conference’, at which the female student was able to express her feelings and perceptions to Lee. In the heat of the moment (in class time) it would have been counter-productive to force an apology.

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

NB I’ve put the word ‘choice’ in inverted commas to signify that all such choices are given and directed within the rights/responsibility dynamic.

Discipline students respectfully; especially the annoying, frustrating ones When faced with children whose behaviour is attentional, difficult, testy or a ‘pain in the neck’, it is easy to act from feelings of dislike. Conversely, it is easy to act fairly, kindly, reasonably and affirmatively towards those we like. This is natural. It can be observed in countless classrooms and often unthinkingly determines actual teacher behaviour. Some teachers rationalise their differing treatment of students by saying, ‘Why shouldn’t I give Joshua a hard time? He’s a pain in the neck! He deserves it.’ To discipline respectfully, however, we need to concentrate not so much on our feelings, or likes and dislikes, but on how we can discipline (lead, guide, direct, motivate) without resorting to characteristically loud voices, rancour, sarcasm, put-downs or embarrassment. Respect means employing communication that models what we want, and expect, to see in our students. Respectful discipline also means making an effort to notice (affirm, encourage or merely speak positively and humanely as we pass by their desk) the normally ‘painful’ disruptive students when they show evidence of considerate, thoughtful on-task behaviour. In this way, the student can begin to relate to the teacher at times other than when he’s being disciplined. If the only time I visit Joshua is when he is a pain, then I have a very limited and unproductive working relationship with him. To speak regularly, and encouragingly, with every student takes a lot of effort – especially the effort of respect (p. 226). It is worth it. Ultimately, respect is behaving in ways that: • model dignity in treatment • ensure we do not hold grudges • enable the positive working relationship as soon as possible with the disruptive student • give the student a ‘right of reply’ at a time when it is appropriate (see p. 104).

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Even when a child has to be exited from the room (for time-out) for significantly disruptive behaviour, such an exit can be carried out without screaming, yelling or last-minute grandstanding. To enable this, we must have a whole-school approach to the policy and practice of time-out and follow-up (p. 163).

Use positive corrective language where possible The language of discipline is a crucial feature of our characteristic behaviour leadership. Wherever possible, we seek to use positive corrective language. When students are calling out, butting in, talking over others or fiddling with objects (water bottles, keyrings, pencil cases) while the teacher is talking, some teachers will use language that focuses on what they don’t want, for example, ‘Don’t call out’, ‘Don’t fiddle with your pencil case’, ‘Don’t talk while I’m teaching, please!’ Some teachers will use unhelpful interrogatives: ‘Why are you calling out?’, ‘Do you have to fiddle with that pencil case?’, ‘Can’t you see I’m trying to teach here?’ When we address distracting and disruptive behaviour, we seek to: • focus the students’ awareness to the reasonable, fair, expected behaviour • use language that is behaviour specific. ‘A number of students are chatting.’ Here the teacher scans the class and makes brief eye contact with the half-dozen chatting students. She tactically pauses (p. 10) to allow take-up. Having briefly described their behaviour (to raise awareness), she then adds, ‘You need to be facing this way and listening, thanks.’ This directs the students’ focus to the expected behaviour (‘facing’ and ‘listening’). By adding ‘thanks’ (rather than ‘please’), she strengthens the expectation.

In the playground, a teacher notices several boys playing handball in a no-ball area. Rather than approach and simply say, ‘Don’t play here’ or ‘You’re not supposed to be playing here’ or ‘Why are you playing here?’, she greets the students and briefly describes what she sees: ‘You’re playing handball in a non-ball area. Where are you supposed to be playing handball games?’ Questions prefaced with ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’ or ‘how’ raise the students’ awareness and behavioural focus. If they prevaricate or argue, she will keep the behaviour focus (p. 89) and, if necessary, clarify the consequences.

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

The way we use language cueing is an essential feature of positive discipline. What we say and how we say it (tone, manner, expectation conveyed) all work together to create and enable teacher–student cooperation. Chapter 3 is devoted to this topic.

Follow up significant behaviour and learning issues beyond the classroom One of the marks of consistency in our teacher–leadership is keeping track of ongoing disruptions. If we say to a child we expect her to stay back after class (for a particular behaviour consequence, a brief chat or a more involved detention), we need to ensure it happens. It’s so easy when the coffee break looms to ignore necessary follow-up, or simply fill in an incident report sheet and pass the issue on to a senior teacher. Follow-up (and follow-through) is important because, ultimately, the disturbance Madison causes in ‘my’ classroom, while benefiting from senior teacher intervention, is still a problem to be resolved between Madison and me. We are the ones who have to work together in Room 17 four times a week, or all day if it’s a primary-aged class.

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You Know the Fair Rule

Following up with behavioural consequences demonstrates concern as well as consistency; justice as well as accountability; and models the fact that we will not easily give up on students even when they are a pain. At this level of discipline, though, we will often need colleague support (beyond the classroom).

Try to ensure that there is a logical relationship – a relatedness – between behaviour and consequential outcome Emphasise the certainty rather than just the severity of the consequence, and strive to keep the fundamental respect intact. Avoid pointless, unrelated consequences such as writing lines, copying out the school rules or picking up of litter in detention time (p. 156). The concept of related consequences is different in kind from the notion that the ‘punishment should fit the crime’ – a maxim I’ve heard frequently over the years. We lead and teach students – they are not (normally) criminals and we’re not running a prison! Our use of language (including analogy and metaphor) has a significant effect on our perception of student behaviour and our behaviour leadership.

Seek colleague and parent support If we are struggling with a particular student, or a group or even the whole class, and our personal discipline ‘plans’ are not working, it is in the interests of all to: • seek help from trusted colleagues • seek out senior teacher support • call on parents to assist by mutual understanding, resolution and support. There is no virtue at all in social and professional isolation and pretending all is going well. A good deal of teacher stress arises because sometimes, as teachers, we tend not to communicate our feelings, problems and concerns. When we do – of course – we often find how similar our problems and concerns are. One of the difficulties for some teachers is that they feel that disclosure of classroom discipline and management problems is an admission of weakness. Also, offering colleague support is sometimes seen as implying that the other colleague is ineffectual or ‘weak’, or even incompetent (see Rogers 2002). A whole-school approach to behaviour leadership and discipline will provide

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Discipline: Definition and protocols

regular opportunities to share problems, identify needs and have a shared focus in exploring solutions and support (see Chapter 9). These protocols are a guiding framework and – coupled with the skills discussed in Chapter 3 – a means of enabling a positive discipline practice. In fact, where teachers seek to build such protocols into their practice, they find that their working relationship with students is more positive, less demanding and more productive for all concerned.

Protocols of discipline • the focus of discipline is the common rights, rules, responsibilities • avoid unnecessary confrontation/embarrassment (wherever possible) • use a least-to-most intervention approach • follow-up and follow-through • give appropriate ‘choices’ within rights/rules • discipline respectfully – even when assertive • use positive corrective language wherever possible • use related consequences wherever possible • seek colleague and parent support.

The concept and practice of discipline has suffered roundly from an overconcentration on punishment and teacher control. It is my view that any discipline needs to be seen in terms of what it is trying to achieve, namely selfdiscipline, self-control and respect for others’ rights.

Questions to consider • If someone were to observe my characteristic discipline style, what sort of things would they note? • What is my school’s working definition of discipline? • Do I consciously discipline students with particular goals in mind? What are these goals? • In what way do I modify my discipline behaviour to make the attainment of those goals (say, self-control) a possibility?

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You Know the Fair Rule

• What are the guiding protocols by which I discipline? How do they relate to the protocols discussed here?

Endnote 1.

See Nutbrown (2006) for a detailed discussion on the UN conventions, and their application to schooling and education.

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Chapter 2 Disruptive behaviour and teacher management style

‘A plank in reason, broke …’ Emily Dickinson, I felt a funeral, in my brain, 1862 (Leiter 2007, p. 98)

Distracting and disruptive behaviour Every classroom has its share of distractions let alone disruptions. Of course they may be only ‘low-level’ distractions, such as uniform misdemeanours, talking while the teacher is talking, gum-chewing, calling out or not having equipment. We no longer hear the respectful and dulcet tones of, ‘Please, Sir’, or ‘Yes, Miss’. More likely, we’ll hear, ‘Jeez, this is boring!’, ‘Other teachers don’t hassle us!’, ‘It’s not fair!’, ‘You can’t make me!’ and ‘I don’t care’. Add to this insouciance, sulking, insolence, swearing and defiance, and it’s easy to see why teaching is often rated as a stressful profession.

The causes of disruption Children distract and disrupt for a number of reasons: boredom; ‘fun’; immaturity; inability to understand what is taught, or required; low tolerance to frustration; the contributing effects of a diagnosed behaviour disorder or an emotionally disturbed and dysfunctional home situation (p. 170). These days

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You Know the Fair Rule

we are seeing more and more children whose home environment is seriously affecting their ability to cope in a formal social setting like school. If Jacob’s current male caregiver is unemployed, belts him regularly, has a drinking problem and often ‘shoots through’; if mum has five other children under 15; if there is regular screaming, shouting and put-downs at home, this will have an effect on Jacob’s social behaviour at school. If he comes to school with significant inner conflict that he can hardly comprehend, and then meets an intransigent and petty teacher whose relational manner is limited to hostile and embarrassing interactions, there is already a context for disruption. This is a particularly bleak picture, but variations of this situation will be found in many schools. There are many students like Jacob attending our schools and they don’t all go to the local state school. Ben comes late to class (his home environment is not dissimilar to Jacob’s). He swaggers in with some attention-seeking; he has no pen, no books. The teacher is halfway through explaining the lesson topic. He greets Ben, ‘Good morning, Ben, welcome.’ This teacher is not Ben’s regular teacher. Ben says, ‘You’re not our normal teacher’, and frowns. The teacher’s reply is sardonic, ‘There are no normal teachers, Ben.’ The class, and Ben, laugh. ‘I’d like you to take a seat over here.’ He points to a seat in the front next to Ethan. ‘But I normally sit next to Carlos and them.’ Ben looks at the back row – all seats are taken. Rather than argue with Ben (‘Look, don’t argue with me, you’ll sit there!’), the teacher points to the spare seat, saying, ‘The back seats are taken, Ben. I’d like you to sit here for now, thanks.’ The teacher’s body language is relaxed, his voice confident and respectful. He breaks eye contact with Ben and he gives him take-up time (p. 55) and carries on teaching as if Ben will comply with this simple request. He does, adding a sigh and a frown. Later, during the on-task phase of the lesson, the teacher notices Ben hasn’t started the activity. He comes across to Ben and Ethan’s table and notices the picture on Ethan’s diary that Ben and Ethan are chatting about. ‘How’s it going, then?’ He has a brief chat and says to Ben, ‘Ben, I notice you haven’t started.’ He describes without interrogating (‘Why haven’t you started?’). He asks Ben if he needs help.

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Ben replies, ‘Yeah, well, I haven’t got a pen, have I?’ ‘There’s one in my yellow box, Ben.’ (This teacher always carries a box into class with pens, rulers, pencils, A4 paper.) The box is yellow in colour; each ruler, pen, pencil, etc. is tipped with yellow tape to ‘track’ it back to the box (this helps the visual learners). Ben’s a bit persistent: ‘I haven’t got a ruler.’ ‘There’s one in the yellow box, Ben.’ ‘Jeez, I haven’t got any paper.’ Ben leans back in his chair with what seems to be a practised sigh. ‘There’s paper next to the box, Ben.’ Ben mutters a sibilant ‘Shit’. The teacher replies with a barely perceptible wink, ‘No, Ben – I don’t think there’s any of that in there.’ He leaves Ben’s table to go and work with other students allowing Ben take-up time. As he leaves he smiles, adding, ‘I’ll come and see how you’re going later, Ben.’ He’s found it helpful to leave students like Ben with a taskrelated reminder or direction. Sometimes he’ll leave the student with a task-related question, for example ‘What are you supposed to be doing at the moment?’

You can imagine a different scenario within the same context: ‘Why haven’t you got a pen? The other students have a pen, don’t they? Use your brains and get one!’ We can understand a teacher’s exasperation with students like Ben. I know – I worked with Ben. The ambiguous direction ‘get one’ (a pen) might see Ben walk right across the class to one of his mates in the back row. ‘Eh, give us a pen, Carlos.’ His mate replies, ‘Jeez, I’m not giving you a pen, I didn’t get the last five back!’ Or Ben might walk out of class. ‘Oi, where do you think you’re going?’ ‘You said I could get a pen. I’m going to my locker, it’s only half a kilometre away. Won’t be long!’ Before the teacher can ‘stop’ Ben, he’s off. It does happen. I use the ‘yellow box’ approach myself; still. I’ve had different colours over the years. It’s basic preventative management. If a student doesn’t bring pens, etc. over several sessions then I’ll work on a one-to-one plan to help the student remember basic class equipment. I also find it helpful to have a few spare textbooks or photocopied sections from textbooks for those who forget.

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Attention and audience Whatever the causes of disruption, when a student comes into a group they quickly seek to find some sort of ‘social’ place; to belong in some way to the classroom group. The semi-conscious question they ask is, ‘How do I belong here?’ This fundamental need is central to social psychology (as Dreikurs, Grunwald and Pepper (1982) and others have observed). Thankfully, most students fulfil this need in socially acceptable ways: they put their hands up when they want to contribute to class discussions, they ask for equipment instead of snatching, they wait their turn, they gain positive attention through participation in classroom life cooperatively – they ‘belong’. Their teachers and peers reinforce these attentionally positive behaviours.

The attention seeker Mia gets her attention differently. If she is asked to ‘settle down’, she pouts and tosses her head around like an irate horse; it works. Her teacher comments, ‘Look, I asked you to be quiet, not to snort like a horse! What’s wrong with you?’ Mia answers back, ‘Others are talking as well, why d’you have to pick on me?’ ‘I am not picking on you. I am telling you to be quiet or you can move out of that seat now!’

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What a lot of words. What a lot of attention. Mia has got what she wanted, even if it appears as negative attention. Procrastination is something she learned in the supermarket trolley: the attention-seeking whine, the sulky ‘notice me’ pout, the extended ‘come over and attend to me now’ behaviour. Her sulking, too, has reaped attentional ‘reward’. Attention-seeking behaviour is common in classrooms and a source of frustration for teachers.

‘Primary’ and ‘secondary’ behaviour Another way of looking at attention-seeking behaviour is to view the behaviour dynamic as ‘progressive’: from the primary disruption through to secondary attention- or power-seeking behaviours. Cooper has secretly brought his expensive iPhone into class and hidden it in his bag, by his feet. The teacher notices his head nodding, hears the faint music and ‘twigs’. She directs him to take it off and put it away; she addresses the ‘primary’ behaviour. Cooper (even though he’s in Year 10 at a private school) does not say, ‘Right, Miss. I’ll take it off straight away. Thanks for pointing it out.’ He employs typical ‘secondary’ behaviours. He grunts and sighs (to increase the feeling of ‘notice how annoyed I am!’) and says, ‘Miss Davies lets me play it in art, come on – be fair. How come she lets us? I can do my work better with it on!’ His secondary behaviour is designed to change the issue of responsibility for his primary behaviour (having an iPhone on in class) to an issue of justice (comparing one teacher’s standards of ‘fairness’ with another’s). The problem with such secondary behaviour is that it is so easy to over-focus on the student’s sighs, the head-toss, the raised eyes, the ‘pained’ frowning, the tut-tutting … instead of keeping the focus on the primary issue at hand. ‘Cooper, you don’t have to make such a big deal about it, do you? This is not Miss Davies’ class, is it?’ ‘Gee, Miss, I can still work with it on. I’m even quieter with it on, aren’t I; ask Arwen?’ He turns to his mate for back-up. And so it can go on and on … Procrastination, more secondary dialogue, avoidance of behaviour ownership. It can happen in almost any discipline transaction, if we let it.

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Typical ‘secondary behaviours’ include sighing, pouting, eyes rolled to the ceiling, the ‘over-done’ frown, sulking, flouncing and minor tantrums. Students will often answer back, procrastinate or want to have the last word. For example, a teacher quietly beckons a student to remove his hat in class. The student replies, ‘Oh, come on (whine) other teachers don’t care if we …’ The student’s reply, and the tone of voice, and the body language are all secondary to the main, or primary, issue of the school rule about hats off in class time. Secondary behaviours (in this sense) may be habitual (the student may even be unaware of their habit); the result of frustration; or employed purposefully by the child. It may even be a backlash by the student at what he perceives as unfair treatment by a teacher. Secondary behaviour can contribute to: • over-attendance by the teacher in seeking to manage, or control, the student’s behaviour (and over-servicing of inappropriate attentional behaviour) • avoidance of responsibility by the student for the issue at hand – their primary behaviour (their calling out, talking while the teacher is talking, having a comic on the desk, etc.) • a feeling of guilt in some teachers, as if they shouldn’t even be addressing the student about this behaviour. This is where pouting, sighing, shouldershrugging, kicking-the-chair-in-passing are used for great effect as secondary behaviours – ‘I’ll make you feel sorry!’ (We would address an overdone kicking of a chair, of course, as a primary behaviour.) Cooper’s teacher is well-meaning however, through over-attention to his antics, her reaction reinforces the very thing she is trying to minimise – avoidance behaviours. Even if the student does stop disrupting (having got his dose of attention), it is likely he will employ similar behaviour the next time he’s after attention. Some children even make a career of it! It’s easy to fall into the trap of just reacting to such attention-seeking because we feel frustrated, angry or anxious. What we may often end up doing is just what the child wants – ‘Notice me!’, ‘Attend to me when I want attention!’ or ‘Make it so that other students notice me (when I clown, argue and procrastinate or challenge)’. The need for attention is fundamental in children – indeed in all of us (to a greater or lesser degree); it flows from the need to belong to a social group. Some children pursue this need to belong through distracting and disruptive forms of attentional behaviour.

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Behaviours which indicate attention and power-seeking ‘Notice me!’ ‘Attend to me!’

‘Make me!’ (power) ‘I will make you attend me.’ ‘I can do what I want and you can’t stop me!’ (power)

frequent calling out

blatant task refusal/defiance

procrastinating over questioning of work

swearing (‘get stuffed!’ or variations thereof)

sulking, pouting, tantrums

provocative gesturing

task refusing

‘dumb’ insolence

clowning around, silly noises

challenging behaviour

frequent, coy niceness and wanting reassurances from teacher

aggressive behaviour (as avoidance)

Children who engage in attention-seeking behaviours find it easy to get some teachers into an indecisive management mode when they become embroiled in long and fruitless discussions or pleadings in front of the class, or when they engage teachers in power struggles. Conversely such students may ‘force’ teachers into win/lose dynamics. Where a teacher actually believes that ‘I have to win here!’, ‘I cannot lose face’, ‘I’ll show who’s boss here!’ – the outcome is a highly fractious conflict (and lots of perceived attentional power by the student). Nobody actually wins.

Teacher frustration Teachers will note how frustrated they get with students when they frequently call out, make silly noises, prevaricate, argue and the like. This is a problem, a challenge and a clue for what we can do when dealing with such behaviour. Because we are frustrated by the child’s behaviour (‘Attend to me’, ‘Spend time on me’, ‘Engage the group to notice me’) it is easy, by our reaction, to act in accord with the child’s ‘goal’. In fact, the child may have learned how to trigger such attention from adults even if such attention is adult frustration or anger: ‘I can make him really notice me by frequent calling out – even with my hand up – so it looks like I’m doing the right thing!’, ‘I can make him come over to me by pleading’, ‘Gee, I can get him angry just by calling out!’ Some children may not be consciously aware of their attention-seeking behaviour but the reinforcement they gain from their teacher (and their class peers) strengthens their

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attention-seeking or power-seeking behaviour, even if the attention is negative in tone or manner. Power-seeking too is an extension of attention-seeking. The power-seeking child seeks to belong by using challenging behaviour: ‘Can’t make me’, ‘This work is boring’, ‘I’m not going to do it!’, ‘I don’t care anyway’. When a child throws out such a challenge, he is inviting the teacher to a contest. His belief may even register as ‘I belong when I’m as powerful or more powerful than the teacher’, ‘I can do what I want and you can’t really stop me!’ or ‘I’m the boss here!’ When the teacher uses more force – ‘You’ll do this work or else!’ – she endorses the child’s purposeful behaviour, within the child’s ‘private logic’ (Dreikurs et al. 1982). There is also the added problem that there is a sense in which a teacher cannot actually make a child do any work, or make a student show respect. She can invite, ask, direct, apply consequences but cannot merely make. We can, of course, ‘make’ a small child move from one place to another by physically ‘helping’ him. We can hardly do that with a robust Year 7 student who responds by saying, ‘No, I’m not going to move and you can’t make me.’ What are we going to do? Drag him out? (I’ve done that in my early days!) There are more effective ways of dealing with power-seeking students than merely giving them the easy win–lose perspective they often seek. Power-seeking children feed off force and control, which is why it makes good sense to avoid such a reaction. The teacher’s response (rather than reaction) can reinforce a child’s inappropriate behaviour as much as anything else. A more thoughtful discipline response rarely comes easily in the immediate emotional moment! It is important to consider typical behaviour scenarios and – as much as one can – plan ahead.

Awareness of disruptive behaviour patterns If we are aware that some children’s misbehaviour is purposeful in seeking attention or an exchange of power, we can better plan how to manage disruptions that arise from such behaviours. If a child is actively seeking attention in off-task, clownish, annoying ways, it is counter-productive to let him achieve such a goal at the expense of our frustration: ‘I won’t tell you again!’, ‘Just sit down, will you?’ If we are aware of behaviours that signal attention-seeking, we

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need to be consciously prepared not to over-attend or fall into power exchanges. If James is purposefully ‘baiting’ the teacher with a whining ‘This work sucks’, it is clear that an angry retort from the teacher will only reinforce such behaviour. Effective discipline approaches seek to minimise a child’s inappropriate ways of belonging through attention-seeking and power-play, and maximise appropriate ways to belong. The way we do this will depend on our teaching style and what characteristic skills we bring to bear in such transactions. Such skills need to be developed in a planned and purposeful way (see Chapter 3).

Styles of management and teaching Teaching and management styles significantly affect classroom climate. Any visitor to a classroom could – after several visits – pinpoint a teacher’s characteristic style: authoritarian, decisive, autocratic, indecisive, etc. In the late 1930s, Kurt Lewin researched teacher style and classroom leadership and observed and documented three basic management approaches: laissez-faire, autocratic and democratic (Lewin 1948; Lewin, Lippitt & White 1939). He hypothesised that all teachers fit somewhere along a continuum embracing these positions. Later researchers have finetuned these fundamental approaches (Canter & Canter 1976; Dreikurs 1968; Ford 2004; Ginott 1977; Glasser 1998; Gordon 1974; Kounin 1977. See also Charles 2005 and Edwards & Watts 2008).

The continuum: Laissez-faire, autocrat, democrat The laissez-faire teacher appears to let the children do virtually what they want. The results can range from inconsistent application of rules and corrective management, to often ‘giving in’ to students just to keep the peace. In the worst extremes the result can be marginal chaos. The autocrat basically tells children what to do, with most children being compliant (not necessarily happy, not necessarily engaged in effective learning, but compliant). This approach relies on overt power and constant teacher control. The trouble with the autocratic teacher is that all is under control but only when the boss is there. In extreme cases of autocratic control, the vertical

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tyranny of the adult is often accompanied by rough, unthinking, petty verbal treatment. This approach has disastrous outcomes in very challenging schools. The democratic leader seeks to engage cooperation rather than demand compliance, and is prepared to discuss and assist in a child’s own decision-making even when the child is being disciplined (corrected, challenged or directed) about off-task, distracting or disruptive behaviour. Children are spoken to, assisted and challenged in such a way that cooperation, independence, selfmotivation and self-control are the most likely outcomes.

Hoping for compliance: The indecisive teacher (laissez-faire) ‘I’ve got to teach positive/negative integers today – how can I do it?’ Ms A is in her second week at Styx Rd, a large secondary school in an area demographically described as being of low socioeconomic status. This was not the school of her choice. Because she is new to the school, she has been given four periods of maths with 8E in a portable classroom. This is an unfortunate, and professionally unkind, practice in some schools where the last teacher in gets the ‘worst’ classes and classrooms. (It says a lot about teacher welfare!) The portable is a 1970s reject, with lousy seats and desks, cupboards that don’t open properly and windows that jam. 8E are filing in as Ms A seeks to start a new day; another lesson. She is nervous and it shows. She knows what she wants to do in the lesson but is uncertain about how to handle the seemingly inevitable distractions and disruptions. With the best of intentions, she wants these students to like her. It is quite noisy at the beginning of the lesson; that’s normal. Her eyes dart around the room. Several times she says, ‘Shh, please’ or ‘Can you please settle down now’. One boy calls out, ‘Miss, can I go to the toilet?’ and grins. The question races through her head, ‘What will I do?’ ‘Oh Ilia, can’t you wait, please? I’m trying to start the lesson.’ ‘Jeez, Miss (grin), I didn’t get a chance before. I’m bustin’.’ He looks around and grins again. She wants to keep the peace, she doesn’t want to lose face; she doesn’t want to sound bossy, or aggressive, but is equally unsure about how to lead the individual – and the group – at this point. ‘Ilia, can’t you please wait till I’ve finished this explanation?’ Her body language communicates uncertainty, and anxiety. She is hoping (against hope) for compliance.

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Ilia folds his arms and, in mock frustration, sticks his legs out. ‘Umph! I’ve got to go!’ She sighs – clearly annoyed now – ‘Well, go!’ Ilia says, ‘Thank you’, in mock politeness. Bravely, Ms A soldiers on with her whole-class teaching. Drawing a train line across the board, she proceeds to draw a train on the tracks. She puts a zero on the tracks and then the negative and positive numbers on either side. Each time she faces the board the students start talking. She is getting more and more concerned and edgy. As she completes the drawing she tries to explain the theory of negative numbers. A class wag notices she hasn’t drawn any wheels on the train and leaning back in his chair calls out, ‘Hey, Miss, can’t you draw wheels on a train or something?’ She turns and says, ‘Who said that, come on, who said it? Be fair. What does it matter that I left the wheels off? Was it you who said that, Bilal?’ (She’s getting quite annoyed now. She was sure it was him.) ‘Me (stupefied look), Miss? Me? Why do you just pick on me?’ Several students start laughing, some start private chats. ‘I don’t, but why do you have to be rude?’ She starts a public discussion with Bilal in front of his peers. He leans back, enjoying the peer attention this exchange is giving him. She says to the class – in a loud voice – ‘Can you please be quiet and listen?’ Ms A finally manages to write up some algorithms on the board, answers several students who call out and then sets them to work. During the on-task phase of the lesson, Nina (along with several other students) calls out: ‘Miss, can you come here? I need your help.’ Ms A is already working with William, who displays no interest at all in number lines. She walks across to Nina and says, ‘Nina, please can’t you see I’m trying to work with William?’ (Her tone has an unfortunate pleading quality about it.) At this juncture William calls out, ‘Hey Nina, can’t you wait your turn?’ She turns back to William. ‘Please, William, I’m talking to Nina, not you!’ She’s starting to get very frustrated. ‘Jeez, I was only asking a question’, says Nina, who leans back in her seat, pouts and folds her arms. ‘Well, can you wait, please?’ ‘Doesn’t matter now!’, comes the reply, as Nina – again – pouts at her teacher. ‘Why did I choose teaching?’, thinks Ms A, as she goes back to William. ››

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Liam gets out of his seat to wander over to his mate Alex. She can see and hear that they are way off-task. Her shoulders slump, a signal of her Herculean task. Not another problem. ‘Liam, why are you out of your seat?’ ‘I’m only asking Alex for a pencil, Miss.’ ‘But you’ve been wasting time talking, Liam, I heard you. I’m trying to teach over here.’ ‘C’mon! Other people get out of their seats and you don’t say anything to them!’ (It’s Liam’s turn to pout.) ‘Now be fair, Liam. I wasn’t picking on you. I only wanted to know why you were out of your seat.’ She is naturally frustrated yet she is also trying to be reasonable. Alex jumps in to have his say. The rest of the class are watching. ‘Yes, you do, Miss, you do pick on Liam!’ She turns; now she is very frustrated. ‘Look, Alex, all I asked was a civil question. I wasn’t talking to you anyway!’

Of course this is a challenging class, of course the school has been unfair in its timetable loading, of course there are students here whose main goal in life seems to be feeding their egos, who compensate for their struggle in learning by engaging peer and adult attention in ways that significantly work against any positive learning. When pushed to the limit with children like Liam or William, Ms A says things like, ‘Do I have to get angry with you, Liam?’ Inside, Liam will say, ‘Yes, of course you do!’ In many of the discipline transactions Ms A is engaged in, she never really believes the students will be cooperative, or even compliant. She hopes they will, but her behaviour – particularly the way she communicates and engages students – clearly signals a lack of necessary assertion, and conveys uncertainty and indecision. It doesn’t help simply to label Ms A an ineffective teacher when her training has not prepared her for the type of discipline problems she encounters. Her heart is in the right place. She just is not sure what to do. She plans well for her lessons but not for the things she needs to say and do when students are distracting and disruptive. She plays it by ear; ever an unhelpful stance in teaching, especially with 8E.

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The indecisive teacher: • has a non-assertive stance (students may perceive this as the teacher not being ‘in charge’) • has an overly discursive means of settling disruption, especially when concentrating on secondary behaviours (see p. 25) • believes that it is wrong to impose the teacher’s will on students and has a tendency to over-compensate for this by a tone of voice and body language that indicate uncertainty and vacillation • confuses imposition with appropriate assertion (p. 80) • believes that it is wrong to use force in words or actions, but when pushed to the limit will get angry and yell and then later feel guilty about this behaviour • fears failure • allows the student to decide the agenda in a discipline transaction • hopes for compliance, believing that goodwill and friendliness are enough; they aren’t.

Demanding compliance: The overly authoritarian or demanding teacher (autocrat) In his Year 6 class, Mr B has a reputation for toughness. He’s not one to mince words. At the beginning of the lesson Mustaphah is silly enough to call out twice. Mr B sits on this ‘rubbish’ quickly. ‘Listen, I’m not going to tell you again. Don’t call out. You got that?’ Mustaphah sulkily replies, ‘Yes!’ ‘And don’t sulk at me!’ Mr B will not ignore stupid behaviour (not even tactically). While he is explaining the lesson material, two students are talking up the back. He calls out to them, ‘You, yes, you two! Don’t pretend you didn’t hear me. You’re not deaf, are you? Stop talking – now.’ He eyeballs them for ten seconds. Mission accomplished. He carries on. The two at the back whisper. It’s time for a scene. He walks over and all eyes focus on him and the two students. ‘Listen, didn’t I just tell you to be quiet? If you can’t shut up now, then you can have a detention if you want. You have no right to interrupt my lesson.’ ››

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There is little calling out in his class but when there is, he will remind them, ‘Don’t call out in my class’. At times he’ll lecture: ‘I’m sick and tired of telling you.’ If anyone dares make a smart alec comment or butt in, he’ll probably say, ‘Listen, smart alec, who’s running this class? You or me?’ He will often bear down on a student using his size to intimidate. As he’s walking around the room he can be heard saying things like, ‘Look, I’m not going to tell you again, I’ve told you how to do this before, surely you can understand it by now.’ Most of the time, during the on-task phase of the lesson, Mr B is at his desk. Now and then he’ll move out to help a student. If he hears giggling or talking he’ll tend to be over-corrective. ‘You, yes, you. Got a private joke, have you?’ Such teachers may disguise their churlish or petty behaviour as ‘discipline’. Chloe is wearing rather large earrings. In seeking to ‘discipline’ her, Mr B goes up and says, ‘What do you think these are?’ He makes what he thinks is a funny remark about ‘street girls’ in a rather loud voice. Chloe, however, is one of those students prepared to stand up for her rights. ‘Just my earrings, alright?’ ‘You know they’re not regulation, get them off – now.’ Chloe is prepared to stand her ground. ‘There’s nothing wrong with them. Miss D said they were OK.’ ‘Listen, I don’t care what Miss D said, she’s not your teacher, I am! Get them off.’ Chloe is determined. ‘No, they’re all right.’ It has now become a power struggle. Mr B cannot afford to lose face; he’s in too deep by now. ‘Right, get out now. Go to the principal. Go on – move!’ Chloe sullenly leaves the class, jangling her earrings as she goes. Who has won? The problem is defining such transactions in terms of win or lose.

I’ve heard teachers call girls ‘sluts’, ‘cheap’, or make snide remarks about a student’s home background. Embarrassment and humiliation are among the worst forms of teacher discipline and, as research shows (Ginott 1972; Kyriacou 1986, 1991; Robertson 1996; Rogers 2006a), among the most disliked of teacher behaviours. Jacob Kounin (1977) coined the term ‘ripple effect’ to describe what happens when the impact of a teacher’s discipline on one student ripples out to others. When Mr B argues with Chloe, using humiliation, his ‘discipline’ has an effect on the other students. Some sit up straight, some are frightened or concerned, others are clearly off-task, most are angry inside at his unjust treatment.

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One of the sad features of overly demanding teachers is their lack of respect and basic humanity as they insist on the power-status relationship. I have seen petty, demanding teachers send students to the back of the classroom with the retort, ‘Right, if you’re not going to listen, you can move to the back of the class. Go on! You’re not part of my class!’ What amazes me is how many students (in some schools) still put up with this kind of rubbish. I’ve seen teachers throw students’ books in the bin, slam their hands on desks, snatch students’ hats off or slam the metre ruler across the desk to intimidate a student or create the impression of power. The defensive stance often sees the teacher defining the transaction as me and them, and the nature of ‘resolution’ as win or lose. Such teachers tend to get angry quickly. Sometimes the anger may not even be connected with the child’s behaviour but arise from the demanding beliefs that the teacher must win in all discipline transactions, that students should obey and respect their teachers, and good teachers must be able to control their classes at all times. They are failures if they don’t or can’t. The hidden agenda of these beliefs is the degree to which they demand from reality that which reality may not easily care to conform to. ‘Look, she should just listen and that’s that! I’ve set the work – she should do it!’ But she doesn’t listen, does she? ‘But she should, dammit!’ But the reality is she hasn’t and doesn’t (yet). How does our ‘belief’ in any way help our emotional coping or increase the likelihood of student cooperation? For example, if we say simply that, ‘Children should not swear. He must not swear!’, we will feel differently and act differently than if we say, ‘I strongly dislike some kinds of swearing, but it is not the end of the world. I can cope. It is only awful if I allow the awfulness to overwhelm me.’ This does not mean we excuse swearing; it does mean our working beliefs are realistic enough to recognise reality and respond appropriately – even thoughtfully (see p. 285). Of course, a demanding belief (as distinct from a flexible and more realistic belief) creates as much stress as the disruptive situation itself. When a student fails to respond to the threat, the demand or the power stance, then the belief itself creates stressful emotions of frustration, anger or anxiety. It’s a short step to easy blaming. ‘It’s his fault, that little creep; he made me so angry when he refused to do the work. Arrogant little —!’ It’s almost impossible to embrace this style of discipline and still maintain a rights focus in teaching.

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Teachers who are highly demanding and authoritarian (rather than authoritative) are often hostile and overly critical, rude or in some cases plain aggressive. They make little or no effort to manage their own frustration, apparently not caring about the effect of their behaviour on others. Some are even proud of such a stance. Corporal punishment may have been abolished but the power of the tongue to damage should never be underestimated. An easy option is to explain away teacher style in terms of mere personality. While it is obvious that we differ in personality, we have a professional duty to eschew the hostile, rude and aggressive styles of discipline; not because they don’t work but simply because of their in-built capacity to disenfranchise students of their due rights. There are degrees of demanding behaviour in teachers of course, but these are the characteristics of the authoritarian and demanding teacher: • demands compliance (‘I must have it’) • has demanding beliefs about their role and student behaviour; rather than preferential or flexible beliefs (‘I must win’ rather than ‘It’s preferable to resolve this with minimum heat’) • tells rather than asks or directs • threatens rather than gives ‘choices’ (within a fair rights and rules framework) • will resort to humiliation, sarcasm, even verbal aggression • minimises or disenfranchises students of their rights • uses a sharp, even caustic tone of voice • employs an unreflective, unplanned verbal repertoire in discipline: ‘If I have to tell you one more time’, ‘I’m sick and tired of telling you’, ‘What’s wrong with you?’, ‘I’ve told you a thousand times!’, ‘Can’t you get it by now?’, ‘Are you thick or what?’, ‘Don’t …’ • makes snide comments such as: ‘What kind of home do you come from?’, ‘Were you brought up or dragged up?’, ‘Don’t they teach you any manners at home?’, ‘Wipe that smile off your face!’

Expecting compliance: The decisive teacher (democratic) Ms C is a second-year teacher at a secondary school. It’s Year 7, term one, week four. The students are still testing her out somewhat.

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In the first week she developed clear rules for each of her classes. She did this in conjunction with the homeroom (form) teacher (p. 130). She explained the need for rules (to protect rights) and involved the students in a whole-class discussion. In her classroom, the rules are displayed on one wall. The language is positive and inclusive. Like the previous two teachers, she faces a common range of distractions and disruptions from calling out, butting in and out-of-seat behaviour through to some early teacher-baiting and defiance. As much as one can, she has planned her management and discipline repertoire ahead of time. She knows, all too well, the disruptions which are – in a sense – inevitable and has developed a ‘discipline plan’ in concert with her lesson plan. Her lesson on multiculturalism will include a class discussion, small group work and a written exercise. She settles the class down by consciously encouraging the quieter members, not in an obsequious way, but simply with, ‘Thanks for settling down’, as she looks in their direction. She cues the whole class with a calm and clear: ‘Settling down, thanks ( … ); eyes and ears this way.’ Finally only a few are still talking. ‘Okay, time to start.’ This arouses their focus and attention. The class is looking to the front. She welcomes the class with a ‘Good morning, everyone’ and explains carefully what they will be doing that lesson. She has a chart on the board with key points for visual learners. She regularly uses language such as ‘we will’, ‘our class’, ‘our assignments’. This is not accidental. She believes that each class is a community and this affects the way she relates to them; even in her choice of language. Oliver is slouched back in his seat, leaning back against the rear wall. It’s annoying and distracting. Ms C briefly cues him with a nonverbal signal: she makes eye contact and extends her first three fingers down, with thumb, to indicate ‘four on the floor’. On day one she had used this cue with a brief verbal reminder, ‘Oliver, “four on the floor”, thanks.’ Today the nonverbal cue is enough. She will have a chat with him after class if he continues to seat-lean in a distracting way. Some students begin calling out. Before she continues, she gives a general wholeclass rule reminder, as she scans the class, ‘You all know our rule for communication. Let’s use it, thanks.’ Ms C then quickly looks for hands up to reinforce the fair rule. If a student is calling out she will either tactically ignore (if just one or two) or give a brief, clear reminder of the rule, or simply direct the student to act fairly. ‘Stella, you know our rule for communication – use it, thanks’, or ‘If you want to ask a question put your hand up. Thanks.’ The use of ‘thanks’ is used to communicate, ‘I know you’ll cooperate. I expect you’ll cooperate.’ She speaks firmly and positively with eye contact, expecting ››

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compliance. She will then confidently resume the flow of the lesson by giving ‘take-up time’ (see p. 55). This conveys her expectation and authority to lead and teach.

As Kyriacou (1986), Robertson (1996) and Rogers (2006c) note, the tone, manner and body language when delivering instructions, directions and reminders can convey and imply an expectation that students will accept the teacher’s authority. The teacher’s characteristic tone, manner and language determine whether the teacher’s style is perceived as authoritarian or authoritative. When an authoritative approach is matched with the teacher’s interest and enthusiasm for a subject, the topic and for that lesson, and caters (as far as one can) for differences in ability, then the management dynamic is more positive and far less stressful. As Kyriacou (1986) writes: If one behaves as though one has authority, it is surprising how far this attitude exerts a momentum of its own, leading pupils to behave accordingly … effective teachers are able to take account of subtle signals and cues to know when a ‘clash of wills’ with a pupil should be engaged in and when averted. (p. 132)

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When Max starts tapping his book, Ms C tactically ignores it for a while. When it doesn’t stop she addresses him. ‘Max, I’m trying to teach. I can’t teach with that noise. Ta.’ That’s all. No big deal. Just a hand extended and then very quickly she focuses her awareness towards on-task students to bring attention back to the lesson. Kiana comes in late for the third time in two weeks. Ms C knows there are some home problems. Kiana slams the door and throws her bag down. The class, naturally, turn to check this out. Ms C walks over. Kiana quickly blurts out, ‘The bloody bus was late, I tried to get away early!’ Ms C doesn’t waste time arguing about the veracity of the story or the ‘bad’ language. She tunes in to Kiana’s obvious frustration, ‘Kiana, look, I can see you’re uptight. Grab a seat, I’ll be with you in a sec.’ Later in the lesson she’ll have a quiet word with Kiana about a late pass and team her up with a student to conference the work she has missed up to that point in the lesson. There are several more calling-out episodes. Most she tactically ignores. If they persist she will describe/direct, ‘Michael ( … ) Hannah ( … ) you’re calling out. Remember our fair rule for class questions. Thanks.’ Usually a simple descriptive cue (p. 63), direction or rule reminder is enough. Ms C doesn’t preach or over-attend but is economical with her correction. She has learned that it is important to be brief (minimal attention), clear, rule-focused, calm but expectant and assertive where the situation requires it. She resumes the flow of the lesson tactically ignoring their sotto voce whinge, winding up the class discussion. She carefully explains the set written activity and directs them off in pairs for the on-task phase of the lesson. Lewis comes up immediately – as the class reorganises itself – and says, ‘Miss, I haven’t got a pen!’ ‘What are you going to do, then, Lewis?’ ‘I can go to my locker, Miss! Won’t take a minute (grin, grin)!’ ‘Well, you know the routine, Lewis. You can borrow from a mate or borrow one of mine.’ (See p. 23.) ‘But Miss, it won’t take a minute!’ ‘Your choice, Lewis.’ ‘Jeez, it’s not fair.’ He walks off sulkily. She tactically ignores him, having already moved off, expecting his compliance. She makes no comment about his sulky behaviour. She doesn’t feed his procrastination. She leaves him with a clear, fair, directed choice. ››

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Ms C would like to sit down behind her desk and have a break but in this early stage of building her leadership and relationship with the class she realises the importance of moving around the room to direct, encourage, assist, correct, redirect and support her students. She musters as much enthusiasm and humanity as she is able. At all times she seeks to model respect, even with those few students she doesn’t easily, or naturally, like (p. 226). Walking past Ella she sees her (out of the corner of her eye) leaning back provocatively on her chair. She could simply direct her, ‘Sitting, thanks, Ella’ or remind her of the rule, but has decided to tactically ignore her at this point. She uses a lot of tactical ignoring for low-level attention-seeking. Because she has that crucial teacher skill of being able to notice what students are doing without making direct eye contact, she is able to see when Ella stops leaning back on her chair. She then walks over and causally asks her, ‘How’s it going, then?’ In other words, she looks for on-task behaviour as much as possible and then visits the student to encourage her (selective attention). If she wants to see a student’s work she doesn’t simply pick it up, or even just pull it towards her. She asks politely, ‘How’s it going?’, ‘Can I have a look at your work?’, ‘Where are you up to?’ or ‘Having trouble; need a hand?’ She doesn’t intrude on a student’s personal space but respectfully asks them to turn the book – or work – so they can both see it. If she meets a (rare) student who says, ‘No, you can’t see it’, she simply says, ‘Okay, when you’re ready’ and moves off. She doesn’t over-attend to such students, who often use tactics like this as a form of attention-seeking, rather like the child who says, ‘I’m dumb!’, wanting the teacher then to say, ‘Oh, don’t say that, of course you’re not.’ If such behaviour occurs frequently in her class, she will speak to these students after class or make an appointment to work through the issue with them as early as possible (see p. 105). As the teacher continues moving around the room, Max – keen to get her help – employs his ‘get-the-teacher-here-quick’ routine. ‘Miss, hey, Miss!’ he calls out across the room as the teacher is assisting two other students. Should she go over to Max or ask him to wait? If she does either she may easily be saying to Max, ‘Your calling out will be noticed and attended to any time you try it on.’ She decides to tactically ignore Max. She neither looks in his direction (though she can see him out of the corner of her eye) nor comments on his behaviour; she continues working with the other two students. Max calls out again. ‘Miss, come on, Miss. I need your help!’ Ms C decisively continues the tactical ignoring. She moves off to work with another student.

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As she is talking to Eli, Max starts clicking his fingers and sighing. ‘Jeez, Miss, what’s wrong? I only want to ask a question.’ By tactically ignoring Max, she is seeking to convey a message saying, in effect, ‘Yes, when you are on-task and quiet, I’ll come over’, or ‘When you put up your hand without calling out then, yes, I’ll come over, I am not at your instant beck and call.’ Ms C seeks to communicate all this by her tactical presence. Students quickly pick up this silent, but decisive, semaphore (see p. 56). Max sulks for a while. Ms C keeps on ‘doing the rounds’. She notices, in passing, that Max is now writing. She goes up to him and casually asks, ‘Can I have a look at your work? How’s it going?’ Responding to his eye contact, she reaches down to turn the exercise book so she can view his work. Max moans, ‘Why didn’t you answer me before and come over?’ Instead of getting into a debate with Max, she simply, quietly, reminds him of the rule. ‘Max, when you put up your hand and wait – I’ll see you – then I’ll happily come over.’ She quietly adds, ‘That gives everyone a fair go.’ Smiling, she encourages Max in the work he has done and helps him to refocus on the part he doesn’t understand. She quietly reminds him that in paired work he needs to check with his working partner before asking for teacher assistance. In time she will develop a conferencing/teacher-assistance roster. It is important to clarify routines for getting reasonable teacher assistance (pp. 204, 210).

If this calling-out behaviour had occurred in a primary setting with preschoolaged students, the teacher may well have said, ‘Max, when you can put your hand up and wait, then I’ll come over and help’, and then tactically ignored any subsequent calling out. Ms C is also conscious of a contingency plan for Max’s calling out. If tactical ignoring and positive reinforcement are not responded to with reasonable cooperation, she will give a firm rule reminder, or restatement, or a clear, simple direction. ‘Max, if you want to ask a question, use the rule, thanks.’ She’ll also use the conditional direction mentioned above: ‘when … then’. As she continues her rounds she sees Lily and Marisa teasing Antonella. The noise level rises quickly and can’t be ignored. Seeing Antonella crying, she calls ››

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across firmly and decisively to the other two, ‘Lily, Marisa, I’ll see you over here now.’ She pauses, establishing eye contact and extending her hand as if directing them to the rear of the room. ‘Now, thank you.’ The teasing students sullenly move off down to the back of the class; the rest of the students resume work, watch or whisper. Ms C takes the students aside to minimise any embarrassment to Antonella, but also to reduce blame shifting and hostility with the teasing students. She asks the question calmly and quietly, ‘What’s going on? You can see Antonella’s upset. What are you going to do about your behaviour?’ She doesn’t have time for the full story now but simply asks the question firmly to engage their responsibility now. By taking the students aside, she can afford to be more discursive; even if briefly so. She will also follow up after class (see p. 105). Later in the lesson, Michael wanders out of his seat to talk with Alex. The two of them are talking quite loudly. Ms C finishes what she is saying to Kiana (the student who had come in late) and decides that Michael and Alex’s noise can’t be tactically ignored. Walking past a gum-chewer, she merely indicates with her hand to the mouth, ‘In the bin, thanks.’ She winks at Liam, who drags himself off to spit his chewy into the bin. As she comes over to Alex and Michael she establishes eye contact, firmly – but quietly – saying, ‘Michael, what are you doing?’ Most students say, ‘Nothing’. Michael, however, is a bit of a smart alec: ‘What’s it look like I’m doing?’ She doesn’t rise to the bait. She focuses in on his behaviour. ‘It looks like you’re out of your seat and talking loudly to Alex.’ ‘I was just getting a rubber, come on!’ Again, she doesn’t take the bait. She asks, ‘What should you be doing?’ ‘I told you I was just getting my rubber.’ Rather than argue, she simply repeats the question, ‘What should you be doing?’ She knows all too well the fruitless, pointless procrastination game. She asserts – by her question – the clear implication of responsible behaviour, expecting (not demanding) compliance. Michael gets up to move off. The moment he moves, she walks away, as if to say: ‘I knew you’d cooperate (or, at least, comply). I’m not going to stay around to “push you”’.

Michael could, of course, refuse to move. I have had many students say, ‘No, you can’t make me.’ Like Ms C, I usually say, ‘If you choose not to move now,

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I’ll have to ask you to stay back and we’ll discuss why later.’ Most students do move. If they don’t we will carry the deferred consequence through with certainty (p. 154). This is an important stance to take with older students. If we merely stand with folded arms and a foot tapping while we wait for compliance, we communicate that we believe they’ll only move, respond or obey because we are there. With younger students (up to Year 2), we may need to stay close, establish eye contact and repeat the rule if necessary. But, again, the moment they go back to their work area we move off to work with other students. When he gets back to his seat, Michael sulks and folds his arms. Now and then he grunts and scrapes his chair on the floor. Ms C tactically ignores this regressive sulking. In fact, she will purposefully ignore it until he picks up his pen again. She knows that if she goes back either to coerce, plead or ‘make’ him work, she is giving attention at an unhelpful time.

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Ms C combines several approaches in a dynamic way. At one moment she uses a descriptive comment or a simple direction; another time it’s a rule reminder or restatement. She may distract or divert a potential disruption by moving alongside a student, asking a question or giving a task. If behaviour becomes disruptive beyond a simple descriptive direction, warning or question, she will then give a directed choice or take the student aside for a brief, quiet word. It is not easy. She has to think ahead to ensure that her leadership behaviour is enabling students to be aware of their behaviour and take ownership for it. She is also conscious of keeping the corrective discipline least intrusive and using positive corrective language, where possible. Above all – even when she needs to be assertive – she is conscious of keeping the fundamental respect intact. For example, when Lee drops her pencil case and swears, she will deal with it differently from when Lee swore at her in a temper tantrum. Maybe it would be easier to intimidate, to be sarcastic, shout, even yell at her students, but Ms C realises that easily giving in to mood, chance or circumstance creates a poor learning environment and models the very thing she is seeking to work against. There are no short cuts to good discipline. Ms C also works hard at establishing good working relationships with her students. It is easy to miss the significance of this. If we only ever visit the more difficult students to ‘discipline’ them, then the relationship becomes lopsided. We need to be scanning the room to pick up those times when a student is on-task and is behaving cooperatively. In doing this, we encourage the student to build on small successes and consolidate those appropriate behaviours. Like the other two teachers (indecisive/laissez-faire and authoritarian/ demanding), Ms C still gets frustrated and angry from time to time but she has learned to use those emotions to her advantage. She doesn’t deny them or bottle them up inside but uses the emotions to respond. She has learned to recognise when and how the emotion comes and then to reassess the situation quickly as she perceives it and respond appropriately (see Chapter 10). Ryan, the class ‘toughie’, swore at her on the second day. She communicated her anger assertively. ‘Ryan, I don’t speak to you like that, I don’t expect you to speak to me like that. Ever.’ She was visibly annoyed – but assertive and controlled. There was an unambiguous note of anger in her voice. The rest of the class sensed this and

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were quiet. A reflective observer would have sensed they were saying ‘Our teacher is in control of this situation, and what she’s doing is right and fair. Ryan had no occasion to swear at her!’ Later, at the end of the lesson, she called him over to discuss his behaviour and obtained the apology she would not have received if she had demanded it at the time of the outburst.

Uncontrolled, irrational, undisciplined anger where the teacher shouts, yells or screams, or internalised, repressed anger is damaging to both health and personal relationships. We can’t eliminate the emotions of frustration and anger but we can learn to utilise them. We can only do this if we plan for the discipline environment rather than merely react to disruptions as they arise. Decisive, democratic discipline is marked by these characteristics: • a focus on the due rights of all • an intervention style characterised by a least intrusive to most intrusive approach, with an emphasis on a wide language repertoire at the least intrusive level of intervention, only moving to most intrusive as circumstances and situation necessitate • an assertive stance, which is neither aggressive and hostile nor passive and capitulating to student demands. Essentially, assertion communicates one’s own need and due rights without trampling on the other parties’ rights (see p. 80) • a refusal to rely on power or role-status to gain respect of students • speaking and acting respectfully even when frustrated or angry • choosing to respond to discipline incidents (from prior reflection and planning) rather than reacting to incidents as they arise • planning for discipline as rigorously as any aspect of the curriculum, especially in terms of the language used and an awareness of nonverbal behaviour. When actually disciplining, a teacher with a decisive approach engages the student by: • establishing eye contact (wherever possible); we should not force eye contact, we invite it • speaking clearly with appropriate firmness

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• speaking briefly, addressing the primary behaviour and tactically ignoring as much of the secondary behaviour as is appropriate in the context • conveying an expectation of compliance, and cooperation, rather than demanding or merely hoping for it • re-establishing working relationships with the student(s) as soon as possible.

Contrasting teachers I like to draw – I’ve always liked to create visual images, cartoons and picture stories. At school I used to ‘secretly’ draw pictures during a lesson, or draw little pictures up and down the margin of my class book, especially when I was bored. One of my English teachers saw me drawing birds flying across the page one morning. She leaned over and said, ‘Billy, that’s a very interesting drawing. Look at those birds! Wow! I didn’t realise how well you drew … but (here she gave me a friendly frown) what are you supposed to be doing?’ ‘My writing, Miss.’ ‘Well, I tell you what, Billy, if you leave the margins for me to write in, and only draw when you’re supposed to I might have a special art project in class for you to do for us.’ (I was 11 at the time.) I worked flat out for her. My ‘reward’ was (whenever I’d finished my formal work) to work on a large poster of the houses of Parliament and Big Ben with the River Thames. It took me ages – it stayed up on the class wall all year – my magnum opus. My art teacher also encouraged me in my drawing and painting even though I’m quite colourblind. She never put me down, made fun of me or criticised me. She did give me feedback on my strengths and weaknesses (see p. 228). I sat a national art examination on the strength of her encouragement – and passed! I enjoyed art. My enjoyment of art and confidence in drawing owes much to Mrs Hunt. I can remember the teachers I liked, respected and related to. Others I remember for less favourable reasons. On one occasion, I recall showing one of my margin drawings to my mate sitting next to me and whispering about it (it had to be whispers in those days). My teacher marched over to my desk and poked me in the shoulder saying, ‘Were you brought up or dragged up,

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Rogers?’ The class went quiet, all eyes on us. I was angry with the implied putdown of my family; I stood up facing the teacher and said, ‘It’s none of your bloody business’, and walked out of the classroom, my heart racing, every eye on my back as I made for the door. He, and the class, stood in ‘dumb silence’ (a few were grinning – silently cheering). It was 1962 and I was 15. Some of the other teachers used to tear a page out of my book, or even throw the book in (mock?) rage across the room, shouting, ‘This is not an art class, Rogers!’ If we were late, some teachers publicly embarrassed us in front of our classmates. Some teachers even managed to get the class to laugh at some unfortunate ‘disruptive’ pupil as a form of ‘public discipline’. I was late to Science one day. I was 15. I rushed into class, puffing, and the white-coated teacher walked across to me (the class were working on displacement of liquid by mass – the Archimedes’ principle). He was a relief teacher. My regular Science teacher was a ‘fascist’. I was glad he wasn’t there – particularly as I was quite late. ‘You sound a bit puffed, eh?’ He asked me my name. I panted out a ‘Yes, sorry, the bus was late.’ ‘That’s OK, Billy; we’re still working on the topic, you know, where we measure the displacement of water? But get settled and then team up with Roger, that OK?’ ‘Yeah.’ I immediately felt better, worked better and even remembered the topic. Teachers can, and do, make a significant difference with their class and with individual students, when they: • demonstrate interest in the student, as a person; an individual • recognise, and respect, the student’s ‘individuality’ • demonstrate and show enthusiasm for the topic generally and the lesson in particular (no matter how many times they’ve taught that topic!) • tune in to how the student might be feeling (particularly when we sense the student is having an ‘off’ day) • keep the fundamental respect intact – even when they have to discipline and apply necessary consequences • support and encourage the student • don’t hold grudges and give the student a right of reply and a fresh start.

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Questions to consider • How would you describe your characteristic behaviour leadership style? • How do you respond to the democratic/decisive approach? I’ve given a fairly extreme example of authoritarian (though I’ve seen too many teachers like this p. 33). How do you perceive authoritative in contrast? • How do you believe your students would describe your characteristic behaviour leadership? (Not your ‘bad days’ – hopefully they’ll forgive you for those!)

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Chapter 3 Classroom management: Planning and skills

‘I am the decisive element … my personal approach … creates the climate … As a teacher I possess tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal.’ Haim Ginott, 1971, p. 15 The specific skills advanced here follow on from those explored in the case study of the decisive teacher (see p. 36). For these skills to be effective in the dynamic setting of a classroom, a teacher will need to recognise the crucial importance of fundamental discipline protocols (see p. 8). It is worth restating that the purpose of these skills is to enable the teacher to act in a more decisive, positive and respectful way; to use those forms of discipline that are more likely to encourage some degree of self-awareness and self-discipline in the student and enable on-task learning to take place. This is the largest chapter in the book – signalling the essential place of discipline skills in our day-to-day behaviour leadership. I’ve described these skills and contextualised them within actual case examples.

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Levels of distraction and disruption in student behaviours It is not always easy to rate a distraction or disruption as ‘low’, ‘medium’ or ‘high’ level. To one teacher, incidental pen-tapping by a student may be no problem; a distraction – but something which can be tactically ignored. But if it is persistent pen-tapping, on a hot day, in the middle of an important explanation by the teacher, it can be quite a different matter. How distracting behaviour is perceived is also important: is the student ‘unaware’ or behaving with attentional intent? Teachers should ask themselves, ‘Do I perceive it as a threat to me personally?’, ‘Is my authority in question?’, ‘How seriously does it affect my right to teach or other students’ rights to learn?’, ‘How frustrated am I feeling when …?’ Teachers have different levels of tolerance to frustration. One teacher may effectively deal with some calling out by the use of tactical ignoring, or selective attention and brief directional reminders, while others feel compelled to ‘shh’ at every instance of rule-breaking or constantly repeat the rule to those who call out. Teachers’ ability to effectively manage distractions and disruptions will depend on the degree to which they can effectively cope with frustration, the sort of discipline skills they possess and how confidently they can utilise those skills when required.

Developing a discipline plan Few teachers would enter a classroom without some sort of lesson plan. It is surprising that many teachers will enter a classroom knowing that there will be some calling out, chatting while the teacher is talking, students who talk over others, students with no pens, restlessness and mobile behaviour, yet not strategically plan for such behaviours in the sense of seeking answers to the fundamental questions: • What will I do when …? • How can I best deal with X behaviours? • When is the ‘best’ time to intervene in a distraction or disruption? • What will happen if my initial approach is ineffective? • What are my contingency steps?

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Imagine these situations: • You’ve completed your description and teaching of metric number on the board and you ask for questions. Half a dozen students call out – some with their hands up. What do you do? • You’ve asked two restless and chatty students to settle down, and one of them starts to argue. What do you do? • Mia starts flicking elastic bands at Emily during maths. What do you do? • A student wanders out of his seat for the fourth time. What do you do? • Riley throws a tantrum. What do you do? Alongside any plan for the learning activities it is crucial to have a discipline plan: a ‘hierarchy’ of possible, and necessary, interventions in mind. These interventions should range from the least intrusive teacher action to the most intrusive teacher action, as the circumstance demands; that is, the degree to which the distraction or disruption is affecting others’ rights. Each ‘step’ or suggested response/intervention is set in the context of common distracting and disruptive incidents occurring in the classroom. The language of correction of each intervention can be modified to suit the age or maturity of the child, but the basic purpose of each intervention is generally relevant at any age level.

The language of correction and discipline Often, the last thing we plan for is what we’ll likely say in discipline contexts. By planning ahead we can minimise (not eliminate) unnecessary arguments and confrontation. Even in those situations where we have to exit a student from the room (because of unremitting or dangerous behaviour), some language approaches will be more effective than others. Consider the following tirade: ‘Get out, go on, get out! I’m sick of stupid behaviour! You never listen, do you? Eh? Well, I’m not putting up with it, do you hear? You can get out of my classroom now! Go to the deputy principal. He gets paid more than I do!’ A more measured approach would be: ‘Asher (use the child’s first name), it’s not working. I’ve asked you several times to … (be specific). I want you to leave the classroom now and go to … (be specific). I’ll follow up with you later.’

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Of course this presumes the school (or faculty) has a well thought out and workable time-out plan (see p. 56). In this example the teacher’s voice is assertive and firm, not loud or aggressive. She is not pointing at the student or gesticulating; she’s certainly not shouting. The student briskly walks out of the classroom, heading off to the office, muttering a few swear words. She tactically ignores this (see p. 56). She will follow up and follow through later (see p. 105). Her approach is not accidental, nor is it merely the product of personality or chance. She chooses to discipline in this way. She has developed a considered approach to managing tense and conflictive situations. She has learned how to be assertive without being aggressive. This is more than her personality; these are skills that can be learned and applied.

Nonverbal behaviour I was watching a colleague address a Year 11 class one day (we were teamteaching). He was bouncing up and down on the balls of his feet. I noticed several boys at the back of the classroom involuntarily tracking the up-down movement of the teacher with their eyes. I’ve watched teachers pace the front of the classroom and noticed students visually and kinaesthetically ‘tracking’ the teacher’s pacing (and consequently finding it difficult to listen and concentrate on what their teacher is saying). A teacher gives the class a pack-up reminder before the bell goes. She is walking around the classroom while talking. ‘… and don’t forget the felt-tip pens, and also the chairs. Don’t leave them out like last time …’ She adds several other reminders. She’s lucky if half the class are listening – some are still working and some are watching her but not really listening. The class reminder would have been more effective if the teacher had gone to the front of the classroom, used an attention-getting signal, waited for the class to settle and then given some brief, specific verbal reminders. Our position at the front of the room signals to the students that it is from here that we engage the whole class’s attention, to direct, to remind or engage for active teaching or class discussion (see p. 194). If what we have to say is important enough for all our students to hear, it will be important to visually – as well as verbally – anchor that by where we stand and how we cue.

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A student’s personal space Nonverbal behaviour is a very powerful and significant factor in our teacher– leadership – particularly when we have to discipline in tense situations. Nonverbal behaviour is, effectively, everything we do, omitting all the words. That’s a lot: eye contact, proximity, tone of voice, intent, tactical pauses, body language (large gestures as well as micro body language). A common example: the teacher who comes into a student’s personal space ‘face on’, casually picks up the student’s work from the table and stands reading it with a frown and a sigh communicates a great deal, nonverbally. When we come into a student’s personal space it is important not to psychologically crowd them, or pick up their work without asking. We should come into a student’s personal space ‘invitationally’: side on – not too close – bending down to the student’s eye level (for younger children). Using their first name, we ask, ‘I’d like to have a look at your work …’ (we don’t merely pick it up). I’ve had some colleagues say, ‘Do you mean I’m supposed to ask permission to see a student’s work?’ The simple answer is yes – it’s basic civility. If an overly attentional student covers their work and says, ‘No – I don’t want you to see my work’, I normally say, ‘Well, I’ll see it later – when you’re ready.’ At that point I give the student a tactical berth (as it were) rather than increase the attentional stance by engaging in any further discussion about it. Expectation, decisiveness, humour, jadedness, degrees of frustration or anger and confidence are all communicated nonverbally as well as through our words. Given a choice between nonverbal and verbal in terms of significance and ‘weight’ in a personal transaction, students will often opt for the nonverbal meaning. Positive language – the actual words – can be made negative purely by tone of voice and gesture (dismissive, cursory, sarcastic, demanding, arrogant). ‘Yes … you can go to the toilet when I’ve finished the story.’ Try saying that in a negative or sarcastic tone with raised eyebrows and twisted mouth. You can see the weight that is given to a transaction by nonverbal behaviour. A simple signal of thumb and forefinger turning (as if twiddling a volume knob) can be an effective nonverbal cue delivered across a classroom to two students talking loudly during on-task learning. But if the same nonverbal cue were delivered with a

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hostile body movement and frown, it would invalidate any positive meaning the cue might have had. Indecision, a lack of confidence and non-assertion are also conveyed through body gesture and voice tone. Students pick up very quickly how confident, serious or expectant we are by how our voice sounds and how we characteristically stand during whole-class teaching time (not slouched, casually leaning against the board or sitting down during the whole-class teaching phase of the lesson in, say, a Year 9 class). Sitting down (by the teacher) is entirely appropriate – of course – during the whole-class teaching phase in a preschool or early years class.

Characteristic tone It is the characteristic tone of our voice and body language that matters. Children know our humanity too well, and they know we’re fallible (like they are). We all have bad days; we lose (and find) our temper; we nag; we say the inadequate, the inappropriate and sometimes the wrong thing. We need to forgive ourselves and others for our bad days – and theirs. We also need to distinguish between bad-day syndrome and bad habits in our characteristic discipline approach. If we apologise when we’ve said the wrong thing, or have been unthinking about our behaviour as teacher–leader and its effect on others, children are normally quite willing to accept and forgive.

Core skills The skills discussed here have the express purpose of enabling students to be aware of their behaviour and increasing the likelihood of students taking ownership of their behaviour in a way that respects the rights of others.

The tactical pause ( … ) The tactical pause ( … ) is an effective way to increase attention when communicating. The first word said a little louder than usual, ‘Ethan’, followed by a pause ( … ), says (nonverbally), ‘I’m waiting for – and expect – your eye contact and attention.’ When addressing a whole class, the tactical pause also cues take-up time in students: ‘Settling down. Thanks ( … ).’ The pause allows the class to

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do just that. The teacher then steps her voice down (beyond the initial ‘lift’) and completes the whole-class direction: ‘Facing this way, thanks ( … ) and listening.’ If you watch a confident, relaxed teacher, the tactical pause is a normative feature in their communication.

Take-up time Take-up time is the expectational cue we give a student when we turn aside, or walk away a few steps, after having given a direction, reminder or directed choice. The teacher notices a student hitting another ‘playfully’ with a ruler during on-task learning time. She calls him over. ‘Ethan ( … ) I’d like to see you over here for a minute; thanks.’ The teacher then turns aside as if the student will come over. She doesn’t face him and engage eye contact until he comes over. The teacher gives a directed ‘choice’ to a student about the football cards on his table. ‘Abdi ( … ) put them in your bag, or on my table, thanks.’ She then walks away (with peripheral eye contact) as if he’ll do what she has asked. If he moans or argues she will repeat the conditional direction (see p. 86) then walk away, giving the student take-up time.

Most students do respond positively to take-up time. If they still continue to ignore our reminder or direction, or continue to ‘argue the toss’ we need to clarify the consequence (see p. 87). With younger primary-aged students the teacher will need to maintain eye contact a little longer and move off as the student responds. Take-up time enables trust, maximises face-saving and can convey our expectation, and confidence, that the student will cooperate (or, at least, comply).

A smile A smile can disarm, defuse tension, encourage, motivate and humanise. At the most basic level, it acknowledges the other person. A brief smile to a student or colleague can give a connective, humanising affirmation. Even a wry smile can acknowledge the mutual awareness of ‘life’s gristle’. It can say (without words) ‘You know, that I know, you know I know … I’m with you in spirit.’

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Shouting (as distinct from the need to raise our voice) Shouting (especially frequent shouting) only reinforces that the attention of an individual or the class can only be attained in this way; it may even entertain! Also it establishes an unfortunate pattern of events, especially in the establishment phase of the lesson (p. 199). Many of us can remember the self-defeating reinforcement of trying to shout a class down. There are occasions when we need to lift, or raise, our voice for effect – when the class is particularly noisy at the beginning of a lesson, or to call a student or two across the room so we can speak to them one-to-one. This is particularly relevant in non-classroom settings where disruptive students may be some distance from us. On these occasions the voice is lifted with a focus word or two, for example, ‘Excuse me’, ‘Class …’, ‘Everyone settling down’, or the use of a student’s name, ‘Ethan …’ The attention is sustained by a tactical pause (p. 54) and then we can speak at an appropriate level for class group or individual attention. Sometimes we’ll need to repeat the first attentional cue a couple of times to gain their initial eye contact so we can speak to both eyes and ears in a normal voice. If a class is persistently noisy, it will be important to develop a plan to address student noise volume during on-task times. This is addressed in more detail later (p. 205). Suffice to say, here, that a sustained, overly raised voice, or shouting, only trains the students to expect it. If you are having trouble with this issue, invite a trusted colleague with some experience in succeeding with challenging classes to work with you – in the class – to re-establish noise levels during on-task learning time. Invite your colleague to give feedback on your own levels and use of voice when cueing the class. Do it earlier in the establishment phase before restive, loud, class noise is accepted by the students as the norm.

Attention-seeking and tactical ignoring Bruno in Year 1 is an expert at home at getting his own way. He starts with a whine and builds it up into a tantrum. He’s ‘trying it on’ with his new teacher. He starts off by calling out across the room while she’s assisting students at another table. ‘Miss

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… (he whines as if he’s in pain), come here, I need you!’ He puts his hand up and down, up and down while calling out, to pretend he’s behaving within the class rule. ‘Miss, Miss!’ Not only does he have low frustration tolerance, he has ‘learned’ that this behaviour works for him.

What will she do? If she just accedes, what does he learn? Whistle and she comes? Miss D cannot decide what Bruno will do; only what she will do. She has thought out, in advance, how she can best deal with his attention-seeking behaviours. She gives: • minimal eye contact (at times none at all) and minimal, but clear, verbal direction when the student is engaged in attentional behaviour. She combines a brief verbal reminder with subsequent tactical ignoring and selective attention • encouragement and attention when the student is on-task. Miss D looks across to Bruno (without going over to him) and says firmly, with eye contact, ‘Bruno ( … ) when you put your hand up and wait, then I’ll come over and help.’ No more. That’s enough. She then tactically ignores him. He calls out again, ‘Miss! Miss!’ and grunts and snorts in a sulky fashion. She continues moving around the room helping, encouraging, directing the other students. She can see out of the corner of her eye (without giving direct eye contact) what Bruno is doing. She speaks to a student at a table near Bruno. ‘How’s it going, Olivia?’ She continues to tactically ignore Bruno, hoping that he will then decide to seek her assistance by putting up his hand (without calling out). He doesn’t. He drags himself out of his seat and follows her around, pulling at her dress. Without looking at him, or saying anything to him, she gently, but firmly, pushes his hand away and continues working with the other students. He tries again. ‘Miss, Miss.’ He’s nearly crying now. She again gives a brief, clear, conditional direction, ‘When … then …’ He can’t bear not to be the centre of attention. She tactically ignores him; gently, firmly pushing him away. After all, he knows the rule. If she starts preaching, yelling or pleading, she will only do what mum and dad do: negatively reinforce by association. She wants to positively associate the reinforcement she gives. ››

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He finally gives up and falls on the floor crying – in tantrum style. She walks over to him and around him. He finally goes back to his seat, head in hands and sulks. When a few children say, ‘Miss, we think Bruno’s crying’, without looking at Bruno she simply and quietly, says, ‘I know’, then distracts them by redirecting them to their work. The other students are secure in the knowledge that their teacher knows what she is doing. The teacher has clarified what she expects and acts accordingly.

With older children it can help to have a one-to-one chat about their attentiongetting behaviour after class time, and help the student to understand what their purpose may be in behaving in such a way. From this discussion an individual plan can be developed (see p. 173). It takes a lot of effort to tantrum and keep it up; it also takes a lot of conscious effort to deal with Bruno’s behaviour the way Ms D did. ‘Tantrumming’ is a behaviour many people use all their lives to get their own way. Tactical ignoring and selective attention is one way of communicating to a child: • ‘Yes, I’ll notice you, talk to you, help you, when you’re on-task with your social behaviour and your learning. I will not accede to your pouting, sulking, clowning, tantrums or baiting.’ Teachers, of course, need a sense of confidence and perspective when using this approach. They need to be secure in themselves as teachers that they’re doing the right and appropriate thing. • ‘When you are off-task, I will firmly ignore you (my decisive choice), I’ll give you a brief, clear, simple direction or I may refer you to the class rules. You can’t make me argue with you. You have no infallible magic to ruin my day.’ • ‘In extreme cases of attention-seeking, I will ask you to cool off in time-out, I may even have to direct you to leave our classroom, or have you escorted from our classroom.’ She will always follow up (one-to-one) with the child after any time-out intervention (p. 105). The other students in a class are not foolish. They are astute enough to know when a teacher is tactically ignoring attention-seeking behaviours; even very young children. They know why teachers will let some distracting behaviours continue for a while (calling out, butting in, sulking, clowning, even tantrums). My colleagues and I find tactical ignoring especially effective for ‘secondary

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behaviours’ (see p. 25). If, for example, I’ve asked a student to clean up some mess he’s left at his table and he sighs and pouts, yet still cleans it up, I’ll tactically ignore the secondary behaviour (the residual sulking), give him take-up time by turning away (to sulk without me watching) and briefly acknowledge his effort when he’s finished: ‘The floor’s clear of litter, felt-tip pens and pencils are away. Thanks.’ If I call a student across to me in the corridor, or playground, and he walks in an exaggerated fashion (with annoyed frowning and sighing), I’ll tactically ignore his nonverbal behaviour and keep the discipline focus on the primary issue that I’ve called him over for. Tactical ignoring has to be exercised confidently by the teacher for the rest of the class to go along with it. It is not an easy skill to use. It is context dependent. To be effective with such a skill a teacher needs to: • Use eye-scanning to monitor the distracting and disruptive behaviour without actually looking at the student in question, for example looking ‘around’ or ‘past’ calling-out students until they put up their hand. This is crucial, because tactical ignoring is only a means to an end. When Amalia stops her silly noises, then we respond positively and include her in the lesson; when the sulking student finally gets back to work, then we go over to speak to him; when the low-level clowning stops, we can then go over and ask how things are going. Teachers need to use eye-scanning effectively to make such ignoring tactical.

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• Know what behaviours you are prepared to tactically ignore. Never, for example, ignore repeatedly disruptive behaviours, ongoing defiance, blatant swearing, high-level noise, any unsafe behaviour, any offensive sexist remarks or abuse (see pp. 82, 282). • Consider how long you will tactically ignore before you need to say or do something. Know beforehand what verbal interventions you will use when tactical ignoring is not working. It is only when we are in control of ignoring that it becomes a tactical and useful approach in our discipline. Tactical ignoring often needs to be combined with other discipline strategies and, though a difficult teacher skill to develop, it is a powerful strategy for effective discipline. • Recognise that tactical ignoring is inappropriate, say, when several students are disrupting at the same time. In this case we have to use clear, simple, directions to required behaviours or even relocate students if necessary (see p. 87). Tactical ignoring isn’t easy, especially when one is tired, frazzled, it’s 3.00 pm and it’s the fifth calling-out or the sixth time a whining student has come up to you asking, ‘Did I do good work?’

When we are using tactical ignoring to deal with attention-seeking, the distracting/disruptive behaviour pattern may get worse before it gets better. One of my Year 3 colleagues had a student come over to her one day and whisper, ‘If you ignore me I’ll get worse.’ The hardest aspect regarding the use of tactical ignoring is knowing when, and what, to ignore. Some teachers will ignore the behaviour they clearly should address and over-focus on behaviours that can be tactically ignored. There are teachers who object to tactical ignoring because it looks like the child is getting away with ‘it’. ‘I’ll teach her!’, they say. What will we teach her? That our frequent shouting stopped her calling out, that our slamming of a hand on her desk and berating her proved we could get back at her? That every time she calls out or sulks, we’ll over-attend?

You may say, ‘She shouldn’t call out!’ But she does, she did and she will probably continue to do so. ‘I’ve got to make her learn?’ Yes, but how? If teachers struggle with tactical ignoring because they have difficulty tolerating frustration, they are better served by using simple directions or rule reminders in class

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time and working with the student later (one-to-one) on a personal behaviour plan (p. 173).

Diversions and distractions A key feature of effective discipline is minimising or even preventing potential or likely problems from getting out of hand. If you know that Ilun is first off the mark when you ask questions, divert possible calling out by saying something like, ‘I know some of you will know the answer almost before I’ve finished speaking. I want you to hold off for a while to give others a chance.’ Then, if they do hold off, ‘Thanks Ilun, and Lily, for waiting. I see your hands up. We’ll take it in turns.’ The teacher has introduced the topic on positive/negative integers. A loud mumbler says, ‘We did that last year – what do we have to do it again for?’ She knows who mumbled but tactically ignores him and diverts the students’ attentional focus by keeping the flow of the lesson going and ‘using’ the comment within her introduction of the topic: ‘Some of you may be wondering why we’re doing this topic again. Well …’ She looks at the whole class as she says it without eyeballing the mumbling student. She hasn’t allowed the student to divert the lesson.

A Year 1 child was constantly fiddling with her shoelaces, turning to giggle at a friend, pulling at the carpet. I’d asked her to face the front twice. I decided to distract her. ‘Isabel, I want you to come up here and hold this board-marker for me.’ She giggled as she held it. I asked her to hold it, facing me (away from her friend). ‘I’ll need that a little later. Ta …’ I whispered: ‘Hold it quietly, thanks.’

It kept her quiet for the instructional part of the lesson. Later I took her aside and worked on a one-to-one plan for sitting on the mat during whole-class teaching or group time, which included not sitting next to an equally attentional student (see p. 173).

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‘Having trouble getting started, Thomas?’ This to a student gazing out the window. The comment is made, positively, to distract the student back to the task, rather than saying, ‘Oi, the work’s here (teacher taps the desk), not out there!’ The teacher then tunes in to what she suspects he might be thinking. ‘It can be hard getting ideas started. How can I help?’

Other ways of distracting or diverting possible disruption are to give the distracting student a job to do, rearrange seating, modify routines, have work available for early finishers or, if there is disruption early in the on-task phase of a lesson, call the child aside to speak quietly about his work. ‘Jack, are you having any problems? Do you know what to do next?’ Invite another student to work with Jack; stay close without giving undue attention. Use the ‘when’ statement: ‘Jack when you’ve finished your maths, I want you to give me a hand with this, please.’ Jack is supposed to be engaged in a cooperative building game, putting a large wooden car together. He picks up one of the wheels and throws it against the wall. The teacher quietly calls him over. ‘What are you doing, Jack?’ ‘Nothing’, as he hangs his head. ‘You threw the wheel against the wall, Jack; we don’t throw things in our class. What are you supposed to be doing?’ No answer. ‘Come on, show me how you can put the wheel on the car with Olivia and Max.’ This directed his attention to the task at hand.

Nonverbal directions or cues With some low-level behaviours, a wink, nod, brief stare or frown is sometimes enough. It is a form of nonverbal direction that says, ‘You know that I know that you know. You also know I expect you to cooperate.’ This works effectively when the teacher has a good rapport with their students. The nonverbal gesture acts simply as a reminder, a cue or a reinforcer. One useful nonverbal gesture during calling out is to direct an extended hand towards the calling-out

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student (an open, extended hand – a little like a traffic controller) without looking at the student, and continue on. It can often be combined with tactical ignoring. If students are calling out, I sometimes look in their direction and raise my hand (briefly) to indicate I expect to see a hand up. If a student is leaning back on her chair, I use a nonverbal cue resembling four chair legs pointing down (right hand has thumb and first three fingers extending down). Initially, I find it helpful to give the verbal and nonverbal cues together: ‘Ella ( … ) four on the floor, thanks (while extending the hand cue).’ I had a student say once, ‘I got four on the floor.’ (He had two chair legs and his own legs.) ‘Go for six, then.’ He grinned as I turned away. To overly ‘noisy’ students (who may be unaware of their volume) I often catch their eye and nonverbally cue thumb and forefinger together as if to say ‘volume down, thanks’.

Incidental and descriptive directions Some directions can be phrased ‘incidentally’, by describing the student’s behaviour. A couple of lads are fiddling with the window blinds during wholeclass teaching time; it’s persistent and distracting. The teacher says, ‘Bilal ( … ) Bruno ( … ) you’re fiddling with the window blinds. It’s really distracting.’ She says it confidently, expectantly, respectfully. By describing their behaviour she raises their behaviour awareness. Sometimes the incidental direction is enough. If they continue, she will specifically direct them, ‘Leave the blinds and face this way … thanks.’ Chewing gum is hardly a major issue in most schools; however, it is often mentioned in the school rules (and it’s a pain for the cleaner). As I was moving around the classroom I casually walked across to Ava and Nalini. I had a brief chat about the work (prefacing with a task focus) and added, ‘By the way, the bin’s over there. Thanks.’ As I walked away (giving take-up time) they grumbled and walked over to the bin (one spat it, the other dropped it in ever so delicately and attentionally). Mentioning the bin (incidentally) was a way of directing to the rule least intrusively. I use this approach at upper primary and secondary levels.

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Different class, same scenario. ‘Angus, you’re probably looking for the bin, right?’ ‘Nah!’ He looked briefly across to the bin, frowning. The teacher ‘models’ chewing gum adding quietly, ‘Well, the bin’s looking for you’, as he walks off.

Sometimes I’ll actually take the bin to the student(s) during on-task learning time. Obviously we wouldn’t mention noticed gum-chewing during wholeclass teaching time.

Simple directions and desists A simple direction conveys a message to students that we are directing them to do something about their behaviour. A desist is a direction to students that we are telling them to stop doing something. To be effective, directions and desists should specify the expected behaviour clearly, briefly, specifically and – where possible – positively. There will be times, of course, when we’ll need to use a firm or even assertive tone of voice (p. 71). When Alex, aged five, is out of his seat forgetfully we will direct him differently from Layla, who has spilt acid on the floor for fun in a Year 8 science class. For Alex it is enough to say, ‘Alex, back to your seat, thanks’. For Layla, a clear, calm, firm desist is needed. A raised voice is used to establish contact. ‘Layla, put that jar down now.’ Calmly direct the other students to settle and then direct Layla to clean up. Once we’ve got the student’s attention, the direction, desist or even command is given in a firm, clear, calm voice. A raised, firm voice is different from a shout or scream, which may unsettle or increase unnecessary arousal. When students engage in dangerous or unsafe behaviour, we obviously don’t waste time in discussion. Direct as a command. ‘Cooper! ( … ) Alex! ( … )’ Here the name cueing is said in a raised (not shouting) voice. We then drop the level of voice to firm assertion: ‘Stop fighting now.’ At this point the teacher will direct the students to sit apart and refocus the watching audience. The teacher

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will then refocus the two students: ‘You can sort out your personal concerns at recess. We don’t fight in class.’ Most simple directions, however, can be delivered as reminders to selfawareness and self-control. Mild desists are effective if the teacher has a positive working relationship with the children. ‘Alessia, use the scissors safely – they’re not for playing with’ is better than, ‘Alessia! I’m sick of telling you …’ In a busy classroom with competing demands for a teacher’s attention, we don’t generally have time for extended discussions with children about distracting and disruptive behaviour. We can do that in an after-class chat (p. 105) or a whole-class meeting (p. 236). These issues will still be briefly addressed at the time the teacher notices them occurring, however: ‘Ethan ( … ) there’s a mess on the table’ (describe the situation). ‘Clean it up now, thanks’ (direct and expect compliance). If a student is ‘abstractedly’ tapping with his pen during wholeclass teaching: ‘Callum ( … ) the pen. It’s distracting.’ If the student doesn’t pick up the incidental expectation the teacher will add, ‘Pen down, thanks.’ In all such situations we resume the flow of the lesson and avoid over-dwelling (p. 172). Two students are busily, and annoyingly, chatting over a comic while the teacher is teaching. It is too loud to be tactically ignored so the teacher gives a simple, clear direction. She addresses the rights behaviour expected. ‘Alessia, Ava (direct eye contact, her hand extended towards them), do me the courtesy of facing the front and listening. Put the magazine away too, thanks.’ She quickly resumes control of the lesson, expecting compliance; she doesn’t invite discussion.

Sometimes it is enough to simply use the participle form when directing: ‘Walking, thanks’ rather than ‘Don’t run’, ‘Sitting and facing this way’ rather than ‘Don’t fidget on the mat’, ‘Using your partner voices, thanks’ (to a table of louderthan-necessary Year 4s) rather than ‘Don’t speak so loudly when you’re working.’ I saw a Year 8 girl running in the corridor (yet again). I knew her from one of my classes. I said, ‘Ava ( … ) walking, thanks.’ ‘I’m in a hurry!’ she frowned. ‘Try power walking, then.’ ››

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She responded to my smile with a ‘toss of the mane’, raised eyes and a power stride!

Always use the child’s first name, and a please or thank you. Adding ‘thanks’ to a direction (or ‘ta’) can convey expectation. With older students, we can often add an ‘I’ statement with the direction to emphasise how the student’s behaviour is affecting the teacher’s rights (as well as other students). Sofia is fiddling noisily with her water bottle during the teacher’s whole-class teaching time. He tactically ignores her behaviour for a while but it is too distracting. He cues her and says, ‘Sofia ( … ) that’s a loud water bottle. It’s distracting. I’m trying to teach. Thanks.’ The implicit expectation is clear but also positive. He adds the thanks’ as a mitigator to the direction and as a statement of belief that says, in effect, ‘I believe you’ll cooperate.’ He briefly smiles, returning his attention and focus back to the class, and continues the lesson. It is surprisingly effective.

With younger children If small children are ‘over-excited’ and appear not to hear a direction the first time, it may be necessary to establish eye contact and repeat. Small children need clear rules for behaviour and brief, clear directions and reminders – not nagging dialogues. If the boundaries are uncertain and unenforced, the children will feel insecure and may ‘act out’ their insecurity through their disruptive behaviour. A teacher will need to enforce routines regularly for safety, movement, tidying up and so on, especially with small children. But, again, respectful treatment is the key; staying calm, but speaking and acting clearly and positively and (at times) firmly. Most of this ‘enforcing’ can be carried out positively and has its most necessary focus in the establishment phase of the year (see McPherson & Rogers 2009). There is no point arguing, discussing or debating with a five-year-old who is tired, uptight, frustrated, anxious, angry or confused. What children need most from their teacher when they’re in such a state is our calmness and our clarification. From this they can derive security. Remember:

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• Keep any direction simple, brief and specific. Wherever possible, focus on the expected behaviour rather than behaviour we don’t want to see. Lee and Cooper (Year 6) were fiddling with the venetian blinds during instructional time. If I say, ‘Don’t fiddle with the blinds …’ then I’ve only told them what I don’t want them to do. Instead: ‘Lee and Cooper, leave the blinds and facing this way, thanks.’ Here we focus the students’ attention to the expected behaviour: ‘leave and facing …’ Lee said he wanted more light. ‘We’ll organise the light later. For the moment, facing this way and leave the blinds. Ta.’ After a very brief pause, I resumed the lesson flow.

• Convey, nonverbally, that we expect their compliance. This is largely conveyed in our positive tone, manner and intent. • If necessary (with younger children) stay close and repeat. • Stay calm; using a calm, clear voice – firmer when necessary. • If the student(s) refuse, or become disruptive, make the consequence(s) clear without shouting (see p. 86).

Observational and descriptive language The teacher is moving around the room (during on-task learning time). He notices bits of paper littering the work area and several lids from the felt-tip pens. ‘Hannah ( … ), Jessica ( … ) there are several lids off the felt-tip pens, and there’s a fair bit of paper on the floor.’ He says it quietly; en passant. He could have asked why: ‘Why is there so much mess here? And look at those pens. They won’t last long like that, will they?’ Interrogatives are hardly helpful – it sounds like nagging.

Sometimes the observation can be given in a single word, in passing. ‘Ryan ( … ) pens.’ ‘Charlotte ( … ) floor.’ This approach relies on the teacher having a positive working relationship with his students and a pleasant and positive tone and manner. Observational reminders are often combined with behavioural directions.

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Several students are chatting at the beginning of whole-class teaching time. The teacher looks in the direction of the students (without moving across to them and giving unnecessary attention). She briefly describes what she sees. ‘Several students are talking ( … ) I need you to face this way and listen, thanks.’ She gives a brief tactical pause and resumes the flow of the lesson (see also p. 194).

I’ve used this approach countless times in classes and with large groups, for form assemblies or whole-school assemblies. This is to be preferred over silly questions (‘Are you talking?’), challenges (‘Do you want to run the lesson, eh?’), negative directions (‘Don’t talk while I’m teaching’) or just reactive frustration (‘You! Over there. Shut it!’).

Restating or reminding via the rules Refer the individual (or group) back to ‘our rules’. This is probably the most common discipline strategy (hence the title of this book). ‘William, you know our rule for lining up.’ Sometimes just the rule reminder is enough. The use of inclusive language helps identify the individual’s behaviour as it affects ‘our’ class. If several students are calling out, a general rule reminder will be appropriate. ‘Remember our class rule for …’, or ‘In our class it’s hands up without calling out. Thanks’ (then look for a hand up) or ‘I can hear calling out – remember our rule – thanks’. The rule reminder can also be expressed as a question. ‘What’s our rule for …?’ (Add in the specific rule area: communication, manners, safety, etc.) If a student doesn’t (or won’t) reply, the teacher will need to restate the rule. ‘Our rule is …’ If the student says she doesn’t care, the teacher can add, ‘Even if you don’t, we do. We care.’ Again, restate the rule (without ‘discussing’ or arguing). If the student chooses to continue not to cooperate, we’ll need to clarify the consequences. Keep the reminder brief, with a clear focus to the rule: ‘Charlotte and Hannah, you know our rule for safety with the scissors.’ If necessary, show assertion by nonverbal emphasis (outstretched but open hand, making the point). William is calling out during the whole-class phase of a lesson: ‘William, you know our rule for asking questions – use it, thanks.’ No more. We keep

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the reminder brief with a hand-up cue and then refocus attention to students who are waiting their turn. If the student is using scissors (or any equipment) unsafely, direct them to hand it over. Extend hand (we don’t snatch), ‘Give me the scissors – now.’ (No ‘please’ – it’s not a request. See p. 71.) Rule reminders can be used with students of any age. They can be said quietly, often positively, sometimes even humorously or assertively, as the situation requires. If Benjamin – out of his seat – argues about it, we will reassert the movement rule. ‘Benjamin, you know the rule for … Use it, thanks.’ Restating the class rules can also be effective with the whole group if noise levels are too high, although the effectiveness of this approach diminishes with frequency. If there is a regular problem with class noise, it is better discussed at a classroom meeting (see p. 235).

Reminders (the verb ‘remember …’) Several students were being silly with their artwork, pushing and pulling their pictures (in that Year 8 boy–girl ‘hormonal bonding’ way). I walked over (itself a distraction) and I had a brief chat. ‘Well, how’s it going, then? Let’s have a look at some of your work.’ Having refocused to the task, I walked away leaving them with a reminder. ‘By the way (scanning all their eyes), remember to use your working space thoughtfully.’ They knew what I meant. What I didn’t need to say was, ‘Don’t be so stupid with your work; this is an art lesson, not a fun park!’

‘Remember to …’ is more invitational to the ear than ‘Don’t forget …’ If we frequently say, ‘Don’t forget’, we’re actually using a negative (don’t) and then directing to what we don’t want forgotten (what we actually want them to remember). If students are talking above working noise volume, a good prompt is, ‘Remember to use your partner voices at this table …’ At the close of a lesson we remind the class to: ‘Do the next class a favour, folks. Remember to put chairs under …’ Sometimes we’ll need to add in the ‘reasoned reminder’. ‘The felt-tip pens dry out quickly. Remember to put the lids back on when you’re not using them. Thanks.’

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Rule reminders with young primary students (‘single word reminders’) One way of giving rule reminders to younger primary-aged students is to use a word that briefly and concisely expresses the required action, or behaviour, implicit in the rule. For example, ‘Don’t run in the classroom, Lizi’ becomes ‘Lizi (to gain attention, use the child’s name), walking, thanks’. If two students are arguing, the teacher walks by and says, firmly, ‘Mustapha ( … ), Halid, sharing, thanks’ or ‘Helping …’ or ‘Asking …’ Rude behaviour receives a ‘Nina ( … ), manners’ and a student who keeps interrupting is simply told, ‘Klaudia ( … ), waiting’. The required action expressed as a participle focuses on the fair, expected behaviour and reduces the likelihood of long discussion. We make the point clearly, firmly – expectantly. If the disruption is low-level forgetful behaviour, say it with a smile. If two students are talking loudly while we are working close by with other students, it may be enough to turn, extend our open hand (towards the distracting students), and say, ‘Excuse me, Olivia ( … ), Alessia ( … ), partner voices, thanks’, and turn back to the students we are engaged with at that point (allowing take-up time). Establish eye contact; speak briefly, clearly and expectantly; so expectantly, you will turn away as soon as you have restated the rule. If the noise continues, we will engage more decisive steps (repeat and/or clarify the consequence, see p. 86). It is surprising, though, how effective brief rule reminders are. They are effective because the student’s behaviour awareness is referred back to our rules. This puts the responsibility back where it belongs – with the child and our fair rules.

Prefacing Rather than always beginning a discipline intervention with immediate correction, it is possible (in some contexts) to preface the correction particularly in on-task learning time (as we circulate the room) and in non-classroom settings. James was abstractedly gazing at his motorbike magazine during a Year 10 English class. I’d finished the whole-class teaching phase of the lesson and I was moving around the room having a chat here and there, encouraging, refocusing, clarifying,

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etc. I’d noticed James was off-task but had chosen initially to tactically ignore, thinking he might get on with his work. The magazine was clearly an ongoing distraction so I walked over, approaching from the side, ‘Hi, James ( … ) how’s it going, then?’ ‘S’all right, I suppose.’ He pushed the magazine aside, covering it with his arm, but I caught a glimpse of the bikini-clad, nubile female form of the motorbike rider – helmetless, bleached hair blowing in the breeze … ‘Interesting magazine, James’, I said, glancing in its direction. He grinned. ‘Yeah.’ I pointed out, ‘She’ll get serious melanoma if she rides like that.’ ‘What?’ (He seemed not to know that term.) I slipped in a brief bit of health ed. ‘You know, skin cancer.’ He raised his eyes to the ceiling. ‘It’s just a magazine.’ ‘I know, James – but it’s the safety issue that bothers me, you see; she’s not wearing a helmet.’ He sighed (bearing my humour bravely) and grinned. I added quietly, ‘What are you supposed to be doing at the moment?’ He told me – adding that he hated this subject. ‘I remember the feeling. It can be annoying to do work you hate. Can you do it?’ (I knew he could.) ‘Yeah, I can.’ (sigh) ‘Okay, give it your best shot. I’ll come back and see how it’s going later (leaving him with a task-related reminder). By the way, I want you to put the magazine in your bag or, if you like, on my table.’ This was the discipline part (the corrective part) of our brief interaction. ‘I wasn’t reading it.’ He sighed – must have been tired, poor chap! ‘Even if you weren’t ( … )’ I eyed his bag nonverbally and looked at the teacher’s desk and moved off (‘see you later’), leaving him with the conditional direction. A little later I saw out of the corner of my eye that he was putting the magazine away. I walked over later and had a chat about the work. It’s important to re-establish working relationships reasonably quickly.

The decisive negative There is a time to say no to children on issues where they continue to argue, or act in any provocative or unsafe way. The unambiguous use of ‘not’, ‘no’ or ‘can’t’ is an assertive full stop to pleadings of unfairness.

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‘Ibrahim, give the scissors to me – now.’ He’d been stabbing his worksheet. The other children on the table were looking very anxious. He said, ‘No! I’ll be alright now!’ I repeated the direction, firmly. ‘Now.’ We don’t say please; it’s not a request. He slammed them on the table. I directed him to come with me to cool-off time (time-out), in a place reserved away from the other children where he could calm down and regain some self-control. He whined, ‘I’ll be alright now, Mr Rogers!’ I repeated the direction, ‘Come with me now to cool-off time.’ I walked off (to engage take-up time). He kicked his chair, then stomped across the room – following me, adding, ‘I don’t like you!’ I tactically ignored this and directed him to the cool-off time area and seat (p. 163), adding a quiet, firm, ‘When you’ve calmed down then you can come back to your table group.’

It’s the characteristic overuse of ‘no’, ‘don’t’ or ‘can’t’ by teachers that’s the problem. It creates an unnecessarily negative corrective tone, for example, ‘No, you can’t go to the toilet. I’ve just started reading the story.’ ‘No, you can’t work on the computer yet, you haven’t even started your first draft. How many times have I said to do a draft first?’

Conditional directions By rephrasing the negatives we can make the direction more invitational in tone: ‘When you’ve finished the first draft then you can work on the computer.’ Eli asked to go to the toilet within a few minutes of teaching time (a Year 8 class). I could see the grin on his face, so I suspected he wasn’t desperate. ‘We’ll organise the toilet break after this part of the lesson.’ Marisa (Grade 1) wanted to work with the playdough but hadn’t cleaned up from the previous activity. ‘I wanna do playdough now.’ ‘Marisa ( … ) you can do play dough after you’ve cleaned up the paper, scissors and pencils here.’

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Two ways of saying something Unconsidered

Considered

‘Didn’t I tell you to put a margin there? Goodness, do I have to keep reminding you?’

‘What’s missing on the page, Byron?’ (said casually, and quietly, with a smile).

‘Can’t you walk? What do you have to run for? I’ve told you before.’

‘Walking, Jayde’ (a rule reminder delivered firmly, with a smile, where context appropriate).

‘You spilt the paint! Can’t you be careful? Look at all that mess. Go and wash your hands – you’re not doing any more painting now.’

‘How can we fix up this mess, Halid? OK, grab the cloth over there.’ (Well planned classrooms have cleaning materials handy.)

‘You’re not supposed to be playing with the Unifix blocks! You’re supposed to be grouping them. If you can’t use them properly, don’t use them at all!’

‘That’s an interesting shape, Olivia – now see if you can make them into two groups of ten, as well.’

‘Look, I’ve shown you how to cut out on the line before (sigh, sigh). Come on, Max, give it to me – I’ll show you again!’

‘You’ve started to cut out the shape. Show me how you can cut closer to the line.’

‘Let me show you, then you can try again.’

‘It will help if you hold the scissors like this.’

‘Don’t forget to …’

‘Remember to …‘ (see p. 69)

‘Every time I walk past you two you’re talking. I’m fed up with it, do you hear? Now get out, Lee, and move over there!’ (She argues.) ‘Don’t you argue with me. I said go!’

‘Keep the noise down, thanks, I’m trying to work over here with Ava and Mia.’ The noise continues. ‘Lee and Thu, you know the rule for working noise – if you can’t work quietly, I’ll have to ask you to work separately.’

‘Don’t …’

‘Do …’

Calling out When children butt in or call out and say, ‘I know the answer to that!’, a teacher can effectively use a form of tactical ignoring by speaking ‘around’ such students, making no direct eye or verbal contact. ‘Some of you know the answer to this already but what I’d like you to do is hang off for a while because we’ll be discussing these maths questions in small groups’. The teacher chooses not to be drawn by such attention-seeking and diverts potential disruption. Jessica has her hand up and is vigorously clicking her fingers to get the teacher’s attention. The teacher initially uses tactical ignoring. The student becomes more insistent and calls out, ‘Look, I’m asking a question, why don’t you answer?’ The teacher turns, makes direct eye contact (from the front of the classroom), and with an outstretched hand, palm out, says, in a decisive voice, ‘Jessica, you know ››

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the rule for class discussion – use it, thanks.’ She might preface it with ‘When … then …’ No more. She then turns back to the group and continues her discussion. Jessica calls out a few more times – the teacher tactically ignores. She’s already made the rule clear.

Some students will call out for attention: some from habit, and some from excited anticipation. In the establishment phase of the year, the teacher can remind the class that sometimes students are so keen to answer a question (or ask) they first blurt it out. They may not mean to; it might be excitement or habit. The teacher can then explain how it is important to wait rather than call out, as ‘it gives everyone a fair go’. If a student has a habit of calling out and has only a marginal response to rule reminders, it will be important to work on a one-to-one plan that can help him focus on the hands-up rule. In this one-to-one session (conducted in nonclass time), the teacher can work on an individual behaviour plan – modelling and teaching the expected behaviour (pp. 105, 173). When reminding older students about their calling out or butting in during a class discussion, a simple, ‘One at a time, thanks’ or, ‘Marisa’s speaking at the moment’ (a brief descriptive reminder) is often enough.

Questions One of the most common questions teachers use in discipline contexts is the open interrogative ‘Why?’: ‘Why are you talking while I’m trying to teach?’, ‘Why are you calling out?’, ‘Why haven’t you started?’, ‘Why can’t you …?’, ‘Why are you rolling on the floor?’, ‘Why are you leaning back on your seat?’ Some teachers use the extended interrogative: ‘Are you calling out …?’, ‘You’re not supposed to be calling out, are you?’, ‘Oi, are you running in the corridor?’, ‘Are you being stupid?’, ‘Are you late?’ (I’m sure students are tempted to reply, ‘Of course I’m late!’).

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Many students (especially at lower primary level) don’t always know why they’re doing what they’re doing when they’re distracting others. Even if they did know, they’re hardly likely to reply, ‘Well, I was into some low-grade and active attention-seeking, that’s why.’ Older children may bend the truth or lie to avoid facing the question. This is frustrating but normal.

Direct questions The direct form of a question (‘what?’, ‘how?’, ‘when?’, ‘where?’) requires the student to take some behaviour awareness and ownership. More importantly, it gives the student the opportunity to focus on what ought (fairly) to be happening now, and allows the teacher to avoid coming in too early with a consequence (‘If you don’t … then …’). What questions (in this sense) are more effective than why questions. They place the responsibility for some sort of feedback on to the student. ‘Chloe, what’s happening with these Unifix blocks?’ challenges the child to give feedback. Because most children say ‘nothing’ to the question ‘What are you doing?’, it’s more effective to briefly point out what they are, in fact, doing. Not a lecture, but clear feedback by the teacher. ‘Actually, you’re playing around with them. What should you be doing, Chloe?’ This asks Chloe for more feedback by directing her focus back to the task at hand. In the playground, several Grade 6 boys are playing handball in a part of the playground reserved for preschool students. I greeted them and said, ‘I notice you’re playing handball in the preschool part of the playground.’ One of them whined, ‘Other teachers don’t care as long as we don’t play where they are!’ I partially agreed, ‘I can check that with other teachers – where should you be playing handball?’ (The question; the redirection.) They whinged again, I repeated. One of the boys ‘broke ranks’ and whined, ‘We’re supposed to play down by the end wall …’ I said I hoped they enjoyed the rest of their playtime. They sloped off with some quiet muttering and sulking. I tactically ignored that as I walked off (relaxed vigilance, see p. 138).

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Teacher-baiting Some children give ‘smart alec’ answers as their response to what questions: ‘What’s it look like I’m doing?’ Children who try this approach are often ‘baiting’ the teacher. It is generally better to say, ‘It looks like you’re mucking around with the science equipment. What should you be doing?’ If they say, ‘Don’t know, do I?’, tell them. If they say, ‘Nothing’, simply remind them of what they should be doing and redirect them. Be sure to follow these children up later (see p. 105). At the time – in the immediate emotional moment – we minimise unnecessary confrontation by keeping the exchange task-focused. If the student’s tone or comment is particularly offensive, it will be enough to assert briefly, ‘I don’t speak to you in a disrespectful tone of voice; I don’t expect you to speak to me like that.’ The teacher will then repeat the question, or direct the student to the task or required behaviour (pp. 80, 283). Giving in to the temptation to take the bait by exclaiming, ‘Who the hell do you think you’re speaking to?’ or ‘How dare you?’ is tempting perhaps; it is, however, hardly worth it. Keep the discipline transaction brief and focused on the rule and/or task. If the student’s agenda is to contest, why give them an audience and a contestant?

Noises, gesturing and posturing Students sometimes squawk like crows, bark like dogs, snort like pigs or blow ‘raspberries’. Certain children will gesture with fingers behind the teacher’s back (the provocative second finger sign is a common one), or throw their hands up in acted anger when asked to move away from desks they shouldn’t be sitting in. The teacher directs Sophia to move because she and her classmate are too noisy. She procrastinates. The teacher has already given a directed choice to the student to work quietly or face the option of moving. ‘Why?’ says Sophia. ‘She (turning to her friend) was talking as well. Why are you always picking on me?’ The teacher doesn’t get dragged into a discussion or argument. He redirects by reasserting, ‘Take your books and work over there.’ If the child wants to argue, the

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teacher merely reasserts the simple direction, ‘I gave you a choice before, take your books and work over there’ – firm, non-argumentative and not hostile. Sophia stands up, stamps her foot, snorts, goes over to the other desk, slumps down, glares and folds her arms. Already the teacher moves away, giving take-up time. Dramatic posturing is another form of secondary behaviour (see p. 25). The teacher has finished this little discipline transaction and now tactically ignores the student’s residual sulking. The teacher walks around the room (past the sulking student) working with the other (on-task) students, reinforcing, encouraging, commenting, chatting briefly, marking, giving feedback. The sulking student waits until the teacher’s back is turned and blows a raspberry and then gives a ‘two-up’. One smart alec calls out loudly, ‘Sophia just stuck her fingers up at you’ and then quickly sniggers. The class becomes quiet as the teacher quickly replies – without looking at either Sophia or the smart alec – ‘Well, I’m glad I didn’t see it’ and moves on. The teacher does not get drawn into a new debate. If the sulking student picks up her pen, the teacher, with his regular eye-sweep, will casually walk over and re-establish a positive working relationship by commenting on her work. ‘How’s it going? Need some help? Oh, I see you managed that part.’ Many sulking students, when spoken to normally in this way, often speak back, or grunt back, as if to say, ‘I don’t like you at the moment.’ It’s a form of emotional payback. They are, in effect, saying: ‘Why don’t you comment on my sulking and pouting and give me attention for it – others do!’ Of course, if the teacher immediately reacts by saying, ‘How dare you speak to me in that tone of voice’ or words to that effect, it only feeds the residual attention-seeking. The teacher just speaks normally, giving respectful attention and moves on. He may keep Sophia back later to discuss her behaviour one-to-one (p. 105).

Some silly noises can be tactically ignored. If they continue, a teacher can try a firm, simple direction, rule restatement or defusion (such as humour, where appropriate, see p. 101). If the noise continues, we can give a directed choice or remind the student of the rules or perhaps even take the student aside and quietly (and briefly) discuss the behaviour: ‘Charlotte, you know our rules about class manners.’ If the student is young, the teacher may need to withdraw him and explain firmly that crows make nests, they don’t do cut and paste in Room 17.

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In the case example noted above, sulking students will sometimes ‘sing’ or say things loudly like: ‘I don’t like this class – it’s not fair.’ If this continues, it can help if the teacher walks over and quietly places a small note on the student’s desk/table. ‘Kendra – you know your singing/talking is distracting others. I know you can be responsible. Thanks. Mr Rogers.’ If they continue or tear the note up (it sometimes happens), a second note may often help. Quietly placed: ‘You know your singing/talking is distracting others. If it continues I will have to follow this up in your own time. I know you can be responsible. Thanks. Mr Rogers.’ My colleagues and I have used this approach in upper primary and secondary classes a number of times and found it very effective. Any effectiveness with this approach depends (as so much does) on our positive working relationship with the class, and the student in particular. Persistent crowing or snorting or ‘I’m going to get your attention one way if I can’t get it another’ routines should not be ignored and are best handled with a clear, calm, firm, directed choice. Such options include in-class (or outof-class) time-out as an immediate consequence. Be sure to follow up later with the student and sort out what the problem is; this is the time to give the student an appropriate right of reply. In some cases, it may require a discussion with the home-group teacher or year level coordinator. The issue of follow-up and follow-through is discussed at length on page 105. With a student who habitually seeks attention in these ways, the teacher is best served by checking with other colleagues to see how general this behaviour is, and making an individual management plan (see p. 173).

A specific problem What to do with flatulators? Several boys down the back of Ms H’s humanities class were abusing the olfactory organs of most of the class members. She wasn’t exactly sure who the culprits were. After a couple of sessions of this, she decided on a rather novel approach. Armed with a deodorising spray, she went in the following Tuesday and both heard and

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smelt the attention-seeking behaviour. She gave a decisive five-second spray and walked off. There was laughter but it soon settled down. Before the end of the session she quietly said, ‘I’ll see you four at the close of class.’ They protested; she tactically ignored. She directed them to stay back and discussed their flatulence, future consequences and said, ‘I know it was one (or more) of you. I’ve asked you to stay back and explain to me what you’re going to do about it.’ The problem diminished.

Arguing with students Ethan is eating a chocolate bar in class. A minor issue, obviously, but it is against the school rules. It’s on-task learning time; the teacher is moving around the room assisting. She walks over to Ethan, gives a brief preface (see p. 70) and directs him: ‘Ethan, nice chokky bar there (she frowns and winks) … in your bag, thanks.’ ‘Oh come on, I’m hungry, aren’t I?’ ‘So am I, Ethan. You know the school rule. In your bag, thanks.’ She could have said, ‘I don’t care if you’re hungry – put it away now!’ What she has done is reassert without arguing. She is about to walk away to leave Ethan to own this minor rule reminder when he adds, ‘Jeez, it’s nearly lunchtime.’ The teacher looks at her watch. ‘You’re right, Ethan; it’s still a school rule … in your bag or on my desk.’ She almost whispers the last directed choice as she walks off. She is not upset by Ethan’s procrastination, nor has she let him argue. She has refocused the main issue and left him with the responsibility of choosing the consequences. He knows that if he continues to argue, this teacher will follow up with him after class, not just because of the eating in class – but because of this ‘choice’ not to work within the fair rules and the continued arguing. The follow-up will involve a brief chat about the rule (this would not occasion a detention!).

Arguing with students in front of their peers is tempting; however it wastes time, creates conflict and often forces either student or teacher into a ‘win–lose’ position. By reasserting, taking the student aside, giving a directed choice and clarifying the consequence, we save maximum face for student and teacher.

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Answering back or defiance When a student answers back or makes a smart or challenging comment, some teachers will say, ‘How dare you answer me back! Apologise now!’ ‘No way!’ is often the reply. Later, the teacher may say, ‘He shouldn’t have answered back’, or universalise it as, ‘No students should answer back to their teacher!’ But he did! That’s the reality, isn’t it? Of course we prefer students to be respectful and amenable but if they aren’t, our demands will rarely make them more compliant. The demand, ‘Things must be this way or I can’t stand it!’ will certainly cause us to be unnecessarily stressed (p. 34). It will further decrease the possibility of any effective, longterm resolution and relationship building. If a student continues to ‘bait’ or speak aggressively, the teacher can: • restate the clear rules briefly, or assertively address the student’s behaviour (pp. 80, 283) • direct the student aside (where possible) for a quieter one-to-one word • give a clear directed choice to remain in the class and work by the fair rules or face time-out (pp. 86, 163) • always follow up such behaviour – with a senior colleague wherever necessary (p. 105).

Asserting Assertion is essentially behaving or speaking in a way that is rights affirming and rights protecting for self and others. When a teacher is acting aggressively, he is only concerned with his needs and beliefs (‘I must win; she must do as she’s told’). Such behaviour may present as hostile, and can often be demeaning and embarrassing for the student. By contrast, when a teacher is acting submissively or non-assertively, he often allows the other party (student, parent, even colleague) to dominate the transaction. Non-assertion may be a result of fear of rejection or of having to face conflict and ‘losing’. Indecisive, non-assertive management results in the student(s) deciding the agenda. Non-assertive teachers often start off trying to be fair, nice and reasonable, but when pushed to the limit by difficult, pushy

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and argumentative children, the teacher will often resort to pleading and shouting (see p. 30). Acting assertively means that we act from a position of fundamental rights without riding roughshod over the other person’s rights. We speak decisively, firmly and clearly, addressing the behaviour at issue and expressing the requirements at hand. We take care to separate the child from his action: ‘Kim, I am disappointed (or disturbed) about the way you’re speaking to Lee. Stop it now. You know our rule.’ The words we use (disappointed, disturbed, even disgusted or angry) need to reflect the moral weight of the issue at stake. The teacher should always follow up later with the student(s) concerned, when they are hopefully calmer and more amenable to conflict resolution. If communicating to the whole class, we need ‘eye-sweep’ – making that brief, important eye contact with the whole class – and speak firmly and clearly about that which upsets us. We obviously eschew angry yelling and humiliating ‘you’ messages: ‘You make me sick, 8D; it’s always the same, isn’t it? You’re like a pack of animals. I’ve had it with you!’ If our class – for example – has given a relief teacher a hard time and we get to school with a list of complaints about how they behaved, then a clear, firm, assertive stance is appropriate. The students need to hear, and ‘feel’, the moral weight of what we are asserting: ‘I can’t believe it! Our class! I can’t believe anyone in our class would do and say the sorts of things I’ve had to read here on this list.’ Whenever I’ve had to speak to a class like this, I can feel the palpable sense of ‘This is serious!’ In acting assertively: • we do not attack the student; we firmly address their behaviour as an individual or a group • we stress the basic rights affected. ‘That teacher had a right to your respect and fair treatment. AND MEMBERS OF CLASS TREATED HER SHAMEFULLY, saying things like … (be brief and specific at this point about the students’ behaviour). I do not expect anyone in our class to treat a teacher like this.’ We now de-escalate the appropriately expressed anger, and we direct the students to think about how they will express their apology and assurance this won’t happen again.

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Caveat: In a group setting, point out that it’s not all the students: ‘I’m not saying it’s all of you (our voice is calmer now – slower – still concerned), but the rest of you allowed this to happen in our class …’

Sexist remarks, innuendo or touching There are some student comments and behaviours that call for an unambiguous, assertive response from teachers to protect our rights or those of other students. Sexist remarks, innuendo and touching (including crowding, pinching and provocative gestures) are largely a problem for female teachers and can be quite debilitating to those unprepared for it. They include everything from comments about boyfriends to remarks about a teacher’s body. No teacher should ever ignore this or excuse such talk. We have a right to personal dignity. Of course, like all conflict, the way it is managed will affect the nature and extent of the resolution. A Year 10 student comments on the female teacher’s ‘great gear’ (her clothes). He says it in a sexually provocative way. She engages direct eye contact. The whole class watches the nonverbal exchange. Speaking from the front of the room she says, ‘I don’t comment on your clothes and I don’t expect you to comment on mine.’ He swivels his head to his mates either side, postures with extended arms and protests, ‘Jeez, I was just joking.’ She adds, ‘Maybe it’s a joke to you. It’s not to me. I don’t expect comments like that. Now ( … ) let’s get back to work.’ She looks and sounds confident and convincing. She has judged that this comment, in this context, needed a degree of unambiguous assertion.

In my view we should never ignore (even tactically) sexist, homophobic or racist comments; even those said ‘in fun’. We need to clearly, briefly and assertively address the behaviour – without moving into an argument. Always follow up such behaviours (one-to-one beyond class) to clarify the seriousness and unacceptability of such comments (p. 105). Be clear in your own mind about unacceptable behaviour. ‘Gee, you’ve got a great figure, Miss!’ is different from specific remarks about body parts. If it is offensive to you then say so: ‘That remark is offensive (or inappropriate)’.

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Move away from, or block with your hand, those crowding behaviours students sometimes exhibit. Keep the response firm, brief, clear and decisive. With younger children who are touching or holding us out of natural affection, we will need to be much more diplomatic, distracting the child aside from his peers to explain our concerns. Very young children sometimes make unthinking remarks about a teacher’s appearance or clothes – they are not intended to hurt. This can often happen with children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. During the reading of a story to a Year 1 class, I remember a five-year-old boy sniffing my shoe and laughing. ‘You got some poo on there, hee hee!’ He pointed to my shoe. ‘That’s right.’ I briefly acknowledged and distracted him (and the class) back to the flow of the story. It may be appropriate to point out to older students the unnecessary nature of the remark (‘We know that remark is unnecessary right now’) then refocus the class back to the flow of the lesson or dialogue. The degree of assertion in language and nonverbal behaviour (such as tone and level of voice) depend on context and behaviour. A comment on a teacher’s clothes said softly, in passing, might warrant a quiet drawing of the student aside for a brief one-to-one explanation of what is offensive (if anything) about the remark. The same comment made loudly, in front of a whole class, would occasion a firm, unambiguously assertive direction or command (p. 283).

Put-downs A student in one of my Year 8 classes called out to a student in the front of the room. ‘Jeez, you’re a dog-face!’ and started to laugh, quickly pulling in several of his coterie, who laughed with him. I eyeballed him, without moving close, and said, ‘Samuel ( … ) That’s a putdown. That language is disgusting and totally unacceptable here.’ He started to argue, as he grinned to his mates: ‘I was only joking.’ ‘That’s not a joke in our room, ever. It’s a put-down.’ He started to butt in. I put up a blocking hand. ‘I’ll speak to you later.’ I was clearly angry, but assertive. I followed up with the student (after class) to clarify the nature of his behaviour and work on restitution to the girl he had verbally abused.

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Put-downs, if used frequently in class, should always be followed up on a oneto-one basis or form part of classroom meeting discussion on the nature of positive and hurtful language. An assertive comment should refer to the affected right – briefly, clearly and as unambiguously as possible. The tone should convey our displeasure; even (where moral weight occasions it) our disgust. The tone needs to convey an appropriate expression of anger but with assertive control. Address the behaviour without attacking the student. When we’re assertive on issues that count, it is important for the individual or class to hear and feel the seriousness of the assertion (the ‘moral weight’) without it becoming a haranguing session or lecture.

Overlapping Mr S is sitting next to Ella trying to teach her how to calculate the long side of a rightangled triangle (the hypotenuse – remember?). He doesn’t crowd or tower from behind but sits next to or alongside, or sometimes kneels to get to the student’s eye level. While he is working with Ella, he hears Riley and Dimi talking really loudly. He turns his head and addresses them: ‘Remember your partner voices, thanks.’ He gives his attention back to Ella.

The teacher does two things while working with one student. He divides his attention briefly and decisively to discipline the two noisy students (a rule reminder) while staying with the student he was supporting. This is preferable to running from one behaviour issue to another. Jacob Kounin (1977) called this teacher strategy ‘overlapping’. Keeping a regular eye-sweep, a teacher is able to ‘overlap’ their discipline within the teaching dynamic. My colleagues and I use the term ‘relaxed vigilance’. Overlapping works when teachers are aware of what is happening in the room. I once worked with a teacher who, apparently, didn’t hear the stomping under the desk by an attentional five-year-old during the on-task phase of the lesson; another whose visual field missed the low-level play-fight on her left;

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another who completely missed the paper-spitters on his right. That is not tactical ignoring, it is blind ignorance. Ms E is working with Noah (Year 1) at his desk. Jess comes up to ask for help. The teacher notices Jess waiting for five seconds and she immediately turns and encourages her. ‘Thanks for waiting, Jess, I’m nearly finished with Noah.’ She turns again to Noah. She gently calls over to Oliver, who looks like he’s about to muck around with the maths blocks and diverts a possible disruption by giving a simple direction. ‘Oliver, sit down, I’ll be over in a minute.’ She finishes with Noah and looks at Jess’s work as she walks across the room. She marks it at Jess’s desk, then proceeds towards Oliver, noticing two girls pushing and poking in the reading corner. She quietly walks over and gives them a directed choice. ‘Marisa and Sinead ( … ) you can either both read quietly here, or I’ll have to ask one of you to go back to your seat.’ She uses brief eye contact. They stop. She moves off (take-up time). As she walks over to Oliver, she encourages Max and Con at their desks. ‘You’re working well on those maths problems. When you’ve finished you may go on with your spelling words, OK?’ They smile and nod.

She gives feedback and indicates she is aware of what’s going on; of what she’ll tactically ignore and what she needs to address. She doesn’t let incidents get out of hand. It’s pointless waiting until there’s a fight in the reading corner … Timing is important in discipline. When overlapping, it will help to keep the following in mind: • Correctly target distracting/disruptive students by briefly focusing on the rule, or their behaviour. • Discipline from where you are. When working with X, discipline Y and Z from that position where possible. • Give simple reminders, or directions; even directed choices. ‘Layla, you can either work by our safety rule or I’ll have to ask you to leave the experiment and sit over there.’ • Be brief in the direction of the disruption, then ‘overlap’ back to what you were doing. Expect compliance – act as if compliance or cooperation is the most natural outcome.

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• When the distracting student has settled, go over (some minutes later) and give some specific encouragement. ‘I see you’ve worked out how to do that problem there, Dimi – well done. How will you do the next one?’

Choices Directed choices Children sometimes bring objets d’art to the classroom (footy cards, comics, toys, iPods, nail varnish, mobile phones, etc.). These often interfere and distract from on-task learning. Rather than snatch up the distracting object, the teacher directs the student(s) to put them in their bag or on her desk. (I’ve never had a student yet say, ‘Oh, thanks for giving me a “choice” within the fair rules. I’ll put it on your desk. No worries!’) Some students will whinge, ‘But I wasn’t looking at the cards!’ or ‘using the phone’. Rather than argue, the teacher will refocus the student (but partially agree): ‘Maybe you weren’t. However, I want you to put the cards in your worktray or on my table. Thanks.’ Two students have been talking (and restless) for ten minutes or so. The teacher has reminded them, twice. She walks across (she knows not to physically rush and thereby telegraph unnecessary emotional arousal). ‘Riley and Ali ( … ), if you’re finding it difficult to work here I’ll have to ask you to work separately.’ She telegraphs the consequence as a ‘choice’ before applying the consequence. It is not a threat. It sounds as if she is putting the responsibility back on to them.

I’d asked Emily and Rafa to settle down to their work. They continued in bursts of laughter, culminating in Rafa falling off her chair. I made the ‘choice’ and consequences clear, as above. A few minutes later Rafa fell back off her chair. ‘Rafa ( … ), bring your books and work over here. Thanks.’ Rafa grumbled and groaned but eventually walked over to the only spare seat (it was fortunate there was one!) and slammed her books down, sulking. Later in the lesson I went across for a brief chat to re-establish a working relationship.

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It is important to communicate to children, especially older children (middle primary and onwards), in the ‘language of choice’. Empty threats by teachers are quickly seen by children as meaningless: ‘One more word, just one more word and it’s 1000 lines for you, do you hear?’ It is important to focus on the student’s distracting behaviour and the likely consequences. One way of doing this is to present them with a directed choice. If we have given a direction, a warning, or restated the rule, or used a question–feedback approach and the child is still behaving disruptively, then they need to be given a clear ‘choice’ in the light of the fair rules and the appropriate consequences.

Relocation in the room If a child has been given a directed choice to work quietly or face moving to another desk and refuses to move when asked, saying, ‘I’m not going to move, you can’t make me!’ (power-broking time), there is little point in the teacher forcing a no-win battle, or sending the child out with a yell, ‘Right, out! Get out of my class!’ We refocus: ‘If you choose not to work over there, I’ll have to ask you to stay back and we’ll discuss this at lunch’, leaving them with a deferred consequence. If the student settles down at this point it is still important to follow up at some stage to address the argumentative behaviour in class. It’s also worth pointing out that few teachers can actually move a big, loud, ‘tough’ Year 10 or even Year 6 boy or girl (and that it’s not worth all that attentional effort!). By using the ‘language of choice’ rather than threat, the teacher can enable face-saving. ‘I’ll have to ask you to move’ is better than ‘I’ll make you sit down the back.’ If they continue to act disruptively in a way that cannot be tactically ignored, we will then employ the exit and time-out procedures (see Chapter 6). If a child is persistently calling out, and if tactical ignoring, rule reminder or simple directions are not working, the next step would be to give a choice via the rules: ‘Cooper, you know the rule for asking questions (or communication or whatever the stated class rule is). If you continue to call out we will have to ask you to leave our discussion.’ With smaller children who are persistently rude, brash and aggressive, direct them to sit away from the group or to face time-out procedures within the classroom (p. 163).

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Most children will stop their distracting/disruptive behaviours when the teacher decisively communicates the fair rule in a confident, respectful, expectant, non-aggressive way. If students who have been persistently disruptive do stop calling out (through any corrective language a teacher uses), it will still be important to follow up later to remind them of the rule and discuss what they intend to do about persistent distracting behaviour (see p. 105). If relocation is used, it is important to distinguish – in the child’s understanding – between isolation from the classroom itself (time-out) and isolation to work away from the group (a related/logical consequence).

Reasserting: Dealing with procrastination Afnan is out of his seat for the third time. His teacher had tactically ignored the first two excursions; this time she calls him aside and asks him a question. ‘What are you doing?’ Her voice tone is not hostile, just clear and firm. ‘What are you doing, Afnan?’ ‘Nothing.’ ‘Actually you’re out of your seat. What should you be doing?’ If he says, ‘Sitting in my seat’ then the teacher would simply respond with, ‘Okay, you need to get back now.’ She would probably add a task-related reminder and then – later – when the child is on-task, go over and ask him how his work is going to encourage him along. But Afnan is resolute. ‘I was just getting a rubber from Nam!’ He says it as if the teacher is an advance scout for the Inquisition. If she responds with ‘But you know you should be in your seat’ then Afnan will drag her into a neat little argument: ‘But it’s not fair, you never pick on the others.’ This teacher is too experienced for that. She knows that if she falls for his attention/ avoidance behaviour she only accedes to it and gives him an audience to play to. Turning to face him, she reasserts, ‘You know the fair rule for movement in our room.’ ‘But I was just …’ She calmly repeats; reasserts. ‘You know the fair rule for movement. You can either work by the fair rule or we’ll need to discuss it later in your time.’ He stomps back to his seat and sulks. She leaves him quickly and attends to the other children. Aware that sulking is another form of attention-seeking, she is not drawn in by it; she waits until he’s cooled off. When she notices Afnan creep back to his desk to

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restart his work, she gives him settling time and walks over and asks, ‘How’s that problem there? Do you understand it?’ In other words, she treats him respectfully when he’s back on-task. She doesn’t berate him with, ‘About time! Sulking like a baby! You so annoy me, Afnan!’ Neither does she get into a discussion about his sulking and why she had to move him.

Verbal blocking Verbal blocking is the brief repeating of the reminder or behavioural direction two or three times. It is the decisive action of a teacher not to get drawn into a discussion or argument. It may be a simple desist, such as when two whining students come across to a teacher on playground duty. She puts up a gently blocking hand, ‘Stop ( … ), Layla and Thu, stop ( … ). I’ll listen when you’re using reasonable voices.’ She says this rather than ‘Don’t whine’. When students are chatting during whole-class teaching time, she names the students: ‘Ali ( … ) Lee ( … ) and James ( … ), facing this way and listening, thanks.’ If they procrastinate (‘We were just talking about the work’) the teacher will keep the focus on the primary issue and not get drawn. She verbally blocks the comment by repeating the direction. Take-up time is important here; having reasserted the direction she gives a brief pause and resumes the lesson flow as if to say ‘I expect you to comply. The lesson is more important at this point.’ The more calmly and quickly we can enable the student to get back on-task, to get some success out of learning and social interaction, the better for all. Later, the teacher can have a quiet word with the students about their behaviour but in the group, at the point of disruption, she minimises audience-seeking by using decisive discipline that is non-hostile and respectful. Reassertion is a useful stance to take when a student is plainly out to argue, procrastinate, confuse and confound you. It is simply the restatement of an eminently fair rule, process or decision.

Partial agreement Sometimes it is appropriate (especially with older students) to extend the reassertion by tuning in to the students’ secondary behaviour before reasserting.

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We can do this by partially agreeing with what they say and refocusing back to the primary issue (the required behaviour) or back to the essential right or rule being affected by their behaviour. Isabella is chewing gum. ‘Isabella, you know our rule for gum – in the bin, thanks.’ ‘Gee, I’m not doing anything wrong!’ ‘I’m asking you to put the gum in the bin, you know our rule.’ ‘It’s a dumb rule!’ ‘Maybe you think it’s a dumb rule, but it is a school rule. I’m asking you to put the gum in the bin.’ Here the teacher moves off to give the student some take-up time (see p. 55). Isabella marches off and makes a little ‘scene’ by throwing the chewing gum in the bin; a scene the teacher chooses to tactically ignore. If Isabella had refused to put the chewing gum in the bin, the teacher would have left the choice with her: to put it in now or follow up with her later. The teacher would then move off to let Isabella ‘own’ her decision. It’s only gum after all. It’s hardly an ‘issue’; unless the teacher makes it an issue at this emotional moment, in front of Isabella’s peer audience.

With extended reassertions, we can tune in to what the student claims with an ‘I’ message, then refocus the student’s attention to the appropriate direction, rule, or directed choice, for example: ‘I hate this class!’

‘Maybe you do, however I’m asking you to …’

‘You never listen to me!’

‘Perhaps you think I don’t listen to you, however I’m asking you to …’

‘This is boring.’

‘Even if you find it’s boring, it’s the work we’re doing today. How can I help?’

The most common response I get from students on issues like eating in class (or wearing jewellery, or being out of uniform) is ‘Other teachers don’t hassle us about …’ I find it helpful to agree, partially. ‘I know it sounds like a hassle, however the rule is clear. In our class, chewing gum goes in the bin.’ ‘I’m not going to get it on the carpet, am I?’ ‘Probably not (partial agreement); it’s still a school rule, though. The bin’s over there.’ If they continue we’ll clarify the consequence (if there is a clear, school-wide rule, at issue). It’s not a discussion.

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Reasserting is our message to the student, and the group, that there is a time for discussion and that time is not now. Now is when you work by the fair rules of our group, and respond to the fair treatment of the teacher or face the fair consequences (stay back and discuss it later or, in extreme cases, leave and face time-out). It is a waste of time arguing with children. It is more helpful if we act firmly, without yelling or humiliating. Our verbal repertoire should state the case as it is. Normally a couple of reassertions are enough. Most students comply even if sulkily or moodily. Repeat the same form of words. This gives the clear impression that you are decisive. ‘Ali, you know the fair rule for …’ If they still argue, clarify the consequence and leave the ‘choice’ with them.

Students challenging the work and task avoidance ‘This work’s boring.’ When a student says this some teachers regard it as an affront to their status and a criticism of their effort. The student may simply be task-avoiding, even lazy. On occasions the student may be quite right. The student may be exercising her right to question the curriculum. How this is handled is very important. Reactions such as, ‘Listen, don’t be smart – just do it, OK?’, or overly discursive approaches such as, ‘Look, I spent a long time preparing this. It’s an important part of the curriculum. Be fair!’ are not ideal. Worse, some teachers will start negotiating with the student at that point: ‘Well what do you want to do then?’ A teacher is better served by simply acknowledging the student’s feelings and then refocusing to the task, offering reasonable support. Sometimes a student may really be frustrated about not only doing the work but the subject itself. ‘I hate doing French. I hate it.’ I’ve had many students complain about foreign language classes. In this case the student was doing a worksheet prepared by a colleague. I briefly tuned in to how the student was probably feeling. ‘It can be annoying doing work you hate.’ The harder part was refocusing him on the worksheet. ‘Can you do it, Con; the work on the sheet?’ ‘Yeah, I suppose (he sighed), if I try.’ ‘I could find another student to give you a hand.’

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‘Nah, it doesn’t matter really.’ Sometimes peer assistance can help. If the student has genuine concerns about the work, we can acknowledge that and point out that we can discuss the issue of their dislike of the subject personally later – after class. Discussing issues like ‘relevance in the curriculum’ at a separate, designated time gives students’ rights and obligations due weight. By addressing the student’s feelings in this way, we are trying to engage and invite the emerging adult in the child; a willingness to tolerate some frustrations and ambiguities in life (especially school; that place where we spend a third of our waking day). By tuning in briefly to how the student might be feeling, we show we can empathise without making the issue a counselling session. A teacher’s capacity to empathise is commonly rated as among the most valued teacher quality cited by pupils (Kyriacou 1991; Rogers 2011).

Task avoidance and task refusal Task refusal is any behaviour which indicates that the student is unwilling to understand or engage in a task or activity. Care must be taken to separate unwillingness from inability to undertake the task. Out of personal struggle, repeated failure and sheer humiliation at not being able to succeed, many students reject a task rather than expose their failure or weaknesses to the class and the teacher. Task refusal is often a mask for inadequacy and fear of failure. In some situations it may be a form of attention-seeking or even a power struggle. Remember to investigate contributing causes for task refusal (for example, the situation at home) as well as discussing consistent approaches to use in the classroom with other colleagues who teach the student. The student has announced that she doesn’t intend to do the work which has been set. The teacher knows the student can do this kind and level of work. The teacher points out that, ‘If you won’t do it now, we’ll have to follow it up later. You need to make a choice.’ ‘You can’t make me do it.’ ‘That’s right. It’s your choice, but we will be following that up later if you choose not to do the work now.’ Teacher walks away and gives take-up time.

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Refocus on the task It can also help to complete any discipline transaction by leaving the student with a task-related reminder, direction or question so that the parting words (as we move off) are focused on the learning not just the behaviour we are addressing: ‘I’ll come and see how things are going a little later’. Another alternative is to give a focus question: ‘What should you be doing?’ Here the student is asked to focus, for himself, on the required task or behaviour.

Task reminders (time) It can help to remind the class how long a task is likely to take, so they’ll be able to pace their work time. For students who are easily distracted and have trouble focusing and attending to a task it can help to draw up simple, negotiated task cards (Rogers 2003). The work for that particular session or activity is set out on a task card and the students time themselves on each phase of the task. With visual learners it can help to have the times written with a tick-box next to each task plus a personal timer so they can monitor the task themselves. When a student’s task refusing makes it virtually impossible for us to teach and others to learn, we need to make clear to the student that when he makes it difficult for people to work he faces the consequences of relocation in the room or time-out. There is a distinction between the blatant task refuser who tears up work, and the passive task refuser who doesn’t do the work due to imagined or real inadequacy. Eamon (Year 8) was sitting at his table. The lesson had finished ten minutes ago; it was on-task learning time. I walked over to his table. ‘Eamon ( … ), hi.’ He looked up. I immediately noticed his massive pencil case took up a quarter of the working space; there were several pens, a broken (and taped) ruler, some marker pens … ‘I notice you haven’t started your work. How can I help?’ He looked up, ‘I haven’t got a pen.’ ‘You’ve got a huge pencil case though,’ I replied. ‘I can stick my head in here!’ ‘Can you?’ I said. ‘I’ll show you.’ ››

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I quickly added, ‘Eamon ( … ), I believe you – I actually do.’ ‘No – I’ll show you.’ He proceeded to demonstrate by sticking his head in the pencil case – to the obvious laughter of his immediate peers and, then, the rest of the class …

Later that week, the year advisor and I worked with Eamon (one-to-one) on an individual behaviour plan to help him: 1. Organise his desk space. 2. Only have a ‘table pencil case’ on his desk (a small plastic case with one red/ blue pen, one pencil, a ruler and eraser). The big pencil case stays in his locker. 3. We organised a reading partner in each of his core subject areas; a student who would sit with him and quietly, supportively, assist him with any reading of book/board/worksheet task. 4. We also taught him several organisational skills. Other colleagues who taught Eamon were given a copy of this plan and how best to support Eamon with encouragement and positive correction (where necessary). We had noticed that Eamon would rather be seen as a ‘difficult’ student than a ‘stupid’ student (i.e. one who couldn’t do his work). In these one-to-one sessions my colleague and I were teaching him several academic survival skills (Rogers 2003). We wanted him to move away from ‘protecting’ and ‘hiding’ his struggle and his failures. Avoid concentrating on failure. Provide learning tasks in which the child can achieve some level of competence. Such children find it extremely difficult to build from past failure so we need to enable them to build from failure to experience some success.

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Questions to consider Developing a classroom behaviour management plan • How aware are you of having a least-to-most intervention approach to corrective discipline? In this sense do you have a discipline plan? What are the essential features of that plan? • Are you aware, particularly, of your characteristic corrective language? As noted in the text there is a wide range of skills – a ‘skill richness’ if you will – that enables us to have a wide repertoire in the way we intervene in discipline contexts. • When engaged in corrective discipline, how focused are you on enabling the student’s behaviour awareness; of avoiding unnecessary confrontation and focusing on primary issues; of keeping the language positive where possible; and of being appropriately assertive where necessary? • In what ways could you improve your current behaviour leadership plan? What support, from colleagues, would you need?

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‘And then the whining schoolboy, with his satchel And shining morning face, creeping like a snail Unwillingly to school.’ William Shakespeare, As You Like It, 2:7 Levels of teacher intervention should become increasingly more decisive, and assertive, according to the level of disruption and the context of the disruption (see Figure 4.1). In the course of any lesson there are three general phases that affect the context of any discipline: • the establishment and whole-class teaching phase (p. 192) • the on-task phase of the lesson • the relinquishing phase – lesson closure. In each of these contexts, of course, an individual student’s distracting/disruptive behaviour is affecting, and often affected by, the other students in the class. This is why a student is normally more ‘reasonable’ to teacher guidance one-toone, away from the audience of peers. It is worth being aware of how student behaviour typically occurs in these phases. Our discipline plan needs to be modified depending upon whether we are engaged in whole-class teaching time – when we need to have a sense of whole‑class attention and focus – or moving around the room when students are on-task and student attention is more disparate.

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LEAST

Tactical ignoring where appropriate DESCRIBE, REMIND, DIRECT or QUESTION REDIRECT (focus on primary behaviour where possible) CLARIFY CONSEQUENCE (immediate or deferred)

MOST

APPLY CONSEQUENCE ➞ immediate (e.g. time-out) ➞ deferred (follow-up/follow-through, beyond the classroom context)

Figure 4.1 Least-to-most intrusive interventions

The degree of intrusiveness (in terms of actual verbal direction and emotional weight) depends on how basic rights are being affected. In serious situations it will be important to move to a more intrusive level, such as assertive direction or command or clarifying consequences as a first step.

Establishment phase and whole-class teaching/learning time The beginning of the lesson; students are filing in, settling down and we need to establish initial attention and engage students in terms of whole-class teaching time. Primary school teachers, at least in elementary grades, use all sorts of listening games to get children seated and attentive. With older students we tend to verbally cue, although I’ll often tap a small glass to initiate some attentional focus (with more restless classes). The glass-tinging acts as a kind of conditional reinforcer. We need to establish – and sustain – initial whole-class attention so that we can focus in on the learning activities. It is also essential that we do this in a way that communicates calmness (in our tone of voice and in our body language and bearing, see pp. 9, 11, 194). It is very important to greet students as they enter the classroom. When they are settled, we greet the whole class, have a brief chat and clearly focus where the lesson will be going for that session. If we are indecisive and uncertain here, it will affect all that happens from then on.

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The sorts of disruptions that typically occur at the beginning of the lesson are: • shuffling, whispering, private chatting (while the teacher is seeking to cue for whole-class focus or during teaching time) • calling out, butting in, talking over others • fiddling with objects (pencil cases, water bottles, rulers, pens, etc.) • clowning, silly noises • overly robust seat-leaning • late arrivals. When disciplining during this phase of the lesson, when we are the primary (although perhaps not the only) focus of attention, it is better to use: • tactical ignoring, where possible, or nonverbal cues • brief, simple descriptive cues or directional cueing e.g. ‘A number of students are calling out ( … ) [the descriptive cue raises behaviour awareness in students] hands up, thanks, without calling out’ [the directed cue]. If calling out occurs right at the very beginning it can help to cue the class to wait … ‘Hands down for now, thanks. I need you to be listening for the next five minutes or so. I’ll take questions later.’ With restless classes at upper primary or secondary level our calm, descriptive cueing will enable their calmness (pp. 10, 192). • appropriate use of humour (once we’ve come to know our class). When giving a direction (as corrective discipline) in the whole-class phase of the lesson, it is important not to over-attend by walking across to a student and getting into a discussion. This only gives more attention than is due. If a student is fiddling with their phone at that point in the lesson, it will hardly help to walk over and demand the phone. It is enough (at this point) to give a brief, conditional direction: ‘Joshua ( … ), phone in your bag or on my table, thanks’ (p. 72). If the student wants to ‘argue the toss’ we need to calmly restate the rule and clarify the consequence (p. 86). Keep the corrective interaction brief (where possible) and redirect attention quickly to the flow of the lesson. (See the case studies on p. 195 in particular.) Brevity, expectation, positive language, take-up time and resuming lesson flow are important in the instructional and wholeclass phases of the lesson. Matched with enthusiasm for the subject and the

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ability to communicate that enthusiasm, any discipline and classroom management becomes a means to an end rather than an end in itself.

The on-task phase At this stage, the teacher is moving around the room while the students are supposed to be on-task. During this time there is an initial settling down during which some students will: • not have pens, pencils, books or equipment (see p. 23) • be uncertain of the task (or seek to avoid the task) ‘What do we have to do again?’ or say that they have not understood ‘What you meant when you said …’ • stare idly out of the window (I used to do that a lot! Particularly when I was bored, or didn’t like or understand the subject well …) • be out of their seat for reasons best known to them; wander/change their seating or leave without permission. Some students will: • call out across the room to get teacher attention • refuse or avoid tasks • chatter; chatter noisily • clown around. During this phase of the lesson, a teacher can obviously use a much wider repertoire of discipline approaches as she divides her attention across the group; from least intrusive approaches like tactical ignoring and nonverbal messages, simple directions, rule restatements and reminders or casual statements, to the more decisive questioning approaches (p. 75). Where students are upset, angry or quarrelsome she may take them aside (for a brief chat) or give a clear directed choice. Where appropriate, she will use humour (if it’s an approach she’s comfortable with). At all times she will be prepared to reassert a rule or direction in a fair way. She will avoid arguing, blaming or preaching, but look for ways to focus the responsibility back on to the student. And – most importantly – enable and support the students in the learning focus of that lesson. This is the essence of a discipline plan; using appropriate discipline interventions in a least-to-most intrusive manner as the circumstance or situation necessitates (p. 11).

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The relinquishing phase This is the winding down of activity: packing up, giving any final instruction (for example, homework), cleaning up mess, putting chairs away, a final cheerio. The sorts of distractions and disruptions that may occur here are: • slow finishers • uncompleted tasks • early finishers (have some activity they can do so they are not disturbing to others; user-friendly worksheets, extension activities, reading a book or library corner at primary level) • students who attempt to ‘beat the bell’ (see p. 212). Because the teacher is resuming a whole-class focus again, it is important to keep any discipline brief. Keep the instructions clear, establish positive pack-up routines. Leave the classroom tidy, put chairs under desks (or on them at the last period of the day) and encourage an orderly exit. Insist on this from day one by making the expectations clear. It is something that can be discussed during the establishment phase with a new class group (pp. 192, 211).

The context of disruption In all discipline transactions, the teacher’s behaviour is affected by the context in which disruption occurs and how the teacher characteristically exercises their core practices and skills. If the disruption is ‘low-level’, merely walking close to the student’s desk or even tactical ignoring may be sufficient. If a student hasn’t got the correct uniform on, for example, the teacher would probably be best served by calling the student aside quietly (preferably near the close of the lesson) and reminding her or simply asking for an explanation. If a student is late, instead of a big discussion at the door, it is better to welcome the student and direct him to his seat (letting him know you’ll talk with him later). If a student hasn’t started work or if two students are merely off-task with their talking, or if a student is daydreaming, it is entirely appropriate to simply walk up and relaxedly ask, ‘How’s it going?’, ‘Where are you up to?’, ‘Can I see your work?’ or ‘Do you need a hand?’ Asking a question, in a relaxed and positive way, says to the student, ‘I’m here, you’re here and you know I’m here to remind

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you to get back to work, or to help, or to correct.’ All this can be communicated by a casual and relaxed statement or question. If a student hasn’t started any work I find it helpful (as I come alongside their desk/table) to give a brief greeting and add, ‘I notice you’re not working … how can I help?’; this is a brief descriptive comment rather than, ‘Why aren’t you working?’. If we sense the student is disturbed or upset, we can call the student aside, away from the others to minimise embarrassment or audience-seeking or the possibility of any hostile one-upmanship. If we’re speaking from the front of the classroom to a student who is persistently calling out, then our voices will need to be more assertive than if we’re speaking to two talkers while we’re doing ‘the rounds’ (when students are supposed to be on-task at their desks or tables). Our intervention, then, sees our skills operate in a relational dynamic; not as part of a formula, but a plan that enables us to contextualise our interventions in any given lesson, with appropriate differentiation within the contexts of rights, responsibilities and rules.

A sense of humour ‘The attempt to develop a sense of humour and to see things in a humorous light is some kind of trick learned while mastering the art of living.’ Victor Frankl (1963) was a Viennese psychiatrist interned in the concentration camps of Dachau and Auschwitz. He wrote in his book, Man’s Search for Meaning, that: one could [even] find a sense of humour there as well; of course only the faint trace of one, and then only for a few seconds or minutes. Humour was one of the soul’s weapons in the fight for self‑preservation. It is well known that humour, more than anything else in the human make‑up, can provide an aloofness and an ability to rise above any situation, even if only for a few seconds or minutes. (p. 54) In the classroom or playground, humour can defuse tension and refocus relational dynamics. Humour also helps people feel a little less stressed, and when we feel better we tend to relate more positively to others. Humour can help put things into perspective or even just emphasise the funny side of life. Sarcasm –

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by contrast – intends to hurt the receiver or ‘big up’ the one handing out the cutting comment, the smart remark or the put-down. It is only fun for the giver. Humour can range from the quirky or funny faces we pull and the slightly off-beat nonverbal behaviour we use as well as the verbal repertoire we employ, including irony, repartee or an appropriate bon mot. Of course humour has a lot to do with our personality and temperament, but it is something students clearly enjoy seeing in their teachers. In every survey I’ve ever read about what students like in their teachers (and I’ve conducted surveys myself) ‘a sense of humour’ is always in the top two or three qualities. One of my Year 10 students was blatantly passing a note in class to his amore in the front row during whole-class teaching time. I walked over and put my hand out and asked for the note. At first he declined (‘No!’). I persisted (I’d got to know this class quite well by now). As he handed it over I quickly glanced at the love missive. He said, ‘Don’t read it!’, a kind of wild panic in his eyes. Walking to the front of the room I readied myself to read his note. ‘Don’t read it!’, he whined. Of course several students chorused, ‘Read it, read it!’ I cued the class to settle and waited for quiet – the class seemed eager to hear … I started to ‘read’ it aloud as he cringed in his seat. ‘One of the things I really enjoy about being in Mr Rogers’ class is that he’d never embarrass me publicly by reading private correspondence. Signed Ryan.’ I folded it in half and handed it back. ‘Interesting note, Ryan,’ I said in a loud enough whisper, ‘Put it away now. Ta.’ He gave a sigh of relief and muttered, ‘Shit, thanks.’ I never had any note-passing from then on.

Swearing Teachers often hear muttered swearing in the classroom these days. While a simple rule reminder and an after-class chat are the norm, humour can be an appropriate response. One of my colleagues, a science teacher, was handing out some worksheets. A class wag let out a moan, ‘Jeez, not this shit.’ Following the inevitable laughter, the teacher looked at him and said (with a deadpan aside), ‘Alex, we’re doing organic solids next week, not this week.’ This teacher is very well liked by his students.

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I remember a high school student qualifying his frustrated expression with a ‘Holy shit!’ I asked him what denomination. ‘Eh?’ He finally got it. We both laughed and we looked at his work (the source of his frustration). I asked if he’d like to work with another student to give some assistance. He did, he settled down and after class we had a chat about better ways to express frustration and seek help. When I hear a student mutter, ‘Shit’, I often walk across and sniff a few times. ‘What are you doing?’, asks a confused student. ‘Just checking – you’ve got to watch that stuff; it smells and attracts flies.’ There’s often a raised eyebrow and grin in return. Sometimes I add the interrogative ‘Where?’ ‘Where what?’ ‘The thing you just said.’ Then the penny drops. Tension is defused and I have a brief chat about language and quietly help them to refocus. Most students make an effort after that to curtail the easily dropped ‘swear word’. Of course the use of humour is most effective when one has a positive working relationship with the student in particular and the class in general. The incidents noted above do not occur in isolation. As in any behaviour transaction, the teacher needs to read the situation quickly and decide what to verbally address and what to tactically ignore, and whether humour is appropriate and will help us to defuse the tension. This is the impressive skill required of teachers in a context where a number of things are often happening simultaneously. The issue of swearing is also addressed on p. 287.

Beyond classroom discipline The management of disruptive behaviour by students cannot always be settled in the short term, at the classroom level. Teachers (with colleague support) need to have longer-term supportive discipline practices in place; as in the case of Eamon in Chapter 3 (p. 93). This includes: • follow-up and follow-through by the teacher after class (see p. 105) on any matter of significant concern

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• notifying parents, depending on the circumstances and the degree of seriousness of the issue. Teachers and senior staff need to think carefully about when and how they will contact some parents, particularly those who are very demanding and hostile. Normally the school will have a clear policy on this. In some schools teachers are allowed professional discretion regarding parent contact; in other schools teachers are asked to check with a senior colleague first. • conferencing, counselling, contracting approaches and individual behaviour plans (p. 173). Jacob’s parents were told about his aggressive behaviour (in the playground) when they came to pick him up one Friday afternoon. This particular teacher thought it was about time they knew what was happening and had asked that they come to the school to pick him up and have a talk. Jacob’s father immediately yelled at the child in front of the teacher and carted him off to the car. As the teacher watched through the window she saw Jacob get a belting as he was pushed into the back seat. It made her think twice about how and when (and if, at times) she ought to contact his parents.

Giving students the right of reply We all like to feel we’ve been given a chance to tell our side of the story. When a student claims, ‘It’s not fair, you never listen to me!’, she may be right. Obviously we can’t have lengthy discussions in the classroom; we rarely have the time. We can, however, accord right of reply in one of two ways.

Take the student aside

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• Take the student aside during the lesson and have a brief chat to find out what is going on (at this point, too, the teacher can briefly tune in to how the student might be feeling). • More commonly, refer the matter to a later time, after class or at recess.

Follow-up beyond the classroom; after class or at a nominated time There are situations that require a teacher to follow up (and follow through) from a classroom or playground incident. Follow-up may need to: • address a concern the teacher has about work or behaviour. It is important to consider whether an after-class chat or a more ‘formal’ one-to-one session is required. At primary level this is much easier to manage. At secondary level we often need to make an appointment with the student to meet at lunchtime, or use detention time to follow up and work things out with the student(s). • address an issue of concern between students engaged in teasing or putdowns in class time (see pp. 83, 244) • engage a student’s responsibility over an uncompleted task, when the student was actively engaged in time-wasting and procrastination, has left a mess or has not completed the pack-up routine. Follow-up often acts as a deferred consequence such as when a student has been frequently distracting in their behaviour during class time, or has refused to clean up or complete a task or put something away when they were directed to.

Jamie (Year 1) had thrown some felt-tip pens on the floor in a fit of pique. I was conducting an art activity and I’d noticed Jamie’s loud wailings. I walked over to try to calm things down. Apparently someone had wanted the felt-tip pen Jamie was using. After settling the group and refocusing them to the task, I directed Jamie to pick up what he’d thrown on the floor. ‘Jamie, there are felt-tip pens on the floor. They need to go back into the containers.’ I pointed to the containers. ‘No!’ He stood defiant. I clarified the situation adding the deferred consequence, ‘… if they aren’t picked up, Jamie, you’ll need to stay back at lunch play.’ ››

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‘Humph! I don’t care!’ ‘I care, Jamie. In our class we look after our equipment and clean up our work area.’ I left Jamie with a directed ‘choice’ and take-up time. He sulked for most of the rest of the lesson. At the close of the lesson I dismissed the class and asked Jamie to stay back. He stood near the door sulking, arms folded as his peers walked off to lunch recess. I left the classroom door open (ethical probity). He groaned, ‘I wanna go to play now!’ ‘Jamie, I know you’re upset and annoyed and you want to be out there. I’m not going to ask you to stay long.’ We looked out the window to the sunshine. By now the whole class had gone. I beckoned him over to his work area. He reluctantly followed, a frown on his face. ‘Jamie (I motioned to the strewn felt-tipped pens), when you’ve picked them all up and put them in the containers you’ll be ready to go to play.’ I walked off, giving him take-up time. He sulkily stamped over and made a flurry of noise as he cleaned up. He came over to me. ‘I finished.’ His tone was a little more subdued now, but still sulky. I walked back across to his table. ‘Yes, I can see all the felt-tip pens are off the floor, back in their containers. Chairs under the table. Looks tidy, Jamie.’ All Jamie needed was a little bit of supportive feedback. He doesn’t need praise at this point: ‘That’s brilliant Jamie …’ (what was brilliant?). Neither does he need, ‘Good boy’ (he’s not good – he should have done it as the others did). I briefly thanked him adding, ‘You’re ready for play now, Jamie.’ He walked off muttering, ‘I going to play now!’ When he got to the door, I called across the room, ‘Jamie …?’ ‘Yes!’ he whined back, shoulders drooping (I think he thought I was going to ‘make’ him do more cleaning up). ‘Jamie, enjoy your play time.’ ‘All right,’ he smiled back weakly. I wanted to separate amicably.

Students will often comply with a deferred consequence but exhibit residual secondary behaviours (pouting, sighing, whining, groaning, stamping, tuttutting, overt loudness, etc.); would we expect less? Do we expect a cheerful child, singing ‘Whistle while we work’ as he quietly cleans up? I find it helpful to tactically ignore such behaviour and give the student some take-up time.

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Some fundamental considerations about any follow-up beyond the classroom Emphasise the fair certainty of the consequence (rather than intentional severity) Some teachers use the follow-up time after class to ‘get back’ at the student or give them a lecture about their behaviour. I’ve seen teachers harangue students, with pointing finger in the corridor, after the bell has gone. ‘You could be outside now, couldn’t you, playing with your mates, eh? But no, not you. You said you didn’t care before when I said I’d keep you back if you didn’t clean up! You’re caring now, aren’t you? Well, it serves you right!’ I’ve seen teachers psychologically bail a student up against a wall and give a five-minute lecture that can be heard from one end of the corridor to the other. While this kind of emotional payback (or psychological revenge?) may be tempting, it’s unprofessional, unnecessary and poor modelling.

Briefly tune in to how the student may be feeling I’d directed Joshua, a Year 7, to stay back; he’d pushed Kiana in the back a few minutes before the bell. She’d looked annoyed, almost fell over but shrugged it off. At the close of the lesson I gave the goodbyes to the class and finished with, ‘Joshua ( … ), I need to see you briefly after class.’ I looked across to his surprised, then immediately frustrated, eyes. ‘Shit! What do I have to stay back for? What did I do?’ ‘I’ll explain later.’ He slumped back in his seat, sulking. After the class had left, a few of his mates lounged in the corridor waiting – wanting to see. I directed them to leave and beckoned Joshua over. ‘Yeah, well what did I do, then?’, he grumbled as he leaned against the classroom wall. ‘Look, I can see you’re annoyed that I’ve asked you to stay back. I won’t keep you long (it is important to let students know how long the follow-up, or deferred consequence will be, especially for younger students), I need to talk with you about what happened in class when …’

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Focus on the behaviour or issue of concern While it may be tempting to lecture the student, it will be more effective to focus on the student’s specific behaviour (or issue, or task they need to do) and the effect it had on others during class time: ‘Joshua, I’m concerned about the way you pushed Kiana in the back during pack-up time.’ When students challenge, argue or minimise the effect of their behaviour, it is important to keep the focus on the main concern or issue that has necessitated the follow-up. In Joshua’s case he said, ‘Jeez, I was just mucking around, just joking!’ This is a common response from students, especially boys. ‘Maybe you were, Joshua, but what’s our class rule about fair and respectful treatment of others?’ We had a brief chat about ‘keeping hands and feet to ourselves’ and I said goodbye (for now).

Students will often shift blame on to others, or say that ‘This class is boring …’ or ‘I hate this subject’ or ‘She started it!’ It is important to acknowledge briefly where appropriate (‘Yes, it can be annoying to do subjects you don’t like but at the moment I’m talking about …’), refocus the dialogue back to the right or rule affected by their behaviour and then work for reconciliation or appropriate restitution. I once kept two students back in a colleague’s music class for pulling each other’s headphones off while playing the electronic keyboard and then punching each other around the shoulders. When I described their behaviour, even mirroring it (see below), they both said laughingly, ‘But we were just joking an’ that!’ It is important to refocus the students on the essential right affected by their behaviour. This often includes the teacher’s right to teach and other students’ rights to learn. A classroom is not a place for friendly ‘testosteronic bonding’. ‘It’s not just you’re mucking about …’

Mirror the student’s behaviour It can sometimes be helpful to ‘mirror’ students’ behaviour back to them so they can see and hear (and in a sense ‘feel’) what their behaviour looked like to you as their teacher. Mirroring is a way of helping a student to understand their

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voice tone, body language and visual presence; recreating – as it were – the disruptive behaviour that we saw in class. Obviously this approach is one that a teacher has to be comfortable with. For example, I never mirror swearing or violent behaviour, though I simulate some expressions of anger and the body language of swearing so students can ‘see’ themselves and their behaviour. Many, many times I have mirrored such behaviours as calling out, butting in, pushing in line, loud voice usage in class, rolling on the mat (lower primary) and other attention-seeking behaviours. Some behaviours obviously cannot be mirrored, such as climbing trees in the playground (although this can be mirrored with fingers describing tree and climbing). Also, if you are not physically fit it won’t help to show a Year 1 how she rolls under the table during morning talk. A colleague of mine actually got stuck when she tried to demonstrate this to a five-year-old boy. He sat and laughed: ‘You got stuck under the table, Miss. Ha ha ha!’ Many male students will laugh when their teacher briefly ‘becomes’ the distracting or disruptive student. Mirroring is a modelling approach that teachers can use one-to-one with children to: • enable children to see and feel what their typical disruptive behaviour looks like to the teacher and peers • provide a focus for discussion with them regarding the behaviour in question. With primary-aged children we often combine the ‘mirroring’ with picture cues – drawings of the student, say, calling out frequently, pushing in line or leaning back heavily in their seat. The drawings are simple ‘stick-figure’ representations that seek to symbolise the child’s frequently distracting behaviour and the child’s teacher (and classmates) looking upset in the background. Children readily respond to these drawings as a kind of ‘social story’. Later in the discussion we utilise a similar picture illustrating the child behaving in cooperative, positive, ways. In this picture the child’s classmates (and teacher) are looking happy. My colleagues and I have also used such drawings with younger secondary-aged students. Mirroring should never be used to embarrass or humiliate the child. It is purely illustrative. When mirroring, always:

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• consider if this approach will help this student in the clarification and discussion and remediation of behaviour • mirror within a one-to-one setting (away from the child’s peer group), never in front of other children • consider the ethical probity of any one-to-one situation, especially a male teacher following up an issue of concern with a female student. In such cases it will be appropriate to have a female colleague in the room (with the male teacher) • be brief, focusing only on the behaviour (ten seconds at most) • always ask permission from the student to mirror: ‘I’d like to show you what it looks like when you …’, ‘Do you mind if …?’, ‘Can I give you a “demo”, so you can see what it looked like when …?’

NB This is not an approach my colleagues and I normally advocate for children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. In such cases we directly focus on teaching the child the appropriate behaviours (p. 173).

I mirrored the behaviour of two boys who had pulled each other’s headphones off in music (p. 108). They laughed when they watched me simulate their behaviour and said ‘That’s stupid!’, with a mix of mild embarrassment and surprise. ‘Well, that’s what I saw you doing in class before.’ If a student says ‘no’ to our request to mirror, respect their right and use descriptive and specific language instead. I’ve used mirroring approaches with students aged from three to young adults. It can also help to use simple drawings to increase awareness of behaviour (p. 109, see also Rogers 2003). Hannah, Year 10, had been rude – even arrogant – in her body language and tone of voice in class. When I asked her to stay back for a chat, I made sure that a female colleague was present in the background of the classroom while I talked with her about her behaviour and I briefly mirrored her tone of voice and body language. Her response was, ‘Yeah, well I don’t do that all the time, do I?’

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‘I don’t know, Hannah, but that’s how you spoke to me several times earlier this morning.’ We then chatted about basic respect being given and received and parted company amicably. ‘You and I have got to work together for a fair while, Hannah, that’s why I wanted this chat, to make things clear. See you next time in English. Thanks for taking time to stay back.’

In order not to ‘emotionally contaminate’ the place where one has actually mirrored the student’s behaviour, it is helpful to step back a few paces and indicate with an open hand to the vacated space (as it were): ‘That’s how it sounds when …’, ‘That’s what it looked like earlier in class when …’ The ‘stepping back’ reconfirms the adult role and leaves the mirrored behaviour in the student’s immediate short-term memory. A lot of students will laugh (naturally, particularly boys) as they see their teacher revisit their behaviour. This needs to be accepted for what it is; their behaviour in this context does look annoyingly ridiculous, stupid, funny. Sometimes the student will laugh out of nervousness, anxiety or the incongruity of it all. The teacher can then use words like ‘rude’ or ‘hostile’ in relation to tone of voice or body language, and ‘upsetting’ or ‘annoying’ relative to aspects of attention-seeking behaviour. We often ask, ‘How many times do you think you call out like that?’ (the behaviour we have just mirrored). This can enable a sense of frequency and intensity of behaviour in the student’s immediate behaviour awareness. Always finish any mirroring and discussion with an invitation to work on a verbal or written agreement on future behaviour in class. Make sure such an agreement is simple, specific and workable (see p. 173).

Always give the student a right of reply It is important to keep the tone of this dialogue supportive. Give the student right of reply but be sure to focus on the primary issue of the discipline behaviour. Emphasise a problem-solving focus, not just a ‘telling’ focus. Use questions such as ‘How often do you think you do that?’, ‘What do you think other

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students think/feel when you do that?’, ‘How do you think I feel when …?’, ‘What can you do to change this …?’, ‘Somewhere, sometime, you learned to behave like this. Can you think of another way to behave in class that is helpful for you, to other students and to me – your teacher? How can I help you?’ These sorts of questions need to be adapted and modified depending on the student’s age and how much time we allocate for the one-to-one meeting with the student. Even in a brief after-class chat, a right of reply is important; for example, ‘I’ve just described and briefly shown you what it looks like when you call out many times in class, Louis. Is there anything you want to say?’ Again our tone – even in a brief after-class chat – needs to be supportive. Many students will say things like, ‘I don’t do that all the time!’ or ‘Other kids do it too. I’m not the only one.’ We need to briefly acknowledge this and reframe. ‘Maybe you don’t do this all the time. You certainly called out many times this morning (a dozen times), that’s why I wanted to have this brief chat …’ In a longer session, say a detention, or a mediation session between a couple of students, it can be helpful to give the student a chance to use a written right of reply. Focus questions include: • ‘What happened?’ (in terms of the behaviour that has caused the student to be in the position of having to stay back after class, or go to detention or time-out) • ‘What rule was broken?’ (for older children, what right was affected?) • ‘What is your side of the story?’ • And the key question, ‘What can you do to fix things?’ I often add the question, ‘How can I help?’ Many schools have a pro-forma for follow-up usage (see Appendix II). Very young children can be encouraged to illustrate their responses to key questions on a sheet of A3 paper. The teacher can then talk with the child using their drawing as a focus for their behaviour awareness. This written, consequential step is obviously to be preferred over the writing of lines, or just copying out the rules as punishment. At least, using this approach, the child is writing with some purpose. If the student’s written answers are non-specific, direct the student to extend his response.

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In answer to the question, ‘What happened?’, William (Year 7) wrote, ‘I was bad.’ I wanted him to address his behaviour, not his ‘badness’. I directed him to extend the answer to include in what way and when he thought he was ‘bad’. If a student struggles with writing, it is more productive for the teacher to ask the questions and then write down the student’s responses. The teacher can then add supplementary questions (‘Are you saying then …?’, ‘Let me get this clear …’, ‘So how many times did do you think you called out …?’) I was working with Christian, a 15-year-old student, during time-out. He’d sworn at his relief teacher in class. I gave him a written pro-forma with several key questions. He wrote: ‘I was having a bad morning and [the teacher] made me do the work twice, you know like much neater. I muttered a swear word, the f— word, and I walked away.’ His version of events was different from the teacher’s, who later admitted he’d only heard the mumbled f— word, and maybe it was a result of frustration rather than directed at him personally. In response to the question, ‘What can you do to fix things?’ Christian had written, ‘Try not to do it again.’ I asked him what he could do to fix things today. ‘Yeah, well, I don’t even know his name. He’s a relief teacher … But if I can see him again today I’ll apologise.’ I asked him what he’d say. ‘I don’t know …’ I pointed out that if he didn’t know now, he’d probably be a bit tongue-tied when he met the teacher later. So we talked about what he’d say and we practised an apology; he asked if he could show the teacher the ‘thing’ he’d written. ‘OK, Christian. I’ll tee it up for lunchtime, all right?’ I met the colleague in the staff room and asked him if Christian could see him towards the end of lunchtime to explain how he had seen the incident and also to apologise. The teacher agreed. At lunchtime we all met at my colleague’s classroom where he read the ‘reply’ and accepted Christian’s explanation and apology, my colleague adding, ‘It’s not easy to apologise to a teacher, but you took the time to do it, Christian. I appreciate that.’ They shook hands and separated amicably. The teacher’s willingness to hear the student and respond positively enabled a sense of repairing and rebuilding with Christian.

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I’ll often read the student’s answers back, with the student adding clarifications and noting them down on the sheet. At secondary level, a pro-forma can be a standard tracking procedure for any detention process. If a student has filled in three such forms in close succession then they may need to work with a senior teacher on an individual behaviour management plan (see p. 173).

Work on an agreement about future behaviour in class Track the student’s future behaviour in response to any follow-up to see if this kind of behaviour is the result of a bad day or if the behaviour is more frequent and characteristic. If there is a pattern of frequency and ‘durability’ of disruptive behaviour as well as generality across the school (and subject areas) then the student will need to work with a teacher on an individual behaviour management plan (see p. 173). The earlier this is developed, the more effective any such plan will be; for the student and for the extended goodwill of his teachers. If a teacher is hesitant or lacks confidence in following up a student, it will always help to have a third party (a colleague) sitting in on the process, particularly if a male teacher is engaged in any one-to-one follow-up with a female student. In these cases a female colleague should sit in with the male teacher for ethical probity.

Refusing to stay back What if a student runs off at the end of a lesson, refusing to stay back? This is more common at secondary level than primary but if a student walks off muttering, ‘I’m not staying back, what’d I do?’, how should the teacher proceed? We could chase them, however it’s disturbing (even funny) to see a teacher running down a corridor or across a playground in pursuit of a non-compliant student. It will obviously over-service the student’s need for attention (and anyway, who needs a psychological coronary just to prove that we have to win right now!). At secondary level, if students do run off and we have directed them to stay back it is essential to follow up at a later stage. I find it helpful to keep a notebook with me at all times when teaching and on playground supervision to record the names of students I need to follow up with, have a chat with after class or make an appointment with for a lunchtime meeting. Most students do stay back, thankfully. The notebook is my aide‑mémoire, and when I read the

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name(s) out at the close of the lesson, for example, it accords a degree of public seriousness to the behaviour; the other students are also made aware that this teacher does follow up. If the student chooses to run off, the reminder is in my notebook. I’ll track the student in another class when I’ve got a free timetable slot. I knock on the door of the student’s class and ask to see the student; they often get quite a shock. They wouldn’t have thought I’d make that kind of effort to follow through. I’ve never had a teacher yet refuse me the option of withdrawing a student from their class for a teacher–student dialogue! It lets the student (and their peers) know that this teacher cares enough, and the issue is important enough, for their teacher to follow up and follow through. If they still refuse to come at this point then a special consequential meeting between the class teacher, the student and a senior teacher will need to be arranged. What is significant is that we convey to the student the fair certainty of the consequential process. Students will learn more from the fair certainty of the consequence than any insistent severity on our part – even if that ‘certainty’ occurs 48 hours or more later (p. 149).

Physical restraint The whole issue of physical touch, holding or restraint is an issue that has become significant in the last ten years or so, especially for male teachers. The law on this is always difficult to interpret. Teachers are allowed to restrain a student if they ‘are a significant danger to themselves or others’ (see Rogers 2011). The degree of restraint (even an arm extended between two students fighting) will vary according to how serious we perceive the danger to be. And there is always risk in any form of restraint; a risk to ourselves and to the child. The school will need to have discussed if and how, and under what circumstances, any restraint might operate and what alternatives are available if a teacher is not comfortable about physical intervention as, for example, when two Year 1 children are punching each other and locked in ‘mortal combat’, or two Year 9 boys are ‘punching each other’s lights out’ with an audience cheering them on. At secondary level – with adolescents – there are many teachers who are not willing to ever engage in any physical intervention of any kind. That is quite understandable and reasonable. Although physical intervention as a teacher action might be rare at secondary level, it needs to be discussed within the

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school’s management plan. No teacher should be left in the unenviable position of having to intervene in dangerous student conflict without appropriate backup, specified in a well-thought-out behaviour plan. Those teachers and carers who work in special schools, pupil referral centres and young offenders institutions do receive focused training in the area of ‘staged intervention’ and restraint. Few teachers in mainstream schools will have had this kind of training. We will always have to use our common sense – informed by our experience and knowing which students in our school are more or most ‘at risk’. However rarely we use any restraint (even holding an arm), we must always carefully report what we actually did and said; the predisposing factors; any other participating students; any adult witnesses (hopefully there were other teachers about); how the incident progressed and its outcome (see Rogers 2011 and Rogers & McPherson 2009).

Accountability dialogue This approach is often used by teachers where there is a clear victim–perpetrator situation. It involves an organised discussion between the bully and the victim regarding ongoing bullying behaviour, mediated by teaching staff. It is crucial that the teacher has a clear understanding of what constituted the bullying behaviour. The written notes need to be clearly organised before the dialogue begins, covering the specific nature of the behaviour (including gestured taunts); times (bullying is repetitive and selective intentional behaviour); where it has occurred; and whether there were any witnesses. Clarify with the victim of the bullying how they will explain the specific bullying behaviour to the bully at the accountability meeting. We need to reassure the victim and help them to be as clear as possible in their own mind how this kind of meeting will help them. It is often employed when a student has clearly set out to hurtfully tease or harass another student or a teacher. It gives the victim the opportunity to: • make clear to a teacher what has happened to them (bullies trade in secrecy about their behaviour. They want their peers to see the ‘theatre’ of their bullying; their social power. They don’t want adults to know because they know the adult will call them to account for their behaviour, pursue a due process, and perhaps even contact their parents)

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• explain what it was that specifically concerned or upset them about the perpetrator’s behaviour • explain how they felt and still (often) feel about such behaviour • say what they want to happen now – most victims want acknowledgement by the perpetrator that what happened did happen, and that it wasn’t the victim’s fault • receive an apology, and an assurance that this kind of behaviour (or any harassment) won’t happen again. When a student has faced such behaviours as teasing, friendship exclusion, having notes written about them, put-downs, swearing or been pilloried on Facebook, this process gives the victim a chance to tell their story and seek appropriate acknowledgement, apology and, where appropriate, restitution from the perpetrator. It also gives the perpetrator an opportunity to explain and apologise or offer appropriate restitution. The teacher can then briefly remind the perpetrator of the rights and responsibilities related to the bullying behaviour as they call them to account. If the precipitating incident is particularly serious, the teacher will direct the students to have another meeting in a week’s time to see how things are going. This lets the perpetrator know there will be a review of his stated assurance that it won’t happen again and that if it does, formal processes such as contacting their parents and having a formal meeting about their bullying behaviour will ensue. No victim should be forced into an accountability dialogue if they are too upset, or traumatised, or lacking in confidence. In these cases the teacher will have to act on the student’s behalf and go through the accountability process without the victim present. The first approach discussed here, however, does empower the victim to face the perpetrator and get the story straight with the perpetrator in front of a teacher. Confronting the bullying behaviour – with the victim and a senior teacher present – breaks the ‘secrecy cycle’ and calls the bully to account in front of the person they have hurt. If the dynamics of perpetrator–victim role are ambiguous, then both parties go through the key issues noted earlier. The teacher encourages mediation by the students wherever possible, suggests a solution, or will arbitrate where necessary.

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Summary How we combine the approaches detailed in this chapter and our characteristic use of language constitute our discipline plan. The more conscious we are of what we say and do when distractions and disruptions occur, the more effective that plan will be. The more consistent we are in the practice of the plan, the more likely it is that on-task learning is enhanced and that we maintain a positive working relationship with our students. Reasonable consistency is feasible; it is possible. Knowing what we can do and developing the skills, especially the language skills, also minimises the degree to which frustration affects our ability to cope. It is difficult to decide what to say in the heat of the moment. A discipline plan gives us reasonable confidence that we have chosen the better options. The approaches outlined in this and the previous chapter have sought to clarify teacher language and behaviour in a way that consciously observes the protocols discussed earlier (see Chapter 1); they form a basis for a general discipline plan that any teacher could use with confidence. Specific discipline plans (for individual children or problem classes) or contingency plans are discussed later (see p. 173 and Chapter 9) but even those plans will employ many of the approaches discussed in these chapters. Many teachers have shared with me the difference that a positive approach to discipline has made in their classrooms, especially the rephrasing of language. Simple things such as focusing on desired, rather than undesired, behaviour, for example ‘Walking, thanks’ rather than ‘Don’t run’, ‘Facing this way and listening, thanks’ rather than ‘Don’t talk while I’m talking’ can make an enormous difference. As many colleagues have said, it takes reflective practice and an initial conscious awareness of what we are saying (and doing). Initially such language may not be within our natural comfort zone. Practice helps; frequent usage normalises and makes new language approaches comfortable – makes them our own. Partial agreement (see p. 89), for example, is quite difficult if we are used to confronting every piece of student procrastination, answering back or last-word syndrome (see p. 25). It, too, is a skill that can be learned. Is all this conscious planning and skill reflection worth it? The answer depends on what we value in our teaching and leadership role. The ability

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to have a plan and have a more conscious awareness that in the heat of the moment we are saying one thing rather than another will positively affect the teacher–student dynamic. The willingness to consider how teacher behaviour (verbal and nonverbal) can assist in keeping a positive flow in discipline transactions is part of our planning; most of all it emphasises the importance of the relationship aspect of teaching. In the end, when a significant distraction or disruption occurs in our classroom, we have to do or say something. Planning that something ahead of time is what being professional is all about.

Following up and following through with students beyond classroom correction • In what sense do you have a discipline plan? (p. 50) • How aware are you of the way you characteristically intervene in discipline contexts? What criteria do you use to assess what you typically say and do? How does the discussion of assertion and planning discipline interventions inform your practice? • Do you normally follow up students yourself, or do you pass that task on to someone else in the team (year level coordinator/grade leader, head of department)? If you do refer the student, what procedures do you go through? Are they normally effective? At what stage do you follow through and engage the student in conflict resolution? (Remember, the student will be back!) • What do you do if a student refuses to stay back after class or doesn’t turn up for a teacher–student interview? • Are there any guidelines for follow-up of students in your school? What are they? In what way do such guidelines assist your one-to-one interaction with the student (for example in an after class time follow-up session)? • What detention system do you have in the school? Who conducts detentions: class teacher, faculty, year level coordinator? How effective are such detentions in terms of helping students take some ownership of their behaviour or following through with some restitution?

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Chapter 5 Rights, responsibilities and rules in the classroom and the playground

‘In giving rights to others which belong to them, we give rights to ourselves.’ John F. Kennedy, 1962 (Congressional Quarterly, p. 1813) Whenever the issue of student rights, or democracy in schools, is canvassed, there are still those who express the opinion that it will mean reduction in teacher authority, uncontrollable student behaviour or ‘that airy-fairy rubbish’. The notion of rights is not a new idea. It is the basis for the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): the fundamental application of justice and dignity to human treatment. In exploring rights with all members of the school community, we should begin with the fundamental values that everyone can agree on. These values need to be brought out into the open by discussion and teaching. Most often the assumed values are: a fair go, cooperation, the fundamental dignity of a person (regardless of gender, race, culture, religion or even taste in music!), honesty and mutual respect. They are the basis of what we deem right or proper about social relations and living and working together in groups. Of course there will be a clash of values at times between teachers from dominant middle-class backgrounds and students from low socioeconomic backgrounds. Teachers who struggle with this clash of values often focus on

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issues like perceived disrespect (the off-hand way some students speak, the lack of ‘deference’), student manners, dress, standards of work and language usage (slang and swearing). While there are clearly legitimate concerns from teachers about issues of disrespect and use of inappropriate language by students, we will address these issues more effectively if we model what we believe in, teach and expect about mutual rights. Teachers who work successfully with such student populations have learned to earn rather than demand respect; invite rather than demand compliance; model fair treatment; and look beyond the window-dressing of ‘culture’.

Teaching rights in the classroom Under the aegis of rights a teacher will seek to weld a group of disparate individuals into a learning community. In the course of that process, she will bring to the surface fundamental values about the way we relate to one another by teaching, discussion and clarifying expectations which will focus on such questions as: • What is common and essential to our humanity together? It what ways do we need to be aware of people’s differing backgrounds and culture? • What do we value about others in our school community, of which I am a member? • What are the essential, non-negotiable rights in our school? • How do rights and responsibilities work together? Students today develop early the notion that they have rights. They may not articulate that notion well, or clearly, but their behaviour indicates that no longer will they be treated as inferior because of their status as a child or minor. The days are long gone when a teacher could merely call on role authority to demand respect and obedience. Effective and good teachers (of every generation) have learned that they have to earn the respect of their students by the manner in which fundamental rights are communicated and are respected.

No automatic rights In establishing rights, the degree of student discussion and involvement will depend upon age, situation and how confident teachers are in approaching this

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fundamental issue. In teaching rights to primary-aged students, teachers will often use drama, storybooks, role-play or games to illustrate how we help and support, or hurt others by how we think of and consequently treat them. Older students can easily fill a whiteboard with what they believe their rights to be. When working with students on the issue of rights it will be important to begin with and focus on the non-negotiable rights in a school community: • The right to feel safe. This includes psychological safety as well as physical safety. Issues such as teasing, put-downs, bullying and harassment are related to this fundamental and essential right. • The right to be treated with respect and dignity. This right is inclusive of all members of the community in their relationships with each other. • The right to learn. This includes the right to learn and teach without undue or unfair distraction or disruption. These rights are based on fundamental human rights. Often students have the language of rights (‘I’ve got my rights’) as a list of things demanded or expected. When directing any classroom discussion on this issue, teachers need to guide the discussion towards individual (as well as collective) responsibility and accountability. In any discussion about rights, as well as any behaviour leadership we exercise, our focus will always be directed towards students taking responsibility for their behaviour as it affects the rights of others. We treat our students as persons who can and should account for their actions and face up to the consequences of their actions. No one enjoys rights automatically. The right to learn, for example, implies a responsibility on the part of both teacher and students. When discussing rights with students, we will often explore responsibility by asking, ‘Well, if you have a right to learn how can you enjoy that right? How is that right protected?’ Just saying, ‘We have a right’ explains nothing about its exercise or enjoyment. Teachers can easily remove a student’s right to fair treatment by putdowns, hostile, demeaning or sarcastic comments, intimidation and the like. Students can easily take away other students’ rights to learn and be safe by fooling around, butting in, put-downs, and so on, just as a teacher’s right can be affected by student rudeness, highly attentional behaviour and irresponsible and confrontational behaviour.

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Defining what a right is helps students to see that the fundamental nature of rights is concerned with relationships, justice and fair treatment – not just personal demands. Female teachers, for example, have a right to the same basic respect as male teachers, even if some students’ ethnic, religious or cultural heritage predisposes them to see females as non-authority figures, not deserving of the same respect as male teachers. I’ve come across this patriarchal nonsense in many schools and have vigorously and immediately declaimed its pathetic premise. Fundamental human rights transcend cultural differences. In our day and age we shouldn’t need to have to make this point! The appalling sexist, at times misogynist and patriarchal practices that hide behind cultural tradition or religious belief must be challenged in schools within the human rights dynamic. No one in our classroom will be put down simply because they are female, or different by virtue of gender, sexual preference, ethnicity or cultural background. Where such ‘differences’ are expressed in behaviours that affect others’ rights they will be challenged and addressed on that basis. Sexist, jingoistic, cultural baggage is no defence against the moral law. As C. S. Lewis pointed out in 1943, behind all laws we make there is a natural ‘moral law’, a fundamental concept basic to all civilisations. Your right is, in a very real sense, my responsibility. I don’t actually enjoy my right (as a due) until, and unless, other members of the group allow me such enjoyment. The teacher’s leadership role, then, is to protect rights, encourage responsibility and enforce fair and sensible rules; not as an end in themselves but because of the inherent values implicit in the rules. These fair and sensible rules – at their fair best – seek to protect those essential rights. However, a teacher is unwise, even foolish, to simply demand respect because it is a stated right in the school behaviour code. If, as a teacher, I don’t act and speak respectfully to my students, how can I expect respect in return? There are still teachers who treat students with discourtesies that would be regarded as rank incivility or at least bad manners in any other social context. Teacher modelling has a powerful effect on the developing social climate of a classroom and how mutual rights and responsibilities are perceived by our students.

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In pursuing the issue of rights with older students, any discussion that results in a listing of priorities usually ends up with several rights which follow from those essentials noted earlier (see p. 122), including: • a right to express myself; a right to be an individual • a right to learn (and at a fair, individual pace and from teachers who act in a professional manner and who prepare adequate curriculum with some attention to mixed abilities) • a right to teacher assistance • a right to move around the classroom (depending on the context of the subject and the room) • a right to psychological and physical safety, including safety from intimidation and harassment • a right to participate in the schooling process and the decisions that affect students (as noted by the 1989 UN Convention on the Rights of the Child) • a right of reply in matters of dispute. In one sense, these rights are shared by teacher and student alike. Even the right to teach can be shared by students, where appropriate, though the responsibility to teach and lead the group is fundamentally the teacher’s. In any of these more specific senses of a right there is always the attenuated responsibility. A right to be myself means that my behaviour is not adversely affecting others in any hurtful or discriminating way; a right to express myself means that I do so in a way that does not intentionally cause offence, is not racist or does not put others down because of race, gender, ability (or disability).

Values What is a value? • A value is something we consider to be very important. • A value is something we hold as desirable. • A value is something that lies behind what we actually do (in this sense one’s principles, or standards reflected in our behaviour as teacher–leaders, at least in our better moments!). • A value is something we believe is worthwhile and significant about how we relate to each other.

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We hold our values as a whole community of parents, teachers and children. If we value respect, tolerance and freedom of speech then we express these as rights. So a right is something we ought to respect within the community, and from the community, because the community values it. In this way, because the community values these things, it also expects them and holds them as rights.

Human fallibility Any discussion of human rights and fundamental values in any context, let alone a school, has to live in creative tension with human fallibility. We all get tired, cranky, annoyed, frustrated and angry (at times). Students, too, experience the restrictions that community living, legal obligation and formal learning place on them.1 This is perfectly natural. We also have to distinguish between the accidental and the intentional in student behaviour. While it is important to have some conceptual and practical flexibility in our behaviour management and our discipline we also need the framework of rights, responsibilities, rules and consequences to educate, enforce and support the shared values we hold.

Developing rules with students ‘I think that the rules should be made by the kids and the teacher. It would be fairer and then the kids couldn’t complain about the rules.’ This comment from one of my Grade 6 students is typical of the ‘democratic reach’ of children as they get older. I was discussing the need for classroom rules with a robust Year 7 class. As a visitor to their classroom I thought it pertinent to ask the basic question, ‘What are the rules in your classroom?’ One wag down in the back row called out loudly, ‘We’re not supposed to call out, we put our hands up!’ I imagine he thought that because he had his hand up while he called out, his behaviour was OK. I ignored him (tactically) and asked the question again until somebody put a hand up without calling out or clicking their fingers. Obviously, having a rule, working within it and enforcing it are different things. Rules (like rights)

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can’t guarantee responsible, civil or respectful and cooperative behaviour. They set the framework for the behaviours we aim for, but it is the teacher’s duty to develop, make clear and positively enforce such rules and encourage responsibility. In doing so they then enable protection and support of due rights. For rules to be effective, they need to be linked to a process of discussion with students during the establishment phase of the year. Good rules are the preventative side of discipline. It will be quite normal that the rules – even when made by the students – will experience normative ‘testing’ to establish their viability, consistency and credibility. For younger students, teachers need to concentrate on the rules side of rights: ‘When someone is speaking we wait our turn’. For older students we would include rights as a feature of rule-making: ‘We will respect the right of everyone to speak without interruption’. Behind any rule for communication, for example, is the right to have our say, share our opinions or chat (at times) while we work. The rule side of the right enshrines the responsibility for speaking respectfully in ways that don’t hurt, demean or put others down or limit them having a fair go. It teaches that freedoms we hold as a right for oneself are only reasonable when they do not deny others their freedoms.

Making rules In general, rules should be: • positive in intent (wherever possible). ‘In our classroom we put up our hands to ask a question’ is obviously more behaviourally focused and positive than ‘Don’t call out’. ‘Walk quietly’ is better than ‘Don’t run’, in that it focuses on the required behaviour (pp. 69, 73). We try to maintain a balance of positive language in the formation of the rules rather than only emphasising the negative expressions (‘Don’t call out’, ‘Don’t run’, ‘Don’t speak while the teacher is speaking’, ‘No eating in class’, ‘No running in corridors’). It can also help to write the rules using inclusive language (‘In our classroom we …’). This also helps when giving rule reminders (see p. 68). ‘In our room we put our hands up to ask questions, without calling out’, or ‘We’ve got a rule for asking questions.’ Often when I’m discussing rules with students they’ll phrase them in the negative, e.g. ‘Don’t call out.’ In one Year 6 class I asked the students how they could frame the rule(s) positively: ‘You’re

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telling me only what we’re not supposed to do rather than what we ought, or need, to do. Can you make the rule more positive?’ One lad, without any derisory intent, said, ‘Please don’t call out’! • simple, workable and achievable (experience, collegial sharing and time will test this) • related to the non-negotiable rights of safety, treatment and learning (p. 122). This emphasis on fundamental rights should be common across the school. • congruent with school-wide rules to avoid students playing one teacher off against another (for example when we enter our classrooms: no chewing gum, hats and sunglasses off in class, phones and iPods stay turned off in bags) • focused on fair and expected behaviour. We need to avoid the farcical situation of a long list of rules that even the teacher cannot remember. (No running; no throwing blocks; no fighting; no jumping on anyone’s back; no shouting; no scissor fights; no climbing on tables; no hitting … were just some on a list I saw in one Year 2 class!)

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• clear and specific and reason-able. I’ve hyphenated the word because one of the senses of reasonable is able to be reasoned. In an age-related way we should discuss with children the reason why we have these rules in class (and across the school). The other sense in which we use reasonable implies degree of seriousness. The rules, and consequences, for bullying, drugs, violence and weapons need to carry a non-negotiable degree of seriousness in a school community (see p. 154). • clear on what is and is not acceptable: ‘We walk quietly in the classroom; we do not run.’ ‘In our classroom we put up our hands to ask a question without calling out.’ ‘At our desks we talk quietly so others can work well.’ Rules ought to specify what is and isn’t the accepted behaviour. Simply saying we should all be cooperative is not very helpful as a rule (although a desirable aim). ‘Do unto others’2 is an excellent (perhaps even the best) philosophy but it hardly clarifies the ‘what’ and ‘when’. We make the rule as clear and specific as possible. We also make the general consequences clear as well (see p. 154). Keep away from tacit assumptions. • discussed, taught and enforced. Rules should be regularly referred to, encouraged and enforced. A good deal of initial discipline will often include rule reminders: ‘Remember our fair rule for …’ (p. 168). Obviously, if such rules have been made with the students, compliance and cooperation are more likely. The fair rules – rather than merely teacher authority alone – become the basis for correction, consequences, mediation and arbitration. • published wherever appropriate. This is especially important at primary level. The children can also illustrate them and display them in a key accessible area in the classroom. My colleagues and I have also done this at middle-school level and found it a helpful adjunct to behaviour awareness with our students in the establishment phase of the year. It will also be helpful (at primary level) to send a copy home to parents as part of the grade teacher’s establishment phase. It clarifies how this class will operate with this teacher this year. If all grade (and specialist) teachers use a common framework with common language this will further assist reasonable consistency and clarify and support the home–school partnership.

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Ownership of the rules It is important to discuss the reasons for rules with the students. With younger students, the rules can be discussed through stories, acted out in role-plays and portrayed in picture rule cards. With older primary students, the rules can be discussed through small groups and even written up by the children on cards to be displayed around the classroom. When setting down the final form of a rule, it is generally better to have a key descriptor such as ‘Our communication rule’, ‘Our safety rule’, ‘Our movement rule’. With post-primary students, it is important that rules not be seen as mere teacher imposition (‘These are my rules!’). Students are more likely to ‘own’ rules if they feel they have had some part to play in their formation. Specialist teachers at primary school (PE, library, art, relieving teachers, etc.) will not have the luxury of time to develop their rules in this way but are well served, nonetheless, by discussing the rules in their first meeting with their classes; why they are needed, what purpose they serve, and what the general consequences will be for disruptive behaviour. It will help to link the specialist teachers’ rules (and core routines) to that of the grade teacher to achieve reasonable whole-school consistency.

Discussion groups (primary level) One way to develop rules is through a whole-class discussion on the meaning of rights. Focus on a right as a privilege or an entitlement which we enjoy in relation to others whose responsibility enables our entitlement. With preschoolers and middle-primary age we ask, ‘What is right …?’ (rather than the formal language of rights). Emphasise that rights in the classroom, on the roads, in sporting clubs, in a family, in society are not merely automatic expectations and that rights and rules work in concert to help us act cooperatively together. Shared brainstorming helps children to see the fundamental and necessary place of rules in society: • How can we learn well here? • How can we feel safe here?

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• What is respect and how can we show respect to others? • What are manners? How do we use our manners? • Where do we see rules? • Who is responsible for making rules? • Who is responsible for enforcing rules? • What are some of the places you go to that have rules (clubs, shops, libraries, the beach)? • How are rules made known? • Who is responsible when rules are broken? Our classrooms, too, are part of society; we too need to make our rules. We all have a right to our say; providing that we have our say fairly, speak at appropriate times and give the same courtesy to others as we expect for ourselves. Students quickly see the fair and social logic in this and benefit from seeing rules as ‘mechanisms’ that seek to protect individual rights as well as highlighting individual, and social, responsibility.

Framing classroom rules at secondary level At secondary level, the core rights and rules associated with relationships and learning are developed by the form tutor (or homeroom teacher). Each subject teacher will then finetune aspects of those rules. For example ‘movement around our classroom’ will vary from a maths class to, say, a drama or food technology class. Schools vary significantly in the amount and degree of discussion allocated to rights and rules. My colleagues and I always find it helpful in our first meeting with a new class group to focus on the three key areas of rights understanding: safety, learning and respectful treatment and relationships. When we publish the rules we utilise two or three large posters, each with a key right, for example: • WE ALL HAVE A RIGHT TO LEARN, followed by the key responsibilities, e.g. to enjoy our right we get to class on time; we have appropriate materials; we settle, relax, and are prepared to contribute; we raise our hand in class discussions and when we need teacher assistance.

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The bold heading highlights the core right, followed by how we enable that right (our responsibilities). Of course such a poster might also list ‘we raise our hand …’ or ‘hands up for questions/discussions’. The teacher will need to discuss that this means hands up without calling out (or clicking fingers – ‘here, boy!’) or talking over others; waiting your turn (your teacher will cue you in); and in situations where you disagree with others, doing so respectfully, when it’s your turn. • WE ALL HAVE THE RIGHT TO RESPECT AND TO FEEL SAFE. To enjoy that right we remember that we all share the same place and space. We use respectful language here (no put-downs, cheap shots). We all share the same basic needs and feelings here; we settle problems and disputes peacefully; bullying of any kind will not be tolerated. Some schools include this note on bullying on their class posters, other teachers will discuss the issue of bullying generally and the understanding regarding the unacceptability of bullying is then expected (and subsumed) from the note on respectful language (no put-downs, etc.). At secondary level, while emotional and psychological safety is always included under the right to respect, in some classes, there needs to be a specific rule focus for safety (i.e. food technology, art, machine shop, physical education).

The language of rules It is important that teachers develop with the students their own language for expressing the classroom rules. Students from Years 3–4 upwards can be encouraged to write the rules in their own words. Generally speaking, there are several rules areas that can be culled from classroom discussions. These need to be expressed appropriately for the particular age level.

Communication (for younger students, the term ‘our talking rule’ is sufficient) This rule would cover behaviours such as: hands up for questions and discussion; working noise at desks; and use of positive language (to be contrasted with hurtful language, such as put-downs, racist language, teasing, swearing).

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Another way to address the use of language is to make a ‘positive language rule’: ‘Positive language is language that helps us to feel good about ourselves and each other.’ Of course, working noise, or ‘work talk’, in an art room will be different in degree from that in a maths class. Working noise may also be different when working in small groups or during set times. This needs to be discussed with the students in context relevant situations.

Problem-solving (for younger students, problem-fixing rule) There are any number of minor problem conflicts and disputes occurring in the life of a class group: ‘He’s got my rubber!’ ‘She’s nicked my pen!’ ‘He hit me again!’ ‘She’s not my friend any more. I hate her.’ It is important to have a basic rule governing peaceful dispute-settling because we don’t have time to sit and negotiate each problem in the space of an actual lesson. Settling of disputes should stress negotiation, with the teacher’s help if necessary: ‘We solve problems in our class without hurtful language or fighting. If we can’t sort things out by talking we will need to ask for teacher assistance.’ (This will often occur later, after class or at another time if necessary.) ‘If we fight as a way of fixing up problems, there is immediate time-out.’

Movement This rule is difficult to specify because of teachers’ different views regarding acceptable movement. The rule, however, should specify the amount and kind of movement acceptable in a small space like a classroom (particularly walking, not running, rushing, pushing past others, etc.). If you believe children should only get out of their seats with permission, say so in your rule. Added to the movement rule may be the ‘coming in’ and ‘going out’ movement rule, to be applied when lining up, settling and sitting on the mat or moving seats. Appropriate permission for leaving the class can also be covered by this rule; this needs to be a clear, whole-school rule at least up to Year 10. (Higher secondaryaged students are often accorded a more ‘adult’, preferential, leaving of the classroom.)

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Safety and security This covers use of equipment, protection of property, safe behaviour in certain classes (art, trades, science, home economics, etc.) as well as in the non-specialist classroom. The safety rule may also note the wearing of unsafe clothing and jewellery or possession of any toys which are unacceptable and/or inappropriate for school.

Learning This rule covers students’ learning climate. It should cover class discussion and questions, at-seat learning expectations, and procedures to fairly receive teacher assistance during on-task learning time. This rule will also overlap with routines for work stations and early finishing, and bringing of appropriate equipment to classes.

Visitors to another classroom As part of the overall respect/learning rule in one primary school, students are reminded that when moving around corridors they should recognise that lessons are going on in all classrooms, and when entering a class (for example, to deliver a message) they use their START approach: S

Stop … is it necessary/appropriate to go in now?

T

Two firm knocks, and enter.

A

Approach teacher and Address by name.

R

Request is made. Reply Received.

T

Thank you is said before leaving.

This simple routine is a way of teaching and encouraging basic civility.

Treatment (the way we treat one another) It is important that everyone in the classroom is treated respectfully and fairly. This is based on the human reality that we all share the same feelings and needs in a social setting. In our class, we each have a responsibility to care for ourselves, others and our shared environment. When we respect others we are thinking about how our behaviour affects others: courtesy, consideration and

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manners. This means not putting people down because they look different from us, have different backgrounds or come from different countries. It will also address issues like protecting the right to personal space and property. Like the right to safety, this right is also related to issues like sexism and racism.

Consequences The fundamental point about consequences is to make the ‘if … then …’ nature of the rules clear to the students. One way of doing this is to ask the students what consequences ought to apply for distracting/disruptive behaviours. Often students will be quite draconian and we will need to push their thinking back to the issue: ‘How does that (stated consequence) help to fix up the behaviour?’ Some consequences need to be clear in advance. Here are some common ‘if … then …’ examples. • Calling out. If you continue to call out you will be reminded of the class rule for communication. You may be asked to stay back and explain your behaviour. You may be excluded from class discussion for a time. • Fighting in the classroom (this will include inappropriate horseplay or ‘testosteronic bonding’). The immediate consequence will be that you are directed to sit apart. You may be asked to take time-out away from the class. You will work separately until you have calmed down. You will need stay back to work things out with your teacher and each other. • Damaging others’ work or property. If you damage others’ work or property, you will be required to replace it in some way. You will be required to apologise and reassure. • The students also need to know that time-out (as a consequence) is there for students who persistently refuse to work (in effect choose not to work) by the fair class rules. Time-out is a necessary (and fair) consequence for students who engage in persistently disruptive or dangerous behaviour. It is the ‘cool-off’ or ‘settle down’ place where they go until they have calmed down and are ready to work by the fair rules with their teacher’s support. • We can’t, of course, have a consequence for every contingency but we can discuss the nature of behaviour consequences so that students are clear about the nature of responsibility and accountability.

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Rules and students (early years) Small children live in a world where much of their social movement and play begins to interface with rules even before they reach school age. Rules give some shape, dimension and limit to social and moral activity (Piaget 1932). They help define the acceptable and unacceptable. For smaller children, clear rules are part of the general teaching and training for reasonable socialisation. They assist the smooth running of a classroom by minimising the need to be overly discursive each time disruptive behaviour has to be addressed and corrected. ‘But I didn’t know’ should not be an easy excuse. Rules help define ‘the good’, ‘the fair’, ‘the right’ and, of course, small children need appropriate limits; it gives them security on the one hand and confidence (if the rules are fairly enforced) in teacher leadership on the other. Rules assist the process of self-discipline; the means of enforcement, therefore, are as important as the rules themselves. When we enforce the rules (i.e. bring moral force to bear) we will do it in a way that draws attention to the students’ responsibilities in regard to the behaviour focused upon by the rule(s). On day one, Mrs D has set up the preschool class for maximum involvement, comfort and learning. The room is bright, tables are well grouped, cupboards are clearly labelled with bright signs for scissors, paper, glue, etc. She has name tags for everyone. Later she will help them illustrate the big name tags for their class lockers – the plastic bins holding all their gear. She knows the importance of positive rules for young children and has already illustrated several large posters that depict aspects of desirable social behaviour in the classroom: • How can we learn well here together? • How can we feel safe here? • What is respect, how do we show respect to others? • What are manners? Why do we have them? How do they help? She focuses on each question and discusses the behaviours they imply and necessitate. She discusses why rules are important. ‘Ever tried to play a game without rules?’ ‘What sort of rules do you have at home?’ ‘Why are rules important? How do they help us?’ ‘What do these posters remind us about how we work here, how we share, and help one another here in our class?’ ››

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When discussing the ‘helping rule’ (manners, treatment, respect, cooperation – words she will emphasise in the language/literature program), Mrs D discusses and role-plays helpful words for asking and borrowing. Calling up two students she asks, ‘How can I borrow a rubber from Alessia? Show me.’ ‘Sometimes people will snatch.’ (She will model.) ‘What is a better way and why?’ She discusses words and expressions such as ‘please’, ‘thank you’, ‘Can I help you?’, ‘Can I borrow?’, ‘Will you help me?’, even phrases like ‘Excuse me’ when moving around another’s personal space. Having developed rules based on this discussion, Mrs D will regularly, and at times firmly, direct her students to these rules by reminder or restatement. If two students are arguing over a felt-tipped pen, she will direct their attention to the ‘problem-fixing’ rule or the ‘helping rule’ pinned up on the wall. She will frequently encourage her children when they are responsible, courteous, thoughtful, considerate, etc. Knowing full well that children will test the rules, she will be prepared to enforce them by reminders and directions and, where necessary, the consequences: ‘Ava, you know our rule for asking questions. Hands up, thanks.’ She will rely on rule-reminders (or restatement to the class group where necessary) to establish cooperation and teach responsibility.

Much of the discipline in the Year 4–7 age range is about appropriate ‘training’; rules are a useful vehicle for such training. If students argue (‘I was in the library corner first’), the teacher will resist counter-argument and reassert the rule, several times if necessary. ‘Ava, you know our rule for the library corner. What do we do in our class here?’

Developing rules for school assemblies At the primary-age level it can help to develop a school-wide approach to rules and expectations governing whole-school assemblies. Collaboration with students is a crucial part of such rules and would need to address why we have assemblies, the different purposes for whole-school gathering times and what special considerations about behaviour need addressing (see Appendix V).

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The three strands of discipline – rights, responsibilities, rules – are linked together by relationships within the school, and should work together to create a caring community atmosphere.

safety

learning

treatment

movement Rights

communication

problem-solving

Relationships

Rules

Responsibilities

• based on rights • positive wherever possible • negotiated • fair • certain • published

• Rights and responsibilities work together. • Responsibilities require that we are accountable for our behaviour. Adapted from Barnes & Daniels 1996

Figure 5.1 The framework for our behaviour policy

Duty-of-care management outside the classroom The bell goes, you leave your classroom and head down the corridor – the noisy corridor, as 200-odd adolescent bodies jostle their way to the exit door and to partial freedom. All you’re thinking of (probably) is having your well-earned cuppa. You notice a couple of boys ‘testosteronically bonding’. Ali jumps on to Mustapah’s back and calls him a ‘poofter’. Carlos and Kim laugh at this free entertainment. Mustapah whips around, in mock anger, and says ‘Piss off, yer dickhead!’ Should we address this fracas? How?

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Blind-eye syndrome

Blind-eye syndrome You hear some loud swearing; you see a couple of girls eating as they ‘cruise’ the corridor (the principal had made a point about messy corridors and eating, a few weeks back). You notice all this as you head for the staffroom but you’re not actually rostered on to corridor duty; you’re tired. Should you address these ‘small issues’ of behaviour? You suspect that if you address the swearing, the running in the corridor, the eating, the ‘testosteronic bonding’ they’ll probably argue or hassle or whinge. Is it worth the effort? The annoying answer is yes. There is a sense in which we’re always in dutyof-care mode even if we’re not actually rostered ‘on duty’. If we simply walk past such behaviour, we tacitly say ‘it’s OK’ or that we don’t really care. Hopefully we do. On my way to the staffroom of a large metropolitan high school recently, I passed through the doors bearing a ‘no student thoroughfare’ sign (some students regularly try to use it as a short cut.) I saw three boys enter the admin area, past the sign. As they saw me, one said, ‘Shit! It’s him!’ and walked the other way. I’m not a martinet but they knew from past experience that I’d remind them of the rule and they probably couldn’t be bothered with the hassle. My colleagues and I call this relaxed vigilance. A female student walked through the doors past the ‘no student thoroughfare’ sign. I knew her. ‘Nina, morning, have you got a pass to come through here?’ I was pleasant.

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‘I don’t need a pass. Mr D said I could see him in the staffroom.’ (I doubted this.) ‘You still need a pass to come this way to the staffroom.’ ‘Jeez, I told yer …’ she started to argue. ‘Even if you’re going to see him, Nina, you need a pass to come through this part of the school.’ She walked off. One of my colleagues saw this exchange of bluff-the-teacher-for-a-shortcut and said, wearily, ‘I wouldn’t waste your breath with Nina.’ I joined her for a cup of tea in the staffroom and discussed the annoying, frustrating but necessary basic ‘duty of care’ principle; the need for relaxed vigilance. If we, as teachers, have established some fair, sensible, basic rules and routines for reasonable social behaviour about movement in corridors (even a mundane example as that above), then we need to fairly and consistently enforce those rules – all of us. Edward Glynn (in Wheldhall 1992) has noted correlational studies in primary schools that indicate that the number of fights in playgrounds vary according to which teams of teachers are on playground duty at the time. My colleagues and I have noted a similar effect when it comes to corridor supervision, wet-day supervision, bus duty, even the more relaxed supervision of Year 11 and 12 canteen areas (in Rogers 2006b). I’ve been in some canteen areas that look like a rubbish tip! Even with students of this age, staff can develop basic behaviour expectations (published in a user-friendly form) and encourage and enforce such rules. We also need to apply fair consequences, where appropriate, and follow up with challenging students who are rude or abusive when fairly reminded by teachers about litter, or other minor infractions. Some basic whole-school areas and issues worth addressing are: • walking, not running, inside buildings, particularly up or down stairs. I’ve seen some very serious accidents on stairs (‘We were only mucking around!’). Call the student over if necessary, although positive reminders are generally enough, for example ‘Walking, thanks’ rather than ‘Don’t run!’ • exit from classrooms, especially in schools with long (naturally noisy) corridors. Each class/subject teacher can briefly discuss this with their classes, noting the reasons for an orderly, and considered, exit from the classroom. It can help, at secondary level, to address this issue briefly at a form assembly on day one (p. 211).

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• eating in corridors. Often a quiet word, or rule-reminder, is enough. Having the right kind of bins strategically located at exit doors and corridor intersections, as well as across the school grounds, is basic preventative maintenance. If we see students drop litter anywhere, we need to speak to those students quietly, aside from their peers, if possible, rather than make it a big issue. Use first names of students, whenever known, when giving a brief (and least intrusive) reminder to a student. • hats on when there’s hot weather outside; hats off inside. In Australian primary schools, students are required to wear hats in the hot summer months when they play outside. The ‘hats off inside’ rule sounds like small beer, as an issue. It is enough to point out it is not necessary to wear hats (or beanies, hoodies or sunglasses) inside school – full stop. A nonverbal reminder is enough for ‘hats off inside’. If students argue about taking off hats, or refuse to take them off, point out that this is the rule and you’ll follow it up later. Never snatch a student’s hat off as a quick way to make the point. Avoid getting into an argument over minor issues like ‘hats off in class’. If a student is frequently arguing about this, the issue is obviously not the rule – it is normally a power struggle and will need to be addressed on a one-to-one basis. Point out, ‘If you choose not to take it off then I’ll have to follow up with you after class.’ Make this deferred consequence as relaxed and expectant as possible. Leave it at that for the moment. Northern Territory, Australia, summer, 2009. My first lesson with a class of Year 9 boys. I asked them to take their baseball hats off in class. I made the point it was a lovely sunny day outside. ‘We’re in our classroom now – and we’re fortunate it’s air-conditioned.’ I gave a thankful sigh. ‘So, hats off, thanks.’ The boys looked around to check who’d take their hat off first (it is a particularly challenging school). Within 30 seconds most of the hats were off. One lad kept his hat on – leaning back in his chair. I couldn’t even see his eyes. ‘Max … you’ve still got your hat on.’ He retorted quickly, ‘I’m not taking it off.’ I said, ‘Well, you must have a very good reason for wanting to keep it on.’ I carried on with the English lesson. When the bell went, I asked him to stay back for a brief chat. He did, but whinged, ‘What did I do?’ I said, ‘You’re not in trouble. I just wondered why you wouldn’t take your hat off.’

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He looked around to check if any of his classmates were listening. ‘Can I tell you something?’ ‘Sure,’ I said, ‘If you’re comfortable.’ With a serious frown he said, ‘I got a shit haircut yesterday and I didn’t want no-one to see it.’ I wished him a relaxing recess break.

• bags neatly stowed in designated areas (especially at primary level) to allow maximum unencumbered corridor movement • students do not come into administration area buildings (at recess breaks) unless directed by a teacher or for genuine first-aid concerns. Basic rule for students is to check with duty teacher first. • corridor voices. Some of my primary colleagues have been able to encourage their students to use two-metre voices instead of ten-metre ‘football voices’ in corridors! If students argue over rules, or fairness, or claim that ‘other teachers don’t care if we …’ we need to redirect them back to our rule. If they are rude or abusive about any issue, we need to use the follow-up and follow-through procedures of the school. These will have to include school-wide reporting and tracking procedures. When the teacher makes the effort of tracking a student for followup and speaking to them, with the support of a senior teacher, she conveys a powerful message about fundamental civility in the school and about the fair certainty of consequences that relate to fair expectations of behaviour. Many schools require the teachers to carry a small notebook (with a bright yellow cover, like the ‘yellow card’ in soccer) to be produced when students challenge, argue or refuse to cooperate with the fair rules of the school. On the inside cover of the notebook, staff are reminded ‘To use thoughtfully, to encourage, remind, warn or take the names of students who refuse reasonable reminders about fair, safe, behaviour in our school’ (Pearce, in Rogers 2006). Discuss with colleagues what routines for duty of care are essential, helpful and desirable. The issue of duty of care outside a classroom setting needs a school-wide focus, whether it is corridor supervision (even the indirect supervision by a teacher going from A to B), playground supervision, bus duty or

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wet-day duty. Some schools involve other staff, such as canteen staff, caretakers, bus drivers and school-crossing supervisors in an annual management planning session. In a number of schools my colleagues and I have had very cordial meetings with bus drivers and school crossing supervisors to discuss their concerns within their roles, including suggestions about how to deal with unreasonable and unsafe behaviours and when/how to refer issues of concern about behaviour to senior teaching staff.

School-wide review of duty-of-care management It is important to review all duty-of-care supervision/management contexts. Any review needs to include students to discuss positive and negative aspects of behaviour in the corridor, playground, etc. A student pro-forma for discussion (or written review) includes: • What is working well in the playgrounds for you (or in eating areas, etc.)? • What isn’t working well and why (location areas, behaviours, activities, etc.)? • What can we do to improve, or change, things so we can enjoy our time in these places; so we can feel safe? Staff need to address any concerns raised by students in the following ways: • Analyse observations in terms of their frequency and seriousness, typical age group and physical location and areas of concern. • Address current managerial practice at the preventative level: especially rules and routines. We also need to discuss how our supervision and support enables student ownership of behaviour and basic rights of health and safety and fair treatment of one another. • Review all managerial practice in terms of common protocols (see Chapter 1) and positive discipline practices (see Chapters 3 and 4), emphasising to students and teachers alike that fair rules and simple routines enable positive behaviours that consider and respect mutual rights (see Chapter 5). A ‘relaxed managerial vigilance’ by all staff will enable reasonable consistency across the school conveying the message that: • the rules are here (at our school) for good reasons • the teachers here take the purpose for the rules (basic rights) seriously • there is a whole-school ethos regarding behaviour expectations held by all staff

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• there is fair enforcement of rules – this includes follow-up and consequences wherever necessary.

Playground management As teachers, the bane of our week is often the ‘patrol’ time: playground supervision. The older the students, the more the challenges. Many secondary school teachers will notice the ‘blind-eye syndrome’ of some teachers – they don’t want to see what is happening out there. They just want to finish their rounds as quickly as possible. When students answer back, refuse to pick up litter, argue defiantly or come up with issues and concerns they want resolved, many teachers feel that the concentrated effort of playground discipline is just not worth it; it is. Regarding litter – we should distinguish between litter we see blatantly (or thoughtlessly) dropped and students who are sitting amidst litter. With residual litter, I find it helpful to walk over and have a chat first (in passing) then acknowledge the litter I see: ‘There’s a fair bit of litter here.’ ‘It’s not ours’ is a common response with older students, ‘it was blown here from off shore …’ (or words to that effect, it’s never their litter). Our common response: ‘Even if it’s not your litter – it’s our school. Come on, five bits each. I’ll help.’ A brief, positive involvement by a teacher almost always sees the students pick the litter up with me (I carry around plastic bags to help in the transitional clean-up). If we see a student dropping litter, it’s a different story. A simple reminder or direction, delivered non-confrontationally, is likely to be more effective than a lecture on laziness (tempting as it may be to tell them they are ‘unthinking, uncaring and irresponsible’). If they argue and challenge then the issue is clearly not the litter but a power game. In this case the teacher is best served by making the consequences clear. ‘I saw you drop it, I’m simply reminding you to put it in the bin. If you choose not to I’ll have to follow it up later with …’ (see pp. 86, 153). I’ve met adolescents who then add, ‘I don’t care.’ Instead of engaging the student in an attentional power struggle, it’s probably more effective to add, ‘I care – I’ll follow this up later.’ Even if the student does then decide to put the rubbish in the bin it will be important to follow up with this student to address their rudeness and incivility.

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During a recent playground supervision, I noticed several lads standing, talking, and saw one screw up his chocolate bar wrapper and flick it on to the asphalt. I walked over casually and greeted them. ‘You a new teacher here?’ They showed some ‘checking out’ kind of interest, so I had a brief chat. As I walked off I casually called the student who’d dropped the litter aside. ‘Yeah?’ His face showed surprise. ‘The bin’s over there.’ Our eyes quickly scanned the litter. ‘Oh yeah – right!’ ‘Catch you later.’ I gave the goodbye, and as I walked off I noticed him pick it up. This approach hadn’t taken much longer than a straight direction, and directing the student quietly aside from the others had kept the discipline least intrusive.

Children spend up to 20 per cent of their school day in the playground. It is natural there will be interpersonal conflicts over property, space and friendships. Teachers know what sorts of behaviours they are likely to encounter in a playground setting. It is imperative then that teachers work collaboratively in developing a whole-school playground management plan. The duty-of-care outside of class plan should be reviewed each year addressing the frequency and seriousness of common behaviours observed by teachers (and students) as affecting rights of safety, fair play and fair treatment. A questionnaire like that noted earlier will help (p. 142). With older students, a map questionnaire is also very revealing. Students are given a user-friendly map of the school and asked to target areas where they feel (1) very safe and comfortable to play, (2) less safe – even uncomfortable to play and (3) areas they’d never play. On the back of the map students discuss why they have nominated these areas (1, 2, 3). It can help for staff to correlate their accident and reporting records with the students’ perceptions of safe play areas. Most bullying occurs in playground environments. It will be essential to survey this aspect of playground behaviour. Solving the challenge of playground behaviour management is threefold: • There must be adequate, reasonable and enforceable rules. • Those rules must be clearly understood by students, teachers and parents alike.

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• Such rules must be enforced, and relevant consequences must be consistently applied. Common issues of concern often raised about playground behaviours include: • unsafe areas, out-of-bounds areas, non-ball play areas, designated areas such as preschool play areas (in primary schools) • litter • swearing (including defiance directed at teachers) and racist language • unsafe play or fighting, overly aggressive play • ‘dobbing’ (tale-telling), dispute-settling and teasing • smoking. Miss P sees several Year 6 boys kicking their footy in a no-ball area. She asks them what they’re doing and one of the boys replies rudely (the territory of the playground is perceived differently by some students regarding respect, basic courtesy, etc.), ‘I’m not doing anything wrong!’ ‘This is a no-ball area. Take your footy and play down there (gestures to the ball area), please.’ He replies with the standard procrastinating line, ‘But Miss D said we can play here’, and so it goes on, playing one teacher off against another.

In this example it will be crucial to follow up with these students and a senior teacher. In such a follow-up there will need to be a clear understanding about the unacceptability of disrespect about any teacher’s fair reminder of the fair rules. An apology and a reassurance will be requested, and expected.

Non-negotiable rules Non-negotiable rules involve: leaving the playground area (unless with permission); smoking (or any drugs); aggressive behaviour; and bullying. One non-negotiable rule for safety in the playground regarding throwing is ‘Never throw anything at anybody – even in fun’. Students will often protest that they only threw the stick, or small piece of tanbark, or ball even a stone at so-and-so ‘in fun’. Tag ball games will also need to be carefully assessed in light of safety. It is important to make sure playground rules and their purpose are clearly understood by all students at assemblies and in grade classrooms.

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Once the rules and consequences are agreed it is important that they are published and that each class teacher has a copy. It will also help at primary level to have large copies posted on the inside glass of the building, looking out, at key sites in the school.

Agreed plans for enforcement Rules are one thing; the certainty of them being tested, resisted or ignored is another. We know we are going to face behaviours within the range from littering to fighting. It makes sense, then, to work together on a more uniform approach that enables us to answer these questions: • Faced with the typical sorts of disruptive behaviours, what is the better or more appropriate approach to take initially, and subsequently, if students refuse? • What back-up can we organise if we meet flagrant defiance or hostility? Staff support, and use of mobile phones to call on support staff; time-out areas in the playground with primary-aged students; and clear follow-through procedures and consequences will all form a clear, and supportive, message to our students that we take their safety and recreation seriously. All the skills discussed in Chapter 3 are relevant to playground settings. Several common examples of playground behaviours have been noted here with examples of management language. The key in developing a more consistent management approach is to discuss with staff common issues in our own school. We know we’ll have to address these behaviour issues on a frequent basis, and it will help to have a common staff management plan that can even include some common examples of language we might use.

Unsafe play Jack and Oliver (Year 4) are karate kicking in the playground. Several students are watching. While this is basically ‘testosteronic bonding’, it can get out of hand quickly; if we ignore this it sets an unhealthy precedent for younger students who often have less self-control. The teacher calls the boys, by name, across from their attendant peer-group. He does this to minimise the ‘grandstanding’ that sometimes occurs when teachers correct children in front of their peers. As he calls them across

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to him he turns aside to chat abstractedly with other students. By dropping his direct eye contact and turning away after having given the direction he is, in effect, giving the students take-up time and face-saving time (p. 55). We may need to beckon the students a few times to compensate for ‘social deafness’. While these teacher behaviours may sound inconsequential, taken together they telegraph a teacher’s confidence and expectation. When the students walk over, they stand frowning, nonplussed. ‘Yeah, what’s up?’ The teacher greets them, and describes what he has noticed: ‘Fellas, I saw you karate kicking for several minutes. High kicks too.’ ‘Yeah, well, we were just mucking around.’ The teacher gives some partial agreement. ‘Maybe you were, fellas – what’s our rule for safe play?’ By refocusing on the fair (known) rule for safe play, the responsibility is now put back on the students. ‘But we were just …’ ‘I know, fellas, and what’s our fair rule for …?’ The boys sigh, ‘We keep our hands and feet to ourselves.’ The teacher adds, as the boys walk away, ‘Skilful kicking, guys – save it for the karate club.’ They grin back (relaxed vigilance).

My colleague and I were doing playground supervision together and I noticed an agile student hanging upside down by her legs, practising gym, on a steel ladder bar above the concrete path. My colleague walked over and quietly called the girl down. ‘Chloe, touch the concrete. How does it feel? Hard; right? Now touch your head and face. How do they feel? Soft? Who’s going to win?’ While it is appropriate to direct students to play gymnastics elsewhere, I was impressed with the way Toby had used a brief, reflective questioning to enable the student to think through her behaviour.

Playground altercations When children come up to duty teachers in the playground and complain that they have ‘no one to play with’, or ‘no one likes me’, or so and so ‘swore at me’ or ‘took our ball’ or ‘won’t let us play in the sandpit’, you can often see teachers raise their eyes to the heavens, thinking, ‘Here we go again – how many

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days till the end of term?’ It is important that teachers discuss this common management issue to avoid the easy responses of telling the students ‘not to hassle me’ or to ‘grow up’ (I’ve seen teachers do this), or over-servicing some students’ possible attention-seeking, or, more commonly, becoming immediate ‘judge and jury’. Whatever approach we take, it will be helpful to enable the students to take responsibility wherever appropriate. It can help, for example, to use focused questioning to the individual, or group. ‘What can you do if no one will play with you?’ ‘OK, they took your ball, what can you say to them to get it back?’ We can offer suggestions and invite solutions and even stand nearby to encourage the students as they go back to the sandpit or ball game and try out our suggestions on asserting due rights to property! My colleagues and I have done this on many occasions with positive effect. On other occasions it will be necessary to draw all participants in the conflict aside and run through some basic mediation. Sometimes a rule-reminder to fair play, or a direct question about the fair rule, is enough. If the issue is more serious, the teacher will need to make the consequences for safe, fair play clear (thus giving the students a directed choice – see p. 86) or even direct some students to time-out areas to calm down and think about their behaviour. Where conflicts between students appear potentially serious, cool-off time and follow-up mediation is essential. Many primary schools now train older students in mediation skills, enabling them to interact with their peers to work through the typical low-level disputes that occur in many playgrounds. This school-wide approach benefits both the mediators and those they work with as they model non-aggressive approaches to mediating and resolving conflict (Rogers 2006b).

Playground environment It is essential to enhance the playground environment so that it contributes to positive behaviour and reduces thoughtless inactivity and boredom. • Ensure that there are plenty of decent rubbish bins, strategically based. • Beautify the grounds wherever possible; even asphalt playgrounds can be attractively set out with potted shrubs and trees. • Provide ample and reasonable seating for students, preferably with some shaded areas for hot days. • Have some well-marked areas for games (such as ball games).

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• Improve the play equipment (ask students for ideas within reason, and budget!). I’ve worked in many inner-city schools where staff have worked with the children on developing playground activities, for example creating quiet areas where children can play board games on outside tables. Games and activities that can be taken outside by rostered monitors (in large tubs) and re-stored for the next lunchtime play recess. Ball games can be rostered on in warmer weather. In playground areas with limited space, it can help to nominate specific areas for skipping, running games, quiet games, etc. This plan can be published for students and supervising teachers alike (see Rogers 2006b). • Join in student activities; teachers enjoying games or activities with the students at recess can really enhance the tone of play time as well as modelling good fun and safe, enjoyable play. • Stagger play times in larger schools. • Stagger canteen times (and meal times) to avoid the rush when the bell goes.

Enforcement of the fair rule of a safe playground As with all enforcement, if the consequences are not consistently and fairly applied, the students see little point in making the effort to work within the fair rules. A positive playground discipline plan needs to be: • discussed with students • communicated to students and parents • the subject of consistent and fair enforcement. Encouragement and support need to be given to students who do play safely and cooperatively. It will help if staff have a monitoring book to record all significant behaviour concerns that may have been difficult to address in the immediate moment, particularly rudeness or insolence on the part of the student, or any harassment or bullying (p. 141). Follow-up of playground incidents is always difficult in terms of time management. It will be important to have an agreed means of following up and following through by senior staff in consultation with duty staff. The monitoring book will help that process. The fair certainty of consequential follow-up is important for all students. We need to make sure the playground management plan has clear support from staff and parents.

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The values held by the school community Fundamental values about dignity and the essential worth of persons; values of honesty, cooperation, caring, reasonable tolerance, ‘a fair go’, and personal responsibility. The expression of fundamental values as rights Rights of self-expression, safety and learning; rights to religious and cultural identity; rights to fair treatment Responsibilities: Ownership of behaviour The enjoyment of mutual rights by the exercise of responsible social behaviour Rules: Classroom rules and school-wide rules A positive expression of what ought to be accepted (fair, right, proper behaviour). Rules clearly outline due responsibility and give appropriate necessary limits; they also guide Consequences: Ownership of behaviour Children understanding the consequences of their actions; their accountability Being taught to foresee the outcome of one’s behaviour Making consequences fit and relate to the behaviour Repair/rebuild Beyond consequences and punishment, there needs to be support for repairing and rebuilding, restitution, reconciliation and change

Figure 5.2 The rights–responsibilities–rules focus: A basis for positive student–teacher interaction

A playground plan needs to be tailored to the age of the students, the school setting and available resources. Its ultimate success will depend on the degree to which staff and students have thought through preventative as well as corrective strategies.

Summary • All ages of students in groups need rules to guide and govern the way they work together, to protect the due rights of all. • Rules ought at the very least to be discussed with the class and – where appropriate – worked out together with the teacher. • Rights – as a feature of rule-making – guide children towards collaborative democracy. There is no guarantee they’ll follow such a process but the 3Rs focus (rights, rules, responsibilities) gives a just and reasonable basis for membership of, participation in and enjoyment of the benefits of a social group like a school and a class group.

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• Rules should be clear and as situation-specific as possible, with understood consequences for significant infringement of rights. • Rules need to be taught. Part of positive rule enforcement is the establishment-training-enforcement cycle: regularly, positively, quietly reminding the students when they are forgetful, or thoughtless, or uncaring, and reinforcing and encouraging when they respect our shared rights. • The rules (up to Year 7 or 8) can be displayed around the room, or inserted in students’ school diaries as a reminder. • It is easier to discipline when rules are fair and clear. A teacher can more easily discipline by referring back to our rules for ‘safety’, or ‘settling problems’ or ‘movement’ … • It is crucial that staff work together on common management plans for all duty-of-care management outside of the classroom setting.

Questions to consider • Have core rights and responsibilities been discussed at form/pastoral/tutor class level? How? To what extent is there a whole-school approach to the discussion and establishment of core rights and responsibilities? • How are classroom rules developed from these core rights? What sorts of rules are published at the classroom level? Who decides on their format/ language? • How are playground rules established? How are the rules and expectations communicated to the students? • To what extent does your school have a whole-school approach to the issue of behaviour management in all duty-of-care contexts: corridors; lunch supervision; playground; wet-day supervision; school buses?

Endnotes 1.

2.

By law, students have to go to school for five to six periods a day, five days a week, three or four terms a year, for years on end. While we’re used to it and regard it as a right and privilege, it’s a challenge to build a learning community within the formal schooling context. The words of Jesus in the Gospel: Matthew 6:12, Luke 6:31.

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Chapter 6 The if–then dynamic ‘In order to understand, you first have to listen.’ Aboriginal saying, Arnhem Land Among our earliest memories are those of consequences: the ‘social reality’ that if you don’t brush your teeth regularly then … If you answer your parents back (at least in the 50s) then … (ouch). As we get older we learn that if we don’t study with some effort then … If we are speeding or ignore a red light when driving, or park over time … it costs. Children learn early that their world has natural and regulated consequences. When they enter preschool they experience the imposed consequences of the adult. Behavioural consequences in a school setting are essentially the connecting of a consequential outcome to the social disruption of an individual’s behaviour. They can be decided by the adult, with the individual child, or with the class group. The teacher will have discussed the general nature of consequences with the class during the establishment phase of the year. We will not be able to supply a list of logical behavioural consequences for every disruptive behaviour, but we can discuss the nature of ‘if … then …’ relationships in social behaviour.

NB I have seen school policies that seek to delineate a consequence for every seeming disruptive and wrong behaviour. These are naturally very large policies, and also unwieldy. Teachers need professional discretion – within guidelines – for the typical behaviour situations where behaviour consequences will need to apply.

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We can also distinguish between non-negotiable and negotiable consequences, where the student(s) and teacher can work out the consequence together. With negotiable consequences the student contributes to the process and outcome of behavioural ownership with his teacher. The framework for the negotiation relates back to how the students’ behaviour affects the rights of others to learn, to be accorded respect and to feel safe (see p. 122). Non-negotiable consequences are utilised with serious behaviours such as verbal or physical aggression; smoking; drug-taking; violence; possession of weapons; psychological, racial, sexual or physical bullying. The consequences for these behaviours are known in advance, published and applied uniformly without negotiation. They will involve due processes such as accountability conferencing with those they have hurt (see p. 116). Non-negotiable consequences will often occasion temporary exclusion from school and may also further entail exclusion from privileges such as play times with others (see p. 157), or temporary exclusion from class within school time. Behaviour consequences are based on the fundamental notion of respect for others’ rights, and taking ownership of and accountability for one’s own behaviour. In whatever form they are used, the child needs to understand that their behaviour has consequential outcomes. Consequences ought to be seen as an outcome of ‘choice’, not merely ‘accident’ or ‘chance’. Relatedness means there is a connection between behaviour and outcome that is as fair and sensible as natural justice can make. Students have to learn to accept that they are responsible and accountable for their behaviour and its effect on others and the classroom environment.

Developing behaviour consequences To make behaviour consequences meaningful, a teacher needs a positive relationship with the class: a climate built on cooperation and respect, a clear rights–rules understanding and one where the teacher seeks to model reasonable and fair behaviour (Chapter 5). While it is not advisable to be inflexible, it is important that students experience fairness and respectful consistency in applying behaviour consequences. We will need to apply consequences uniformly to the ‘nice’ student who leaves a mess as well as the students we

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may perceive as ‘not so nice’. There are those rare children who will refuse all responsibility and accountability. With these children we still treat them respectfully and follow through with a consequential process. Even having to stay back after class is itself a consequence. We can’t make the student engage in discussion about their behaviour, or clean up mess or finish work (though we’ll try). The process itself, the staying back (or detention), is an important ‘if–then’ message. In extreme cases there will be students who will continually challenge teacher and school authority; on rare occasions even their parents will seek to bully the school. In these cases a school will need to utilise suspension and even expulsion options. These steps should never be taken lightly. It is also advisable to decide beforehand the sort of behaviours to which we will seek to apply consequences. If Layla hands in dirty work because she is a characteristically ‘messy hands’ child, will we decide that she needs to do it again? Or in this case do we rather encourage her in how to develop and present her work more thoughtfully next time; to help her build up skills in this area?

Establishing the generality of behaviour consequences It is also important to discuss with students the general use of behaviour consequences in class. If students make it difficult for others to learn, be safe, or be treated with respect they: • will be reminded of our rules • may be asked to work away from others • may have to take some cool-off time • may even be asked to leave our class for formal time-out • will always have to stay back to work through with the teacher ways in which they can improve their behaviour. Students also need to know they will always have a right of reply (p. 112). This discussion is not conducted in a challenging, threatening way but as the natural outcome of rights and responsibilities as a member of our school community (p. 105).

Degree of seriousness Many schools have developed a ‘level system’ of discipline which includes consequential outcomes. Each level (say one through four levels) indicates the

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seriousness of students’ typical (rather than occasional) disruptive behaviour patterns and the sorts of consequences applied by the school, including behaviours that require suspension. Any level system also has to have a built-in support process. Each level requires increasingly labour-intensive involvement by school administration, parents and support personnel to enable students with challenging behaviours to work through causes, concerns and attitudes, and enable behaviour ownership and positive change.

The concept and limits of ‘choice’ In a normal verbal correction to a child, a teacher will better develop a sense of self-control by giving the child an appropriate sense of choice: ‘Isabella, you need to do the writing now – as we all are – or you will be asked to stay back and do it at recess time’; ‘Your mess can be cleaned up now, Franca, before recess, or during recess’; ‘You know the fair rule for communication in our room, Yetty’ (even this rule reminder telegraphs the element of choice to the student); ‘Ethan, if you choose not to work quietly here, I’ll have to ask you to work over there’. Even a knowing glance or firm, brief eye contact is a message to the child about the ‘telegraphing of choice’. A short tactical ignoring of a child engaged in lowlevel attention-seeking can also result in an opportunity to choose thoughtfully (pp. 13, 72, 86). All ‘choices’ are obviously affected, and directed, by the rights, responsibilities and rules (p. 122).

When to enforce? Behaviour consequences should not be enforced where there is antagonism, aggression or safety concerns. To force or demand a student to apologise on the spot for calling the teacher a ‘f—ing bitch’ under his breath is fruitless when the student is clearly being provocative or teacher-baiting. In fact the concept of forcing (when both teacher and student are upset or angry) is, itself, problematic. There is an important distinction here between the certainty of the consequential process (which can occur later when both parties have calmed down) and the severity of the consequence where some teachers want immediate and punitive action. While it is important to address confrontational swearing assertively (in the immediate emotional moment) (see pp. 80, 283) and even use immediate supported time-out, any apologies are best worked through

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after both parties have cooled down. Even if the student is suspended for such swearing, it will still be important for the teacher to do some repairing and rebuilding with the student on their return to school. Time-out and suspension are never consequential ends in themselves; they need to be linked to some repairing and rebuilding to enable workable reconciliation between teacher and student (or student and student). Such reconciliation will often need senior teacher support as well. With behaviours such as leaving a mess, throwing things (unless dangerous), ripping a page, scribbling on another’s work or low-level attention-seeking behaviour, the teacher can make the issue clear but indicate that the student will be asked to stay back and fix things up later (or at a specified time). A deferred consequence is one applied later that day; this acknowledges that students often want to ‘save face’ but also keeps the certainty of the consequence in place.

Keeping the respect intact Whenever we apply a consequence (even a brief after-class chat) we need to keep the fundamental respect intact. The application of consequences of any kind should not be an occasion for hectoring or emotional pay-back by teachers (p. 15).

What sort of consequences? When I speak to children about fixing up certain behaviours or sorting things out, they often suggest: ‘Give some lines’, ‘Pick up papers’, ‘Stay back’. The question the teacher needs to respond with is, ‘How will that fix up the damaged desk, the busted racquet, the writing on the wall, the hurt child, the spit on the floor, the clay balls on the cupboard, the repeated calling out in class, the swearing and hurt your swearing caused …?’ Providing the teacher is not sarcastic, cruel, authoritarian or revengeful, most children respond to such questions with an understanding of accountability and a sense of basic justice. It is useful to ask them, ‘What will you do about …?’ or ‘What should you do …?’ It is an attempt to foster some connection in their thinking between what they did, the right affected by their behaviour and future action to repair/rebuild. Behavioural consequences in this sense can start as early as preschool (McPherson & Rogers 2009). With most children,

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behavioural consequences are obviously not applied to accidents or forgetfulness. In these cases, we simply encourage the student to clean up, repair or fix things with an apology where necessary. Ibrahim, aged nine, had been ‘belting up’ children in the playground using sticks and fists and feet. Some teachers had nagged, some had yelled, some had pleaded. Worst of all, some had been dismissive – ‘boys will be boys’. After some staff discussion, it was decided to use related behaviour consequences. His teacher, with the principal, explained: ‘Ibrahim, because you have chosen to hurt other children in the playground, you will have to play by yourself; alone without other children.’ He whined that it wasn’t fair. The teacher didn’t engage Ibrahim in a discussion but repeated the consequence. ‘Because you keep hurting others in the playground you’ll have to play by yourself and not with other students at normal play time.’ His parents didn’t exactly like the idea initially but agreed that their son ‘could be very difficult’. We explained this was a consequence to help him learn safe play and fair behaviour. At lunch recess, Ibrahim was kept in and he looked through the window at the other children enjoying their freedom. He then had his due play time later with a minder (a rotated staff member). No one to punch, hit or strike, except the trees and asphalt! In this case it was important that the student ‘feel’ the consequences of his behaviour.

Ibrahim, all by himself ››

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After one week he was craving to be given another go. ‘Sure, Ibrahim – as long as you play by the fair rules for play time.’ A simple behaviour plan was drawn up with a few targeted behaviours for safe and fair play. Each duty teacher received a copy of the plan (with suggestions on how to speak to Ibrahim when they met him on playground duty). The plan was monitored daily, then weekly. This approach was applied calmly, fairly, consistently and expectantly. Ibrahim’s behaviour did improve.

Ella, in a fit of anger, busted a school tennis racquet on the playground fence. What was a reasonable consequence? Her mum was virtually impossible to contact and the third male live-in partner at the caravan park where she lived had made the point, on other occasions, that he couldn’t care at all. Was it worth contacting them again? We were, at times, concerned for her welfare at home. (There is a time, and a due process for parental contact; it was not now.) When her anger had cooled down later that day, the Physical Education teacher and welfare support teacher sat down with Ella and said, ‘Ella, you’ve completely broken the tennis racquet. It cost over 40 dollars. What are you going to do?’ He didn’t waste time asking Ella why she broke the class racquet. Neither was it worth over-pitying her because of her family life at the caravan park. ‘What are you going to do to fix it, Ella?’ ‘How do I know?’ She was, initially, quite sulky. Both teachers had a good working relationship with Ella. ‘Well, you think about what you’ve done – it’s your responsibility to fix it. We can ask your mum to help you to pay for it or we can give you jobs to do around the school to help pay.’ ‘I ain’t gonna buy one! Do you have to tell my mum? Anyway, what sort of jobs?’ ‘See this card, Ella? You will be asked to do some jobs around the school over the next couple of weeks to help pay for the racquet. This is the way you can earn the money’ (in effect learn about accountability). She swept, washed, tidied and so on at requested times. The teacher signed the card each day. She was not demeaned, embarrassed or screamed at, just held accountable; firmly, determinedly and supportively.

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An example of a similar approach with younger primary-aged children. When a child has broken or damaged something, the related consequence is that it is paid for in some way. We believe that the child should take responsibility for their choice of action. Children pay for broken equipment by completing a job sheet to ‘earn’ the money to replace it. The jobs they do are community jobs which will benefit the school and they are completed during play times. This is a form of restitution – a way of putting things right. Job sheet to pay for broken toy • Sharpen pencils

$1.00

• Teach people to skip

$1.00

• Sort out games box

$1.00

• Tidy book boxes

$1.00

• Share books with children

$1.00

TOTAL

$5.00 Adapted from Barnes & Daniels, 1996

Figure 6.1 Job sheet

Many teachers let torn books, mess and unacceptable social behaviours go unaccounted for, yet resort to yelling, giving lines or writing out school rules. This is understandable when a teacher is frustrated, but they create an illogical and unrelated perspective (mere punishment) regarding disruptive behaviours in the thinking of children.

Staying back: related consequences While it is appropriate to keep students back after class, to follow up and follow through (see p. 105), a detention that requires the student to just sit still doing nothing for 20 or 30 minutes is a totally unrelated consequence, like the giving of lines. In such consequences there is no link to the behaviour except the power of the adult to coerce the child. There is often no attempt to assist the child in

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the process of reflection, responsibility and accountability. In a sense it actually denies rational, social accountability. Mere detention or an instruction to ‘write 100 lines on …’ or pick up litter (unless the student is a recidivist litterer) is arbitrary and does not provide a related behavioural connection between behaviour and consequential outcome. When following up and giving students an opportunity to reflect on their behaviour after the fact, there are a number of points that should be established: • what I did that was against our class rules • what rule or right I broke or infringed • my explanation • what I think I should do to fix it • how my teacher can help. The 4W form (see Appendix II) is a useful pro-forma to use in this situation (see also p. 112).

Consequences can teach responsibility A teacher will, from time to time, engage the class in a general discussion about the nature of consequences and responsibility. This can also be a focus of or theme in a piece of literature or drama. Related consequences enable students to think through the consequences of their own actions. Consequential and causal thinking (cause and effect) are important learnings for children, enabling a more responsible approach to social relationships. When a child is being questioned about what consequences ought to apply in their case, this too is a learning situation. Skilful teachers take this approach with individuals (or groups) to encourage students to see things from another’s perspective (‘How would X feel if …?’, ‘How would you feel if you had that happen to you?’) and to see alternative solutions (‘What else could you have done when you got angry?’). In an unprofessional moment, Liam’s textile teacher called the class ‘a pack of animals’. Acting as the advance scout for the Year 7 social justice unit, Liam threw a bit of wood in anger, and fortunately missed the teacher. Quite apart from

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the teacher’s behaviour and Liam’s low frustration tolerance, what should the consequences be for such behaviour? Deprive him of textile lessons? Get him to produce a written and verbal apology? Contact his parents? Deprive him of sport? Liam said he had not intended to actually hit his teacher (other, reliable students had said he threw it away from the teacher) but he agreed his action was still wrong. He was asked, ‘What else could you have done?’ ‘Counted to ten?’ was his reply. ‘Sure, that’s often helpful’, replied the senior teacher. ‘Or I could have spoken to her after … or I could have stood up and said I don’t agree.’ He added, ‘But, sorry, she wouldn’t listen.’ After exploring other alternatives, he agreed his action was wrong. He wrote an apology, and also verbally apologised assuring his teacher he wouldn’t do anything like that again. He took responsibility for his action. Because the behaviour was dangerous, he was also deprived of textiles for two sessions (it was felt this would be a salutary lesson to the others) and he accepted that – though he liked textiles as a subject. What will affect long-term relations between Liam and his teacher, though, is how much she is prepared to re-establish a positive working relationship with him (p. 220).

A common consequential framework It can help to discuss with colleagues the typical behaviours for classroom and playground that we all face and develop some common behaviour consequences we can apply and ‘negotiate’ with our students, as distinct from consequences for more serious behaviours (p. 153). Related behaviour consequences are most effective when teachers have good working relations with their students. At one school where the staff had carefully explained and discussed logical consequences with their children, and begun to apply them, the children even began to pick up the language. One little chap presented himself at the principal’s door on one occasion, ‘Yes, what do you want, Mario?’, he asked. Looking at the principal, with a dour and serious face, he said, ‘I’m here for my logical consequences, sir!’

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The key questions in framing a consequence The essential questions to ask with any behaviour consequence (whether after-class chat, an informal or formal behaviour interview, a detention of any kind, a mediation session, etc.): • Is this behaviour consequence related to the student(s) behaviour in any reasonable way? Can the child understand the relatedness? What is their learning about the accountable link between behaviour and consequence? • Does the behaviour consequence have a fair, and appropriate, degree of seriousness? For example, the consequence for repeated lateness or uniform misdemeanour is significantly different in degree of seriousness to bullying, drugs or violence. • Is the consequence reasonable? Can the student see the reason for the consequence applied? • Most of all, do we keep the fundamental respect intact, in the way we carry through the process of the behaviour consequence?

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Behavioural consequences summary • Behaviour consequences are part of group socialisation: consequences follow our actions. • Behaviour consequences are part of the rights, rules and responsibilities framework of a classroom and school. • Behavioural consequences concentrate on present behaviour. • Behavioural consequences are most effective when the teacher has a positive working relationship with their students. • Behavioural consequences emphasise choice, responsibility, accountability and a sense of justice for all. • Behavioural consequences are a labour-intensive feature of classroom management but are necessary and worth the effort we apply.

Time-out The notion and use of thoughtful, planned, time-out has been a phenomenon of Australian schools for over three decades, especially since the abolition of corporal punishment in government schools in 1985. However, time-out means different things to different people. As a practice it can be open to abuse and it certainly is no panacea in the discipline context. Like any management practice it needs a clear school-wide understanding of what we actually mean by the term ‘time-out’, how we ought to utilise time-out in its various forms, and how time-out fits in with our whole-school discipline and behaviour management ethos. As a process, it should never stand alone; any form of time-out needs well thought out backup and support within our overall discipline and management policy.

What do we mean by time-out? For some teachers time-out might mean sending the student to stand in a corner; it might mean isolating the student at a desk, away from other students; it might mean directing a student to sit outside the principal’s office or in a special time-out room. Though there are legal problems with duty-of-care supervision,

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some teachers still direct a student to stand outside the classroom. However, when a teacher sends a very disruptive student outside the room, some students will use the classroom window to get more attention; or go walkabout. With small children, the notion of time-out might simply mean, ‘hands on head’ or ‘all pencils down and hands flat on desks’. Some of the uses of time-out (above) are clearly inappropriate (e.g. standing in the corner, sitting outside the principal’s office just waiting, or even extended time with hands on head). Time-out is not a mere punishment, it is a related (and necessary) consequence; a time for a student to calm down and reflect on their behaviour before entry back into the classroom. Time-out is never an end in itself. It is the primary consequence that also needs to be followed up by the teacher who initiated the time-out process. It is essential that when a teacher utilises time-out (particularly time-out that involves being separated from the classroom) that the initiating teacher engages in follow-up and follow-through later that day. At secondary level the follow-up may need to occur the following day because of timetabling, etc. It is often in this follow-up phase that the teacher can work through with the student the issues of their behaviour and ongoing support. At this stage there may need to be secondary consequence such as apologies, restitution and clarifying of future behaviour back in the classroom.

Why time-out may be necessary Time-out is fundamentally the use of directed time away from the group. It is, essentially, cool-off time, when a child is isolated from his peers. All children want to belong to the group. With time-out what is essentially being communicated to the disruptive student is that the student’s behaviour is so disturbing to the teacher and her peers that she cannot any longer be accepted as part of the class group at that time. The student is thus directed away from her immediate peers in the room, or in a place away from the classroom. Time-out, then, has a logical/related basis, as well as a basis in utility. It’s all very well for some academics (who don’t teach) to overplay the case of an individual student’s rights (i.e. removal from class time); however the rights of all members of the classroom, including the teacher’s right to teach, need to be taken into account when disruptive behaviour is persistent or unsafe.

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Whenever a student significantly disrupts another student’s rights; or significantly disrupts the teacher’s right to teach and to manage the group; or behaves unsafely or dangerously, then staged time-out is an appropriate, necessary and fair consequence. Examples of such behaviour would be: • constantly interrupting the teacher (or other students) and refusing to settle down • refusing to stop play-fighting/fighting in class • racing around the room going ‘bananas’ and refusing to settle • verbally abusing a teacher or student • any dangerous or threatening behaviour. We have a right (and often a necessity) to employ time-out as a consequence where a student is persistently refusing to work by the fair rules of the classroom or school and thus infringing the teacher’s or students’ rights to safety, movement, learning and respectful social interaction. Time-out is based on the following assumptions: • The teacher has fair, just rules that protect the rights of all class members. Such rules need to be clear, discussed with the students and reinforced with consequences where necessary (Chapter 5). • The teacher has thought out the room organisation and procedures for where time-out could occur. For example, a time-out area in the classroom is helpful at primary level for those times when children need to be isolated from the main group of students for their own sake as well as that of their peers (for example if they are overly uptight or angry). A time-out area should be somewhere where the child can sit calm and settled for five minutes to calm down and rethink. Some teachers even have a five-minute eggtimer there so the child can monitor his own time-out. It is important not to call this area the ‘naughty corner’, or ‘naughty seat’, or ‘sin bin’ (that’s poor psychology, let alone poor theology!). • The teacher has a preventative management and discipline plan in place (see Chapter 3). There are unfortunately teachers who move to time-out as an intervention quickly and unnecessarily, instead of using least-intrusive measures as initial options. As noted earlier, time-out as a consequence is not an end in itself. It is a primary consequence that will often necessitate

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a secondary consequence such as cleaning up mess, completing unfinished work or working through some restitution after the time-out period. For time-out to work – whether in the classroom itself, a designated time-out area, or in a room away from the class – several conditions need to be observed: • The student should have physical isolation. The time-out area or room should not be intentionally reinforcing. If a student goes to a place where there are toys or books, or the seat outside the office where she can ‘preen’ or watch the parade of people, then the time-out situation may become unhelpfully reinforcing and the consequence will lose any effectiveness. Conversely, a time-out area is not a jail. It is not solitary confinement, but neither should it be a place where the disruptive student can chat with a counsellor, the school secretary, students who pass by or the principal. Counselling best occurs at other times not connected to the time-out phase itself. • Students should not associate time-out with unhelpfully positive reinforcing experiences. If a student goes to a senior staff member for time-out it is unhelpful to give the child special privileges: ‘Would you like to do some gardening for a while?’ or ‘Like to do a job for me?’ This associates the time-out with the special privilege. Also ineffective is sending the student to the principal to get ‘howled out’, or humiliated. Some teachers believe it is the principal’s (or coordinator’s) job to ‘fix’ the student, as if by sending the student for the stern talks he will come back promising to be good forever! • The teacher who initiates the time-out process is responsible (with appropriate support) for follow-up and follow-through. The student needs to understand why he was sent to time-out; why he was isolated from our class. Of course he may not realise this in the heat of the moment of temporary exclusion. Awareness comes later (we hope) when the initiating teacher makes time to talk the issue through with the student. It is important the teacher communicates that it is the particular behaviour that is unacceptable, wrong and against the rules and that is why we asked him to leave our class (rather than ‘You make me sick with your calling out, now get out!’). We are trying to communicate that his separation from the group is occurring because he is too upset, angry, disruptive or dangerous, or unwilling or refusing to cooperate. If a student has been in time-out several times in close succession,

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then obviously an individual behaviour plan will need to be developed with that student (see p. 173). • Time-out is normally the ‘last’ option when our corrective interventions in class time are repeatedly resisted or refused by the student. It ought never to be used as the ‘easy way out’ for the teacher when a child is calling out, refuses a task, does not have equipment, comes to class late or is indulging in low-level attentional behaviours. • There are occasions, however, where time-out may be a first response such as when a child is highly threatening, is fighting, exhibiting dangerous behaviour or is swearing at and verbally abusing his teacher. • Exiting of the students from a classroom for time-out needs to be carefully established as school policy and practice. Should it be left to the class teacher to send the student to a nominated time-out area? Or to a senior teacher? Should a third party come and exit the student? A clear, school-wide policy needs to be worked out. This policy will have a least-to-most degree of intrusiveness from five minutes cool-off time in the room, to the use of colleagues’ classrooms for a time-out area, through to senior teacher involvement. This staged response needs to be clear to all staff.

Crisis time-out It is important to consider how we address students who refuse to leave the classroom for time-out (or if time-out is used in the playground, how we deal with students who refuse to be directed to time-out in the school building). While the law allows some measured physical restraint of children who are a significant danger to themselves or others, dragging or ‘manhandling’ older children is potentially a hazardous, even dangerous, approach (p. 115). It is also rarely ever necessary. Physical restraint is rarely appropriate in a situation where a student refuses to leave a classroom in a time-out context. The key rule here needs to be: if we can’t reasonably direct or escort a child from their peer audience when they are significantly acting out then we direct the peer audience from the disrupting or dangerous child. No teacher should be left in the invidious position of having to scream and yell and threaten or allow a student to effectively ‘hold the class to ransom’.

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It is preferable in these cases that the student is escorted to time-out by a third party (a senior teacher) – especially with older primary or post-primary students who are aggressive, threatening, hostile and abusive in their behaviour. I’ve seen some very ugly scenes where teachers have tried physically to force aggressive students from their classes. The exit process is best carried out as calmly and with as much dignity as is possible so that it doesn’t become reinforcing to the disruptive student. It is even worth discussing with colleagues what sorts of language cues we can use with such students when in an emotionally charged context. In some cases, colleague-supported time-out may be the only option (in small schools with limited staff, for instance). Teachers working in classrooms close to each other use each other’s classrooms to ‘look after’ a student needing time-out. Teacher A directs the disruptive student to Teacher B (teaching next door, or across the corridor). The colleague who has ‘received’ the disruptive student decides how long the student will stay in their class for time-out before they send them back to the student’s own class. In the case where a student refuses to leave the classroom with a support teacher it will often be more effective for the support colleague to stay in the classroom and supervise the acting-out student, while the regular classroom teacher calmly directs the rest of the class outside to another area, to ‘remove’ the peer audience. In any time-out context, the primary aim of directed exit of a student away from the classroom is to allow the student time to settle down and think about his behaviour. It will be someone’s job (support colleague, year level coordinator, senior teacher, vice-principal, principal) to enable the student to renegotiate entry to their classroom. The amount of time the student is detained in any time-out context will depend on the seriousness of the behaviour that occasioned the time-out consequence. Normally the student would go back to their class after that class period (primary) or the next class (secondary) – unless the precipitating behaviour is very serious.

Cueing the student for time-out Where possible, the student should been made aware that if she continues her present behaviour affecting others’ rights then she will have to face time-out:

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‘Jess, I’ve asked you to settle down several times. If you’re not willing to work by our fair rules I’ll have to ask you to leave the classroom and go to …’ (where we direct the student to go for time-out will depend on the degree of seriousness of their behaviour, and the options available in the school). If a specific room is used for time-out supervision, then it is preferable that there are enough willing, and able, teachers rostered to staff the time-out room. A clear policy of teacher action should be established: • The supervising teacher needs to be able to communicate a sense of supportive calmness to the child in the time-out place. However, we need to avoid confusing being sent to time-out with a counselling session. It is primarily a directed separation for the student from the circumstances and context of his disruptive behaviour (p. 166). • Establish a clear policy of student movement to and from the time-out room. • Record the details of time, child’s name, class, etc. • When the child seems to have settled down, it can help to ask them to fill in a 4W form (pp. 112, 298). • Establish a clear understanding of, and framework for, follow-up. A time-out room (like the consequence of time-out) is never an end in itself. • It is crucial that the initiating teacher engage in follow-up as soon as practicable. Time-out is a primary consequence. It will often need to be followed through by the initiating teacher working with the student on a restitution of some kind. This secondary aspect to the time-out process needs to be carried though supportively by the teacher who initiated the time-out consequence. Often that follow-up process will need to be assisted by a senior teacher.

Children with diagnosed behaviour disorders There are children who present in our schools with a range of behaviour disorders – most commonly ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder), ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorders), or ODSD (Oppositional Spectrum Defiance Disorders). Boys are more commonly diagnosed with such disorders, and within any formal diagnosis of such disorders there is a range and degree of disruptive and challenging behaviour present in any one child.1 For example, within

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ASD there are high functioning expressions of autistic behaviours as well as low functioning expressions. There are also children who exhibit symptomatic features of ASD, ADHD or ODSD who have no formal diagnosis. Their parents may have refused to permit their children to present for diagnostic support, or – in some cases – no formal diagnosis has been given even though symptomatic expressions of such disorders are present in the child’s behaviour at school. While teachers need to be aware of the behavioural, psychological and social features of such disorders we also need to provide adequate, appropriate support and special provision for such students in mainstream schools.

Predispositions: What can and can’t be changed Many of us can recount tragic stories of children and families we’ve worked with over the years; family backgrounds of desperation, deprivation, neglect and abuse. This is only ever a small percentage of students, thankfully, but it is a tragic and disturbing reality. Whenever we are aware that a child is at risk (psychologically and educationally), we need to communicate our concerns to senior colleagues to enable appropriate due process with necessary agencies. These children, however, are still attending school. The circumstances, issues and contexts of their family dynamic will often significantly affect their behaviour, learning and ability to cope socially at school. Many teachers will agonise over the welfare of children in such situations – yet at the same time do their utmost to enable the child to feel that school at least can be a safe, sane, secure place for them (see particularly McPherson & Rogers 2008). The difficult truth is that we cannot control the predisposing factors that affect some of our students: substance abuse by their parents; poor/inadequate diet; long-term unemployment; generational poverty; ‘mobility lifestyles’; intolerant, sexist, racist, homophobic attitudes; intolerant religious attitudes; young children watching totally inappropriate TV; older children involved in disturbing internet behaviours; abusive parenting and family dysfunction (see Gresch et al. 2002) … We obviously cannot control these factors.

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We can, however, control the schooling climate they come to every day. We can enable and support positive understandings about adult care, guidance and support. We can offer and strengthen the possibilities of hope. Children spend up to a third of their day in their local educational community – it is here that we seek to build a community of hope for change.

Challenging children Any whole-school approach has to balance the rights of all children with the rights to inclusion of the individual. Where the child’s behaviour has an ongoing detrimental and damaging effect on other children and staff, a whole-school approach is essential. Any individual plans will need to include parent awareness, discussion and hopefully support. Parents can offer a context; a developmental understanding of their child’s behaviour. We should never easily dismiss their experience, knowledge, understanding and (at times thankfully) their expertise. Some parents have frustration and at times anger about the school’s provision for their child. There may be an attitude of blame and self-denial. It is important that senior staff communicate their concerns about children’s behaviour clearly, without self-deprecation; we should never minimise the school’s central rights – our focus on safety, learning and respect (p. 122). Doing this while extending support is no mean feat; this is why our work with challenging children must be securely exercised within a whole-school approach. Within an educational commitment to inclusion, schools are not always adequately resourced with integration aides, welfare support, educational psychologists or specialist behaviour teachers. Notwithstanding that reality, we will still need to support students with individual education and behaviour plans to realise any meaningful inclusiveness. Such plans are labour-intensive but necessary.

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A behaviour profile Any individual behaviour plan will be affected not only by a formal diagnosis of a behaviour disorder but also by how frequently the child displays distracting, disruptive or disordered behaviour in the school setting. 1. For example, how frequently does the student: –

call out in class or interrupt others, including the teacher?

–

push or shove when lining up or entering the classroom?

–

roll around on the carpet area?

–

hide under tables during class teaching time?

–

rock heavily in his chair?

–

wander during learning time?

–

task avoid or task refuse?

2. How durable is such behaviour? Is it every day? Is it 10, 15, 20 times in every lesson of every day? We should always distinguish between bad-day syndrome and durable patterns of behaviour. 3. How generally does the child exhibit such behaviours? Is it with every teacher? Every subject? Every class? If the student’s behaviour varies significantly across and with teachers, teaching assistants and integration aides, then we can assume that the child is selectively disruptive rather than behaviourally disordered. Some children are clearly able to modify their behaviour across different teachers or settings (even some students with diagnosed behaviour disorders). 4. How intensively is disruptive behaviour expressed? It’s one thing for a child to ‘wander’ during whole-class teaching time; it’s quite another for a child to frequently wander and hassle other children by pushing their books off their table, scribbling (or spitting) on their work, etc. In this sense the child’s characteristic behaviours: • prevent him from participating in any meaningful way in the curriculum (this may include frequent, generalised passivity in some children) • have a detrimental effect on the learning of other children (their rights always need to be considered too) • result in frequent ‘isolation’ from the child’s peer group (withdrawal and time-out). This often results in peer disapproval, dislike and even rejection

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• place extreme and stressful demands on individual staff and staff teams. The management and support of at-risk children is labour-intensive by any measure. Where a behaviour profile like that above is clearly evident, then early intervention is essential in the development of any individual behaviour support plan. With significant and long-term support, the child’s negative sense of self (his self-esteem, his self-concept) and his ability to develop a positive sense of independence and social relationships is possible. Schools can be seminal places for hope in a child’s life journey.

Individual behaviour plans Individual behaviour plans are an essential feature of a whole-school approach to behaviour management and discipline. Essentially they are a planned agreement between the teacher(s) and the individual student concerning desirable social behaviours or task goals. They are the result of negotiation and discussion between teacher and student or (on occasion) a teacher and the whole class. Behaviour planning of this kind will often involve senior administration and parents. Behaviour plans may be verbal or written and may contain short-term or long-term goals for the student. They can be modelled or rehearsed with younger students as a means of reinforcing the target behaviours and ought to be evaluated by all parties as part of the process of achieving behaviour support and behaviour change.

The rationale Teachers and students must be able to cooperate with one another if they are to develop and utilise any individual behaviour plan. If the relationship climate doesn’t lend itself to this, the teacher may need to call in a support teacher to mediate and enable the process. At secondary level this will often necessitate a senior teacher working with a student (one-to-one) to develop an individual behaviour plan. This ‘adult mentor’ role needs some dedicated time-release to enable the senior teacher to initiate and develop such plans with at-risk students.

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A behaviour plan is built on the belief and expectation that children can be helped towards better problem-solving, understanding of the effects of their behaviour, exploration of alternatives, making of realistic commitments about behaviour and following through. The teacher’s task is to teach desired behaviours (within an individual plan) and enable, encourage and support students to take responsibility for their behaviour and learning. Students, therefore, need plans they can cope with; not too much too soon. The fact that an individual behaviour plan is being used often indicates that normal classroom approaches have not enabled appropriate change in attitude and behaviour. The plan should therefore not try to change everything overnight; we start with small, realistic, achievable steps.

Types of behaviour plans If a behaviour plan (sometimes called a ‘contract’) is written, it’s helpful when the student participates in the development and even the phrasing of the language. Small children can be helped to draw a picture of the desirable behaviour, or have a behaviour chart for on-task work. If the plan involves behaviour modification, then task records or goal charts can be used. At primary school level, these one-to-one sessions are normally conducted at lunchtime unless the school is large enough to enable some time-release for a class teacher to work one-to-one with a student needing individual behaviour support.

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Written plans Lily was a ‘problem’ according to her Year 8 teacher, and was constantly being referred to the year level coordinator for behaviour problems. She was often rude in class, very frequently calling out and interrupting others’ learning, and was regularly late to classes; sometimes missing them completely. Quite apart from the need to work with some of Lily’s teachers on aspects of their discipline and management approaches, it was essential to work with Lily on a behaviour plan. A problem-solving group was organised; it included Lily, her parents, her year level coordinator and the student welfare teacher. The process involved several stages: • making the issues and concerns of her disruptive behaviour clear (everybody who taught Lily was asked to contribute prior to that first meeting) • brainstorming possible solutions (the chairperson guides the process by reflective listening, probing, clarifying questions, restating. All ‘solutions’ are noted down at this stage) • working through the solutions and deciding on the most appropriate • making a plan for implementation and meeting again to discuss, review and evaluate how the plan is working. It was hard work, but with careful guiding by the group’s chairperson, all sides were considered and Lily came up with a tentative plan to address her behaviour. It was clear from the outset the supportive attitude and approach by school staff enabled Lily (and her parents) to feel valued and accepted in this process. A timetable was drawn up to clarify her class times. It was decided that Lily should write the behaviour agreement with the Year 8 coordinator, and that it should cover calling out; handling her frustrations in class (the cause of her rudeness); and also arrival times to class. The year level coordinator agreed to support her effort and make available copies of the agreement to Lily’s subject teachers.

››

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A crucial factor of the plan was enabling the subject teachers (particularly those subjects Lily struggled with) to consciously support Lily’s efforts. They decided to meet again as a group in a fortnight. There was a significant improvement even over that time: this was acknowledged and affirmed. The plan was reassessed and a few changes were made. Three weeks later they had the last meeting and agreed that Lily had handled her plan well – at times very well.

This problem-solving approach requires that all parties have an opportunity to contribute and work through the process. It calls for careful guidance by the chairperson to work through each stage leading to the expressed commitment. In the case of Lily, one of the by-products of this plan process was a more positive effort by her teachers to assist Lily and encourage her efforts to change her attitude and behaviour. The teachers noted how they had begun to look for positive behaviours from Lily, expecting them, and commenting on them.

Behaviour rehearsals It can help to rehearse the behaviour plan with the student one-to-one in non-class time (particularly at primary age level). 1. Gently mirror the student’s current behaviour (with their permission – see p. 108). 2. Clearly explain and describe target behaviours and why this behaviour/s is necessary and important. It can help to have a drawing depicting the key behaviours, with key positive phrases that briefly and specifically phrase what is involved in the student’s plan. I’ve seen many plans over the years phrased in negatives such as ‘Don’t call out in class’; ‘Don’t use a loud voice’; ‘Don’t be rude’; ‘Don’t talk while the teacher is teaching’; ‘Don’t muck around in class’. What do any of these descriptions teach the child about what he should be doing and why? When phrasing behaviour targets, we need to be specific and (wherever possible) positive: ‘Hands up (without calling out or finger clicking)’; ‘Wait for the teacher to call on you’; ‘Use your inside voice (instead of a loud outside voice)’.

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3. The teacher models the target behaviours. The supervising teacher will model or demonstrate the appropriate behaviour concretely. While modelling the behaviour, talk with the student about the key points in the target behaviour. Help the student to focus the behaviour on two or three specific reference points, for example ‘When you notice yourself getting angry your plan is to: –

tell yourself what’s happening (“I’m feeling annoyed”, or “I’m getting frustrated”)

–

calm yourself by counting back from ten to one; when you feel calmer, rethink what you need to be doing

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if you feel you can’t manage how you’re feeling, ask to take five minutes cool-off-time if necessary. (Any self-directed cool-off time for older students must be thoroughly clear for all teachers in its application.)

4. Encourage the student to rehearse and talk through the behaviours they are learning: ‘Elizabeth, I want you to show me what you will do if you are starting to feel really frustrated or angry.’ The teacher can add self-coping or affirmation statements such as ‘I am getting really frustrated – but I know what to do. I can handle this’; ‘I can count back from 10 – 10, 9, 8 …’; ‘I can calm my muscles and breathe a bit slower’; ‘I’m feeling more in control now …’ The student is asked to verbalise the affirmation aloud a few times, then sub-vocalise. The teacher says, ‘Show me now. What are you saying inside your head, Elizabeth?’ Elizabeth might reply, ‘I am angry, but I am doing my plan’, or ‘I made a mistake but I know how to fix it’, or ‘I can stop getting too uptight when I use my plan. I can use it now.’

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5. Back in the classroom all teachers will reinforce and encourage the student when they use their plan. In the class, when the student is acting on their plan, the teacher will encourage by giving quiet feedback: ‘I can see you have remembered your plan, Elizabeth. It’s not easy to manage frustration but you did it.’ In the process of negotiating a plan we are trying to enable the student to be aware of, and take some charge of, their learning and behaviour. The goals for the plan should be as brief as possible, clear and achievable. If they’re not achievable, the child may give up too quickly, too easily. It is also important to emphasise to the student that it is her effort that makes the difference.

Self-awareness triggers The student will often need help to identify the circumstances that trigger their disruptive behaviour. The student can then be encouraged to use their selfawareness to develop self-control skills: 1. ‘When you feel frustrated – you know, when you feel really upset about your work – I want you to sit still, put your hands on your lap and count slowly to five.’ The teacher can model what is meant here. ‘Do it while you close your eyes. Let’s practise it now. Well done, you remembered to …’ (be specific). Then: 2. ‘Go back to your work and slowly start again. Say to yourself, “I am able to do my work when I try with the skills I’ve learned in my plan.” Let’s practise it now. Say it aloud. Now say it to yourself inside your head. Show me.’ Internal self-coping statements are useful tools to build in to the student’s sense of self-control, for example: ‘Elizabeth, what could you say to yourself that would help you to feel better when you are frustrated and getting angry?’; ‘Elizabeth, I want you to try saying to yourself … when you feel …’ It can help to have these self-coping statements written (or with a small drawing) so the student can use them as a personal aide-mémoire. 3. ‘Try these steps every time you get upset about your work time. Let’s practise it again.’ In the classroom time, the teacher would observe the student’s behaviour and give a brief, quiet, social reinforcer (‘I can see you are practising your plan’).

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4. Renegotiate with the student if they are struggling with their plan. Short steps towards the longer term goal are better than trying too much too soon.

Picture plans Picture plans (Rogers 2003) provide a way of visualising behaviour targets particularly with younger primary-aged children. Stick-figure drawings are used to illustrate the student’s current disruptive behaviour and then compared to another drawing illustrating the student behaving appropriately within his plan. • Illustrate ‘target behaviours’ on a small card and rehearse them with the child. Some teachers use a photograph of the child, say, sitting on the carpet with their hand up and listening (without calling out). If we use photographs as visual cues for children we need to get senior teacher and parental permission. • Use a mirroring approach to briefly illustrate the inappropriate/disruptive behaviour (p. 108). We wouldn’t normally use mirroring approaches with children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. With such children it is enough to clearly identify the required behaviours and then model and practise those behaviours. • Clarify the required, necessary, behaviours (again, drawings or photographs will help. Stick-figure drawings are fine. Such drawings can be used as a kind of ‘social story’). • Model the required, necessary, behaviour. • Encourage the child to practise the behaviours. Point out that we get better at anything (football, swimming, etc.) by practising. Give feedback during the practice session. Give the child his copy of the picture plan. • Make sure all teachers who teach the student have a copy of the plan and a rationale for why this child is on this plan. • Give quiet, brief, regular feedback to the child during class time. At least once a week, set aside some time to ask the child what part of the plan is easiest, which is hardest, and why. • Make sure the parent(s) get feedback about their child’s progress. Refine and finetune the plan and fade out structured support as the positive behaviour generalises.

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The plan questions Changing behaviour, whether social skills or learning skills behaviour, is a considerable challenge for some students – especially when emotions of selfdoubt, frustration and failure are dominant. This is why it is useful to often use the what, how and when questions in the planning sessions: • ‘What are you doing?’ or ‘What are you doing that is against our classroom rules?’ helps the student to be specific about the actual behaviour. With younger children, a drawing that illustrates their calling out, or hiding under a table, or pushing in line, or using too loud a voice will enable their self-awareness. Many primary teachers use simple stick-figure illustrations that portray the child in their typical disruptive behaviour and the child’s peers and teacher looking upset. When we use such drawings, the questions have a much clearer focus: ‘Have a look at this drawing here – where are you? What are you doing in the picture?’ • ‘What should you be doing?’ helps the student to be specific about acceptable behaviour. • ‘What can you do to change?’ helps the student to be specific about solutions for future behaviour. It is important to point out to older children that behaviour is learned and able to be changed and that they can change things for the better with a plan and our support. • ‘How can I help?’ helps the student to think of solutions and assures her of our support. This is crucial. • ‘Let’s make a plan’ helps the student to be confident about future support. A plan gives a visible, targeted, ‘shape’ to a student’s motivation and progress towards behaviour change. At all times the teacher is helping students to take responsibility for their own behaviour.

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and ‘on-taskness’ Restlessness, impulsiveness, inattention and difficulty in attending and focusing are common features of ADHD.

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Tyler (Year 8) would often sit at his desk fiddling with his pencil case for 10 to 15 minutes during on-task learning time. It seemed as if he’d rather be seen as a difficult student than a student who couldn’t do the work. Some teachers would say things like, ‘Why haven’t you started work?’ ‘I haven’t got a pen’, he’d say. Some teachers would argue, ‘You’ve got a whole pencil case full!’ It’s true; he had a massive pencil case which (when disgorged) had pens that didn’t work; dried out felt-tipped pens; footy cards; fast food ‘toys’ … He would often spend ten minutes rifling through his case (to the annoyance of several of his teachers). Some teachers had some success with supplying him with pens and giving him a clearer task focus in class time. However, when we developed a team approach to supporting Tyler, we started to see improvement. A senior teacher set aside some one-to-one behaviour support time to work with Tyler on an individual behaviour plan. In their first one-to-one meeting, the senior teacher sat down with Tyler and discussed his behaviour during on-task learning time. The teacher asked Tyler if he could show him what he’d often noticed about Tyler’s behaviour in different classes. Tyler said he didn’t mind. The teacher briefly ‘mirrored’ (p. 108) how Tyler’s desk looked and how Tyler fiddled and spread out the contents of his very large pencil case during class work time. Tyler laughed with recognition and a little embarrassment. The teacher then suggested to Tyler, ‘Could it be that when you do that …’ (he pointed back to the vacated ‘space’ where he’d briefly pretended to be Tyler in class) ‘you’re trying to avoid starting the class work in case you’re worried you won’t be able to do it?’ The tone was positive and reassuring.

NB Task avoidance and task refusal can have various causes. For example, if the student’s goal is to exhibit some sort of power exchange, the teacher’s question at this point would suggest the student’s ‘goal’ of power, e.g. ‘Could it be that when you refuse to do class work and say “This work is shit” and lean back and fold your arms, could it be that you’re trying to show your teachers and your classmates that you can do what you want; you can call the shots and your teachers can’t stop you or make you behave? Could that be the reason you refuse to do the work?’ Most students respond to such a disclosure with a kind of knowing, nonverbal shrug, or even a smile, indicating that the question has raised awareness about their private logic or purpose in their attentional

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or power-seeking behaviours. The disclosure itself is a helpful starting point in the behaviour support process. Brief mirroring (one-to-one) can also help here; only, however, if the teacher has a positive relationship with the student. Goal disclosure is a particular approach to counselling and behaviour support that helps older children’s awareness of why they behave the way they do in social settings (the audience of their peers) (see Dreikurs et al. 1982). It is a very useful adjunct to behaviour support with challenging children.

From here the teacher discussed the need (and offer) of a supportive plan to help Tyler with his learning skills, such as: • how to physically organise desk space area (what it will look, and feel, like to have an organised desk) • only using a table pencil case (i.e. a small, clear plastic zippered case); one red and one blue pen (checked daily); a pencil (no sharpener); small ruler; and eraser. Any extra equipment used only as needed • only having one workbook on the desk area (and textbook/worksheet as required). It can help some students to have their workbooks colour coded for core subject areas. Once the desk space is organised, Tyler needs to know how to then focus on the learning task (whether board work, textbook, worksheet or group task). A small card with picture cues acts as a personal reminder.

A key feature of focus and cognitive processing depends on the student’s reading and comprehension abilities. My colleagues and I always offer the student the option of working with a reading partner; a fellow student who sits at the same desk area to quietly and non-embarrassingly offer reading support. Such students are chosen carefully (for their high social/emotional intelligence). The names are then offered to the student who is on the personal behaviour plan, to work with them in classes where high focus reading/comprehension is required. We also teach basic task organisation skills such as how to set out a piece of work (even basics like date, margin, headings, etc.). Lastly, we teach perseverance and process skills – doing your best. Some students struggle with not being able to ‘produce’ the same amount, level or

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degree of work as their classmates. We encourage the students that their best effort, on a given day, is what matters to any individual effort. Each teacher who has class contact with the student is asked to give regular encouragement, quietly without over-praising. For example, the teacher comes alongside and quietly notes, ‘Max, I see your desk’s all organised, all the best.’ That’s it. Brief, positive feedback. The student doesn’t need, ‘WOW! Look at your desk! THAT’S BRILLIANT!’ Well meaning over-praising can actually demotivate or ‘over-service’ a child’s insecure attentional goals. The teacher will go back a little later and give some specific, descriptive, quiet, brief, positive feedback about the work or behaviour of the student: ‘I noticed you’ve used some really descriptive words here about the …’, ‘That graph is really clear to read … well set-out …’ It’s also important not to add unnecessary qualifiers: ‘Why can’t you be organised like this all the time?’, ‘If only you always planned your work like this you would get more done, wouldn’t you?’, ‘The desk is well organised but why can’t you do this every lesson?’ (see also p. 231). The individual plan, then, is a series of steps to assist the student in ordering, and remembering, the key skills required to improve his behaviour. My colleagues and I often write the steps on a small (postcard sized) reminder card. We’ll often include some simple drawings to act as a visual aide-mémoire. Each teacher working with the student receives a copy of the plan (plus extras for the day the student forgets their own copy of the plan). At secondary level, the supervising teacher will also have a meeting to explain the plan (and its goals) to each subject teacher and teacher aide. Each teacher will also give feedback to the supervising teacher who developed the plan. This collegial liaison enables consistency of approach and support across the student’s classes. We also encourage a common approach to any discipline practice (such as in-class correction) and use of behaviour consequences, particularly the use and follow-up of time-out. For example, if a student is late, we meet, we quietly greet the student and we direct them to a seat. We follow up the reason for the lateness at a later stage in the lesson or after class. If a student is out of their seat in on-task learning time or hasn’t started work, we’ll walk over to the student

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and acknowledge/describe (p. 63), for example, ‘Tyler, I notice you’re out of your seat. What should you be doing in your plan now?’ (The teacher quietly shows Tyler a copy of his plan.) ‘I forgot my plan today.’ ‘There’s a spare copy on your desk.’ ‘Shit’, sighs Tyler, but is resigned. The teacher adds, ‘See you back at your desk a little later.’ Tyler ‘slumps’ off to his desk. This approach is in preference to walking up to Tyler and saying, ‘Why are you out of your seat? Why aren’t you working?’ Such an approach will often lead to unnecessary conflict.

Encouraging long-term change Long-term change takes time. It is unrealistic to expect success overnight; selfdefeating behaviours have been built up and unconsciously developed over years, sometimes under inconsistent adult tutelage. Students can, and often do, get strong reinforcement from teachers and parents for negative behaviour. Hostile attention, nagging or rough treatment by an adult is still a form of attention, which some children actively seek even if such seeking is not fully conscious. It will take significant resolve, goodwill and support to make any impact with such students, and it is important that we: • consistently show respect to the student through the steps we take to help them manage their behaviour through the plans we develop with them • encourage the student’s approximations and efforts towards cooperative behaviour, and making encouragement situation- and behaviour-specific (p. 228) • don’t excuse aberrant behaviour because of a child’s difficult circumstances. We apply consequences when the ‘heat’ dies down.

We can’t make the student do anything I once watched a principal trying to get a student to wipe spit off a window. In full view of a third of the school, the almost apoplectic principal tried to

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drag the Year 6 student’s hand to the spattered window. He couldn’t make him, however hard he pulled. The student was dragged, swearing, back to the principal’s office. Who won? What infuriates some teachers who have to deal with difficult students is the sense of powerlessness that such students can create by their resistant and oppositional behaviour. In disciplining such students – in balancing corrective and supportive adult direction – we need to accept the fundamental premise first: we can’t simply make a student do anything. We can direct, restate, ask, encourage, assert and even command, but the more we use teacher force alone, the more we lose (face, control, temper). Some of our very challenging students have long-habituated repertoires in baiting or setting up teachers. Some will easily get what they want: reaction and attention; in short, a sense of social power. If we are going to be effective with such students, we will need to be aware of the deeper problems affecting their behaviour at school (p. 170) as well as the acting out behaviour they present when an audience is available. This does not mean we excuse their behaviour. Mia, a Year 3 student (and a ward of the state), displayed strong attention-seeking behaviours which included throwing off her shoes and socks (sometimes at the teacher), spitting, swearing, sometimes biting, calling out, task refusal and avoidance. She came from a severely disturbed and broken home life and was in transit to another institution while awaiting foster parents. The school decided on a year level collegial support plan. A behaviour modification schedule was drawn up and Mia was given a personal reminder book with weekly target behaviours. Those behaviours were rehearsed with two teachers (the grade teacher and another grade teacher willing to have Mia in her class) and Mia in one-to-one practice sessions. A discipline plan was worked out for all the teachers and aides working with Mia, so the teachers knew when and how to intervene. When teacher frustration reached a significant level, Mia was escorted to Teacher B’s room, with her behaviour modification book. In this way the management of Mia was shared between two teachers. With consistent, firm, calm treatment she progressed remarkably well and in a few months had settled back into some sort of steady routine at school.

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Routine, consistency and firm, caring adults are crucial when dealing with deep-seated and ongoing disruptive behaviour patterns. Effective teachers working with such students are marked by: • their willingness not to give up and to respect the unlikeable • their willingness to enlist the help of others • their basic calmness and their ability to communicate that reasonably to the children • their consistency of response; not treating students significantly differently in front of each other, to ensure that those with behaviour issues are not simply seen as ‘special cases’ and allowed to get away with unacceptable behaviour • their encouragement, regularly expressed, for the child’s effort (they expect positive change, but not overnight!) • their provision of opportunities for success • their judicious sense of humour and refusal to take all such acting out behaviour as personal attacks on them.

Behaviour plans summary • Always develop any individual behaviour plan in consultation with colleagues. The behaviour profile (p. 172) will alert us to the child’s need for support with some kind of plan. • Early intervention is crucial when the durable nature of distracting/disruptive behaviour is clear. • Always develop any individual behaviour plan in a one-to-one relationship with the child. • Prior to the first meeting with the child, discuss (with team colleagues/senior team leaders) what behaviours to focus on first. For example at preschool level we often begin by teaching the child (one-to-one) how to sit on the mat and where (during any whole-class activity such as morning sharing time, story time, group teaching time ‘on-the-mat’); how to sit relaxed (in a way that doesn’t upset/annoy other students); how to listen with your ears and eyes when facing the front of the room; hands up without calling out; sharing (when you speak) in an inside classroom voice, etc. All these

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behaviours describe the general behaviour of sitting on the mat. It is these behaviours that can be taught through discussion, picture cues, modelling, rehearsal and feedback (p. 178).

NB When working with children diagnosed with ASD, the repeatedly corrective phrase ‘sit on the mat properly’ is, in a sense, meaningless. We need to help the student clearly identify and specifically understand what is meant by ‘sitting properly’.

• When helping the child to understand what their disruptive behaviour looks, feels and sounds like, it can help to gently and briefly mirror it to them. Picture cues, too, can aid awareness and understanding (p. 179). • Direct the primary focus of any one-to-one meetings to the required/ necessary behaviours the child needs to develop. Identify the behaviours specifically (i.e. lining up safely without pushing, queue jumping, poking or ‘hassling’; hands up without calling out or clicking fingers; using an inside/quieter/classroom voice instead of a playground voice; organising the desk space so it’s not cluttered; only having the necessary workbooks and equipment on the desk that are actually needed, p. 181). • All these behaviours (in any individual plan) can be modelled to the child/ young person. Modelling clarifies the ‘physicality’ of a skill/behaviour for the student. • Encourage the child to practise or rehearse the skills and behaviours in the plan. Indeed, the test of a viable plan is whether we’re able (as the teacher) to specify and model, and whether the student is able to practise the behaviours within the plan. This is true of both social skills and academic learning/task skills (Rogers 2003). • Make sure each teacher/teaching assistant/integration aide who works with the child is clear about the purpose of the plan; how best to give positive feedback in class time (and in one-to-one feedback sessions) and also how to use positive correction when the child is forgetful, lazy or having a bad day. A genuinely common, committed, collegial approach is essential to any success with such plans.

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• At early years level, many children will benefit from the support of peermentorship. Grade teachers select a few children whose social/emotional intelligence equips them to quietly sit and work alongside a child in need. Such a peer-mentor role is rostered on a weekly basis and the grade teacher gives guidance to the mentor student on how to quietly remind and encourage the student in question. • There will be days when students don’t feel like ‘doing their plan’; or they’re having another bad day. If, on these days, they refuse to cooperate and are persistently distracting or disruptive, it will be important to utilise appropriate time-out measures (p. 163). All colleagues working with the student need to be clearly aware of what to do, and say, in such time-out contexts. • As soon as the student has completed any time-out consequence it will be important – when the child is back in class – for the teacher to be supportive and refocus the student within his plan. • At times, progress may well be three steps forward, one step back! • We also need to encourage the parent(s) in the child’s progress on a regular basis.

Individual plans at secondary level At secondary level, an individual behaviour plan will normally be initiated and conducted by a senior teacher who has been given some dedicated time-release to work with at-risk students. This ‘case supervisory’ role (sometimes termed ‘adult mentorship’, ‘behaviour support teacher’ or ‘behaviour recovery teacher’) is one that involves: • clarifying the student’s ‘behaviour profile’ across all classes and all teachers (p. 172) • one-to-one planning time with the student and developing a plan within the guidelines noted above (p. 180) • liaising with all subject teachers, integration teachers and teacher aides. Such liaison will clarify why this student is on this specific individual plan, suggestions on how to give encouragement and feedback to the student in class time, and suggestions about corrective discipline in class time.

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• communicating a clear, ‘staged’, time-out plan to all staff at that year level, particularly noting who to call in a crisis (p. 164) • liaising in any follow-up support from any time-out episode • meeting with the student twice a week (initially) to discuss the plan and its progress, to give feedback and finetune, and to address any concerns, issues or problems the student raises about particular classes or teachers. The case supervisor will also liaise with the school counsellor or welfare teacher, educational psychologist and parent(s). While this approach is initially labour intensive, it is more effective in the long term in that it is whole-school in focus. It enables that sense of shared, collegial approach and support for the student and teachers. Within the review-process of such plans over time it will sometimes be clear that the student is making little or no progress in behaviour. A school cannot allow any individual child to repeatedly, continually, hold classes (and the safety and learning of teachers and students) effectively to ransom. Sadly there are a few students for whom we have to say to parent(s) or caregivers, ‘We cannot any longer support your child at our school with this repeated pattern of behaviour’. Such a meeting is never easy; we need clear and accurate paperwork and a clear and considered collegial response. It is never a decision we should make quickly, ill-advisedly or without formal due-process. It is, however, a decision that will need to be made at times. The options for students expelled from school are limited, and places are often difficult to organise. Pupil referral units and alternative schools can often enable the fresh start the child needs. Let us hope that if we need to expel a student, both the student and their parents at least remember that we made a long-term, respectful, supported effort towards the student’s successful integration into the school community.

Questions to consider • How are students with behaviour disorders (diagnosed or undiagnosed) targeted for support and special assistance in your school?

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• What sorts of individual behaviour plans are developed to support the students at risk? What sorts of support are provided for teachers who teach students at risk and students diagnosed with behaviour disorders? • How can we work more effectively with such students within a whole-school approach? • In what ways can we improve the supports we give the teachers and teacheraides who work with our most challenging and at-risk students?

Endnote 1.

There are other physical disorders, cognitive disorders and impairments that present in schools, such as malformative syndromes (e.g. Prader-Willi Syndrome, Seckel Syndrome, Hurler’s Syndrome), Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, mutism and anxiety-disorder behaviours such as soiling (see Clough et al. 2005; Hullard Johnson et al. 1981; Westwood 2009). These syndromes need specialist, medical diagnoses and significant interagency support whether in special school settings or in inclusive school-based settings. Collegial, inter-agency support can provide the degree of awareness and focus to enable and support class teachers and teaching assistants to develop a program at school level. There are also speech and hearing impairments that affect children in their learning and their socialisation at school. These issues are not addressed in this text.

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Chapter 7 Building a positive classroom climate

‘[We are] by nature a social being.’ Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics: Book One, p. 74 ‘Classroom climate’ is something a student can sense and feel about belonging to this group of students. A positive classroom climate will not occur accidentally. There are essential aspects of our leadership, organisation and how we relate to our students that will create and enable a positive sense of belonging. A class is, fundamentally, a group of people; the relational and social dynamic is central to how positive each of its members feels about belonging to the group. Each class is a group engaged in learning, growing up in social direction and building a sense of identity and common purpose. It is important, therefore, that the teacher seeks out ways in which the class, as individuals and as a group, can experience a positive learning and social environment. Obviously there are many factors which influence class tone, from the kind of individual lessons the teacher prepares on a given theme through to how she feels on a particular morning when she has a ghastly headache. Above all, though, it is the nature of teacher leadership that we exercise that is central to the likelihood of a positive classroom climate.

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Establishment phase It is crucial, here, to think and plan preventatively to minimise unnecessary problems

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teach routines, rules and positive behaviours (model same)

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encourage and support positive behaviours

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enforce fair rules

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engage and build positive working relationships with individuals and groups

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Consolidating the way we do things, the way we behave and work together in our classroom

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Maintaining the fair rules and routines

Maintenance and consolidation phase

Early follow-up and follow through of students with learning and behaviour needs

Cohesive phase Most of the management or discipline at this stage occurs in a relational context

Introduce classroom meetings

Figure 7.1 The three basic phases in the ‘life’ of a classroom group

Establishing a new class The establishment phase is a crucial time in the life cycle of a class and their teacher. The students expect their teacher, in those first meetings, to explain, discuss and teach how things will be in this class, in this room, in this subject, this year. There is a psychological readiness, and a developmental readiness, among the students on day one, week one that will never be quite as focused again. Teachers need to seize the ‘teachable moments’, as it were, and clarify those rights, rules, routines and responsibilities that will, in time, enable the

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reasonably smooth running of teaching, learning and social interaction in that strangely small arena called a classroom (see Figure 7.1). Even if students have gone over all this in other years and with other teachers (as they will have), they need to establish a working understanding of each teacher’s expectations each new year or semester. The more there is common agreement by all staff in this area, the more effective such rules, routines and expectations will be. It is always worth discussing with colleagues such fundamental issues as entry and exit from the classroom; initiation and establishment of whole-class attention and focus during whole-class teaching time; dealing with initial disruptions (lateness, calling out, talking while teacher is talking, students without equipment, etc.); transitions from whole-class teaching time to on-task learning time; ‘working noise’; how to get teacher assistance and attention appropriately during on-task learning time; lesson closure and considerate exit from the classroom. While many of these issues may sound like they require basic preventative planning, I’ve worked with many teachers (not just beginning teachers) who have had ad hoc and inconsistent responses to such essential management routines. Students very quickly sense whether teachers are in control of the establishment process in those first meetings. By ‘control’, I mean a conscious directing of events so that students will feel secure in their knowledge of the reasonable parameters of classroom life, and confident that the teacher knows what they are doing in their leadership of the class. The teacher style needs to be positive, authoritative and confident about expected and required behaviour (p. 29 and Chapter 3).

A workable classroom entry and exit procedure Some teachers (especially at primary level) have the students line up before classroom entry. Even at some secondary schools, teachers have the students in some basic ordered ‘ensemble’ near the entry door. In other schools the students just enter and settle. It is important not to keep students waiting for an impossibly perfect line-up. We need to discuss with faculty and colleagues what is reasonable and age-appropriate ‘line-up’ and entry practice. A positive greeting (especially in the morning, and with each class at secondary level) is important – basic as that may sound. At primary level, we’ll call the stragglers into line, briefly encourage those making an effort to consider

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others and usher them in to take their seats or their position on the mat. At secondary level, brief reminders about putting iPods or phones away, hats off and chewing gum in the bin en route to our seats may be required (pp. 10, 67). During the first few days or so, it can help to remind students of expected behaviours before they actually go into the classroom. After greeting the students, the teacher can give behavioural reminders or questions: ‘When you go into the classroom, remember to sit on the carpet area facing the board. Thanks’; ‘When you go in, remember to go straight to your seats (or work area, or …) and quietly get out your materials so we’re ready to start’; ‘Before you go in, remember coats, hats, bags, lunchboxes …’; or it can help (with younger primary-aged students) to ask: ‘What do we need to remember before we go in?’ It can also be helpful to take primary-aged children back out into the corridor if you think they haven’t ‘got it’, for a second practice with encouragement, including comments such as ‘That’s better, you remembered to sit in a half-circle’ and ‘It’s helpful when the taller students sit at the back; thank you’. Concentrate on their efforts at giving this routine a go. As noted earlier, it is always worth checking on how other colleagues actually ‘do’ this and why. Having consistency of practice in core routines in the establishment phase of the year or semester will always aid stability, and result in more settled and focused classes. The finetuning of a routine can make all the difference. For example, with lower primary-level children, just gently sweeping your arm in a full-metre arc to show them where you want them sitting on the mat can help them to visualise it.

Initiating and sustaining whole-class attention and focus This aspect of our leadership is crucial to the relative success of any group activity at any age and in any context. We need to be able to positively direct students to settle, attend and focus. This issue has been discussed earlier (p. 10). It is at this stage of the lesson that there is natural restlessness, whether in a classroom, a gym or elsewhere outside the classroom context. • Always cue the group from the front of the classroom or learning area. This presents an ‘anchor’ for where whole-group attention and focus is expected and required.

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• Be aware that our calmness will enable and cue calmness in our students (p. 19). • Be conscious, too, of what language cues are used. If we ask, ‘Can you please be quiet and listen?’, ‘Will you stop talking and listen?’, this sounds like a request rather than a direction, particularly if the teacher’s voice tone and presence is non-assertive; it may even sound like pleading. If we simply use negatives (‘Don’t call out’, ‘Stop talking’) it can send unnecessarily negative messages (p. 65). • In more restless classes we’ll also need to briefly cue students who are chatting while the teacher is directing the class to settle. The same with students who are fiddling loudly with water bottles, tapping with pens, fiddling with window blinds, etc. It is important to address any persistent chatting (even quiet chatting, p. 36). Directional language focuses on the expected behaviour: ‘Settling down, everyone ( … ), eyes and ears this way ( … ), thanks’, or variations of ‘Settling ( … ) looking ( … ) listening ( … )’, followed by a brief wait (to cue for settling) (pp. 10, 54). Many teachers will use a nonverbal cue such as a raised hand, a bell, even the tinging of a glass. When teaching primary classes (years ago now) I’d strum a chord on my guitar, wait, and then verbally cue when necessary. If it’s several students who are distracting we can use a brief group description/direction/reminder, for example, ‘A number of students are chatting ( … ). It’s whole-class teaching time.’ Sometimes the description of the student(s) behaviour itself acts as a reminder and most students will stop and refocus. At other times we’ll need to add the direction as well, ‘Eyes and ears this way – thanks.’ With more ebullient chatters we’ll need to add, ‘ – without talking.’ If several students are calling out, again a brief description/direction is often enough: ‘A number of students are calling out’ (the descriptive cue) ‘… hands down for now, thanks. I’ll take questions later’ (the directional cue). It is important to say, ‘A number of students are …’ rather than convey the impression that it’s all the students. That’s unfair to the students who are making an effort to cooperate with their teacher. If it’s a more persistent individual who is distracting, we obviously need to cue them by name and then describe/direct or rule-remind. ‘Lachlan ( … ),

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Dane ( … ), you’re fiddling with the window blinds’ (description). ‘Leave the blinds and facing this way. Thanks’ (the direction). Our positive tone of voice and expectant manner are, of course, as crucial as any language we use (p. 16). We need to be able to express – to communicate – a confident, assured, positive presence at this point in the lesson. Until (and unless) we have whole-class attention we cannot even begin any meaningful group learning. I was asked to take a Year 9 home group one morning. My colleague had described them as ‘seriously ratty’ (plus a few other choice epithets). As I walked in, a girl pushed past me, saying, ‘I ain’t going in.’ Directing her comment to a girl just in front of her, she continued, ‘She’s a bitch, I hate her!’ A friendship fracas, I surmised. The student sulked, leaning against the wall outside the classroom. ‘You look quite upset,’ I said. ‘Maybe you need some cool-off time. When you’re ready, come in and join us.’ I didn’t want to force a scene. I walked in to see 15 or so students talking loudly, some with their feet up, some wandering around. Some had even made a ‘visual barrier’ of chairs on top of tables at the back of the classroom and were socialising, loudly, behind the ‘Berlin wall’. I didn’t want to shout, or stand and wait, or threaten, ‘You waste my time and I’ll waste yours!’ I left the front of the room and wandered around the classroom. I introduced myself to students, in turn, and asked politely, non-threateningly, for names. One boy said he’d forgotten. I said quietly, with a smile, ‘When you remember let me know. Mine’s Bill Rogers.’ I asked what sort of things they did in their home group class. I then went across to the group at the back of the classroom and asked if they’d help me put the chairs down and organise the back row. Eventually, bit by bit, the students became more settled. After five minutes or so, I went to the front of the classroom and formally cued the whole class. Armed now with at least a dozen remembered names (having done some mini establishment) we had a much better time in the ‘formal’ whole-class attention-getting phase with this very challenging class.

It’s tempting to settle group noise with a loud ‘Right! Settle down! You’re too noisy … RIGHT, SHUT IT!’ This approach, coupled with some vigorous pacing at the front of the room may shut the class up on one or two occasions – but at what cost? What will the teacher have to do in subsequent sessions? I’ve seen

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teachers shout and pace, and point out the noisy ones: ‘Hey, you, yes, you! Didn’t you hear what I said, eh?’ I’ve even heard, ‘SHUT UP!’ from some colleagues over the years teaching next door to me. A teacher might get away with it once or twice, but it establishes that group loudness and teacher contestability is the norm here. And that’s the trouble; it reinforces our loudness in competition with theirs.

Anchoring Anchoring refers to the association of place, activity and expectation in the minds of the students. If we walk around at the front of the room, saying loudly, ‘Don’t talk, you are supposed to be listening!’, we anchor into their experience verbally agitated and physically motoric teacher behaviour. When we’re standing at the front of the classroom, it will help to stand relaxed, feet a little apart (not the full stride, with hands on hips), with ‘open’ body language; not with arms tightly folded, sighing, with head low, looking as if we believe already that we’re going to have trouble with ‘you lot’. It is also important not to lounge at the front of the room or lean back against the wall. At secondary level it is also not normally helpful to sit at one’s desk trying to initiate whole-class attention, focus and engagement while leaning back in the chair. Anchoring calmness and expectation to our students is not easy (p. 9). It is, however, something we need to consciously do as we scan the faces of our students. It may be helpful to walk to the whiteboard (as the students file in), write up some key points, or put up a relevant poster, then walk to the front centre of the classroom and wait. Some teachers use a cueing signal such as a bell or a tap on a glass with a spoon. As the residual group noise drops in response to our tactical wait time or signal, we can lift our voice, just above theirs with the first direction: ‘Settling down’ (here a pleasant, firm voice). After a brief tactical pause ( … ) we add the secondary directions. ‘Looking this way, thanks ( … ), and listening.’ Of course tone of voice and manner are crucial. I know I’ve made this point several times in the text – because it is so important. It can help to reflect on the sort of things one might say to signal or initiate attention: ‘Everyone ( … ), eyes and ears this

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way ( … ), Ta’ (as they respond). Some teachers will use the group generic, ‘Guys …’; others will say, ‘Everyone …’; ‘Class …’; ‘8D …’ It’s worth discussing even this with colleagues. Voice tone is important; a clear and confident tone and a positive expectant manner will indicate much more than the actual words. A colleague of mine draws a face on the whiteboard, adding eyes and ears bit by bit to indicate (1) eyes this way, now (2) ears listening, then (3) a smile! With lower and middle primary-aged classes, a noise meter can be helpful (see p. 206). Rather than overtly targeting individual restless students, we can briefly acknowledge appreciation to on-task students, with a smile, or nod, or ‘Thanks, Alex’, ‘Jack’, ‘Yes, Marisa, I see your hand up’. Gratuitous language (‘Oh look how well Sophie is sitting. Well done! Oh, isn’t that terrific!’) is not necessary. It is important that the students get used to the fact that when we stand in front of the class, we expect – and need – their attention. Teachers should explain what ‘having their attention’ means and why we need to have quiet at the beginning and end of the lesson (pedestrian as that sounds). If we need to regain their attention at any point in a class period, we can go back to that positional place and use a familiar signal or verbal cue: tapping a glass, raising a hand, hand-clapping, saying a cue word (‘class’), even singing a song. It is important to establish that we will not address the whole class until all students are attending. It is also important not to give a whole-class greeting until the class is settled and attentive. If we are giving a group reminder to pack up, or move on to another activity, it is more effective to go back to the familiar, positional place at the front of the classroom, and use the familiar cue. If the cue is a bell (for instance, at preschool), we begin with the bell and the verbal cue. A few sessions later we can use the bell alone (not loud, keep it gentle). In time we might be able to just stand and wait, signalling that when we are standing there, group attention is expected. A positive settling time, greeting and ending to the lesson are all important teacher behaviours in establishing class tone. Like many aspects of classroom management, these behaviours sound like ‘small beer’ but, amazingly, it has been my experience that some teachers forget or underestimate their importance. Even a little personal greeting as the students file into the classroom can

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positively enhance the beginning of a lesson (p. 193). Extended conversations at the classroom door are not recommended, however. I’ve seen some secondary teachers waste several minutes talking to an individual student about an essay while the other students are filing in and, correspondingly, becoming quite restless. At the primary level we are often in the classroom quite early so we can have the opportunity for the little extended dialogue with a student prior to the bell and formal class beginning.

Plan for readiness time Some students or classes (especially at secondary level) take up to five minutes to get ready for the whole-class teaching time/lesson. If that were to happen each class period, that’s well over half an hour a day lost just settling or getting ready. It can help, at the end of the first lesson, if it’s been a particularly restless class group, to discuss with the class the necessary importance of ‘readiness time’ and to plan for this before the next lesson. Discuss why we need to be ready on time (within a few minutes or so), what we need in order to be ready (materials, gear from the locker, etc.) and then set a target time (Pearce 1995; Rogers 2011). Ask the students how long they think they ought reasonably, and fairly, take to have their appropriate materials and be in their seats, relaxed and ready to proceed with the whole-class phase of the lesson. Students will respond with suggested times (five minutes down to 30 seconds!) from which a reasonable target can be set for the next session together. A student can be appointed as timekeeper to see if – for the next lesson – all the students can be in their seats with relevant materials in, say, 120 seconds or less. As with all routines, the purpose needs to be explained and once the routine becomes the norm the ‘props’ supporting the routine can be dropped. A routine is never an end in itself – but it is an important means to building a positive teaching and learning climate in our classroom.

The unresponsive class There are occasions when a class will not respond to normative whole-class cueing (p. 194). There is frequent chatting (across most of the classroom); students may be wandering and socialising; others may be calling out and

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clowning around. Even waiting, waiting, waiting doesn’t help. It will help even less if we stand at the front of the room and shout, ‘I’m waiting!’ This seeming whole-class unresponsiveness may also occur when a teacher has, effectively, lost any significant leadership of the class. That has been my frequent observation when mentoring with colleagues in very challenging classes (Chapter 9). Most (not all) of the students behave as if they’re saying, ‘We’re in our space/ place … why don’t you keep standing there and try to get us to behave – go on.’ Such behaviour can be very intimidating and, in some cases, may even be a form of harassment (p. 259). Whenever I’ve been mentoring in such classes I find it helpful to cue my colleague to ‘go walkabout’ – to move in among the students and greet them or chat for several minutes – rather than trying to settle the class from the front of the classroom. As the second teacher, I also wander; I’ll ask a student’s name and how things are going in the class. Some of the students are initially quite insouciant – even arrogant. I’m having a ‘passing chat’ with a student. I introduce myself, ask the student their name and how the subject is going. ‘This subject’s shit!’ ‘Oh – you don’t like maths? You find it difficult? Dane, wasn’t it?’ Dane responds (as he leans back in his space) ‘Yeah – I hate it! Anyway why are you in this class?’ I can sense a slight moderation of the adolescent pout … it’s as if some of the students are saying, ‘You should be up there (the front of the classroom), not in our place/space – so go back up there and struggle’.

I’ve had this experience many times in very challenging classes. Having wandered and chatted (in ‘their’ space), and remembered a dozen names, I then go back to the front of the class and cue the whole class (p. 196). Having had a kind of ‘mini-establishment’ with the less cooperative two-thirds of the class, I can now use these names to initiate and sustain whole-class attention and focus.

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If students persist in disruptive and resistive behaviour, it will be essential to send for a senior colleague in the short term and, in the longer term, develop some mentoring possibilities to refocus the class group (see Chapter 9).

Seating plans Some teachers prefer to let students sit anywhere in the classroom from day one – in friendship groupings, for example. Other teachers allocate a formal (or semi-formal) seating plan: alphabetical groupings, ‘random’ arrangements or even boy–girl (I’ve seen that work well, even at secondary level). When developing seating plans we need to consider space, movement patterns and likely noise level during group work. If it is known that this group is particularly chatty, or even noisy, it may be preferable initially to have paired seating, with students facing the front in a more ‘formal’ seating grouping. Again, it’s always worth discussing seating plans with grade/team/faculty colleagues prior to our first classes. Seating plans will obviously need to vary with subject area, lesson needs and, to some extent, age levels. Several long rows of tables and chairs, for example, make it difficult to move around the room to give assistance during on-task time. I’ve worked in classes where teachers have allowed several challenging students to sit at the back of the classroom. Those students then position themselves as a major attention-seeking bloc. If the seating arrangements have gone awry, it is more difficult to change student groupings in subsequent weeks when habituated patterns of behaviour are formed. One solution my colleagues and I have used with upper primary and secondary students is to regroup the student seating by involving their reflective support. Each student receives a sheet on which is written: As your teacher, I’m concerned with the level of noise and distraction during seatwork and I will be changing the seating plan. I want your assistance. Write down the names of two students whom you know you can work with and who won’t hassle you (or vice versa) or make it difficult for you to get your class work done. I’ll use your suggestions in the new seat plan starting … I can’t

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guarantee you’ll get every preference but I’ll do my best. Choose wisely, choose carefully. Thanks in advance. The teacher then works through their suggestions, sorts out the peer dynamics and draws up a new plan. I’ve seen many classes improve significantly with this kind of regrouping. The key to any relative success is to emphasise why we need a change of seating arrangements, and to involve students in the process. If the class is seriously off-track with their behaviour, it may be necessary to go through a re-establishment phase using a special classroom meeting approach (see p. 255). A supportive colleague can provide useful moral support in conducting a problem-solving meeting with the class to explore what’s going wrong and why, and to work out how to work together to change things for the better. (This is addressed later in Chapter 9.)

Learning and using students’ first names Again, this sounds like a small issue, however, using a student’s first name is fundamental at every level (even when we engage in corrective discipline). There are a number of ways to learn names, depending on the age of the students involved. At primary level we can use name tags when marking the class roster in the first few weeks, and affix some on their work tables or desks. Name games are also helpful with this age group. Using students’ names when answering a question or receiving an answer and acknowledging them in the corridor and playground will reinforce the association for us. These days many schools have a photo ID class list which helps that early association of name, face and person. Also if you’ve forgotten a student’s name, and you want to ask them, ‘I’m trying to remember your name …’ sounds better than ‘I’ve forgotten your name.’ At secondary level, when working in ‘cover classes’ it can help to have a seating plan (drawn up quietly by a ‘reliable’ student) with tables or desks and first names. I also do this with each of my mentor classes, each lesson period, for the first three or four lessons. I explain that this is to help me to learn their names. It also helps with spelling of unfamiliar first names. I can then add phonetic versions of the names to my plan (I’m a visual learner) to make sure I’ve got the pronunciation correct. Students don’t expect us to learn their names in one

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session so the name tags, or seating plans, can be used for the next few sessions. It is annoying to students when teachers make little or no effort to learn their names or speak in ‘neutral tones’ about them or their behaviour: ‘That girl in the last seat on the left …’, ‘Hey – you … don’t call out!’, ‘You two boys there, stop talking and face the front!’ (If you don’t know their names, ask them then direct them to face the front.)

Early disruptions in whole-class teaching time During the establishment of the lesson itself there may be a number of disruptions such as restlessness; rolling on the mat (at preschool level); ‘testosteronic bonding’; fiddling with an object; lateness; talking out of turn; or talking while the teacher is talking. It is important to deal decisively, and positively, with these disruptions and as least intrusively as possible. (‘Decisive’ and ‘least intrusive’ are not incompatible features of our practice, p. 36.) For example, if students are talking while the teacher is talking, it may be enough to tactically pause (see p. 54). If, however, two or three students continue to talk, a simple description/direction, or a rule reminder can often serve to refocus the situation: ‘Asher and Lachlan, you’re chatting ( … ); facing this way, thanks ( … ), and listening, thanks.’ Even a brief few seconds of pausing after ‘thanks’ ( … ) can help convey expectation. It will help, then, to give take-up time (p. 55). By resuming the flow of the lesson after the direction, the teacher can convey that she expects their cooperation. If several students around the room are talking out of turn or calling out while the teacher is talking, a general direction or reminder will be necessary: ‘A number of students are …’ The teacher motions with the hand to ‘block’, as it were, their calling out, then gives a brief positive reminder: ‘Remember our class rule for …’, or ‘If you want to ask a question it’s one at a time with hands up’, or ‘Hands up so I can see your voices.’ With younger children, a nonverbal signal can be quite effective indicating ‘Hands up’, or ‘Face this way’, or ‘Mouths quiet for now.’ When dealing with disruptions in class it can be helpful to: • plan some key corrective phrases to avoid reactive dialogue (see Chapter 3) • utilise the least-to-most principle (p. 11) • keep the corrective management positive where possible: ‘do’ rather than ‘don’t’ (p. 69)

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• when giving directions, always balance correction with encouragement and resume the positive flow of the lesson after correction.

Establishing basic rules and routines At primary level, many teachers collaborate with their students in drawing up rules. It is best if there is a school-wide focus on key understandings about how we feel safe here; how we learn well here; how we show respect and engage manners and what behaviours enable this (p. 122). Discussion of a number of aspects around these essential understandings increases group awareness and potential ownership of social realities such as basic manners (‘please’, ‘thanks’, ‘excuse me’, ‘ask before you borrow’, etc.); respect and fair treatment of others; personal space; sharing resources; caring for property; teacher assistance and noise levels in a small space like a classroom (p. 129). It is helpful at both primary and secondary levels to have a common framework for rights and responsibilities across the school (p. 130). Many schools publish such a document (in user-friendly language) in each classroom. At secondary level, the homeroom teacher or the form tutor will take the class through this document on day one. Students have a copy in their diaries and a large laminated or framed copy is on the wall in every classroom. School-wide rules can focus on these fundamental non-negotiable rights and responsibilities. In the establishment phase of the year – in those first few lessons – we are, in effect, ‘training’ our classes in our management and discipline approach; getting them used to how we expect things to be in our class and why. Our goal of course is to enable the students to be self monitoring and considerate of others’ rights, but that worthy goal won’t just happen; it takes time and consistent, confident leadership.

‘I haven’t got a pen’ I’ve been caught too many times with this one, especially at secondary level. In the first four sessions of working with a new class group, I take in my ‘yellow box’, a small, sturdy, bright yellow cardboard box. Each pen, ruler and pencil has a tip of yellow electrical tape to track it back to the yellow box (for visual

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learners). It is simply a preventative measure to minimise hassle, arguments and task avoidance (see p. 23). If a student continues not to bring the necessary equipment over two or three subsequent sessions, then the teacher will need to do some followthrough, one-to-one, with the student, perhaps looking at helping the student with a simple ‘Remember your materials’ plan; a small card listing the three or four items necessary to bring to class. It may help to have a small reminder picture against each of these items (see also p. 83).

Cues for transition between whole-class teaching time and ontask learning time Before the teacher even directs the students as a group to the on-task phase of the lesson, it is important to discuss with the class as a whole: • the routine/expectations for ‘working noise’ (‘table noise’, ‘inside voices’, ‘partner communication’ or ‘partner voices’ as one of my colleagues neatly terms it). Some teachers even use visual aide-mémoires to teach nonverbally and encourage workable noise levels. • how to distribute and retrieve materials • how to fairly and reasonably obtain teacher assistance during the on-task phase of the lesson • appropriate movement around the room • where to hand in completed work (a box, or tray) • procedures for leaving the room (for toilet break, to fill up a water bottle, or if the student is unwell). Leaving-the-room procedures need to be consistently clear in policy and practice across the school.

Working noise volume during on-task learning time It is natural that the noise level of the group will rise between whole-class teaching time and on-task activities. At preschool level, students will move from carpet area at the front of the room to their table groups. They will need to get necessary materials, and get organised. In a secondary class they may shuffle around remembering they haven’t got a pen or textbook or have forgotten the task: ‘What do we have to do again?’

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It is important to recognise that workable noise levels in classrooms rarely just happen. They need to be planned, taught and encouraged until they become the reasonable norm.

Preschool and middle primary It can help, at this age, to use ‘visual entry-points’ to support students’ learning and socialisation with respect to noise levels. Rather than having a stated rule alone, or saying ‘Shh’ each time it gets noisy, the teacher can make up a chart signalling different noise levels appropriate to the stage of the lesson or activity. Some teachers use a traffic-light poster which signals white for hands up, green for partner-talking at tables, red for stop. Children at this age respond well to the positive use of visual and nonverbal cues.

Using a ‘noise meter’ A noise meter is both a teaching and a monitoring device for encouraging workable communication volume levels. It has its most useful place in the establishment phase of the year. When it is used in a fun way, children quickly see its relevance in the classroom. The meter itself is a 30 cm circle of card divided into different-coloured quadrants: white, green, yellow and red. An arrow on a split-pin rotates from the centre. A large laminated drawing (35 cm × 45 cm) augments each quadrant (see Appendix VIII). The first picture (corresponding to white on the noise meter, top left) shows several students with their hands raised. The colour and picture symbolise the whole-class teaching phase of the lesson. At lower-primary levels students are depicted sitting on the mat. At upper primary the students are pictured sitting at tables. The second picture (corresponding to the green quadrant, top right) portrays a couple of students on-task and quietly chatting at their desks (they could even be chatting about the work!). This picture symbolises ‘working noise’ or ‘partner communication’. The third picture (corresponding to the yellow quadrant, bottom right) portrays two students talking quite loudly and has other students’ irritated faces in the background. This is the reminder/ warning cue. When the teacher signals the arrow to this quadrant and picture she is reminding, or warning, the class that the students are getting too loud.

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The fourth picture (red quadrant, bottom left) shows students clearly talking far too loudly; we need to stop and refocus as a class. The Grade 3 teacher has affixed the ‘noise meter’ to the wall in a location that is clearly visible to all students. On day one as the students come in they are intrigued by the colours and pictures. They ask questions about it. The teacher says, ‘Have a think about it, and I’ll explain later. Organise your lunch bag in the basket and remember your coat.’ Later that morning the teacher will go over the normative rules and routines of our classroom using visual and written cues where appropriate. The students are sitting on the mat, cued in by verbal reminder, a counting cue, a song or even a nonverbal cue. ‘By the time I’ve counted backwards from 20, I want to see everyone sitting on the carpet ready for … Off we go, 19, 18 …’ As each student sits on the carpet area the teacher pauses to say, ‘That’s it, Marisa’, ‘You’re ready, Nazim’, ‘Relaxed and ready, Ella.’ When the group is settled, she gives the good morning to all and points to the noise meter. ‘Now, I wonder if anyone can explain what this picture means here.’ Tactically ignoring the half-dozen who call out (with or without their hands up) she targets those students doing what is in the first picture (white quadrant, top left). ‘Yes, Bilal, you’ve got your hand up – just like in this picture.’ She then discusses the difference between hands up and calling out, and hands up and waiting (without clicking fingers or shouting out). She asks why it is important to take turns and have a ‘signal’ like a hand up. She points to the arrow and asks, ‘When the arrow is on this white quadrant what do you think it means?’ Again she reinforces what is in the picture and what is happening as hands go up and students wait in turn. ‘So, white space means: hands up, wait your turn without calling out, one at a time, and wait for me to call on you so we all get a turn.’ ‘Let’s look at the green space now. What do you think the green colour and the picture mean?’ (She leaves the arrow on white to remind them that it is still hands-up time.) Here she discusses ‘partner communication’ and calls up two pairs of students to role-play before the class different levels of working-time noise. Each pair of partners is asked to role-play different levels of noise. The teacher then asks the group which is helpful noise, which is too loud, which is OK and why. Pointing to the green quadrant the teacher continues, ‘Green is like a traffic light colour – green for ‘go’ – but when we’re talking at our tables we need to remember the other students nearby. What can we do to make sure they are able to get on with their ››

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work?’ The picture is the visual reminder. The teacher points out that if she has to call across the room during work time she ought to be able to say a student’s name without raising her voice. ‘Let’s practise; all of us. Have a little chat quietly here while I walk to the back of the room. I’ll say three students’ names in my normal voice. Those students put their hands up if they can hear me from the back of the room.’ Having practised ‘green space’ (partner voices), she indicates with her hand to the yellow quadrant. She discusses with them the importance of the students controlling their own noise level (‘consider others’) at their work places. ‘This colour is a reminder; when I put the arrow here it’s your job to bring the noise level down. So you’ll need to look up from time to time. To help you, I’ll ask one person at each table to be a noise monitor. If I call their name during work time they can check the arrow on the meter. If it’s on yellow, they need to quietly and helpfully remind their group to bring their noise level down to “green space”, partner voices.’ Later that morning, during the on-task phase of the lesson, the teacher hears increasing chatter at Krista’s table. Turning the arrow to yellow she calls over to Krista, ‘Krista, yellow’. The word ‘yellow’ is enough of a reminder. She continues moving around the room leaving Krista to do her job. Krista bends her head to eyeball her four fellow students: ‘Miss S did put it on the remember colour. We have to be more quiet, we have to use partner voices.’ As they bring their noise level down the teacher casually (ten seconds or so later) walks over to the noise meter and puts it back on green. She quietly calls Krista’s name. Krista looks up and the teacher gives the OK sign with her finger and thumb and smiles. Krista returns the smile. Learning and socialisation are taking place. Most of all the students are beginning to take ownership of their individual and group behaviour.

I have also used the noise meter a number of times at lower secondary with some success. One particularly noisy Year 8 class (all boys) responded very well. I also used a little behaviour reinforcement by allocating a ‘point’ here or there when they remembered to approximate their behaviour to the white and green zones. Points would be allocated or granted (avoid the words ‘earn’ or ‘reward’) if, when I put the arrow on yellow (reminder, getting too loud), they brought their noise level back down, by themselves, without me needing to remind them verbally. I wanted the colours, pictures and visual reminders (arrow to the colour) to be as nonverbal as possible to maximise on-task learning and

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teaching. I even noted points on the whiteboard for hands up without calling out (when they remembered we were in ‘white zone’). If we got to 20 points I’d stop the lesson and pack up five minutes before the bell. The students would then chat quietly (or do homework!) until class dismissal. If we didn’t get to 20 points that lesson, the points could transfer to the next English lesson. They responded really well. Whenever I put the arrow on yellow you could hear ‘Psst’ and ‘Oi, look!’ and ‘Shhh’. On the fourth session I decided to stop using the noise meter. One of the first questions of the day was, ‘Hey, Mr Rogers how come you didn’t bring the pictures and the noise thing?’ ‘Well, Ben, I don’t really think we need it now. The class is working really well. You’re keeping the working noise volume comfortable during the lesson so I thought we’d go on without it.’ He smiled, ‘I really liked it when we had that thing!’ (I think he actually liked the structure it gave, as well as the points!) I only ever use the points allocation for the more difficult, noisy classes as a behaviour-enhancement outcome (a more elegant term than ‘reward’). Again – like the noise meter – points allocation is an establishment phase prop. Its aim is to raise student awareness about their behaviour; to teach and encourage positive habits in the students. It is not an end in itself.

Variations on a theme I like to use visual learning cues wherever I can, even for secondary students. A simple graph with a vertical and horizontal axis can be used to give the students visual feedback on their volume level of working noise. The vertical axis is marked in levels 0–10, where silence = 0; whisper zone is 2, the upper reasonable limit of partner communication is 5 and migraine level is 10 (10 = footy voice! Or parliament!). The horizontal axis is marked off in five-minute slots. During the on-task phase of the lesson, I go up to the board every five minutes and quietly mark a vertical bar indicating how loud I perceive students’ volume of ‘partner voices’ or ‘work talk’ to be at that phase of the lesson. This gives immediate visual feedback (nonverbally) to the class. With particularly noisy groups, I use the

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points allocation system noted earlier with a five-minute free time ‘celebration’ for keeping below ‘5’ on the scale.

Cues for getting teacher assistance during the on-task phase of the lesson The need to teach cues for getting teacher assistance will vary with age and situation. A simple and positive rule reminder will always help; even at secondary level: ‘I’d appreciate your hands up, without calling out, thanks.’ If they forget, the teacher can use a brief rule reminder (‘Remember our rule for …’) or use a nonverbal signal or both. During the on-task phase of the lesson, teachers need to teach the whole class the fair routines for getting teacher assistance and feedback. Here are some possibilities: • Institute a ‘check with two (students) before you check with me’ rule (those students next to you, not the other side of the universe!). • Institute a hands-up-and-wait rule (without calling out or finger-clicking). This only works if we have a regular scan of the room and acknowledge the hands up. • Use a teacher help board. My colleagues and I have used this prop with upper primary and secondary-aged students. There are two charts displayed at the front of the room. One chart is headed ‘Remember’: it is a visual reminder that before students write their names on the second chart (the teacher help board) they need to remember to: 1. ‘Check the work requirement yourself’ (with the board, textbook or worksheet task) 2. ‘Check with a partner next to you’ (remember your partner voice) 3. ‘Check with a class mentor’ (if there is a class mentor system) 4. ‘Quietly write your name on the teacher help board and I’ll come round in turn to help’. On average there are only three or four names at any one time, crossed off in turn as teacher assistance is given. 5. ‘While you wait, there are user-friendly worksheets you can choose from until we can get a moment together’ (or students can re-read the class novel, or continue with an ongoing class project).

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All of this is discussed beforehand with the class. If using the teacher help board, have a felt-tip pen on a string near the chart. Some teachers use whiteboard covering on the chart so the names can be erased in turn. The teacher help board lends itself particularly to a setting where the teacher is regularly on the move and cannot be always on the look-out for hands up (for example, ICT classes, food technology, graphic design, art, textiles, etc.).

NB We would not normally introduce such a system until we have established a positive sense of cohesion with our students. It can also help to have a class mentor system; students who are regarded by their class peers with respect (who have high social/ emotional intelligence) and can be called on to conference with a student if necessary to supplement teacher support.

Lesson closure, summary and exit from class It is important to end the lesson positively, with a summary where appropriate and a ‘goodbye for now’. It is especially important at primary level to end the day with a class discussion of the day’s events, to hand out notices for future events, and ‘thank yous’ for the students’ efforts in remembering ‘the special things we do in our class to make it a happy and positive place to teach and learn in’. A considered and cooperative exit procedure is also important. In some classes students just race off, even barge past each other, to the door leaving the furniture awry and messy. I find it helpful in the establishment phase of the year to have a card on the wall indicating the three things my secondary students need to remember before they leave the classroom: 1. Place the chairs under the table (on the table at the end of the day). 2. Pick up litter from the floor near your place; even if it’s not yours (do the next class/cleaner a favour). 3. After the bell, leave the room in a way that considers others. The concept of ‘considering others’ is discussed on day one. The simplest routine to develop this habit is row-by-row (or table group by table group), obviously

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rotating rows each lesson. In time we can drop this aspect of the routine as the students get used to thinking ahead.

When students seek to ‘beat the bell’ If the students forget when the bell goes (some have been ‘trained’ in the past to just race off), I call them back. ‘Stop ( … ). Back inside and sit down, thanks.’ There will be students who whine and moan: ‘But it’s recess. Jeez!’ We’ll tactically ignore those few. ‘Back inside, take a seat, I won’t keep you long – a minute of your life.’ Some students drop into their seats with a muttered whinge and a sigh. If one of the students does a ‘corridor runner’ I let him go. ‘I’ll follow up Ilia later.’ Rather than pace the front scowling, ‘Right! You wasted my time, so I’ll waste your time!’, I prefer to stand at the front of the classroom and cue for settling and some calmness. Their residual noise drops quickly. ‘This is not a group detention.’ I scan their faces. ‘This is a group reminder. You’ll be away in one minute. When the bell goes it is a reminder to me, as well as to you, that the lesson has finished and it’s my job to dismiss the class. Let’s try it again. Row by row. And remember the chairs. Joshua, lead us off. Thank you.’ Walking to the door to give an individual goodbye, I ask James to pick up a large, screwed-up piece of paper. ‘S’not mine.’ ‘Maybe it’s not, James; it’s under your table. Do the next class a favour, thanks.’ ‘All right (he responds to my grin), I’ll put it in the bin if it makes you happy.’ (He mumbles this as he walks off to the bin.)

If I let several students race off without some supportive whole-class reminder, I say, in effect, that it doesn’t matter how they exit our classroom. Whether the students leave table by table, or stand behind chairs, or just ‘leave quietly, thanks’, a routine will always help. Even at senior levels, Years 10, 11 and 12, a reminder about considering others won’t go amiss. If a student ignores the routine and races off, it is essential to follow up with them one-to-one (p. 105). At primary level I’ve used reminder cards on each table. The cards symbolise the essential things necessary: ‘Before leaving your work area remember to …’ A few little drawings can help to make the reminder card user-friendly. If the pack-up routines have been discussed on day one and then summarised on

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the reminder cards the teacher doesn’t need to go over the minutiae each time; all she needs to do is refer to the reminder card. Mrs D (Grade 5) has a quiet reading area. Some cushions, a chess table, a sign saying ‘Our quiet reading corner’ with a picture of a child reading. Her room is not messy or too busy, but attractive. Some desks are against the wall, some in a rectangle arrangement. She’s tried to arrange the children’s seating relative to size. Books are neatly stowed (she does not allow sloppiness). She is pleasantly firm on this. Books are special. The rules are called ‘Our class rules’ and are pinned up around the room. (This can be done up to Year 8; see Chapter 4.) Early finishers have a range of things they can do, from chess to reading, to special projects to worksheets. Mrs D’s students know how to come in and out of the room. Respect means that rights are respected. There is a movement rule to enhance movement in and out of our classroom. She has sought to draw a clear distinction between outside playtime and inside class space/time. Her students have a sense of cohesive ownership. It has taken time – they will tell you it’s worth it.

Summary We all work better when the classroom environment is conducive to learning – not harsh, restrictive, cluttered, disorganised or aesthetically uninspired. Do you remember some of the places you’ve worked? Apart from the money, what made them worth working in? A positive working environment in organisation, in routines, in our day-to-day communication is good for us too – not just our students. The benefits are an increase in positive, effective socialising and, therefore, a more positive learning environment.

Questions to consider • How did you establish the core routines for your classes? Re: entry to class and settling? Dealing with early distractions? Transition cues such as noise volume, teacher assistance, movement around the room, students without equipment, etc.? • How do your core routines fit in with those of colleagues in similar grade groupings/subjects?

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• How did you establish your seating plan? • How aware are you of consciously seeking to build a positive classroom ethos? What are the essential factors for you, and your colleagues, that enable a positive classroom ethos?

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Chapter 8 The basis of a positive classroom climate: Self-esteem and self-concept

‘If you plan for a year, plant a seed. If for ten years, plant a tree. If for a hundred years, build a school.’ Kuan Chung, Chinese proverb Self-esteem is the value or esteem we – ourselves – put on what we perceive about our abilities, our body, our feelings and our social interactions. The natural realities of self-concept and self-esteem are that children (and adults) sometimes process critical comments about self in negative ways. Unfortunately these external messages may then become internalised as: ‘I am a failure, I always fail’, rather than ‘I sometimes fail’; ‘I cannot succeed at this’ (low tolerance to frustration); ‘I’ll never manage’; ‘Nobody cares’.

If a child could tell us • When you make me feel smaller than I am, I get angry; especially when you do it in front of other people. I often try to get back at you, by being a ‘pest’. • When you correct me in a nasty way, or put me down in front of others it doesn’t work. Inside, I’m angry at you and I say all kinds of things that

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will show in my behaviour. I’ll take much more notice if you briefly explain where my behaviour annoys you or affects others, and if you talk quietly with me away from others. • When you try to force me to apologise, or ask me ‘Why?’ when I’m in conflict with others (or you) you’ll see I’m not very cooperative; it will look like I’m not listening. I don’t mind you taking action but can you find a way to ‘turn the heat down’ and provide a face-saving way out of it? After all, your social skills are better than mine. You’re more effective when you stay calm. • When you apologise, you show me that you, too, are human; that it’s not beneath your dignity to say ‘I’m sorry’. Your honesty helps me feel some warmth towards you; it also reminds me that to be human is to be fallible. I can live up to that. • When you preach to me (or, more often, at me) you forget that I generally know what’s right and wrong. If you nag at me, I might appear deaf – this is a way of protecting myself. If we have clear rules, expectations and consequences for behaviour, preaching won’t change me.

• When you go on about my mistakes – especially in front of others – I feel rotten; like I’m really no good. Sometimes I would like to learn to make mistakes without feeling I am no good. It’s hard to build on failure. • When you’re firm with me, I don’t really mind. At least I know where I stand. All I ask is that you do it without making me feel stupid, hopeless

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or worthless. When you’re inconsistent I just get confused. I even try to get away with anything I can. When your expectations are clear and your treatment of me is fair and calm, then I know where I stand.

When you’re inconsistent, I just get confused. I might even try to get away with anything I can

• When you demand reasons – full explanations for my behaviour – I often don’t really know why I did it. If you ask what I did and suggest alternatives – even ask me to suggest alternatives – that’s different. • When I don’t get a chance to tell my side of the story – when you try to force, or frighten, me or make me feel guilty so I’ll tell the truth – I sometimes tell lies, or, like you, ‘bend’ the truth.

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• When you frequently do things for me that I can do for myself, I feel like a baby; like I can’t do it. If you keep doing that I might end up always relying on you and putting you in my service. You may end up labelling me as a ‘learning failure’ or a ‘hopeless case’. • When you go on at me about playing and not concentrating, remember I sometimes learn by experimenting. • When you remember the most important thing I’m most happy. I can’t really thrive without understanding and encouragement. You are able to help me feel and believe I’m OK, I have worth, I can ‘make it’ – but I don’t really need to tell you that … do I?1

The self-concept ‘picture’ we build As children develop, they begin to build a ‘cognitive picture’ or concept of themselves; an emerging ‘I-am-ness’, a perception and conception of themselves as selves. This picture, or concept, of self – as a self – is built largely by others and internalised, believed and confirmed by self. As a child interacts with parents, teachers, other significant adults and peers, they form a concept of self in the intellectual, physical, socio-emotional, cognitive and psychological realms. The who-I-am and who-am-I? process arises from the way a child processes information from ‘outside’. The way a child is spoken to and treated is processed through their feelings as well as their thinking. Children don’t reason things out like adults (and many adults don’t always reason things out!). If a child hears regular critical comments about his abilities or disabilities he will feel unsuccessful and may come to rate himself as unsuccessful (stupid, fat, ugly, a problem, useless, a failure). A child is trying to cut out a picture of an animal during a cut-and-paste activity. She is struggling with her fine motor ability, low concentration and low tolerance to frustration, all of which makes the animal look like a map of Brazil. In seeking to help, a teacher might say, ‘Look, Shari, you should be able to cut that shape by now. Haven’t I told you before how to use those scissors? All you need to do is follow the lines. Come on, I’ll show you. There, give me the scissors. You don’t want to be a messy worker, do you?’

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Shari may end up feeling, ‘What’s the use?’ or in some cases, ‘I can’t do this – why not agree with that adult judgement?’ Children, like some adults, often rate themselves globally on small aspects of performance or behaviour.

Self-appraisal is powerfully related to how we feel in such situations. A child finds it hard to build on failure (as do many adults). If a child feels failure strongly (via the messages from others) they may well begin to believe they are a failure.

The power of the tongue ‘Can’t you understand that by now?’; ‘You always … ’; ‘No, that’s not right!’; ‘Can’t you get it by now!’; ‘What’s wrong with you?’; ‘How many times do I have to tell you!’; ‘You never …’; ‘I’m sick of reminding you’; ‘You’ll send me to an early grave!’; ‘Others can do it properly, why can’t you?’; ‘You stupid boy, you …’ Characteristic ‘global’ terms like these (sometimes just a slip of the tongue) are often interpreted by children as ratings of them as persons. Having worked with many children with very low self-esteem, it seems to me that a common thread is the characteristic messages received from teachers and parents. The teacher who yells at the Year 1 student about the scissors, ‘Hey, are you stupid or something? Didn’t I just tell you to put those scissors away?’ may get the scissors back in the scissors tray but he has said something to all the students. The ‘ripple effect’ of a teacher’s verbal discipline affects more than the target audience. The adult tongue is a powerful weapon. Some teachers use it intentionally to exercise dominance and help them to cope with internal frustration or anger about lazy, intransigent and disruptive behaviour. Others use it unintentionally because frustration takes over. Words are things. They do something – they are instrumental. As far as possible, we should seek to develop an interactive style that is more reflective; more conscious of the effect of our verbal presence in the classroom, indeed in any context where we work with children and young people. This is essential when we’re frustrated or angry (see p. 275).

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Developing a more positive communication approach is something to be worked at. ‘Look, what’s wrong with you, I’ve told you a hundred times how to do that!’ is not processed as ‘You have made a mistake’ but ‘Is there something wrong with you?’ ‘You always muck up!’ often leads to ‘I’m no good at this’ or ‘I’m hopeless.’ If children hear regular put-downs; global messages of ‘You never …’, ‘You always leave a mess’, ‘You always do untidy work’, ‘You’re always late’, ‘I’m always telling you’, how do we imagine they process such messages? As helpful reminders? How would we feel with similar teacher–learner messages? Erikson (1960, 1968), Maslow (1970) and Ginott (1972) relate self-esteem to the long-term appraisal we pick up from significant others (such as parents, siblings and teachers). Healthy self-esteem is related to how we internalise those external appraisals. As teachers, we may not be able to influence the home messages; but we can do a lot about the messages we give to children and how we give them.

Labelling and the expectancy effect Human nature has a propensity for neat, global labelling. So do the glossy magazines, TV and film media. These labels are often clichéd and stereotyped, yet tragically believed. Labels are great for jars, not so helpful for people. It’s easy to resort to labelling of others; a kind of shorthand description of another’s social or intellectual traits: ‘He’s slow’, ‘She’s always messy’, ‘She’s a real idiot’ and, a commonly heard one in some staffrooms, ‘He’s a real shit’. The problem with labels, of course, is that they’re so often attached to definite beliefs. The user is reluctant to alter judgements, so that when Oliver is ‘on-task’ or behaves in a socially acceptable or cooperative way, it must be an exception. Once we perceive a student’s behaviour, his ‘personhood’, via a label, actions by that student can be open to a range of interpretations. The more firmly we believe Oliver is a pain, the easier it is to feel and act as if he will be what we think he is. Perception powerfully affects our behaviour. Rating others through our perception and self-talk affects the dynamic of discipline and teaching. While not unsympathetic to how some students can engender feelings of frustration or hostility, I believe it’s a disturbing step to then use such feelings as proof positive that one must label X in a derogatory way. It’s far healthier to label the actions of X rather than X herself; children

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Labelling is suitable for jam jars, less suitable for people

know the difference. We communicate our beliefs more powerfully than we realise. Even if a teacher would never call a student ‘a shit’, that’s not the real problem. In 1963, Rosenthal and his colleagues developed experiments to test selffulfilling prophecies or ‘the expectancy effect’. Randomly assigned rats were divided into two groups and labelled ‘maze-bright’ and ‘maze-dull’. College undergraduates who tested the rats only knew their rat sample as ‘bright’ or ‘dull’. Ten trials later, the results showed the ‘bright’ rats nearly doubled the ‘dull’ rats in maze performance tests. Rosenthal concluded that rather than any real intelligence differences raising the score of the ‘bright’ rats, it was the expectations of those working with them – communicated through tactile and kinetic cues – that had an effect on the rat performance. This effect has been widely studied with child–teacher relationships in classroom settings (Brophy 1983, 1985; Brophy & Good 1986; Leacock 1965; McInerney & McInerney 1998; Rogers 2009; Rosenthal 1973; Rosenthal & Jacobsen 1986).

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‘You’ve got those terrors in Year 10! They’ll drive you round the bend!’ may well affect how a teacher then operates with the group. When we label a child ‘hopeless’, ‘useless’, ‘an idiot’, ‘stupid’ or ‘dumb’, we may find their relational behaviour (and ours) affected by that expectation and ‘fulfilling the prophecy’ (Rogers 2009). In building a positive climate, much will depend how a teacher conveys their expectations to their students in the normative way they relate to, teach, guide, connect, encourage and lead them. There is a difference between a teacher who expects children can and will do well, can achieve, can cooperate, will respond to the positive rule environment, and a teacher who communicates the expectation of ‘I knew you’d blow it!’, ‘You always …’, ‘Can’t you ever …?’, ‘Oh! When will you …?’ Again, this is all communicated through the teacher’s characteristic verbal and nonverbal interactions. Being aware of expectations does not delimit the need for firm, even assertive, discipline where necessary. Nor does it delimit appropriate and necessary communication of anger (Chapter 10). Above all, we need to remember the reality of bad-day syndrome as it relates to what are hopefully the norms of respectful teacher leadership. All the discipline approaches discussed in this book are based on respectful language and respectful communication. That communication is consciously addressed to enable our students to make better choices about their behaviour and enable them to work cooperatively. Even if they don’t, we will still treat them with dignity and will always seek to repair and rebuild in the discipline dynamic. Children are more likely to build a stronger, healthier self-concept and value themselves more positively when: • they are achieving in some way; when they feel that they are able to accomplish something. Encouragement for specific improvement enables children to feel more hopeful and positive about their progress (p. 228). One of the harder tasks of teaching is enabling a sense of accomplishment by the way we organise curriculum for differentiation; learning outcomes geared to even small successes. Group activities can also give ‘social strength’ to the less successful students. • they feel cared for and respected as people, and as individuals. One of the statements I have frequently heard from older students about their teachers

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is ‘They treat me as a human being!’ Other valued traits that students mention in relation to teachers they respect include: ‘They trust you’, ‘They make mistakes of course, but they fix it up with you’, ‘There’s a climate of give and take’, ‘They give you a chance to talk’ (this often refers to the students perceiving that they have an appropriate right of reply), ‘They give you a fair chance before you get any punishment’, ‘They give interesting work’, ‘They’re not chauvinistic, they’re not unfair about who is mucking around’, ‘They don’t ridicule you or make you have unsafe feelings’ and ‘They don’t have temper tantrums.’

Emotional baggage Yetty struggles, deciding whether or not to get out of her warm bed. The first voice she hears says, ‘Get up, come on, I said it’s time to get up, I’ll be late! Look, if you don’t, I’ll come in and get you out myself! Damn it, Yetty, get up!’ Yetty starts to put on her cold clothes. Dressed, she moves off to negotiate another lousy breakfast. She’ll probably have to make it herself and her hastily organised lunch won’t be much better. ‘Look, why are you wearing that T-shirt Yetty? It’s filthy. What’s wrong with you? If you’d put it in the wash like I told you …’ Yetty is awake enough to argue back now. ‘Don’t argue with me! You really know how to upset me, don’t you! All you think of is yourself …’ Yetty finally makes a rough sandwich for lunch and walks to school. It’s not always as stressful as this. It’s been worse since dad left. ››

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Yetty is in Year 5. Each day she carries a weight of emotional baggage into the classroom. She has little to be hopeful or happy about – yet. School could help, for a short while, to change that. She is late to school. Her teacher welcomes her. Already she’s feeling a little better.

All students bring their emotional baggage into the classroom. So, too, does the teacher. The on-task and relational dynamics of five or six classes every day need to consider that reality. This does not mean we can over-compensate for a child’s difficult home life; it does mean that we treat our students with respect within a discipline framework that includes self-esteem as one of its goals. Children learn best when: • they feel confident and secure (they may even feel happy from time to time!) • they are affirmed and encouraged • the focus of learning is made clear, even in any one lesson • learning tasks and experiences give opportunity for some success (it is pointless having the one algebra lesson in Year 7 for all students when it is manifestly clear that only half a dozen can cope with it) • the learning program caters in some reasonable capacity for mixed abilities and differentiation • our dialogue with students is positive, and careful to concentrate on their present ability, present behaviour and future possibilities • learning includes group tasks as well as individual learning tasks. In short, children learn more effectively when they feel better about being in this group and coping with this work; with this teacher and – most of all – when their fundamental needs are being met. Students’ preferences for subjects are often linked to their liking of a particular teacher; we can all remember that. If we carp at James about what he can’t do in maths, refer constantly to his wrong answers (‘What sort of work do you call this?’), tear out a page from his maths book because he was drawing in the margin and then proceed to humiliate him in front of the class, any effective and meaningful learning is linked to how he feels about those messages. When we enhance a student’s self-esteem, we enhance the capacity for learning, and for growth.

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Unseen baggage

Respect: At the heart of self-esteem Ryan is sitting outside the principal’s office, waiting. Ryan is a child who has been labelled socio-emotionally disturbed (SED). He presents as a scruffy, jaded-looking chap. His jeans clearly haven’t been near a washing machine for a long while, his sneakers are ragged, his black dracula windcheater seems somehow appropriate. At just seven years of age he’s experienced much emotional and physical ‘bruising’ from home. He swears easily and loudly when frustrated. He finds it difficult to sit still on his chair in Miss S’s class. He has been described as a ‘pain’, an ‘A-grade attention-seeker’, a ‘shifty-eyed little bugger’, a ‘failure’ and a ‘dummy’. Today, he’s been exited from Room 10 because he threw his books on the floor in a fit of low frustration tolerance. Built-up emotion from home? Who knows? His teacher is not a psychologist. He finds himself waiting for the principal to return to his office and deal with him. Mr D is a ‘tough’ principal. He certainly does not like children like Ryan. Eyeing him sitting there, morose and sullen, his voice is sharp, loud, frustrated. ‘You, you ››

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again! It’s always you. What are you here for today? No, don’t tell me, it’s probably another lie. I’m sick and tired of seeing you at my office! You’re nothing but a nuisance, a damned nuisance!’ Perhaps Mr D is having a bad day. He clearly doesn’t like this child. Of course, Ryan’s behaviour is a pain. This child has taken several years to learn a range of attention-seeking over-provoking behaviours. They’ve got him where he is now. He’s getting significant attention – from a male – right at this moment. Let’s hope that for Mr D this is bad-day syndrome and not his characteristic behaviour.

Can one respect a child like Ryan? One of the confounding problems when dealing with such children is our spontaneous like or dislike of them. The trouble with this is that we may often be relying on our feelings to dictate our actions. We often feel we should react angrily when we’re really annoyed – that’s certainly what our feelings seem to be telling us. But, of course, our feelings are not proof of anything. Many teachers and principals believe that their instinct for discipline is right. The trouble with relying on impulse, instinct and feelings is that they are devoid of any guidance about what to do when we feel that way. Because discipline is so much more than mere punishment or control, it is helpful to be consciously aware of, and superintend, our so-called ‘natural’ feelings and reactions; being natural does not make them automatically right. We best superintend our discipline by bringing some consistency to the treatment variable. In this way we are still able to be decisive and firm without simply reacting based on how we feel. I believe this is called respect. Children like Ryan are not easy to deal with. They’ve clocked up several years of habituation. Teachers who are in any way effective with such children do not give up or accept excuses and don’t resort to simple labels; they take a concentrated team approach (see p. 173).

Liking or respecting: The professional difference Respect is not a matter of forcing ourselves to like X, this ‘disruptive person’. To ‘psych’ ourselves into liking, as a feeling, is also unhelpful to say the least. Showing respect for a child even when her behaviour is rude, arrogant and rule-breaking is a different matter. Respect is about behaving towards students

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in such ways that acknowledge that it is their actions or behaviours that are unacceptable or wrong. Condemnatory, rude, sarcastic, caustic language to them or about them as people is, therefore, unnecessary and unprofessional. Respect is not a matter of pretending we like X either; it is commitment to how we behave – a treatment variable. We cannot say truthfully, ‘I like Nina’, because we know we don’t – especially when she swears at us and wears us down with her attention-seeking behaviour. So, what do we do? We certainly don’t waste time bothering about trying to like her; we’re on a safer course when we try to relate to her, to treat her with fundamental dignity and respect. Respect is to do with how we treat X, and we can do something about that. Feelings will come and go. They are dependent, too often, on mood, digestion, amount of sleep, vagaries of time and circumstance. It is helpful, when our feelings trigger potential frustration, rejection, anger and even animosity, to remember the treatment variable – respect; even in extreme crisis discipline settings (p. 167). If we just give in to our feelings, we will lose out on our long-term discipline goals (p. 5) and perpetuate unhelpful – and very stressful – teacher behaviour.

Praise or encouragement? One way that teachers (and parents) seek to strengthen self-esteem is through the use of encouragement. Encouragement can be distinguished from unhelpful praise to the extent that encouragement concentrates on, describes and gives feedback to students’ efforts or actions rather than their person. Rather than say to a Year 3 child, ‘You’re a good boy for working quietly’, we simply acknowledge his behaviour, ‘You’re working quietly today’, smile and move off to work with someone else. When a student gives a helpful, correct or thoughtful answer to a teacher’s question, rather than reply with ‘Good girl’, or even ‘What a great answer’ or ‘You’re really clever!’ we simply acknowledge it: ‘Yes, Madison, that’s right’, ‘That’s one way of looking at it’, ‘Correct’, ‘Sure’. Giving an incorrect answer or not knowing doesn’t make a student stupid, bad or unintelligent. It simply means he doesn’t know as yet, or may not understand; the student may even be shy. Nor does giving correct answers, or doing work well, make the student good or more special.

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Global terms such as good or bad evaluate a student’s person, whereas encouragement gives the focus of attention to effort. Praise is seen by some students as manipulative or even insincere, rather than supportive of the student trying to have a go. Some students don’t believe a teacher’s global rating of their work or behaviour (‘Fantastic!’, ‘Great!’, ‘Brilliant!’). Some students can’t cope with that. It’s not that teachers don’t mean well, or are insincere when they say ‘great’ or ‘terrific’ or ‘brilliant!’ Sincere descriptive feedback is enough: ‘That’s a tidy work area, you put the lids on the felt-tip pens, and made sure all the litter was off the floor’; ‘You took time and care to tidy the library corner. That’s what I call being thoughtful.’ This acknowledges what is thoughtful. Keep in mind that older students are often embarrassed by public praise. A private word of encouragement will be more effective with upper primary and adolescent students. Students also appreciate written encouragement to their parents. In a survey on attitudes of British secondary school teachers and pupils to rewards and punishment (Caffyn 1989), over 80 per cent of students said a ‘letter home about good behaviour would be rewarding’ (for work effort or good behaviour); for example, ‘Mrs Smith, Lachlan got six of his spelling words correct and they were not easy ones’. The research in this area adds the obvious qualifying point that the positive note home is valued when it comes from a teacher the student respects.

Descriptive feedback Rather than call a child’s picture or their written work ‘nice’ or ‘lovely’ or ‘great’, we comment on or describe features of the story that show thought, care or creativity. Some children, if told their work is ‘good’ or ‘nice’, will deny it: ‘No, it’s not – it’s a stupid story’ or ‘It’s a rubbish picture’. This may be in part attention-seeking and in part personal belief. The student can hardly argue with descriptive feedback such as ‘The way you described the rain falling on the boy’s face matching his tears really got across to me the feeling of loneliness. It was very moving’, or ‘It’s a pleasure to have a class like this because … (the teacher shares several points to the class group about their thoughtfulness, consideration, care, etc.)’, or ‘You went out of your way to help Dimitri with his maths this morning’. Encouragement is a comment on how the student’s behaviour was thoughtful, considerate, helpful or cooperative. Often the quiet

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descriptive aside is enough for the child to get the point: ‘I noticed you had the tap half on so it wouldn’t splash everywhere’, or to the primary group, ‘I appreciated the way you came in quietly, went straight to your seats and got out your class novels’. Any encouragement needs to be genuine and positive in tone; not long-winded or sycophantic. Students will easily see through that! A teacher knocks on the door of a colleague’s classroom for a brief chat. The class teacher stands at the door for five minutes. Most, if not all, students still carry on with their work, stay in their seats and use their partner voices. The Year 4 teacher makes a point of saying at the close of the lesson, ‘I appreciated the way you all carried on working, remembering to use your partner voices, while I had a chat with Mr Daniels before. Thank you.’

When using descriptive feedback we will need to extend the feedback at times. This can be through written feedback or questions: ‘The passage about rain and the feeling of loneliness really gets across what the main character was feeling at the time. (This shows appreciation.) Check the topic to see how loneliness affects the relationship with his dad – develop that idea too. Remember to check for editing. Hang in there, Mr Smith.’ This is more encouraging than a final mark ‘6/10’, ‘Good work’, ‘You forgot to …’, or ‘You’ve missed half the topic and you have not checked for spelling’, etc. Some teachers give little encouragement because they believe that good work or behaviour is what is expected anyway. Yet even as adults we appreciate recognition of our effort and contribution. This is why students appreciate us showing their work to other teachers, or the principal. I’ve seen students at secondary level beam when their work is being shared and another teacher is giving positive feedback: ‘That’s a lively sentence using that word; now that’s what I call an adjective with flair, Ava’; ‘I can see you’re enjoying that, Liam’; ‘It seems like there is a different person sitting in this seat, Dina (teacher has a frown), from the same person sitting here yesterday (now a smile and a wink)’; ‘You’re using that Stanley knife very carefully, Ilia’; ‘Sienna, it might be easier if you hold the ruler with your thumb as well ( … ). Do you mind if I show you?’; ‘Try it again’ (rather than, ‘Don’t hold it like that! No wonder it’s messy’); ‘That’s an interesting thought!’; ‘I have faith in you because …’

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Even if students do not always respond to our encouragement straight away, we still encourage them because it is good teaching practice; not because it’s a manipulative tool or because it ‘works’. Some teachers find it helpful to keep a notebook to record observations of behaviour that can be utilised for encouraging feedback at a later date; it’s easy to forget in a busy teaching day. Where a student’s work is incorrect or messy, it is better to note what they have done correctly and concentrate on the effort made, and then ask if they understand the topic at hand, or suggest they have another go at spelling that difficult word, or say, ‘Let’s try that again’ or, ‘Show me, have you got that answer?’ This approach can help to energise and motivate. During quiet reading with Year 3, one of my students, who had severe learning difficulties, chose an encyclopedia to read. Rather than say, ‘No, James, that’s too hard. Let me get you another book’, I quietly encouraged him to tell me why he chose it. ‘See these pictures, Mr Rogers, they’re about road-digging machines.’ We had a quiet discussion about machines (a topic that really intrigued him) and he used the experience later during his writing.

Encouragement builds upon a student’s strengths and assets. This is as true of academic on-task activity as it is of socially cooperative behaviour. It works at crediting effort rather than merely praising the end result. This communicates to students that you believe in them and have confidence in their ability, stickability and their developing judgement. Students learn that they can ‘do it’ and helping others in the class reinforces that. Cooperative learning activities are especially useful to that end. Remember that failure is not the issue. Encourage the trying; the effort. ‘Come on, Ethan, keep trying. I see you’re thinking hard, that’s it. You’ve finished that part, that was the tricky bit, now let’s work on the next bit.’ We also should not over-pity students when they fail, but continue to encourage them: ‘Perhaps you’re feeling it’s tough; I’m sure that you can do this.’ Look for effort, improvement and evidence of trying. As in all social behaviour management, seek to assist them to take responsibility for their own feelings, emotions and behaviour.

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The way we use questioning is also significant. Do we restrict the student’s options, perspective and understanding by frequent closed questioning? Open, exploring, discursive questioning ought to be practised alongside the closed questions. If a student is set up with a closed question where only one right answer is possible, we may set them up for a chain of small, unnecessary failures. To communicate ‘I like you, but I dislike what you did’ (actions that hurt others and infringe their rights) is not easy. The balance between either overprotecting a student in her social and emotional development or punishing her with discouraging comment is the creative tension of teaching. What we are learning to ask ourselves as we manage children in groups, or as individuals within groups, is, ‘How does what I’m characteristically doing and saying positively affect a student’s self-concept and encourage self-esteem?’

Disclaiming praise Avoid disclaiming or devaluing the encouragement by the easy addition of ‘but …’, ‘if only …’, ‘why can’t you …’ or ‘why don’t you …’ A normally talkative Year 3 student who often calls out puts her hand up without calling out. The teacher acknowledges this, ‘You’ve got your hand up, thank you, Nalini’, but undercuts the brief word of encouragement by adding ‘… and if you had your hand up all the time, it would be better for everyone, wouldn’t it?’ Riley hands in his project with much neater writing. The teacher says, ‘That’s a neat and thoughtful presentation, Riley. You’ve spent a lot of time on the final result’, but adds, ‘and why can’t you write just like that all the time instead of your regular writing – which can be rather messy, can’t it, Riley, hmmm?’

Two kinds of teachers When I first learned to sail, my 10-year-old daughter and I arrived, nervously, at a narrow jetty at a lake to be met by a tough-looking yachting instructor. With a bare hint of a smile, our instructor gave us her name and asked us to get into the sailing ››

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dinghy. ‘Don’t!’ she said, as I reached for a halyard to step into the boat. ‘Don’t you know how to get into a boat?’ She gave a loud sigh. ‘Goodness (another sigh), you step into it like this.’ She showed me as she brushed past me. I raised my eyes to the sky as I looked at my daughter. I was hoping it would get better – it didn’t. In the next hour, she whinged, criticised, grabbed at ropes, was sarcastic, ‘humphed’ and ‘ummed’ her way through a semblance of being a sailing instructor. Early in the ‘lesson’ she asked me to hold the mainsheet. I looked up at the sail (a sail is a sheet, isn’t it?). Seeing my ‘stupidity’ she remarked, ‘You were supposed to read the homework notes, weren’t you? A mainsheet is the main rope for guiding the sail’, and gave me a look that seemed to say: ‘Don’t say I have to put up with another dope.’ At one point – when I was trying to steer the dinghy towards a fixed ‘something’ on the horizon – she said, ‘Now keep it straight with the tiller!’ I saw the bank loom close and I registered my concern. ‘Don’t you worry about that!’ she snapped, ‘I’m in control.’ Bravely I replied, ‘Actually I thought I was steering, that’s why I was a little worried.’ ‘Look, do you think I’d allow that? Concentrate!’ she said as I turned my eyes away from looking ahead and turned to face her. ‘Watch where you’re going – goodness!’ As we steered away from the bank under her control (my daughter sitting, anxious, opposite me), she asked, ‘How old are you?’ ‘What’s she on about?’ I thought. ‘Can you drive a car?’ ‘Yes, of course.’ ‘And you can’t understand the simple connection of rudder, steerage way and wind direction.’ She droned on with barely controlled sarcasm. As we moved off on port tack she added a ‘Concentrate!’ and ‘Watch the sail, watch the sail! Don’t waggle the tiller!’ ‘Look,’ I said (I was getting quite annoyed). ‘This is my first time in a sailing boat of any kind. Now, as a teacher, I’ve found that the beginning of any new activity is helped by a bit of encouragement and understanding, however old one is.’ I gave her ‘Credo One’ of my philosophy on learning and teaching. Water off a duck’s back. ‘I don’t muck around,’ she said. ‘You’re in a boat, no time to muck around.’ Not once did she tune in to our natural anxiety about learning a new skill, nor was she aware of the over-burdening of ‘instructions’ … and forget any encouragement!

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For the rest of the hour she regaled us with what seemed like 101 bits of information, generally treated me as a child, huffed and haa-ed and, as we stepped ashore, said, ‘Now make sure you do some reading by next week.’ As my daughter and I walked to the car I felt like giving up. My self-esteem (our self-esteem) had been battered. But, after a coffee and a milkshake, we laughed it off and I said, ‘Will we try her once more?’ (we’d booked and paid for two lessons). ‘Yeah, but isn’t she a pain, dad!’ I could only agree but said, ‘We’d better get our money’s worth.’ Next week was worse. We almost felt like we’d never learn to sail. Ms Napoleon (as we’d nicknamed her) projected failure and even stupidity on to us. Maybe she didn’t mean to, but her whole tone, and manner, in the boat was, ‘You should know. Why can’t you understand? What’s wrong with you?’ Our self-esteem was stronger than her lousy teaching. We decided to try another teacher and signed up for a course with another group. We arrived, on a bleak, windy, showery day at a small bay near Geelong in Victoria; no gentle lake here. There were six boats on a trailer. Sixteen people (including myself) unloaded the boats and placed them near the water. We stood shivering, facing the weather-beaten instructor and what looked to me like a very choppy sea behind him. He smiled at us and called us over to a boat. He introduced himself and assured us all that we’d have a great day’s sailing. Then he calmly and carefully explained each part of the boat we’d need to know about and how we’d need to ‘mast’ it, put in the rudder and centreboard, set up the sails, etc. We set up on the beach, each crew with its own boat. He then showed us how to sit in the boat, how to tack, how to pull in the mainsheet and so on. All on dry land. We practised. We felt reasonably confident (so far) under his clear and quietly confident instructions. ‘The next step’, he said, ‘is the most important. What will probably happen is that when you get out there the boat will tip over – no worries; it’s a choppy sea today. You’ll be OK. All beginners experience it, we even practise it. I’ll explain and show you how to get your boat back up should it tip you in the drink.’ He calmly explained what to do, showed us how to right the boat and reminded us he’d be out there to help in his little motorised ‘rubber duck’ (dinghy). ‘Okay, off you go! Have a great time.’ With my daughter and another adult, I managed to get our boat out from the shore. We steered it into the wind and were staggered at its power. In a few minutes we were soaked by the water sluicing up from the sides of the boat. Green as we all were, we tried valiantly to keep the boat on a reasonably even keel. Our ‘green-ness’ ››

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was obvious though; I couldn’t seem to stop the boat keeling over, the wind seemed to push us further and further towards the drink! Surely we’re not going to tip it! ‘I can’t hold the rudder!’ Our natural anxiety was realised as we three sank beneath the waves with the sail flat on the water. The boat then turned right over (the sail totally under the water) as we coughed and spluttered our way to the surface. We remembered our drill. I made my way to the front of the boat to pull the bow into the wind and we reached up over the upturned hull to pull down on the centreboard … The instructor saw us and putt-putted over in his motorised dinghy. As we three, shivering and clinging to the now-lifeless vessel, tried to recall his drill, he very calmly said, ‘Well done, Bill, and you too … (looking at my ‘crew’); that’s it, pull the centreboard down. I knew you’d remember the drill – good on you.’ He trusted us to complete the procedure and as we righted the boat and climbed in he said, ‘What will you do next?’ ‘Bring her round and set the sails?’ I laughed and spluttered as we three treaded water. ‘Well done! Off you go!’ Wet as we were, we felt not that we had made some great mistake, but that we had passed a test. We were learning under the security of un-battered self-esteem and a sense of security, and trust, in his encouragement, his knowledge and his experience. Ten minutes later I put the boat in the drink again, as did we all! Each time our instructor came over and smiled, calmly encouraged us, gave us confidence and courage to keep going. He never took the initiative from us. Even in stressful, cold and somewhat uncertain circumstances, he gave us only as much information as we needed – trusting us to know and do what he believed we could do. His calmness and clarity of instruction were most reassuring. He’d say things like, ‘I knew you’d remember’, or ‘What will you do next?’, or ‘Which direction should you head?’, or ‘You tacked really smoothly that time. You’re getting it, Bill. Well done!’, or ‘Don’t worry Elizabeth, you’ll get it next time – it’s not easy keeping the boat steady in a wind like this.’ By the end of our session with him, our confidence, our self-esteem and skill had all increased. Even our failures were utilised. He also taught me a great deal about how to teach or, more correctly, how to be a teacher. He modelled: • clarity in setting tasks and skills, and enthusiasm for the subject – and he didn’t overload our thinking capacity • care for the individual

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• encouragement and the motivation to work cooperatively as well as learn individual skills within a team • consistency in his encouragement and teaching style • the expectation that we would succeed. We did suceed; of course there were some students who were better at sailing that day, but we all experienced success. In this way our estimation of ourselves was positive, helpful, realistic and strengthened our belief that we could cope even in difficult situations.

The sailing lesson

Classroom meetings It is the beginning of the school year and the teacher wants to discuss rights, rules and responsibilities with her students. She has used classroom meetings before, with other groups, so she decides to try it with the Year 9 tutor class. As they file in and sit down, she writes ‘Classroom meetings’ on the board and draws, underneath, four quarter circles (the seating plan). As the students settle down, she introduces herself and explains that to start off the year she wants to discuss rights and rules with them. Handing out name tags already written out from ››

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the class list, she calls the roll. It is important to learn students’ names quickly during the first few weeks of the year (establishment phase of the group). Before she directs the class to move into a circle of seats, she explains what this kind of classroom meeting is, why it is happening today (its purpose), what the rules for the meeting are and what outcomes are expected. She directs the class to move their desks against the wall, bring out the chairs and stand behind them, a quarter of the class at a time. She’s aware the class can be a bit restless/motoric. Once the circle is formed (amid normal chatter) the teacher draws up a seat to join in. ‘To start, let’s try a simple little exercise.’ She begins with a word game or icebreaker. A student starts play-punching his mate. She distracts and diverts. The grandiloquent, attention-seeking Jack is showing off in front of his mates. Calling across the circle, she says, ‘Jack, see you for a sec?’ Jack swaggers over (he is the centre of attention now). She draws him down by whispering, ‘Jack (she rises up out of her seat), I’m swapping places.’ Before he has a chance to think, she takes his place and distracts the group’s attention by beginning the icebreaker. She could have used a simple rule-reminder: ‘Jack, hands and feet to yourself.’ She chose to distract Jack this way because she knows the student from last year and thought that such a distraction would probably work. The small ‘risk’ works. There will be several disruptions during the discussion; she will have prepared for these, at all times bringing the focus of attention back to the purpose of the discussion: our shared rights and responsibilities. ‘We haven’t got any rights anyway,’ says Manisha, (always keen to be the first to start … ) and so it goes. Bobbing and weaving her way through a lively discussion, the teacher gradually draws out the students’ thinking, extends their thinking by asking a few questions or clarifying a point and draws the meeting to focus on the common, shared recommendations which are noted by a student recorder. The class establishes, under her direction, some basic understanding of rights and what rules are needed to protect those rights.

Setting up a classroom meeting Classroom meetings are a common feature of primary schools. Many secondary teachers also use such a forum as a basis for shared perspective taking and decision making. A classroom meeting involves setting aside a time for the whole class to discuss and think through issues of common concern. The classroom, after all, is a social setting – one that all students (with their

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teachers) live within day after day. One student’s behaviour both influences and is influenced by the other members of the class group (as is the teacher’s behaviour so influenced). Behaviour concerns and problems can be addressed at this group level as well as the individual level. Through such meetings, the class can learn to explore issues that affect the whole group, such as put-downs, swearing, attention-seeking, lateness, messy work or high noise levels. Classroom meetings can also have an educational focus, for addressing aspects of the curriculum, teaching and learning and issues affecting the social life of the classroom. The broad goals are always the same: having a purpose for such a meeting; learning to actually cooperate through discussion around common issues of concern; and learning to take risks in expression of ideas. This activity is not one where a teacher merely stands in the traditional ‘up-front’ position to field questions (as, say, in a regular classroom lesson). It is, rather, a structured meeting where teacher and students have clear behaviour norms for the group; where cooperation is taught, expected and encouraged; where problems are confronted; and, it is hoped, where democratic decisionmaking is the outcome. I have worked with teachers who have recalled failure in such ‘discussions’ with classes. However, this failure was usually due to: • lack of careful planning • scheduling classroom meetings too early in the establishment phase of the group’s life together • poor understanding of group dynamics • expectation of failure • a fear of ‘losing control’ • lack of persistence during the first few meetings – it’s easy to give in when a discussion ends up in a lack of focus, ‘silliness’ or clowning around. Children need to be taught how to behave in a group and more particularly in a meeting that has guided democracy built into its process. The ‘lateral tyranny’ of the peer group has sent many a classroom meeting goal to an early grave. For cooperative discussion (as with all learning) there needs to be clear guidance from a positive teacher–leader. Students need to experience the nature of the democratic process through clarifying their views, gaining feedback from

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peers, learning to participate in decisions and shouldering the shared responsibility flowing from such a decision-making processes.

The benefits The research indicates that there are many positive outcomes for students from such class meetings, such as: • active student involvement, interaction and cooperation • development of a sense of openness to the needs of others • learning to listen to others and hearing others’ perspectives • development of a classroom climate in which people’s views and ideas are taken seriously; students can be more comfortable with one another’s ideas and opinions and, consequently, less defensive • confrontation of mutual problems such as social behaviours, problems in learning and problems in social organisation (Rogers 2009). Of course there are benefits for the teacher as well, such as taking the risk to find out what individuals and the group generally thinks about a given issue or concern. Such meetings also provide a forum for decision-making, even about an individual’s behaviour. Group meetings can be organised at any age level, with appropriate modifications. One of my colleagues conducted a classroom meeting with a Year 1 class to invite their assistance in helping a child with his personal behaviour plan. The child had been diagnosed with a behaviour disorder (ADHD) and his behaviour was causing concerns to teacher and students alike. The individual behaviour plan involved a daily goal presented as a ladder; each ladder would then help the child reach the top of a ‘mountain’. The mountain symbolised his weekly ‘climb’ of behaviour. The teacher found the classroom meeting process very useful: ‘After this initial meeting the children were so supportive. They helped Arwen enormously, which in turn helped me. Another idea we came up with (as a group) was a message board where we could write positive messages for Arwen about the things he did. We drew a picture of him and, at different times in the day, children went there to write their personal messages: “Arwen smiled at me.” “Arwen sat quietly in assembly.” “Arwen used the carpet rules.”’

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Conducting a classroom meeting 1. Inform the class about when the meeting will be scheduled and what the topic for discussion will involve: ‘We will be having a special class discussion on Thursday and will be discussing …’ Plan for the meeting to be about 20 minutes (built up to 30 minutes for older children). Organise the meeting for a time when the class is likely to be more attentive – this time will vary with group/age/context. 2. Organise seating arrangements. Seats are best organised in a circle or semicircle. By arranging the chairs in a circle, the members of the group – including the teacher – are more relationally open to each other. The sense of ‘psychological territory’ changes when people are facing each other. When people start communicating, they can see each other, hear and focus on each other more easily. Members of the group (especially the teacher) can observe the nonverbal language that plays a very important part in communication and feedback. Tuning into students’ nonverbal behaviours aids a teacher’s insight, sense of timing and control and flow of the meeting. 3. Establish clear rules and norms. Share what the expectations of the members of the group should be. For example: –

to share concerns and problems as we feel comfortable

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to act responsibly towards – and cooperate with – others about the issues/concerns we raise

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to give each member of the group a fair go

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to share our concerns, ideas and opinions without putting others down

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to listen to each other and to stay on the subject

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to take a turn to speak.

Some colleagues at primary level use ‘talk tokens’ to visually cue and restrain the more garrulous members of the group. Each participant is given three tokens. After each contribution is made, the speaker puts down one talk token in front of where they are sitting. After the three tokens are used up they can no longer contribute in that 20-minute session. One school I worked in had a ‘speaking pillow’. The Year 4 students could only speak when holding the speaking pillow. Students would not interrupt the

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speaker, unless the pillow was passed to a new speaker. Many preschool teachers use such a ‘speaking symbol’ (e.g. a soft toy). The rules for the meeting are there to protect each member’s right to contribute and feel as comfortable as possible in sharing their views and their concerns. The teacher’s role is to make these rules clear and positively enforce them from the outset. This requires firmness, warmth, sensitivity, determination and even some judicious humour. My first few class meetings tested all these qualities to the limit, especially the warmth and sensitivity! I learned that leadership of such meetings only gets better and the process only gets easier with practice. Students too become more comfortable and more articulate through practice. Children learn the important life lessons of risk-taking (within protective adult leadership) and ‘having a voice’; and then testing that voice in front of others. Students also learn how to think on their feet and expose their ideas, opinions and thinking to others’ ideas, values, opinions and suggestions. 4. Reinforce the rules. This is an important part of the group process. If one or two members of the group call out instead of using the fair rules, the teacher may tactically ignore them and give verbal reinforcement to those members of the group who enable a fair go: ‘Thanks for putting up your hand Thi. It gives us all a fair go.’ ‘What’s your question, Carter? Thanks for putting up your hand, by the way.’ If certain members continue to call out, the teacher will often use a rule restatement, with brief, positive eye contact: ‘Jayde, you know the fair rule for making a point or asking a question. Use it, thanks.’ That’s all. Attention and focus is then given back to the on-task members of the group. This can be applied to other behaviours such as put-downs and annoying, pestering behaviour. If a student continues to call out, put-down, tap their feet or disrupt in some other way, they will be given a directed choice to remain in the group, or sit out, or stay back and explain their behaviour later. When maintaining any discipline in such a context it is important we seek to be as natural and relaxed as possible in our speech. Even when speaking assertively with those students who are discourteous, rude or arrogant, we’ll use a firm, calm tone. If they resist, remind them that they can either work

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with our fair rules or we’ll have to ask them to sit out from the meeting and explain later why they can’t work by the fair rules, or even face time out from the group. 5. Be a democratic leader. In running a class meeting, it is important that the teacher take the role of democratic leader: –

Keep the students focused on the subject or question at issue. Watch the issue doesn’t wander: ‘It looks like there are several possibilities here. Which of these do you think we should follow? Why?’ (The test for all decision-making is our shared rights and responsibilities.)

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Always protect the weaker members of the group.

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Encourage quieter members, without forcing them to contribute: ‘Kim, would you like to say something?’, ‘Does anybody want to add anything more to that?’

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Watch the louder, overly assertive, members of the group and be sure they keep to the fair, clear rules for the meeting. (‘Remember our rule for …’, ‘You know the fair rule – use it, thanks.’)

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Model and invite cooperation and listening using direct eye contact and reflective listening; providing feedback to the individual student and the group.

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Draw the threads of opinion and ideas together: ‘It seems that the group is saying …’, or ‘From what you’ve said, the group seems to agree that … Have I got that right?’

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Enable the group to move towards a conclusion through maximum contribution; being as fair to all sides as is possible; sticking to the purpose for the discussion/meeting; checking with the group that we’ve got the sense and mood of the responses; and summing up towards a shared understanding, proposal or solution.

Our own modelling, and how we encourage and reinforce our students, gives a lead and provides a training ground for their discussion skills. Keep the meeting moving by asking, directing, restating, refocusing, inviting, challenging and at times provoking the members to participate. Divergent questioning will help extend a contribution: • ‘Anything wrong, Eli? You seem annoyed about something.’ • ‘What do you think, Dina? How do you feel when …?’

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• ‘Amalia, have you anything to add? What if someone said that to you, how would you feel?’ • ‘Charlotte has suggested X. Does anyone else want to add to that?’ • ‘Well, would that fix the problem? What do you think? How?’ • ‘I see that you think we should punish Omar. How will that fix the broken chair? What’s a fair consequence (rather than a punishment)?’ • ‘You sound angry, Bilal. I can understand that; we can feel angry at times … what can we suggest to fix it?’ • ‘We’re talking about put-downs, teasing and swearing today. We can discuss stealing at another time.’ • ‘Nam, you’ve made your point. I’m sure there are others here who would like to add something.’ It’s really important when emotions start to run high that the teacher take a democratic but firm lead. What, when, how and who questions are generally more helpful than closed questions. Sometimes the questions can be planned ahead, depending on the topic or issue. If the group is obviously flagging or getting unwieldy – despite our confident leadership and guidance – then don’t hesitate to call the meeting to an early close. Students are often not used to group discussion and it may take a few meetings to get them used to the experience of cooperation, sharing, taking turns, expressing ideas, etc. Our persistence and modelling is often the best means to such an end. Where classroom meetings (even short ones) are a regular feature of classroom life (as in primary schools), teachers can use an agenda board where students can list agenda items for the next meeting.

A warm-up activity This is a useful way to ‘unlock’ the initial hesitation and unusualness of being in an ‘unprotected’ circle. The teacher starts with a brief turn-taking game. ‘My name is Bill (or Mr Rogers). Two things I like to do are drinking tea and reading novels.’ He then turns to Noah. Noah says, ‘This is Mr Rogers, he likes tea, I mean, he likes drinking tea and eating (laugh), sorry, reading novels. My name is Noah. I like footy and skateboarding.’ Noah turns to Olivia. To make the game a little easier, actions can be added. Olivia, a bit concerned, says, ‘There’s

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Mr Rogers (points), he likes … this is Noah, he likes … and I’m Olivia and I like …’ and so on. It can get confusing but it’s a positive warm-up. It opens the vocal cords and helps to free things up with a few laughs, with a bit of help from ‘the chair’. Another useful activity is the quick unfinished sentence game. Begin with, ‘Finish this sentence, Hannah: “One thing that really makes me laugh is …”’ If Hannah can’t come up with something, move on and come back to her. Then go round, in turn, with each member completing the sentence. If you decide you want to run a class meeting, but feel apprehensive, try it out with a small group first, or invite a trusted colleague (experienced in such meetings) to assist you. We can best minimise uncertainty (we can never eliminate it completely) by thoughtful planning and colleague support. I had a class meeting with a Year 3 group to discuss swearing in class. In a circle, we used De Bono’s (1986) PMI approach (discussing and listing the plus points, minus points and interesting suggestions, neither good nor bad). ‘All right, who wants to start? Kim, you’ve got your hand up.’ ‘She should get a battery and some wires (ha! ha! ha!) and tie it on her tongue (ha! ha!) and she will get a shock!’ ‘What do you think, class?’ Chorused reply: ‘Minus!’ (It is important not to over-service class wags. Briefly acknowledge and move on.) ‘Lily, you’ve had your hand up.’ ‘Make her run around the playground till she is sorry!’ ‘Lily, how does that help her swearing? Alessia?’ ‘Get her mum down, she will smack her.’ ‘But who was swearing? Was her mum?’ After several more illogical and unrelated (minus) suggestions, Nyssa said, ‘Couldn’t you say, like something … something will happen to her?’ ‘What will happen, Nyssa?’ ‘I don’t know, but something will happen.’ ‘Are you saying that we should warn the person who swears?’ (And we modelled it.) ‘Yes, that’s it!’ ‘What sort of warning? How?’ ››

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Someone else suggested that we should tell the swearer, ‘It’s not nice to swear.’ Finally, we all agreed that a fair, clear reminder of our class rule on hurtful language would be the warning (a form of rule restatement). If the swearing was directed at someone, the student would have to stay back, apologise and explain their behaviour. We would contact the parent only if the student continually refused to use the class rule about positive communication. We would (and did) help the particularly challenging student to use more positive and constructive language when she was frustrated, and positively reinforce her when she did make that effort.

A class meeting addressing put-downs The teacher has a prepared poster of the typical put-downs she has been hearing in a Year 8 class (mostly whispered). She has previously reminded the main perpetrators and the class about this issue and pointed out that she will be conducting a classroom meeting to address the issue. She begins the meeting with a brief explanation of why the topic needs addressing and says, ‘We are here to examine this issue of put-downs, cheap shots, hurtful teasing and “scoring”. We’ll be looking for solutions together. These are some of the things I’ve been hearing in the classroom these last few weeks …’ She invites student response and encourages them to share how they feel about this issue and why. She asks ‘Why do people put others down? How do people feel when they are put down? How does this affect our basic treatment right – about the way we ought to show basic respect to one another?’ She nominates a willing student to record class members’ contributions on the board. It will often help to have a second student recording the key issues and suggestions as a ‘scribe’ within the group itself. She knows that it is important not to criticise student responses at this point, but to clarify and extend: ‘Are you saying …?’ ‘Have I got it right?’ ‘Let’s write that up then …’ If a student is derogatory or uses the meeting to have a go at another student she will address such comments briefly and assertively in terms of ‘our classroom agreement about respect’. The teacher briefly shares her point of view – not a lecture (students would obviously turn-off). As this particular meeting concerns put-downs she gives a brief reminder of why put-downs affect our basic rights. She then invites the class to brainwave (brainstorm sounds a little too violent) suggestions for changing the

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language students use. For example, instead of saying, ‘That’s a dumb idea’ when a student disagrees with another student’s idea, he can just say, ‘I don’t agree because …’ The ideas and suggestions are recorded without evaluation at this stage. Some students give unusual, even silly, suggestions; the unusual are recorded. The teacher then invites the group to decide which ideas and approaches to putdowns and teasing we ought to use – and why. The test for using any suggestion: is it reasonable? Does it relate to the issue at stake? Does it keep the respect intact? Does it reflect our basic rights and responsibilities? Suggestions range from positive-language posters; rule reminders by their teacher (students themselves often resort to simple responsive descriptors such as: ‘That’s a put-down’); ways of making a point without hurting others and even fair consequences such as, ‘Those who put others down in class will have to meet with the person they have shown disrespect to and work through an appropriate apology.’ The teacher will set up a review meeting to discuss with this class how the suggested outcomes are working in resulting day-to-day life in our classroom. Review meetings are helpful if the outcome of the first meeting doesn’t reasonably meet its objectives.

A primary school deputy notes that: Regular meetings are now being conducted in our classes at every year level (even with five- and six-year-olds). What fantastic experiences I’ve had, not only with the initial process of introducing the idea of meetings (always fun because the children are so enthusiastic), but also with teacher and children’s responses (being listened to and being given the chance to work through issues). Some teachers are nervous about classroom meetings and not always sure of their educational value. I always find the children respond enthusiastically; teachers are usually surprised at the ease with which the students take to the process. While conducting a class meeting will – initially – involve some trial and error, I’ve found that there are a number of things we can do to make it work well: • try to schedule meetings for the half-hour leading up to a break • ensure that meetings are on days when we have no playground duty. Some children will want, or need, some one-to-one discussion or even, on occasion, some counselling following a meeting. This gives me the freedom to do this. ››

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• display a class poster (along with procedural outline) entitled, ‘Helpful ways to talk about problems without accusing people’.

Another colleague notes: When I hear a child begin to address another student or teacher in an accusing manner, I signal, nonverbally, or if necessary verbally, to refer them briefly to the rule chart. I had one Year 7 girl who had real difficulty remembering and would often begin to share a remark in a put-down manner. I merely said, ‘Careful’, and pointed to the chart. She was never excluded from a meeting and became a very active participant. I have some back-up for the ‘no put-down’ rule involving five minutes cool-off time (see p. 164). I find I can head off a potential ‘put-down’. In younger grades a put-down results in five minutes’ silence. In middle grades a repeated put-down means five minutes (cool-off time/thinking time) outside the room. To help the chairperson in her role, I laminate a copy of ‘The role of the chairperson’ and send it home with the student for a week leading up to the meeting. This gives the student an opportunity to discuss her role with her family. The children love it. We are also trialling a ‘secretary’ role and an ‘observer’ role. These are used only in upper grades, and the guidelines for the roles are also sent home. We have tried to simplify the secretary’s role with a problem–solution sheet and an issue–idea sheet. The following are some examples of the role guidelines we have used: • Role of secretary: reads through agenda; reads previous problem and issue sheets; fills in problem and issue sheets; ensures problem and issue sheets are easy to read; records names of chairperson, secretary and observer for the next meeting. • Role of chairperson: opens meeting; remains calm and positive (doesn’t take sides); ensures everyone has a chance to speak and be heard; confines the speaker to the issues; limits individuals’ time for speaking; tries to involve and include as many people as possible; closes the meeting positively and thanks the members of the group.

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As I reflect on this teacher’s description of classroom meetings I think that parliament could learn from her students and colleagues!

Questions to consider • How do you conceive of self-esteem, even for yourself? • When you reflect back to your time as a child, what was it in your teachers that enabled a positive sense of self-esteem for you? • How do you see the difference between encouragement and praise? How do the distinctions in this chapter relate to your own use of encouragement with your students? Have you seen students you teach/work with develop a more positive sense of self-esteem? How? • In what ways do your classroom meetings give your students an appropriate voice in shared concerns?

Endnote 1.

This section is adapted from an anonymous article simply called A Memorandum For Your Child. I cannot locate its source. I have adapted it to a school setting and thank the person (out there somewhere) who wrote it.

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‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe: All mimsy were the borogoves, And the mome raths outgrabe …’ Lewis Carroll, Jabberwocky, 1871

Most teachers have experienced a harder-than-average class at some stage; maybe a class with a ‘reputation’. I know that as a younger teacher I was handed the reins of a few choice classes from senior colleagues with a look and a sigh of relief. What makes a class hard, or exceptionally challenging, is not just one or two learning or behaviour difficulties, or the one or two attention-seeking students – they would be manageable if 80 per cent of the class were cooperative. As many teachers have said: ‘It’s like one thing after another; one “brushfire” here starts another over there! Three boys loudly talking and off-task, a couple of girls into long-term time-wasting; a few others wandering around … and during the instructional phase it seems like ages before I can get them settled. Even then students will talk to each other while I’m trying to teach.’ I’ve worked with many, many teachers who describe their hard classes this way (and worse!). What happens is that the frequency and intensity of distracting and disruptive behaviour is not limited to one or two students. It is much more general, more widespread across the class and seems to occur every

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lesson, every day! In the worst-case scenarios, some classes will even appear to sabotage a teacher’s efforts to engage them (Rogers 2006a). It seems as if it’s the whole class that is disruptive when, in stressful reality, it is more like 30 per cent of the students are catalysts for the others.

Contributing factors What makes some classes harder to manage? • The grouping together of students who are already known to create behaviour problems. One of the tempting, but least effective, management strategies is to put all the difficult students into one class grouping. The question is: who is going to teach such a class? In some schools, inexperienced teachers are knowingly given such a class grouping! • At secondary level, timetabling can have a significant effect on the behaviour of certain groups of students. • ‘Streaming’ or selective grouping of classes by ability. This is more common at secondary level. Again, these classes are sometimes given to beginning teachers or teachers known to have management problems. So much for teacher welfare! A skewed distribution of students (in terms of behaviour and learning) often creates management problems, let alone limiting the modelling of positive, cooperative behaviour from student to student. • Who the class is given to, in terms of doing our best in matching teacher to student grouping (i.e. first year/new graduates and teachers inexperienced in working with more challenging students and students with learning disorders). • Subject area. Where students do not, or cannot, see the value in a particular subject area at secondary level, they will sometimes reflect that in their behaviour. Of course it depends very much on how teachers can work with natural disaffection for a particular subject area. Colleague support is crucial, especially at the preventative level, in getting the class off on the best foot. • Teacher attitude, beliefs and treatment of the class. If a teacher has a negative attitude at the outset, expressed in blame, frequent nagging, criticism and use of whole-class detentions, some students will often team up to

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psychologically ‘pay the teacher back’. I’ve seen many classes become very hard to manage because of the way they are treated by some teachers. In some cases I’ve even seen some students psychologically bully their teachers (p. 259). While there can never be acceptance of such behaviour, one can sometimes understand how the spiral of antagonism and defeat occurs, where teacher and student become ‘enemies’ and an ‘us–them’ mentality ensues. Labelling the class (‘Those animals’, ‘That pack of …’, ‘That classroom from Hades!’) may block out the 50–70 per cent of class members more than willing to work cooperatively with the teacher, given a fair go. If a class is fractious and attentionally lively from the outset, the establishment phase in the critical first few weeks (pp. 191–193) is even more demanding of careful collegial planning. It is at this phase of the year that students’ habits of behaviour are developed. Working with a challenging Year 9 class recently, my colleague and I took nearly ten minutes to get a reasonable sense of whole-class focus. On the way into the classroom I noticed at least a third of the class ignored their teacher. Every third student asked me in a loud and pushy way what I was doing there: ‘Why are you here?’, ‘Is he going or something (pointing to their teacher)?’, ‘You going to be our new teacher?’ As each student filed past us by the classroom door I briefly answered, ‘When you’re settled in your seat your teacher will explain.’ I didn’t want the students ‘bunching up’ at the door or having any discussion at this point. As they entered, many of the students were speaking loudly to each other, as if there was no distinction between ‘social time’ and classroom time, particularly some of the boys, as they engaged in their ‘hormonal bridge-building possibility work’ with some of the female students. Most of the boys still had their baseball caps on; some students clearly still had their iPods on. As they moved to their desks I heard many students overly loudly move and bang their chairs into place. Half a dozen students slammed their books onto their class tables and leaned heavily, noisily, into their chairs. It seemed at first sight as if over half the class ‘didn’t care’ – perhaps posturing for the new teacher? My colleague then did his best to try to settle and focus the class and introduce the other teacher (myself): ‘WILL YOU PLEASE BE QUIET! Can’t you see we’ve got a visitor?’ This whole-class cueing seemed to take ages (four or five minutes).

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Several students arrived late; with a grandstanding entrance. My colleague ignored them but sighed – and waited while they settled. The clock ticked on. My colleague then handed the class over. It took me another three to four minutes to get a reasonable sense of calming and focused attention through their calling out (‘Why you here?’, ‘What’s your name again?’), the fiddling, the seat leaning and the several students trying to organise the window blinds. Having worked with many, many challenging classes as a mentor–teacher, it is a common feature of the first class that students are naturally inquisitive and querulous; some are suspicious – ‘Why’s he here?’ The behaviour I was witnessing here seemed more like a combination of attentional posturing and habituated patterning. We then team-taught; the class was more settled now. As I roved the room during that first lesson, I began to establish those first beginnings of relationship building with the class. I could easily see why my colleague found this timetable slot, this class, the bane of his week. During the course of the on-task phase of the lesson I asked my colleague if I could finish the lesson early and have a chat with the class. A quarter of the class had effectively packed-up 15 minutes before the bell anyway! Having refocused the class and seeing them basically settled and attentive I had a chat: ‘I want to let you all know what I noticed as a visitor to your class. On the way in I noticed many of you – I’m not saying all – ignored your teacher; as if he didn’t exist. Many of you were speaking really loudly to each other …’ Here I briefly modelled a typical loud vocal exchange. There was, naturally, laughter. I walked across to one of the more cooperative students and asked if I could borrow her maths book and classbook. ‘Sure …’; she looked puzzled. ‘I’m not saying all of you did this – you didn’t (looking at the student) – but several of you slammed your books on the table like this.’ You could easily hear the kinaesthetic loudness across the classroom. My tone and manner were as positive as possible. As I scanned the class I could see returned frowns, but also returned wry smiles and looks of recognition and concern and even affirmation. ‘You can easily hear that, can’t you? Several of you moved your furniture really loudly too – it seemed purposeful, though maybe you weren’t aware of it.’ (I wanted to suggest the remote possibility.) ‘Again I’m not saying it’s all of you, but it took this class – our class – nearly ten minutes to actually settle down before we (I looked at my colleague) could begin our teaching and learning time …’ ››

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Having five minutes left I invited their questions. (‘One at a time, thanks – and hands up so I can see your voice … I’m still learning your names.’) Even in that first lesson I was beginning – with my colleague – to start the slow but crucial rehabituation of classroom behaviour by working with the class group as a group. We also discussed how we (as a class) would enter, settle and focus next class period. I then dismissed the class row-by-row (p. 211). At least half a dozen students whinged. I tactically ignored this. I said goodbye to the students, by the door, as they left. Most were friendly; a few said, ‘Will you be here next lesson?’ I said I would. I sensed (yet again) that most of the students didn’t really want the class to be the way it had become. I saw them frown and heard a few students muttering and sighing as they walked off. My colleague and I had started on the road to a fresh start with this class (p. 255).

The most common reason why classes become hard to manage is how the establishment phase occurs, and develops, with that particular class. Poor, inadequate and inconsistent establishment often sets up a pattern of habituation that four to six weeks into first term seems difficult to break. Based on my discussion with my colleague above, I believe that this is what had happened with his class.

Directing blame or supporting a colleague? Blaming the teacher is the easy solution; likewise blaming the class – it’s never that simple. It can be dispiriting to turn up to a hard class every day or several times a week to experience the above. To add blame to a teacher’s emotional load will only compound the problem. There is no single, simple remedy for addressing the ‘hard class’ issue (Rogers 2006a). What is needed is a commitment to a supportive collegial solution at the earliest stage. I’ve seen too many teachers break down in term two when the issue should have been addressed in term one. Most teachers can recognise the difference between a bad day (when you had to move to the portable classroom because of a timetable change, and it was raining, and the key was misplaced … ) and a class – as a whole – that is overly hard to manage.

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It will be helpful, to begin with, to initiate a meeting of all teachers who work with this class group. Some teachers may be reluctant to admit there is ‘a problem with 8D’ for fear they will be seen as weak or ineffective. In this case the year level coordinator, head of department or team leader will need to set up an opportunity for colleagues who teach this cohort of students to discuss the issue supportively. Initially, this will involve a team meeting at which staff can discuss the common issues of concern (noise level, off-task behaviour, ‘ringleaders’ and ‘followers’, strategies already tried, successes and failures, p. 255). The degree to which such a meeting is successful will depend on how supportive the school or faculty is when it comes to problem identification, analysis and supportive action. It rarely helps when a colleague says, ‘Oh, 8D – I never have any problems with them.’ Even if that is true for some teachers it hardly helps the teachers who are really struggling to lead a class they find troublesome!

Giving immediate support when a class is overly disruptive It can be disconcerting to walk past a class that seems out of control; where a quick eye-sweep picks up several pockets of disruption, noise and at times borderline chaos. In such a situation it doesn’t help to just walk quickly on, thankful that it’s not your problem. Nor does it help to say silently, ‘Well, it serves him right …’ Worse – some senior teachers will stand outside such a class, hands on hips, watching, frowning. The students can clearly see this, as can the class teacher: ‘I’m being judged’, ‘I’m ineffective. I can’t cope. I’m incompetent.’ Even worse, some senior teachers knock on the door of a rowdy class, march in and take over: ‘Right – you can all shut it now! I can hear you all the way down the corridor! What the hell do you think you’re doing?’ After a five-minute harangue the senior teacher then walks out. How in heaven’s name is that supportive? The class teacher is left – again – looking ineffective or even incompetent. What is hard to believe is that some senior teachers actually believe they have a right to behave in this way, or that it actually helps!

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NB If this has happened to you as a teacher, I would advise you to seek a meeting with that senior colleague where you can calmly explain your concern about the way they came into the class and what they said, and most importantly how it made you (as class teacher) feel in front of your class. This will not be easy; it will help to write it out reflectively, before any such meeting. Phrase it as ‘When you … (be specific) I felt … because …’ It may help to have a trusted colleague help you plan what you might say. Difficult as this is, if we don’t make our concerns clear that colleague may continue to think that what they did (or keep doing when they come into your challenging class) is actually appropriate, or helpful! At that meeting it will also be important to discuss your concerns about the class and request considered colleague support.

In the short-term, though, if we see a class that is significantly out of control and we can see through the window that our colleague is clearly very stressed, we need to offer immediate support. My colleagues and I use what we call a ‘colleague safety valve option’, an option left to the professional discretion of a senior colleague walking past the classroom or even a colleague teaching next door: • Always knock on the door of the classroom and enter politely. Ask the class teacher quietly if you can ‘borrow a few students’ (I’ve never been knocked back!) and direct the students out of the class and away for a chat about their behaviour in the class and what they need to agree on before they go back. We may well decide it’s better to keep them out of that particular class for the rest of that class period. • If the class is extremely ‘catalytic’, with ‘behaviour brushfires’ going off across the class and the teacher is yelling … we knock on the door and quietly inform the colleague, ‘There’s a message for you at the office.’ This is code for, ‘I’ll take the class till the bell goes.’ The class teacher then notifies the office that another teacher is taking the class. Later that day the support colleague and class teacher debrief. This assumes that such an option has school-wide colleague support. It is never an end in itself; it obviously needs to be backed up by thoughtful and careful

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analysis of whether the problems with the class are due to ‘bad-day syndrome’ or are ongoing.

Beginning the fresh-start process: An initial year level meeting The purpose of an initial year-wide meeting is to break the ‘hard class’ reputation and possible habituation of poor behaviour as early as possible. It will be important to go beyond the natural complaining and expressions of frustration common in such a meeting to what we can actually do. It may be that the class really is problematic only for a particular teacher. This may be due to the subject taught (that is, the attitude of students to that particular subject) or the style of management or even the curriculum delivery by a particular teacher. In this case there may need to be one-to-one mentoring with that teacher and the class in question. It can also help if that teacher visits their class in other settings (or at least the difficult cohort in that class) and observes how different teachers manage and relate to the students they are struggling with. This can help the teacher to build up a relationship with the students outside their own subject area to see our more challenging students learning and engaging in more positive behaviours with other teachers. I have used this approach countless times often with reasonable success – providing the teacher is willing to work on strategies to reassess and re-orient the class group back in their own subject class. As noted earlier, the establishment phase of the class group is crucial with regard to group expectations about learning and behaviour (p. 191). If, from day one, the teacher has been unclear and indecisive about basic rights, responsibilities, rules and core routines it will have an effect on classroom dynamics from those first meetings. The crucial effect of the establishment phase cannot be underestimated. If a class has lost its way, though, in the first few weeks or so, it will be important to re-establish the class; to go over the rules that may have been missed; to address seating plans; to refocus the working-noise levels; to go through even basic routines such as entering the classroom and settling at

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the work area; to revise communication expectations during whole-class teaching time and fair procedures for getting teacher attention during on-task learning time; to discuss leaving work areas tidy and exiting from the room in a considered way (pp. 191–214). It can help with upper primary and secondary students to re-establish these expectations through a classroom meeting. This gives the students an opportunity to put their side of the story and for the more cooperative students to have their voice. The degree of ‘openness’ of the meeting will depend to a large extent on the dynamics of the class.

‘Closed’ meetings: The serious and formal option A senior teacher well known to the class and held in some respect outlines to the class specific concerns about their learning and behaviour. She does this in conjunction with the regular class teacher. The emphasis at the start of such a meeting is on describing behaviours of concern; lecturing the class about how bad they are will simply reinforce their reputation and create unnecessary resistance – even in the cooperative students. It can help to have the behaviours that cause concern written out on a large poster to give visible focus. In addressing the issues of concern the teacher will emphasise: • everyone in this class has rights and responsibilities • these behaviours (be brief and specific, without ‘pointing a finger’) are not ‘funny’, ‘cool’ or ‘a game’. Students who choose to behave in these ways affect everyone’s rights to learn, to feel safe, to enjoy respect and be treated with respect. • ‘We are sharing these concerns with you all, so you know how we feel and why. We haven’t notified your parents, yet. We believe we can work it out with you as a class group. That’s why we are having this meeting. Later in this session I want to discuss how our rights and responsibilities can work together, but I need to point out that we cannot and will not allow these kinds of behaviours (here be briefly specific and refer back to the list) in any of our classes.’ The tone of this meeting is serious, even formal – yet it is not a lecture or a haranguing session. The calmness of the class teacher, and the senior colleague,

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is paramount. It is also essential to focus only on actual behaviours, without labelling students. Point out, too, that not every single student may have frequently behaved in the ways noted on the list but that ‘everyone here’ is affected by those behaviours: ‘That’s why we need to discuss it with all of you.’ Point out that some students in this class will be spoken to privately about their behaviour – this is important for the ‘catalysts’ and also so that cooperative students know we will be targeting the highly attentional and provoking students. The students are then invited to make a response to the noted behaviours, with reminders of the expectations for class discussion (p. 239). Suggestions and responses from the students are noted on the board. Or, alternatively, the students can write down their responses and these are communicated back to the class at a second meeting. At a second meeting students are given a class document outlining: • our fundamental rights (p. 122) • the fair classroom rules that protect those rights • the basic responsibilities of students (and teacher) • the consequences for choosing to negatively affect learning and teaching, the treatment of others, or safety in the classroom • the positive aspects of working within these fair understandings. The language of this document is positive, clear and not ‘wordy’. It often helps in such a meeting to reorganise the seating plan to refocus powerbrokers; it is also very important that during this ‘closed’ meeting the class teacher takes some role so that it doesn’t appear as if the senior teacher is running the meeting. All the way through the meeting the emphasis will be on ‘we …’ (as both teachers are standing at the front of the classroom addressing the class). Invite the students to respond to the document. Any discussion will need to keep its focus on the non-negotiable issues in terms of essential rights: to treat others with respect, and to be treated with respect (put-downs, slagging-off, harassment will not be tolerated); to learn without interference; to feel safe and act safely. Point out there will be a review meeting with the class in two weeks’ time to see how things are going with the class.

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It can help, too, to telegraph the probability that individuals who choose not to work within this fair classroom plan may have to face relocation to another class group. This should be said in a matter-of-fact way and not as a threat.

‘Open’ classroom meetings Classroom meetings are addressed in Chapter 8. Suffice to say here that the class – as a group – are encouraged to work with their teacher to honestly address issues of common concern and to give voice to the disaffected (especially the teacher!). But students, too, need a chance to share their perspective, providing they do so with consideration of the feelings of their teacher and fellow members of the class. This means we focus on the issues of concern without attacking teachers or other students. Our experience has been that whatever kind of classroom meeting we pursue, things works best when a respected senior teacher works with the class teacher who has been struggling with this class; a colleague who has had experience in conducting such meetings. They plan for the meeting together and work through the initial, and subsequent, phases of the meeting. An ‘open’ meeting may involve handing out a reflective pro-forma to all students in the class, and then a follow-up feedback session. The key questions are as follows: • What do you believe is working well in this class and why? (Start with the positive question.) • What do you believe is not working well in our class and why? (The why is always revealing.) It is important in both written and ‘open’ or verbal feedback that students are reminded: ‘We are here to share concerns and look to work together for common, shared solutions. We therefore do not use ‘attacking’ or ‘put-down’ statements in writing or in an open forum.’ • What can we do (as a class, as a group) to make this class a more enjoyable place to be: a place where we can learn without distractions or disruptions and where we are supporting one another; where our noise level is reasonable; where we’re looking out for (and after) one another, not just ourselves. Assure the students that you value their contribution and that all contributions will be taken seriously.

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Another option for the open meeting is to have the students sit in a circle, with the two teachers, and the questions above are discussed within that format. Two students take on the responsibility of recording the responses given. The key questions are the first stage of any action planning. Any class action plan will be a published expression of what the students agree, with their teacher(s), within a framework of shared rights and responsibilities.

Mini meetings Sometimes a support colleague can take the whole class for a full class period while the regular teacher withdraws three students at a time to another area in the school where she can sit and have a mini meeting using the questions noted earlier as a guide (p. 258). Again, these responses are recorded, processed and feedback given to the whole class regarding: • common and frequent concerns • common suggestions for change • how we will develop a whole-class agreement.

Meetings with individual students on individual behaviour plans Senior staff work with the ‘catalytic’ students and those engaged in significant attentional or resistive behaviours. Often this will involve some kind of individual behaviour plan (even if it’s half a dozen students). These plans will be carefully and regularly monitored (p. 173). These behaviour plans highlight personal accountability and responsibility, and spell out in a specific way (behaviourally) what the expectations are for those students (see also Appendices III and IV). It is essential that the grade or subject teacher sits in on this one-to-one conferencing and planning process with each of their students who need some kind of individual behaviour plan.

The bullying of teachers by students: Conducting an accountability meeting If a student is psychologically harassing a teacher, then early intervention by both the class teacher and a senior teacher is essential. Some students will

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exercise their social power in abusive ways that can garner support from their peers in intimidating nonverbal gesturing, resulting in a chorus of noises, cheers or the bouncing back and forth of comment or gesture so the teacher is uncertain as to where the noises or comments are coming from. When a teacher seeks to confront this in class time she may be met with a feigned ‘Who me? What did I do?’ (especially if the bullying is nonverbal or of an ambiguous nature). Other students are more gutlessly brazen, calling out with put-downs to the teacher, or sexist, homophobic comments and when challenged will say, ‘I was just joking!’ This kind of behaviour is bullying or harassment. It is selective, intentional and repeated; it is behaviour by a student (or several collusive students) designed to intimidate and hurt. Bullying is always about an abuse of power. In such cases, the teacher concerned needs to meet with each perpetrator separately, with a senior teacher facilitating. The teacher can then face each student (with the senior peer present) to make clear what student behaviour constitutes harassment, why it is wrong and then call the student to account for that behaviour. The key features of such a meeting include the following: • Describe specifically what the student has been doing, saying, nonverbally suggesting or implying in class in terms of their harassing behaviour. Mirroring such behaviour may be relevant, if the teacher in question is comfortable with such an approach. This is particularly effective when addressing harassing gestures or tones of voice. It is also essential to have the student’s specific behaviour carefully written down and to refer to this written record during the accountability conference. • Describe how such behaviour affects the teacher’s basic right to teach without any harassing comments and, more importantly, that such behaviours are attacking our basic right to respect. We also point out that such behaviour (refer to the written record) is significantly affecting other students’ right to learn. It is important that the teacher who has been the victim of the bullying also faces the student (in front of their senior colleague) and: • reiterates calmly and clearly what it is the bully has been doing in terms of the bullying behaviour (the list)

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• briefly shares how it has affected the teacher’s right to respect, fair treatment and the right to teach without having to put up with bullying behaviours (here the teacher will indicate to the list without going over all the behaviours again) • points out that it is expected the student will apologise for these behaviours and give a clear assurance, here and now, that such behaviours will stop. Give the student a right to respond: • Point out that this behaviour (refer briefly to list) has to stop and why. Here the facilitator can refer to the school’s code of rights and responsibilities. When we give a bully a right-of-reply in such a meeting, the student will often discount their behaviour: • ‘I was only joking when I said he’s a poofter!’ • ‘Other students said stuff too!’ • ‘I wasn’t the only one!’ • ‘Anyway, I hate this class, and the teacher deserves it!’ It is important to meet these typical answers with clear, focused responses: ‘It’s not a joke when … (be specific) because …’; ‘Even if other students did … or said … (be specific) you are responsible for what you do and say …’; ‘Even if you don’t like the class it is totally unacceptable to treat your teacher this way’. If a student goes silent we say, ‘Perhaps you are saying to yourself “It’s just a joke”. It’s not a joke because …’ We posit the typical discounting beliefs they may be holding, and then address why those beliefs are never an excuse for bullying behaviour. • It is then important to allow the student to respond and clarify what they will do to change ‘how things are in 8D’, and how they need to change those bullying behaviours that contribute to ‘how things are in 8D’. It can be helpful to write this down: the behaviours that need to stop, and the positive behaviours that are expected instead. • The senior teacher lets the student know that they will be required to meet again with the grade or subject teacher and the senior teacher in a week’s time to review how things are going with the student’s assurances regarding their commitment to change their behaviour. If there is no change in the student’s behaviour, it will be important to pursue formal due-process with parent contact.

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NB It is important to address bullying behaviour as harassment and not suggest it’s the teacher’s fault because they are an ineffective teacher, or that they have poor classroom control. While issues of a teacher’s leadership and management ability may need addressing we do not let that issue mitigate the bullying behaviours of any students towards any teacher.

In larger schools it may be possible, if the behaviour problems of particular students are very disturbing, to re-enrol them in other classes. This will often enable the class teacher to have a better fresh start with the rest of the class. It can be helpful to give those individuals a ‘choice’ first: • to work within an agreed personal behaviour plan (consistent with the class rules and responsibilities); or • to be de-enrolled from the class (where they are presently persistently disruptive) and enrolled in another class.

The hard-to-manage class and first-year teachers First-year teachers have enough problems without being ‘thrown in at the deep end’ as happens in some schools. There is that twin culture to break into: the culture of the particular school (each school has its own idiosyncratic culture) and the culture of teaching itself, with its special language, bureaucracy, hierarchies and literature. In some schools, first-year teachers are given a brief pep talk and then left to negotiate these ‘cultures’ with little or no structural or professional support. The practice in some schools of timetabling inexperienced teachers with the toughest or most unpleasant classes (8D for a double maths period on Friday afternoon!) indicates a singular lack of concern for first-year teachers. This practice is often cynically passed off with the comment, ‘Well, we had to wear it; we had our turn, why can’t they?’ – an attitude which ignores completely the practical welfare issue as well as the importance of the beginning of a colleague’s professional career. Surely the ‘harder’, ‘tougher’, more challenging classes should be taken by the more experienced teachers, or at the very least a

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system of team-teaching should be set up so that the establishment phase of the harder classes will be psychologically and professionally less stressful for the first-year teachers. It might even be valuable, for professional development, to invite beginning teachers into harder classes to see how experienced teachers manage them (Rogers 2006a). My colleagues and I have found it beneficial to establish colleague peer support groups enabling graduate teachers to share common concerns in their ‘settling-in’ phase. First-year teachers are invited into a regular group meeting at set times – generally weekly for the first few sessions, then fortnightly. The meetings should be linked to the (hopefully) normative mentoring support for first-year teachers. A senior staff member facilitates the meetings, which have these general aims: • to make the beginnings of a teacher’s professional life as welcoming as possible • to assist in the ironing out of – and giving support with – essential routines, procedures, policy matters, etc. (An accessible map of the school is a good idea, as is assigning a more experienced ‘teaching buddy’ to be available to answer questions in these critical first few weeks) • to guide the group through some of the pitfalls that can occur in the first year, especially in the area of classroom management. It is particularly important to discuss the essential behaviour management of the establishment phase (p. 192) • to provide a regular focus for sharing of common needs, problems, concerns, ideas, etc. In our research on such meetings, first-year colleagues found that

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such sharing (without censure, criticism or blame) is consistently and highly valued (Rogers 2002) • to provide a climate of moral support and the opportunity to offer ‘structural’ support if needed especially for the time-out and exiting of the very difficult students; follow-up with behaviour consequences; behaviour contracting with students; and parent conferences. Many groups of first-year teachers with whom I have worked evidence a genuine sense of moral and professional support when a process like the one described above has been implemented. Comments like ‘Not being isolated’, ‘Feeling that others care’, ‘We can laugh with each other’, ‘Learning not to take things so seriously’, ‘Learning new skills and approaches’, ‘Knowing what else we can do’ and ‘Knowing it’s not just me!’ are common. These meetings are a crucial aspect of a teacher’s professional development in their first teaching year.

Leadership of such groups Group facilitators have to build a group spirit from disparate personalities, drawing out weaker members, encouraging and building up others, allowing non-judgemental comment on shared attitudes and even challenging ideas inimical to positive teaching practice. Some teachers, for example, feel that it’s all right to use sarcasm to embarrass, humiliate, ridicule, put kids down or shout their classes down. They may have seen such teacher behaviour on teaching rounds. Some first-year teachers may have even assumed such behaviour is ‘acceptable’. Group facilitators encourage discussion on ineffective management practice without putting down colleagues who may be managing their classes (and the more challenging students) inappropriately. Leaders of such groups need to have respected skills in relationship building, engaging trust and confidence and the ability to communicate the ideas and skills essential to the teaching profession. We always conduct our first peer-meeting before any first-year teacher takes their first class. At this prior meeting we discuss the crucial nature of the establishment phase (p. 192) and fundamental basics such as: • practical ways of making effective and positive rules with classes

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• how to initiate and sustain whole-class settling, attention and focus, including language cueing and how to address the sorts of disruptions that often occur in the whole-class teaching phase (Chapters 3 and 4) • how to deal with the transition between whole-class teaching time and on-task learning time, including basics such as distribution of materials, volume of class talk, movement around the room and how to get teacher assistance fairly and reasonably (p. 205) • how to have a positive lesson closure and orderly exit from the classroom (p. 211) • how to follow-up individual students one-to-one beyond class time (p. 105) • when and how to report to a senior teacher for support in any areas of teacher leadership • how to make a discipline plan, including building and rehearsing some basic management skills and techniques (Chapter 3) (in the subsequent meetings, we often role-model the skills we need to develop within our discipline plan) • how to use and apply behavioural consequences with students (Chapter 6) • how to manage conflict and anger (Chapter 10) • how to follow up on major disruptions beyond the classroom (consequences, conferencing, individual behaviour plans) (p. 173). As well as addressing these issues initially, these areas can be explored and developed in workshops throughout the year, interspersed with professional in-service programs for all staff. Speakers from within and outside of the school are invited to work with the peer-support group as they workshop these common areas of teacher leadership.

Peer mentoring As a feature of ongoing professional development, members of the first-year peer-support group are also encouraged to observe one another’s classes. Through an agreed agenda and focus, they then give feedback on what they heard and what they have observed in their colleague’s class. This feedback provides valuable data for generating professional reflection and skill development. Peer-group members may also elect to rehearse skills prior to classes and ask their ‘peer observer’ to give feedback. This observation phase forms an

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invaluable link between workshop discussion and modelling, and the application in class. Many members, after several peer-group meetings, feel comfortable enough to share their experiences (often with humour) with the whole group. An extension of this approach involves a more experienced teacher teamteaching in the first-year teacher’s class perhaps once a week. It will be necessary to establish the protocols of how to introduce the colleague, the mechanics of where to stand during whole-class teaching, whether (and how) the more senior colleague should intervene in management issues if the first-year colleague is struggling and how that might be carried out. It will also be important to set aside a dedicated time to sit and debrief; to give descriptive, non-judgemental feedback to the first-year colleague; and utilise that feedback for self-reflection and skill development. Descriptive feedback focuses on what is characteristically observed in a colleague’s classroom practice. Over a cup of tea or coffee we ask: ‘Did you notice …?’, ‘Were you aware that …?’, ‘Do you often hear yourself say things like …?’ These questions address specific examples of teacher behaviour the mentor colleague has observed in their mentor partner. The focus of such feedback addresses the characteristic practice of the mentor partner, not the occasional ill-thought comment. For example, the mentor colleague might note that their partner frequently uses ‘Why …’ questions in their behaviour leadership (p. 74). They will then discuss the effect that such questions have in a discipline context, such as when a teacher asks students ‘why’ they are calling out, or ‘why’ students are chatting while the teacher is teaching. From this feedback, mentor and mentor partner then explore alternatives and suggestions that can positively inform and enable their behaviour leadership. We also give positive, descriptive encouragement where their teaching and management practice reflects schoolwide practices.

Evaluation At the close of the year, the peer-support group meets to evaluate its progress. This can be carried out through a half-day or even full-day ‘retreat’ (often at a venue away from the school) where experiences and reminiscences are shared

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and evaluated. These can be written down and communicated to the incoming teachers the following year. The success of the colleague peer-support process relies on: • effective and committed leadership (embracing enthusiasm and willingness to persist for the long haul) • support and non-judgemental backup from the administration • timelines for meetings with clear objectives, and a trusting and positive attitude engendered by the facilitators • opportunities for practical, professional development through regular workshops • opportunities to give assistance to members of the group by linking up colleagues to help one another, bringing in other support colleagues where required and giving assurances to struggling colleagues that the school can, and will, provide whatever assistance is realistically and practically possible to enable the beginning of their professional journey as a teacher. The first year of a teaching career can be somewhat bruising in our more challenging schools. First-year teachers, especially, shouldn’t have to ‘go it alone’; there is much that a school can do to provide practical support. Peer support groups are one way of doing just that: peers supporting peers.

Some typical responses from teachers involved in first-year peer support groups Peer support saved my sanity. It was through the program that a group of us was able to work on practical strategies to enable us to teach effectively, discipline fairly, and remain sane at the same time. There were three things that I found most useful as a result of our meetings. The first and probably the most crucial is for teachers to get together with their students as soon as possible to establish a set of fair rules around which the class will operate. These must range from behaviour to movement and be accomplished with clear and fair consequences and be followed by the teacher as well as the students. The second most useful ‘technique’ was so simple yet so brilliant. The two ‘magic’ questions: ‘What are you doing?’ and ‘What should you be doing?’

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In my experience this year they have not failed me. It does not matter how many times you say them or how repetitive it sometimes feels – it works! Peer observation was another crucial element of my success and I believe this should be examined in college before we are sent into the ‘jungle’. The procedure is simple. Take a trusted peer or two and go into each other’s ‘nightmares’ (I mean classrooms). You simply observe then discuss. Not only does it reaffirm your beliefs but you can be constructively criticised without awkward, embarrassing feelings that often go hand in hand with being told ‘You did it wrong!’ Possibly the most significant thing that I have learned during these meetings is to analyse students less and analyse myself more. I have found that once I began to honestly reflect and evaluate and accept my shortcomings as a teacher, then work determinedly to eradicate those shortcomings, my stress level, anxiety, anger and frustration slowly receded. As one aspect of my teaching improved, I realised that I could spend more time and conscious thought upon improving other aspects of teaching, but it was the recognition of the need for me to change as well that helped me most. Through observing of my colleagues’ classes, I was clearly able to see a great many aspects of teaching (not child-minding as I was tending to do) that I had not really seen, felt or practised since my teaching rounds (which I had enjoyed). Because of this program I feel I have changed from a ‘child-minding, assignmentfeeding, aimless machine’ to someone who tries and at times succeeds in actually providing the means by which students can learn and/or experience something new, different or worthwhile. Peer-group support – although initially yet another onslaught to the battered ego – has proved very useful. I found it demystified the ‘successful’ teacher, offering objective advice, techniques and skills. I can remember the first day, weeks, of my own teaching career: the unfamiliar surroundings; feeling new, somewhat ‘green’, and thinking that others too may perceive you that way; the room, the equipment (or lack of it!), not knowing how

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May the force be with you

to ask for all the bits and pieces of equipment and materials; dealing with grumpy colleagues (especially when they are your seniors); not knowing the real culture of the school (rather than the ‘paper-culture’ dropped on you in the pile of policies and student profiles). Then there are the students. They can see you’re new and if you’re young and new (especially at high school), it’s not easy. The normal culture shock, though, can be eased if you are given support from day one. It was the little things. I was welcomed by the head of department. She took me around to all my peers and introduced me to my teaching ‘buddy’ for the next four weeks. She even wrote down key people I’d need to know (you know how easy it is to forget when you’re swamped with info as a new arrival!) to help me remember. I was shown the photocopier (and given a number) and shown the quickest way to the staffroom. I had a tour. Each face I passed I was introduced to. Most of all I wasn’t talked down to. The first day we had a meeting (there were two other first-year teachers and some teachers new to the school). We discussed how we could: • establish our classes (see Chapter 7) • deal with basics such as marking the class roll with a ‘waiting audience’, dealing with latecomers, settling a class, dealing with the ‘no pen, no materials’ student (p. 23)

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• develop a basic discipline plan, including some key language examples (see Chapter 3) • when and how to utilise a time-out policy, especially using the buddy system (see p. 168) • follow up and follow through with students and seek senior colleague support (p. 105). Later meetings went over how we had fared, our experiences, troubles, little triumphs and joys, even our crises. One classic was a student who had set fire to his pants in science when being stupid with a bunsen burner! Thankfully, because of colleague support, the crisis was able to be managed. Another firstyear teacher showed how she was able to deal with a student who had vomited all over his work and how she managed to stay calm, dealing with the mess and the class and the student. We all discussed what lessons we could draw from this, as well as having an appropriate laugh. The freedom to laugh at ourselves and the situation has always proved therapeutic. The point was, we all shared concerns, anxieties, and even asked dumb questions. Most of all I felt I belonged. The extended account above was only one of the many such comments heard from the first-year peer-support group we conducted with teachers in ‘difficult’ schools in the western and northern suburbs of Melbourne. We ran meetings over terms one and two (weekly, then every three weeks). Many schools now run specific colleague support groups for first-year teachers and even for teachers new to the school. And, increasingly, schools are utilising elective peer-mentoring to support colleagues’ professional reflection and development (Rogers 2002).

Summary When addressing the ‘hard class’ issue it is important to recognise the pivotal nature of colleague support. When we are feeling jaded, even defeated at times, in the first few weeks of the year by a group of seemingly recalcitrant Year 1s or Year 8s, the least helpful thing to do is to try to ‘go it alone’ in the mistaken belief that others will think of us as a failure, or, worse, an incompetent teacher, if we

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ask for help by sharing our concerns and anxieties. It’s tragic – and unnecessary – for a colleague to continue on in an attitude of degrading survivalism for fear that if they ask for support that will be judged. Early intervention is the key to cracking the hard class phenomenon and any intervention will benefit from a team approach in which there is: • an honest sharing of common concerns (it’s rarely a hard-to-manage class for only one teacher!) • problem analysis beyond normal frustrations and whingeing – see if there are any contributing factors that affect the manageability of the class • a search for a solution that will also help the whole class to refocus on the common rights, responsibilities and rules (class meetings are the usual approach) • a search for constructive ways to work one-to-one with key powerbrokers • assurance for the struggling teacher that there will be ongoing colleague support.

Questions to consider • How would you assess the general climate of colleague support in your school? • What kind of support do you want from your colleagues? Team leader or coordinator? Head of department? Principal? • How often, and in what ways, are your contributions and worth acknowledged and recognised (even in small ways)? • What problem-solving support is offered or available (for example when behaviour problems with an individual or class arise)? • What structural support is offered (for example, time-out provisions, monitoring a difficult student through individual behaviour plans, teaming together to run classroom meetings)? • How are first-year colleagues supported in your school? • What suggestions do you have for improving colleague support in your school?

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Chapter 10 Conflict resolution and managing anger

‘A [person] is not blamed for just being angry; it is for being angry in a particular way … when we are angry or frightened it is not by our choice; but our virtues are expressions of our choice – or at any rate, imply choice.’ Aristotle, The Nicomachean Ethics, Book One Conflict is a feature of being human; it is a feature of social reality. Whether the conflict arises out of predisposing factors in our students’ lives (problems at home, place in the family, general immaturity) or the frustration and anger we feel about certain classroom behaviours, the fundamental issues we’ll always have to address are as follows: • how do we as classroom leaders minimise the likelihood of potential conflict? (We can’t eliminate conflict … ) • how do we manage conflict at the point where emotional heat is exchanged (especially when helping students or parents manage their anger – let alone our own frustration and anger)? • how do we work for long-term resolution and positive working relationships?

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Teaching in a graphics class some years ago, I watched William (a tough, street-wise student) wrestle with a student who had ‘borrowed’ his eraser. Apparently Dane – a mate – had borrowed the rubber from one desk away. After William retaliated with a grab and yelled, ‘Give it back, you f— poofter!’, the two fell on the floor to wrestle and to grab the eraser which had now bounced under the table. I managed to direct both students off the floor and aside from the group and ask what they thought they were doing. Even when I pointed out that they were ‘mates’ the response was: ‘So what! He don’t care if I hit him a bit – like it’s just getting my rubber back and that!’ ‘Dane ( … ), William ( … ), I care. In our class we sort out our hassles without fists and feet.’ I directed them back to the graphics project and followed up with them after our class session (see p. 105).

Many of these ‘quick responding’ students see such conflicts as merely one of win or lose. In a research study I conducted with over 500 pre-adolescent students, boys showed significantly more hostile and aggressive resolutions of conflict than girls (Rogers 1985). Girls tended to talk as a primary means of resolution; for boys, this was generally a secondary or even tertiary response.

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Teacher frustration, anxiety and anger Ethan doesn’t like school much. Already, in Year 6, he’s scored an impressive record of unmanageable behaviours. He comes to school dishevelled and unkempt, he often wears a frown or scowl, he is quick to swear and is often impulsively aggressive. Many teachers are thankful that he is not in their class. He’s already butted in several times during morning talk, to the teacher’s understandable annoyance. Now, as the on-task activity in maths begins, he starts one of his interminable conflict rounds. Of course he’s got problems at home, of course he has learning difficulties and his social skills are not well developed. There are many students like Ethan in our schools. His teacher has been fair and reasonable in her discipline behaviour. Ethan throws his books off his desk and says loudly, ‘What do I have to do this shit work for?’ He sits, arms folded, mutters a sibilant ‘F—ing stupid work’ and then leans back in his seat; dumb insolence. It’s a scene. Whatever the teacher does, there is a lot of interpersonal emotional heat being generated. She has to deal with her own emotions, as well as the disruption this student causes.

I’ve worked with many teachers who have gone ‘right off’ when children swear, as if the swearer had ‘lit a fuse’: ‘He made me so angry!’ How the conflict, and the student, are perceived is very important. How the teacher interprets the swearing, insolence and defiance will also affect how they feel, how they behave towards the child and how the conflict continues (p. 287). While not unsympathetic to teachers’ feelings, I think it is important to identify where more intense feelings of anger or powerlessness come from when we are faced with challenging and provocative children. Our feelings do not just happen. When we get frustrated or angry several things are happening and happening quickly. We may perceive a child’s behaviour as highly threatening, and we obviously believe that we must do something about it. We also have characteristic attitudes that quickly rise to the surface. We experience, on the one hand, emotions of anger and, on the other, physiological arousal (tense or vigilant muscle reaction, shallow breathing, increased heart rate, etc.).

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Anger Anger is a very powerful emotion. It can, at times, overtake rational control. As Emily Dickinson aptly says in one of her poems, ‘a plank in reason broke’. We naturally, and at times justifiably, get frustrated and angry at some student behaviours: persistent calling out, butting in, clowning and other expressions of attention-seeking, blatent indifference and rudeness, persistent laziness and task avoidance, lying, cheating, stealing, bullying, etc. It is also natural to get angry at what we perceive as injustice and persistent unfairness. At times it is right to communicate anger about injustice. Anger is an emotion linked to our very survival. It can enable us to respond, react or protect; when others are unfair, unjust or hurtful, the arousal of emotions of frustration and anger can enable our necessary response. However, it is not appropriate to handle all anger-arousing situations in the same way. Most anger situations occur in social contexts and teaching is – fundamentally – a social profession. Sometimes we need to address anger-arousing conflict directly, with assertive language (see pp. 80, 283). Sometimes we need to demonstrate our anger calmly after due, thoughtful consideration (Scott Peck 1978). We can’t stop getting angry, it’s what we do when we’re angry that counts in how effectively we manage the cycle of conflict. As an emotion, anger cannot tell us what to do. Our emotions indicate how we feel, and how intensively we feel something, but the way we respond to emotions is learned behaviour. That’s why it is important to have a general approach to managing frustration, anger and the typical conflicts that elicit these emotions. Any approach we take to addressing conflict will need to include the sorts of skills that enable us to respond constructively in the immediate emotional situation, in particular: what we actually say and do; the backup supports when students go ‘over the top’ and will not settle (this includes whole-school support such as effective use of time-out); and how we follow up and follow through with the resolution of conflict beyond the immediate emotional moment. When we get angry we tend to behave in one of these basic ways:

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• with reactive anger (sometimes loud, ‘explosive’ language and/or threatening body language) • with passive anger (when we internalise our anger and the ‘other’ person dominates the conflict situation) • by utilising our anger to address the issue at hand and communicate what we are angry about and why. Later, when we’ve taken (or given) cool-off time, we decide how best to resolve the issue that triggered the conflict cycle, or when the other person is angry with us, we enable their calming by the way we respond and helping them to be calm, refocus and work on resolving their concerns.

Reactive anger When we respond with reactive anger, belief, emotion, physiology and behaviour combine to produce shouting, yelling, rough treatment, threatening language and counter-power. The conflict is perceived, defined and ‘processed’ as a power struggle. The emotion of anger is almost seen as proof positive that ‘I must act angrily’; especially when dealing with stressful conflict. We feel we must do something; we are compelled, it seems. Reactive anger often exaggerates the threat and is counter-productive in the long term. When teachers become reactively angry, they tend to provoke, or feed, provocative student behaviour by their reactive counter-power. They may not even care about how their anger is expressed, or its effect on others, and will frequently rationalise their angry behaviour in light of what the student did or said: ‘My anger is their fault.’

Passive anger When we react with passive anger we hold it in for fear of ‘letting go’ and acting irrationally and impulsively. Teachers who are characteristically non-assertive in their teacher leadership often feel that expressing anger is somehow a bad thing, especially when they’ve seen some very poor expressions of it in other teachers. The emotion of anger is one of the most powerful of human emotions. If we internalise our anger or try to ‘hold it in’ it will be to our cost; even if we hold it back for supposedly ‘high motives’. All that energy has to go somewhere, and can result in days off to cope with unresolved stress; an inability to face that class again; physical distress; or even illness. If we restrain the emotion

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of anger in the setting of the conflict itself, we may release it later, on some poor, unsuspecting loved one who has nothing to do with the original causes of the anger and conflict. If we do nothing about the anger – or the conflict that precipitates the emotion – we are unable to resolve it. It is physically and psychologically unhealthy to ignore our feelings of anger or pretend that we are not really angry when our body is clearly saying, ‘I am furious. My heart rate is up, my hands are sweating, my muscles are tense.’ We need to acknowledge and express our anger and we need to find appropriate ways to make our needs and feelings, or others’ needs and feelings, known and clear. We need to focus on the issue(s) contributing to our anger clearly and forcibly – without ending up in an aggressive verbal slanging match with others (students or colleagues!).

Utilising anger There is nothing wrong with anger per se; the emotional energy is there for a reason. There is a demand on our coping ability. The important considerations are how we rate it, perceive it and control it. We have a right to get angry on issues that matter, but because anger is such a stressful emotion it needs management. High emotion clouds our perception and our thinking processes and significantly affects our behaviour. Planning ahead will enable us to manage our emotions; not to eliminate them, but utilise them even in the ‘heat of the moment’. Utilising our anger involves emotional awareness and the ability to assertively express our feelings appropriately and to seek the due rights of all.

Perception and emotion How we perceive any conflict will affect the degree of emotion we experience. We often forget the place of perception and characteristic explanations we make to ourselves about our own behaviour. Many teachers I have spoken to will recount a list of student behaviours and conflict episodes which made them angry, and while they can’t remember what they said when angry they can recall why the child shouldn’t have sworn or answered back or defied them. In effect they are explaining the social reality by easily and quickly attributing their anger to causes outside of themselves. Behaviour doesn’t just happen; it

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interfaces powerfully with emotion and belief as well as the social context. We are not made angry merely by events themselves; we contribute to the anger process too, by how we perceive, rate and explain the event. Take swearing as an example. Where swearing is another form of defiance (and not merely a slip of the tongue), we could ask ourselves where our feelings are coming from when we become angry about it. If we believe – and say to ourselves – ‘Children must not swear! They should respect me!’, where does such demanding thinking get us? I have sat with teachers who perceive and interpret swearing through such explanatory beliefs. Anger is, like all emotions, powerfully linked to our beliefs. One affects the other. The actual swearing does not simply cause the anger we feel, or the degree of anger we feel. The cause of our feeling, and the intensity of it, comes from what we currently and characteristically believe. While we may strongly dislike swearing per se, if we demand a student shouldn’t swear (when in fact they have), that demand can significantly affect our emotional state and stifle productive handling of the conflict. Of course it’s preferable that students (and teachers) find appropriate avenues to handle their negative feelings, but to demand that students must act as we say they should creates unnecessary stress, especially when such demands are rarely realised in complex social reality. There is a preferable, realistic and much less stressful alternative: to say, ‘Well, I dislike swearing, but it is a reality at times. Now, how can I better handle it in the short and long term? It’s unpleasant, frustrating and annoying when children swear, but it’s not the end of the world’. This is not excusing the swearing: it is distinguishing between a demand for desirable behaviour and a preference for desirable behaviour. All the cognitive and verbally expressive demands in the world won’t stop swearing, especially conversational swearing (see p. 287). Such beliefs will, more likely, make us more stressed about the swearing behaviour. No student who swears, challenges our authority or defies us has the inherent magic to really upset us, unless we attribute to them that they do have the power. We can acknowledge our frustration and our right to feel angry, but we do not have to slip into a win-or-lose mentality or intensely reactive anger behaviour. There are other, productive ways to handle anger-arousing conflict such as: assertive statements; tactically avoiding the debates and arguments of

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power by provocative children (p. 25); not over-attending to a student’s sulking or defiance; giving clear, directed choices rather than threats and demands (see Chapters 2 and 3) or directing the student to cool-off time until we can reason with them later. In developing more consciously aware practices we are also converting our old ‘involuntary emotional habits back to their original state’ (Bernard & Joyce 1984, p. 86). The issue of anger and conflict management requires that we: • are aware of how we currently (and characteristically) address conflict and how we address our frustration • develop ways of emotional coping: managing the intensity of frustration or anger at the time of the conflict • are aware of our characteristic ‘explanatory’ style when we are frustrated and get angry • deal with conflict in the immediate emotional context in a way that doesn’t create too much unnecessary stress and doesn’t wreck the interpersonal dynamic in which frustration and anger are aroused. Poorly handled anger interferes with effective management goals. Teachers who just react angrily to interpersonal conflict often create longer-term residual conflict by demanding, blaming and holding judgemental beliefs about children and their behaviour.

Physiological reactions Because physiological and emotional arousal occur simultaneously, it is important to be aware of what is happening to us when we get very frustrated or angry. As we perceive a threat, we naturally become emotionally engaged and those emotions affect our bodily responses. The heart rate beats above the normal range, the neck muscles become tense and the face becomes red as the heart pumps the blood to the ‘excited’ areas. We may grit our teeth or clench our fists. We may breathe more shallowly. The body is getting ready to do something. But what? We can’t hit, strike or strangle that intransigent creature (unless it’s self-defence!), although teachers will admit to wanting to ‘swat’ some of their students! (I’m sure we’ve all felt that from time to time.) These bodily signals are the natural way our physiology prepares us for conflict and signals us to recognise and utilise our anger. When conflict arises:

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• consciously recognise what is happening • concentrate on breathing more slowly; calmly. By doing this we acknowledge and heighten self-awareness about what is happening. The pattern of ‘tense and release’ emphasises and acknowledges the emotion of anger and gives us a brief breathing space (literally); we do something directly about the emotional arousal. • count to three, exhale and respond. As we speak clearly and firmly to the person we’re angry with we also do something about our feelings. Speak firmly and assertively to the student about the situation and the right or rule being affected by their behaviour (p. 283). Give a clear direction or choice and avoid any prolonged argument. If the conflict is less serious, call the student aside to speak with him directly, clearly and briefly about his behaviour. If necessary utilise due time-out processes – avoid simply trying to win.

Basic protocols of anger management in conflict resolution Get angry (and express anger) on issues that really matter Avoid getting angry over common ‘misdemeanours’, such as lateness, homework not handed in, not having necessary equipment (p. 23), sulkiness in student body language, ‘conversational’ swearing (p. 287), etc. Save assertive expressions of anger for situations that carry some emotional, social and moral ‘weight’ such as racial or sexual harassment, put-downs, bullying, aggressive behaviour and behaviours that demonstrate the link between our anger and the rights affected (p. 80).

Know what makes us angry Be aware of the factors and situations that lower our tolerance for potentially stressful situations and especially for people we know we do not normally interact well with. Be aware, too, of how we may be coming across to others when we’re frustrated and angry. It is worth reflecting on what we characteristically feel anger about regarding student behaviours. Is there anything that can be

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done preventatively on those days, with those particular students, in that timetable slot?

Address the situation Address the problem, not each other. It’s easy when the emotional anger rises to start giving the other person ‘you’ messages: ‘Listen, you! I said get it out of your mouth. I’m sick and tired of telling you about your damned chewing gum!’ ‘But other teachers let us!’ ‘I’m not other teachers, alright?’ It’s hard to believe that some teachers actually get angry about chewing gum. Whatever the situation or behaviours – chewing gum, noise, task-refusal – address that. Become aware of what we can more thoughtfully and effectively say when precipitating (anger-producing) student behaviour arises (Chapter 3). ‘Lizi, if you want to ask a question put your hand up’ is much better (said assertively to a student repeatedly calling out) than ‘You always call out at me, what’s wrong with you? Can’t you put your hand up or what?’ We focus our discipline language to the issue itself; as briefly as possible. It doesn’t help to get locked into a win–lose argument when students engage us in secondary behaviour (see p. 25).

Avoid put-downs and criticism of the person As an adjunct to our anger, it is tempting to try to ‘get back’ at the student. It is important to remember that we are not always in the right. If we have behaved thoughtlessly, inappropriately, unfairly or inconsiderately then we ought to apologise: ‘I am sorry, Olivia, it was wrong of me to shout at you like that. I was so uptight about what you said. I didn’t mean …’ A brief apology is enough and well meant (no grovelling please!). Avoid comments about students’ home environment (over which they often have little control) or words like ‘idiot’, ‘stupid’, or worse. Distinguish between the person (however unlikeable) and their actions and behaviour – that’s what we’re getting annoyed, frustrated or angry about. When there is a fine line between the two it is even more important to concentrate the expression of anger as it addresses the behaviour.

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Acknowledge the emotional climate Rather than just venting our feelings of frustration or anger at the other person, it is more appropriate to focus on the behaviour or issue we’re angry about. ‘I am angry about …’ is better than ‘You swine!’ ‘I feel …’ is better than ‘You drive me up the wall, you stupid idiot!’ ‘I feel angry about …’ concentrates on what we are feeling about the behaviour. There is no harm at all in telling a student what we are angry about regarding their behaviour, and why. There may also be some occasions (for example when Ethan calls Olivia a slut) when acted anger is appropriate, even if we do not necessarily feel angry: ‘Ethan! I am appalled at what you’ve said!’ Words like disappointed, or even disgusted, are context appropriate. ‘That language is totally unacceptable here.’ (Drop the voice now, to a firm assertive tone.) Anger situations are high-arousal and high-attention situations. We should describe what we see, and act in a way that unambiguously conveys what we feel and why. The students have given the relief teacher a very hard time. Mr R – the regular class teacher – faces his students the next day focused, but his face expresses the anger and hurt he genuinely feels about their behaviour. His face is set and frowning. He stands still and upright as he scans the class, his hand making the point (without ‘gesticulating’): ‘I am really upset – in fact I’m appalled – at the behaviour of many of the students in our class. I’m not saying it’s all of you, but some of you behaved intolerably.’ He briefly describes their behaviour. He lifts the voice, tactically pauses, scans, makes his point. He is assertive, not aggressive. He finishes by directing them to spend ten minutes writing down what happened, how they think the relief teacher must have felt, what they can do in terms of restitution now and what they will do whenever a relief teacher comes ‘to our class’ in the future. Anger, when it is assertively expressed, can make a significant, and powerful, point. The students feel – and know – there is ‘moral weight’ in what he has said by how he has said it.

A female colleague of mine was walking past a group of Year 11 boys in the playground. She heard a wolf whistle (she tactically ignored that) but she didn’t ignore the loud ‘whispered’ sexist comment about her body and clothes. She walked

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back, faced each pair of eyes silently, then said, ‘I heard it. I don’t want you – ever – to refer to my body like that! At all! I don’t like it.’ She dropped her voice to a serious, unmistakably firm tone, ‘I don’t expect it. Do you understand?’ She scanned their eyes, some now averted. There were a few grunts and ‘pawing at the ground’ with feet. She walked away. There was that ‘social silence’ that says that what just happened was significant and pivotal. She heard a student mutter loudly, ‘Jeez, we were only joking!’ She turned back and said (again with that serious, quiet, unmistakably assertive tone), ‘I don’t see it as a joke. I don’t like it and I don’t want to hear it again – do you understand?’ It didn’t happen again. Nor did she bring it up in class – in fact she developed a positive working relationship with that group of Year 11 boys as the year progressed.

‘I’ messages: Communicating assertively When we utilise ‘I’ statements (as above), it is a way of taking responsibility for our emotion and is often read less antagonistically by the student(s). ‘When I find the books left out, I have to waste a lot of time putting them all away’ is enough for a clear ‘I’ message. The degree of frustration is heard. It explains to the student what the situation is, and it implies a desired action. It can be followed, if necessary, by a simple direction or reminder of the fair rule: ‘I get frustrated when everyone calls out at once (the assertion). Remember our class agreement for … (the reminder).’ A ‘When … then … because …’ statement is another form of conveying need and rights: ‘When you call out, I feel annoyed, because it’s not giving others a fair go.’ The key to using ‘I’ statements is the confident tone and appropriately assertive manner of the speaker. If what we say sounds like we’re pleading, with overdone frown and defeatist body language, then it is the indecision that is heard, not the assertion. If a student has used abusive language to us directly, a firm, assertive ‘I’ statement is enough in the immediate emotional moment: ‘I don’t use abusive language to you, I don’t expect you to speak to me like that.’ ‘I expect an apology’ is better than standing and demanding one. We move off if an apology doesn’t come, we’ve said we expect one. We’ve also explained why

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we’re angry. We’ll then need to follow-up later, away from the natural social tension and the audience of the student’s peers (p. 105). Avoid nursing a grudge against the other person. This is not easy. It is important to remember we are the adult. We also may need colleague assistance in follow-up or mediation later when all parties have had an opportunity to calm down, and hopefully reflect.

Keep the heat down and avoid a power struggle Conflict (sometimes high-level) is inevitable and even unavoidable at times. But the potential struggle often created by conflict is avoidable. When we use the language and actions of ‘win’ or ‘lose’ we define the conflict in the most restrictive way. If there can only be one winner, we will tend to employ any behaviours (however damaging) to reach that goal. Aim for resolution. What we do at the point of conflict determines how successfully we resolve it later. In the heat of the moment, it is important to calm ourselves before we attempt to calm the other person. This doesn’t mean we are unemotional, but we are controlling the expression of our anger. It is possible to communicate calmness even when we’re angry. If we try to use a loud, attacking, angry tone of voice we’ll only increase the emotional arousal (both our own and the other person’s).

Watch the volume There’s no point screaming; where there is real danger, we will often need to use a raised and loud voice, but this is inappropriate in other circumstances. Shouting, a constantly raised voice tone, an argumentative stance and sharp, caustic, staccato language all convey that we can’t communicate in a normal, firm and assertive voice. Sometimes it is appropriate to acknowledge the other person’s anger: ‘You sound very upset (annoyed, irritated or angry).’ Students have bad days; like us they get tired, cranky, and have emotional baggage they bring to school (and our class). It can help to remind students that if they’re angry with us – about something we’ve done or said – to tell us; to use words. It will often help to give them examples; this is normally best done one-to-one outside the classroom time when they are calmer.

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If we’re too angry to speak, we should explain such to the student, and avoid any open-emotion slanging match: ‘Look, Lily, I am too angry to discuss it with you now. I’ll talk about it later.’ Provide a face-saving way out for both oneself and the student(s). A gracious route away from conflict can only occur if the teacher takes the initiative.

Avoid escalation of conflict – follow up at a calmer moment

It is unlikely the student will care enough to want to save face, especially if his agenda is power. We’re the adult, we need to enable this. We can keep the emotional heat down by: • making the rule clear (without nagging) • directing the student aside away from his peers (if possible) • making the directed ‘choices’ clear (clear choices within the rules rather than forcing or threatening, pp. 72, 75, 86) • speaking assertively rather than aggressively (pp. 80, 283) • using directed time-out if necessary (p. 164) • following the issue through later after cool-off time, explaining how the conflict affects you or other students (p. 105).

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Call in a third party If ongoing conflict with a student is getting unmanageable, call in a third party. Have a well-developed exit and time-out plan (see Chapter 6). Don’t hesitate to have a student directed away from your classroom by a senior colleague if the situation is clearly getting unmanageable and our fair discipline has been met with repeated hostility, verbal aggression or threat.

Always follow up classroom conflict Follow-up may also require a mediator (preferably a teacher with skills in student–teacher negotiation). The object of follow-up is to work at a mutually acceptable solution. Explain the facts as we see them. Explain how the student’s behaviour affects class rights (or rules for younger students). Give the student a right of reply (p. 112). Use reflective listening: ‘Are you saying …’, ‘As I hear it, you mean …’, ‘Let’s go over that again’, ‘I can see you were angry Emily’, ‘What will you do? And how can we help?’ The teacher, the student and the third party will then mediate and plan any further consequences and work with the student to address any pattern of behaviour that is causing concern (see p. 173).

Avoid self-blame We would not say to a student that they are bad for feeling angry or expressing their anger. We might disagree about the way they expressed their anger. Some teachers respond to their own anger-expression by blaming themselves: ‘I shouldn’t have got angry …’ (We probably should have got angry.) ‘I’m an idiot for …’ Even if we expressed our anger unhelpfully or stupidly, it doesn’t mean we are a failure, or are an idiot, or are a bad teacher. It means we didn’t express the anger thoughtfully. We can always apologise (where appropriate) or explain, and we can always learn to be more effective and responsible in our expressions of anger next time.

When children get very frustrated In the heat of the moment when a child is very frustrated, it is important that the teacher acknowledge the child’s frustration or anger (as well as their own) and

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refocus the situation for the child to make the behavioural options clear: ‘I can see you are upset (or annoyed, or angry) because … (focus on the behaviour you observe).’ ‘I feel annoyed (or very concerned, or angry) because you’re trying to fix up your problem by arguing, and pushing and shoving. How can I help?’ With students who are in conflict with each other, it may be important to direct them to sit separately from one another and take some cool-off time for a while. It is also helpful to acknowledge their emotional state and assure them we will follow up their concerns later. At an appropriate time we can then invite them to work within a mediation process or have the teacher decide on a solution. Any process of mediation/arbitration needs to be based on trust and exercised in a climate where teachers enable a problem-solving ethos that puts appropriate responsibility back to children. Teachers can easily be put into the role of judge and jury by children, and while teachers will need to arbitrate in serious situations, there are many conflicts between children that can be mediated by children themselves, with guidance and skills taught by the teacher: ‘Do you want time now to sort this through or later at recess?’ It may well be appropriate (at primary level) to give ten minutes during the school day where they can sit in the corridor to work through some key questions to help them resolve the issue or problem: ‘What happened?’, ‘How am I affected by this (be specific)?’, ‘What can I/we do to fix this problem we have?’ (p. 112). Younger children will need an adult or an older child (upper primary) to assist in the mediation. Mediation can also be undertaken by trained older children in the school – children who have had skills training in conflict mediation and peacekeeping.

Swearing and defiance During a Year 7 textiles class (soft toy making), Ben, minus a front tooth and sporting a denim jacket replete with studs (and perhaps a swastika), was trying to stuff a piece of dowel up the back of his felt crocodile. ‘F— this dowel!’ he said, loudly enough for all to hear.

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When we get frustrated as adults we probably say, ‘Oh bother, I’ve just snapped my pencil!’, ‘How annoying, I’ve dropped my hammer on my foot.’ With our well-developed social skills, we work within the parameters of social convention, we curb the ‘Shit!’ and drop it elsewhere (perhaps!). Not so Ben and many others. I’ve heard muttered ‘shit’, ‘bugger’, ‘bloody’ and the f-word (and much more!) in every type of school. Many of the students who drop the four-letter clangers do so mostly out of habit or perhaps poor social context awareness. My colleagues and I find it helpful to distinguish between the kinds of swearing that often occur in a school setting: • Conversational swearing. This is most common outside the classroom. Several lads are talking about the latest blockbuster: ‘Did you see that f—ing explosion where the whole car f—ing blew up?’ In this sense the adjectival f-word, as used in student conversation, is part habituation, part social peer pressure. Teachers can remind students of positive language without preaching or moralising: ‘Seen any interesting films beginning with “f”?’ • Frustration-engendered swearing. Ryan drops a catch in footy. Mia gets a drop of acid on her paper in the science class. In these cases, ‘Shit!’ and ‘F— !’ are understandable verbal reactions. Swearing, in this context, comes easily to many students (and even colleagues!). It may be appropriate to simply acknowledge the student’s frustration. • Sometimes the swearing may be indirectly targeted to the teacher. The teacher has directed a sulky Year 8 boy to return to his seat (he’s been ‘wandering’ in class). As he moves back to his work area he mutters a swear word under his breath. The teacher tactically ignores the sulky body language. Walking across, he says (a little later) and quietly: ‘I heard that, Cooper. I’ll chat with you later.’ Cooper mumbles that he doesn’t care, and the teacher counters with, ‘I care, Cooper’, and moves off, giving Cooper some take-up time. He has a brief chat later (after class). • Swearing directly at students or teachers as abuse or defiance. In this case we need to be assertively clear: ‘I don’t swear at you ever (let’s hope that’s true). I don’t expect you to swear at me.’ I sometimes add, ‘If you’re uptight with me, find another way of saying it.’ If the student persists in verbally attacking, we need to use time-out procedures and always follow up later (p. 105).

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Consider the teacher who ‘creates’ conflict whenever they hear any kind of swearing: ‘What did you say? You know swearing is not allowed in our room!’ ‘Gee, I didn’t mean it’, says Thomas. Who knows whether he did or didn’t? He folds his arms and sulks as if to say, ‘Don’t pick on me!’ ‘And don’t you sulk at me. You know the rules the same as anybody else. I don’t care if you swear at home. You will not swear in my room. Do you understand?’ He obviously feels compelled to preach at Thomas. ‘You’re always picking on me! I wasn’t even swearing at you!’ The teacher has now got another conflict on his hands beyond the initial swearing. It was a bad move to refer to Thomas’s home background. When seeking to manage and resolve conflict, it is important to avoid any unnecessary embarrassment or sarcasm (p. 9). Power – by itself – doesn’t change the conflict; and the battle for power is almost always counter-productive. When we challenge students in a heated voice: ‘Who the hell do you think you are, you little …? You’ll apologise now!’, students whose goal is a power exchange will often simply resort to counter power. If we demand and threaten, and back the student into a corner in front of his peers, we actually create conflict. This common conflict cycle leaves the teacher emotionally stretched, the child still hostile and resentful and an effective aftermath much more difficult. As well, the teacher will get little sympathy or support from the rest of the class. Teachers can, and do, use repartee to defuse some conflict situations, even some kinds of swearing. This is a context appropriate approach and depends for its effectiveness on the quality of the teacher–student relationship as well as the teacher’s ‘comfortability’. The student says ‘Shit!’ clearly enough to be heard. Poor lad has dropped his new iPhone. The teacher walks past and says, ‘Where?’ The student looks up. ‘What?’ ‘Where?’, replies the teacher. The student gets the joke, sighs, and gives a wry smile and the teacher quickly redirects the student to put the phone away in his bag.

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In one of my classes a boy let off a loud and disturbingly smelly rear-end gaseous remit. One of the boys responded with, ‘Jesus Christ!’ I turned and asked clearly, ‘Is He a student here as well?’ ‘What?’ ‘Jesus?’ I replied. He eventually got the point.

Other students may laugh when and if they hear; that’s the point of the defusion. By using light humour, the teacher is, in effect, taking the heat out of a potential conflict. She may follow up with the student later and have a chat about the ‘four-letter word dropping’. Some teachers object to the use of humour when dealing with some kinds of swearing, claiming that it excuses the behaviour. Not so; not in this case. It is a way of defusing potential conflict at the point where emotions can often run away if the response by the teacher is unhelpfully demanding. Miss J is writing algebraic formulae on the Year 9 whiteboard. She turns to face her class and one little wag calls out, ‘Miss, someone just did that when you had your back to us!’ and he demonstrates by sticking his two fingers up at her, grinning to draw group attention. Unfazed, she recognises teacher-baiting and with all eyes on her says firmly, but calmly, ‘Well, I’m glad I didn’t see it. OK (directing group attention back to the task), we were discussing algebra.’ She is brief, decisive, firm and confident in body language and not drawn by this obvious teacher-baiting.

Defusion is a personality-based style of conflict resolution. It is most effective when the teacher has a positive working relationship established with the class. It’s not helpful to use defusion if you’re tired, uptight, jaded, really frustrated or upset; use it on your good days. If you don’t feel comfortable using defusion, then employ the other approaches described. Contact senior staff and parents when any frequent intentional and aggressive swearing is a regular pattern of behaviour with a student.

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Dropping standards? Some teachers will see such approaches as those noted above as a dropping of standards; I disagree. Our example and teaching style can often reduce the frequency of swearing more effectively than all the moral preaching under the sun. If we have made a clear rule about swearing and abusive language, we will need to decide how best to enforce it. Depending on the kind of swearing, we may defuse or quietly remind; on other occasions (as with abusive swearing) we will need to forcefully assert our displeasure. We should always follow up one-to-one with a student who has sworn at us, in a calmer moment with a senior colleague if necessary (p. 105). Denunciation won’t stop students swearing; neither will suspending every swearing student. As in all discipline transactions, we’ll need to decide our general approach in advance. If we have already communicated our expectations, moralising (as distinct from a reminder or an assertion) won’t help.

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Summary Frustration and anger are dominant emotions among teachers; our profession naturally occasions stress. Anger is normal and can even be a healthy emotion, and our anger can be just in its expression. When situations are dangerous, hurtful or severely affecting others’ rights, we are bound to get frustrated, even angry. We will address our anger more effectively when we understand it. What signals it? What do we characteristically think, say and do in anger-arousing situations? Can we communicate our anger more effectively and assertively? Like any aspect of our leadership behaviour, it can only be more professional when we take some responsibility for the way in which we manage our frustrations and anger.

Questions to consider • What are some of the classroom behaviours, circumstances or situations that make you angry? Can you pinpoint them? When do they typically occur? With which students? • Are you able to specifically recall what you characteristically say and do in managing conflict (that which sees you very frustrated or even angry)? What sort of things do you find yourself saying in the immediate emotional moment, and later when you’re calmer and able to recall and reflect? • If you have angry or aggressive students, how do you normally deal with them? What supports are available in the heat of the moment (i.e. time-out) and in following up with the student at a calmer time? • What specific alternatives can you propose to your current approach? How do these approaches and practices inform your practice?

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Schools, more and more, are expected to have the widest of curricula from the 3Rs to bike education, social skills training, human relations and ethics education, information technology, environmental education and more. How often do we hear the cry in the media, ‘Why don’t schools teach them …?’ We are required to cope with wide individual differences, cater for the emotional needs of our students and provide the best learning environment for all. Ministers of Education frequently harp on about the 3Rs core curriculum and ‘getting back to basics’, and at other times stress the need for inclusive education and even more human relations education. Many teachers are reporting significant stress as more and more bureaucratic demands are made on their time, their goodwill and their energy. We are also expected to pick up the unfinished guidance and discipline tab that some parents leave behind. Most teachers do this with diligence, hard work and good humour. In this demanding role of teaching there are some situations over which we have minimal control: the students’ home background; the particular school we were sent to; the mandated changes that proceed from the Department of Education; limits to funding; the portable classroom we got landed with; the demands of national testing. There are, however, many areas of our practice that we have significant and effective control over: • the way we organise the curriculum and present it to our students • the way we cater, and teach, for mixed abilities and differentiation • how we organise our classroom space and aesthetics • how we establish positive classroom environments

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• the way in which we can build up workable relationships with our students (hopefully we’ll even enjoy most classes, and like most of our students) • the kind of encouragement we give; the ways in which we consciously seek to build positive self-esteem in students • the support network we build with our colleagues • the kind of behaviour leadership we develop and exercise – particularly the focus on a positive discipline plan that attends to the language of discipline. Most of all we can work with colleagues on the situations, circumstances and student behaviours that challenge and, at times, stress us. Colleague support will always make a difference to our coping ability and the quality of teaching. A teacher once said to me, ‘I understand all this discipline skills stuff but you know you can’t teach an old dog new tricks.’ ‘But we’re not dogs’, was my reply. (I was being facetious about her easy dismissiveness.) ‘We’re people who chose to be teachers. We can change. Like most significant change, it won’t come about by accident, without some failure, or hard work, or colleague support.’ Developing more effective and positive discipline practice will require the same reflection, effort and rigour that we apply to any area of the curriculum. In Aristotle’s last book, The Nicomachean Ethics, he muses on whether it is possible to actually teach goodness and virtue. It is a thorny question for philosophers and educators alike. Aristotle’s Ethics is as much a book of psychological insights as it is a philosophical treatise. He holds that in every art and profession, we become ‘just’ through our behaviour – our actions towards others: [we] become good builders as a result of building well … Now this holds also of the virtues. It is in the course of our dealings with others that we become just or unjust … the moral virtues are produced in us neither by nature or against nature. (Book Two, p. 55) He argues that in our life, and our profession, we need to be consciously aware of how we relate to others. There is a learning here; there is also a disposition we can consciously affirm from such learning. As teacher–leaders, there are dispositions and characteristic features of our leadership we need to understand and develop within our beliefs, values, aims

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and our characteristic practice (bad days notwithstanding). This is our duty; our professional responsibility. We may sum it up in the generalisation, like activities produce like dispositions. This makes it our duty to see that our activities have the right character, since the differences in quality in them are repeated in the dispositions that follow in their train. So it is a matter of real importance whether our early education confirms us in one set of habits or another. It would be nearer the truth to say that it makes a very great difference indeed, in fact all the difference in the world. (Aristotle, Book Two, pp. 56–57) It is possible to develop personal and school-wide discipline that is more decisive and less reactive without losing that fundamental humanity that not only makes teaching bearable but even enjoyable. If this book can stimulate that kind of reflective change – that kind of ‘disposition’ based on school-wide colleague support – it will have achieved its purpose.

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I Personal running records Personal running records are important management tools. • They can assist in profiling the kind, number, content and even context of distracting and disruptive student behaviour. Teachers will sometimes say, ‘He always calls out!’ It’s helpful, however, to raise a more focused awareness of how many times and when. Such records are ‘diagnostic data’, much as we would use running records for literacy and numeracy. • They give a guide as to whether or not our intervention programs are effective. We can look back at particular occasions of disruption and see whether the behaviour management strategies or individual behaviour plans we are using are having any effect. • They provide a focus for problem-solving discussion with our peers. • They are a useful record if support services are called in (psychologist, special education teacher or consultant), and also when conducting a parent conference. • They assist teachers in reflecting on their practice: what they are actually doing; how often a given method, approach or strategy is tried and whether there is any productive outcome. It is important that, as teachers, we become more consciously reflective and appropriately evaluate our actual discipline and management approaches.

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Incident (brief, specific description)

AM/PM (or lesson time)

Disruptive behaviour analysis record

Student details:

Teacher’s action (be as specific as possible)

Available as a template online at www.acer.edu.au/documents/acerpress_rogers.pdf

Task student is undertaking

Is behaviour directed at particular students? Who? Or at teacher? How?

Appendices

You Know the Fair Rule 3rd edn © William A. Rogers 2012

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II The 4W form NAME

CLASS

What I did against our class rules:*

What rule was affected?*

My explanation:

What I think I should do to fix it:

Teacher/parent comments:

Signed Date * With older secondary students we would use the word ‘rights’ instead of rules. Available as a template online at www.acer.edu.au/documents/acerpress_rogers.pdf You Know the Fair Rule 3rd edn © William A. Rogers 2012

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III Behaviour plans 1 Formal contract form I have discussed my behaviour with the following persons:

and have agreed to work with them in changing my behaviour. Behaviours I have agreed to work on: (Be specific here. Focus on the class rights and rules. Is it better if the student uses his/her own language, with teacher assistance. ‘What do you want to try to do?’ ‘What do you need to work on?’) How will I do it? (Again be specific.) How will my teacher/s support me? (This aspect is often left out of a behaviour plan. It is important to include it.) Comments on the student’s progress. (Keep comments as positive as possible.) Signed

Student

Signed

Class teacher

Signed

Parent (if necessary)

Checked by Available as a template online at www.acer.edu.au/documents/acerpress_rogers.pdf

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2 A self-monitoring behaviour agreement This can be tied in with the 4W form (p. 298). Joshua

Keeping Tabs

Year

How I Behaved

Period 1

1. Hands up without calling out

***

2. Stick to my task, or the set work

**

3. Using my partner voice in class time

*

7B

Monday

Day

Week

Period 2

Period 3

Period 4

Period 5

Period 6

*** I’m happy with the way I went. ** Just OK * Not OK. I’m not really happy with the way I went.

Available as a template online at www.acer.edu.au/documents/acerpress_rogers.pdf

• This behaviour agreement can be adapted for use with younger students (from Year 3 onwards). Students are encouraged to write any extra comments on the back of the card. • The phrase ‘keeping tabs’ highlights behaviour ownership and selfmonitoring for the student. • The teacher, student and teacher-support (year level coordinator, homegroup teacher, school counsellor) will have discussed how the student can ‘keep tabs’ by working within fair rules; giving themselves clear messages of encouragement; asking whether they have achieved the goals and whether their behaviour is helping them or not. These behaviour targets will often be modelled and rehearsed with the student, in one-to-one meetings (p. 176). • Each teacher who works with this student needs to be aware that the student is trying hard to manage their behaviour. They should be encouraged to support and maximise the student’s efforts and assist in the program of behaviour ownership and change.

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IV Behaviour goals The agreement should be reviewed as often as the teacher or team feels necessary. There will often be finetuning in the process. I can do it

MY BEHAVIOUR GOALS

STOP DOING ...

START DOING ...

•

•

•

•

•

•

Step by step

Available as a template online at www.acer.edu.au/documents/acerpress_rogers.pdf

On the back of these behaviour agreements, the teacher and student can note idiosyncratic reminders (used to support the student) plus, of course, daily feedback acknowledgements.

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V Success criteria for school assemblies Students and teachers collaborate on the theme ‘what we have assemblies for’ so that students can see the value and purpose of school assemblies. Students brainstorm around the theme of assemblies: why we have them; what sorts of things we can do during assembly times; how we need to think about space, noise, consideration of the presenters, etc. and the need for some behaviour expectations.

To find out what’s happening in our school. To get to know our school better.

To share what we have been doing in our class(es).

To celebrate special days.

Why do we have assemblies?

To present people with awards for being successful and doing different things.

To celebrate different festivals.

To share important information with everyone in the school. For people to share and see new ideas.

302

Appendices

Students discuss basic behavioural needs during assembly times and come up with grade contributions to behaviour expectations, for example: • Leave your hats, toys, bags, etc. in your own classroom or your locker. • Sit flat on your bottom (or on the chair) and face the front of the hall. • Give eye contact to the speaker(s) and performers and listen to the person who is talking or presenting. • We do not talk when a person is speaking from the stage or at the front and we do not chat between acts. • We join in with the songs (if we know the words). • Move to the front quickly and quietly when it’s your turn to practise, or speak, or act on stage. Move on and off stage safely and sensibly. • Clap after people have presented – clap appropriately. Clapping is a way of showing our shared enjoyment, our thanks, and that we valued those who shared or presented. This has been slightly modified from a student collaboration activity at The Pines School, Parafield Gardens, South Australia.

303

Appendices

VI Playground questionnaire The following questionnaire can be used with staff and students as a basis for both discussion and written comment on playground issues and playground behaviour.

1.

What’s working well in our playground (environment, seating, play, recreation etc.) and why?

2.

What’s not working well in our playground and why? (anything upsetting, concerning you – what, and why?)

3.

Some things we need (want) to change? Why? How?

4.

Let’s discuss together a plan for action: –

things we can start soon

–

things that’ll take a bit longer

–

how we’ll go about doing ‘it’.

Thanks for your cooperation. We will give you feedback soon.

304

Appendices

VII Establishing a class

305

Appendices

VIII Noise meters A noise meter is a simple, visual training device for establishing workable noise levels in a classroom. When used with an upper primary class the first picture (top left) would show children sitting at desks or tables:

p. v. = partner voices

s. r. = stop, reflect

306

g. t. l. = getting too loud

Appendices

At lower primary level the first picture would show children sitting on the mat:

307

References

Aristotle, The Nicomachean ethics, trans. JAK Thompson (1955), Penguin Classics, London. Barnes, D & Daniels, R 1996, Behaviour policy, Hare St Infant School, Harlow, UK. Bernard, ME & Joyce, MR 1984, Rational emotive therapy with children and adolescents: Theory, treatment strategies, preventative methods, Wiley, New York. Brophy, J 1983, ‘Research of the self-fulfilling prophecy and teacher expectations’, Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 75, pp. 631–61. Brophy, J 1985, ‘Teacher–student interactions’, in J Dusek (ed.), Teacher expectations, Erlbaum Press, New Jersey. Brophy, J & Good, TL 1986, ‘Teacher behaviour and student achievement’ in MC Wittrock (ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, Macmillan, New York. Caffyn, RE 1989, ‘Attitudes of British secondary school teachers and pupils to rewards and punishments’, Educational Research, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 210–20. Canter, L & Canter, M 1976, Assertive discipline: A take-charge approach for today’s educator, Canter and Associates, California. Carroll, L 1871, Through the looking glass and what Alice found there, Macmillan, London. Charles, CM 2005, Building classroom discipline, 8th edn, Allyn & Bacon, Boston. Chung, K 2008, Chinese proverb in Sketches: Webster’s quotations, facts and phrases, ICON Group International, San Diego. Clough, P, Garner, P, Pardeck, JT & Yuen, F (eds) 2005, Handbook of emotional and behavioural difficulties, Sage Publications, London. Congressional Quarterly Inc 1962, Congressional quarterly weekly report, vol. 20, p. 1813. De Bono, E 1986, Conflicts: A better way to resolve them, Penguin, Harmondsworth. Department of Education and Science 1989, Discipline in schools: Report of the committee of enquiry (Elton report), Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, London. Dreikurs, R, Grunwald, B & Pepper, F 1982, Maintaining sanity in the classroom, 2nd edn, Harper & Row, New York. Edwards, CH & Watts, V 2008, Classroom discipline and management, 2nd Australian edn, John Wiley, Milton, Queensland. Elton report – see Department of Education and Science (1989) Erikson, E 1960, ‘Youth, fidelity and diversity’, in E Erikson (ed.), The challenge of youth, Anchor Books, New York. Erikson, E 1968, Identity: Youth and crisis, Norton & Company, New York. Ford, E 2004, Discipline for home and school, Brandt, Scottsdale, Arizona. Frankl, VE 1963, Man’s search for meaning, Simon & Schuster, Boston, Massachusetts.

308

References

Ginott, H 1971, Teacher and child, Macmillan, New York. Glasser, W 1986, Control theory in the classroom, Harper & Row, New York. Gordon, T 1974, Teacher effectiveness training, David McKay, New York. Hull, D & Johnson, D 1981, Essential paediatrics, Longman, Edinburgh. Kounin, J 1977, Discipline and group management in classrooms, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Kyriacou, C 1986, Effective teaching in schools, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Kyriacou, C 1991, Essential teaching skills, Basil Blackwell, Oxford. Leiter, S 2007, Critical companion to Emily Dickinson, Facts on File, New York. Lewin, K (ed.) 1948, Kurt Lewin: Resolving social conflicts, Selected papers on group dynamics, Harper & Row, New York. Lewin, K, Lippitt, R & White, RK 1939, ‘Patterns of aggressive behaviour in experimentally created “social climates”’, Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 10, pp. 271–99. Lewis, CS 1978, The abolition of man, Collins/Fount, Glasgow. Magnusson, M 2004, Keeping my words: An anthology from cradle to grave, Hodder & Stoughton, London. Maslow, A 1970, Motivation and personality, 2nd edn, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. McInerney, DM & McInerney, V 1998, Educational psychology: Constructing learning, 2nd edn, PrenticeHall, Sydney. McPherson, E & Rogers, B 2008, Behaviour management with your children: Crucial first steps with children 3–7 years, Sage Publications, London. de Montaigne, M 1580, Essays, Penguin Classics, London. Neill, AS 1960, Summerhill, Hart, New York. Nelson, J 1987, Positive discipline, Ballantine Books, New York. Nutbrown, C 2006, Key concepts in early childhood education and care, Sage Publications, London. Pearce, H 1995, Group work in classrooms, unpublished manuscript, Cambridge, UK. Piaget, J 1932, The moral judgement of the child, Routledge & Kegan Paul, London. Robertson, J 1996, Effective classroom control: Understanding teacher–pupil relationships, 3rd edn, Hodder & Stoughton, London. Rogers, B 1985, ‘Conflict resolution among pre-adolescents’, MEd thesis, University of Melbourne. Rogers, B 2002, I get by with a little help: Colleague support in schools, ACER Press, Camberwell, Victoria. Rogers, B 2003, Behaviour recovery: A whole-school program for mainstream schools, ACER Press, Camberwell, Victoria. Rogers, B 2006a, Cracking the hard class: Strategies for managing the harder than average class, 2nd edn, Scholastic, Gosford, New South Wales. Rogers, B 2006b, Behaviour management: A whole-school approach, Scholastic, Gosford, New South Wales. Rogers, B 2009, How to manage children’s challenging behaviour, 2nd edn, Sage Publications, London. Rogers, B 2011, Classroom behaviour: A practical guide to effective teaching, behaviour management and colleague support, 3rd edn, Sage Publications, London. Rosenthal, R 1973, ‘The Pygmalion effect lives’, Psychology Today, September, pp. 56–63. Rosenthal, R & Fode, K 1963, ‘The effect of experimental bias on the performance of the albino rat’, Behavioural Science, vol. 8, pp. 183–9. Rosenthal, R & Jacobson, L 1986, Pygmalion in the classroom, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York. Scott Peck, M 1978, The road less travelled, Arrow Books, London. Tauber, RT 1995, Classroom management theory and practice, 2nd edn, Harcourt Brace, Orlando, Florida. United Nations 1948, Universal declaration of human rights, Paris. United Nations 1989, Convention on the rights of the child, New York.

309

References

Westwood, P 2009, What teachers need to know about students with disabilities, ACER Press, Camberwell, Victoria. Wheldhall, K (ed.) 1992, Discipline in schools: Psychological perspectives in the Elton report, Routledge, London.

Further reading Ayers, H, Clarke, D & Ross, A 1996, Assessing individual needs: A practical approach, 2nd edn, David Fulton, London. Biggs, J & Telfer, R 1981, The process of learning, Prentice-Hall, Sydney. Boer, B & Gleeson, V 1982, The law of education, Butterworths, Sydney. Borba, M & Borba, C 1980, Self-esteem: A classroom affair, vol. 1, Winston Press, Minneapolis. Borba, M & Borba, C 1982, Self-esteem: A classroom affair, vol. 2, Winston Press, Minneapolis. Breheney, C, Mackrill, V & Grady, N 1996, Making peace at Mayfield: A whole-school approach to behaviour management, Eleanor Curtain, Armadale, Victoria. Brophy, J 1986, ‘Teacher behaviour and student achievement’, in MC Wittrock (ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, Macmillan, New York. Bruner, J 1996, The culture of education, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Charles, CM 1985, Building classroom discipline: From models to practice, 2nd edn, Longman, New York. Coopersmith, S 1967, The antecedents of self-esteem, Freeman, San Francisco. Cranfield, J & Wells, HC 1976, 100 ways to enhance self-concept in the classroom, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey. Dempster, M & Raff, D 1992, Class discussions: A powerful classroom strategy (K–12), Hawker Brownlow Education, Cheltenham, Victoria. Dodge, KA 1981, ‘Social competence and aggressive behaviour in children’, paper presented to the Midwestern Psychological Association, Detroit. Donaldson, M 1978, Children’s minds, Fontana, London. Doyle, W 1986, ‘Classroom organization and management’, in MC Whitrock (ed.), Handbook of research on teaching, Macmillan, New York. Ford, E 1999, Discipline for home and school, Brandt, Arizona. Froyen, LA 1988, Classroom management: Empowering teacher–leaders, Merrill Publishing, Columbus, Ohio. Glasser, W 1985, Control theory, Harper & Row, New York. Glasser, W 1990, The quality school, Harper & Row, New York. Good, TL 1995, ‘Teacher expectations’, in LW Anderson (ed.), International encyclopedia of teaching and learning, 2nd edn, Pergamon Press, Tarrytown, New York. Gresch, H, Hammon, SM, Hampson, ST, Eves, A & Crowder, MJ 2002, ‘Influence of supplementary vitamins, minerals and essential fatty acids on the anti-social behaviour of young adult prisoners’, The British Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 181, pp. 22–8. Hill, S 1992, Games that work: Co-operative games and activities for the primary school classroom, Eleanor Curtain, Armadale, Victoria. Hill, S & Hill, T 1990, The collaborative classroom, Eleanor Curtain, Armadale, Victoria. Hook, C 1985, Studying classrooms, Deakin University Press, Victoria. Johnson, DW & Johnson, RT (eds) 1989, Leading the co-operative school, Interaction Books, Minnesota. Jones, P 1996, Talking to learn, Primary English Teaching Association (PETA), Newtown, New South Wales.

310

References

Jones, P & Tucker, E (eds) 1990, Mixed ability teaching: Classroom experiences in English, ESC Mathematics and Science, St Claire Press, Rozelle, New South Wales. Kounin, J & Obradovic, S 1968, ‘Managing emotionally disturbed children in regular classrooms: A replication and extension’, Journal of Special Education, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 129–39. Kyriacou, C 1981, ‘Social support and occupational stress among school teachers’, Educational Studies, vol. 7, pp. 55–60. McCarthy, P, Freeman, L, Rothwell, C & Arnheim, B 1983, ‘Is there life after 8D?: Group reinforcement at the post-primary level’, Interview, no. 11, Ministry of Education, Victoria. McGrath, H & Francey, S 1993, Friendly kids, friendly classrooms, Longman, Melbourne. Merrett, F & Tang, WM 1994, ‘The attitudes of British primary school pupils to praise, rewards, punishments and reprimands’, British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 64, pp. 91–103. Miller, SE, Leinhardt, G & Zigmond, N 1991, ‘Accommodating at risk students’, Set: Research Information for Teachers, vol. 1, item 8, ACER & NZCER. Morgan, DP & Jenson, WR 1988, Teaching behaviourally disordered students: Preferred practices, Merrill Publishing, Toronto. Papalia, DS & Wendkos Olds, S (eds) 1982, A child’s world: Infancy through adolescence, 3rd edn, McGrawHill, New York. Rex, J 1981, Social conflict: A conceptual and theoretical analysis, Longman, London. Roberts, R 1988, ‘School yard menace: School bullying’, Psychology Today, February, pp. 53–6. Rogers, B 1995, Behaviour management: A whole-school approach, Scholastic, Gosford, New South Wales. Rogers, B 1997, Cracking the hard class: Strategies for managing the harder than average class, Scholastic, Gosford, New South Wales. Rutter, M 1981, Maternal deprivation reassessed, Penguin Books, London. Safran, SP, Safran, JS & Barcikowski, RS 1985, ‘Differences in teacher tolerance: An illusory phenomenon?’, Behaviour Disorders, vol. 11, pp. 11–15. Serfontein, G 1990, The hidden handicap: How to handle children who suffer from dyslexia, hyperactivity and learning difficulties, Simon & Schuster, Sydney. Tavris, C 1982, ‘Anger defused’, Psychology Today, Nov, pp. 25–35. Topping, K 1987, Educational systems for disruptive adolescents, Croom Helm, London. Wolfgang, C & Glickman, C 1986, Solving classroom discipline problems, 2nd edn, Allyn & Bacon, Boston.

Resources Rogers, B 1995, Managing behaviour, four DVDs addressing prevention, positive correction, consequences, repairing and rebuilding. Available from Quartus Productions, PO Box 2069, Bundaberg, Queensland, 4670. Rogers, B 2009, Cracking the challenging class, a two-part DVD program addressing common factors in hard-to-manage classes. Available from Rogers Education Consultancy: www.billrogers.com.au.

311

Index

accountability 14 meetings 259–61 accountability dialogue/conferencing 116–17 acknowledging students’ feelings 91 aggressive behaviour students 27, 145, 282 agreement, partial 89–91 anchoring 197–9 anger 219, 275–6, 292 acknowledge the emotional climate 282 acted 282 expressing 280–1 passive 276–7 physiological reactions to 279–80 protocols of anger management 280–6 reactive 276 situations 282 utilising 277 see also conflict anger management 272–92 in conflict resolution 280–6 answering back 80 anxiety 274 apologies 113 arguing with students 79 see also behaviour, primary and secondary assemblies 137, 302–3 assertion 14, 33, 45, 64, 80–2, 84, 119 contrast with non-assertion 80 in language 83 and sexist comments 82–3 when addressing whole class 68, 80–2, 283 assertive speech 80, 285, 287 attention and audience 24–5 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 169–70, 180–4 attention-seeking behaviour 25 and tactical ignoring 56–61 and teacher frustration 27–8 authoritarian (autocrat) teachers 29, 33–6, 38, 44

authoritative 38, 193 authority 1, 8, 38, 50, 120, 121, 128, 154, 278 Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 169–70 autocrat/autocratic teaching 29, 33–6 see also power struggle (conflict) bad-day syndrome 54, 222, 226 baiting the teacher 29, 76, 185, 290 see also conflict ‘beating the bell’ 212–13 behaviour attention-seeking 25 and consequential outcomes 18 encouraging long-term change 184–6 goals 301 levels of distraction and disruption 50 predisposing factors 170–1 primary and secondary 25–8 see also disruptive behaviour behaviour agreements/contracts 299, 300 behaviour disorders, diagnostic 169–70 behaviour issues beyond the classroom 17–18, 119 behaviour management plan 95 behaviour plans/agreements 173–190 classroom 95 encouraging long-term change 184–6 formal contract form 299 individual 173–4 meetings 259 picture plans 179 secondary level 188–9 types of 174 written plans 175–6 behaviour policy framework 137 behaviour profile 172–3 behaviour rehearsals 176–8 behaviour and student responsibility 13–14 behavioural consequences see consequences, behavioural

312

Index

behavioural directions descriptive 63–4 encouraging long-term change 184–6 incidental 63–4 nonverbal (cues) 62–3 and preschoolers 66–7 simple 64–6 belonging as a social goal 29, 189 see also attention-seeking; power-seeking behaviour body language of teachers 9, 53, 54 see also nonverbal behaviour (teacher) blaming the teacher (hard-to-manage class) 252–3 blind-eye syndrome 138–42 bullying 116–17, 122, 129, 131, 145, 149, 153, 162, 280 playground environments 144, 149 of teachers by students 259–62 see also harassment of teachers

whole-class teaching time, early disruptions 203–4 workable entry and exit procedure 193–4, 255–6 see also hard-to-manage class classroom management planning and skills 49–95 styles of 29–46 classroom meetings 235–47 addressing put-downs 244–7 benefits of 238 ‘closed’ meetings 256–8 conducting 239–42, 256–61 education focus of 237 mini meetings 259–61 ‘open’ meetings 257–9 setting up 236–8 warm-up activity 242–4 classroom security 6–7 ‘closed’ classroom meetings 256–8 colleague support 18–19, 103, 243, 249, 254, 271, 294 when students harass teachers 259–62 with first-year teachers 261–4, 267–70 with hard-to-manage classes 253–70 see also accountability dialogue/conferencing communication positive 220 and rules 131–2 and tone of voice 9–11 verbal 219–20 compliance demanding 33–6 expecting 36–46 hoping for 30–3 see also take-up time conditional directions 72–3 see also choices, discipline and appropriate conflict classroom 286 defusion of 290 and frustration in children 286–9 and heat of the moment 284 perception and emotion 277–8 power struggles in conflict situations 284 swearing and defiance 287–90 and teachers 289–90 and third party 286 and volume 83, 284–5 see also anger conflict resolution 272–92 and anger management 280–6 and teachers 289–90 confrontation 51, 236 undue 9–11, 76, 95

calling out (by students) 37–42 nonverbal cues 63 prevention 73–4 calmness, communicating 9–11, 66, 97, 98, 169, 186, 195, 197, 256, 284 see also anchoring certainty 18, 43, 115, 146, 149, 154, 155 challenging children (behaviour) 171 challenging the work (by students) 91–2 see also task refusal (strategies for dealing with) chattering see noise level (giving students feedback) choice, concept and limits of 155 choices, discipline and appropriate 13–14, 86–8 class exit 193–4, 211–13, 256 classroom climate 191–213 anchoring 197–9 basic phases in the ‘life’ of a classroom 192 basis of a positive 215–47 establishing a 305 establishing a new 192–3 lesson closure, summary and exit from class 211–13, 255–6 plan for readiness time 199 rules and routines, establishing basic 203–10 seating plans 201–2 students’ first names, learning and using 202–3 teacher’s assistance during on-task phase of lesson 210–11 unresponsive class 199–201 whole-class attention, initiating and sustaining 194–7

313

Index

consequences, behavioural 152–63 concept and limits of choice 155 deferred 14 degree of seriousness 154–5 developing 153–4 enforcing 155–6 non-negotiable 153 related 159–60 and responsibility 160–1 and time-out 163–9 what sort of? 156–9 and younger children 159 consistency 17–18, 118, 126, 129, 142, 153, 183, 186, 194, 226 conversational swearing 278, 280, 288 cool-off time 105, 285 see also time-out corporal punishment 1–3, 7 correction (invitational) 6, 13–14, 69, 72 correction, language of 16–17, 51–2 corrective discipline 3, 4 counselling 92, 104, 166, 169, 182, 245 crisis time-out 167–8 criticism and anger/conflict management 381 cueing the student for time-out 168–9 cues (nonverbal directions) 62–3, 205, 210 cues for getting teacher assistance 210–11

discipline 3–20, 103–17 appropriate choice 13–15 behaviour issue follow-up beyond the classroom 17–18, 119 colleague support 18–19 and consequential outcomes 154–5 corrective 3, 4 and dignity 8 and establishment phase of teaching/ learning time 98 goals 5–7 interventions, planning 96–119 and joint rights, responsibilities and rules 8 and language of correction 51–2 least-to-most intervention approach 11–13 parent support 18–19 plan, developing a 50–1, 165–6 positive corrective language 16–17 preventative 3, 4, 165–6 protocols 7–19 relatedness between behaviour and consequential outcome 17 and student respect 15–16 supportive 4–5 transactions 100–1 and undue confrontation/hostility 9–11 verbal 219–20 disclosure of behaviour goals 182 discussion groups (primary level) 129–30 disruption, context of 100–1 disruptions, early (whole-class teaching time) 203–4 disruptive behaviour 21–3, 103–4 levels of 50 patterns, awareness of 28–9 predisposing factors 170–1 self-awareness triggers 178–9 distracting behaviour 21–3, 50 distraction 61–2 levels of 50 diversions 61–2 duty-of-care management outside classrooms 137–50 school-wide review 142–3 see also playground management

decisive (democratic) teacher 36–46 decisive negative (saying ‘no’) 71–2 defiance 80, 287–90 defusion 77, 292 see also repartee democratic teaching 30, 36–46 describing behaviour, as a form of direction 63–4 see also observational language (as a behaviour reminder) descriptive feedback 228–31 descriptive language 67–8 desists 64–6 see also behavioural directions detentions 17, 18, 105, 112, 114, 119, 159, 162 whole-class 249 development, moral 6 diagnostic behaviour disorders 169–70 dignity of the individual 7, 8, 82, 120, 122, 168, 216, 222, 227 as a value 150 see also respect direct questions 75 directed choices 86–7 directing students aside 14, 42, 44, 55, 62, 77, 79, 80, 83, 99, 100–1, 104–5, 140, 280 directions see behavioural directions

eating in corridors 140 embarrassment 9, 289 emotion and perception (conflict) 277–9 emotional baggage 223–4 see also home background/environment emotional climate (anger) 282–3 emotional management 9 see also anger management emotional security 6

314

Index

empathising 92 see also acknowledging students’ feelings encouragement 6, 46, 57–8, 86, 94, 149, 183, 184, 186, 188, 218, 222, 228–30, 231, 234–5, 247, 266, 294, 300 as contrast with praise 227–8 enthusiasm 38, 40, 47, 98–9, 234, 267 entry to class 193–4 establishment phase of the class group 255 and discipline 98 and whole-class teaching/learning time 97–9 establishment phase of the year and discipline 98 re-establish a class 257–8 ethical probity 106, 110, 114 exit from class 193–4, 211–13, 255–6 expectancy effect 220–3 expectations 4, 100, 121, 129, 133, 136, 139, 141, 142, 151, 193, 205, 216, 217, 221, 222, 239–40, 255–6, 257, 259, 291, 303

harassment of teachers 261–4 hard-to-manage class 248–71 bullying of teachers by students 259–62 contributing factors 249–52 directing blame 252–3 evaluation 266–7 and first-year teachers 262–4, 267–70 group facilitators 264–5 individual behaviour plans 259 leadership 264–5 meetings 255–62 peer mentoring 265–6 peer support 266, 267–70 and teacher support 253–5 home background/environment 21–2, 34, 36, 92, 272, 281, 289, 293 hostility 9–11 human fallibility 125 human rights 8 humiliation 7, 34, 36 see also sarcasm humour 101–2 see also defusion; repartee

‘face-saving’ 55, 87, 147, 285 fallibility, human 125 see also bad-day syndrome families and behaviour issues 170–1 feedback 75, 77, 85, 106, 178, 179, 183, 187, 188–9, 209, 210, 227, 237–8, 239, 241, 258, 259 descriptive 228–31 see also encouragement feedback to colleagues 56, 265–6 first-year teachers and hard-to-manage classes 262–4 and leadership 264–5 peer mentoring 265–6 peers support groups 267–70 flatulation 78–9 follow-up and follow-through of students 17–18, 51–2, 78, 80, 81, 82, 87, 105–6, 114–15, 119, 139, 143, 145, 159, 265, 270, 275–6, 285, 287, 290 classroom conflict 286 follow-up of playground behaviours 143 fundamental considerations 107–14 see also apologies; repairing and rebuilding frustration 219, 286–7, 292 see also anger; conflict; stress

‘I’ messages 283–4 inclusive language 68, 126 indecisive (laissez-faire) teachers 29–33 individual behaviour plans 259 see also behaviour plans/agreements individuals, dignity of 8 innuendo 82–3 interrogative questions 12, 74 invitational corrections 13–14, 69, 72 job sheet (as a related consequence) 159 labelling of students 220–3 laissez-faire management 29–33 language, observational and descriptive 67–8 language of correction 16–17, 51–2 leadership and first-year teachers 264–5 learning environments 224 learning issues beyond the classroom 17–18 learning time, on-task cues for transition 205 noise volume during 205–9 least-to-most intervention approach 11–13 lesson closure 211–13 lines (as punishment) 18, 112, 156, 159–60 literature, discipline and published 7 litter 18, 139–40, 143–4, 145, 160, 211

gestures by students 76–8 goal disclosure see disclosure of behavioural goals goals of discipline 5–7 greeting students 193–4, 198 group attention 198, 290 group facilitators 264

management styles, classroom 29–46 continuum 29–30 manners 6, 68, 70, 121, 130, 134, 135, 204 maturation, personal 5

315

Index

mediation 112, 117, 128, 148, 162, 284, 287 see also accountability dialogue/conferencing meetings accountability 259–62 mini classroom 259–61 see also classroom meetings mirroring (of student behaviour) 108–11 modelling target behaviour 177 moral development 6 movement rule 132

physical punishment see corporal punishment physical restraint 115–16 physical touch 115 physiological reactions to anger 279–80 picture plans 179 see also behaviour plans/agreements plan supervisor (case manager) 189 playground altercations 147–8 playground behaviours 145, 146 playground environment 148–50 playground management 143–5 agreed plans for enforcement 146 enforcement of the fair rule of a safe playground 149–50 follow-up of playground incidents 143 non-negotiable rules 145–6 playground altercations 147–8 unsafe play 146–7 playground questionnaire 304 positive language 53 positive reinforcement 6, 41 see also encouragement posturing 76–8 power-seeking behaviour 28 power struggle (conflict) 284 praise 227–8, 231 prefacing 70–1 preventative discipline 3, 4, 165–6 problem-solving 132 procrastination 25, 88–9 protocols of discipline 7–19 punishment, physical 1–3, 7 put-downs 83–4, 281

nagging 66, 184, 249 noise level (giving students feedback) 201, 205, 208, 253, 258 noise meters (regarding working noise) 206–9, 306–7 noise volume during on-task learning time 205–9 noises 76–8 non-negotiable consequences 153 nonverbal behaviour (teacher) 9, 52–4 nonverbal directions (cues) 62–3, 140, 195, 206, 210 nonverbal signals (teacher) 37, 62–3, 68, 119, 140, 195, 203–4, 206, 210 observational language (as a behaviour reminder) 67–8 on-task learning time noise volume during 205–9 transition cues 205 on-task phase of classroom teaching 99 on-task phase of lesson, cues for getting teacher assistance 210–11 on-taskness and ADHD 181–4 ‘open’ classroom meetings 257–9 Oppositional Spectrum Defiance Disorder (OSDD) 169–70 overlapping behaviour (by teacher) 84–6 ownership of behaviour 142, 150 see also responsibility

questions 74–5 direct 75 interrogatives 12, 74 task-related 23 ‘why’ 75, 266 readiness time (in class) 199 reasserting 88–9 see also partial agreement reestablishing a class 257–8 refusal of students to stay back (after class) 114–15 reinforcement, self-defeating 56 reinforcement and behaviour modification 208, 240 reinforcement negative/positive 6, 41, 184 see also encouragement relationships positive 192, 272 working relationships between teacher and students 4, 44, 46

parental support 18–19 and challenging children 171 predisposing factors to behaviour 170–1 partial agreement 89–91 partner voice 210 see also working noise volume during on-task learning time peer mentoring (teachers) 265–6 peer support (teachers) 266, 267–70 personal maturation 6 personal running records 296–7 personal space, student’s 53–4 phases of a lesson 98

316

Index

relinquishing phase of classroom teaching 100 relocation in the room (as a consequence) 87–8 reminders 68–70 repairing and rebuilding 113 repartee 102, 289 respect and students 225–7 and teachers 7 respectful discipline 15–16, 156 respecting or liking? 7 responsibility and consequences 160–1 and discipline 8 see also consequences, behavioural ridicule 7, 223, 264 right of reply 104–5, 111–14 see also follow-up and follow-through of students rights 120–51 and authoritarian teacher style 29, 33–6, 38, 44 in the classroom, teaching 121–4 of all classroom members 8 infringement 151 non-automatic 121–4 non-negotiable 121, 122, 127, 204 and responsibilities of students 8 ripple effect 34, 219 routines, establishing basic 204 rules basic, establishing 204 developing with students 8, 125–31 and discipline 8 discussion groups (primary level) 129–30 language of 131 and learning 133 movement 132 non-negotiable 145–6 ownership of 129 problem-solving 132 rule reminder 68–9 safety and security 133 for school assemblies 136–7 secondary level 130–1 and young children 68, 70, 131–2, 135–6 running records 298

self-appraisal 219 self-awareness triggers 178–9 self-blame, teacher 286 self-concept 215, 218–19, 222 self-control 2–3, 5, 6, 14, 19, 30, 65, 155, 178 self-defeating speech 56 self-discipline see self-control self-esteem 215, 231–5 from students’ perspective 5, 6, 219, 224–6 self-monitoring behaviour agreement 300 sexist comments/remarks 82–3 shouting 56 simple directions see behavioural directions smack see corporal punishment smile 55 socialisation 5 socio-emotionally disturbed (SED) 225 stability 5, 194 staying back (consequences) 159–60 stress student 35, 278, 279 teacher 18, 278 see also anger students bullying of teachers 259–62 developing rules with 8, 125–31 and respect 225–7 right of reply 104–5, 111–14 and rules (early years) 135–6 without equipment 22–3, 204–5 students’ background 2, 34, 289, 293 see also home background/environment students’ names (learning of/using) 202–3 student’s personal space 53–4 sulkiness 282 see also attention-seeking; behaviour, primary and secondary supportive discipline 4–5 swearing 102–3 as abuse of defiance 288 conversational 278, 280, 288 and defiance 287–90 and dropping the standards 291 frustration-engendered 288 3Rs focus 8 tactical ignoring and attention-seeking 56–61 tactical pause 54–5 tactical presence 41 take-up time 55 tantrums 26, 27, 58, 233 task, refocus on the 93 task avoidance 91–2 task refusal (strategies for dealing with) 92 task-related questions 23

safety and security 133 sarcasm 9–11, 289 school assemblies 137 success criteria for 302–3 seating plans 201–2 secondary behaviour (as contrasted with primary behaviour) 25–7 security (emotional) 6, 66, 135

317

Index

task reminders (time) 93–4 teacher assistance, cues for getting 210–11 teacher attention (establishing a routine for students) 99, 256 teacher frustration and attention seeking 27–8 teacher help board 210–11 teacher stress 18, 278 teachers baiting 29, 76, 185, 290 blaming the (hard-to-manage class) 252–3 bullying by students 259–62 and conflict 289–90 contrasting 46–7, 231–5 demanding compliance 33–6 expecting compliance 36–46 first-year 262–4, 267–70 and the hard-to-manage class 248–71 hoping for compliance 30–3 indecisive 30–3 nonverbal behaviour 9, 52–4 peer mentoring 265–6 peer support 266, 267–70 power and responsibility 8 and respect 7, 231–5 support from other teachers 253–5 teacher/student interactions, positive 8 teaching, styles of management 29–46 teaching time early disruptions in whole-class 203–4 transition cues for whole-class 205 teaching/learning time, whole-class 97–9, 205, 255–6 third party (conflict) 286 threats 72, 75, 86, 285 time-out 163–9, 287 crisis 167–8 cueing the student for 168–9

tone of voice 9–11 touching 82–3 treatment of others 133–4 unresponsive class 199–201 values 120, 121, 123, 124–5, 150, 294 verbal blocking 89 verbal discipline 219–20 visual learners 23, 37, 93 visual learning cues 209–10 voice characteristic tone 54 raising of 56, 83, 285 tone and calmness 9 volume and conflict 82, 284–5 whole-class attention 194–7 whole-class teaching time, early disruptions 203–4 whole-class teaching/learning time 97–9, 205, 255–6 ‘why’ questions 75, 266 work, students challenging the 91–2 work areas, tidiness 194, 212–13, 228, 256 working noise volume during on-task learning time 205–9 written plans (behaviour) 175–6 ‘Yellow box’ approach and missing equipment 22–3, 204–5 younger children and consequences 159 and directions 66–7 and rule reminders 70 and rules 131–2, 135–6

318