Writing Strategies for Fiction [1 ed.] 9781425895419, 9781425810061

Citation preview

Author

Jessica Hathaway

Contributing Authors

Publishing Credits

Stephanie Macceca, M.A.Ed.

Robin Erickson, Production Director; Lee Aucoin, Creative Director; Timothy J. Bradley, Illustration Manager; Sara Johnson, M.S.Ed., Editorial Director; Grace Alba Le, Designer; Sandra Canchola, Editorial Assistant; Corinne Burton, M.A.Ed., Publisher

Sarah Kartchner Clark, Ph.D.

Image Credits Cover, p. 1 The Bridgeman Art Library; All other images Shutterstock

Standards © 2010 National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSS) © 2004 Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) © 2007 Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL) © 2007 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System.  World-Class Instructional Design and Assessment (WIDA).  For more information on using the WIDA ELP Standards, please visit the WIDA website at www.wida.us.

Shell Education 5301 Oceanus Drive Huntington Beach, CA 92649-1030 http://www.shelleducation.com ISBN 978-1-4258-1006-1 © 2014 Shell Education Publishing, Inc. The classroom teacher may reproduce copies of materials in this book for classroom use only. The reproduction of any part for an entire school or school system is strictly prohibited. No part of this publication may be transmitted, stored, or recorded in any form without written permission from the publisher.

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Table of Contents Introduction

Journal Writing

What Is Writing?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Journal Writing Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Motivating Students to Write. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10



Vocabulary Journal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

The Writing Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16



Dialogue Journal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

Writing About Fiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20



Highlighted Journal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Writing Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25



Key Phrase Journal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28



Double-Entry Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Correlation to Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29



Questioning Journal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Part 1: Writing to Learn

Note-Taking

Developing Vocabulary Developing Vocabulary Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Word Wall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34



Frayer Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38



Vocabulary Self-Collection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42



Possible Sentences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45



Word Trails. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48



Word Questioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51



Open Word Sort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Previewing and Reviewing Previewing and Reviewing Overview. . . . . . . . . 61

Note-Taking Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Cornell Note-Taking System. . . . . . . . . . . . 120



Note-Taking System for Learning. . . . . . . . 123

T-List. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Sticky Note Annotation System . . . . . . . . . 130

Using Diagrams and Maps Using Diagrams and Maps Overview. . . . . . . . 133 Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Venn Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141



Conflict-Resolution Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145



Semantic Word Map. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149



Story Strip. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153



Plot Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157



Think Sheet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64



Free-Association Brainstorming. . . . . . . . . . 69



Guided Free Write. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Part 2: Writing to Apply



End-of-Class Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Authoring



Reader-Response Writing Chart. . . . . . . . . . 80

Authoring Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162



Story Impressions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84



Guided Writing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165



Story Prediction Chart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89



Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder. . . . . . . . . 168

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Table of Contents (cont.)

Collaborative Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174



Peer Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236



Author’s Chair. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176



Teacher Conference. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Summarizing



Portfolio Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240

Summarizing Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Appendix A: References Cited. . . . . . . . . . . . 243

GIST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Appendix B: Cited Literature by Grade Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250



Key Words. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186



Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188



Character Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193



Story Mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Appendix C: Digital Resources . . . . . . . . . . . 253

Applying Knowledge Applying Knowledge Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Summary-Writing Microtheme. . . . . . . . . . 208



RAFT Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210



Formal Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212



Friendly Letter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214



Newspaper Article. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216



Historical/Science Fiction Story. . . . . . . . . 218



Character Diary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220



Story Additions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Part 3: Assessing Writing Assessing Writing Assessing Writing Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Holistic Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227



Analytic Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229



Primary Trait Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Self-Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

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Introduction

What Is Writing? For thousands of years, humans have been communicating by writing down characters, symbols, numbers, or letters with implied meaning. Being able to write and to write well is more important today than ever before, given the complex world in which we live. Writing is the making of letters or characters that constitute readable matter with the intent to convey meaning. Writing demands that one not only knows how to read what one has written but also knows the rules of writing that dictate how characters or letters are to be written and therefore understood. What is writing? Is it brainstorming? Is it spelling? Is it scribbling words and phrases? Is it a report? Is it a simple paragraph? Writing in the classroom can be simply defined as any symbolic representation (Hefflin and Hartman 2002). As Bena Hefflin and Douglas Hartman explain, the definition of writing includes representations that are “linguistic, graphic, pictorial, or otherwise.” This broad definition of writing welcomes a wide variety of writing formats.

Everyone Should Teach Writing Because educators understand the need for improved reading and writing skills in students, there has been a renewed focus on teaching literacy skills within the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers 2010). Furthermore, there is also an increased emphasis on the shared responsibility of teachers across disciplines and content areas to help students develop the necessary reading and writing skills to succeed in that particular subject. Pam Allyn supports this claim, making her argument for the shared responsibility of teachers to teach literacy skills as she closely analyzes the word core itself, noting that “the word core is a homonym: core and corps…[The Common Core] is at once about the core of why you teach and how you can enhance every aspect of your work…[It] is also about building a true corps of teachers, parents, and communities working together to ensure that every child has the certainty of gaining college- and career-ready outcomes,” shifting the responsibility from a single classroom teacher to a body of teachers, parents, and community members who are collectively responsible for ensuring the academic success of the children in their community (Allyn 2013, 4–5). Because of curriculum demands, many teachers feel there is not enough time to teach writing; adding one more component is just too much strain on the time and quality of lessons. However, researchers claim that most writing assignments do not need to be graded, which eliminates a major concern about the teacher workload (Worsley and Mayer 1989; Hightshue et al. 1988; Self 1987). And writing assignments can serve as ongoing assessments of students’ understanding of fictional texts, which informs future instruction and helps “teachers determine what students need and then design an appropriate instructional response” (Harvey 1998, 203). In this sense, writing instruction in any classroom cannot be overlooked as it is a powerful tool for assessing both students’ understanding of fiction texts and the traits of good writing. Writing is an instrument of thinking that allows students to express their thoughts and helps them understand and share their perceptions of the world around them. Teachers can give students power in their world by teaching them to write and to write well. The written word “enables the writer, perhaps for the first time, to sense the power of . . . language to affect another. Through using, selecting and rejecting, arranging and rearranging language, the student comes to understand how language is used” (Greenberg and Rath 1985, 12).

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Introduction

What Is Writing? (cont.) Literacy Demands The literacy needs for the 21st century are tremendous. Literacy was defined a century ago as one’s ability to write one’s name. A literate person could write his or her name; an illiterate person could not. In 1940, more than “half of the U.S. population had completed no more than an eighth grade education,” which is an evolving statistic as education continues to change and develop into the 21st century (National Center for Education Statistics 2013). Education as an institution is similarly evolving to meet the demands of what it means to be considered literate in the 21st century. With the advent of the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers 2010), students are considered literate individuals when: 1. They demonstrate independence. 2. They build strong content knowledge. 3. They respond to the varying demands of audience, task, purpose, and discipline. 4. They comprehend as well as critique. 5. They value evidence. 6. They use technology and digital media strategically and capably. 7. They come to understand other perspectives and cultures. Furthermore, students who meet the standards outlined in the Common Core State Standards by the time they leave high school are “prepared to enter college and workforce training programs” with success (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers 2010). There is a clear movement toward fostering the skills necessary for students to succeed in real-world contexts and thrive as productive citizens and workers. This need to develop productive members of the workforce is in line with alarming findings related to dropout rates and the U.S. economy (Wolk 2011, 75): An analysis by the Alliance for Excellent Education (2010) shows that the U.S. economy would grow significantly if the number of high school dropouts were cut in half. If just half of these students had graduated, research shows, they would have generated more than $4.1 billion in additional earning every year, and states and localities would have received additional taxes of more than $535 million. If the nation continues to lose students at the present rate, about 13 million students will drop out in the next 10 years at a financial loss of $3 trillion (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2009).

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Introduction

What Is Writing? (cont.) The cost of high school dropouts to the economy is clear, and the impact of this unfortunate statistic should not be ignored in the midst of today’s economic state. But what can classroom teachers do to remedy these findings? Why are students dropping out of high school at such an alarming rate? Does the desire to drop out begin in high school or long before? Research suggests that the reasons behind studentdropout rates take root long before students make the active choice to drop out. In fact, experts in the field claim that to make a lasting difference in high school dropout rates, “we must understand and focus on why students choose to leave school. Dropping out is not an impulsive decision. The process begins long before high school, often by the 4th or 5th grade. More often than not it is rooted in the failure of students to learn to read—not just decode the English language, but to read and understand what they read” (Wolk 2011, 77; italics added). Teachers need to develop in students the desire to read, to actively read, to habitually read, and to read with comprehension and purpose. When students read an extensive amount of literature and informational texts, they absorb the variety of language being used and can apply it to their written work. Students are experiencing failure in reading at an early age, which significantly impacts their motivation to read, write, and develop the skills necessary to be considered college and career ready. We must examine how to effectively motivate students to read and write and instill the lifelong love for reading that goes hand in hand with reading independence, comprehension, and deep learning expressed through writing. But to understand how to instill this thirst for reading and writing, teachers must first understand who their students are and how the learning needs of these 21st-century students differ from previous generations during a time when technology and digital learning played a small role in students’ lives both in and out of the classroom.

Technology and 21st-Century Learning It is no secret that technology is drastically changing education and, consequently, the lives of young people growing up in the “Net Generation.” As such, what it means to be literate in the context of advanced technology is not the same definition from even a decade ago. In “Comprehending and Learning From Internet Sources: Processing Patterns of Better and Poorer Learners,” Susan Goldman et al. (2012) noted that technology is “changing the face of literacy,” stating that people of all ages look to the Internet to resolve a variety of problems that “arise in academic, personal, interpersonal, and occupational contexts” (356–357). Students are looking to the Web for their schoolwork, which makes the development of 21st-century skills crucial to students’ ability to strategically navigate and “critically evaluate information sources for their relevance, reliability, and consistency,” as nearly anyone can post information—regardless of its validity—to the Internet. Having said that, it is no wonder that the strategic use and navigation of technology and digital media is included in the Common Core State Standards definition of literacy in the 21st century. Students must learn to integrate and evaluate the information they encounter on a daily basis from diverse media, including both print and digital resources, whether in school or at home. We have entered a new era in education, and this era is deeply tied to the technological advances that now permeate our modern lives. Today, children can use a cell phone to take a picture before they can speak. A typical three-year-old can turn on a computer and begin a game program without assistance from an adult. Students in school can use the Internet and online libraries to access information from remote locations. They can interview experts in faraway locations through email. © Shell Education

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Introduction

What Is Writing? (cont.) According to Susan Metros, Professor of Clinical Education at the University of Southern California, college students today are “media-stimulated, but not necessarily media-literate” (quoted in Wagner 2008, 183–184). But today’s college students are not the same learners who are presently immersed in today’s elementary and secondary education system. Bearing this in mind, the Common Core State Standards emphasize the development of those skills in preparation for college and careers beyond the classroom. The hope is that students become media-literate as they meet the standards outlined in the Common Core and are able to navigate the complexities of the digital realm. Now more than ever, it is each teacher’s responsibility and duty to prepare students for the reading and writing demands of our technological age. In order to become effective and efficient readers and writers, students need to use comprehension strategies automatically and independently. Students need teacher guidance to help them become independent readers, writers, and learners so that they not only understand what they read but can question it and write about it.

The Reading/Writing Connection According to Gay Su Pinnell (1988), “as children read and write they make the connections that form their basic understandings about both. Learning in one area enhances learning in the other. There is ample evidence to suggest that the processes are inseparable and that we should examine pedagogy in the light of these interrelationships. Hence, the two activities should be integrated in instructional settings. Teachers need to create supportive situations in which children have opportunities to explore the whole range of literacy learning, and they need to design instruction that helps children make connections between reading and writing.” Additionally, “a considerable mismatch between reading phases and writing phases is a red flag to indicate that instruction is not balanced,” so providing students with opportunities to read and write will help to remedy this imbalance and work toward building students’ overall literacy skills (Gentry 2006, 35). Moreover, J. Richard Gentry goes on to say that “children who receive little opportunity to write in school…and too little appropriate writing instruction sometimes excel as readers but struggle as writers and spellers” (35). Writing is the expression of ideas and thoughts gathered while reading. Fictional texts are often heavily loaded with difficult vocabulary words and complex concepts that are challenging for students to understand. Encouraging students to both read and write about fiction helps them understand, for example, the themes, characters, and plots within a given fictional text as they synthesize and express their understanding through writing. When students read fictional texts without writing about it, they miss a crucial step in the process of understanding the text because “writing serves as a vehicle for learning both content standards and standards of written expression” (Combs 2012, 12). The connection between reading and writing is complex and intricate, placing the act of reading as a necessary and crucial counterpart to writing: “Reading cannot be separated from writing. It’s neither research-based, practicable, nor sensible to read first without writing. Students must connect reading and writing everyday (Routman 2004). It has to be writing and reading first” (Gentry 2006, 145). In fact, this notion is especially true for young writers as nearly “half of the time that beginning readers invest in a piece of writing is spent on reading rather than writing. Many children reread multiple times as they write

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Introduction

What Is Writing? (cont.) even a single word!” (Calkins, Hartman, and White 2005, 87). Essentially, the skills one uses to write are the same skills one uses to read (2005). However, that is not to say that the reading/writing connection should be simplified to have you believe that reading is only involved in writing when students reread drafts for revising and editing. As noted by Stephanie Harvey (1998, 60), “Samuel Johnson once said, ‘The greatest part of a writer’s time is spent reading, in order to write; a writer will turn over a half library to make one book.’” Reading and writing cannot be examined in isolation; both modes of literacy complement each other, similarly building the skills necessary for college and careers beyond the classroom.

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Introduction

Motivating Students to Write Today’s students are radically different learners from those of us whom Marc Prensky rightfully terms “digital immigrants” in today’s digital age (quoted in Wolk 2011, 166). Bearing this in mind, teachers must be prepared to identify the evolving motivational needs of their students in order to spark the desire to write about fictional texts.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation To provide students with a motive to write is to provide them with relevant and real reasons to write, instilling within them a desire or a need for writing. In order to motivate today’s 21st-century learners who, according to John Seely, are “growing up digital,” teachers must explore new motivational strategies to adapt to the changing needs of today’s students (quoted in Wagner 2008, 170). There is no doubt that today’s world is drastically different from the world 100 years ago. So, why is it often the case that educators implement motivational strategies that are similarly outdated and no longer relevant to the students they seek to motivate? In Bob Sullo’s Activating the Desire to Learn, he makes the argument that teachers’ instruction should be evolving to meet the motivational needs of their students instead of rigidly adhering to ineffective strategies of the past (2007, 5): Given that we’ve spent a century or so believing that external stimuli explain human behavior, teacher training programs typically require educators to learn how to systematically reward and punish students. Many educators thus see themselves as responsible for shaping the behavior of students by extrinsically rewarding them for compliance. Yet ironically, our system of rewarding students for academic achievement devalues the very thing we say we want: learning. ‘If it weren’t for the reward we are offering, what we are teaching you would not be worth learning.’ In short, a system of education based on rewards and punishment is fundamentally anti-educational. In this sense, extrinsic motivation is a form of motivation external to students, a form in which rewards and punishments are tangible and concrete. But as Sullo (2007) argues, extrinsic motivation does not seek to instill the lasting desire or need to write. Intrinsic motivation is the alternative to extrinsic motivation and is a form of motivation that has longterm, lasting results. Educators need to demonstrate the value of writing by making the writing process relevant to students’ lives and important to their success both in and out of the classroom.

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Introduction

Motivating Students to Write (cont.) Interests Many motivational strategies exist to help generate student interest in particular writing tasks, but one strategy to promote interest in writing focuses on fostering the lifelong love for reading that extends beyond the day-to-day reading tasks of classroom life. As mentioned earlier, intrinsic motivation has longterm results, which makes intrinsically motivating students to write the preferred method of motivation. To do this, teachers should become familiar with students’ interests as early in the school year as possible, provide them with reading materials throughout the year that are specific to their interests, and tailor writing assignments to students’ needs and interests. Once these high-interest texts are made available, students are more likely to be self-motivated to read because they want to discover more about the topics that interest them, often inspiring them to write extensively on fictional texts and topics that interest them most. Reading texts of interest allows students to fine-tune their literacy skills in the context of reading experiences that are interesting, familiar, and comfortable for them, in turn providing them with the confidence and practice needed to effectively navigate and write about texts that are more advanced, unfamiliar, or unexciting. Additionally, reading from a variety of texts—both fictional (e.g., novels, short stories, poetry) and informational (e.g., essays, book reports, literary analyses)—provides students with models of good writing they can learn from and apply to their own fictional pieces or expository compositions of the literature they read. Unfortunately, many students do very little reading and writing, and some do not read or write at all outside of school, which makes the act of writing a difficult skill to teach: How can you teach students to write when they have limited exposure to good models of writing? It is for this reason that teachers must encourage and provide many opportunities for students to read and write about engaging materials. According to Rosalie Fink, “reading interest inventories are easy to administer and modify to fit each student’s age or developmental stage” (2006, 18). Distributing surveys is a quick and confidential way to ask questions of your students that are geared toward discovering interests that may otherwise be overlooked. These surveys may also help you assign writing tasks that are specific to students’ interests, which may motivate them to first read, for example, a variety of texts by their favorite author before delving into expressing their understanding of the themes and concepts through writing. As we all know, students’ interests can take many shapes, so ask questions that are purposeful in determining your students’ interests and helpful in locating texts about these interests, which may include categorical topics related to favorite authors, genres, time periods, books, poems, screen adaptations of famous literary works, or any other fiction-related subject that would elicit purposeful responses from your students. Once these categories have been identified, make these texts available so that they reflect students’ responses, and encourage students to avidly pursue fictional texts that interest them most based on the interests they identified. Consult your school librarian for specific recommendations or help students locate texts that may interest them by conducting a library walk-through to familiarize students with how the library is organized so students can independently seek out literature that they want to read. You can also browse online databases to identify good models of fictional literature for your grade level. There is a variety of student-interest surveys available online that you can use to inspire your own survey, or you can create a survey entirely of your own making.

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Introduction

Motivating Students to Write (cont.) An Authentic Audience Students today must “respond to the varying demands of audience, task, purpose, and discipline,” according to the Common Core State Standards (National 2010). The mere act of publishing students’ polished pieces of writing is motivating in and of itself: “Recognizing students’ writing by publishing it may be the single most powerful task of the writing process” (Combs 2012, 167). What better way to show students that their writing is valued and taken seriously than to publish their work for all to see, thus providing students with an authentic audience to view and constructively critique their work? The act of publishing student writing—on the classroom walls, in the school hallways, or even on a classroom website or blog—prompts students to write with purpose in mind as they tailor their written work for public display. Additionally, the structure of the writing process—prewriting, drafting, revising/editing, and publishing—is inherently interactive and engaging for students as they collaborate and work together to workshop their writing and improve their literacy skills (Peregoy and Boyle 2005, 215): When you use the process writing approach, writing ceases to be a solitary activity and becomes a highly interactive group endeavor. Of course, individuals ultimately own their work. However, throughout the phases of the writing process, they have worked with the whole class, in pairs, and in small groups, brainstorming ideas, focusing on their topics, considering ways to express themselves, revising their papers, getting ready for publication, and, finally, sharing their polished pieces with the entire class. Thus, the process approach calls for group collaboration and support at every phase: prewriting, writing (drafting), revising, editing, and publishing. The writing process is collaborative and active, which is highly motivating for 21st-century learners. Moreover, “in Grown Up Digital (1998), Don Tapscott said that this ‘Net Generation’ watches much less television than did its parents. The television is not interactive, and this generation prefers to be active participants in all that they do,” which marks the writing process as highly engaging for today’s active learners (Tileston 2004, 3). In addition to having students be active participants throughout the writing process, the mere act of collaborating with one another is an authentic experience with an audience: the students’ peers. This collaboration serves to motivate students to produce writing that takes into account the demands of their peers (audience) while also helping students to develop the Speaking & Listening skills outlined in the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers 2010).

The Classroom Library Given the connection between reading and writing, providing students with access to high-interest, engaging texts is critical to their success in developing proficiency in writing. One of the easiest and most effective ways to improve literacy is to allow time for students to read during class. Students who frequently read a wide variety of materials have better vocabularies and better reading comprehension skills that can be applied in their written work. As Randall Ryder and Michael Graves (2003) point out, wide reading fosters automaticity in students because it exposes them to more words in different contexts, provides them with knowledge on a variety of topics, and promotes lifelong reading habits.

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Introduction

Motivating Students to Write (cont.) Teachers can create a fiction library corner in their classroom libraries by collecting and providing highinterest fictional texts for students to read in addition to expository writing about fiction (e.g., essays, book reports, literary analyses) that will serve as good models for writing about fiction. Teachers have an intimate knowledge of fiction-based reading materials for a wide range of reading abilities, so they can recommend books to any student to read outside of class. Lesley Mandel Morrow, president of the International Reading Association (2003–04), explains that research indicates children in classrooms with literature collections read 50 percent more books than children in classrooms without such collections. As such, this percentage likely translates into the sheer volume of writing students are able to produce. Students synthesize themes, character development, and other elements of fiction through expository (nonfiction) pieces (Morrow 1996). According to Harvey (1998, 4), “the best nonfiction writing emerges from topics the writer knows, cares, and wonders about and wants to pursue,” which makes the availability of expository and other nonfiction writing about fictional texts critical to the development of students’ ability to express their understanding of the themes and concepts through writing. Students need to read many literary analyses and formal essays in order to know what good expository writing is. With the availability of high-interest texts, students are able to identify their interests and pursue topics that they find highly engaging to write about.

High-Interest Texts Working with the school librarian or media specialist and parent organizations is a great way to build a sizeable collection of texts for their classrooms, which can be a mixture of informational and fictional books from which students can choose to read based on their interests. Bear in mind that this library may serve to generate the interest to read and write about a variety of texts on many different subjects, so providing students with a wide range of texts from which to choose will be beneficial in fostering students’ desire and motivation to read and write. In addition to simply providing students with informational and fictional texts, be sure to provide texts that are at your students’ readiness levels and also those that may present more of a challenge. The rich diversity of language students will encounter from immersing themselves in high-interest texts will serve as models of good writing around which students can mirror their own writing about fiction, allowing them to express their understanding and comprehension of thematic connections and other fictional topics coherently and purposefully. Especially with interest-based texts, students can build their prior knowledge about a given topic at a less challenging reading level, in turn preparing them to apply their understanding through writing. “Michael Pressley and his colleagues (2003) . . . found high-motivational and high-performing classrooms were, above all, filled with books at different levels of text difficulty. Conversely, on their list of the characteristics of classroom practices that undermine motivation and achievement is: ‘The teacher does not give students opportunities to have power over their own learning. Students do not have choice in their work’” (Calkins, Ehrenworth, and Lehman 2012, 50), which is counterproductive to what we as teachers aim to achieve in the context of the Common Core: fostering the literacy skills students need to be “college and career ready.” Furthermore, according to Fink (2006, 79), “the more a student reads in one content area, the ‘richer’ or better that student’s reading becomes in that content area,” which in turn will translate into students’ success with writing about fictional texts—as students absorb the academic language of expository (nonfiction) texts about fiction, they can apply this language to their own formal writing pieces © Shell Education

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Introduction

Motivating Students to Write (cont.) about different works of literature. This notion is in line with Fink’s other findings regarding the language acquisition of English language learners, which is applicable to all students’ language acquisition: “To encourage striving readers . . . to read [and write] about their interests, teachers should create their own content area libraries full of enticing materials at all readability levels” (81). Often, students are unaware they have interest in particular genres or authors, for example, until they encounter them for the first time, so providing a variety of texts written by many authors, genres, and topics can only serve to offer students a wide variety of texts from which to read and write about. Additionally, research suggests that the most influential factor in motivating students to read is “ensuring the students [have] easy access to high-interest texts,” so making these high-interest texts available to your students is an important factor to consider when developing your classroom library (Calkins, Ehrenworth, and Lehman 2012, 50). To support students’ writing, it is important to provide them with a variety of high-interest reading materials—both fictional texts and informational texts about fiction—that both motivate and inspire them throughout the writing process. Fictional literature covers a wide range of topics, styles, and themes, and the types of fiction that interest one reader may not interest another. Therefore, it is important to provide an assortment of different types of fiction that can appeal to different types of students. The following categories represent several main types of fiction that can interest and motivate a variety of students:

• Science Fiction (e.g., The Magic School Bus books by Joanna Cole and The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins) • Historical Fiction (e.g., Little House on the Prairie by Laura Ingalls Wilder and The Midwife’s Apprentice by Karen Cushman) • Mystery (e.g., Chasing Vermeer series by Blue Balliet and The Westing Game by Ellen Raskin) • Fantasy (e.g., the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling and Ella Enchanted by Gail Carson Levine) • Adventure (e.g., Heroes of Olympus by Rick Riordan and Hatchet by Gary Paulsen)

Differentiation In addition to building motivation through interest-based texts, below-level students will benefit from scaffolding as well. They may need to be constantly reminded to refer to their rubric—which should be adapted to address their individual needs—to meet the expectations of the assignment. Teachers can provide graphic organizers during the prewriting phase to help these students get started in an organized fashion. When revising and editing, teachers can model how to identify errors and make changes so that these students have a clear understanding of this difficult stage of the writing process. Above-level students can be challenged at each step of the writing process to work more independently, create longer or more elaborate pieces, use multiple sources, write from different points of view, incorporate richer vocabulary, or write with a greater variety of sentence structures. Teachers should also adapt rubrics to challenge these students. The English language learner should not be left out of this discussion. Second language acquisition for English language learners is strikingly similar for native English speakers and non-native English

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Introduction

Motivating Students to Write (cont.) speakers: “English reading and writing development processes are essentially similar for both English learners and native English speakers…That is, in reading, all learners gradually come to use their developing English language knowledge, their world knowledge, and their understanding of print conventions to make sense of written text. Similarly, in writing, they use their developing English language knowledge, world knowledge, and understanding of print conventions to put their ideas on paper” (Peregoy and Boyle 2005, 159). In looking at this statement, it is clear that the relationship between reading and writing is not exclusively reserved for native English speakers; language acquisition—whether first or second language acquisition—is largely similar for all students, so the explicit instruction of both reading and writing strategies will help to remedy any imbalances in reading and writing skills you identify in your English language learners. The demographics of students in our classrooms today is becoming increasingly more diverse, prompting teachers to differentiate their instruction to allow for students of all backgrounds and languages to develop the skills necessary to succeed. And with this growing diversity, it is important to note that English language learners often struggle with more than just accessing content but also with developing literacy skills in the context of unfamiliar cultural references, tales, and legends that native English speakers are naturally more familiar with. Because the Common Core State Standards emphasize the shared responsibility of teachers to help students learn to comprehend and write critically, providing English language learners with access to texts that will help develop their overall reading ability is also essential to developing their writing skills. English language learners “will benefit from actively seeking exposure to language and social interaction with others who can provide meaningful input in the second language. Furthermore, they—and you, the teacher—can enhance students’ English language skills by placing language learning in meaningful and interesting contexts” (Dunlap and Weisman 2006, 11). It is our responsibility to provide students with meaningful and interesting contexts to learn language and build their literacy skills. The ability to synthesize the many aspects of fiction and demonstrate mastery of particular skills and knowledge through writing hinges on each student’s ability to dissect and interact with texts, unquestionably marking the act of reading as a necessary skill to succeed with academic writing. When implementing the writing strategies in this book, discuss the importance of using a variety of writing strategies to express their understanding of the fictional trends and themes they observe from their reading of fictional texts so that the importance of reading, writing, and developing fine-tuned literacy skills is effectively communicated and made known. The explicit instruction of the writing strategies provides English language learners with meaningful contexts for learning language, so this discussion is of the utmost importance in establishing a reason for writing about fiction, not only for your English language learners but for all of your students. In doing so, teachers simultaneously aid in the development of students’ collaborative, communicative, and group-based skills emphasized in the Common Core State Standards’ Speaking & Listening skills, subsequently helping all students to strategically communicate and interact with those around them within the context of the English language.

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Introduction

The Writing Process “A writer,” say Britton et al. (1975, 47), “draws on the whole store of his experience, and his whole social being, so that in the act of writing he imposes his own individuality.” The most complex form of writing is the college-level argumentative essay. Taking notes is the least complex form of writing. Writing for meaning and expressing oneself to others is intricate and complex work. Using the writing process helps the writer take a piece of writing from the beginning, or brainstorming, to the end, or the published piece. This process is especially important to follow as students write reports, essays, and other writing assignments. The writing process at the emergent writing level is usually conducted as a group, though on occasion it is done individually. Students in higher grades who have more familiarity with the writing process can complete it individually. Prewriting What is the writing process? It includes Publishing prewriting, drafting, revising/editing, publishing, and reflection. Read the description of the writing Drafting process steps below. There are different points to Reflection consider at each step of the writing process. Revising/Editing

Prewriting This is the phase during which all writing begins. At this stage, writers generate ideas, brainstorm topics, web ideas together, or talk and think about ideas. Teachers explain that students may get writing ideas from personal experiences, stories, pictures, magazines, newspapers, television, and a variety of other sources. This phase sets the foundation for a specific piece of writing. Before brainstorming or prewriting can begin, students need instruction on the genre or format (research report, journal entry, visual presentation, etc.), audience (the teacher, fellow classmates, their families, editors of the school magazine, etc.), and purpose (to explain, to persuade, to inform, etc.). These elements impact the types of information to brainstorm. Students need to have a clear understanding of a writing assignment (i.e., the prompt) before they are expected to write or report on it. Teachers can provide resources for research and model note-taking strategies. Essay prompts and other writing assignments that require deep textual analysis or synthesizing major themes are often complex and difficult to understand, so discussion will help prepare students to write. Such strategies as Note-Taking (pages 118–132) and Using Diagrams and Maps (pages 133–161) can help students organize the major points in their writing. What does prewriting look like? 16

• researching a chosen topic, using print and digital sources • analyzing the characteristics of the intended genre • examining sample writing pieces • discussing the topic with the teacher, a partner, or the class • brainstorming ideas about the topic • using webbing or other graphics to organize information • discussing the assessment tool #51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

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Introduction

The Writing Process (cont.) Drafting At the drafting stage of the writing process, students begin to put their ideas on paper. Students need to keep in mind the genre or format, audience, and purpose. For beginning writers, pictures and drawings are usually part of the composition. Teachers should encourage students to write as much as they can on their own throughout the writing process. Another area that students struggle with is writing in an orderly manner. Students should already have graphic organizers, notes, or outlines from the prewriting stage that can help them sequence and organize their writing. What does drafting look like?

• working fairly quickly • leaving blank spaces for missing words • guessing at spelling • focusing on simply putting ideas on paper • using notes or graphic organizers to stay focused • drafting a preliminary version of the writing assignment (story, letter, report, essay, etc.)

Revising/Editing This phase of writing consists of two parts: revising looks at the organization and the structure of the writing, while editing looks at the mechanics of the writing. Students must understand how to do both. When revising, students analyze their writing for the required traits: sequencing words in an essay, descriptive language in a fictional story, topic sentences and supporting details in a persuasive essay. They also ask questions of their writing: Does it make sense? Is anything out of order? Should anything be added or deleted? Use the Self-Assessment strategy (pages 233–235) to give students an opportunity to evaluate their own writing. Use the Teacher Conference strategy (pages 238–239) to give students feedback throughout the writing process. What does revising and editing look like?

• reading the writing aloud to make sure that it makes sense • adding missing information • deleting unnecessary, incorrect, or duplicate information • proofreading for spelling, capitalization, grammar, and punctuation • self-analysis by students • conferences with peers or the teacher

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Introduction

The Writing Process (cont.) Publishing Publishing allows students to write for an authentic audience and celebrate their hard work. It occurs after the other steps are completed and the student is ready to produce the final copy, which can be handwritten or typed on a computer. Teachers should consider the abilities of their students. The goal is to present the written information attractively so others can enjoy it. What does publishing look like?

• creating a final copy • adding illustrations, borders, a cover, etc. • sharing orally • publishing “in-house” in a class book • posting on a classroom website, a blog, a social media site, or another digital platform

Reflection Reflection is a key element in the writing process. It encourages the writer to think about his or her writing, look at the writing from a different point of view, and see progress in the writing effort. Reflection also allows the writer to look back at brainstorming and the beginning of a writing project to see if the original goals were met. What does reflection look like?

• Reading what has been written and asking the following questions: Is that what I wanted to say? Is there more I should have written? Which is my favorite part in this writing? Did I write this piece the way I planned? What can I learn from this assignment? How can I continue to improve my writing?

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Introduction

The Writing Process (cont.) The Writing Process Center As previously stated, the writing process involves the different stages from developing an idea to publishing a piece of written work. Students need support to create a finished product. Teachers can set up permanent stations throughout their classrooms for each stage of the writing process. This not only motivates students at each stage of the writing process but also makes it easier to incorporate all stages of the process. This way, students will have access to all the materials needed to work through the writing process. Here are some ideas for each station of the writing process:





• prewriting—texts with writing suggestions and ideas, story starters, writing samples, pieces of writing about fiction, blank graphic organizers, books and magazines about fictional topics, and encyclopedias • drafting—established rubrics and criteria, music available for students who need a relaxing environment as they write, resources, pencils, erasers, floor pillows, and comfortable places to sit and write • revising—peer editing checklists, samples of quality writing, rubrics, and word lists (such as a list of vivid verbs to replace more overly used verbs) • editing—dictionaries, thesauruses, writing reference books, colored markers or pencils, and proofreading checklists • publishing—computers, pens, bookbinding materials, sample finished products, a printer, colored pencils for illustrations and diagrams, rulers, a variety of lined and unlined paper, and access to the Internet for digital publication

Bulletin Board Writing Display Student exposure to writing is often limited. Therefore, it is imperative for the teacher to provide students with a wide variety of writing samples that they can use as models for their own writing (Ryder and Graves 2003). These samples should be available for students to look at and use as models. Designate a bulletin board in the classroom to display these writing samples, or devote a page on the classroom website that showcases exemplary writing samples. Be sure to add to the collection frequently so that students remain interested and curious about the new additions. Encourage students to bring in samples of writing that are related to fiction. This will also help them locate and identify fiction-related writing samples.

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Introduction

Writing About Fiction Writing is the means through which students are able to articulate complex fictional themes and synthesize concepts. Writing is a tool that students can use to understand and dissect common themes and characteristics of fiction, allowing them to express their understanding through writing. It is a tool that allows students to translate complex ideas into words and language they understand. There is an overemphasis on writing mechanics instead of using writing to assist comprehension and understanding (Fisher and Frey 2004). Evidence shows academic achievement increases when students are actively engaged in reading, thinking, and writing about what they are learning. Research shows that there are two forms of writing that need to take place across all subject matters being taught. One form is called writing to learn, and the other form is learning to write. Anne Walker (1988) explains that the two forms are parts of a virtual circle. Writing allows students to become active in their learning. Active learning requires active thinking. In order to write, students need to be actively thinking (Steffens 1988; Walker 1988). A teacher who works as a facilitator of knowledge will encourage deeper thinking, therefore increasing student understanding (Self 1987; Hamilton-Wieler 1989).

Does Writing About Fiction Improve Student Achievement? Mary Barr and Mary Healy (1988) state that “schools succeed when the emphasis by both teachers and students is on writing and thinking about relevant and significant ideas within the subject areas,” including language arts. Encouraging students to write about literature is crucial to their literacy development, especially in consideration of the fact that “colleges are consistently reporting that incoming students have weaker reading and writing skills than the freshman classes before them…and findings also show that our children are not demonstrating writing skills that will allow them to eventually perform well in the workplace” (Allyn 2013, 10). Writing about fiction will aid students in developing the literacy skills they need to communicate their understanding for college and beyond. And with the evolving needs of today’s learners and the variety of multigenre, multimodal texts they will encounter—many of which may include informational texts about fiction—“the ability and propensity to read and understand nonfiction is a necessary skill for students involved in inquiry and research,” marking the act of writing across the curriculum as a necessity to students’ success outside the classroom (Harvey 1998, 69).

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Introduction

Writing About Fiction (cont.) Is there enough time to write and cover all the objectives and demands of the curriculum? Research shows that writing can help meet those objectives and demands. Here are three time-saving advantages to consider (Worsley and Mayer 1989; Hightshue et al. 1988; Self 1987):

• Teachers find that they need less review time if students write about the concepts. • Teachers spend less time reteaching content after testing if they have incorporated writing strategies in the curriculum. • Most writing does not need to be heavily graded, so the teacher’s workload is decreased.

Ideas and Questions to Consider Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey (2004) explain that learning is language-based. Telling students information is not sufficient. Students must think about, read about, talk about, and write about information in order to synthesize it and to retain it. Reading and writing are critical to all learning. Questions to ask about how to incorporate reading and writing into all areas of learning are suggested by Hefflin and Hartman (2002):

• How do you determine what to write about? • What is the goal and the purpose of the writing? • How will the writing be assessed? • What is being activated or constructed by the writing? • What supports the bridge between what students write and read? • What role does discussion play in preparing to write? • What role does discussion play during writing? • How will you know the writing activity or assignment is successful? • How will you know when to use which writing strategy?

Writing to Learn Writing helps create the bridge between the content knowledge and understanding. Reading from the textbook and answering the questions is a very passive way to learn and not engaging for today’s learners. A wide variety of writing assignments and activities can help students become actively engaged in fictional texts and fictional writing. Examples include fiction journals, free writes, vocabulary journals, topic analyses, diagrams, and charts. All of these writing formats encourage students to think about fiction and connect prior knowledge or experiences with new learning.

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Introduction

Writing About Fiction (cont.) Writing to learn is expressive writing that encourages students to write about what they are thinking and learning. Examples of this type of writing are journal entries, reflections, reading responses, questionanswering, personal notations, etc. Not all writing-to-learn activities must be graded. Teachers should offer feedback and comments but should not feel compelled to grade the spelling, grammar, organization, and content of these writing activities. The purpose of writing-to-learn activities is to promote active learning, encourage discussion, engage all students, and encourage thinking. There is usually a required time set aside to complete the writing. These less formal writing assignments may be expanded into more formal assignments.

Writing to Apply When students use their new knowledge of fiction and the themes and ideas within fictional texts to write in a more formal manner, they are writing to apply. In these activities, students are asked to analyze and synthesize information and then communicate their thoughts in a coherent, organized manner. This type of writing can be more challenging for students because they need to not only understand the content and be able to process it at a higher level but also communicate it using the strategies of the writing process, the features of the chosen genre, and the conventions of the grade level. Teachers are most likely comfortable with this type of writing as it may have been what they were exposed to in school. One familiar example of this type of writing is a research report. However, there are many other options to consider: microthemes, friendly letters, business letters, fictional stories, and more. Unlike writing-to-learn activities, writing-to-apply activities are meant to be graded. With these assignments, students are showing what they have learned, demonstrating their capability to communicate in a formal writing format. A variety of assessment options are described in Part 3 of this book.

Assessing Student Writing To be effective in communicating their learning through writing, students need ongoing feedback throughout the writing process in order to develop their ideas and revise their written work. And in the same way that the writing process occurs in phases, assessment of written work should similarly occur in phases as an ongoing, collaborative process with students. Assessment of student writing can take many different shapes, including providing students with clear, straightforward rubrics to assess and guide their final work, and more informal feedback in the form of conferring with students and comments on written work.

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Introduction

Writing About Fiction (cont.) Rubrics Students’ writing should be formally assessed at the end of the writing process as students submit final, polished pieces that demonstrate their understanding of concepts and topics related to fiction. Providing students with straightforward rubrics that clearly lay out your expectations is effective in sharing which components of students’ writing will be evaluated and each component’s quantifiable importance. In doing so, you inform students which pieces of their writing hold the greatest significance for that particular assignment and which skills they should focus on most. However, in order to create a wellcrafted rubric, you must first identify the learning objectives of the assignment and how much weight to give to each component on the rubric. Consider evaluating students’ mastery of content knowledge and students’ writing skills in different categories, allowing for you to both evaluate how well they understand the concept being investigated through writing and how well they articulate their understanding through their written work. As appropriate to the assignment, assign each category (e.g., Ideas, Audience, Structure, Thematic Understanding) a quantifiable value (e.g., 1–10 or A–F) that students understand and skills that students are prepared to demonstrate (e.g., Strong audience awareness; Engages the reader throughout). Distribute rubrics to students to support them as they set out to begin a writing task, continuing to refer to your expectations throughout the writing process as they work toward completing the assignment. This way, you reiterate your expectations and support students’ growth as writers in a very clear and straightforward manner in which skills and expectations are both attainable and quantifiable.

Informal Feedback After distributing rubrics and thoroughly discussing your expectations for a particular assignment, confer with your student writers during the writing process to provide them with an informal setting to workshop their writing and to improve their written communication prior to evaluating their final work.

Conferring Conferring with students is a form of assessment that is interactive, and the immediacy of your verbal feedback is invaluable to students’ development as writers. Ask students about their work, their ideas, their understanding of fiction-related concepts, and their grasp of the conventions of writing, among other questions. Model for students the best strategies for editing and revising their work. Whether conferring with students individually or in small groups, constructively critique students’ writing by acknowledging areas in which students have met or are working toward meeting your expectations and areas that need improvement, being mindful to not overload students with excessive, unfocused comments. Your informal feedback should guide students in the direction of meeting the criteria for the assignment but not to the point where revising their work seems like an impossible task. Allow students to maintain ownership of their work by suggesting “options or open-ended alternatives students can choose for their revision path” (University of Nebraska–Lincoln Writing Center 2013). In doing so, students learn both to assess their own writing and to revise accordingly. Conferring with the young writers in your classroom is crucial to their development and growth as writers.

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Introduction

Writing About Fiction (cont.) Written Comments As students work toward meeting the expectations for a particular writing assignment, reviewing their drafts and providing them with specific and focused feedback is vital to their success in conveying their fictional knowledge through writing. When reviewing students’ drafts, making notes on their work may prove effective in identifying specific areas in need of improvement (e.g., marking misspelled words, grammatical errors, or unclear and unfinished thoughts). Identifying these areas of improvement will inform your instruction, allowing you to modify your explicit teaching of the writing strategies in order to help students become better writers. Apart from specific feedback, you can evaluate the written work as a whole (e.g., writing comments at the end of a paper), with less focus on particulars and more emphasis on the overall success of the written piece in meeting the expectations identified in the rubric.

Spotlight Reading Providing students with informal feedback can be an enjoyable moment, as well, one in which students are excited to share their work with the class. Set aside a time each week for students to read aloud and share the writing they have accomplished or are working on. These writings may be less formal pieces such as journals, free writes, or feature analyses, or they may be formal writing pieces like essays. This practice keeps students focused and aware of an audience as they write, and it allows them the opportunity to give and receive feedback. It is an effective way to validate the hard work and effort of students and may even eliminate the need for the teacher to formally assess a piece of writing. Finally, this spotlight reading also provides an opportunity for students to hear their writing aloud. They will automatically think of things they are learning about, and they will become more aware of what they need to change to improve their writing.

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Introduction

Writing Instruction What Great Teachers Do to Encourage Writing 1. Share vocabulary-rich books and reading materials about the subjects you are studying in class. Megan Sloan (1996) explains that the best source of learning about vocabulary is reading good books that use the words. This allows the teacher to introduce them, allows the opportunity for students to hear them in context, and provides an opportunity to discuss the vocabulary words. 2. Provide plenty of time for students to experience the writing process (Corona, Spangenberger, and Venet 1998). It takes time to teach the writing process, but it is worth it. Taking a writing project from planning to publication is very meaningful to students because it validates their efforts and understanding of fiction-related concepts. 3. Allow time for students to evaluate others’ writing and receive teacher feedback (Corona, Spangenberger, and Venet 1998). Writing is communication. Students need to share their writing with others, both giving and receiving feedback from peers and teachers. This helps to cement students’ understanding of fiction-related concepts. The process also provides teachers with the opportunity to clarify and reteach concepts as needed. 4. Offer daily writing opportunities to your students. “A writer-centered classroom emphasizes using written expression to communicate ideas. Writing is an important part of all areas of the curriculum” (Corona, Spangenberger, and Venet 1998, 29). Be sure to include a wide variety of assignments. Some assignments might be more formal, while others may be more casual. Also include a range of different types of writing such as journal entries, outlines, poetry, reports, and short stories. Students usually benefit from having a choice regarding what they are asked to write about. Encourage students to use relevant vocabulary when they write. 5. Encourage students to be aware of and look for new and interesting words. Students can browse through books looking for words that catch their attention and add them to their vocabulary journals. They may also be assigned to look for specific words that are being studied in class. Finally, create a Word Wall in your classroom (see pages 34–37). 6. Incorporate practice and repetition as a way for students to become familiar with vocabulary words and how they are to be used (Laflamme 1997). Students can be exposed through writing, discussions, modeling, classroom exercises, and reading. 7. Teach students the strategies to read, understand, and write about increasingly complex text. These same strategies can help students work through difficult concepts to arrive at deep learning. Students who can recognize text patterns will be better prepared to use those patterns in their own writing (Fisher and Ivey 2005). 8. Focus students’ reading and writing on big ideas. Don’t get caught up in the details. Rote learning does not lend itself to lifelong learning. Focusing on themes, concepts, and big ideas lends itself to linking new information to prior knowledge as well as life experiences and events that are happening in the world today.

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Introduction

Writing Instruction (cont.) Writing Venues in Your Classroom There are a variety of ways to teach students new ideas and to incorporate writing into the curriculum. Teachers often lecture to the whole class and seldom pair students or assign small groups to work together for reading and writing. Following are suggestions for the types of configurations any teacher can consider: Large groups are best for:

• introducing a new writing strategy • modeling think-alouds to show how good writers work through a piece of writing • practicing think-alouds to apply a strategy to students’ own writing and allowing students to share their experiences and ideas using the strategy Small groups are best for:

• providing more intensive instruction for students who need it • introducing above-level students to a new writing piece or strategy so that they can apply it independently to more challenging writing assignments • preteaching new strategies and vocabulary to English language learners or below-level students Conferences are best for: • checking students’ understanding of fiction-related concepts and the writing strategies being used • providing intensive writing strategy instruction for students who may need extra attention • coaching students in how they might reveal their thinking by writing to others • pushing students to use a strategy to think more deeply than they might have imagined possible • individually editing and correcting student writing Pair students with partners:

• to discuss free writes, dialogue journals, think-pair-share, etc. • to edit and gather input on product writing pieces

Habits of Highly Effective Writers Nell Duke and P. David Pearson (2001) have established that good readers read and write a lot. They also set goals, make predictions, and read selectively. Many of the same practices of good readers are also done by good writers. Here are some more specific suggestions for highly effective writers:

• Good writers write all the time. The more experience one has writing, the better writer he or she becomes. Learning to write takes practice and more practice! • Good writers read a lot. Reading provides a great model for writers as to what the finished product looks like (Fisher and Ivey 2005). Students who read will know how to write better than those who do not.



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Writing Instruction (cont.)











• Good writers are aware of correct spelling. There are no excuses for poor spelling. Commit to learning and using correct spelling in writing—even in the rough draft, if possible. Good writers use all the resources available and understand the limitations of computer spell-check programs. • Good writers appreciate critiques and feedback. Good writers have a “thick skin” and ask for input and suggestions from many different sources. • Good writers keep a learning log handy. The learning log can be used to store good writing ideas, to document what is being learned, to activate prior knowledge, and to question what is being learned (Brozo and Simpson 2003; Fisher and Frey 2004). Using this learning log also helps cement learning and helps students avoid writer’s block. • Good writers write for a variety of purposes. Learning to write in a variety of formats makes for a well-rounded, experienced writer. Teachers should expose students to different types of writing formats for examining fictional texts. • Good writers read and edit other people’s writing. Good writers look for opportunities to work with others to improve their writing. Peer editing groups are an excellent way to get feedback and reinforcement from peers. This feedback is important for the self-image of the writer (Gahn 1989). Editing others’ work will also help students recognize writing errors, such as an off-topic response, a weak topic sentence, a lack of supporting detail, weak vocabulary, and errors in spelling or grammar. • Good writers think objectively. Good writers need to be able to step back and really look at their writing. Some writers are so eager to be done with their writing that they never really look at it again. • Good writers read it out loud! Teachers can encourage students to give their writing a voice. Many errors or additions are discovered when a student listens to the writing being read aloud. • Good writers use and create rubrics and checklists. Mary Huba and Jann Freed (2000) reiterate the importance of using and creating rubrics and checklists, which help to clarify the expectations for writing assignments. Rubrics and checklists also enable students to become self-directed in mastering the content learning.

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Introduction

How to Use This Book The focus of this research-based book is to demonstrate how to incorporate more writing into your classroom. Increasing the use of writing is a key way to promote stronger literacy in students. Research shows that using writing is the best way to help students understand the complex concepts and terms introduced in fictional texts. This book provides teachers with the information needed to implement writing activities and assignments that correlate with objectives and goals. The strong research connection in this book helps tie together what teachers actually do in the classroom with the most current research available. Each section opens with an overview of research in that area to emphasize the importance of that particular writing strategy. Following each skill overview is a variety of instructional writing strategies to improve students’ written abilities. Each strategy includes a description and the purpose of the strategy and the research basis. Following the strategy descriptions are grade-level examples of how the strategy applies to fiction. The grade level spans for which the strategy is most appropriate (1–2, 3–5, 6–8, or 9–12) and the language arts standards that are addressed are included. Suggestions for differentiating instruction are provided for English language learners, below- and above-level students. A blank template of the activity sheet is included as a reproducible where applicable as well as in the accompanying Digital Resources. Reproducibles are available in the Digital Resources in PDF form and often as Word documents to allow for customization of content and text for students of diverse abilities and needs. Part 1: Writing to Learn Developing Vocabulary

Word Trails

This section is composed of strategies for using writing to learn in the context of fictional texts. These include developing vocabulary, previewing and reviewing, journal writing, note-taking, and using diagrams and maps. These strategies use writing as a tool for students to process and personalize what they learn so that they are able to synthesize and break down the complex fictional characteristics and concepts.

Activity Background Information

Introduce a new word and then build “trails” and connections from other words to it. The following are the main trails that connect words:

A strong relationship exists between word knowledge and reading comprehension. Without word knowledge, students tend to read less and are more apt to be poor readers (Anderson and Freebody 1985). Seldom do words stand alone, isolated from, and unrelated, to other words. The Word Trails strategy helps students build connections, or “trails,” from unknown words to familiar ones. These word relationships enable students to gain an understanding of unknown words through the examination of common gradeappropriate affixes and root words as well as the word’s synonyms and antonyms. Students need to have a repertoire of strategies to use when they face unknown words in their reading, and the Word Trails strategy offers one such way to build meaning and word knowledge.

Grades 3–5 Examp

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

le

This section offers strategies for using writing to apply new knowledge: authoring, summarizing, and applying knowledge in all genres. These strategies provide opportunities to utilize the entire writing process to compose a piece of writing that incorporates their knowledge of fictionrelated concepts. Teachers may wish to use strategies from Part 1 as building blocks for working toward these application assignments.

Synonyms or Similar

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stir, excite, disturb

to make troubled or nervous

Antonyms calm, settle, soothe

antonyms—Identifying opposites is an effective way to clarify word meaning. What are the words that mean the opposite of this new word? What are nonexamples of the word?

Words Strategies for Fiction #51006—Writing

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agitate

synonyms or similar words—Words become “friends” and can help students remember definitions. What are other words that have the same or similar meaning to the new word? What are examples of this word?

•

Preteach English language learners how to use the Word Trails activity sheet so they understand the format. Consider also preteaching the roots, prefixes, and suffixes that will be addressed during the whole-class lesson so that these students will be able to recognize them and apply meaning to the unknown vocabulary word. Use visuals whenever possible. Encourage above-level students to study additional or related vocabulary words and present and explain their Word Trails maps to the class. Limit the number of vocabulary words for below-level students to allow them to focus on a few words.

Developing Vocabulary

Part of Speech verb

prefixes and suffixes—Recognizing and identifying prefixes or suffixes in a word can help determine its meaning.

•

Differentiation

See page 33 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Word Trails (cont.)

root words—Many words in literature have similar root words. Knowing these can help students determine meaning.

•

Distribute the Word Trails activity sheet (page 50, wordtrails.pdf), and have students identify the trails from this word to other words. When finished, discuss students’ findings. Primary grade teachers may want to complete the Word Trails activity sheet as a class and then post it on the Word Wall (pages 34–37). Students can add these words and their trails to their Vocabulary Journal (pages 97–100).

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed

Part 2: Writing to Apply

•

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes agitatus = to drive

Grades 6–8 Examp

le

Part of Speech

Name: ____ ____

Synonyms or Similar

adjective

bouncy, high-spiri

exuberant

________

Words

ted, vivacious

________

________

________

_____ Date

Word Tr

: ________

ails

unrestrained or enthusiastic

Antonyms

________

________

Directions : Write the word Root Words, Prefixes, s, prefixes and word that you are grap suffixes, syno studying and hic organ in the Suffixes nyms or izer. similar word center box. Use resources s, and anton to determine yms, and ex- = thoroughly Part of Spee the write them ch in the Word root uberare = to be fruitful Trails

sullen, morose

Grades 9–12 Examp

le

Synonym

s or Simi

Part of Speech Synonyms or Similar

adjective

blunt, dulled, stupid,

lar Word

s

Words

insensitive

obtuse slow to understan d; lacking sharpness

Antonyms keen, pointed, sharp,

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes

smart

ob = against tundere = to beat

Part 3: Assessing Writing

© Shell Education #51006—Writing

Strategies for Fiction

Antonym

49

s

This section describes several holistic assessment options for writing. Each strategy listed in the book includes the purpose for and benefits of the strategy and its connection to writing and fiction, the grade levels for which it is appropriate, and the McREL and Common Core standards that it meets. A step-by-step activity description follows, along with variations, if appropriate, and differentiated instruction to accommodate all types of students. These alterations and suggestions are written for English language learners, above-level students, and students who are reading and writing below grade level. Root Word

50

s, Prefixes,

and Suffi

xes

#51006—W

riting Strate gies

for Fiction

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#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

© Shell Education

Introduction

Correlation to Standards Shell Education is committed to producing educational materials that are research and standards based. In this effort, we have correlated all of our products to the academic standards of all 50 United States, the District of Columbia, the Department of Defense Dependents Schools, and all Canadian provinces and territories.

How to Find Standards Correlations To print a customized correlation report of this product for your state, visit our website at http://www.shelleducation.com and follow the on-screen directions. If you require assistance in printing correlation reports, please contact Customer Service at 1-877-777-3450.

Purpose and Intent of Standards Legislation mandates that all states adopt academic standards that identify the skills students will learn in kindergarten through grade twelve. Many states also have standards for Pre–K. This same legislation sets requirements to ensure the standards are detailed and comprehensive. Standards are designed to focus instruction and guide adoption of curricula. Standards are statements that describe the criteria necessary for students to meet specific academic goals. They define the knowledge, skills, and content students should acquire at each level. Standards are also used to develop standardized tests to evaluate students’ academic progress. Teachers are required to demonstrate how their lessons meet state standards. State standards are used in the development of all of our products, so educators can be assured they meet the academic requirements of each state.

Common Core State Standards The lessons in this book are aligned to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). The standards support the objectives presented throughout the lessons and are provided in the Digital Resources (standards.pdf).

McREL Compendium We use the Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) Compendium to create standards correlations. Each year, McREL analyzes state standards and revises the compendium. By following this procedure, McREL is able to produce a general compilation of national standards. Each lesson in this product is based on one or more McREL standards, which are provided in the Digital Resources (standards.pdf).

TESOL and WIDA Standards The lessons in this book promote English language development for English language learners. The standards correlations can be found in the Digital Resources (standards.pdf).

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#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

29

Introduction

Correlation to Standards (cont.) The main focus of the strategies presented in this book is to promote the implementation of explicit writing instruction about fictional texts. The correlating standards for the strategies in this resource are provided in the Digital Resources (standards.pdf).

Common Core State Standards Correlation to Standards

Correlation to Standards

Common Core State Standards Correlation to Standards Common Core State Standards (cont.)

First Grade

Correlation to Standards Common Core State Standards (cont.) Common Core State Standards (cont.)

Third Grade

Standard

Strategy and Page Number Second

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.7—Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused questions, demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation

Standard

Grade

College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Writing CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.4—Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development, organization, and style are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience

Standard

Strategy and Page Number

Strategy and Page Number Fourth

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.9—Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.7—Conduct short as well as more sustained research projects based on focused questions, demonstrating understanding of Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction subject under investigation Chart (page 89); Highlighted Journal (pagethe 104); Questioning Journal (page 114); Venn Diagram (page CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.9—Draw evidence from 141); Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145);literary Character or informational texts to support analysis, Diary (page 220); reflection, and research

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.10—Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences

Guided Free Write (page 73); End-of-Class Reflection (page 77); Dialogue Journal (page 101); Key Phrase Journal (page 107); Double-Entry Journal (page 110); CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.10—Write routinely Questioning Journal (page 114); over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences

Writing CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.1.3—Write narratives in which they recount two or more appropriately sequenced events, include some details regarding what happened, use temporal words to signal event order, and provide some sense of closure

Historical/Science Fiction Story (page 218); Character Diary (page 220);

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.1.5—With guidance and support from adults, focus on a topic, respond to questions and suggestions from peers, and add details to strengthen writing as needed

actions, thoughts, and feelings, use temporal words Think Sheet (page 64); Author’s Chair (page to signal event order, and provide a sense of closure 176); Holistic Assessment (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page 229); Primary Trait Assessment CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.2.5—With guidance and (page 231); Self-Assessment (page 233); support Peer from adults and peers, focus on a topic and Assessment (page 236); Teacher Conference (page writing as needed by revising and editing strengthen 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240);

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.1.8—With guidance and support from adults, recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question

Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association Brainstorming (page 69); End-of-Class Reflection (page 77); Story Impressions (page 84); Story CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.2.8—Recall information from Prediction Chart (page 89); Double-Entry Journal experiences or gather information from provided (page 110); Venn Diagram (page 141); Conflictsources to answer a question Resolution Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); Key Words (page 186);

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

Highlighted Journal (page 104);

Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Highlighted Journal (page 104); Questioning Journal (page 114); Venn Diagram (page CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.2—Write informative/ 141); Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145);explanatory Character texts to examine a topic and convey Diary (page 220); ideas and information clearly

Standard

Strategy and Page Number

Reader-Response Writing Chart (page 80); Story Writing Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Highlighted Journal (page 104);CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.2—Write informative/ Guided Writing Procedure (page 165); Questioning Journal (page 114); Sticky Note explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey Annotation System (page 130); Frame (page 136); ideas and information clearly Venn Diagram (page 141); Conflict-Resolution Map CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.3—Write narratives to Story Mapping (page 199); Historical/Science Fiction (page 145); Plot Diagram (page 157); Guided Writing develop real or imagined experiences or events using Story (page 218); Character Diary (page 220); Story Procedure (page 165); Read, Encode, Annotate, effective technique, descriptive details, and clear Additions (page 222); Ponder (page 168); Character Summary (page 193); event sequences Story Mapping (page 199); Character Diary (page 220); Story Additions (page 222); CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.4—Produce clear and Vocabulary Journal (page 97); Dialogue Journal

Writing Guided Writing Procedure (page 165);

Guided Free Write (page 73); End-of-ClassCCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.3—Write Reflection narratives to (page 77); Dialogue Journal (page 101); Key Phrase develop real or imagined experiences or events using Journal (page 107); Double-Entry Journal (page 110); effective technique, descriptive details, and clear Questioning Journal (page 114); event sequences CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.4—With guidance and support from adults, produce writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to Historical/Science Fiction Story (page 218); task and purpose Character Diary (page 220);

coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.5—With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and Story Mapping (page 199); Historical/Science Fiction strengthen Story (page 218); Character Diary (page 220); Story writing as needed by planning, revising, and editing Additions (page 222); Vocabulary Journal (page 97); Dialogue Journal (page 101); RAFT Assignment (page 210); Formal Letter (page 212); Friendly Letter (page 214); Newspaper Article (page 216); Story Additions (page CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.7—Conduct short research 222); projects that build knowledge through investigation Think Sheet (page 64); Guided Writing Procedure of different aspects of a topic (page 165); Author’s Chair (page 176); Collaborative CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.4.8—Recall relevant Writing (page 174); Guided Reading and Summarizing information from experiences or gather relevant Procedure (page 188); Holistic Assessment information (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page 229); Primary from print and digital sources; take notes and categorize information, and provide a list Trait Assessment (page 231); Self-Assessment sources (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236);ofTeacher Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240);

Writing

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.2.3—Write narratives in which they recount a well-elaborated event or short sequence of events, include details to describe

Grade

College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Writing

Vocabulary Journal (page 97); Dialogue Journal CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.9—Draw evidence from College and Career Readiness Anchor Standards for Writing (page 101); RAFT Assignment (page 210); Formal literary or informational texts to support analysis, Letter (page 212); Friendly Letter (page 214); reflection, and research CCSS.ELA-Literacy.CCRA.W.4—Produce clear Vocabulary Journal (page 97); Dialogue Journal Newspaper Article (page 216); and coherent writing in which the development, (page 101); RAFT Assignment (page 210); Formal organization, and style are appropriate to task, Letter (page 212); Friendly Letter (page 214); Highlighted Journal (page 104); purpose, and audience Newspaper Article (page 216);

CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.5—With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, Think Sheet (page 64); Author’s Chair (page and editing 176); Holistic Assessment (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page 229); Primary Trait Assessment (page 231); Self-Assessment (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236); Teacher Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240); Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association CCSS.ELA-Literacy.W.3.7—Conduct short research Brainstorming (page 69); End-of-Class Reflection projects that build knowledge about a topic (page 77); Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Double-Entry Journal (page 110); Venn Diagram (page 141); ConflictResolution Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); Key Words (page 186);

Highlighted Journal (page 104);

© Shell Education

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

© Shell Education

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

© Shell Education

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

(page 101); RAFT Assignment (page 210); Formal Letter (page 212); Friendly Letter (page 214); Newspaper Article (page 216); Story Additions (page 222); Think Sheet (page 64); Guided Writing Procedure (page 165); Author’s Chair (page 176); Collaborative Writing (page 174); Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (page 188); Holistic Assessment (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page 229); Primary Trait Assessment (page 231); Self-Assessment (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236); Teacher Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240); Highlighted Journal (page 104);

Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association Brainstorming (page 69); End-of-Class Reflection (page 77); Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Double-Entry Journal (page 110); Cornell Note Taking System (page 120); Note-Taking System for Learning (page 123); T-List (page 127); Sticky Note Annotation System (page 130); Frame (page 136); Venn Diagram (page 141); Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); Story Strip (page 153); Plot Diagram (page 157); Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (page 168); GIST (page 182); Key Words (page 186); Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (page 188); Character Summary (page 193); Story Mapping (page 199); SummaryWriting Microtheme (page 208);

© Shell Education

McREL Standards Correlation to Standards

Correlation to Standards

McREL Standards

McREL Standards (cont.)

Correlation to Standards

McREL Standards (cont.)

Grades 1–2 Standard

Strategy and Page Number Grades

McREL Standards (cont.) Standard

Strategy and Page Number Grades

1.1—Prewriting: Uses prewriting strategies to plan written work (e.g., discusses ideas with peers, draws pictures to generate ideas, writes key thoughts and questions, rehearses ideas, records reactions and observations)

Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association Standard Brainstorming (page 69); Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Highlighted 1.1—Prewriting: Uses prewriting strategies to plan Journal (page 104); Venn Diagram (page 141); written work (e.g., uses graphic organizers, story Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145); Semantic maps,Word and webs; groups related ideas; takes notes; Map (page 149); Story Strip (page 153); Key Words ideas; organizes information according brainstorms (page 186); to type and purpose of writing)

1.2—Drafting and Revising: Uses strategies to draft and revise written work (e.g., rereads; rearranges words, sentences, and paragraphs to improve or clarify meaning; varies sentence type; adds descriptive words and details; deletes extraneous information; incorporates suggestions from peers and teachers; sharpens the focus)

Possible Sentences (page 45); Think Sheet (page 64); Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Key Phrase Journal (page 107); Key Words (page 186);

1.4—Evaluates own and others’ writing (e.g., asks questions and makes comments about writing, helps classmates apply grammatical and mechanical conventions)

1.2—Drafting and Revising: Uses strategies to draft Author’s Chair (page 176); Holistic Assessment and revise (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page 229); Primarywritten work (e.g., elaborates on a central idea; writes with attention to audience, word choice, Trait Assessment (page 231); Self-Assessment (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236);sentence Teacher variation; uses paragraphs to develop separate Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (pageideas; produces multiple drafts; selects punctuation for effect) 240);

uses sensory words and figurative language, Possible Sentences (page 45); Think Sheet (page rethinks and rewrites for different audiences and 64); Story Impressions (page 84); Story Prediction checks for a consistent point of view Chart (page 89); Key Phrase Journal (pagepurposes, 107); and for transitions between paragraphs, uses Guided Writing Procedure (page 165); GIST (page direct feedback to revise compositions, eliminates 182); Key Words (page 186); Guided Reading and redundancy in writing) Summarizing Procedure (page 188);

1.6—Uses writing and other methods (e.g., using letters or phonetically spelled words, telling, dictating, making lists) to describe familiar persons, places, objects, or experiences

1.4—Evaluates own and others’ writing (e.g., End-of-Class Reflection (page 77); Dialogue Journal determines the best features of a piece of writing, (page 101); determines how own writing achieves its purposes, asks for feedback, responds to classmates’ writing)

own and others’ writing (e.g., applies Reader-Response Writing Chart (page 80);1.4—Evaluates Author’s generated by self and others, uses selfChair (page 176); Read, Encode, Annotate,criteria Ponder assessment (page 168); Collaborative Writing (page 174); Holistic to set and achieve goals as a writer, participates Assessment (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page in peer response groups)

1.7—Writes in a variety of forms or genres (e.g., picture books, friendly letters, stories, poems, information pieces, invitations, personal experience narratives, messages, responses to literature, opinion pieces)

RAFT Assignment (page 210); Formal Letter (page 212); Friendly Letter (page 214); Newspaper Article (page 216); Historical/Science Fiction Story (page 218); Character Diary (page 220); 1.5—Uses strategies (e.g., adapts focus, organization, point of view; determines knowledge Guided Free Write (page 73); Vocabulary Journal and interests of audience) to write for different (page 97); RAFT Assignment (page 210); audiences (e.g., self, peers, teachers, adults)

1.8—Writes for different purposes (e.g., to entertain, inform, learn, communicate ideas) 2.1—Uses descriptive words to convey basic ideas 4.2—Uses a variety of sources to gather information (e.g., informational books, pictures, charts, indexes, videos, television programs, guest speakers, Internet, own observation)

Word Wall (page 34); Vocabulary Self-Collection 1.6—Uses strategies (e.g., adapts focus, point (page 42); of view, organization, form) to write for a variety of purposes (e.g., to inform, entertain, explain, Open Word Sort (page 56); Venn Diagram (page describe, record ideas) 141); Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); Story Strip (page 153); 1.7—Writes expository compositions (e.g., identifies and stays on the topic; develops the topic with simple facts, concrete details, examples, definitions, quotations, and explanations; uses domain-specific or content area vocabulary; excludes extraneous and inappropriate information; uses logical organizing structures such as cause-and-effect, chronology, similarities and differences; uses several sources of information; provides a concluding statement)

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

Correlation to Standards

Grades 6–8

3–5

1.1—Prewriting: Uses a variety of prewriting Strategy and Page Number strategies (e.g., makes outlines, uses published Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association pieces as writing models, constructs critical standards, Brainstorming (page 69); Story Impressions (page brainstorms, builds background knowledge) 84); Story Prediction Chart (page 89); Highlighted Journal (page 104); Frame (page 136); Venn Diagram (page 141); Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); Story Strip (page 153); Plot Diagram (page 157); Guided Writing Procedure (page 165); Collaborative Writing (page 174); GIST (page 182); Key Words (page 186); 1.2—Drafting and Revising: Uses a variety of Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (page to draft and revise written work (e.g., strategies 188); Character Summary (page 193); Story Mapping analyzes and clarifies meaning, makes structural and (page 199); syntactical changes, uses an organizational scheme,

9–12

Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association Standard Brainstorming (page 69); Story Impressions (page 84); Highlighted Journal (page 104); Frame (page 1.1—Prewriting: Uses a variety of prewriting 136); Venn Diagram (page 141); Conflict-Resolution strategies (e.g., develops a focus, plans a sequence Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); uses structured overviews, uses speed of ideas, Plot Diagram (page 157); Guided Writing Procedure writing, creates diagrams) (page 165); Collaborative Writing (page 174); GIST (page 182); Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (page 188); Character Summary (page 193); Story Mapping (page 199); Possible Sentences (page 45); Think Sheet (page 64); Story Impressions (page 84); Key Phrase Journal (page 107); Guided Writing Procedure 1.2—Drafting and Revising: Uses a variety of (page 165); GIST (page 182); Guided Reading and to draft and revise written work (e.g., strategies Summarizing Procedure (page 188); highlights individual voice; rethinks content, organization, and style; checks accuracy and depth of information; redrafts for readability and needs of readers; reviews writing to ensure that content and linguistic structures are consistent with purpose)

229); Primary Trait Assessment (page 231); SelfAssessment (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236); Teacher Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240); 1.5—Uses content, style, and structure (e.g., Guided Free Write (page 73); Vocabulary Journal formal or informal language, genre, organization) (page 97); Dialogue Journal (page 101); RAFT appropriate for specific audiences (e.g., public, Assignment (page 210); private) and purposes (e.g., to entertain, to influence, to inform) Guided Free Write (page 73); Vocabulary Journal (page 97); RAFT Assignment (page 210); 1.6—Writes expository compositions (e.g., states a thesis or purpose; presents information that reflects knowledge about the topic of the report; organizes and presents information in a logical manner, Newspaper Article (page 216); including an introduction and conclusion; uses own words to develop ideas; uses common expository structures and features, such as compare-contrast or problem-solution)

1.4—Evaluates own and others’ writing (e.g., Reader-Response Writing Chart (page 80);accumulates Author’s a body of written work to determine Chair (page 176); Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder and weaknesses as a writer, makes strengths (page 168); Collaborative Writing (page 174); Holistic to improve writing, responds suggestions Assessment (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page to reviews of own work) productively 229); Primary Trait Assessment (page 231); SelfAssessment (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236); Teacher Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240); 1.5—Uses strategies to address writing to Guided Free Write (page 73); Vocabulary Journal different audiences (e.g., includes explanations and (page 97); Dialogue Journal (page 101); RAFT definitions according to the audience’s background, Assignment (page 210); age, or knowledge of the topic, adjusts formality of style, considers interests of potential readers) Newspaper Article (page 216);

1.6—Uses strategies to adapt writing for different purposes (e.g., to explain, inform, analyze, entertain, reflect, persuade)

© Shell Education

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

© Shell Education

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

© Shell Education

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

Strategy and Page Number Think Sheet (page 64); Free-Association Brainstorming (page 69); Story Impressions (page 84); Highlighted Journal (page 104); Frame (page 136); Venn Diagram (page 141); Conflict-Resolution Map (page 145); Semantic Word Map (page 149); Plot Diagram (page 157); Guided Writing Procedure (page 165); Collaborative Writing (page 174); GIST (page 182); Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (page 188); Character Summary (page 193); Story Mapping (page 199); Possible Sentences (page 45); Think Sheet (page 64); Story Impressions (page 84); Key Phrase Journal (page 107); Guided Writing Procedure (page 165); GIST (page 182); Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (page 188);

Reader-Response Writing Chart (page 80); Author’s Chair (page 176); Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (page 168); Collaborative Writing (page 174); Holistic Assessment (page 227); Analytic Assessment (page 229); Primary Trait Assessment (page 231); SelfAssessment (page 233); Peer Assessment (page 236); Teacher Conference (page 238); Portfolio Assessment (page 240); Guided Free Write (page 73); Vocabulary Journal (page 97); Dialogue Journal (page 101); RAFT Assignment (page 210);

Guided Free Write (page 73); Vocabulary Journal (page 97); RAFT Assignment (page 210);

© Shell Education

TESOL and WIDA Standards Correlation to Standards

Correlation to Standards

TESOL Standards Standard

Standard

Strategy and Page Number

Standard 1: English language learners communicate for social, intercultural, and instructional purposes within the school setting

All strategies

Standard 1: English language learners communicate for Social and Instructional purposes within the school setting

All strategies

Standard 4: English language learners communicate information, ideas, and concepts necessary for academic success in the area of language arts

All strategies

Standard 4: English language learners communicate information, ideas and concepts necessary for academic success in the content area of Language Arts

All strategies

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WIDA Standards

Strategy and Page Number

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

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#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

© Shell Education

© Shell Education

Developing Vocabulary

Developing Vocabulary Overview Vocabulary and Writing Extensive research shows that the size of a student’s vocabulary is directly related to a student’s ability to read (Laflamme 1997). The larger the vocabulary, the easier it is for students to read. The connection between vocabulary and writing is even stronger. One’s ability to write is directly tied to one’s ability to understand and use vocabulary words. Unlike with reading, students do not have the benefit of using context clues to determine the meaning of words. As writers, they are creating the context clues! Wesley Becker (1977) has determined that the deficiencies a student may have in vocabulary may lead to poor academic achievement. With the pressure to increase the science, technology, and mathematical skills of students, there is no room to fail. Enriching the vocabulary of students is a necessity if we want students to continue to build and learn new concepts. Because students are exposed to a large number of new vocabulary words in the language arts classroom, they need opportunities to interact with these words to become familiar with them and build them into their background knowledge. Students will not internalize and remember these words by reading alone. They must learn to know and understand these words well enough to write about them. Their writing and comprehension skills depend upon it. According to Cathy Corona, Sandra Spangenberger, and Iris Venet (1998), “at any level, written communication is more effective when a depth of vocabulary and command of language is evident” (26). Research about vocabulary demonstrates the need for an emphasis on writing for students to understand new terms. Writing is the way a student can personalize unfamiliar terms and incorporate them into his or her vocabulary. Students should be engaged in activities during which they discuss and write about new terms and concepts as well as generate questions, predict answers, and evaluate evidence. Building students’ vocabulary will assist teachers in accomplishing this task. The following strategies provide teachers with vocabulary exercises and activities to help build students’ vocabulary. So how do students increase their vocabulary in order to incorporate it into their writing? Research suggests that we learn the meaning of words by using them in the context of “old” words we already know and understand (Adams 1990). New learning is continually building on old or previous learning. The same is true for old and new vocabulary words. New vocabulary words are learned by building on known words. We use these “old” words to describe and define new vocabulary. Most of learning is acquired through language (Adams 1990). The learning occurs through accessing prior language and connecting it to new language.

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Developing Vocabulary

Developing Vocabulary Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy Word Wall

32

McREL Standards Grades 1–2 (2.1) Grades 3–5 (2.1) Grades 6–8 (2.1) Grades 9–12 (2.1)

Frayer Model

Grades 3–5 (4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.3) Grades 9–12 (4.6)

Vocabulary Self-Collection

Grades 1–2 (2.1) Grades 3–5 (2.1) Grades 6–8 (2.1) Grades 9–12 (2.1)

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

Common Core State Standards Grade 1 (L.1.4, L.1.6) Grade 2 (L.2.4, L.2.6) Grade 3 (L.3.4, L.3.6) Grade 4 (L.4.4, L.4.6) Grade 5 (L.5.4, L.5.6) Grade 6 (L.6.4, L.6.6) Grade 7 (L.7.4, L.7.6) Grade 8 (L.8.4, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.4, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.4, L.11–12.6) Grade 3 (L.3.5, L.3.6) Grade 4 (L.4.5, L.4.6) Grade 5 (L.5.5, L.5.6) Grade 6 (L.6.5, L.6.6) Grade 7 (L.7.5, L.7.6) Grade 8 (L.8.5, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.5, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.5, L.11–12.6) Grade 1 (L.1.4, L.1.6) Grade 2 (L.2.4, L.2.6) Grade 3 (L.3.4, L.3.6) Grade 4 (L.4.4, L.4.6) Grade 5 (L.5.4, L.5.6) Grade 6 (L.6.4, L.6.6) Grade 7 (L.7.4, L.7.6) Grade 8 (L.8.4, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.4, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.4, L.11–12.6)

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Developing Vocabulary

Developing Vocabulary Overview (cont.)

Strategy Possible Sentences

McREL Standards Grades 1–2 (1.2) Grades 3–5 (1.2) Grades 6–8 (1.2) Grades 9–12 (1.2)

Word Trails

Grades 3–5 (4.3, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.3) Grades 9–12 (4.2)

Word Questioning

Grades 3–5 (4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.3) Grades 9–12 (4.6)

Open Word Sort

Grades 1–2 (4.2) Grades 3–5 (4.3, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.2, 4.3) Grades 9–12 (4.2, 4.6)

Common Core State Standards Grade 1 (L.1.5, L.1.6) Grade 2 (L.2.5, L.2.6) Grade 3 (L.3.5, L.3.6) Grade 4 (L.4.5, L.4.6) Grade 5 (L.5.5, L.5.6) Grade 6 (L.6.5, L.6.6) Grade 7 (L.7.5, L.7.6) Grade 8 (L.8.5, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.5, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.5, L.11–12.6) Grade 3 (L.3.4, L.3.5) Grade 4 (L.4.4, L.4.5) Grade 5 (L.5.4, L.5.5) Grade 6 (L.6.4, L.6.5) Grade 7 (L.7.4, L.7.5) Grade 8 (L.8.4, L.8.5) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.4, L.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.4, L.11–12.5) Grade 3 (L.3.4, L.3.5) Grade 4 (L.4.4, L.4.5) Grade 5 (L.5.4, L.5.5) Grade 6 (L.6.4, L.6.5) Grade 7 (L.7.4, L.7.5) Grade 8 (L.8.4, L.8.5) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.4, L.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.4, L.11–12.5) Grade 1 (L.1.4, L.1.5) Grade 2 (L.2.4, L.2.5) Grade 3 (L.3.4, L.3.5) Grade 4 (L.4.4, L.4.5) Grade 5 (L.5.4, L.5.5) Grade 6 (L.6.4, L.6.5) Grade 7 (L.7.4, L.7.5) Grade 8 (L.8.4, L.8.5) Grades 9–10 (L.9–10.4, L.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (L.11–12.4, L.11–12.5)



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Developing Vocabulary

Word Wall Background Information A Word Wall is a display of important gradeappropriate vocabulary or concept words. It can be created on a bulletin board or on a large sheet of paper taped to the wall. A Word Wall is an effective way to keep track of new grade-appropriate words students are learning. They also serve as an easy reference for students to use during class to develop oral and written language as they demonstrate their understanding of new vocabulary. Through their discussions, students determine and clarify the meanings of unknown words on the Word Wall and learn how to use these words in their speech and writing.

Activity Prepare strips of cardstock that are large enough to be read easily from a distance, and ask students to neatly print the vocabulary words on them. Encourage students to include illustrations for each word, if possible. Designate a spot in the classroom for the Word Wall, and reserve a specific area for new vocabulary words. Remind students to use this resource as they write about, or learn, new concepts. A Word Wall can be used throughout the whole year with all of the vocabulary included in it, or you can create “mini Word Walls” specific to units of study. There are many activities that can be incorporated with the Word Wall. Select from the activities listed, or create activities to best meet the needs of your students to help them acquire and use accurately the new vocabulary:

• Make a List—Have students classify the Word Wall words by their part of speech, roots, affixes, etc.

• Defining Sentence—Assign each student a Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 32 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise

word. Students must create a sentence for the assigned word that gives the definition of the word.

• What’s at the End?—Identify and discuss words with similar endings.

• See It, Say It, Chant It, Sing It, and Clap It!—

Find as many different ways as possible to read and spell out loud the words on the Word Wall.

• Be a Mind Reader—Have a student give clues about a selected word while class members try to guess the word. Clues can include the beginning or ending letter; rhyme clues; the definition of its roots, prefixes, or suffixes; number of letters in the word, etc.

• Guess the Missing Word—Write sentences

on the board using the Word Wall words and challenge students to guess which word belongs in each sentence.

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Wall (cont.) Differentiation

• Find It First!—Call two students up to the

Word Wall at a time. Call out a word; see which student can find it first and use it in a sentence.

• Seek and Find—Challenge students to search newspapers, brochures, letters, business cards, etc., to highlight Word Wall words.

• Crossword Puzzles—Have students use the

words on the Word Wall to make crossword puzzles, exchange crossword puzzles, and then solve them.

For English language learners, the Word Wall is particularly helpful because it exposes students to important vocabulary words and is an easy reference for students during the lesson. Give English language learners a list of the words to keep at their desks and take home for assignments, if necessary. Encourage above-level students to add more challenging words to the Word Wall. These students can generate a list of words they have an interest in learning. Give below-level students a copy of the words to place in their notebooks. They may need repeated explanations of the meanings and use of each word.

Grades 1–2 Example Dinosaurs Before Dark by Mary Pope Osborne

Dinosaurs Before Dark crouched

ancient

bellowing

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reptile medallion

stroked

teetered

gaze

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Wall (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example A Little Princess by Frances Hodgson Burnett

A Little Princess pauper

bungalow jostle persevere benevolent

preposterous

benign

indignant eccentric

Grades 6–8 Example The Alchemyst: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel by Michael Scott

The Alchemyst: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel

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ornate

parapet

tendrils

alchemyst

subterfuge

vindictive

charlatan

mundane

ruse

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Wall (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example A Lesson Before Dying by Ernest J. Gaines

A Lesson Before Dying gumbo

levee modicum

rustic antebellum cynicism

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uppity

mulatto innate

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Developing Vocabulary

Frayer Model Background Information The Frayer Model (Frayer, Fredrick, and Klausmeier 1969), also known as a word map (Schwartz and Raphael 1985), is a strategy designed to help students understand relationships and similarities between concepts. This strategy uses a graphic organizer to help students understand a concept and recognize similarities and differences between that concept and other concepts being discussed. The framework of the Frayer Model consists of the concept word, the definition, characteristics of the concept word, examples of the concept word, and nonexamples of the concept word. A key element of this model is providing an example of what the concept is and what it is not. This strategy helps students understand the nuances of the concept and teaches them to derive meaning by comparing the words to their synonyms, antonyms, and other examples. The Frayer Model is often used when teaching vocabulary, but it can be used to teach and reinforce literary concepts as well.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 32 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Activity Distribute the Frayer Model activity sheet (page 41, frayermodel.pdf). Have students write the concept of the lesson at the center. This may be a concept phrase or a single word, depending on the needs of students and the lesson objective. As a class, determine the definition of this concept. Students can use a variety of resources to develop a definition that is clear, concise, and easy to understand. Next, help students determine the characteristics or attributes of this concept. Finally, determine as a class what the concept is and what it is not. Encourage students to generate their own examples and nonexamples, and allow time for students to discuss their findings with the class. Once students are comfortable using this strategy, they can work in small groups, in pairs, or independently to research different concepts relating to fiction. When the graphic organizer has been completed, students then write a paragraph about this concept using the Frayer Model activity sheet as a guide.

Differentiation Place English language learners in groups or pair them with partners to complete the activity. Working with a partner will help them learn how to complete the activity sheet, and they will also benefit greatly from the discussions. Call on abovelevel students to model how to complete the organizer for the class. Above-level students can work with two or three classmates to show the class how to complete the Frayer Model. The class can learn from watching this discussion, and it encourages above-level students to think through their reasoning. Provide one-on-one instruction during the small group work for below-level students, and select an appropriate concept word.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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Developing Vocabulary

Frayer Model (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Definition

Characteristics

the subject or topic of a text

can be straightforward or hidden in the text texts can have multiple themes the theme is often the moral of the story in fairy tales and fables Word

Examples

theme

friendship, honesty, jealousy, betrayal, loyalty, courage, perseverance

the theme often explores big questions about humankind and other big ideas Nonexamples plot, action, characters, tone

Grades 6–8 Example Definition

Characteristics

the use of one object or action to represent something else

often used in literature to convey theme often appear periodically throughout the story the reader usually must infer the meaning of the symbols used in fiction Word

Examples snakes often symbolize evil or deception a winding road is used to represent a personal journey darkness often means death light symbolizes life and hope

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symbolism

Nonexamples a swimming pool is not a symbol for shelter a scary Halloween mask is not a symbol of kindness a book is not a symbol for ignorance

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Developing Vocabulary

Frayer Model (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Definition

Characteristics

an exaggeration purposely used to create emphasis or effect in literature

not meant to be taken literally used to create strong feelings or dramatic impressions often used in casual speech and poetry type of figurative language Word hyperbole

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Examples

Nonexamples

He has a ton of money.

He has a lot of money.

She is taller than a mountain.

She is as tall as my mother.

I have a million things to do.

I have a lot of things to do.

This bike goes faster than the speed of light.

This bike is really fast.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Frayer Model Definition

Characteristics

Word Examples

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Nonexamples

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Developing Vocabulary

Vocabulary Self-Collection Background Information Martha Haggard (1982, 1986) designed the Vocabulary Self-Collection strategy to help students create a list of vocabulary words they would be interested in learning and researching. The strategy is meant to stimulate vocabulary growth and help students determine or clarify the meaning of unknown words. Research shows that the more exposure students have to the written word, the more their vocabulary increases. By generating lists of grade-appropriate words to study, students become more sensitive to and aware of words and their meanings.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 32 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Activity Instruct students to create a list of words from their reading materials that they are interested in studying. The words can be either general academic vocabulary or domain-specific words, depending on the selected text. Have students review their lists and nominate words to be studied by the class. As you write these words on the board or display them with a document camera, ask students to define them and justify the selection of each word. Clarify the meaning of each word and clear up any misunderstandings, consulting the actual text or a dictionary if needed. Students may ask one another questions about the words and their definitions. After the discussion, challenge the class to decide which words should make the final cut. For example, delete words that most students already know, duplicates of words, and words of lesser interest to students. Have students write down the selected words and their meanings in their Vocabulary Journal (see pages 97–100) and post them on the Word Wall (see pages 34–37). Incorporate these words into lessons and writing activities that will reinforce definitions and understanding. Encourage students to use these words as often as possible in their own writing to move the new vocabulary words into their expressive languages.

Differentiation Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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During the discussion, clarify and elaborate further on some definitions, if necessary, to ensure that English language learners understand the meanings. Use visuals as well as thorough descriptions. Challenge above-level students to document the use of the vocabulary words in their personal writing assignments. Below-level students may need assistance articulating the meanings of difficult words, so encourage them to use visuals or drawings if needed.

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Developing Vocabulary

Vocabulary Self-Collection (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Text: It was crowded at the restaurant. A woman entered the room. She sat down to order. Her clothes were fancy and her hair was curly. I looked down at my jeans. They were torn. I quickly looked away from the woman, embarrassed of my clothes. Nominated Words:

crowded, order, fancy, curly, torn, embarrassed

Grades 3–5 Example Text: I cautiously peered around the corner, hoping to spot the intruder. When I failed to see anyone, I hesitated and then slowly maneuvered my body closer to the doorway. My whole body felt tense as I prepared to flee if necessary. Nominated Words:

cautiously, intruder, hesitated, maneuvered, tense, flee

Grades 6–8 Example Text: As she approached the dilapidated mansion, she began to smell a putrid odor. The smell seemed to be wafting through an open window on her right. Suddenly she stopped, bristling at a noise that came from inside the decrepit abode. She contemplated turning around, but she had come too far to abandon her mission at this point. Nominated Words:

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dilapidated, putrid, odor, wafting, bristling, decrepit, abode, contemplated

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Developing Vocabulary

Vocabulary Self-Collection

(cont.)

Grades 9–12 Example Text: Lysander Content with Hermia? No. I do repent The tedious minutes I with her have spent. Not Hermia but Helena I love. Who will not change a raven for a dove? The will of man is by his reason swayed, And reason says you are the worthier maid. Things growing are not ripe until their season, So I, being young, till now ripe not to reason. And touching now the point of human skill, Reason becomes the marshal to my will And leads me to your eyes, where I o’erlook Love’s stories written in love’s richest book. Helena Wherefore was I to this keen mockery born? When at your hands did I deserve this scorn? Is ’t not enough, is ’t not enough, young man, That I did never, no, nor never can, Deserve a sweet look from Demetrius’ eye, But you must flout my insufficiency? Good troth, you do me wrong; good sooth, you do, In such disdainful manner me to woo. But fare you well. Perforce I must confess I thought you lord of more true gentleness. Oh, that a lady of one man refused Should of another be abused!

Nominated Words:

repent, tedious, reason, marshal, wherefore, mockery, flout, insufficiency, troth, sooth, disdainful

from William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream

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Developing Vocabulary

Possible Sentences Background Information David Moore and Sharon Moore (1986) designed the Possible Sentences strategy as a way to teach vocabulary words introduced in a text. Other benefits of this strategy include making predictions about reading, providing a purpose for reading, and encouraging interest in text. Students learn to make predictions about new words, check their predictions, and use the text to rewrite and refine their predictions. This strategy not only helps students acquire and use new vocabulary words, but it also strengthens their abilities to develop their writing through revising and editing.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 33 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Draft, Revise

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Activity Make a list of important vocabulary words from the text and write them on the board or display them with a document camera. Read each word aloud to model correct pronunciation. Instruct students to select two words from the list to use in one sentence that might appear in a fictional narrative. Record sentences on the board, and underline each vocabulary word. Encourage students to generate sentences until all the vocabulary words have been used in at least one sentence. Remind students that good writers edit and revise their work, and have them read through the sentences again to make any needed changes. Next, ask students to read the selected text and compare the class sentences with the actual sentences in the text. Students should take notes (or draw pictures for younger students) on meanings of words. After reading the text, carefully examine the sentences to see if they are written accurately. Have students explain how to edit and revise sentences, as needed. Call on students to write revised sentences independently using their new knowledge and understanding of these vocabulary words.

Differentiation Preview the meanings of the vocabulary words with English language learners to ensure understanding. Encourage English language learners to draw pictures or write short phrases if they are not yet ready to write sentences. Ask above-level students to write multiple sentences using various forms of the words and more complicated sentence structures. Scaffold the strategy for below-level students by providing sentence frames. Also, encourage these students to extend their sentences by adding additional information.

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Developing Vocabulary

Possible Sentences (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Vocabulary Words: fuss, squash, bush, helpless, kindness Possible Sentences/Before Reading: The kids fussed. The ants squashed the food. The bird was in the bush. The helpless pony looked kindness. Revised Sentences/After Reading: A fuss began when the girl ate all the candy. I squashed the ants. The bird was trapped in the bush. I looked at the helpless pony with kindness.

Grades 3–5 Example Vocabulary Words: animated, floundered, depressed, grasp, murky, wail Possible Sentences/Before Reading: One boy was animated, and the other seemed depressed. The dog floundered about in the murky water. She let out a wail when she lost her grasp on the railing. Revised Sentences/After Reading: When the boy saw the puppy, he lost his depressed expression and his face lit up in an animated smile. When I dropped my ring in the dirty, murky water, I floundered about for more than half an hour trying to find it. The baby stopped her high-pitched wail as soon as she had the bottle in her grasp.

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Developing Vocabulary

Possible Sentences (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Vocabulary Words: brute, bellowed, anguish, undulating, soothing, dominated Possible Sentences/Before Reading: The brute bellowed loudly. The undulating rhythm was soothing. The large bear dominated the fight, causing the younger bear to cry out in anguish. Revised Sentences/After Reading: The victim bellowed loudly as the savage brute attacked him. The undulating hills stretched as far as the eye could see and had a lulling, soothing effect on my anxiety. After my competitor dominated me in the race, beating me by more than a minute, I was overcome with a feeling of deep anguish and distress.

Grades 9–12 Example Vocabulary Words: eccentric, spontaneous, persevere, contemplated, translucent, delirious Possible Sentences/Before Reading: After the man’s spontaneous burst of song, people started calling him eccentric. He contemplated the decision and decided to persevere. The translucent liquid made him delirious. Revised Sentences/After Reading: His unconventional, eccentric views and spontaneous behavior made him unique and unforgettable. He thought about his decision for quite a long time and contemplated all of the repercussions before deciding to persevere and continue with his mission. His translucent skin seemed to glow, and his maniacal laughter made him appear delirious.

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Trails Background Information A strong relationship exists between word knowledge and reading comprehension. Without word knowledge, students tend to read less and are more apt to be poor readers (Anderson and Freebody 1985). Seldom do words stand alone, isolated from, and unrelated, to other words. The Word Trails strategy helps students build connections, or “trails,” from unknown words to familiar ones. These word relationships enable students to gain an understanding of unknown words through the examination of common gradeappropriate affixes and root words as well as the word’s synonyms and antonyms. Students need to have a repertoire of strategies to use when they face unknown words in their reading, and the Word Trails strategy offers one such way to build meaning and word knowledge.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 33 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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Activity Introduce a new word and then build “trails” and connections from other words to it. The following are the main trails that connect words:

• root words—Many words in literature have

similar root words. Knowing these can help students determine meaning.

• prefixes and suffixes—Recognizing and

identifying prefixes or suffixes in a word can help determine its meaning.

• synonyms or similar words—Words become “friends” and can help students remember definitions. What are other words that have the same or similar meaning to the new word? What are examples of this word?

• antonyms—Identifying opposites is an effective way to clarify word meaning. What are the words that mean the opposite of this new word? What are nonexamples of the word?

Distribute the Word Trails activity sheet (page 50, wordtrails.pdf), and have students identify the trails from this word to other words. When finished, discuss students’ findings. Primary grade teachers may want to complete the Word Trails activity sheet as a class and then post it on the Word Wall (pages 34–37). Students can add these words and their trails to their Vocabulary Journal (pages 97–100).

Differentiation Preteach English language learners how to use the Word Trails activity sheet so they understand the format. Consider also preteaching the roots, prefixes, and suffixes that will be addressed during the whole-class lesson so that these students will be able to recognize them and apply meaning to the unknown vocabulary word. Use visuals whenever possible. Encourage above-level students to study additional or related vocabulary words and present and explain their Word Trails maps to the class. Limit the number of vocabulary words for below-level students to allow them to focus on a few words. © Shell Education



Developing Vocabulary

Word Trails (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Part of Speech verb

Antonyms

Synonyms or Similar Words agitate to make troubled or nervous

calm, settle, soothe

stir, excite, disturb

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes agitatus = to drive

Grades 6–8 Example Part of Speech

Synonyms or Similar Words

adjective

bouncy, high-spirited, vivacious exuberant

Antonyms

unrestrained or enthusiastic

sullen, morose

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes ex- = thoroughly uberare = to be fruitful

Grades 9–12 Example Part of Speech

Synonyms or Similar Words

adjective

blunt, dulled, stupid, insensitive

obtuse

Antonyms keen, pointed, sharp, smart

slow to understand; lacking sharpness

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes ob = against tundere = to beat

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Word Trails Directions: Write the word that you are studying in the center box. Use resources to determine the root words, prefixes and suffixes, synonyms or similar words, and antonyms, and write them in the Word Trails graphic organizer.

50

Part of Speech

Synonyms or Similar Words

Antonyms

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Questioning Background Information The Word Questioning strategy (Allen 1999, as cited in Bintz 2011) teaches students to examine words from a variety of angles using a series of questions built around Bloom’s Taxonomy. These questions are designed to utilize a variety of skills, ranging from identifying basic knowledge about the word’s definition to the more complex skills of analyzing and evaluating. This strategy is particularly useful for important concepts or domain-specific topics that require greater understanding in order to facilitate learning. By studying the word from a variety of perspectives, students gain an in-depth understanding of the word’s meaning and develop personal connections with the word, allowing for better comprehension and recall. Through this strategy, students learn about the subtle nuances of the word’s meaning and how the new word relates to other words. This type of thorough understanding enables students to utilize new vocabulary words with confidence in both their verbal and written work.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 33 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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Activity Introduce the class to the categories of Bloom’s Taxonomy (Remembering, Understanding, Applying, Analyzing, Evaluating, and Creating), and explain how these categories are arranged so that each new level provides a deeper type of word knowledge. Tell students that they can use questions from each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy to gain greater knowledge about new or unknown words. Display the Word Questioning activity sheet (page 55, wordquestioning.pdf) on the board or with a document camera, and select a word to use as an example. Write the novel word in the center rectangle and then ask students to help you fill in the other boxes by answering the designated questions. Once students are comfortable with the strategy, distribute the Word Questioning activity sheet to students and ask them to complete the activity sheet using a specific word. The chosen word should represent an important concept in the unit, reading, or activity. If there are multiple relevant topics, you may decide to let students choose a word from a short list. Provide students with dictionaries and other reference books so they can research the word. Upon completion, ask all students to share their work with a partner. Then, hold a class discussion to summarize the new learning. Add the new word to your classroom’s Word Wall (see pages 34–37), and encourage students to use it in their speech and writing.

Differentiation Preview the questions with English language learners before commencing the activity, and allow these students to work with a partner for the duration of the activity. Below-level students will benefit from leveled reference materials that will allow them to research and comprehend the word’s meaning. Above-level students should be encouraged to expound on the higher-level categories in the diagram (Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation). #51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Questioning (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Are there parts of the word I recognize?

I think this word means... It is...

attributing human qualities to nonhuman objects

person personify

al y

sis

Comprehension

An

Ap

p li

c

o ati

nE

No

m xa

ne x

ple

am

ple

Target Word

n ti o ua al Ev

gives me a tool to use in my writing allows me to understand a technique authors use to convey information about an object shows me how we incorporate personification into our daily speech without realizing it

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Knowledge

What makes this an important word for me to know?

When, where, and under what conditions might I find this word? language arts class during a discussion of literary elements in literature a review or analysis of artwork during casual conversation where someone is trying to describe an object

It is not... The light from the candle shone on the walls.

personification Sy n

The light from the candle danced on the walls.

th

es

is

How does this word fit in with other words and concepts that I know? It is like anthropomorphism, but personification is usually used with inanimate objects, while anthropomorphism is often used with animals, deities, etc.

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Questioning (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Are there parts of the word I recognize? shadow

I think this word means...

It is...

to give a warning or indication of a future event

A character’s nightmare that provides an indication of what is actually going to happen to the character in the future.

fore

al y

Comprehension

An

sis

Ap

pl

ti ic a

on

No

E

m xa

ne x

Target Word

n ti o ua al Ev

makes my writing more interesting

movie critique

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is

language arts class textbook or discussion

es

improves reading comprehension

th

book review

n Sy

Knowledge

helps me understand literary techniques used by authors

When, where, and under what conditions might I find this word?

am

ple

It is not...

foreshadow

What makes this an important word for me to know?

ple

Giving away the ending of the book or telling exactly what will happen at the conclusion of the story.

How does this word fit in with other words and concepts that I know? It is like the opposite of a flashback because the writer gives you clues about something that will happen in the future instead of something that happened in the past.

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Developing Vocabulary

Word Questioning (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Are there parts of the word I recognize? phrase

al y

sis

It is...

to express the meaning of something written or spoken in your own words

retelling someone else’s speech or writing, including most of the details, examples, etc.

Comprehension

An

I think this word means...

Ap

pl

ti ic a

on

No

E

m xa

ne x

ple

am

ple

Target Word

directly copying or quoting the text or speech of someone else

Ev

What makes this an important word for me to know? important technique that allows a person to express the meaning of someone else’s writing in his or her own words helpful when explaining a text to someone else or taking notes on a piece of literature

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Knowledge

al

ua

ti o

n

paraphrase

When, where, and under what conditions might I find this word? instructions on a test homework assignments book summaries

Sy n

th

It is not...

es

is

How does this word fit in with other words and concepts that I know? similar to summarizing, but summarizing means “putting only the main ideas of the text into your own words,” resulting in a much shorter version of the original text

© Shell Education

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Word Questioning Directions: Use the question prompts in each box to fill out more information about the new or unknown word. Consult a dictionary or other reference book when necessary.

Are there parts of the word I recognize?

I think this word means...

al y

Comprehension

An

sis

It is...

Ap

p li

c

o ati

nE

No

m xa

ne x

ple

am

ple

It is not...

Ev

Knowledge

al

ua

ti o

n

Target Word

What makes this an important word for me to know?

When, where, and under what conditions might I find this word?

Sy n

th

es

is

How does this word fit in with other words and concepts that I know?

Adapted from Allen 1999 (cited in Bintz 2011)

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Developing Vocabulary

Open Word Sort Background Information Through the Open Word Sort strategy, students learn to organize and remember new vocabulary words by sorting them into categories of their own creation. This activity not only elicits background knowledge, but it also enables students to make personalized connections between the words that will enhance their comprehension and recall of new words (Johns and Berglund 2010). By developing their own categories, students are tasked with forming tentative rules that govern the placement of words. In order to create these rules, students must examine the words from multiple perspectives and identify similarities and differences between words across a wide range of attributes. As students commence sorting the words into categories, they must further redefine the dimensions of each category as they encounter new words, adding and removing words as necessary. At the end of the activity, students explain their sorting rules in a written summary.

Activity Select a variety of new or unknown words from an upcoming unit, reading selection, or project. Ideally, most students will have some general knowledge of the words but will not already know the precise definitions. For younger students who have never done an Open Word Sort, start by reviewing the concept of sorting using objects (e.g., colored tiles of various sizes) or well-known words. Make sure to highlight how the same group of objects or words can be sorted in multiple different ways, depending on the rules used to govern the sort. After you have established the concept of sorting, review the list of words with the class. Hold a class discussion to allow students to determine or clarify the words’ meanings. Have students use dictionaries or other reference materials to look up precise definitions for words that are unfamiliar to most students. Next, discuss different parameters that students can use to sort the words. Here are some common possibilities:

• definition: students sort words into groups based on their meaning (e.g., field, prairie, grassland)

• etymology: students create categories based

on shared affixes or root words (e.g., examine, exterminate, experiment)

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 33 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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• spelling patterns: students sort words into

categories based on similar spelling patterns (e.g., words that contain -ight such as fright, bright, tight, almighty)

Distribute a list of the new words to students, and have them write each word on an index card. Alternatively, photocopy the words onto cardstock and have students cut them apart to create individual cards. Give students time to create their categories and sort their words. Emphasize that each category does not need to have the same number of words in it. After students are done sorting, have them record their word sort on the Open Word Sort activity sheet (page 60, wordsort. pdf). Next, ask students to write about their

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Developing Vocabulary

Open Word Sort (cont.) experience sorting the words and the rules they created to sort them. This can be done on students’ activity sheets or in their Vocabulary Journals (see pages 97–100). To conclude the lesson, bring students back together and ask them to explain how they chose to sort their words and what they have learned from the activity.

Differentiation This activity may be particularly challenging for English language learners because of the large number of unknown words introduced through the activity. Prior to the activity, provide English language learners with a list of the new words and their definitions to study the night before the activity. Both English language learners and belowlevel students will benefit from sorting a reduced number of words. Above-level students should be challenged to develop multiple ways to sort the words and explain their sorting rules clearly in their writing.

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Open Word Sort (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example deed

early

nibble

might

worry

show

free

train

greedy Description: I decided to sort my words into two groups. The first group has words that have double letters and the second group has words that do not have double letters. I chose to use this sorting rule because I like how it is easy to notice double letters just by looking at the word. I think it makes those words stick out, and it helps me remember them.

Grades 3–5 Example revert retire retain resemble

capable desirable sociable unbearable

saunter reign gorge astound bungle

Description: I sorted my words according to their prefixes and suffixes. The first category contains words with the prefix re-. I looked up the prefix re- in the dictionary, and it means “again,” so I learned that all the words in the first column are about doing something again. The second category contains words that share the suffix -able. I confirmed in the dictionary that this suffix means “able to.” The third category contains words that do not share a common prefix or suffix with the other words. I found it helpful to sort my words this way because it is easier to remember what they mean when you understand the meaning of a word’s prefix or suffix.

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Developing Vocabulary

Open Word Sort (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example idyllic serene pastoral

timid domineering reclusive

gingerly efficiently

caustic respectful estranged

Description: I noticed that all of the words on the list are either adjectives or adverbs, so I decided to sort my words according to whom or what they describe. The first column has words that describe a location or setting. In this case, all three words relate to a peaceful and calm setting. The second category includes adjectives used to describe people or characters. The third column is dedicated to adverbs that describe actions. The fourth and final category contains words that can describe relationships between two or more people. I found this sorting activity to be helpful because it made me notice the part of speech for each of the words and how these words relate to one another. Even though all of these words have different definitions, they all share the common purpose of describing something.

Grades 9–12 Example deceitful fraudulent delusive

tumultuous turbulent boisterous

minuscule microscopic infinitesimal miniature

jurisdiction governance

desolate barren impoverished stark

Description: I conducted my sort based on the definitions of the words. The words in the first column all relate to dishonest qualities or behavior. The second category of words describes sudden, violent, or destructive characteristics. The words in the third column pertain to the very small size of something. The fourth category contains only two words, and these words describe political control over an area. The words in the last column relate to the quality of being empty or lacking. I chose to sort the words in this manner because I can remember them and their definitions more easily when I relate them to other similar words. I also find it helpful to know multiple synonyms for various words because it makes my writing more interesting and accurate if I have more words to choose from when I want to describe something.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Open Word Sort Directions: Study the vocabulary words and determine ways in which they relate to one another. Sort the words into categories, and record your sort on the chart. When finished sorting, describe how you sorted the words. Be sure to include the rules you used to sort, why you chose to use these rules, and how this activity helped you understand the new words.

Description:_________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Previewing and Reviewing

Previewing and Reviewing Overview Activating Prior Knowledge Prior knowledge can be defined as any information that we know on a given topic before we begin learning new information. Research shows that activating background knowledge increases students’ comprehension of new material (Christen and Murphy 1991). Accessing students’ prior knowledge opens the doors for the new knowledge to find a place. Teachers who link new information to students’ background knowledge encourage curiosity and provide a purpose for the new information. This enables the teacher to build on this knowledge while also motivating students to read. Through the activation of prior knowledge, students are able to make personal connections and incorporate these new thoughts and ideas into what they read and write about.

Reviewing and Spiral Knowledge We all use scripts and categorical rules to interpret the world. When new information arises, our brains work to see how it fits with our predetermined ideas and scripts (Widmayer et al. 2004). Throughout our lives we constantly add to our knowledge base; this concept is known as spiral knowledge (Poplin 1988, as cited by Dechant 1991).

Using Expressive Writing Expressive writing leads to the discovery and reinforcement of concepts being taught, so it is appropriate for previewing and reviewing activities. Toby Fulwiler (1980, 16) states, “Every time students write, they individualize instruction; the act of silent writing, even for five minutes, generates ideas, observations, emotions…regular writing makes it harder for students to remain passive.” Through expressive writing, students are able to gather information, put the concepts into their own words, and begin to own it. Writing is another way for the brain to make sense of information and learning (Emig 1977). When students use writing as a strategy to help them make sense of what they are reading and learning, they are writing to learn. This is often called expressive writing. It is a vital piece of the language arts curriculum because it allows students the opportunity to express their ideas about, and respond to, what they are learning. There is a variety of expressive writing activities: journals, KWL (Ogle 1986), T-List, free writes, dialogue journals (Atwell 1984; Harste, Short, and Burke 1988), problem analyses, learning logs, peer dialogues, and many more. Many of these strategies will be explained and described in this section of the book. With expressive writing, students are encouraged to use their own vocabulary, and the emphasis is on the content and understanding of the student, not on the writing mechanics. Sharon Hamilton-Weiler (1988) explains that this kind of writing is “. . . a way into, or means of learning, a way into understanding through articulating.”

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Previewing and Reviewing Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy

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McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Think Sheet

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.2)

Grade 1 (W.1.5, W.1.8) Grade 2 (W.2.5, W.2.8) Grade 3 (W.3.5, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.5, W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.5, W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.5, W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.5, W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.5, W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5, W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5, W.11–12.8)

Free-Association Brainstorming

Grades 1–2 (1.1) Grades 3–5 (1.1) Grades 6–8 (1.1) Grades 9–12 (1.1)

Grade 1 (W.1.8) Grade 2 (W.2.8) Grade 3 (W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8)

Guided Free Write

Grades 1–2 (1.8) Grades 3–5 (1.5, 1.6, 1.10) Grades 6–8 (1.5) Grades 9–12 (1.5, 1.6)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.10) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.10) Grade 3 (W.3.10) Grade 4 (W.4.10) Grade 5 (W.5.10) Grade 6 (W.6.10) Grade 7 (W.7.10) Grade 8 (W.8.10) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.10) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.10)

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Previewing and Reviewing

Previewing and Reviewing Overview (cont.) Strategy

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

End-of-Class Reflection

Grades 1–2 (1.6) Grades 3–5 (1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.12)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.10, W.1.8) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.10, W.2.8) Grade 3 (W.3.8, W.3.10) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.10) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.10) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.10) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.10) Grade 8 (WW.8.8, .8.10) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.10) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.10)

Reader-Response Writing Chart

Grades 3–5 (1.4, 1.10, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.4, 1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.4, 1.12)

Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.10) Grade 4 (W.4.9, .4.10) Grade 5 (W.5.9, W.5.10) Grade 6 (W.6.9, W.6.10) Grade 7 (W.7.9, W.7.10) Grade 8 (W.8.9, W.8.10) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.9, W.9–10.10) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.9, W.11–12.10)

Story Impressions

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.2)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.9, W.1.8) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.9, W.2.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

Story Prediction Chart

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.9, W.1.8) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.9, W.2.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9)

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Think Sheet Background Information The Think Sheet strategy enables students to examine their knowledge about a certain topic before reading about it and then compare that to what they learn after reading or discussion. This strategy provides practice in recalling relevant information related to a topic, a skill that students need to learn for the prewriting phase. Students also gain practice in developing and strengthening their writing when they revise their notes to reflect their new knowledge after reading the selected text. Both skills are keys to successful writing.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 62 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process

Activity Distribute the prepared Think Sheet activity sheet, display it using a document camera, or re-create it on the board or on chart paper. Present the main issue to the class, and ask students to answer the questions and write down what they know. Encourage them to write any questions that they have about the topic because questions stimulate more learning. Collect students’ activity sheets and then assign the reading or complete the activity as planned. Redistribute the Think Sheet activity sheets so that students can use their new knowledge to edit their original answers. Ask questions such as “How did your knowledge change after this activity? Can you add any additional information? Do you have any questions that were not answered? Were any of your original thoughts inaccurate?” Encourage students to write additional questions they have on the topic. Allow them to share what they have learned from the reading, and encourage them to make connections among their questions, their thoughts, and the information presented in the text.

Variation Complete this activity as a class with primary grade students. Lead a brief discussion about each question, and ask students to help develop an answer. You may choose specific students to help write some or all of the sentences on the board.

Prewrite, Revise

Preparation Prior to a reading or a discussion, formulate some questions about the topic that will activate prior knowledge, generate thinking, and promote curiosity. Then add the questions to the Think Sheet activity sheet (page 68, thinksheet.pdf).

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Differentiation Clarify the questions asked of English language learners by discussing unknown words or new concepts. Remind students that these are new questions and they are not expected to know the answers. Encourage above-level students to conduct further research to answer the questions left unanswered. Scaffold the activity with some completed responses for below-level students. If the reading level is too high, read aloud to them or have them do a paired reading. © Shell Education

Previewing and Reviewing

Think Sheet (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example (before reading) Title: The Perfect Pony by Kimberly Brubaker Bradley Teacher Questions 1. What type of things do you need to do to take care of a horse? You need to give it water, feed it, and clean its stall. 2. What kinds of traits can a horse have? Horses can be gentle, wild, fast, slow, old, or young.

My Questions/Thoughts I know that horses need a lot of care when you have one as a pet. Some horses are nice to ride, and some are more difficult. Can all horses be trained to be ridden? How old do you have to be to have your own horse?

3. How do you feel when you have to wait a long time to get something you really want? I feel like time is slow when I am excited about something. I can be impatient.

Grades 3–5 Example (after reading) Title: Pippi Longstocking by Astrid Lindgren Teacher Questions 1. What would you do all day if you lived in a house without any grownups? I would sleep in late, eat lots of ice cream, play with my friends. 2. Do you think you would enjoy not having any rules in your house? Yes, it would be fun to do whatever I wanted.

My Questions/Thoughts Pippi definitely has a different lifestyle because she lives by herself without any grownups. I don’t think that I would be very happy living like she does. People think that she is very strange, but she doesn’t care. Is it really possible for a girl to live by herself without any grownups?

3. How do children use their imaginations to entertain themselves? They create imaginary worlds and stories.

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Think Sheet (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example (after reading) Title: A Day No Pigs Would Die by Robert Newton Peck Teacher Questions 1. What is the relationship between a farmer and his or her animals? I think some farmers view their animals only as a source of money and some have more complex relationships with them. 2. What is a Shaker? I think a Shaker is someone who belongs to the Shaker religion. 3. How does labeling people affect other people’s expectations? Labels can help you understand someone better, but they can also be hurtful. Labels cause you to expect certain things from a person, but often, these assumptions are not accurate because every person is different.

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My Questions/Thoughts How does Robert Peck feel about being a Shaker?

Why does Robert kiss his father’s hand after they butcher Pinky?

Will Robert choose to maintain his father’s farm and continue to slaughter pigs?

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Previewing and Reviewing

Think Sheet (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example (after reading) Title: A Death in the Family by James Agee Teacher Questions 1. How can religion affect people’s relationships with one another? If people share the same religion, it can bring them together. If people have different religions, or one is religious and one is not, it can cause tension in the relationship. 2. How do children deal with death differently from how adults do? Children deal with death in different ways, but often, their naiveté about the world makes them more accepting and less fearful of death. 3. How do authors use characters’ memories to develop their stories? By discussing characters’ memories or flashbacks, authors provide the reader with information about past events that have helped shape the characters’ personalities and lives.

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My Questions/Thoughts Why does the author choose to tell the story from Rufus’s perspective?

Why did the author choose Tennessee for the setting of the book?

The ending of this book is very ambiguous. The author does not clarify how Rufus feels about religion and the beliefs of his mother and aunt. I think the author did this on purpose to make the story more realistic.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Think Sheet Directions: Write your answers to the questions from your teacher. After the reading assignment or activity, write any thoughts or questions that you have about the topic.

Title: _____________________________________________________________________________ Teacher Questions

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My Questions/Thoughts

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Previewing and Reviewing

Free-Association Brainstorming Background Information The Free-Association Brainstorming strategy encourages divergent thinking for students and helps them generate many ideas on a given subject. It also helps students access their prior knowledge on the subject being studied without requiring them to organize that information. Often, students have some content knowledge but are not prepared to organize it in a systematic fashion. This strategy is the beginning of the writing process.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 62 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

Activity

examples that come to mind. If there are too few circles, students can continue to add more. Next, meet as a class and share all the ideas that students came up with. Remind them that they may continue to think of new ideas and can add them to their maps. The maps can be used as a springboard to writing or as a way to access and/or organize prior knowledge on the subject being studied.

Variation In primary grade classes, this activity is best completed as a class because it is meant to focus on the prewriting process of generating ideas— both good and bad—as quickly as possible. Write students’ contributions on the board so that writing will not hinder them. Use of the FreeAssociation Brainstorming activity sheet can be altered to fit the needs of the lesson and students: It can be used independently (to assess each student’s prior knowledge), in pairs or small groups (to generate additional ideas), or as a whole class (to allow for teacher prompting, modeling, or scaffolding).

Differentiation Encourage English language learners to draw pictures or diagrams if that helps them communicate their ideas more easily. Challenge above-level students with a more complex concept that requires higher-order thinking skills. Have below-level students work with partners to assist in getting their ideas on paper. Remind them that the purpose is simply to get their ideas on paper without worrying about spelling or grammar.

Distribute the Free-Association Brainstorming activity sheet (page 72, freeassociation.pdf) to students to help them in planning their written work during the prewriting phase. Write the topic on the board, and have students write it at the center of the map. Do not discuss this topic or explain it. Instruct students to write in the surrounding circles any words, thoughts, ideas, or © Shell Education

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Free-Association Brainstorming (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example

place

location

time

setting where something occurs

at home

rainforest

China

Grades 3–5 Example

lesson

moral

talking animals

fable teach

old

fantasy

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common

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Previewing and Reviewing

Free-Association Brainstorming (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example

nonfiction

fiction

drama

genre humor

poetry

science fiction

mystery

Grades 9–12 Example

description

vivid

mental image

imagery reader’s mind

literary device

picture

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realistic

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Free-Association Brainstorming Directions: Write the topic in the center oval. Then, add any words, thoughts, ideas, or examples in the surrounding ovals.

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Previewing and Reviewing

Guided Free Write Background Information The Guided Free Write strategy, introduced by Peter Elbow (1973), is a form of free writing. The difference is that students are guided in the topics they write about instead of writing about whatever comes to mind. Using this strategy in a language arts class encourages students to write for a designated amount of time about their thoughts and experiences related to classroom topics and discussions. It encourages students to record observations about what they are learning and to generate questions about literature. The Guided Free Write strategy allows students to practice writing using literary terms and concepts with support from the teacher. This practice builds confidence in writing, enhances vocabulary development, cements understanding, and leads to further discovery. This “thinking through” helps them clarify exactly what it is they do not understand. The primary focus is not on spelling, grammar, or mechanics. The intent is for students to think and write about their thinking.

Activity Prepare for the Guided Free Write by thinking of the central concept or theme pertaining to the fictional literature that is being taught, and determine a question or questions that will generate thought about the subject. Asking questions as opposed to describing a concept encourages higher-order thinking. These questions can be controversial or may simply encourage students to think further on a given topic. To begin, write the question on the board and instruct students to write on this topic in a notebook or on a sheet of paper. Here are some suggestions for using Guided Free Writes:

• Be sure all students have access to paper and pencils so they can spend the entire time thinking and writing.

• Tell students not to cross out any information but rather to continually add to their writing. There are no bad ideas. Many of these beginning thoughts will lead to new ideas or trails of thought.

• Keep the classroom free of distractions and noise so that students can focus on their writing.

• Set a timer for 10–20 minutes. This may Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 62 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

differ depending on students’ ages and the purpose of the Guided Free Write. Remind students that if they are actively thinking on the topic, then it is okay to pause in their writing.

• Remind students not to focus on spelling,

grammar, or punctuation. The focus is about getting ideas on paper.

Stage of Writing Process Draft

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Guided Free Write (cont.) Variation Allow students in the primary grades to draw pictures along with writing or typing to explain their thoughts. You may choose to have some students complete the Guided Free Write on the computer. Both typing on the computer and writing on paper provide students with informal writing experience.

Differentiation Allow English language learners to write words or phrases or draw pictures related to what they are thinking about. Provide sentence frames to model how to begin the answers. Encourage English language learners to put concepts down on paper and not to worry about correct tense or wording. Have them share their free writing with you in order to bring voice to what they have written or drawn. Coach above-level students to write about higher-level concepts or processes. The more complex the concept, the more questions, concerns, and solutions will be generated. For below-level students, provide time for discussion before writing to build their confidence. Also allow these students to use pictures, words, phrases, etc., if necessary, instead of writing complete sentences and paragraphs.

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Previewing and Reviewing

Guided Free Write (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Question: Why is sharing important? Student Free Write: Sharing is important. It is nice to do. I like it when people share with me. It makes me feel good inside. Sometimes, I don’t want to share with my little brother. I try to remind myself that I like it when he shares with me. So I should share with him. I don’t mind sharing most of my toys. I don’t like to share my favorite stuffed animal with him.

Grades 3–5 Example Question: Can two people with very different families and backgrounds be friends? Student Free Write: I think that people with different backgrounds can still be friends, but sometimes it is harder. Their families might not understand each other, and the parents might not like the kids playing together. Sometimes, people get scared of other people who are different. I think that is silly though because differences can make people special or interesting. My best friend Michael is a different religion from me, but we are still friends. We both like to play baseball and ride our bikes together even though we have different religions and backgrounds. I guess it depends how important the differences are to you.

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Guided Free Write (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Question: What does the idiom let sleeping dogs lie mean? Do you agree with it? Student Free Write: The saying let sleeping dogs lie means that a person should not disturb the situation or else trouble will arise. I’m not sure if I agree with the idiom because I think it depends on the situation. In some cases, I think it is a good idea. For example, if I’ve been arguing with my sister and then we finally stop, it wouldn’t be a good idea to bring up the conflict again. Sometimes, it is a good idea to bring up something bad though. If you see a person do something that you know is wrong, like break the law or hurt someone, it is always better to tell someone or call the police even if it means it might cause even more trouble.

Grades 9–12 Example Question: Is there such a thing as too much independence? Student Free Write: I think that too much independence can be a negative thing. Being independent means that you are not dependent on other people or things. Sometimes this can be helpful, like if you are independently wealthy and you don’t need to rely on other people for income. But a certain amount of dependence is important because it is part of having relationships with other people. I think that if you are too independent, you’ll end up isolated and lonely. Then again, if you are too dependent, that can cause problems too because you rely on other people for everything. I think some degree of dependence and independence is probably the best thing.

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Previewing and Reviewing

End-of-Class Reflection Background Information With the End-of-Class Reflection, students write on a notecard the three most important things learned from a reading assignment or activity, as well as two or three questions they want to ask about the central topic. This strategy meets many language arts classroom needs: students have an opportunity to summarize and paraphrase information, highlight main concepts, articulate their learning, and ask questions of the teacher. Teachers are able to quickly assess student understanding and analyze student reflections to direct future lessons. Research shows that writing about new knowledge is a key way to create lifelong learning.

Activity At the end of a given lesson, instruct students to record three key things they learned during the lesson and three questions they still have about the topic. This activity can be completed in a student journal or on a 3” x 5” card that can be collected for teacher review.

Variation For younger students who are still learning to write, consider recording students’ dictated responses on the board. With upper grades, ask students to rank their key points in order of priority or emphasis. Then, lead a brief discussion at the end of class to review key concepts, analyze rankings, and discuss any questions that were raised.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 63 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Draft

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Allow English language learners to write words or draw pictures to explain their key points or questions. Encourage them to get concepts down on paper and not worry about correct verb tense or wording. Expect above-level students to write more than three key points or to write an analysis of the learning they gathered from the lesson. Encourage these students to write questions that are open-ended, and encourage higher-level thinking. For below-level students, provide time— perhaps in a Think-Pair-Share—for discussion before writing. If students have an opportunity to discuss what they have learned, it will be easier for them to write. Model a sample response or simply the beginning of a sample response to show students how to get started. Then, ask them to use the model to write down their own thoughts.

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End-of-Class Reflection (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Learning: A story’s setting is where and when the story takes place. A setting can be a geographic location, a physical location, or even a time period. The author usually introduces the setting at the beginning of the book. Questions: What are different ways that an author can communicate setting to a reader? How does a story’s setting affect the plot? Can a setting be an imaginary place?

Grades 3–5 Example Learning: An analogy is a comparison that shows the relationship between two things. A metaphor is a direct comparison of two unlike things and does not use the words like and as. A simile is a comparison of two unlike things and does use the words like and as. Questions: Why do authors use analogies in their writing? Are metaphors and similes types of analogies? How does an author choose to use a metaphor or a simile? Do they have different effects on the writing?

Grades 6–8 Example Learning: The theme of a story is the message the author wants to communicate to the reader. The theme is related to a story’s main ideas. Some books have multiple themes. Questions: How do I determine the theme of a story? Do authors decide on a theme before they start writing a story? What is the difference between a theme and a moral?

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End-of-Class Reflection (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Learning: There are many different types of narrators in fictional literature. First- and third-person narrators are the most common. An omniscient narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of one or more characters in the book. Questions: Is one type of narration more common than the others? How does the type of narrator affect the tone of the story? How can a reader discern whether a narrator is reliable?

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Reader-Response Writing Chart Background Information The Reader-Response Writing Chart strategy, introduced by Allen Carey-Webb (2001), asks students to think about what they bring to a reading passage and what the author of the fictional text brings to the passage. When writing expository pieces, students need to try to remain neutral and focus on facts or research. In contrast, when writing persuasive pieces or narratives, students must establish a clear point of view or tone and communicate a theme to the reader. This strategy helps students become more aware of their biases and in what types of writing it is appropriate to use them. In fictional writing, the author’s attitude is often expressed through the tone of the text, so this strategy gives students a tool for determining the tone of the text and deciphering how this tone relates to their own personal feelings or attitudes.

Activity After reading a selected fictional text, distribute the Reader-Response Writing Chart activity sheet (page 83, readerresponse.pdf). On the left side, students write down the author’s point of view on the topic. Require students to cite examples from the text to support their ideas. On the right side, students record the bias or attitude that they had going into the reading. Discuss the following questions with students:

• What do you know about the subject? • What are your feelings about this topic? • Have you read anything about this subject before?

• What did you think about this subject? • What tone does the author use in the text? • Can you tell what he or she is thinking? • Do you think the author has preconceptions about the topic?

In conclusion, ask students to record whether their views or opinions changed after completing the activity.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 63 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Variation For primary grade classes, re-create the ReaderResponse Writing Chart on the board or on a large sheet of chart paper. Lead a class discussion about each question and allow students to help formulate responses to add to the chart.

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Reader-Response Writing Chart (cont.) Differentiation Encourage English language learners to work with partners when using this strategy to lower anxiety levels and promote collaboration. These students can record answers and share in the discussion. Challenge above-level students to identify multiple examples from the text to support their views of the author’s bias and attitudes. Ask them to

write about how these perspectives influence the author’s writing. Take time to define and provide examples of bias and prejudice in a levelappropriate text for below-level students.

Grades 3–5 Example The Author Her picky eating habits were only one example of her finicky personality traits. I think the author views picky eaters being difficult and fussy. Maybe he doesn’t like that type of personality.

Me Just because a person is particular about one part of his or her life, like food, does not necessarily mean that he or she is picky about other things. I know plenty of people that do not like lots of different types of food, but they are not picky about the other things in their lives. I also know lots of people that are picky about other things, such as clothing, but will eat almost anything.

Grades 6–8 Example The Author

Me

His lack of formal schooling made him ignorant to the rules of civilized society.

While students do learn about social interactions in school, it is not the only place where people learn how to use good manners. It is very possible to have good manners without attending formal schooling. Furthermore, there are many people that have gone through years of formal schooling and yet know very little about manners or the rules for being around others.

The author seems to say formal schooling and social intelligence are the same.

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Reader-Response Writing Chart (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example The Author The savagery of the natives excited my senses but weighed heavy on my conscience. There is no place for them in the modern world. It is important to distinguish between the author’s point of view and the narrator’s. This text tells me about the narrator’s point of view.

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Me When reading the text, I noted how the narrator uses opinionated vocabulary to describe the natives. It would be misleading to claim that these are the author’s direct thoughts because there are multiple narrators. The text alternates between reliable and unreliable narrators, requiring me to pay particular attention to what is communicated through each narrator’s telling. In this case, the narrator feels exhilarated by and pity for the natives. The narrator uses the word savage to convey the wild, primal side of humanity he observes in the natives. He also expresses the sadness he feels because he knows that the wild, primal nature of the natives cannot peaceably coexist in today’s world.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Reader-Response Writing Chart Directions: On the left side, write down the author’s point of view on the topic. Also, note any examples of the author’s attitude or biases. On the right side, record your own point of view regarding the subject. The Author

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Story Impressions Background Information The Story Impressions strategy (McGinley and Denner 1987, as cited in Bintz 2011) helps motivate students to read a fictional text selection by arousing their curiosity and enabling them to make predictions about the story’s characters, setting, and plot. The process of making predictions requires students to recall relevant information from prior experiences and integrate this information with their knowledge of story structure and literary elements. Prior to reading the selected text, students use a list of clue words or phrases taken directly from the text to develop an overall impression of the story. After reading, students compare their impressions with the original version of the story and note similarities and differences. The goal is not necessarily to have their information correct the first time but rather to activate prior knowledge, create a purpose for reading, examine information against a reliable source, and gain experience with determining and analyzing story structure.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed

Preparation Prior to beginning the activity, create a chronological list of key words or phrases that will provide students with clues about the story’s central elements. These words may relate to the story’s characters, setting, or plot. Students should be able to use these words and phrases to write a general impression of the story.

Activity To begin the lesson, distribute the prepared Story Impressions activity sheet (page 88, storyimpressions.pdf) to each student or display one on the board. Discuss the words and phrases on the list with students, clarifying definitions and providing context for the words as necessary. Encourage students to take notes about the words on their activity sheets. Once the class is familiar with the words and phrases, designate a set amount of time for them to complete the activity. There is no strict format to follow except that the clue words and phrases must be utilized. Allow time for students to share their Story Impressions with partners or table team for feedback and input. After reading the selected text, have students compare and contrast their Story Impressions with the text. This step is important because students are analyzing their own writing against published writing to verify information and develop metacognitive awareness about the learning process.

See page 63 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Story Impressions (cont.) Differentiation Provide clear, simple definitions and visuals of the key words for English language learners to refer to as they write their Story Impressions because it may be difficult for them to use the complex terms they have just learned. Provide sentence frames and examples of how to write a paragraph for English language learners as well. Instruct abovelevel students to incorporate additional words. For below-level students, spend individual time in a writing conference to work through the writing of the paragraph. Also, provide definitions for the key terms.

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Story Impressions (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Text: One Morning in Maine by Robert McCloskey Clue Words and Phrases: loose tooth beach father lost

sad pillow

wish ice cream

Story Impression: A child discovers that he or she has a loose tooth while she is at the beach with her father. The tooth falls out and gets lost. The child is very sad because she cannot put the tooth under her pillow and make a wish. The child makes a wish anyway and asks for ice cream. How does your Story Impression compare to the text? Some of my predictions were correct. Some were not. Sal already knew she had a loose tooth before she went down the beach. But the tooth did fall out and get lost there. Sal makes a secret wish that she will get ice cream. It comes true at the end of the story.

Grades 3–5 Example Text: Chapter 1 in Stuart Little by E. B. White Clue Words and Phrases: mouse human birth strange

helpful ring

drain

Story Impression: A mouse gives birth to a strange human baby, and the baby turns out to be very helpful. He rescues a ring that falls down a drain. How does your Story Impression compare to the text? My ideas are mostly right, except a human mother gives birth to a mouse baby instead of the other way around. In the book, the baby, Stuart Little, is not strange, but the circumstances of his birth to human parents are very strange. He is a helpful mouse that rescues Mrs. Little’s ring when it falls down a sink drain.

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Story Impressions (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Text: A Lion to Guard Us by Clyde Robert Bulla Clue Words and Phrases: brother voyage two sisters ocean stranded colony

father tempest reunited

shipwreck island

Story Impression: A brother and two sisters go on a voyage across an ocean to find their father. During the voyage, a tempest causes a shipwreck, leaving them stranded on an island. They discover a colony of native people living nearby, and they help reunite the children with their father. How does your Story Impression compare to the text? My summary is fairly accurate except for the part about the colony of native people. In this story, the colony is actually Virginia, one of the early American colonies, where the children are reunited with their father.

Grades 9–12 Example Text: The Book Thief by Markus Zusak Clue Words and Phrases: World War II traumatized 10–year–old girl death foster family brother hides befriend

illiterate bibliophile stolen books persecution

Hitler’s regime book burning Jewish refugee orphan

Story Impression: The story takes place during World War II, when a 10-year-old girl goes to live with a foster family. She is traumatized by the death of her illiterate brother. Because of her brother’s death, the girl becomes a bibliophile and collects stolen books. She does not understand when she sees Hitler’s regime burning books, and she thinks they are books from the enemy. She befriends a Jewish refugee fleeing persecution, and her family hides the refugee to protect him. An intense episode of bombing kills everyone else in the girl’s life, leaving her an orphan. How does your Story Impression compare to the text? The story does indeed take place during World War II and the main character, Liesel, is the bibliophile who is traumatized by her brother’s death. However, it is Liesel, not her brother, who begins as illiterate and only learns to read as a result of help from her foster father, Hans. When Liesel witnesses Hitler’s regime burning books, she makes Hitler her enemy and slowly begins to understand that he is responsible for the deaths of her brother and parents. © Shell Education

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Story Impressions Directions: Look at the list of words below and ask questions to clarify the meanings of any words that are unfamiliar to you. Then use the words in the order they are presented in the list to create and record your overall impression of what the story will be about.

Text: ______________________________________________________________________________ Clue Words and Phrases:

Story Impression: _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________

How does your Story Impression compare to the text? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________

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Story Prediction Chart

Background Information Students are typically more familiar with the content and story structure of narrative texts as opposed to expository texts, and this familiarity makes it easier for them to make predictions (Maria 1990). The Story Prediction Chart strategy is instrumental in helping students develop a purpose for reading by activating their prior knowledge about story structure and enabling them to make predictions based on visual information. In this strategy, students preview and discuss text features (e.g., title, cover, illustrations) in order to gather information to make predictions about the characters, events, and setting in the story. The teacher helps students recall information from their own experiences to help them form their predictions. Students record their predictions and the reasons that led them to their predictions before reading the story. Next, students read the text, stopping to confirm and revise their predictions as they proceed. After reading, students review their predictions, noting whether they were confirmed, and refer back to the story for textual evidence to support or refute their predictions. This part of the activity helps students learn how to draw evidence from literary texts to support the analysis of their predictions. Finally, students write a reflection about how the activity facilitated their comprehension of the story.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 63 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Draft

Activity Begin the activity as a class to preview the upcoming reading selection. Show the text to students, and ask them to think about the cover illustration or picture, if applicable. For young students using picture books, take a picture walk through the book and make predictions based on the illustrations. Older students using chapter books can use the chapters in addition to the cover to form their predictions. Guide them to think about personal experiences or prior knowledge related to the topic. Use a document camera to display the Story Prediction Chart activity sheet (page 93, predictionchart.pdf) for students, or re-create it on the board. Record students’ ideas and predictions on the chart. Have students read the text selection, or read it aloud to them. When about half of the text has been read, pause and ask students to review their predictions. Have any of the predictions been confirmed? Do any of the predictions need to be revised? Do you want to add any new predictions about the second half of the story? Finish reading the text, and then return to the Story Prediction Chart activity sheet. Review the predictions, and note whether they were confirmed. Demonstrate how to refer back to the text to record the page number that contains the evidence for the response. Finally, ask students to

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Story Prediction Chart (cont.) write individual reflections on the ways in which this prediction strategy helped them improve their reading comprehension of the story.

Differentiation For English language learners, make sure to define any new or challenging terms in the title of the story prior to beginning the activity. Make sure English language learners and below-level students have adequate time to process the visual information provided in the book during the preview. Above-level students should be encouraged to find multiple pieces of evidence that support or refute their predictions. Teach abovelevel students how to correctly quote directly from the text in order to provide evidence for their analysis.

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Story Prediction Chart (cont.) Grades 1–2 Examples Text: The Berenstain Bears’ Sick Days by Mike and Jan Berenstain Predictions

Evidence/Reasons

Confirmed?

Page Number

Sister Bear gets sick.

Sister stays in bed, and Mama takes her temperature. That is what my mom does when I am sick.

Yes

9

Mama has to rush around taking care of Sister and Honey.

The illustrations show Mama doing lots of things for Sister and Honey at the same time.

Yes

11–12

Mama rests while Sister watches television.

Page 13 shows Mama sitting in a chair having a cup of tea. That is what my mom does when she needs a rest.

No

13

Sister makes a pretend catapult and knocks a plant off the table.

The illustrations on pages 17–18 show this happening.

Yes

17–18

Yes

25

By the end of the day, Sister is Mama is holding her head in her hands feeling better, but now Mama and looks very tired. That is what I do is sick. when I am not feeling well. Reflection

I looked at pictures. They told me the answers. I listened more to find out if I was right. Now I know the story better. I went back and read it again. I wanted to know if I was right.

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Story Prediction Chart (cont.) Grades 3–5 Examples Text: Beezus and Ramona by Beverly Cleary, Chapter 1 Predictions

Evidence/Reasons

Confirmed?

Page Number

The story is about a younger sister and an older sister.

The front cover shows a picture of an older girl playing with a younger girl and they look similar. It also says This little sister is impossible on the cover. One of the chapters is called “Beezus and Her Little Sister,” too.

Yes

1

The little sister likes to act wild and crazy.

In all of the illustrations, the little sister is doing something wild like riding her tricycle inside the house.

Yes

4

The first chapter takes place in The little sister is wearing bunny ears in the springtime close to Easter. one illustration.

No

13 and 16

The older sister thinks the younger sister is annoying.

Yes

30

The older girl’s facial expressions suggest that she thinks the younger girl is annoying. I know that I often think my younger sisters are annoying, too. Reflection

This activity made me think about my relationships with my younger sisters. I thought about how they annoy me a lot, but how I still like to do things with them sometimes. I’m curious to learn more about Beezus’s relationship with her little sister, Ramona. By the end of the book, will Beezus be totally fed up with Ramona? Or will she see the benefits of having a younger sister? I think I paid more attention when I was reading because I wanted to know whether my predictions were correct.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Story Prediction Chart Directions: As you preview the book, record your predictions about the story. Note the reasons for your predictions. Once you have finished reading, note whether your predictions were confirmed in the text, and write down the page number where you found the evidence to refute or confirm your prediction. Reflect on your predictions and how they helped you comprehend the text in the bottom box.

Text:______________________________________________________________________________ Predictions

Evidence/Reasons

Confirmed?

Page Number

Reflection

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Journal Writing

Journal Writing Overview Benefits of Journal Writing The quote “How do I know what I think until I see what I say?” by novelist E. M. Forster makes journal writing extremely relevant to students in the language arts classroom. Even in this crowded, technological world, there is still room for personal writing. Being able to express personal feelings in writing will always be vital to making sense of the world. Journal writing allows the writer to use words to express his or her understanding of literary concepts and to connect ideas from literature to his or her own life. There are many benefits to using journal-writing strategies in the classroom. Journal writing provides a means for the student to absorb the complex themes presented in fictional narratives and record his or her reactions to new topics and ideas. Journal writing is a way for students to sort out all the new information and make sense of what they are learning. By writing in a daily journal, students become more comfortable with and confident in their writing and increase the number of words they are writing. This is another way for students to see their writing progress. Journals mean different things to different educators, and they are used for a variety of purposes. However, the support for journal writing seems almost universal. Robert Yinger (1985, 31) states that “writing is a powerful tool for learning as well as for communicating.”

How to Implement Journal Writing Incorporating journal writing into the language arts classroom is easy because it does not take much class time and there is little or no teacher preparation. Journals do not need to be graded; the focus is on content, not on students’ writing abilities or spelling, grammar, and punctuation skills. Be sure that students feel positive about writing each day in their journal. Do not make it seem like a punishment; your attitude as a teacher will mean everything. Create or designate a journal for each student—and you—to use regularly. Students should date each entry so that it becomes a written record, documenting their growth and progress in learning. Be sure students have notebooks and pencils ready at journal time so that they can spend the entire time writing instead of looking for materials. Model good writing behavior by writing in your own journal. Set aside a specific time each day during class for journal writing. Be sure to allow enough time for students to write a meaningful entry but not so much that it becomes boring and tedious. Select certain days throughout the week to have students share their journal entries with one another.

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Journal Writing Overview (cont.) .

Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Vocabulary Journal

Grades 1–2 (1.8) Grades 3–5 (1.5, 1.6) Grades 6–8 (1.5) Grades 9–12 (1.5, 1.6)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.4, L.1.6) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.4, L.2.6) Grade 3 (W.3.4, L.3.6) Grade 4 (W.4.4, L.4.6) Grade 5 (W.5.4, L.5.6) Grade 6 (W.6.4, L.6.6) Grade 7 (W.7.4, L.7.6) Grade 8 (W.8.4, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.4, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.4, L.11–12.6)

Dialogue Journal

Grades 1–2 (1.6) Grades 3–5 (1.5, 1.10) Grades 6–8 (1.5) Grades 9–12 (1.5)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.4, CCRA.W.10) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.4, CCRA.W.10) Grade 3 (W.3.4, W.3.10) Grade 4 (W.4.4, W.4.10) Grade 5 (W.5.4, W.5.10) Grade 6 (W.6.4, W.6.10) Grade 7 (W.7.4, W.7.10) Grade 8 (W.8.4, W.8.10) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.4, W.9–10.10) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.4, W.11–12.10)

Highlighted Journal

Grades 1–2 (1.1) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.1) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 4.3) Grades 9–12 (1.1)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.7, CCRA.W.9) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.7, CCRA.W.9) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.7) Grade 4 (W.4.7, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.7, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.7, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.7, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.7, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.7, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.7, W.11–12.9)

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Journal Writing

Journal Writing Overview (cont.) Strategy

96

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Key Phrase Journal

Grades 1–2 (1.2) Grades 3–5 (1.2) Grades 6–8 (1.2) Grades 9–12 (1.2)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.10, L.1.6) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.10, L.2.6) Grade 3 (W.3.10, L.3.6) Grade 4 (W.4.10, L.4.6) Grade 5 (W.5.10, L.5.6) Grade 6 (W.6.10, L.6.6) Grade 7 (W.7.10, L.7.6) Grade 8 (W.8.10, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.10, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.10, L.11–12.6)

Double-Entry Journal

Grades 3–5 (1.10, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.12)

Grade 3 (W.3.8, W.3.10) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.10) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.10) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.10) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.10) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.10) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.10) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.10)

Questioning Journal

Grades 3–5 (1.10, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.12)

Grade 3 (CCRA.W.10, W.3.9) Grade 4 (W.4.9, W.4.10) Grade 5 (W.5.9, W.5.10) Grade 6 (W.6.9, W.6.10) Grade 7 (W.7.9, W.7.10) Grade 8 (W.8.9, W.8.10) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.9, W.9–10.10) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.9, W.11–12.10)

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Journal Writing

Vocabulary Journal Background Information The Vocabulary Journal provides an opportunity for students to communicate, and it can lead to self-reflection and growth. The Vocabulary Journal is an excellent resource to use with fictional literature because it allows students to write personally about the words they encounter in the text. The entries in a Vocabulary Journal vary—each one meets a specific need or skill. Expectations for the writing in the Vocabulary Journal vary according to students’ levels. Through the continued use of Vocabulary Journals, students develop a comprehensive resource of many new general academic and domainspecific words that they can refer to for help with reading comprehension or writing.

Activity Designate or create a notebook for each student to use as a Vocabulary Journal. This journal helps students keep track of and reflect on the many new words that are introduced in the study of fictional literature. Following is a variety of strategies to use with the Vocabulary Journal:

• Log new vocabulary words and their

definitions as well as synonyms, antonyms, comparisons, etc.

• Write about the words students are learning.

Ask students: What has the experience been like? What have you learned? What do you hope to remember? What strategies can you use to retain these words? How does learning the meanings of words help you better understand literary concepts and information?

• Explain the strategies that can be used when students encounter an unfamiliar word.

• Create a piece of fiction, such as a letter or a story, using the new vocabulary words.

• Write sentences using the vocabulary words. • List the resources that are available for Grade Levels/Standards Addressed

students to use when researching new vocabulary words.

• Design a journal entry to be shared with a partner or a small group.

See page 95 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Journal Writing

Vocabulary Journal (cont.) Variation For primary grade students, create a class Vocabulary Journal. Allow students to dictate entries to be recorded by the teacher. This provides an opportunity for the teacher to model good writing skills. Or provide students with their own journals and allow them to draw and label pictures of vocabulary words. If students are able to use the word in a sentence or explain what it means orally, challenge them to write their response in their Vocabulary Journal.

Differentiation Select Vocabulary Journal strategies that will encourage growth for English language learners but not overwhelm them, such as recording new vocabulary terms with their definitions, synonyms, and examples. Remind them to draw pictures to help create a visual connection. Challenge abovelevel students to write about complex literary terms in their Vocabulary Journals. Allow them to select words and entries that they are personally interested in. Limit the number of vocabulary words that below-level students write about. Provide them with sentence frames to help them meet the expectations of the assigned activity.

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Journal Writing

Vocabulary Journal (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Vocabulary Words 1. tryout: when a person tries out for a part in a performance • synonyms: attempt, test • sample sentence: I hope I do well in my dance tryout next weekend.

2. companion: a person who is with another person • synonym: partner, pal, friend • sample sentence: My friend Nick is my companion because he likes to spend time with me.

3. horrible: when someone is mean or does mean things • synonyms: evil, bad, wrong • sample sentence: The horrible witch loved to cause trouble by scaring young children.

Grades 3–5 Example simile: a comparison of two unlike things, using the words like or as 1. The truck was as big as a whale. 2. The wind whistled like a teakettle. 3. The sky was as black as coal. 4. My mouth felt as dry as dust. 5. The soap was as slippery as an eel. metaphor: a direct comparison of two unlike things not using the words like or as 1. The man was a beast. 2. Time is money. 3. The market was a nightmare yesterday. 4. I am boiling mad. 5. She listened with a wooden face.

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Journal Writing

Vocabulary Journal (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Dear Grace, I’m writing to tell you about my delightful visit to the countryside during our vacation. The rolling greens hills made an idyllic setting for a restful respite from city life. We spent our days gathering wildflowers and observing the multitude of different types of birds. The food was absolutely scrumptious, too! We were sad that our little sojourn had to come to an end, but it is nice to be home now. Your friend, Emma

Grades 9–12 Example When I encounter a word that is unfamiliar to me, there are a variety of different resources I can use to determine or clarify its meaning. A dictionary, either online or in book form, can provide information about a word’s definition. A thesaurus can also be used to look up synonyms and antonyms for words. Dictionaries of root words contain information about the etymology of different words. The Internet contains a large number of resources, including online encyclopedias like Wikipedia that can be used to learn about new words, but it is important to verify the reliability of Wikipedia and other sources when using the Internet. People such as parents, teachers, and librarians, can also serve as resources.

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Journal Writing

Dialogue Journal Background Information A Dialogue Journal (Staton 1980) is just what the name implies—a dialogue between two or more people. Dialogue Journals can be shared between a student and a teacher or between one student and another student. This strategy does entail more work for teachers, but the dialogue exchange and extra effort is rewarding and informative. Using this strategy, teachers can recognize areas of student concern or misunderstanding with respect to the language arts content as well as student progress in communicating thoughts and ideas in writing. Students benefit from having an audience for their writing and using writing as an authentic form of communication. The Dialogue Journal provides an excellent place for students to practice casual writing for an informal audience.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 95 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Activity Designate a notebook or binder to be used as the Dialogue Journal. Ask students to respond to a prompt or question, or occasionally allow them to write about a topic of their own. Using a combination of both adds variety to the strategy. Students then exchange Dialogue Journals with the teacher or a peer who then reads the journal entry and responds to questions or adds comments. Then, exchange again and write a new entry to continue the dialogue.

Variation Create a teacher-class Dialogue Journal for primary grade students. Or provide a question or a prompt with a frame for the answer to assist these students.

Differentiation Remind English language learners that this is a personal assignment, so they can respond in a way that is comfortable for them. Allow them to choose how they would like to communicate. Challenge above-level students by giving them specific feedback that will stimulate challenging thoughts and ideas and develop more effective writing skills. Encourage them to research ideas further and write about their findings in the next journal entry. When dialoguing with below-level students, be sure to keep your writing clear, concise, and easy to read. Use the journal as an opportunity to challenge their thinking even if the reading or writing skills are not high. Carefully consider whom to pair these students with when journals are exchanged.

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Dialogue Journal (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example

Student:

I like the book Lilly’s Purple Plastic Purse. It reminds me of my own life. Once, I brought a new toy to school. My kindergarten teacher took it away because I kept playing with it.

Teacher:

I like the way you connected the story to your own life. How did your situation end? Do you think Mr. Slinger acted fairly when he took Lilly’s purse away from her?

Student:

I do think that Mr. Slinger acted fairly. He had already asked Lilly to put the purse away and she didn’t listen. He gave her the purse back at the end of the day. That was nice of him. I don’t really know why Lilly got so mad at Mr. Slinger.

Teacher:

Try to put yourself in Lilly’s shoes. She was really excited about her purse. Then Mr. Slinger took it away. Do you think the way she acted was really bad?

Student:

I still don’t understand why Lilly was so mad. I think her picture of Mr. Slinger wasn’t nice. I do think that it was good that Lilly used writing to share her feelings.

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Student:

I learned a lot about plot structure during the class discussion today. I understand the concepts of introduction, rising action, and conflict, but I’m confused about the climax. How do you determine the climax of a story?

Teacher:

That’s an excellent question. The climax is when the conflict in the story is finally resolved. So first, you have to identify the conflict in the story and then use that information to determine the climax.

Student:

Okay, that makes sense. Now I’m confused about the falling action, though. I thought the conflict was resolved in the events in the falling action.

Teacher:

The bulk of the conflict is resolved in the climax of a story. The purpose of the events that occur in the falling action after the climax is to tie up all the loose ends of the story and show how the resolution of the conflict affected various characters. I think it is great that you are thinking critically about plot structure. Keep up the good work!

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Journal Writing

Dialogue Journal (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Student:

Today, we talked about different types of figurative language and why authors choose to use them in their writing. I understand the concepts of simile and metaphor, but I still don’t really understand their purpose. Doesn’t the use of figurative language make writing more confusing for the reader?

Teacher:

Figurative language is used in fiction to engage the reader and make the writing more interesting. While it might seem as if it would make the text more confusing, figurative language is often used to add emphasis so the reader can gain a better understanding of the text. For example, I could say, “The whale was big,” or I could say, “The whale was as big as a bus.” Which statement helps you understand my point better?

Student:

I see what you are saying. By comparing a whale to a bus, you made me understand its size. Is figurative language mostly used to describe physical appearances?

Teacher:

Actually, figurative language can be used to describe almost anything. In addition to physical objects, you can use figurative language to describe feelings, actions, or experiences. For instance, I could say, “My feet flew down the street,” as a way of describing how fast I was running, even though feet can’t really fly. Try to challenge yourself to use examples of figurative language the next time you write a narrative piece—you may find you enjoy it!

Grades 9–12 Example Student:

I noticed how Emily Brontë repeatedly mentions the landscape and the moors throughout Wuthering Heights. Does she do this for a reason?

Teacher:

You made a good observation about the repeated appearance of the moors in Wuthering Heights. Usually authors spend a great deal of time, often years, writing novels of this length, so I believe that the majority of the text was carefully planned. What do you think? What role could the moors play in the story?

Student:

I think the setting is symbolic because moors are open, boggy land that cannot be cultivated. This setting gives the story a sense of foreboding, especially because Brontë mentions the possibility of drowning in the moor several times throughout the book.

Teacher:

I agree with you about the setting being symbolic. I think Brontë uses the moor as a setting to show how nature can be a threat. Do you think it is relevant that the moors are infertile? Do you think it is symbolic that Catherine and Heathcliff play on the moors as children? We’re going to be discussing the setting of Wuthering Heights in class tomorrow, and if you feel comfortable, I think it would be great if you would share your insight with the rest of the class.

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Highlighted Journal Background Information The Highlighted Journal is a strategy that assists students in making connections with their learning. Students need to regularly write about fictional literature in their journals for at least a month before trying this strategy. Students read through their journals and highlight key points—significant information or discoveries, points from class discussions, or concepts from a language arts text. They then use this information to build knowledge around a variety of concepts. This strategy helps develop research skills by asking students to analyze their written work for trends, commonalities, main ideas, themes, etc. By drawing evidence from their own texts, students can compile their learning to support the analysis and research of literary concepts.

Preparation Have students routinely write about fictional literature in their journals for at least a month so that they will have enough writing to analyze for this strategy. Consider implementing the JournalWriting strategies in this section to provide students with purposeful journal-writing activities in which students produce writing that can be analyzed for this strategy.

Activity Tell students to read through their journals, looking for key words or concepts, common themes, or interesting points. Provide highlighters or allow students to use pencils to underline key points in their journal entries. Ask them to share their highlighted selections and the reasons why they chose them with each other or with the class.

Variation For a primary grade class using a single journal between the teacher and the class, read through the journal entries together and ask students to identify the key points to highlight.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 95 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Differentiation Prompt English language learners to look for common words that they see throughout their journals, as these are likely some of the key concepts and important vocabulary words that they need to know. Using this strategy serves as an effective review tool for them. Consider having above-level students explain to the class how they chose their highlighted points. For below-level students, take time to explicitly model how to identify significant information or common ideas in your own journal before asking them to apply the strategy.

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Journal Writing

Highlighted Journal (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example November 2 The evil character in the story is the witch. She tries to trick the good character named Sammy. She wants him to go into the woods alone. November 3 The peddlers are the bad characters. They try to fool Joshua. They want him to betray his family. November 4 If you are not fair, you will not be happy. That is the point of the story. November 7 The characters show that being kind is better than being evil.

Grades 3–5 Example February 10 At the beginning of the story, the reader learns about the characters, Henry and Harry, and that the story will take place on a farm. February 11 I think the setting is very important to the story. It sets the mood as dark and scary even before the plot begins. February 12 One way that the author communicates his point of view is through his choice of setting. By writing about the beautiful landscapes in the Midwest, the author shows that he likes open prairielands. February 15 I think the story would be more interesting if it took place in the future. The author’s gloomy and negative attitude shows that he thinks our current society is doomed to fail. He does not give any suggestions for changing this path. If he set the story in the future, then he could suggest ways to change the world rather than just accept the way it is.

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Highlighted Journal (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example January 8 There are three types of irony in literature: verbal, situational, and dramatic. January 11 When Uncle Scott says, “The water is as clear as mud,” he is using verbal irony to indicate that the water was actually not clear at all. The use of irony in his speech tells the reader about Uncle Scott’s attitude and personality—he is a very sarcastic character. January 12 It is ironic that Mark’s father, Steve, ends up writing for a travel magazine even though he rarely leaves his house and hates to travel. I think the author included this detail to show the reader that life is not always clear and sometimes situations turn out differently than expected.

Grades 9–12 Example April 2 In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald mentions a green light that Gatsby can barely see from his lawn. Is this light symbolic? What is its purpose? April 7 Gatsby associates the green light with Daisy and reaches out for it. The green light seems to represent Gatsby’s dreams or desires. April 9 Since we know that Daisy loosely represents the American dream, the green light also seems to be a symbol for Gatsby’s dreams about an idealized future. Later in the book, Nick compares the green light to how America must have seemed to the settlers when they first came to the new nation, again using the green light as a symbol for hopes and dreams.

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Journal Writing

Key Phrase Journal Background Information The Key Phrase Journal (Bringle and Hatcher 1996) is a strategy that assists students in regularly incorporating new academic vocabulary and phrases into their writing. During a language arts lesson, the teacher selects a list of literary terms or unknown vocabulary words students are to use in a journal entry. Through the process of incorporating these domain-specific words into their writing, students gain practice with accurately using the new terms in context. By using this strategy on a regular basis, students can develop a more solid understanding of the meanings of the new words and become more adept at using them consistently in their writing.

Activity Prior to teaching a language arts lesson, make a list of words or phrases that students should understand thoroughly. These can be technical literary terms, such as hyperbole or simile, or general vocabulary drawn from the lesson’s reading selection. Throughout the reading lesson or activity, introduce the words and use them in sentences or point them out in the text. Discuss the meanings of the words with students. After the lesson or later in the day, write the list of words and phrases on the board and instruct students to write an entry in their journals using those words.

Variation With primary grade students, create sentences orally as a class. Write the sentences on the board or invite students to write them. To challenge upper grade students, let them select the words to incorporate into the journal entries, and ask them to persuade you to agree with their choices.

Differentiation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 96 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process

For English language learners, select from the list only the terms with which they are somewhat familiar—words that have been discussed as a class and defined on numerous occasions. Have them use only those words in their Key Phrase Journal so that they are not frustrated. Challenge abovelevel students to use words that are more difficult or less familiar to them by researching the terms and determining ways to incorporate them into the journal entry. For below-level students, allow them to select only one or two words to use in their journal entry and help them use resources to look up these words, if needed.

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Key Phrase Journal (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Key Words: author, characters, setting Journal Entry: Authors are people who write stories. I can write a story. I can be an author. Stories have characters. And stories have settings. The characters are the people who the story is about. They do things together. They talk and make many choices. What the characters do is usually what the story is about. The setting is where the story happens.

Grades 3–5 Example Key Words: dusk, pesky, fetch, woodchuck Journal Entry: As dusk began to fall, the woodchuck poked his head out of an old stump and looked around. His short legs carried his round little body over to the garden fence where he hoped to fetch a few ripe vegetables for dinner. Just as he was about to grab a carrot, the pesky rabbit from the hollow log next door ran over and grabbed the carrot straight from his mouth. The woodchuck chased the rabbit, but it was no use—his short legs were no match for the rabbit’s gigantic leaps. from Sarah, Plain and Tall by Patricia MacLachlan

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Journal Writing

Key Phrase Journal (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Key Words: narrator, point of view, first person, third person, omniscient, peripheral, central Journal Entry: The narrator is the person who tells the story, and he or she can have different points of view. A firstperson point of view means that the author is one of the characters in the story and tells the story from his or her perspective, using words like I or we. Third-person perspective is when the narrator is not a character in the story and tells the story from the view of an invisible observer. First-person narrators can be central, or main, characters in the story, or they can be peripheral, or minor, characters in the story. Third-person narrators can be omniscient, meaning that they know the thoughts and feelings of all the characters in the story, or limited omniscient, meaning that they only know the thoughts and feelings of one or more, but not all, characters.

Grades 9–12 Example Key Words: foreshadow, symbol, motif, theme Journal Entry: In The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, the theme of humankind’s inhumane treatment of other humans plays an important role. Throughout the story, Steinbeck reinforces the idea that the hardship and suffering of the migrant workers stem mostly from the greediness of the landowners, not luck or the weather. The death of the Joad’s dog when he is run over and then left for dead at a gas station foreshadows the hardships that await the Joads out West and symbolizes how humankind (driver of the car that killed the dog) will cause this suffering. Steinbeck also uses the motif of changing family structures to illustrate the power of family in the story. As Pa steps down from his role as the leader of the family, disrupting the traditional patriarchal family structure present at the beginning of the story, Ma steps up, taking on the untraditional leadership role of the family matriarch. Despite, or perhaps because of, this change in family structure, the power of the family endures and unites the Joads in their struggle for survival. from The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck

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Journal Writing

Double-Entry Journal Background Information The Double-Entry Journal (Angelo and Cross 1993) is a strategy to help students summarize what they read and to connect the reading with their own words and understanding. A Double-Entry Journal has two columns: one for notes, paraphrasing, and summaries; and the other for entries that express students’ thoughts in their own words. This strategy allows teachers to immediately gauge student comprehension of the objectives and use that information in future lessons. It also focuses on the prewriting skills of note-taking and information analysis. Students analyze, synthesize, question, and write about what they are reading as well as personalize and reflect on what they have learned.

Activity Before reading a selected fictional text, distribute the Double-Entry Journal activity sheet (page 113, doubleentry.pdf). On the left side, have students write notes or summaries of the reading, and on the right side, have them record personal reflections, observations, or questions. Select passages to focus on content or clarify misunderstandings, or allow students to select their own passages because of particular interests or questions they have about them. When students have completed both sides of their journal entries, have them draw arrows to show the connections and relationships between the summary of the content and their personal thoughts and reflections. This reinforces for students what they are learning.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 96 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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For English language learners, scaffold the activity by providing notes and key concepts for the left column in simple sentences that are easy to understand. Have these students read and discuss the notes before writing about them. Once they have written the personal reflection, suggest that English language learners draw arrows to show connections between the notes and their own words. Challenge above-level students to also write what they are thinking about as they write their notes. Another term for this is thinking aloud. Once the note-taking, summarizing, and thinking aloud are completed, have students write personal reflections. For below-level students, have them focus on only one or two key points to summarize from the lesson. Instruct them to keep their notes brief and limited so they can focus on their personal reflection without being overwhelmed by too many concepts to discuss.

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Journal Writing

Double-Entry Journal (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Stone Soup by Marcia Brown Text Passage

Student Response

• Three hungry soldiers come to a town to ask

• I like how the whole town ended up working

for some food and a place to sleep.

• The townspeople hide their food and say there is no place to sleep.

• The soldiers declare that they will make stone soup from water and stones.

together and contributing to make the soup.

• I still don’t understand if the townspeople

understood that it was really them, not the soldiers, that actually created the soup.

• Gradually, the townspeople each give a little food to the soup.

• The whole town has a feast. • The townspeople think the soldiers are very wise to be able to make soup from stones, so they give the soldiers the best beds in town.

• The soldiers continue on their way. Grades 6–8 Example Text: James and the Giant Peach by Roald Dahl Text Passage

Student Response

“At this point, James slowly put down his chopper and turned and looked across at the two women who were standing underneath the peach tree. Something is about to happen, he told himself. Something peculiar is about to happen any moment. He hadn’t the faintest idea what it might be, but he could feel it in his bones that something was going to happen soon. He could feel it in the air around him . . . in the sudden stillness that had fallen upon the garden” (Dahl 19–20).

I think Roald Dahl uses James’s thought that something peculiar is going to happen to foreshadow upcoming events in the story. Like James, I don’t know what will happen, but it makes me excited to keep reading the book. I think that this type of foreshadowing is interesting because the reader doesn’t know if the upcoming event will be positive or negative.

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Journal Writing

Double-Entry Journal (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros Text Passage The chapter “My Name” in The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros tells how Esperanza does not like her name. Even though it means “hope,” Esperanza thinks that it has too many letters and, in her view, it means “sadness” and “waiting” (Cisneros 10–11).

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Student Response This chapter made me feel sad. Esperanza seems to really hate her name, even though it signifies something beautiful. Maybe Esperanza’s feelings about her name symbolize her lack of hope about her future, since her name means “hope.” Or maybe she feels like her parents have very high hopes for her since they gave her that name and she is worried about not meeting these expectations. I hope we learn more about Esperanza and her relationship with her name in upcoming chapters.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Double-Entry Journal Title: _______________________________________________________________________________________

Text Passage

• Write the passage directly from the text. • Write notes from the text. • Write a summary of a section of text.

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Student Response

• What are your reactions to the text? • What does it remind you of? • What questions do you still have?

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Journal Writing

Questioning Journal Background Information Journals allow students to reflect on their reading, leading to better classroom discussions and increased comprehension (Maria 1990). Journal writing allows students to integrate their knowledge of reading and writing so they can see how each skill can be used to support the other. In the Questioning Journal, students record their questions about the reading as they arise and then note any answers or relevant information about their questions as they continue reading. This strategy is similar in format to the DoubleEntry Journal strategy, but the emphasis is on questioning rather than summarizing. The Questioning Journal is used before, during, and after a reading so that students can record their questions as they occur and also draw evidence from the text to provide answers to their questions and material for further reflection.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 96 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Activity Distribute the Questioning Journal activity sheet (page 117, questioning.pdf) to students before beginning the reading selection. Instruct students to record their questions about the text in the left-hand column and their thoughts, answers, or other information relevant to their questions in the right-hand column. If appropriate, the teacher may choose to narrow the scope of students’ questions in order to focus on specific literary elements. For example, a teacher might ask students to record their questions concerning the characters in the story and how they develop over the course of the text. Encourage students to take the time to stop and record their questions as they occur rather than reading on in hopes that the text will answer the questions.

Differentiation For English language learners, provide a list of sample questions to help guide their thinking and writing for the left-hand column. Encourage them to complete the reflection and analysis independently, asking for assistance from the teacher or their peers when necessary. Belowlevel students will benefit from a shorter text selection. These students may have an abundance of questions, so help them choose several important ones to focus on. Multiple readings of the text selection will also help them draw the relevant information from the text to answer their questions. Above-level students should be instructed to ask more complex questions rather than simpler, factual questions about the text. Guide them in developing questions about literary concepts such as theme, symbolism, and imagery that will deepen their reading comprehension.

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Journal Writing

Questioning Journal (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Charlotte’s Web by E. B. White Questions

Relevant Information/Answers

Why did Mr. Arable want to kill Wilbur?

Mr. Arable was going to kill Wilbur because he was the runt of the litter, but I’m still not sure what runt means.

What does the word runt mean?

The runt is the smallest animal in the litter. The runt of a litter is often weak and sometimes does not survive for very long. Mr. Arable thought Wilbur would die anyway.

Why did Wilbur have to go live with the Zuckermans?

Mr. Arable still sees Wilbur as something to be bought and sold, not as a pet, and he is concerned that Fern will get too attached to Wilbur. They compromise by selling Wilbur to Fern’s uncle down the road.

Grades 6–8 Example Text: Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck Questions

Relevant Information/Answers

Why does George stick with Lennie after Lennie gets them in trouble at the last farm where they worked?

George has assumed the responsibility to care for Lennie, and he sees Lennie as his friend. Lennie and George are united by a common dream of owning their farm with a house and a rabbit hutch.

What is the significance of Candy’s dog in the story?

Candy loves his old dog although he cannot voice these feelings. In the end, he lets Carlson shoot his dog, but then Candy wonders whether he should have done it himself. Candy’s relationship with his dog seems to parallel George’s relationship with Lennie.

How could George shoot Lennie at the end of the story?

George shot Lennie to save him from Curly’s lynch mob. He knew that Lennie would experience nothing but suffering after he killed Curly’s wife, and he wanted to save him from that. George knew that Lennie depended on him, so he had to do what he thought would limit Lennie’s suffering.

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Questioning Journal (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: The Kitchen God’s Wife by Amy Tan

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Questions

Relevant Information/Answers

What is the relationship between Helen and Winnie?

Although they are not blood sisters, they act just like siblings. They have huge fights, but they also share a very special and deep bond. Helen is the only person that knows Winnie’s real story.

Why does Winnie keep cleaning her house?

Winnie starts to clean when she wants to forget something from her past. It seems like she uses it as a distraction from things she does not want to think about or remember.

Why does Winnie hide in her aunts’ greenhouse?

When Winnie goes to live with her aunts, she feels out of place and unwanted. Her uncle built the greenhouse so he could practice a western hobby, gardening. When he got bored with gardening, the greenhouse just became a storage shed. Winnie finds a painting of her mother in the greenhouse, giving the location special significance.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Questioning Journal Text: ______________________________________________________________________________ Questions

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Relevant Information/Answers

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Note-Taking

Note-Taking Overview Note-taking is a crucial skill for students in upper-elementary grades and beyond. High school and college students do a significant amount of note-taking during classes and while reading, so it makes sense for this skill to be taught to our younger students, as well. Teachers often ask students to take notes or copy modeled notes during a lecture. Some ask for notes as evidence of completing assigned independent reading. Additionally, notes can be useful as a review tool before an assessment. Note-taking is also an important research skill, as it provides a system for organizing information. As students read various research sources, they must extract the larger overarching ideas and the supporting details. If students are to apply this information in a meaningful way, they must arrange the information in such a way that makes sense. Otherwise, the notes are simply a laundry list of random information. By providing instruction on effective note-taking systems, teachers can help their students become more efficient researchers. It is important to note that this skill needs to be taught with a clear explanation, teacher modeling, guided practice, and explicit feedback. As with any other strategy, students must reach a level of proficiency before they are expected to use the strategy independently. Teachers can employ the same instructional strategies that are effective when teaching other skills: display the selection with a document camera, conduct a thinkaloud as the main ideas and details are identified, model how to use the designated note-taking strategy on chart paper or with a document camera, and ask for student assistance to complete the notes. Upperelementary students may need the notes scaffolded for them, with some of the information filled in, in order to develop a useful set of notes. Teachers can make the connection between reading and writing explicit by discussing how text structures are mirrored between the two. Students who are familiar with various text structures will be better able to learn and use the note-taking strategies. For example, a narrative text with several prominent themes may lend itself well to a strategy such as a T-List, where main ideas are listed in one column and the corresponding details are listed in the other. Additionally, a fictional text that describes a series of events may be better suited to the Note-Taking System for Learning, where each event has a section within the outline. Teachers may want to introduce one of these strategies immediately following a reading lesson on main idea or plot sequence. In this way, teachers can provide an authentic opportunity for students to apply that “reading” skill to a “writing” strategy. To extend the value of note-taking, teachers can show students how to use their notes to apply new knowledge to a writing activity. Well-organized notes are an excellent foundation for a well-written assignment. Teachers can remind students to make use of their notes to begin a piece of writing, as they serve as an effective prewriting strategy. Again, this can show students the connection between reading and writing.

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Note-Taking

Note-Taking Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy Cornell Note-Taking System

McREL Standards Grades 3–5 (4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.5) Grades 9–12 (4.6)

Note-Taking System for Learning

Grades 3–5 (4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.5) Grades 9–12 (4.6)

T-List

Grades 3–5 (4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.5) Grades 9–12 (4.6)

Sticky Note Annotation System

Grades 3–5 (4.7) Grades 6–8 (4.5) Grades 9–12 (4.6)

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Common Core State Standards Grade 3 (W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8) Grade 3 (W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8) Grade 3 (W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

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Cornell Note-Taking System Background Information The Cornell Note-Taking System (Pauk 1988) strategy teaches students how to effectively take notes during a language arts lecture. This strategy teaches students to take clean notes and to organize the notes for the best study options later. The Cornell Note-Taking Strategy encourages students to summarize important points while they take notes and then categorize this information into main ideas and details. It requires a lot of practice time for students. Teach the Cornell NoteTaking System by modeling or practicing each day and slowly incorporating the different stages of the system.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 119 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

are recorded. Before beginning a lecture, explain that students should focus on the Notes column. Remind students that they should paraphrase the information and not try to write down their notes verbatim. Encourage them to use abbreviations or phrases and to write down the big ideas when taking notes. Students may need to skip lines to leave room for adding information later. Discuss the notes from the lecture and the different ways that students can record this information. Remind students to focus on the main ideas and key terms of the content and to not get bogged down with too many details. After the lecture, instruct students to read through their Notes and write down key points or terms in the Recall column. These key words or phrases will help them recall the main idea of each section of notes without having to read through the whole Notes section. Remind students to review their notes each day to place the information into long-term memory.

Variation When students are finished, have them use their Notes to write questions about the material that might be asked on future tests. Or instruct students to cover up the Notes side and use the cue words on the Recall side to describe the details of each concept. Students can verify what they have recited by uncovering the Notes column and checking their work.

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Activity Create or designate a notebook for the Cornell Note-Taking System activity sheet (page 122, cornellsystem.pdf) so that sheets can be added or removed. Instruct students to write on only one side of the paper. The right-hand side is the Notes column for notes taken during the lecture. The left-hand side is the Recall column, where key words or phrases that summarize the notes 120

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Differentiation When working with English language learners, scaffold the Notes page by providing some of the main ideas to help these students preview the information and shape their focus for the lecture. Challenge above-level students to add diagrams, maps, and charts in the notes column to visually portray important concepts. For below-level students, preview the main ideas of the lecture and explain how to identify important as well as extraneous information. This discussion will help these students organize and understand their notes and cement information taught during the lecture. © Shell Education

Note-Taking

Cornell Note-Taking System (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Topic: inferences Recall

Notes

Inferences are conclusions draws from the text. Inferences are not obvious or stated in the text. Inferences help the reader understand the text better.

• readers make inferences by combining information in the text with personal background knowledge or experiences

• readers have to make inferences to understand main ideas or themes • inferences are not ideas or facts stated outright in a text • readers make inferences about characters’ thoughts, opinions, and actions • inferences can also be thought of as conclusions drawn from the text

Grades 6–8 Example Topic: Greek or Latin root words Recall Greek and Latin root words can help the reader understand the meaning of new vocabulary words. Words that share common roots often have similar definitions.

Notes

• many of our words in the English language come from Greek or Latin • Greek and Latin roots help the reader understand the meaning of new words • words that share common Greek or Latin roots often share similar meanings • learning about root words helps you understand the origin of the word and how it came to have its present-day meaning

• root words can be combined with knowledge about prefixes and suffixes to determine meaning

Grades 9–12 Example Topic: hyperbole Recall Hyperboles are figures of speech that use exaggeration to communicate a point. Hyperboles are often used for emphasis but can also be used to add humor to writing. Hyperboles help the reader visualize or imagine a certain aspect of the story.

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Notes

• an exaggerated figure of speech • not meant to be taken literally • can be used to add humor to the text • makes writing more engaging for the reader • used to communicate a point indirectly • used to create imagery • helps the reader visualize the character, setting, or situation • often used with similes and metaphors when comparing two unlike things

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Cornell Note-Taking System Directions: During a lecture, take notes in the Notes column, using short phrases and abbreviations. After the lecture, review your notes and write the key points in the Recall column.

Topic: _____________________________________________________________________________ Recall

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Note-Taking

Note-Taking System for Learning Background Information Students in the upper-elementary, middle, and high school grades are required to take notes on lectures and presentations. Often, students do not have experience with or the understanding of how to take notes, and the Note-Taking System for Learning strategy (Palmatier 1973) helps them learn this valuable skill. By using this strategy, students learn how to gather, categorize, and organize relevant information in a useful and efficient manner. Note-taking allows students to accurately and efficiently summarize information from the text in order to improve reading comprehension and reinforce new learning.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 119 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

details in outline form. Instruct them to leave space between main ideas as needed for future notes and additions. Robert Palmatier suggests writing only on the front of the pages to avoid confusion later. Model for students how to take notes; after reading a passage from a text, take notes on a chart or use a document camera to show how to choose the key points. Give students plenty of practice taking notes before expecting them to do it independently. 2. Organizing—When students have completed their notes, have them number the pages and staple them in order. Next, have students read through their notes and add labels in the left margin that describe the gist of the notes. This allows time for students to review what they have written and helps them identify any confusion they may have about the content. Students may also add to their notes, incorporating information from the text, lecture, or additional research that clarifies existing information. Use the blank side of the paper for this. 3. Studying—Once students have organized all the information in one place, instruct them to use their notes to study. The labels and information in the left margin provide a summary and overview of their notes.

Differentiation Stages of Writing Process Prewrite

Activity Before introducing this strategy, distribute the Note-Taking System for Learning activity sheet (page 126, notesystemlearning.pdf) to students. The strategy has three main components: 1. Recording—During a lecture, have students write down the main ideas and supporting © Shell Education

Scaffold notes for English language learners by providing them with the main points. Then, have them focus on adding details during the notetaking process. They will still have the opportunity to summarize and label their notes in the left margin. Challenge above-level students to add to their notes by reading other texts related to the topic. Be sure the new materials are at a challenging reading level. For below-level students, clearly define main ideas and details and provide examples of completed notes pages. Prior to the lecture, provide them with the main ideas so that they can listen for and record the details. #51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

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Note-Taking System for Learning (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Subject: plot sequence

I. Introduction

a. Kenny and his family live in Flint, Michigan. b. Kenny’s family members are his dad, mom, older brother Byron, and younger sister Joetta. II. Rising Action a. Byron becomes friends with Buphead, and they start getting into trouble together. b. Kenny’s parents decide that the family is going to take a trip to Alabama to visit Grandma Sands. Kenny will have to stay there if he cannot change his behavior. III. Climax a. Grandma Sands’s church is bombed. Everyone think that Joetta was at the church when the bombings occurred. b. Joetta turns out to be safe because she left the church before the bombing. IV. Falling Action a. The family immediately leaves Birmingham and goes back to Michigan. b. Kenny struggles to understand the church bombing. V. Resolution a. Byron helps Kenny work through his feelings about the bombing by showing him that he is not to blame for what happened. from The Watsons Go to Birmingham–1963 by Christopher Paul Curtis

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Note-Taking

Note-Taking System for Learning (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Subject: theme of dedication

I. Billy

a. Billy shows determination by saving his money for two years to buy his dogs. b. He walks through the forest by himself at night to get the dogs. c. He labors hard to cut down the big sycamore tree so his dogs will not feel let down. d. He shows determination when he wins the coon-hunting championship. II. Old Dan and Little Anne a. The dogs are always extremely determined to catch raccoons. b. As their relationship with Billy evolves, the dogs also become determined to not let Billy down. from Where the Red Fern Grows by Wilson Rawls

Grades 9–12 Example Subject: symbolism of fire

I. Fire is symbolic of Okonkwo’s physical anger.

a. Fire destroys everything it consumes. b. Okonkwo physically kills Ikemefuna and Ogbuefi Ezeudu’s son. II. Fire is symbolic of Okonkwo’s psychological destructiveness. a. Anger is the only emotion Okonkwo permits himself to display. b. Okonkwo eventually succumbs to the fire, or rage, inside of him, and it destroys him. from Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Note-Taking System for Learning Directions: During a lecture, write down the main ideas and supporting details in outline form.

Subject: ___________________________________________________________________________

I. ___________________________________________________________________________________ a._____________________________________________________________________________ b._____________________________________________________________________________ c._____________________________________________________________________________ d._____________________________________________________________________________

II. __________________________________________________________________________________ a._____________________________________________________________________________ b._____________________________________________________________________________ c._____________________________________________________________________________ d._____________________________________________________________________________

III. ____________________________________________________________________________ a._____________________________________________________________________________ b._____________________________________________________________________________ c._____________________________________________________________________________ d._____________________________________________________________________________

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Note-Taking

T-List Background Information The T-List strategy (Chamot and O’Malley 1994; Hamp-Lyons 1983) organizes information into main ideas and details. It is also an effective alternative to quizzes and short-answer tests for assessing student comprehension. This strategy can facilitate question-and-answer discussions and oral summaries. The T-List is a visual representation of information that students can use to write about a given topic. This strategy is effective for taking notes on both lectures and reading selections. When taking notes while reading, students should also be taught how to cite their literary sources and provide a list of sources to enhance credibility and avoid plagiarism.

Activity Distribute the T-List activity sheet (page 129, tlist.pdf) to students or have them create their own by drawing a large T on a blank sheet of paper. On the left side of the T-List, students list main ideas or key concepts from the reading passage or lecture. On the right side of the T-List, students record the corresponding details that support the main ideas. Explain to students that they will organize the main ideas and details of a fictional text or language arts lecture on the chart. As the lesson proceeds, help students identify the main ideas and demonstrate how to write them in the left-hand column, using two or three words. Students should then write the corresponding details in their own words, rather than copy them from the text, in the righthand column. Make sure to demonstrate how to accurately cite the text from which the notes are drawn and teach students how to compile a list of sources using a standard format for citation.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 119 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Fill in portions of the T-List prior to giving it to English language learners, and have them identify supportive details as they read. Also, be sure to preteach any challenging vocabulary words they might encounter. Challenge above-level students with the T-List by assigning a chapter, and have students create and fill in a T-List independently. Organize them in a small group to compare their T-Lists and justify their decisions. For below-level students, provide the main ideas for the left-hand column as a scaffold.

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T-List (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Subject: The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett Main Ideas

Details

positive thinking leads to physical health

Mary begins to explore the gardens g develops positive thinking and imagination g physical health improves Colin’s change in attitude and way of thinking g develops physical improvement Colin is kept secret from the world g his health continues to deteriorate Mary’s parents kept her secret from their associates in India the garden is secret Misselthwaite is full of secret rooms and a secret history disclosure of these secrets g leads to positive thinking and increased happiness

negative effects of secrets

Grades 6–8 Example Subject: personification Main Ideas

Details

occurs when a writer gives an inanimate object human traits or qualities

helps readers comprehend ideas better can be used to add emphasis can be used to describe the physical aspects of objects—”the house looked depressed” can be used to describe actions: “the stars were dancing in the sky” makes writing more interesting and helps engage the reader

used to help describe objects, feelings, events, or ideas

Grades 9–12 Example Subject: point of view Main Ideas

Details

First person point of view—can be central or peripheral

first-person point of view is when the narrator is a character in the story first-person central is when the narrator is one of the main characters first-person peripheral is when the narrator is not a main character in the story third-person point of view is when the narrator is not a character in the story an omniscient point of view is when the narrator “knows everything,” including the thoughts and feelings of all characters a limited-omniscient narrator knows the thoughts and feelings of one or more characters but not all of the characters

Third person point of view— can be limited omniscient or omniscient

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

T-List Directions: Write the main ideas gained from the reading or lecture in the left-hand column. Then, add details that support each main idea in the column on the right. Main Ideas

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Sticky Note Annotation System Background Information Children are often reprimanded not to write in books, yet it is this urge to dynamically interact with the text that helps develop reading comprehension as they grow older (Dingli 2011). Note-taking allows the reader to summarize important points, ask questions, highlight points of confusion, make connections between ideas, and analyze key concepts in the reading. The Sticky Note Annotation System enables students to take notes directly in the book by writing them on sticky notes and fixing them directly onto the text. Students can use the sticky notes in the text to review the reading material and gather main ideas from the selection. The sticky notes can also be removed and reorganized to create a study guide, develop an outline, identify themes, or support research.

Activity Distribute a set of sticky notes to each student, cutting them in half if necessary to create the appropriate size for a note. Display a copy of the reading selection with a document camera, or at least use the beginning of the text, and ask students to take turns reading sections aloud. Periodically stop students and use a think aloud to model your thought process for making a note about something in the text. Write your note on a sticky note, and stick it directly on the text in the appropriate location. Continue reading the text aloud, placing notes where appropriate. Allow students to finish the text independently, making their own notes on sticky notes and attaching them to the text. When they are finished, have students compare their notes with a classmate’s. Finally, model some of the ways students can use their sticky notes to support analysis, reflection, and research.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 119 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process

English language learners may benefit from completing this activity with a partner to ensure accurate comprehension of the text selection. For below-level students, make several observations on sticky notes that highlight main ideas or important points in the text for them. Allow them to place these notes on the text when they come across the appropriate location in the text. It may be helpful to provide these readers with a shortened or leveled reading selection to assist with reading comprehension. Above-level students should be challenged to use their sticky notes to analyze more complex elements or literary concepts of the text, such as theme and symbolism.

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Note-Taking

Sticky Note Annotation System (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Freckle Juice by Judy Blume

Passage: “[Andrew] sat in class all day with his blue freckles. A couple of times Miss Kelly looked at him kind of funny but she didn’t say anything. Then at two o’clock she called him to her desk. ‘Andrew,’ Miss Kelly said. ‘How would you like to use my secret formula for removing freckles?’ Her voice was low, but not so low that the class couldn’t hear” (Blume 35–36).

Andrew’s teacher knows something isn’t right, but she doesn’t say anything right away.

Miss Kelly is trying to save Andrew from further embarrassment. She is his ally in this situation.

Grades 6–8 Example Text: The Chocolate Touch by Patrick Skene Catling

Passage “While other boys and girls spent their money on model airplanes, magazines, skipping ropes, and pet lizards, John studied the candy counters. All his money went on candy, and all his candy went to himself. He never shared it. John Midas was candy mad” (Catling 4).

Earlier in the book, the author writes that, “[John] had one bad fault: he was a pig about candy.” His lack of sharing seems like another bad, or perhaps even worse, fault to me.

John’s last name is Midas. I think that is a reference to the Greek god Midas, who had the ability to turn everything he touched into gold.

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Sticky Note Annotation System (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury

Passage: “It was a special pleasure to see things eaten, to see things blackened and changed. With the brass nozzle in his fists, with this great python spitting its venomous kerosene upon the world, the blood pounded in his head, and his hands were the hands of some amazing conductor playing all the symphonies of blazing and burning to bring down the tatters and charcoal ruins of history” (Bradbury 3).

The narrator describes burning as “a special pleasure,” yet he uses the frightening imagery of a venomous snake to describe it. What does the narrator truly believe or feel about fire?

Another example of how the author writes about fire as good (“his hands were the hands of some amazing conductor”) and evil (“bringing down the tatters and charcoal ruins of history”).

Maybe Bradbury is trying to explain to the reader how his futuristic society views things like fire (positive) and history (negative) while also communicating his personal beliefs about the detrimental aspects of these views.

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Using Diagrams and Maps Overview The Reading/Writing Connection Just as using diagrams and maps can help students identify the text structure to improve their reading comprehension, these tools can also improve students’ writing abilities. Students must be able to recognize the patterns in a variety of writing genres in order to apply those same patterns to their own writing. Diagrams and maps are not only used to improve reading comprehension but also for planning and organizing information prior to beginning a writing task. Therefore, language arts teachers should actively encourage their students to utilize these strategies for both prewriting activities and analytical research projects.

Text Structure There are different elements to text structure worthy of examination in the language arts classroom. Approaches range from highlighting external text features (e.g., illustrations, chapter headings, indices) to identifying structural patterns (e.g., narrative plot structure) to visually representing the organization of the ideas or concepts in the text through graphic organizers (e.g., Venn diagrams, conflict-resolution maps). The direct instruction of text structure is intended to help students anticipate, monitor, and comprehend what they are reading in order to produce clear and coherent writing with the appropriate development and organization. Using text structures helps students study texts and extrapolate information for their own writing pieces. If students know what the features are of each particular genre, they spend less time reworking a writing piece and more time effectively planning it in the early stages of writing. In addition, students who are familiar and comfortable with a wide variety of text structures can write with greater ease and can choose to write in the structure that best suits their needs.

Internal Text Structure The internal text structure refers to how the words and paragraphs are put together. For the writer to easily communicate his or her ideas to the reader, the information must be presented through the logical connections that exist between concepts. Text patterns have emerged in narrative texts to aid in the expression of these logical connections. The structure and organization of fiction largely relates to the story’s literary elements: characters, setting, plot, and conflict/solution. The strategies presented in this chapter enable students to explore these elements in a variety of written and visual ways. Some strategies apply to numerous literary components: a Venn diagram can be used to explore character development, setting, etc. Other strategies such as Conflict-Solution Map and Plot Diagram focus exclusively on a single element.

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Using Diagrams and Maps Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy

134

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Frame

Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 4.5) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 4.6)

Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

Venn Diagram

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 4.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 4.5) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 4.6)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.9, W.1.8) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.9, W.2.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

Conflict-Resolution Map

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 4.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 4.5) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 4.6)

Grade 1 (CCRA.W.9, W.1.8) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.9, W.2.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Using Diagrams and Maps Overview (cont.) Strategy

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Semantic Word Map

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 4.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 4.5) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 4.6)

Grade 1 (W.1.8, L.1.6) Grade 2 (W.2.8, L.2.6) Grade 3 (W.3.8, L.3.6) Grade 4 (W.4.8, L.4.6) Grade 5 (W.5.8, L.5.6) Grade 6 (W.6.8, L.6.6) Grade 7 (W.7.8, L.7.6) Grade 8 (W.8.8, L.8.6) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, L.9–10.6) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, L.11–12.6)

Story Strip

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 4.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.7)

Grade 1 (W.1.8, L.1.6) Grade 2 (W.2.8, L.2.6) Grade 3 (W.3.8, L.3.6) Grade 4 (W.4.8, L.4.6) Grade 5 (W.5.8, L.5.6)

Plot Diagram

Grades 3–5 (1.1, 4.7) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 4.5) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 4.6)

Grade 3 (W.3.8, W.3.9) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Frame Background Information Frames (Ryder and Graves 2003) are charts that organize important information in rows and columns to illustrate relationships between the main ideas and details. Frames assist students in distinguishing important concepts from less important details and help them to compare and contrast information. Different types of Frames can be used for different purposes (Ryder and Graves 2003). Frames help students write about literary topics by delineating relationships between ideas and providing a structure for the information. They enable students to gather relevant information from the narrative text, categorize the information appropriately, and use this information to support their research and text analysis. When students write summaries based on the information in the Frame, it allows them to reflect on the content, elaborate on the application, and note relationships between broader concepts and related information (Ryder and Graves 2003).

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 134 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process

Preparation Consider how the main ideas from the selected text can be compared, what features they share, and what specific features or characteristics they possess (Ryder and Graves 2003). Draw the Frame activity sheet (page 140, frame.pdf) by creating and labeling the columns and rows. Write the main topics, ideas, or concepts in the rows and list the categories for the characteristics and/or relationships in the columns.

Activity Tell students they will use a graphic organizer called a Frame to organize the key information in a selection of text. Remind them that good writers need to gather information before writing, and it helps to keep this information as organized as possible. Distribute the prepared Frame activity sheet with the rows and columns labeled. Allow time for students to review it and predict what information might fit within it. After reading the selected text, discuss the content and have students fill in the cells in each row and column as a class or in small groups. Encourage students to add their prior knowledge to the Frame as well. Students can use the information to assist them in writing a summary or a report on the assigned topic.

Differentiation Discuss any unfamiliar words and information with English language learners before beginning the lesson to assist them in completing the activity sheet. Challenge above-level students to complete the Frame independently, including determining the column and rows. In addition, have them create a new Frame with a different text passage and compare the two. Give below-level students a Frame that is partially completed to assist them.

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Frame (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Topic: Characters in Bedtime for Frances by Russell Hoban Name of Character Frances

Role in Story main character

Character Description

• young badger who does not want to go to sleep at night

• can be very persistent • scared of noises in her bedroom at night Mother

supporting character

• very patient with Frances • knows how to set limits and say no to Frances when necessary

Father

supporting character

• also very patient • thinks creatively when dealing with Frances’s fears

• gets grumpy when Frances wakes him up at night

• Frances looks to her father for protection

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Frame (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Topic: point of view Point of View First person

Role in Story

• narrator is a character in the story • narrator relates only his or her thoughts,

Description

• narrator refers to him or herself as I or we

feelings, and observations to the reader

• first-person central means the narrator is one of the main characters in the story

• first-person peripheral means the narrator is a character in the story but not a main character

Second person

• protagonist or main character is referred to • narrator is referred to as you

as you

• not very common in fiction • used sometimes in narratives written in letter format

Third person

• narrator is not a character in the story but

rather an invisible bystander watching and reporting the story to the reader

• uses pronouns he, she, it, or they

• an objective third-person narrator only

observes and does not have knowledge of the characters’ thoughts and feelings

• an omniscient third-person narrator knows the thoughts and feelings for all characters

• a limited-omniscient third-person narrator

knows the thoughts and feelings of one or more but not all characters in the story

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Frame (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Topic: figurative language Type of Figurative Language

Role in Story

Description

simile

a comparison between two unlike things, using the words like or as

The man was as tall as a skyscraper.

metaphor

a comparison between two unlike things and not using the words like or as

He was a feather on the wind floating gracefully across the stage.

personification

giving inanimate objects human traits or qualities

The party died as soon as he left.

hyperbole

exaggerated statement not meant to be taken literally

I have a ton of homework.

alliteration

using words that begin with the same letter or sound consecutively or close together

The soft sun swept over the sand.

the use of words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or animals that the word references

“Meow!” screeched the cat.

an expression that means something other than the literal meaning of the words

It is raining cats and dogs.

onomatopoeia

idiom

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Frame Directions: Write in the topic for the Frame and the titles for each column. Then, fill in each box with information from the text. Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Venn Diagram Background Information The Venn Diagram compares and contrasts two items, terms, or concepts. In the language arts classroom, the Venn Diagram is especially useful in helping students articulate and write about what they are learning in a manner that visually illustrates similarities and differences. Using the Venn Diagram also requires students to write descriptions in their own words and to condense and summarize their statements. It is a useful prewriting strategy because it organizes the information so that students can begin writing an effective draft.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 134 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Prewrite

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Activity Select a topic for students to compare and contrast. This strategy can be used to compare and contrast themes, characters, setting, or even entire texts. Begin by telling students that they will organize information using a graphic organizer called a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast two topics or concepts. Distribute the Venn Diagram activity sheet (page 144, venndiagram.pdf) to students and emphasize that similarities are listed in the center and differences are listed in the outer sections of the circles. Have students write the concepts at the top of each circle and discuss these two concepts to activate prior knowledge about their similarities and differences. As students read the selected text, instruct them to look for information to include on their diagrams. List the unique characteristics and attributes of each concept in the appropriate outer sections and the commonalities in the center section.

Differentiation Scaffold the Venn Diagram for English language learners by listing some of the characteristics. Provide a few examples to get them started and to clarify what you are looking for in this assignment. Instruct above-level students to complete the Venn Diagram without any discussion or support from the text. Have those students verify their characteristics and attributes with the reading after they have completed the Venn Diagram. When finished, above-level students can then write a compare/contrast essay using the notes they recorded on the Venn diagram. Allow below-level students to work with a partner or small group.

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Venn Diagram (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example from Frog and Toad All Year by Arnold Lobel

Frog

Both

likes to stay inside

likes to go outside likes to have adventures thinks winter is fun and beautiful

Toad

amphibians best friends

gloomy attitude does not want to try new things

like to help each other

Grades 3–5 Example Hyperbole

Both

engages the reader exaggerated statement used to create emphasis

makes writing more interesting type of figurative language

Personification

giving human traits or characteristics to nonhuman objects makes objects do things usually only done by humans

not meant to be taken literally

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Venn Diagram (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example The Garden in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

The Garden in The Secret Garden

Both

by Frances Hodgson Burnett

by Lewis Carroll

Alice is not permitted access to the garden Represents a dream that Alice must relinquish in order to mature

symbolic of the Garden of Eden represents beauty and innocence secret, at least initially

Mary and eventually Colin gain access to the secret garden Their friendship blooms in the garden

Grades 9–12 Example from Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

Marlow

capable, honest, independent serves as an intermediary between Kurtz and The Company ship captain

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Both

intelligent and gifted

Kurtz

evil genius malicious

experience inner moral struggles

abusive towards the natives

not “common traders”

searching for ivory

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144

________________________

Both

________________________

Directions: Write on the top two lines the concepts you are comparing and contrasting. List the ways in which they are similar in the center section of the Venn Diagram. Write the ways in which they are unique in the outer sections of the circles.

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Venn Diagram

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Conflict-Resolution Map Background Information A Conflict-Resolution Map is a graphic organizer that helps organize information about the central conflict in a narrative and the way it is resolved throughout the story. The Conflict-Resolution Map encourages students to analyze the plot, identify the conflict during the rising action sequence of events, and summarize how the conflict is resolved in the climax and falling-action portions of the story. Students can then use this strategy to organize information for different aspects of the text or to compare a particular text to another.

Activity Prior to reading a specific fictional text selection, explain to students that they will be analyzing the conflict and solution in the story. If needed, define the terms conflict and resolution and provide examples, especially for students in the primary grades. Distribute the Conflict-Resolution Map activity sheet (page 148, conflictresolution.pdf) to students, and explain how to use it.

• Ask questions that can help identify the

conflict(s): What happens or changes the situation? What is the problem in the story? What are the characters working to solve? Once students have identified the conflict, have them write a description of it. The more descriptive they are, the better they will be able to identify the solution.

• Ask questions that can help students identify

the resolution(s): What is the result of the conflict? What happened after the conflict? How did the characters solve the main problem? Make sure that students identify all the resolutions, even if there is more than one resolution. Encourage them to think about any resolutions that may not be obvious.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 134 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Differentiation Model how to complete the Conflict-Resolution Map activity sheet, and provide examples for English language learners. Encourage discussion first, and then allow them to work in pairs to complete the activity. They can also use pictures. Encourage above-level students to use higher-level thinking skills. Have them think of alternate solutions to the conflict. Use prompting and questioning with below-level students to help them identify the more complex conflicts and resolutions. Or provide the information for one side of the diagram and ask them to complete the other side.

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Conflict-Resolution Map (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Conflict(s)

Resolution(s)

• The babies huddle together. • Sarah tries to calm them down. She Three baby owls are scared. They can’t find their mother.

says why their mother might have left.

• The baby owls wait on a branch. • The mother returns. The babies

learned they don’t need to be scared even if they are alone.

from Owl Babies by Martin Waddell

Grades 3–5 Example Conflict(s)

Resolution(s)

• The students from Room 207 talk to the police.

Miss Nelson disappears and is replaced by a mean teacher, Miss Viola Swamp.

• They try to go to Miss Nelson’s house

to look for her, but they only see Miss Viola Swamp.

• When Miss Nelson returns, the

students behave very well so that Miss Nelson will not disappear again.

from Miss Nelson Is Missing! by Harry Allard

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Conflict-Resolution Map (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Conflict(s)

Resolution(s)

• Simon faces the Lord of the Flies in the • Boys are marooned on a

deserted island with no adult supervision or guidance.

• They are torn between two human instincts: the desire to work to become a civilized society and the tendency to abandon themselves to savagery and chaos.

jungle and realizes that the enemy and conflict is not external but rather inside each boy. When he tries to tell the other boys about his discovery, they kill him.

• As the other boys descend further into savagery, Ralph flees Jack’s tribe to protect himself.

• Ralph encounters a naval officer on the beach, and the boys learn they will be rescued.

from Lord of the Flies by William Golding

Grades 9–12 Example Conflict(s)

• The close relationship between Jim

and Ántonia is strained when Jim goes to school to get an education, while Ántonia is forced to work to support her family.

• As an adult, Jim feels he will never be able to re-create the deep, loving friendship that he had with Ántonia.

Resolution(s)

• Jim spends time on Ántonia’s farm and grows to admire and care for Ántonia’s husband and children.

• He resolves to spend more time on

the farm in order to get to know the Cuzak family better.

from My Ántonia by Willa Cather

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Conflict-Resolution Map Directions: Complete the graphic organizer by writing the conflict(s) and resolution(s).

Conflict(s)

148

Resolution(s)

What is the problem in the story?

How is the problem overcome?

What are the characters trying to resolve?

What are the effects of overcoming the conflict?

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Semantic Word Map Background Information Semantic Word Maps (Heimlich and Pittelman 1986, as cited by Ryder and Graves 2003) allow students to clarify the meaning of concepts and identify connections to other related words by creating a map. This strategy is appropriate for studying a specific concept that has multiple vocabulary words. According to William Nagy and Judith Scott (2000), mapping the interconnectedness of vocabulary words is a way for students to organize and store information in the brain. Because this strategy builds a bridge between new information and previous knowledge and prior experiences, it also can be used as a preassessment to see what students already know about a given topic. Students can add to their Semantic Word Maps after they have completed the reading. Students also can use the maps to help them review information at the end of a unit of study or to write a paragraph or essay.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 135 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Activity Determine the central concept of the assigned reading passage or lecture. After introducing the concept, lead a brainstorming session to create a list of words about it. Record all student ideas on the board, or use a document camera to display students’ ideas. Distribute the Semantic Word Map activity sheet (page 152, semanticwordmap.pdf) to students. Encourage students to explain how these words relate to bigger ideas, events, characteristics, and examples, and help them move from the words to the concepts. Once the bigger categories have been determined, have students organize the words into categories. Students’ maps should show big ideas, small ideas, and how all the ideas interconnect. Instruct students to share and explain their maps in small groups, making sure to justify and explain their reasons for choosing each word for each category.

Differentiation Allow English language learners to work in small groups on this activity so that they can hear how other students determine categories and fit words into these categories. Encourage abovelevel students to incorporate additional or more complex words and categories, using resources to help them determine appropriate placement. Below-level students should work independently to generate a list of words and then work with a partner to determine the categories and the placement of the words. Working with partners provides students with support. Do not place these students in groups for this activity, as they will “fall through the cracks.”

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Semantic Word Map (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Setting physical

Structure Story Elements

time period

chapters beginning middle end

Grades 3–5 Example First Person

Second Person Narration

used in fiction

used mostly in nonfiction

central

business writing

peripheral

technical writing Third Person used in fiction omniscient limited omniscient objective

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Semantic Word Map (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Idiom Simile

Onomatopoeia

I’m in a pickle.

He was as slow as a

He was just in the nick of time.

tortoise.

The faucet went drip, drip all through the night. The owl hooted in the tree.

The rain poured down like juice from a pitcher. Figurative Language Metaphor

Personification

She has a heart of gold.

The sun greeted me as I opened the curtains.

You are my sunshine.

Hyperbole

Time creeps up on you.

I will die if I have to be on stage. His smile is a mile wide.

Grades 9–12 Example Plot

Style

backstory

poetic justice

alliteration

onomatopoeia

foreshadowing

self-fulfilling prophecy

symbolism

parody

imagery

satire

hyperbole

tone

cliffhanger flashback

plot twist Literary

Narrative Perspective first person second person third person stream of consciousness © Shell Education

Techniques Character Development

unreliable narrator

personification

omniscient

anthropomorphism

magical realism

hamartia

epiphany

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Semantic Word Map _____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________

_____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ _____________________

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Story Strip Background Information By diagramming a story’s plot sequence, students learn how to recall the series of events that occur during a story, summarize the main points, and analyze the text structure (Van Zile 2001). This strategy helps students create a visual and written representation of the plot, thereby increasing their comprehension of the story and providing students with a study tool for future reference. The Story Strip strategy can be used as a prewriting tool for organizing information gathered from a text selection or for developing ideas for future narrative writing assignments.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 135 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

it independently. Upon completion, hold a class discussion about the plot and help students recall the relevant events from the story. Note their ideas on the board or on a sheet of chart paper. Next, display the Story Strip activity sheet (page 156, storystrip.pdf) using a document camera, and demonstrate how to use the boxes to recreate events from the plot. Point out that the events need to be shown in chronological order and that only the most important events from the text selection should be included. Show students how to create a simple drawing of each event and write a description of the event underneath. Provide students with a list of transition words and phrases that they can use, such as at the beginning, initially, next, then, at the end, and finally. Variation This strategy can also be used as a prewriting activity to help students create their own fictional story lines. Prior to assigning a fictional writing task, demonstrate how students can use the Story Strip organizer to diagram the plot of the story they will be writing. Show them how to create drawings and jot down notes about the sequence of events that will occur over the duration of the story. Then explain how they can use the information on the Story Strip organizer as a guide when they actually begin to write the text of the story.

Stage of Writing Process

Differentiation

Prewrite

In this activity, below-level students will benefit from scaffolding. Give these students time to discuss the plot of the story with a partner and then have them draw the pictures independently. Assist them with writing some or all of the text as needed. Conduct a preview of the text with English language learners in order to familiarize them with the story content and new vocabulary words. If necessary, take dictation for the written portion of the Story Strip. Encourage above-level students to add details to both their drawings and their written descriptions. If these students finish early, have them create their own Story Strips based on ideas they have for stories they would like to write.

Activity Before beginning the activity, review the concept of plot with students. Make sure to reinforce the idea that the plot is the sequence of events or actions that take place during a story. Advise students that they will be creating visual and written descriptions of the plot from an upcoming reading selection, so they should pay careful attention to the events that occur during the story. Read the story aloud, or have students read © Shell Education

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Story Strip (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Text: Harry the Dirty Dog by Gene Zion

154

When Harry hears the bath water, he hides the scrub brush and runs away from home.

Harry plays in lots of different places and gets very, very dirty.

Harry goes home and his family doesn’t recognize him because he is so dirty.

Harry does all his tricks to try and show his family that it is really him, but they do not understand.

Harry digs up the scrub brush and brings it to his family and jumps in the bathtub. The little girl and boy give Harry a bath.

When he is clean, his family realizes that it is Harry and everyone is very happy.

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Story Strip (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Stellaluna by Janell Cannon

An owl attacks Stellaluna’s mother, and Stellaluna falls through the air and lands in a bird’s nest.

Stellaluna learns how to act like a bird.

Stellaluna, Pip, Flitter, and Flap learn to fly, and then Stellaluna gets separated from the other birds.

Stellaluna meets a group of bats and learns that she is a bat, not a bird. She is reunited with her mother.

Pip, Flitter, and Flap go to meet Stellaluna’s family and get lost trying to fly in the dark. Stellaluna rescues them.

Stellaluna realizes that she is very different from Pip, Flitter, and Flap, but they can all still be friends.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Story Strip Directions: Draw a picture in the box and write a description below for each main event from the story. Make sure to show the events in chronological order. Text: _______________________________________________________________________________________

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Using Diagrams and Maps

Plot Diagram Background Information The construction of concrete, visual representations of story structure facilitates students’ understanding of story elements (Maria 1990) and serves as an effective prewriting tool when developing a story’s plot. The Plot Diagram strategy enables students to construct a visual layout of a story’s plot elements: introduction/exposition, rising action/conflict, climax, falling action, and resolution/conclusion. This activity can be used to build or assess reading comprehension and as a prewriting tool for future writing assignments. The Plot Diagram strategy helps students draw evidence from literary texts to support the analysis of the plot development and also provides them with an effective device for taking notes and organizing this information.

Activity Begin the activity by introducing and discussing the various plot elements listed on the Plot Diagram activity sheet (page 161, plotdiagram.pdf). Display the activity sheet on the board or with a document camera, and lead a class discussion about the location of the elements on the activity sheet. Make sure to discuss the shape of the diagram and how it relates to the various plot elements. Next, demonstrate how to complete the activity sheet using a familiar fairy tale. Assign a reading selection, and once students have completed it, have them complete their own Plot Diagram activity sheet independently. Finally, ask students to share their diagrams with a partner and then review the sequence of plot elements as a class.

Variation Use the Plot Diagram strategy as a prewriting activity for students creating their own fictional narratives. Have students sketch out the elements of their story on the Plot Diagram activity sheet before they begin writing their narratives.

Differentiation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 135 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process

When first introducing the concept of plot and plot elements to English language learners, use a familiar text with a reliable plot to help them comprehend the idea before challenging them to analyze the plot in a more difficult text. Abovelevel students should be encouraged to use a more difficult text with a more complicated plot. To provide assistance for below-level students, use a leveled text and hold a small-group discussion about plot elements before they attempt to complete their diagrams independently.

Prewrite

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The narrator, an eight-year-old girl, introduces her neighbors, the Gregg family, and describes how they like to go hunting, something she despises. The narrator tries to dissuade the Greggs from going hunting, and when they ignore her, she points her magic finger at them. Ri s

in

g

Ac

ti

on /

The Greggs go hunting and shoot 16 ducks. Then they see four more, but try as they might, they cannot shoot them. Co

nfl i

ct

The Greggs discover that they have grown wings. Four ducks with arms take over their house, so the Greggs build a nest to sleep in outside.

Climax

When the Greggs wake up, the four ducks with arms are pointing guns at them and threatening to shoot them.

Resolution/ Conclusion

The Greggs get their arms back. As promised, they destroy their guns and never go hunting again.

to is e i n m a ro s p ing ag guns. g g t G r e hu n t h e i r m e The er go stroy em co nd nev to de s let th nest a a n d d u ck t h e e m . m T h e n f ro o o t th w ion d o n ot sh Ac t g n li do Fal

Text: The Magic Finger by Roald Dahl

Grades 3–5 Example

Plot Diagram (cont.) Using Diagrams and Maps

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Introduction/ Exposition

There is an important spring in Treegap in the woods owned by the Foster Family. Mae Tuck is getting ready to go meet her boys in the woods. Winnie Foster meets a strange man in a yellow suit. Winnie runs away into the woods and happens upon Jesse Tuck drinking water from the spring. He forbids her from drinking the water. Mae and Miles appear, grab Winnie, and then they all start running away together. R

is i

ng

Ac

t io

n/ C

The man in the yellow suit discovers the secret of the immortal water from the spring and develops a plan to gain ownership of it and to sell the water. on

fl

ic t

The man in the yellow suit tries to take Winnie away, and Mae hits him on the head with a shotgun. Mae is arrested and thrown in jail.

Climax

Winnie sneaks out of her house and takes Mae’s place in jail.

Resolution/ Conclusion

Tuck returns and discovers Winnie’s tombstone. The Tucks decide never to return to Treegap.

c a gi m r e sh our toad, ce at p ni e ra han m e Win er ove her c the ti t w a n g up i t y f o r i i g v o r t al im m g . ed n pav t. s b ei i hal in g ion sp r h asp Ac t e g t h i T rw lin Fal ove

Text: Tuck Everlasting by Natalie Babbitt

Grades 6–8 Example

Plot Diagram (cont.) Using Diagrams and Maps

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The story takes place during World War I where Henry, an American who has volunteered with the Italian ambulance corps, is about to go on his winter leave from his company. Henry meets Catherine at a nearby British hospital. They immediately begin a flirtatious relationship.

Ri

si n

g

A

ct io

n/

Henry returns to battle, and his leg is wounded by a mortar shell. He is taken to the hospital where Catherine is a nurse. They begin a love affair, and Catherine becomes pregnant. C

on fl

ic

t

The Italians begin to retreat after the Germans break through their front lines. Henry’s ambulance gets stuck in the mud, and he shoots an Italian sergeant who tries to flee rather than help.

Climax

The Italian military police almost shoot Henry because they think he is deserting the army. He escapes by diving into the river.

l Fal

A ing

c t io

n Resolution/ Conclusion

Henry and Catherine live contentedly in Switzerland together, waiting for the baby. The baby is stillborn and Catherine dies soon after from complications. Henry is left alone.

d es e ci d ry he Hen eave t y and lf to l an armhimse i Ital icate ine. e d d ather to to C y flee d n T h e t z e r la i Sw ether. tog

Text: A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway

Grades 9–12 Example

Plot Diagram (cont.) Using Diagrams and Maps

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Plot Diagram

Resolution/ Conclusion

Directions: Label the plot diagram with the elements from the story.

n

Climax

c t io

Introduction/ Exposition

Ri

si n

g

A

ct io

n/

C

ic

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on fl

Text: _____________________________________________________

l Fal

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Authoring

Authoring Overview This book has previously established the strong connection between reading and writing. The quote from Gay Su Pinnell in the article “Success of Children at Risk in a Program That Combines Writing and Reading” bears repeating: “As children read and write they make the connections that form their basic understandings about both. Learning in one area enhances learning in the other. There is ample evidence to suggest that the processes are inseparable and that we should examine pedagogy in the light of these relationships. Hence, the two activities should be integrated in instructional settings. Teachers need to create supportive situations in which children have opportunities to explore the whole range of literacy learning, and they need to design instruction that helps children make connections between reading and writing” (1988). Reading and writing are critical to all learning. Writing to apply new knowledge can be more challenging for students because they need to not only understand the content and be able to process it at a higher level but also communicate it using the strategies of the writing process, the features of the chosen genre, and the conventions of the grade level. Through authoring, students can make personal connections with the new content information they are learning. Carol Santa, Lynn Havens, and Shirley Harrison (1996) make several key points regarding this connection. 1. Writing helps students become more active learners. Creating writing pieces that utilize content knowledge requires students to think more deeply about the content, analyze it, and reconstruct it into a piece of writing. 2. Writing assists students in understanding the complexities of domain-specific material. Writing can provide opportunities for students to analyze new concepts, internalize new vocabulary, and explore patterns and relationships between concepts. 3. Writing forces learners to organize their thinking and to evaluate whether they have understood a concept. In order to communicate in writing, students must carefully consider how to approach the writing activity. For example, students who are asked to write a narrative about a historical event must not only organize the content information that they intend to include but also meld it with the style appropriate for the genre. Within the framework of the genre, students must decide how best to communicate their information. 4. One cannot write about something one does not understand. The process of creating a clear explanation of a concept will challenge students to think carefully about the best way to explain it. In working through this challenge, students can develop a deeper understanding of the concept.

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Authoring

Authoring Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Guided Writing Procedure

Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.2)

Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.2, W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.2, W.4.5, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.2, W.5.5, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.2, W.6.5, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.2, W.7.5, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.2, W.8.5, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.2, W.9–10.5, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.2, W.11–12.5, W.11–12.9)

Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder

Grades 3–5 (1.4, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.4, 1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.4, 1.12)

Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.8, SL.3.1) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9, SL.4.1) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9, SL.5.1) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9, SL.6.1) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9, SL.7.1) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9, SL.8.1) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9, SL.9–10.1) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9, SL.11–12.1)

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Authoring

Authoring Overview (cont.) Strategy

164

McREL Standards

Collaborative Writing

Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.4)

Author’s Chair

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

#51006—Writing Strategies for Fiction

Common Core State Standards Grade 3 (W.3.5, W.3.10, SL.3.1) Grade 4 (W.4.5, W.4.10, SL.4.1) Grade 5 (W.5.5, W.5.10, SL.5.1) Grade 6 (W.6.5, W.6.10, SL.6.1) Grade 7 (W.7.5, W.7.10, SL.7.1) Grade 8 (W.8.5, W.8.10, SL.8.1) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5, W.9–10.10, SL.9–10.1) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5, W.11–12.10, SL.11–12.1) Grade 1 (W.1.5, SL.1.1) Grade 2 (W.2.5, SL.2.1) Grade 3 (W.3.5, SL.3.1) Grade 4 (W.4.5, SL.4.1) Grade 5 (W.5.5, SL.5.1) Grade 6 (W.6.5, SL.6.1) Grade 7 (W.7.5, SL.7.1) Grade 8 (W.8.5, SL.8.1) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5, SL.9–10.1) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5, SL.11–12.1)

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Authoring

Guided Writing Procedure Background Information The Guided Writing Procedure (Smith and Bean 1980) uses writing as a vehicle for activating students’ prior knowledge and synthesizing existing and new information. Students brainstorm around a topic to lay a foundation for building new content knowledge and then analyze the information for patterns and relationships to create an outline, just as good writers do during the prewriting phase. After writing a paragraph, students compare their work with that of the language arts textbook, fictional passage, or trade book to look for similarities and differences and opportunities to add or change information.

Activity Write the key concept for the lesson on the board. Ask students to brainstorm everything they know about that concept, and write their responses on the board. Remind them that there are no “wrong” ideas in brainstorming. Then, review the brainstormed ideas as a class, decide what the major points are and which are supporting details, and create a simple outline as a prewriting strategy. Provide time for students to draft a paragraph or two using the class outline. Next, have students read the assigned text and analyze their work against the provided text. They should see how well the class outline matches the language arts text, look for similarities and differences between their own paragraph(s) and the text, and identify information that could be added or deleted from their writing, based on the provided text.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 163 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Scaffold notes or create an outline for English language learners to use as they write their paragraphs. Model the strategy and provide examples of completed paragraphs for these students to refer to. Have above-level students write more than a paragraph on the topic. Conduct writing conferences with below-level students to explicitly instruct how to use notes from the prewriting stage to create a draft. Also, provide models of good paragraphs and spend time in the conferences analyzing the good writing traits shown in the examples. Use students’ work to guide them through analyzing their writing and the text for similarities and differences. Understanding and being able to recognize good writing helps these students become better writers themselves.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise

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Guided Writing Procedure (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Concept: summarizing Brainstorming: Sample Paragraph: main points

synopsis

supporting details summarizing

your own words

big ideas

Summarizing is an important skill to learn because it helps you get an idea about the overall meaning of a text or lecture. When you summarize, you need to write down just the main points and supporting details, leaving out the minor details. You also need to write in your own words and not copy or quote directly from the text or speech. To write a summary of a fictional story, it is important to include the characters, the main events of the plot, the conflict, and the resolution.

Grades 6–8 Example Concept: theme Brainstorming: Sample Paragraph: big idea

author’s message

theme

humankind

life

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moral

infer

The theme is the underlying message the author wants to convey to the reader. In fables, the theme, or big idea, is often stated explicitly in the form of a moral at the end of the story. In most fiction, however, the reader must infer the theme as it is developed throughout the story. Themes often deal with important topics concerning life or humankind. Common themes include love, jealousy, perseverance, grief, and the power of family.

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Guided Writing Procedure (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Concept: literary analysis Brainstorming:

theme

plot

symbolism literary analysis

character development

figurative language

Sample Paragraph: A literary analysis of a fictional narrative includes the examination of a variety of literary components that the story comprises. The writer may choose to focus on one element, such as character development, or complete an analysis of multiple literary devices. Literary analysis generally includes the study of theme, symbolism, figurative language, character development, and/or plot. Often, an analysis combines two or more elements; for example, one might examine how the author uses symbolism to develop the theme of the text. The objective of a literary analysis to gain a greater understanding of the text and the methods the author used to convey the central ideas in the literature.

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Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder Background Information The purpose of the Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (REAP) strategy (Eanet and Manzo 1976) is to help students develop a greater understanding of the author’s role in writing and to improve their reading comprehension. REAP helps students build a bridge between the text and their own words to enable them to communicate their understanding of the text. This strategy facilitates the recall and summarization of information from narrative texts. Through this strategy, students learn to paraphrase texts and then reflect on this information in order to analyze how the author’s point of view and attitude affect his or her writing.

Activity Distribute the Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder activity sheet (page 173, reap.pdf) prior to reading a selected fictional text. The steps represented by the acronym are as follows: R—Read and understand the text. After students read the assigned story, have them discuss the contents of the text with partners, in small groups, or in a whole-class discussion. E—Encode the author’s words into their own words. Have students put in their own words what the text passage says. They should be able to do this without having to reread the material as they talk about it. They should become familiar enough with the text to discuss it comfortably. What is the main idea? Who are the characters? What happens in the story? A—Annotate what they are reading. Annotation is not just a summary of what students have read. Instead, it is an extension of or elaboration on the text. Prompt students with these questions:

• What is the tone of the text? What does that tell you about the author’s attitude?

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 163 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process

story? How does it relate to the theme?

• Analyze the writing in the text. Is it clear?

Could it be improved? Is it creative in how it is presented? Does it need any clarification or additions?

• What is the author’s purpose or intention for writing?

• What can you learn from the author’s writing that will help your own writing?

P—Pondering means that students must think about what they have written. Does it make sense? Does it complement or differ from what was said in the text?

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• What is the conflict being presented in the

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Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (cont.) Differentiation Scaffold notes or create an outline for English language learners as they do their writing. Provide examples of writing samples for them. Consider providing above-level students with a more challenging piece of text on the topic from which to do their writing. Explicitly model for below-level students how to respond in each of the sections. Also, spend individual time in writing conference with students to help them analyze their writing.

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Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Study Topic/Reading Assignment: Crickwing by Janell Cannon R—Read and understand the author’s ideas. Do you understand what you are reading? Do you understand all the words? Do you need help with understanding anything? I am reading the book Crickwing by Janell Cannon. I understood most of the words in the book, although I had to look up a few words like ravenous and exoskeleton. I want to know more about army ants. Are they real? Do they really attack leaf-cutting ants? E—Encode the author’s words into your own words. What is the author saying? What is the main idea or concept being presented? Who are the characters? What happens in the story? Explain it in your own words. Crickwing is a cockroach that has a painful, bent wing. He isolates himself so that others will not make fun of him. He doesn’t like being picked on by larger animals, but then he discovers that he can bully the smaller leaf-cutting ants. The ants gang up and kidnap Crickwing and decide to sacrifice him to the army ants. At the end, the leaf-cutting ants spare Crickwing, and Crickwing helps them construct a sculpture of an anteater to scare away the army ants.

A—Annotate what you read. What is the tone of the text? What does it tell you about the author’s point of view? What is the conflict presented in the text? How does it relate to the theme? What can you learn from the author’s writing that will help your own? The main problem presented in the text is bullying. The author clearly looks down on bullying behavior. She shows how working together is much more productive. This author’s writing taught me that character selection can contribute to the communication of theme in a story. The author could have used any animal in this story, but she chose a cockroach. This insect is often despised by humans. Using the cockroach shows that bullying hurts, no matter who is the target.

P—Ponder what you have written. Does it make sense? Would someone else understand what you have written? Is it accurate? Do you need to change anything? Did you use your own words? I think my writing is clear and accurate. I did not include all the details of the story in the Encode section of the assignment, so maybe I should add some more when I revise my words. I used my own words, and I think that someone else reading my writing would understand it.

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Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Study Topic/Reading Assignment: Wonder by R. J. Palacio R—Read and understand the author’s ideas. Do you understand what you are reading? Do you understand all the words? Do you need help with understanding anything? I read a book called Wonder by R. J. Palacio. I understood the book clearly, and I did not have trouble with any of the words. I think it would be helpful to have more knowledge about August’s medical condition, so I plan to research it at the library. E—Encode the author’s words into your own words. What is the author saying? What is the main idea or concept being presented? Who are the characters? What happens in the story? Explain it in your own words. August is a young boy born with severe facial abnormalities. The book is about his experience attending public school for the first time in his life. The author writes about August’s experiences from his perspective, but she also includes chapters written from other characters’ perspectives to show how other people view August. August endures a lot of teasing, bullying, and social isolation, but eventually, he makes friends at his new school, and people begin to understand that there is more to him than his abnormal appearance. A—Annotate what you read. What is the tone of the text? What does it tell you about the author’s point of view? What is the conflict presented in the text? How does it relate to the theme? What can you learn from the author’s writing that will help your own? The tone of the text is very matter-of-fact. August never tries to make the reader feel sorry for him or pity his situation. The use of this tone highlights the idea that how you think about yourself is how other people will perceive you. If you pity yourself, others will also pity you. If you think you are ordinary (like August), others will eventually understand that you are just an ordinary person, too, even if you look different. The conflict presented in this book is the challenge of living with a physical abnormality. August struggles with himself and his peers to deal with his situation. The other people around him also work to resolve the conflicts presented when someone looks different from everyone else. P—Ponder what you have written. Does it make sense? Would someone else understand what you have written? Is it accurate? Do you need to change anything? Did you use your own words? My writing does make sense, and I do think that someone else would understand it. I used my own words to summarize the story. I don’t think that I need to change anything, but it would be helpful if I learned more about August’s particular type of facial abnormality so I could integrate that knowledge into my writing.

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Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Study Topic/Reading Assignment: The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien R—Read and understand the author’s ideas. Do you understand what you are reading? Do you understand all the words? Do you need help with understanding anything? I understood the book clearly. The words were familiar, and the writing was not overly complex. I thought it was very interesting to learn about what life was like during the Vietnam War. E—Encode the author’s words into your own words. What is the author saying? What is the main idea or concept being presented? Who are the characters? What happens in the story? Explain it in your own words. The narrator of this series of stories is Tim O’Brien, and the stories are a fictional collection based on O’Brien’s actual experiences in Vietnam. O’Brien tells the stories of many of his fellow soldiers and their experiences both during the war and after returning home. Many of the characters die in the book and never have the chance to return home. O’Brien writes about how each character deals with fear, death, and guilt differently. A—Annotate what you read. What is the tone of the text? What does it tell you about the author’s point of view? What is the conflict presented in the text? How does it relate to the theme? What can you learn from the author’s writing that will help your own? The book has a definitive anti-war perspective. O’Brien uses his writing to highlight the irrational and nonsensical aspects of war. He also writes about the reasons and effects of storytelling. I learned a lot about point of view and narration in this book because O’Brien serves as an unreliable narrator that blurs the boundaries between fact and fiction. While O’Brien mostly writes from the first-person perspective, he also integrates several stories using third-person narration. The use of the third-person perspective has a distancing effect on the reader and also allows other characters to narrate their own stories. P—Ponder what you have written. Does it make sense? Would someone else understand what you have written? Is it accurate? Do you need to change anything? Did you use your own words? I believe that what I have written makes sense and that someone else reading my work would understand it. I found it hard to summarize this book because it contains so many different stories on various topics and from different perspectives. I think I could do a better job of encoding the text if I had more time and space to add extra details and describe each story separately. However, what I did write is accurate, and I used only my own words.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder Study Topic/Reading Assignment: ____________________________________________________ R—Read and understand the author’s ideas. Do you understand what you are reading? Do you understand all the words? Do you need help with understanding anything?

E—Encode the author’s words into your own words. What is the author saying? What is the main idea or concept being presented? Who are the characters? What happens in the story? Explain it in your own words.

A—Annotate what you read. What is the tone of the text? What does it tell you about the author’s point of view? What is the conflict presented in the text? How does it relate to the theme? What can you learn from the author’s writing that will help your own?

P—Ponder what you have written. Does it make sense? Would someone else understand what you have written? Is it accurate? Do you need to change anything? Did you use your own words?

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Collaborative Writing Background Information Writing is often thought of as an individual activity, but the Collaborative Writing strategy illustrates the benefits of working together with two or more people to create a written text. Collaborative Writing is an extension of the cooperative-learning pedagogy where students work in small groups to maximize their learning (Speck 2002). There are many different ways to format and structure collaborative writing projects, but all projects should provide each group member with the chance to participate in each phase of the writing process: brainstorming/prewriting, drafting, revising/editing, and publishing. Collaborative writing enables students to benefit from the direct guidance and support of their peers while also gaining routine writing experience and exposure to multiple writing styles.

Preparation Structure Before beginning the activity, decide on how to structure the Collaborative Writing activity. First, decide whether students will participate in sequential writing or parallel writing. For sequential writing, one student starts writing and then passes the document to the next student, who continues writing, and so forth. This structure works well with narrative writing in which students can easily build on what has already been written. Parallel writing occurs when the writing assignment is divided between the group members and all students work on their individual portions simultaneously. This format is more conducive to expository writing in which various sections can be identified by topic and worked on individually. Once all of the group members have completed their designated portions, they combine the sections and revise and edit to create a final product. Topic Another consideration with Collaborative Writing is the writing topic. The teacher should decide beforehand whether students will choose their own topics, the teacher will assign a universal topic for the entire class, or students will choose from a list or a specific, narrow focus area.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 164 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process

Groups Lastly, it is important to decide how to group students. The teacher can assign students to particular groups, choosing to make either heterogeneous groups with multiple ability levels or homogeneous groups that are leveled by students’ skills and capabilities. Alternatively, students can choose their own groups based on common interests or desired writing topics.

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Collaborative Writing (cont.) Activity Begin the lesson by explaining the concept of collaborative writing. Describe how collaborative writing enables students to learn from one another and to pool their collective creativity to produce a finished product. Divide students into groups or help them divide themselves, and then explain how each student in the group will have a designated role and be expected to participate fully in the writing process. If students will be doing sequential writing, help them decide the order in which they will write. If students will be doing parallel writing, demonstrate how they can divide the writing assignment into separate portions based on topics or main points. Before they begin writing, provide students with time to work together on a prewriting activity. This activity may take the form of an outline, a concept map, a plot diagram, etc. The teacher should move from group to group, facilitating discussion and helping resolve any challenges that arise. Once the prewriting activity is complete, invite students to begin writing independently, keeping the group plan in mind. The drafting portion of Collaborative Writing may be relatively short and completed within the time limits of a single class, or it may be much longer and completed over a period of days or weeks. After the initial drafting phase, groups reconvene to begin the process of revising and editing. This is often the most difficult portion of Collaborative Writing because of the challenges associated with uniting multiple authors under a common style and voice. Provide students with specific guidance on how to think about the revising process and suggestions for managing the task. Depending on the age and ability level, it may be easier for one student to revise and edit the document, incorporating his or her changes before handing it to the next student for review. On the other hand, some students may prefer to go through the document together as a group, reading portions aloud, discussing possible changes, and coming to a group consensus before making substantial revisions to the document.

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When groups complete their writing projects, provide them with ample opportunities to share their work with other groups or audiences. Collaborative Writing is not only challenging from an academic perspective but also from a social standpoint, and students will benefit from multiple opportunities to reflect on their experiences throughout the process.

Differentiation The Collaborative Writing strategy can be challenging for students of all ability levels, so careful consideration of individual strengths and weaknesses is necessary. English language learners should be grouped with patient students who are willing to provide them with assistance. The teacher should conference with English language learners individually before they begin writing in order to provide additional guidance or scaffolding for the writing task. If desired, above-level students can be encouraged to take on leadership roles in their groups and help other students where appropriate. Extra supervision may be necessary to ensure that these students do not completely take over the responsibilities of the other group members. Below-level students will benefit from extra guidance during the prewriting and drafting phases in order to build confidence and ensure comprehension of each stage of the writing process.

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Author’s Chair Background Information The Author’s Chair strategy (Karelitz 1982; Boutwell 1983; Calkins 1983; Graves 1983; Graves and Hansen 1983) provides student writers with feedback on their writing. It has also been called peer conferencing. Researchers and educators continue to confirm the strong connections between reading and writing and between authors and readers. The focus of the Author’s Chair strategy is to provide feedback to students on their writing: acknowledging its good qualities, making specific suggestions for improvement, and asking thought-provoking questions of the student authors. This strategy provides the guidance necessary for students to strengthen their writing through the integration of thoughts, suggestions, and criticisms provided by their peers and other adults in a supportive environment.

Activity Ask students to select a writing piece, and place them in groups of no more than four. Give each group the following tasks:

• Students take turns reading their pieces of writing aloud.

• Group members listen intently and share their feedback.

• Once all members of the group have shared

their writing and received feedback, instruct students to compare their work to other published texts. How does their writing compare with professional writers? What can be learned about writing from professional writers? What can be learned about how the authors structure and organize their writing?

• Allow time for students to edit and revise

their writing. Students can use this time to incorporate into their writing suggestions from peers as well as ideas from professional writers. If time permits, allow small groups to meet again and repeat the strategy.

Variation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 164 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

With primary grade students, conduct the strategy as a whole class. Choose one or two students to read their writing pieces to the class, and then ask the class to provide feedback. Remind students to offer specific comments.

Stage of Writing Process Revise

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Author’s Chair (cont.) Differentiation Hold individual writing conferences with English language learners and below-level students to provide direct instruction and specific feedback. Consider using a lower-level text as a model so that the reading level does not hinder their abilities to analyze writing qualities. These students can join groups when it is time to peruse language arts materials and texts. Group above-level students with others who will challenge their writing skills. Ask them to share the techniques they learned from reviewing the professional writing and how they plan to incorporate these techniques into their own writing.

Grades 1–2 Example Student Writing Sample: Once upon a time, a mean old witch lived in a hidden cave. She slept all day. She only came out at night to scare little kids. One day, a small girl found the witch sleeping in her cave. She was not afraid at all. She walked into the cave and yelled, “Hello!” This scared the sleeping witch and she jumped. The witch learned that it was not fun to be scared like that. So she decided she would not scare little kids anymore. Then she was a nice witch.

Class Comments: Student 1: I think it is good that you started with “Once upon a time” because the story reminds me of a fairy tale. Student 2: I think you could find a more interesting word to describe the witch than mean. What about evil or mischievous? Student 3: I think you should add a little more detail to the last sentence. How did she act as a nice witch? Student 4: I like how it was a young girl that taught the witch the lesson.

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Author’s Chair (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Student Writing Sample: In the small town of Yuka, a little boy named Sam lived with his mother, father, and older sister. They lived in a little log cabin in the woods because they did not have very much money. Sam’s mother, father, and sister worked hard all day planting vegetables, cutting trees for firewood, and hunting birds and squirrels. Sam did not like to work, though. He just liked to climb up into a tree and daydream about imaginary people and places. Class Comments: Student 1: I like the way you start your story by introducing the setting and characters. Student 2: I think the second sentence needs clarification. Where would they rather live if they had more money? Some people choose to live in log cabins in the woods even if they do have lots of money. Student 3: You did a good job setting up the conflict. I can tell that Sam’s tendency to daydream and not helping with the work will be a big problem in the story. The way you structured the opening paragraph makes me want to keep reading and find out what happens next.

Grades 6–8 Example Student Writing Sample: The lights dimmed in the theater, and the movie flickered to life on the screen. I could smell the popcorn and hear the rustling of many people in the seats around me. A young girl giggled in the row behind me, and someone coughed quietly up in front. My friend Sarah sat beside me, contentedly popping candy into her mouth and humming along with the opening music. I had never felt so alone in my entire life. Class Comments: Student 1: You did a great job describing the setting for the opening of your story. I like all the details you included about the movie theater. Your description was very realistic. Student 2: I loved your opening paragraph! The imagery you used to describe the movie theater was very realistic; I felt like I was actually sitting there with the narrator. I also like the irony of the last sentence. I definitely want to read the rest of your story! Student 3: I like the way you started this paragraph, but I think you could add even more details and examples to make of the last sentence more sarcastic. Maybe you could mention something about the sense of touch, like the close proximity of the people around you.

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Author’s Chair (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Student Writing Sample: I have always lived in the shadow of my older sister. My first memory is of following her around the yard, picking up the flower petals she dropped as she pretended to be a flower girl in a wedding. Now, 30 years later, things haven’t changed very much. Just last week I found myself at her house, picking up her jacket and shoes as she casually discarded them on the floor upon arriving home from work. This is how things have always been with us and probably always will be. At least that is what I thought when I woke up this morning. After the events of today though, I’m not so sure. Class Comments: Student 1: I think your paragraph is well organized because you start with a broad statement and then give examples to support it. Student 2: I like how your opening paragraph leads the reader to go down one train of thought (you’ve always lived in your sister’s shadow) and then, right at the end, you make the reader reevaluate this belief. Student 3: I like the structure of your paragraph, but I think your opening sentence could be a little stronger. Is there a way that you could rephrase it without using the passive voice?

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Summarizing Overview The Challenge of Summarizing Summarizing improves readers’ abilities to locate the main ideas and supporting details, identify and omit unnecessary materials, remember what is read, analyze text structure, generalize details, clarify meaning, take notes, and rethink what they have read so that they can process it more deeply. When students summarize their reading, they extract the most essential information in order to create a coherent, concise text that relates the same information as the original text. In order to effectively summarize, writers must be able to identify the main ideas and differentiate important information from extraneous details. Condensing text so that the substance of a reading selection is in brief form is no easy task and often leads to artificial, awkward language and organization. Summaries should be revised, as with any finished writing product, so they sound more natural when read. When students translate the ideas they have read into their own words, they can more easily retrieve that information to accomplish a learning task. Students must use their own words to form connections across the concepts and relate the concepts to their own prior knowledge and experiences.

The Steps in Summarizing Students need to remember three elements to summarize effectively: keep the information in their summaries brief, identify the most important ideas, and mention some supporting details.

The Main Idea One of the skills involved in summarizing is expressing the main idea. In order to summarize fiction, students must be able to identify the key concepts or theme of a passage, a paragraph, and a sentence. The main idea or theme is the central thought that runs throughout the story, but it can be overlooked when teaching students how to summarize. Therefore, students need instruction and practice in communicating the main idea, as it is the one concept to which all other sentences in a passage relate.

Quick and Easy Main Idea Activities The following activities are fast, easy ways to highlight how to locate the main idea in reading passages (Dechant 1991):

• Instruct students to identify the main idea of a group of sentences by underlining key words. • Have students locate the key sentence that identifies the theme of a paragraph. With fiction, the theme is not always stated explicitly, so students may need to infer the theme from a collection of sentences.

• Have students read a newspaper article on a related topic and remove the title. Ask them to give the story an appropriate title and compare it to the actual title.

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Summarizing Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

GIST

Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.2, 1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.2, 1.12)

Grade 3 (W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8)

Key Words

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 1.2) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2, 1.11)

Grades 1–2 (W.1–2.8) Grades 3–5 (W.3–5.8)

Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure

Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.2, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.2, 1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.2, 1.12)

Grade 3 (W.3.5, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.5, W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.5, W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.5, W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.5, W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.5, W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5, W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5, W.11–12.8)

Character Summary

Grades 1–2 (1.1) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.12)

Grades 1–2 (W.1–2.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.3.9, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

Story Mapping

Grades 1–2 (1.1, 1.11)) Grades 3–5 (1.1, 1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.1, 1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.1, 1.12)

Grades 1–2 (W.1–2.8) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.3.9, W.3.3, W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.3, W.4.8, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.3, W.5.8, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.3, W.6.8, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.3, W.7.8, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.3, W.8.8, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.3, W.9–10.8, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.3, W.11–12.8, W.11–12.9)

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GIST Background Information The GIST strategy (Generating Interactions between Schemata and Text) (Moore et al. 1994) helps students get the “gist” of the narrative text in order to write a clear, concise summary in 20 words or fewer. As students progress in school, teachers begin to limit the number of words or pages for writing assignments. This strategy strengthens students’ writing skills by teaching them to eliminate unnecessary information and determine the key points of the text. Therefore, each word used in a GIST must have great importance. Using GIST is valuable not only when summarizing a reading passage but also when writing the summary of a multiparagraph essay. This strategy shows students how to gather and recall relevant information from literary sources and compile this information into a succinct summary.

Activity Before beginning the activity, review the features of a high-quality summary with the class and discuss the benefits of writing accurate and concise summaries of narrative texts. Assign a fairly short fictional passage—no more than three paragraphs—that is easy to read, and then distribute the GIST activity sheet (page 185, gist. pdf). Ask students to identify the theme or main idea of the passage and write it on the board or use a document camera to display. Ask them to list the supporting details or statements to complete a prewriting outline. Next, instruct students to use the class outline to write a summary of no more than 20 words and edit and revise it, as good writers do. Divide students into groups (no more than four students) and ask them to share their paragraphs and receive feedback. Guide students in using this feedback to revise and edit their summaries. As students become more proficient in using this strategy, gradually eliminate the group and/or whole-class work so that they eventually write and edit their summaries independently.

Differentiation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 181 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

While working as a class during the modeling phase, define and use simple vocabulary that English language learners will understand. Use opportunities to rephrase and repeat these terms. Check for understanding before moving on to the writing phase. For above-level students, assign longer passages to read and challenge them to write shorter summaries. Allow below-level students to work with partners to identify the important ideas and words. If necessary, lengthen the word limit on their summaries.

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GIST (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Heidi by Johanna Spyri Passage

Key Points

From the old and pleasantly situated village of Mayenfeld, a footpath winds through green and shady meadows to the foot of the mountains, which on this side look down from their stern and lofty heights upon the valley below. The land grows gradually wilder as the path ascends, and the climber has not gone far before he begins to inhale the fragrance of the short grass and sturdy mountain-plants, for the way is steep and leads directly up to the summits above.

setting foothills at the base of mountains June hot weather

On a clear sunny morning in June two figures might be seen climbing the narrow mountain path; one, a tall strong-looking girl, the other a child whom she was leading by the hand, and whose little cheeks were so aglow with heat that the crimson color could be seen even through the dark, sunburnt skin. And this was hardly to be wondered at, for in spite of the hot June sun the child was clothed as if to keep off the bitterest frost.

characters older girl tall and strong-looking young girl dressed in numerous layers even though it is not cold Summary (No more than 20 words) An older girl is leading a young girl dressed in many layers up a path that leads to the mountains.

Grades 6–8 Example

Text: Frankenstein by Mary Shelley Passage

Key Points

But I have one want which I have never yet been able to satisfy, and the absence of the object of which I now feel as a most severe evil, I have no friend, Margaret: when I am glowing with the enthusiasm of success, there will be none to participate my joy; if I am assailed by disappointment, no one will endeavour to sustain me in dejection. I shall commit my thoughts to paper, it is true; but that is a poor medium for the communication of feeling. I desire the company of a man who could sympathize with me, whose eyes would reply to mine. You may deem me romantic, my dear sister, but I bitterly feel the want of a friend. I have no one near me, gentle yet courageous, possessed of a cultivated as well as of a capacious mind, whose tastes are like my own, to approve or amend my plans. How would such a friend repair the faults of your poor brother! 

loneliness lack of friend no one with whom to share joy or ease disappointment nothing can take the place of human friendship friendship helps overcome individual personal faults

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Summary (No more than 20 words) The narrator is lonely and wants a friend with whom he can share his joys, disappointments, and personal shortcomings.

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GIST (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen Passage

Key Points

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.

single man good fortune assumed to want a wife moves into a new neighborhood surrounding families consider him property to be married to one of their daughters

However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters.

Summary (No more than 20 words) When a single man with money moves into a neighborhood, the neighbors assume he will marry one of their daughters.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

GIST Directions: After reading the text, write down the key points and write a summary of no more than 20 words. Key Points _____________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ _____________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ _____________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ _____________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________ _____________________________ ______________________________ ______________________________

Summary ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Key Words Background Information Key Words (Hoyt 1999) is a summary strategy that is better suited to younger students because it does not limit the number of words used in a summary. It provides greater scaffolding to support students in creating a clear, concise summary. Before summarizing, students are asked to simply identify the key words from the text. Those words are then used to compose the summary. Key Words can also be effective for older students who are learning to write summaries in multiparagraph compositions.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 181 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process

Activity Explain that students are to look for the main ideas, or key words, as they read a selected fictional text. Distribute scrap paper, sticky notes, or notebook paper to students on which to write the key words. After the reading, call on students to share their words, discuss the significance of each one, and justify their choices to develop a class list of the key words from the text. Model and discuss how to organize, rearrange, and delete duplicate key words as needed. Then, write a summary using the key words, either by modeling the entire process or using the Guided Writing Procedure strategy (see pages 165–167). Model for students how to edit and revise the summary so it flows naturally. Provide students with adequate guided-practice time before allowing them to write a summary independently, and make sure to highlight the importance of using their own words rather than copying phrases straight from the text.

Differentiation Preview the text, and preteach any new vocabulary words for English language learners to improve their comprehension. Guide these students in a small group to develop their summaries. Give above-level students reading materials that are appropriate for their reading level, and challenge them by limiting the number of words used in their summaries. Scaffold for below-level students by modeling how to identify key words as they read.

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Key Words (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Text Passage:

As the weather turned colder and the leaves fell from the trees, the great bear began to search for a place to hibernate for the winter.

Key Words:

bear, hibernate, winter

Summary:

The bear was looking for a place to hibernate during the winter.

Grades 3–5 Example Text Passage:

His mean words echoed in my head and my vision blurred with tears at the memory of his cruel taunts. How could I have ever thought he was a true friend?

Key Words:

mean words, cruel taunts, true friend

Summary:

The boy’s mean words and cruel taunts made it clear he was not a true friend.

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Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure Background Information The Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (Hayes 1989, as cited by Ryder and Graves 2003; Lenski, Wham, and Johns 1999) teaches students to summarize independently. Students learn to gather, recall, organize, and self-correct information before composing a summary through teacher modeling. Ryder and Graves (2003) suggest that students and the teacher subsequently write summaries individually, and then compare and contrast students’ summaries to that of the teacher. According to Ryder and Graves (2003), research suggests the teacher revise his or her summary based on students’ suggestions and make a visible record of these changes. This process will demonstrate how students can develop and strengthen their own writing by planning, revising, and editing effectively.

Activity Explain to students that they will use the Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure to help them summarize the information in a text. Emphasize the importance of learning how to summarize text and knowing when summarizing is needed. When students have finished reading the selected fictional text, have them share what they remember. Write their comments on the board or display them with a document camera. Then, have students read the text again, this time looking for any information they missed that can be elaborated on, or that is inaccurate. Make changes as needed and then organize the ideas into main ideas and details. Using this class outline, model how to write a summary passage for students. Read through the summary as a class to edit and revise it, demonstrating how to make changes so that it flows naturally and contains all the important points from the text passage. After learning how to use the strategy, students can use the Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure activity sheet (page 192, grasp.pdf) to write their summaries independently.

Differentiation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 181 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Remind English language learners and below‑level students to use the text as reference. English language learners might also benefit from having a sheet with the key points to use in their summary statements. Above-level students can complete this activity independently from the beginning.

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Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Little House in the Big Woods, Chapter 1 by Laura Ingalls Wilder Details Remembered from Reading

• Pa, Ma, Mary, Laura, and baby Carrie are going to leave their home in Wisconsin to move west.

• Pa sells the house and puts all their belongings in a covered wagon.

Additions/Corrections

• They have to leave during the winter

so they can cross the Mississippi River while it is still frozen.

• Mary and Laura name the new horses

Pet and Pat. • They say goodbye to their friends and family. • Their bulldog, Jack, walks the whole way • They travel through Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, and under the wagon. Kansas.

• They trade their two tired horses for two mustangs. Main Ideas in Reading The Ingalls family is leaving Wisconsin and moving west. They travel a great distance in a covered wagon.

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Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Text: The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle Chapter 2 by Avi Details Remembered from Reading

Additions/Corrections

• Charlotte boards the Seahawk and is repeatedly warned • Her cabin is so small that her trunk that she should not sail on this ship to America.

• Mr. Grummage says that she must do as he directs and stay on the ship.

cannot fit in it, so it is stored in the top cargo.

• Zachariah shows Charlotte where

the bathroom is on the ship. • Charlotte is appalled by the small size of her cabin. • Zachariah gives Charlotte a knife for • She becomes flustered when she realizes that she has to her protection. use the bathroom and has no idea where it is.

• Charlotte meets Zachariah, the black man who serves as cook, carpenter, doctor, and preacher on the ship.

• Zachariah serves Charlotte tea in the galley and offers her his friendship, which she refuses.

• Charlotte returns to her cabin and falls asleep. Main Ideas in Reading Charlotte has no choice but to sail on the Seahawk to America even though everyone on the ship advises her that she should not be there. Charlotte is appalled by the conditions on the ship and the people she meets. Zachariah gives Charlotte advice about protection and offers to be her friend.

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Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: The Bean Trees Chapter 1 by Barbara Kingsolver Details Remembered from Reading

• The narrator, Taylor (formerly Missy), tells the story of her adolescence.

• Taylor is determined to finish high school and not get pregnant.

• Taylor gets a job working at the hospital in Pittman, her hometown.

• One day, Newt and his wife, Jolene, are brought to the hospital with bullet wounds—Newt is dead.

• Taylor saves her money from her job, buys a car, and leaves Pittman for good.

Additions/Corrections

• Taylor learns that the years of

abuse by Newt’s father led him to shoot himself and Jolene.

• Missy renames herself Taylor after Taylorville, the town where she runs out of gas after leaving Pittman.

• Taylor has “head rights,” or

enough Cherokee blood to live on the Cherokee reservation if she wants to.

• Taylor ends up in the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, but she finds the Nation disappointing.

• After a stop at a coffee shop, a Cherokee woman gives Taylor a baby and tells her to take it.

• When Taylor starts to care for the baby, she learns that it is a girl and that the baby has been abused.

Main Ideas in Reading Despite an adolescence of poverty in Pittman, Taylor manages to secure a good job, avoid getting pregnant, and save enough money to buy a car so she can leave Pittman. Taylor ends up in the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, where she has “head rights,” or the rights to live on the reservation because of her Cherokee blood. At a coffee shop, Taylor is given a baby, and when she starts to take care of it, she realizes the baby has been abused.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure Directions: Use this chart to help you summarize the main ideas of a reading passage. After the first reading, write the details you remember in the upper-left-hand box. After the second reading, write any additions or corrections to your original information. Finally, synthesize the information into a few main ideas, and write them in the bottom box. Details Remembered from Reading

Additions/Corrections

Main Ideas in Reading

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Character Summary Background Information In fictional literature, change and conflict serve as two central components of any narrative plot structure. The ability to understand, analyze, and summarize the ways in which a story’s characters handle change and conflict provides students with an understanding of the emotional content of the text and insight into the author’s point of view (Buehl 2008). The Character Summary strategy guides students in examining the ways in which a character is thinking and feeling and how this character’s feelings affect his or her actions and the actions of other characters. Students use the strategy to summarize the development of a character over the course of a story and then reflect on how the character development reflects the author’s point of view and/or theme. The Character Summary strategy can be used with short passages or stories as well as longer novels and other works of fiction. This activity can be used as a prewriting activity for an essay on character development, an informal assessment of reading comprehension, or as practice for summarization skills.

Activity To begin the lesson, discuss the various components of story structure (plot, setting, characters, etc.), and highlight the importance of character development to communicate the author’s point of view and the story’s theme. Explain that character development is one of the main ways that an author can give a story emotional content and this content often contributes to the theme of the story and the author’s point of view. Display the Character Summary activity sheet (page 198, charactersummary.pdf) on the board or with a document camera to discuss the various elements of the diagram using a familiar story as an example. Assign students a fictional reading selection and ask them to pay careful attention to the development of a particular character throughout the story. Alternatively, divide the class into groups and assign each group a different character to study. Once they have finished reading, assign each student a partner and have each pair complete the activity sheet. When they have finished, discuss the findings as a class and reflect on how character development contributes to the theme and the author’s point of view.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 181 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process

Make sure to choose an appropriate text selection for English language learners that does not contain too many difficult or new vocabulary words. When assigning partners, make sure to pair English language learners with students who can provide them with assistance without simply doing the work for them. Above-level students should be given more challenging texts that include complex character-development scenarios. Below-level students will benefit from previewing the story or reading it ahead of time in order to increase their familiarity with the characters and their development.

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Character Summary (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Text: D. W. the Picky Eater by Marc Brown Character: D. W. What does the character do?

D. W.’s family is bothered by her picky eating. They are embarrassed of her when she gets mad about trying new food.

In the end, D. W. tries a new food. She eats pot pie. She learns that she loves it. She is surprised she likes it because it has spinach. And she hates spinach!

How do others feel about the character?

D. W. is a picky eater. She acts terribly when asked to try new foods.

What does the character say or think?

Conflict:

D. W. sees Arthur’s paper umbrella. He got it at a restaurant. She wonders what she is missing by being picky. She agrees to try new foods. She will only try new foods if she can go out to eat for Grandma Thora’s birthday dinner.

D. W. is a picky eater. She feeds the dog the food she doesn’t want to eat. She gets really mad when she is asked to try new foods.

How does the character change? Author’s theme or point of view: I think the author doesn’t like picky eaters. The lesson of the story is that you will never know if you like something until you try it.

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Character Summary (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Chocolate Fever by Robert Kimmel Smith Character: Henry Green What does the character do?

Henry is a nice boy and most people seem to like him. Once his spots start appearing, people feel sympathetic toward Henry because of his strange ailment.

Henry understands that he cannot indulge himself in whatever pleases him. He agrees to only eat chocolate once in a while and to not judge other people by how they look.

How do others feel about the character?

Henry develops a rash of large, brown spots and no one knows how to cure him.

What does the character say or think?

Conflict:

After Henry gets chocolate fever, he is afraid and scared. He runs away from the hospital and vows never to go back, but he is not sure where he should go. He feels alone and isolated.

Henry eats chocolate all day, every day. He eats it normal ways, like for dessert, and strange ways, like putting chocolate syrup on mashed potatoes. One day, Henry develops large, brown spots and he is diagnosed with chocolate fever.

How does the character change? Author’s theme or point of view: The theme of this book is that we cannot have everything we want every time we want it, and that it is possible to have too much of a good thing.

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Character Summary (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Text: Little Women by Louisa May Alcott Character: Jo March

Conflict: Each sister struggles to improve her own flaws as they mature into young women. Laurie wants to marry Jo, but she wants nothing to do with romance or marriage.

What does the character say or think?

During the first part of the book, Jo wants nothing to do with romance or marriage. As the book progresses, however, she begins to understand the importance of these things, and at the end, she marries Professor Bhaer.

The other characters in the book respect and admire Jo, although they are often annoyed by her tomboy ways and strong opinions.

Jo is the tomboy of the March sisters and is a very lively girl with strong opinions. She loves to read and write. Jo sells her hair to finance their mother’s trip to Washington D.C. to care for their father. At the end of the story, Jo marries Professor Bhaer and turns Plumfield into a boarding school for boys.

Jo feels very constrained by the traditional role of girls in society. She longs for freedom from societal norms and pressures. Jo abhors the idea of marriage and turns down Laurie’s marriage proposal. She loves her sisters and family and wants only to hold the family together.

How do others feel about the character?

What does the character do?

How does the character change? Author’s theme or point of view: The author showcases the struggle of balancing personal growth with familial duty through all the sisters but especially through Jo’s development over the course of the story.

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Character Summary (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: Jane Eyre by Emily Brontë Character: Jane Eyre What does the character do?

Both St. John and Rochester care deeply for Jane, as does Helen, her friend from Lowood. Jane’s aunt, Mrs. Reed, and her headmaster, Mr. Brocklehurst, treat Jane very cruelly, causing her to suffer greatly.

Jane gradually overcomes her feelings of loneliness and isolation as she reconciles her struggle of wanting to be loved while still maintaining her freedom.

How do others feel about the character?

Jane struggles internally to determine how to balance her need for freedom with her desire for love and stability.

What does the character say or think?

Conflict:

At the beginning of the story, Jane feels very isolated and alone. She longs for a true home or community where she can belong. She also desires autonomy and freedom, though, and tries to balance these desires.

After Jane suffers through an unhappy childhood as an orphan, she becomes a teacher and falls in love with Rochester. She agrees to marry Rochester, but then flees when she finds out he is already married. She turns down a marriage proposal from St. John and later marries Rochester after the death of his first wife.

How does the character change? Author’s theme or point of view: The main theme of the book, love versus autonomy, is reflected through Jane’s character development throughout the story.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Character Summary Directions: Describe the central conflict in the story in the middle circle. Answer the questions in each section with information about the character. Reflect on how the character’s development communicates the theme or author’s point of view in the box below.

Text: ______________________________________________________________________________ Character: __________________________________________________________________________________

Conflict:

What does the character say or think?

How do others feel about the character?

What does the character do?

How does the character change? Author’s theme or point of view:

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Summarizing

Story Mapping Background Information Story Mapping is a strategy that allows the reader to note the prominent literary components of a narrative and organize this information in a meaningful and useful manner (Beck and McKeown 1981, as cited in Buehl 2008). Story Mapping varies widely regarding structure and format but typically contains the same general elements: characters, setting, conflict/problem, resolution/solution, and plot. When used after reading a text selection, Story Mapping enables students to gather and recall relevant information from the text and also help them analyze the text structure of the story. The information gathered from Story Mapping can be used to create a written summary of the story or can serve as an outline for a literary analysis essay. Story Mapping can be used as a tool to increase reading comprehension of a given text or as a prewriting tool for students creating their own works of fiction. When used for fictional writing tasks, Story Mapping allows students to plan out the elements of their story and consider how these elements will interact before they begin drafting the text.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 181 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Activity To open the activity, help students brainstorm different literary elements of a story. Discuss each element and the role it plays in a fictional narrative. Display the Story Mapping activity sheet (page 204, storymapping.pdf), and review the different literary components listed. If students will be using this strategy as a prewriting activity to plan their own stories, encourage them to go through the activity sheet carefully, planning out each part of their story and taking additional notes on another sheet of paper if they want to add extra details for the various story components. If students will be using the Story Mapping activity sheet to analyze a reading selection, first distribute the text to students and have them complete the activity sheet after they are done reading. For younger students, read the text selection aloud and complete the activity as a class. When students have completed the activity, allow them to share their work with a partner and then discuss their diagrams with the whole class. Encourage students to use their story maps to write either a narrative of their own creation or an explanatory essay analyzing the given reading selection.

Differentiation English language learners will benefit from conferencing with the teacher, either individually or in small groups, before completing the Story Mapping activity sheet. Make sure to review relevant vocabulary words relating to the literary components on the activity sheet before beginning the activity with these students. Above-level students should be allowed to complete this assignment independently. These students should also be encouraged to write more complex essays based on the information they record. Provide below-level students with extra assistance to help them complete the activity. Allow these students to work with partners to complete the Story Mapping activity sheet based on a reading selection, or give them sample sentences and/or story frames to help them write their own narratives.

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Story Mapping (cont.) Grades 1–2 Example Text: Make Way for Ducklings by Robert McCloskey

Characters

Setting

Mr. Mallard, Mrs. Mallard, Michael, the ducklings, Clancy

the Public Garden in Boston

Describe the Problem(s) Mrs. Mallard and Mr. Mallard need a safe place to raise the ducklings.

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

They put their ducklings on an island. The island is in the Charles River. The Boston Garden is not safe enough for babies.

Mr. Mallard leaves to go to the river. He tells Mrs. Mallard to meet him in the Public Garden in a week. She should also bring the ducklings.

Michael and Clancy are friendly police officers. They stop traffic so Mrs. Mallard and the ducklings can reach the Public Garden. Mrs. Mallard and the ducklings see Mr. Mallard in the pond. They like it so much there. They decide to make the pond their home.

Describe the Solution The Mallards have their babies on an island. It is safer there. Two police officers help them move to the island.

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Story Mapping (cont.) Grades 3–5 Example Text: Ralph S. Mouse by Beverly Cleary

Characters

Setting

Ralph, Ryan, Brad, Mr. Minch (hotel manager), Mrs. Bramble (Ryan’s mother), Matt, Miss K, Mr. Costa, Brad’s father

Mountain View Inn and Irwin J. Sneed Elementary school

Describe the Problem(s) Ralph is unhappy with his family and their treatment of his motorcycle. Ryan is troubled by an aggressive boy named Brad.

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Ryan takes Ralph to school, and the children build a maze to see how smart he is.

Brad breaks Ralph’s motorcycle. Ralph blames Ryan and runs away into the school.

Brad gives Ralph a toy car to replace his motorcycle. Ralph forgives Ryan, and Ryan and Brad become friends.

Describe the Solution Ralph becomes friends with Ryan and has adventures with Ryan at school. Ralph uses strategies he learns at school to deal with his rowdy cousins. After breaking Ralph’s motorcycle, Brad makes amends by giving Ralph a sports car, and the two boys and Ralph all become friends.

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Story Mapping (cont.) Grades 6–8 Example Text: Moon Over Manifest by Clare Vanderpool Characters

Setting

Abilene Tucker, Miss Sadie, Jinx, Ruthanne, Lettie, Ned

Manifest, Kansas—1936

Describe the Problem(s) Abilene feels abandoned by her father and does not understand why he sent her away to live in Manifest.

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

After Abilene almost dies from an infection resulting from a cut knee, her father sends her to Manifest, Kansas, to live with an old friend, Shady.

Abilene discovers a box of hidden artifacts and uses these letters and documents to start her journey into the past. She wants to understand her father’s experience in Manifest, hoping it will help her understand her father.

Through her searches, Abilene learns about both the history of Manifest and her family’s history. She mends her relationship with her father.

Describe the Solution By learning about the history of the town of Manifest, Abilene comes to understand her own family history. This knowledge allows her to understand her father’s decision to send her to Manifest and heals her relationship with her father.

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Story Mapping (cont.) Grades 9–12 Example Text: Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes Hoskins Characters

Setting

Johnny Tremain, Rab Silsbee, Priscilla (Cilla) Lapham, Ephraim Lapham, Lavinia Lyte Tremain, Isannah Lapham, Dove, Dusty, John Hancock, Jonathan Lyte, Mr. Lorne, Mrs. Lorne

1773–1775—years preceding the Revolutionary War Colonial Boston

Describe the Problem(s) The American colonists struggle to gain independence from the British. Johnny fights to overcome his arrogant and selfish ways so he can become a better man.

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Johnny’s hand is severely disfigured due to a prank by Dove. He has to find a new profession and place to live.

Johnny becomes a spy for the rebellion and participates in the Boston Tea Party.

The war begins between the colonists and the British. Johnny breaks completely with his past self and later learns that his disfigured hand can be fixed.

Describe the Solution Through the humbling experience of learning to live with a disfigured hand, Rab’s death, and his continued struggle for human rights, Johnny is able to leave his arrogant traits in the past and mature into a responsible and moral young man.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Story Mapping Directions: Use the diagram below to create a map of the story.

Text: ______________________________________________________________________________ Characters

Setting

Describe the problem(s)

Event 1

Event 2

Event 3

Describe the Solution

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Applying Knowledge

Applying Knowledge Overview What Does the Research Say? Expressive writing and informative, or transactional, writing both play important roles in the language arts classroom. While expressive writing allows students to express themselves creatively, informative writing enables students to communicate information accurately and explain research through writing. Both types of writing require adequate instruction and practice in order to prove useful to students. Most types of writing used to apply knowledge fall under the category of transactional writing. Transactional writing, as Britton et al. (1975) call it, is the kind of writing that has a specific purpose. There is the intent to produce or explain something. There is a specific audience, and the writer is responsible for what he or she says. Most transactional writing ends up as a finished product and is often called product writing. There is emphasis on what the final product will look like. This type of writing is more formal and is the type of writing often required for exams, business-related writing, and analytical essays. Examples of transactional writing in the language arts classroom include research reports, test questions, literary-analysis essays, and homework assignments. Students should be taught how to produce informative writing and be provided with models and examples to follow. Teachers should be expected to teach students how to write formal essays and complete literature-based research assignments. With transactional writing, students are accountable for spelling, grammar, and punctuation decisions. Writing mechanics and organization are as much a part of the grade as the content will be. One of the best ways for students to learn how to comprehend fictional texts is by analyzing narratives and extrapolating this knowledge to their own writing. Writing-to-apply activities provide students with the opportunity to write about literary concepts using established formats such as research assignments and essays. Writing for an audience requires understanding of subject, organization, and complex cognitive thought. Writing-to-apply activities encourage critical thinking skills in formal settings. These same skills can transfer to writing that will be done throughout life in the workplace and elsewhere. Students can also apply their knowledge of fictional literature by producing their own narratives or fictional texts. While the strategies in this book do not strive to teach students how to write fiction, there are several strategies that encourage narrative writing as a means of demonstrating knowledge of character development or text structure. The more students write, the more familiar and the more comfortable they will become with expressing their thoughts through writing. Students need instruction, direction, experience, and motivation to write. Using transactional or informative writing in the language arts classroom allows students to express their knowledge of language arts topics while developing and strengthening their writing skills. It also allows students to weave together the language of literature into everyday language and conversation. Finally, the routine use of writing as a tool to apply knowledge in the classroom increases students’ abilities to write for a range of different tasks, purposes, and audiences.

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Applying Knowledge Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Strategy Summary-Writing Microtheme

McREL Standards Grades 3–5 (1.11) Grades 6–8 (1.12) Grades 9–12 (1.12)

RAFT Assignment

Grades 1–2 (1.7, 1.8) Grades 3–5 (1.5, 1.6) Grades 6–8 (1.5) Grades 9–12 (1.5, 1.6)

Formal Letter

Grades 1–2 (1.7) Grades 3–5 (1.12) Grades 6–8 (1.13) Grades 9–12 (1.13)

Friendly Letter

Grades 1–2 (1.7) Grades 3–5 (1.12) Grades 6–8 (1.13) Grades 9–12 (1.13)

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Common Core State Standards Grade 3 (W.3.8) Grade 4 (W.4.8) Grade 5 (W.5.8) Grade 6 (W.6.8) Grade 7 (W.7.8) Grade 8 (W.8.8) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.8) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.8) Grade 1 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 3 (W.3.4) Grade 4 (W.4.4) Grade 5 (W.5.4) Grade 6 (W.6.4) Grade 7 (W.7.4) Grade 8 (W.8.4) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.4) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.4) Grade 1 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 3 (W.3.4) Grade 4 (W.4.4) Grade 5 (W.5.4) Grade 6 (W.6.4) Grade 7 (W.7.4) Grade 8 (W.8.4) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.4) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.4) Grade 1 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 3 (W.3.4) Grade 4 (W.4.4) Grade 5 (W.5.4) Grade 6 (W.6.4) Grade 7 (W.7.4) Grade 8 (W.8.4) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.4) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.4)

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Applying Knowledge

Applying Knowledge Overview (cont.) Strategy Newspaper Article

McREL Standards Grades 1–2 (1.7) Grades 3–5 (1.7) Grades 6–8 (1.6) Grades 11–12 (1.7)

Historical/Science Fiction Story

Grades 1–2 (1.7) Grades 3–5 (1.8) Grades 6–8 (1.7) Grades 9–12 (1.8)

Character Diary

Grades 1–2 (1.7) Grades 3–5 (1.8) Grades 6–8 (1.7) Grades 9–12 (1.8)

Story Additions

Grades 3–5 (1.8) Grades 6–8 (1.7) Grades 9–12 (1.8)

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Common Core State Standards Grade 1 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.4) Grade 3 (W.3.4) Grade 4 (W.4.4) Grade 5 (W.5.4) Grade 6 (W.6.4) Grade 7 (W.7.4) Grade 8 (W.8.4) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.4) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.4) Grade 1 (W.1.3) Grade 2 (W.2.3) Grade 3 (W.3.3) Grade 4 (W.4.3) Grade 5 (W.5.3) Grade 6 (W.6.3) Grade 7 (W.7.3) Grade 8 (W.8.3) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.3) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.3) Grade 1 (CCRA.W.9, W.1.3) Grade 2 (CCRA.W.9, W.2.3) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.3) Grade 4 (W.4.3, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.3, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.3, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.3, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.3, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.3, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.3, W.11–12.9) Grade 3 (CCRA.W.9, W.3.3, W.3.4) Grade 4 (W.4.3, W.4.4, W.4.9) Grade 5 (W.5.3, W.5.4, W.5.9) Grade 6 (W.6.3, W.6.4, W.6.9) Grade 7 (W.7.3, W.7.4, W.7.9) Grade 8 (W.8.3, W.8.4, W.8.9) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.3, W.9–10.4, W.9–10.9) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.3, W.11–12.4, W.11–12.9)

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Summary-Writing Microtheme Background Information The Microthemes strategy, introduced by John C. Bean (1996), enables students to write what they know about a specific theme. In essence, the microtheme is a condensed version of a research report or essay, written on one side of a 5” x 8” index card. This strategy reveals what students do or do not know about a specific literary subject. It provides an opportunity for students to write informally using clear and accurate information for an intended audience. With this microtheme, students determine which details to eliminate and which to condense. Ideally, this application activity would follow practice with GIST, Key Words, or Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedures so that students are well prepared to create their own summaries independently. The focus of the SummaryWriting Microtheme is to improve students’ comprehension and summarizing abilities.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 206 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

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Activity Select a piece of text that is well suited for summary writing. Tell students that they will write a short summary about the text. Display a sample Summary-Writing Microtheme on the board or with a document camera, and discuss the organization (main ideas and details), tone (direct), language (content vocabulary), and other features (transition words). Set clear expectations for students so they will be successful. Next, model writing a Summary-Writing Microtheme using a prewriting strategy, drafting, revising, editing, and publishing. This is probably best done over several days or class periods. Distribute the Summary‑Writing Microtheme activity sheet (page 209, summarywriting.pdf) to get students started on the writing process.

Differentiation If appropriate, allow English language learners to use pictures or other visual representations in their microthemes. Remind these students to focus on summarizing the text in an organized manner. Consider providing them with summary frames or sentence stems if these will help English language learners better communicate the information. Do not hold English language learners accountable for spelling and writing conventions as much as for content. Have above-level students write a Summary-Writing Microtheme on two different texts about the same topic and then compare and contrast the information. Provide smallgroup instruction for below-level students at each stage of the writing process. These students may need support to organize their information in a systematic manner and to use the prewriting work to create a draft. Allow additional time for these students to accomplish the assignment.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Summary-Writing Microtheme Directions: Use this prewriting planner to organize your Summary-Writing Microtheme.

Main Idea __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Detail __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Detail __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Detail __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________ Closing Statement __________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________

Reminders:

• Refer to the text to identify the main idea. • Make sure the details support or are related to the main idea. • Use this outline to write your draft. • Add transition words (most importantly, for example, etc.).

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Applying Knowledge

RAFT Assignment Background Information RAFT stands for Role, Audience, Format, and Topic, the key ingredients of writing assignments (Santa, Havens, and Harrison 1996). This particular writing assignment alters the usual assignment in which students write a formal essay or report. With this activity, teachers can encourage creative application of language arts content knowledge. For example, after reading a fictional text selection, writers may be asked to write from the point of view of a specific character (role) speaking to the third-person narrator (audience) in a dialogue (format) about the possible alternative resolutions to the conflict presented in the story (topic).

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 206 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Edit, Revise, Publish

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Activity Prepare the RAFT Assignment activity sheet (page 211, raft.pdf) by filling in the RAFT components. Distribute the RAFT Assignment activity sheet to students, and then hold a brainstorming session to share ideas on how to address each area in the writing. Provide plenty of time for students to collaborate and get excited about the assignment. Model writing your own RAFT Assignment, showing each step of the writing process before asking students to work on their own. If needed, provide students with copies of a genre-specific graphic organizer (see pages 133–161) during the prewriting phase.

Variation Primary-grade teachers may want to create a RAFT Assignment as a whole class, using the shared writing process on a large sheet of chart paper. Provide a beginning for the writing piece, and then ask students to contribute ideas to continue the story. Invite various students to come up and write each sentence on the chart until the story is complete. If grade-level teams are working on the RAFT Assignment, teachers may rotate the completed stories so that students can see the creative ideas of the other classes.

Differentiation Allow English language learners to draw pictures in a story map to get them started. Modify the writing expectations to meet their individual levels. Belowlevel students may need more explicit instruction in the chosen genre, so consider meeting with these students in small groups to preteach the features of the genre before beginning writing. Also, provide graphic organizers to help them stay organized. Above-level students may be thrilled with the freedom of the assignment. They should be able to work independently, but challenge them appropriately to develop their writing skills further.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

RAFT Assignment Directions: Use this prewriting planner to organize your RAFT Assignment. Role:_______________________________________________________________________________________ Audience: __________________________________________________________________________________ Form: ______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________

Reminders:

• Think carefully about your role and your point of view. • Consider how to best communicate to your audience. • Use the traits of the writing form. You may wish to create a graphic organizer specific to that genre, such as a letter, a poem, an explanation, or a story.

• Stay focused on your topic.

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Applying Knowledge

Formal Letter Background Information Writing a formal letter is another expressive writing strategy that provides students with the opportunity to communicate with other people or obtain new information. If possible, send the formal letters out, and read and post replies as they come into the classroom.

Divide the class into groups of three or four. Have each group make a list of ideas for formal letters with a literary theme. Examples may include the following:

• Write a letter to an author. Ask the author

questions about his or her work of fiction.

• Write a letter to the editor of a newspaper that

contains book reviews. Have students provide their opinions about a recently reviewed book.

• Write a letter to a publishing company asking about the publishing process.

• Write a letter to a library. Ask the reference Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 206 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

Activity Review the following questions with students:

• What is the purpose of a formal letter? • Can you think of an example of a formal letter that contains a literary topic?

• What key features of a formal letter should be

librarian for book recommendations, ideas about literary themes or concepts, or book club ideas.

Allow time for students to share their responses with the class. Call on students to share examples of formal letters with a literary theme. Distribute the Formal Letter activity sheet (page 213, formalletter.pdf), and allow students to write a formal letter on a literary topic.

Differentiation Encourage English language learners to write the letter independently, and pair them with a partner for editing and revising. Pair them with students who are comfortable with writing formally. Encourage above-level students to write letters on a controversial literary topic or book. This will require students to present a topic and think through the arguments to convince the reader of their opinions. Below-level students will benefit from working with a partner to write the letter.

included?

• What are some tips for writing a formal letter relating to a literary topic?

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Formal Letter _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ To Whom It May Concern: (or) Dear _______________________________, ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________, ___________________________________

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Applying Knowledge

Friendly Letter Background Information Writing a friendly letter is another expressive writing strategy that provides students with the opportunity to communicate their ideas about a literary topic or piece of fictional literature. Send friendly letters out and read and post replies as they arrive.

Activity Review the following questions with students:

• What is the purpose of a friendly letter? • Can you think of an example of a friendly letter that contains a language arts topic?

• What key features of a friendly letter should be included?

• What are some tips for writing a friendly letter relating to a literary topic?

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 206 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Divide the class into groups of three or four. Have each group make a list of examples of a friendly letter with a language arts theme. Examples may include the following:

• letter to a friend comparing and contrasting two pieces of fictional literature

• letter to a family member explaining what has been learned in language arts class

• letter to a friend encouraging him or her to read a particular piece of literature

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

Allow time for students to share their responses with the class. Call on students to share examples of friendly letters with a literary theme. Distribute the Friendly Letter activity sheet (page 215, friendlyletter.pdf), and allow students to write a friendly letter of their own on a literary topic.

Differentiation Encourage English language learners to write letters independently, and pair them with partners for editing and revising. Pair them with students who are comfortable with writing friendly letters. Encourage above-level students to write about a more complex topic, or challenge them to include more advanced vocabulary and complex sentence structures. Below-level students will benefit from working with a partner to write the letter.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Friendly Letter ____________________________________ Dear __________________________, ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________, ___________________________________

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Applying Knowledge

Newspaper Article Background Information Writing a newspaper article on a literaturebased theme is another way for students to use literary concepts in everyday life. The article usually answers the who, what, where, when, why, and how questions.

• dateline—This lists the month, day, and year the article was written.

• illustration—An illustration is optional for a

newspaper article. It can help bring the point of the story home to the reader.

• paragraph 1—This should answer the who, what, when, and where questions.

• paragraph 2—This should answer the how

and why questions. Answering how and why takes the reader to the next step.

• final paragraph—This is usually a conclusion, summary, or list of future prospects.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 207 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

Activity Divide the class into groups of three or four and give each group a newspaper or an ageappropriate periodical to read as a model. Ask the groups to locate and cut out an article about a literary topic or a book review. Write the following list on the board, and discuss the elements of a newspaper article. A newspaper article has:

• headline—This is a short, concise phrase that explains the main point of the article.

• byline—This is the name of the person who wrote the newspaper article.

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Explain that a newspaper article addresses the five Ws—who, what, where, when, and why—and anticipates and answers readers’ questions. A newspaper article can address issues and questions related to literature, or it can review a particular text. Have students identify a literature-based topic about which they would like to write a newspaper article or book review. Distribute the Newspaper Article activity sheet (page 217, newspaperarticle.pdf) to students to help them analyze the model article plan for writing their own. Then, have them write their articles or book reviews on separate sheets of paper, being mindful to include some of the text features they observed in the model newspaper article. Students should work with their groups to provide feedback to one another and develop and strengthen their writing.

Differentiation Make sure English language learners clearly understand the literary topic before beginning to write. Then, provide resource books for them to use during the writing process so that they can look up words. Take extra time to make sure all of the words and phrases on the board are clearly defined and understood by below-level students. Use visuals whenever possible. Both English language learners and below-level students will benefit from working in mixed-ability groups. Have above-level students work in teams to design a newspaper dedicated to the literary topics being studied in class. © Shell Education

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Newspaper Article Directions: Answer the questions below as they relate to your topic. Then, write your newspaper article on a separate sheet of paper, making sure to include some of the text features you marked in the original newspaper article. Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________ Who? Who is the article about? _______________________________________________________________________ Who would be interested in reading it? ___________________________________________________________ Who is the audience? __________________________________________________________________________ What? What is the purpose of the article? _______________________________________________________________ What is the main idea of the article? How does it relate to literature?____________________________________ What is the author’s desired result? _______________________________________________________________ When? When does the event in the story take place? ______________________________________________________ When was the story written? ____________________________________________________________________ Where? Where does the news story take place? ___________________________________________________________ Where is the newspaper circulated? ______________________________________________________________ Why? Why was this printed in the newspaper instead of a book or another reference? __________________________ Why did the events in the news story happen? _____________________________________________________ Why did the author write the article? What can be learned about literature as a result of this article? __________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Applying Knowledge

Historical/Science Fiction Story Background Information Writing a Historical/Science Fiction Story is a great way for students to weave contentarea knowledge into everyday life. In order for a piece of fiction to be believable, it must contain convincing information on domainspecific topics. Look for opportunities throughout content-area lessons to point out science or social studies problems that could be turned into a story.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 207 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process

First, discuss the characters. Which characters should be in the story? Remember to limit the number of characters because too many characters can lead to confusion. Brainstorm with students some settings and problems for their stories. Spend time researching the content-area topic so students have a clear understanding of the topic and how it could be an issue in everyday life. Write each sentence as a class. Call on one student at a time to add to the story. Once the story is written, read it to the class. Analyze how well the content-area elements were handled. Identify any changes or additions that need to be made. Then, have students use the Historical/Science Fiction Story activity sheet (page 219, historicalscience.pdf) to help plan and write their own fictional story.

Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

Differentiation

Activity

Give English language learners resources such as dual-language dictionaries, picture books, and encyclopedias at their reading level. Hold frequent conferences with English language learners and below-level students throughout the writing process to provide modeling, feedback, and scaffolding. Challenge above-level students to include richer vocabulary, more dynamic language, and more complex sentence structures.

Read a chapter of a science fiction or historical fiction story. Identify with the class the domainspecific problem and possible solutions. Discuss the main elements of a story:

• setting • characters • problem • solution 218

Explain that a story has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The beginning usually describes the setting and introduces the characters. The reader learns more about the characters and the problem in the middle of the story. The ending tells the solution to the problem. Point out that content-area facts and details need to be woven into the story and the plot. Work together as a class to write a story outline. Record student ideas on the board or display them with a document camera.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Historical/Science Fiction Story Directions: Use this story map to help you plan your fictional story. Follow the arrows to the next step. Then, write your story on a separate sheet of paper. Setting (Where and when does the story take place?)

Characters (Who or what are the people, animals, or objects in the story?)

Conflict/Problem (What is the content-area problem?)

Action/Events (What are the attempts to solve the problem?)

Solution (How does the story end?)

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Applying Knowledge

Character Diary Background Information The Character Diary strategy provides students with the opportunity to apply their knowledge about character development and plot to narrative writing. By writing diary entries from the perspective of a fictional character, students learn how to adopt the character’s point of view, language style, opinions, and attitudes. This activity also helps students comprehend character development from the author’s point of view as they work to build on a fictional character created by the author.

Make sure to highlight how the diary entries reflect the presentation of the character in the story. Ask students to choose a character from the story and write a diary entry that reflects the character’s thoughts over the course of the story or a specific chapter. Instruct students to consider the following questions:

• What are the character’s thoughts? • How do the character’s actions reflect his or her feelings?

• How does the character’s personality and

background affect the way he or she reacts to events in the story?

• How does the character react to the problem or conflict in the story?

• What are the character’s feelings? Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 207 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Distribute the Character Diary activity sheet (page 221, characterdiary.pdf) to students, and have them begin writing. Once students have written their diary entries, have them switch diary entries with partners to read other students’ entries. Hold a class discussion about the various characters in the book and discuss how students were able to apply their knowledge of character development to their diary entries.

Differentiation Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

Activity After reading a fictional text selection, review the importance of character development throughout the story. Make a list of characters on the board or on a sheet of chart paper, and discuss the characters’ various attributes and personality traits. Display and discuss sample diary entries that showcase different writing styles and perspectives.

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Provide English language learners and below-level students with sample diary entries to keep at their desks so that they can use them as models for writing their own Character Diary. These students may also benefit from the use of sentence frames to help build their entries. Above-level students should be encouraged to focus on the more complex aspects of character development. These students can use their knowledge of the character to infer the character’s thoughts and feelings that are not explicitly discussed in the story and analyze the character’s actions for implied motives and goals.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Character Diary Character: __________________________________________________________________________________

Date _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Date _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

Date _____________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________

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Story Additions Background Information The Story Additions strategy asks students to write additional or alternative parts to an existing story. In order to do this, students must apply their knowledge of a story’s characters, plot, style, and story structure in order to create a text that can be added seamlessly to the original text. This strategy can be used as a short, informal activity that can be completed during a single class period or as an extended formal writing project that lasts several days or weeks as students complete the various phases of the writing process.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 207 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stages of Writing Process Prewrite, Draft, Revise, Edit, Publish

chapter to add to the end of the story, or even a prequel or sequel to the text. Have students read the story independently or read it aloud to the class, and discuss the prominent literary elements that students will need to include in their story additions. Distribute the Story Additions activity sheet (page 223, storyadditions.pdf) to students, and ask them to fill in the information about the original text and their planned addition or alternative part. In the case of a longer writing assignment, it may also be helpful to have students use the Story Mapping strategy (see pages 199–204) before they begin writing in order to outline the relevant literary components they need to include. Once students have completed a final version of their Story Addition, provide ample opportunities for students to share their work with their peers and the school community. The Author’s Chair strategy (see pages 176–179) is one effective method of sharing students’ work within the classroom. To conclude the activity, ask students to reflect on the writing process and the ways in which they were able to apply their knowledge about literary concepts to their final writing product.

Differentiation This activity demands a comprehensive understanding of the text, so it is important to choose the reading selection carefully for English language learners. It may be a good idea to use a different reading selection for English language learners and below-level students or allow these students to choose their own text on which to base their writing. Above-level students can use a more complex text.

Activity Before beginning a reading selection, tell students that they will be creating additional or alternative parts (determined by the teacher prior to the activity) of the story they are about to read. Students’ Story Additions can take the form of an alternative ending or beginning, an additional 222

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Story Additions Directions: Use this prewriting planner to organize your Story Addition. Original Text 1. Narrator: _________________________________________________________________________ 2. Point of View: _____________________________________________________________________ 3. Tone: _____________________________________________________________________________ 4. Setting: ___________________________________________________________________________ 5. Characters: ________________________________________________________________________ Story Addition Where will the text of the Story Addition occur relative to the original text (e.g., before the original text begins, in the middle, at the climax)? ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ Which characters will I include? ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ How will I make sure that the point of view and tone I use are consistent with the original text? ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ How will the events in the Story Addition connect with the plot in the original text? ___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Assessing Writing

Assessing Writing Overview Role of Assessment of Writing in the Language Arts Classroom The role of assessment of writing has been another reason teachers often avoid writing (Gahn 1989). However, not all writing assignments or activities in language arts need to be graded. Writing-to-learn assignments seldom need to be graded. These experiences are to provide opportunities for students to express themselves and what they are learning. The concern for how to grade more formal writing assignments can be alleviated with rubrics and checklists. These two methods can be effective and meaningful ways to assess more formal types of writing in the classroom. Writing assessments will be described and discussed in detail in the last section of this book.

Authentic Assessment of Writing Views of teaching and learning have changed to include the concept of constructivism—the belief that learners actively and dynamically construct the information they are learning about the world. The learner is not an “empty cup” to be filled with knowledge and information. Constructivism holds a view that learning includes and incorporates a dynamic and active mental process (e.g., Jones et al. 1987; Marzano, Pickering, and McTighe 1993; Resnick and Klopfer 1989). Students learn through interactive and integrative experiences in the classroom; the more a student actively listens, speaks, reads, writes, and thinks, the easier the learning and retention of knowledge will be. There is a variety of ways to construct knowledge and learn (Pressley 1990; Weinstein and Mayer 1986), but one of the key ways to help learning occur is to have students write. Although many teachers agree with the notion of interactive learning, they feel inadequate when grading or assessing this type of learning. For example, how does a teacher assign a grade to something that is not formal writing? How does the teacher assess the learning of literary skills and concepts through writing? These concerns are valid. Assessment of this type of writing must validate learning, and it must acknowledge the language arts standards and objectives as well. Authentic assessment reflects back on the meaningful instruction and learning process. There are many different types of authentic assessment of writing done in the classroom (Feuer and Fulton 1993). Incorporating authentic assessment in the classroom requires little time, effort, or experience. It is not uncommon for a teacher to feel uncomfortable grading students’ informal writing, but they may realize that they are already using some types of authentic assessment in their classroom. The types of authentic assessments that lend themselves to writing in the language arts classroom include holistic assessment, primary trait assessment, and analytic scoring (Cohen 1994; Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters 1992). Self-assessment and peer assessments provide opportunities for students to reflect on their own writing abilities as well as their understanding of literary concepts. Peer assessment also provides other examples of writing for students to read and compare and contrast with their own writing and understanding. The portfolio assessment strategy also represents a unique evaluative technique that allows the teacher to gauge the progress and improvement of a student’s writing skills over a designated time period.

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Assessing Writing Overview (cont.) Standards Addressed The following chart shows the correlating standards for each strategy in this section. Refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety. Strategy

McREL Standards

Common Core State Standards

Holistic Assessment

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5)

Analytic Assessment

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5)

Primary Trait Assessment

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5)

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Assessing Writing Overview (cont.) Strategy

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McREL Standards

Self-Assessment

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

Peer Assessment

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

Teacher Conference

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

Portfolio Assessment

Grades 1–2 (1.4) Grades 3–5 (1.4) Grades 6–8 (1.4) Grades 9–12 (1.4)

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Common Core State Standards Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5) Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5) Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5) Grade 1 (W.1.5) Grade 2 (W.2.5) Grade 3 (W.3.5) Grade 4 (W.4.5) Grade 5 (W.5.5) Grade 6 (W.6.5) Grade 7 (W.7.5) Grade 8 (W.8.5) Grades 9–10 (W.9–10.5) Grades 11–12 (W.11–12.5)

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Assessing Writing

Holistic Assessment Background Information Holistic Assessment evaluates the overall picture of the writing as opposed to the individual writing components. This assessment uses a list of criteria that are analyzed to produce one score on a scale of 1–6. The criteria, which address both language arts objectives and writing skills, are determined prior to the assignment, and the student is informed of the criteria before writing takes place. The criteria can be adapted to meet students’ needs and the objectives of the assignment. The four main criteria are as follows:

• Idea Development/Organization—Does the student communicate a central idea or purpose? Has this idea been supported throughout the piece, and is there a conclusion?

• Fluency/Structure—Does the student use correct grammar (verb endings, verb tenses, pronouns, etc.) and syntax in the writing?

• Word Choice—Does the student

incorporate a variety of words and content-specific terms?

• Mechanics—Does the student use

correct spelling, capitalization, and punctuation?

The objective of this assessment is for students to develop and strengthen their writing by planning, revising, and editing. By implementing this strategy prior to assigning a writing assignment, students can plan and revise their work based on clear expectations and guidelines.

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Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 225 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Reflection

Activity Prior to beginning a writing assignment, distribute the Holistic Assessment activity sheet (page 228, holistic.pdf) to students, and review and discuss it. Please note that this rubric can be altered to fit the needs of the writing assignment and the age of students. Be sure that they are clear on the expectations of the writing assignment and on how they will be assessed prior to beginning the writing. You may also choose to include students in creating the criteria. After students complete the writing, pair each student with a partner to exchange the writing, and provide suggestions, comments, and feedback. Then, collect students’ writing and use the rubric to rate each piece with a score from 1–6.

Differentiation Adapt the rubric to meet the needs of English language learners and their abilities. They may not be expected to meet the grade-level expectations in grammar and mechanics, for example. Challenge above-level students to create their own criteria and rubric. Help below-level students use the rubric throughout the writing process to meet the expectations.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Holistic Assessment Title:_______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic: _____________________________________________________________________________________ Level 6—Writing conveys clear meaning and ideas.

• organizes the piece with several paragraphs, and develops ideas and a conclusion • incorporates smooth transitions • incorporates necessary language arts concepts and ideas • uses a variety of vocabulary words, including literary vocabulary and terms • writing has few or no grammatical or mechanical errors Level 5—Writing conveys meaning and ideas.

• organizes the piece with several paragraphs, though some portions may not be fully developed • incorporates some smooth transitions • incorporates some language arts concepts and ideas • uses some literary vocabulary and terms • writing has some grammatical or mechanical errors Level 4—Writing expresses an idea most of the time.

• develops a cohesive paragraph • uses a variety of sentence structures with few transitions • selects some language arts vocabulary and terms • writing has some grammatical or mechanical errors Level 3—Begins to write about an idea but fails to support it.

• sometimes develops a cohesive paragraph • uses complete sentences • incorporates few language arts vocabulary and terms • writing has many grammatical or mechanical errors Level 2—Attempts to write about an idea.

• there are no cohesive paragraphs • uses complete sentences sometimes • lack of language arts vocabulary and terms incorporated in writing • writing has multiple grammatical or mechanical errors Level 1—There is no common theme or idea.

• sentences are written but are incomplete • uses sentences with few transitions • language arts vocabulary and terms are not used • writing has too many grammatical or mechanical errors

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Analytic Assessment Background Information With Analytic Assessment, each component of the writing is analyzed independently of the others and given its own score. The writing assignment is given several scores, each representing the different components. The teacher may also choose to weigh one component more heavily than another to add emphasis. Analytic assessment not only allows the teacher to provide specific feedback to students but it also helps the teacher target certain areas in planning, instruction, and assessment (Perkins 1983). The objective of this assessment is for students to develop and strengthen their writing by planning, revising, and editing. By implementing this strategy prior to assigning a writing assignment, students can plan and revise their work based on clear expectations and guidelines.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 225 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Activity Working together with students, create a rubric that scores each component of the writing assignment. The writing components may include composition, mechanics, sentence formation, language arts content, and usage. Determine if one component of the rubric should receive more emphasis than another. Determine the number of points scored for each component. Review the Analytic Assessment activity sheet (page 230, analytic.pdf) with students prior to giving instructions on the writing assignment. Be sure students understand how they will be graded. Show models of writing samples. Allow time for students to complete the writing assignment, and then compare it to the designated rubric. Students can then edit and make changes as they deem necessary. Use the Analytic Assessment activity sheet to score students’ writing assignments.

Differentiation Work independently with English language learners to create a rubric that meets their specific needs to ensure a greater chance of success. If desired, include a component of writing in English as part of the rubric. Encourage above-level students to create their own rubrics, score their writing assignments, and compare them with the scores you determined for the writing. You may also weigh certain components more heavily to challenge above-level students. If appropriate, adapt rubrics for below-level students to address their individual needs.

Stage of Writing Process Reflection

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Analytic Assessment Title: _______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________

Skill

Excellent (3 points)

Satisfactory (2 points)

Needs Improvement (1 point)

Stays on topic Shows a clear purpose (topic sentence) Includes supporting details with specific examples Has sequential and/or logical development Includes a main idea paragraph Clearly presents concepts Expresses ideas clearly Uses complete sentences Uses varied sentence types and structures Uses vocabulary words correctly Uses correct spelling Comments: _________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ 230

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Primary Trait Assessment Background Information Primary Trait Assessment is a way for the teacher to focus on one specific skill or trait. The teacher determines the skill, trait, or feature that will be analyzed and assessed in a piece of writing. The trait can be writing –based or content–based, depending on the intent of the lesson. In primary trait writing, only the primary trait is scored. The other traits and elements are ignored. A benefit of using the Primary Trait Assessment is that students may feel more at ease with the primary trait focus because they can focus on one area. Teachers, too, can focus on specific areas of concern. The Primary Trait Assessment also allows the teacher to focus specifically on the language arts skill or concept (e.g., theme, symbolism, etc.) while ignoring the mechanics and other areas of writing. With any rubric, clearly communicate the goals and expectations prior to assigning a writing task. The objective of this assessment is for students to develop and strengthen their writing by planning, revising, and editing. By implementing this strategy prior to assigning a writing assignment, students can plan and revise their work based on clear expectations and guidelines.

Stage of Writing Process Reflection

Activity Determine the writing assignment to be used for the Primary Trait Assessment rubric for scoring. Select the specific trait or skill that you would like students to focus on during the writing assignment. Display the Primary Trait Assessment activity sheet (page 232, primarytrait.pdf) for students to see before they begin writing. Tell students the primary trait that is the focus for this writing assignment. Explain that the other areas of writing will be ignored for assessment purposes. Allow time for students to draft and edit their writing before submitting it for assessment. If desired, pair students with partners to edit one another’s writing. When using the Primary Trait Assessment activity sheet, be sure to give specific feedback on how students can improve in this primary trait. Use this rubric the next time students write so that you can look for progress on the primary trait.

Differentiation Select a primary trait for English language learners to fit their specific language needs. Challenge above-level students by selecting a primary trait that is not a clear strength, and have them decide how to improve their area of focus. Give specific feedback to below-level students on what they need to improve, and encourage them to revise and edit their work. Design a specific primary trait focus that will meet their individual needs.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 225 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Primary Trait Assessment Title: _______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________ Select the primary trait for focus and use the following rubric (with adjustments, if needed) to assess students’ writing. Leave specific feedback. 5 The student demonstrates desired skills throughout the text. 4 Most of the time, the student demonstrates desired skills in the text. 3 Occasionally, the student demonstrates desired skills in the text. 2 Seldom does the student demonstrate desired skills in the text. 1 The student is not using desired skills in the text. ______ Content: The writer presents a main point and uses a clear organizational structure. The writer presents information logically. The writer anticipates and addresses the concerns and questions of the reader. The writer cites sources of information whenever necessary. The writer uses books and other resources to gather information. The writer conveys an intended purpose in writing. The writer understands and portrays the language arts concepts in a meaningful way. Comments: _________________________________________________________________________________ ______ Writing Conventions: The writer has taken time and effort to ensure the writing does not have spelling errors. Each sentence begins with a capital and ends with the correct punctuation. The writing contains clear transitions to convey ideas. Each paragraph of the writing is dedicated to only one idea. The report contains no mechanical errors. The writing is ready to publish. Comments: _________________________________________________________________________________ ______ Use of Language: The writer creates a structure appropriate to the needs of a specific audience. The writer uses descriptive language that clarifies and enhances ideas. The writer engages the reader. The writer expresses an individual, consistent voice. The writer uses an interesting lead. Comments: ________________________________________________ ______ Organization/Structure: The writing is organized and follows the recommended structure for a report. The parts of a report (title, main idea, examples to support the main idea, and summary or conclusion) are present. The report is at least five paragraphs in length. Comments: _________________________________________________________________________________ 232

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Assessing Writing

Self-Assessment Background Information Self-Assessment is a way for students to assess their own work. Students learn to look critically at their own work and analyze it for strengths and weaknesses. A benefit of using Self-Assessment is that students take ownership of the assessment process, which personalizes the learning for them. Some students who are extremely sensitive about receiving feedback may appreciate this method of assessment. Also, teachers can use student reflections as a springboard into developing personal goals for students. Having a personal goal to strive toward will make future writing assignments more meaningful. The objective of this assessment is for students to develop and strengthen their writing by planning, revising, and editing. By implementing this strategy prior to assigning a writing assignment, students can plan and revise their work based on clear expectations and guidelines.

Activity Determine the writing assignment to be used for Self-Assessment. Display the Self-Assessment activity sheets (pages 234–235, selfassessment. pdf) for students to see before they begin writing. Tell students that they will be responsible for evaluating their own writing when they have completed the writing assignment. Encourage students to refer to the checklist and survey throughout the writing process so that they keep the goals in mind as they work. For students who may be unaccustomed to using Self‑Assessment, consider allowing them to work in pairs to “practice” completing the checklist and survey before they have officially published their work. This may help them look more critically at their own work before the final evaluation. After students have completed their Self-Assessment checklist and survey, take time to conference individually to provide constructive feedback and set goals for the next writing piece. When work begins on the following assignment, ask students to identify one or two elements on the checklist where they would like to improve.

Differentiation

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 226 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Reflection © Shell Education

Consider limiting the elements on the checklist for English language learners and below-level students while still maintaining a focus on using and applying the grade-appropriate language arts content. English language learners will need the checklist adapted to meet their specific needs so the expectations are appropriate for their current level of language development. Below-level students may focus on one or two elements in each category so that they are not overwhelmed. Challenge above-level students to apply higherlevel writing strategies, use more advanced vocabulary, and incorporate more complex sentence structures. Replace simplistic items on their checklists with more complex items in areas where they can work on developing their skills to ensure they are appropriately challenged.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Self-Assessment Title: _______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________ Directions: Answer the questions below to self-assess your writing.

1. Capitalization ______ Did I capitalize the first word of each sentence? ______ Did I capitalize proper nouns such as names and places?



2. Punctuation ______ Did I put a ., !, or a ? at the end of each sentence? ______ Did I use commas in a series? ______ Did I use commas in dates? ______ Have I been careful not to use the exclamation point too much? ______ Have I used quotation marks when I needed them?



3. Handwriting ______ Did I write neatly? ______ Are there missing words that need to be added? ______ Are there extra words that need to be deleted?



4. Spelling ______ Did I check my spelling?



5.

Overall Content ______ Have I been clear about the topic of my writing? ______ Is it easy to tell what the main idea is? ______ Have I used any special words or phrases that add to my writing? ______ Are there any words or phrases that are confusing? ______ Have I used an interesting lead? ______ Have I considered what would make my writing better?



6.

Language Arts Content ______ Did I use the correct literary terms? ______ Did I write about the language arts topic accurately? ______ Did I do adequate research on the language arts topic? ______ Did I use my own words? ______ Do I clearly understand the language arts topic I am writing about?

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Self-Assessment (cont.) I think this writing piece shows that I can… _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ One thing I learned from writing this is… _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ I have improved my writing in these areas… _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ The next time I write, I will… _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Did I give my best to this writing assignment? Why or why not? _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________

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Assessing Writing

Peer Assessment Background Information Peer Assessment is a way for students to practice analyzing the work of others. Students learn to look critically at others’ work and analyze it for strengths and weaknesses. This strategy also enables students to deepen their understanding of the expectations of each particular writing genre. In order to assess their peers’ work, students must have a comprehensive understanding of the topic themselves. As with Self-Assessment, students take ownership of the assessment process with Peer Assessment—even though they are not assessing their own work—which personalizes the learning for them. This assessment tool can be used in conjunction with another, such as Teacher Conference, or a traditional rubric. Teachers can also ask students to reflect on what they saw in their partners’ work and choose an aspect that they might want to include in their own writing in the future. The objective of this assessment is for students to develop and strengthen their writing by planning, revising, and editing. By implementing this strategy prior to assigning a writing assignment, students can plan and revise their work based on clear expectations and guidelines.

Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 226 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Stage of Writing Process Reflection

Activity Determine the writing assignment to be used for Peer Assessment. Display the Peer Assessment activity sheet (page 237, peerassessment.pdf) before students begin writing, and model how to complete it with a sample piece of writing. In order to make this a positive process, provide explicit examples of feedback and constructive criticism so that students are clear on how they are to evaluate a classmates’ work. Tell students that they will be responsible for evaluating their peers’ writing when they have completed the writing assignment. Encourage students to keep their audience in mind as they work. After all students have completed their writing, distribute the activity sheet and assign partners. Have students read their partners’ work and add their comments to the assessment. You may wish to collect the Peer Assessment sheets to screen the partners’ comments or add your own comments before returning them to students with their written work.

Differentiation Preteach English language learners how to use the activity sheet as well as the language they will need to respond. Also, consider how to instruct these students’ partners about responding to the writing of English language learners so that their comments are directed toward the expectations of their individual language levels. Adjust their response prompts, if needed. Belowlevel students may not need differentiation to complete the activity, but their partners may need some guidance on how to respond. Consider altering the checklists for these students’ writing to address their levels of proficiency. Have abovelevel students work in small groups to evaluate their writing based on higher-level prompts, and ask them to provide examples to support their feedback and suggestions. © Shell Education

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Peer Assessment Author’s Name: _____________________________________________________________________________

Title: _______________________________________________ Topic: _________________________

Mark an X in the appropriate column:

Very Much

Somewhat

1. I enjoyed reading this piece of writing.

__________________

__________________

2. I think this writing is easy to read.

__________________

__________________

3. The writing is creative.

__________________

__________________

4. The writing made sense to me.

__________________

__________________

Finish the following statements as best you can. Remember, your job is to help the writer. 1. One thing I really like about this writing is… _______________________________________________________________________________________ 2. One thing I think the author can improve upon is… _______________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Something I would like to tell the author is… _______________________________________________________________________________________ 4. I think other people who will read this piece will think… _______________________________________________________________________________________ 5. One thing that I can learn from the author and this writing is… _______________________________________________________________________________________

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Teacher Conference Background Information Teachers are often frustrated and disappointed when students’ writing assignments are turned in off topic, disorganized, or lacking the proper amount of information. Teacher Conferences allow teachers to maintain consistent communication with their students throughout the writing process. These opportunities, although brief, can keep students on track and give them the scaffolds and suggestions they need to create better pieces of writing. It is important for teachers to also take the time in these conferences to ask questions of students and listen to what challenges they might be facing so students feel that the conferences are less evaluative and more cooperative.

Activity Determine the writing assignment to be used for Teacher Conferences. Display the Teacher Conference activity sheet (page 239, teacherconference.pdf) for students to see before they begin writing. Tell students that they will be meeting with you at each phase of the writing process to discuss their writing, share concerns, ask for suggestions, and receive feedback. Students should keep their copy of the activity sheet with them as they write. Encourage them to refer to the form throughout the writing process so that they keep the goals of each phase in mind as they work. As you guide students through each phase of the writing process, take time to conference individually to provide constructive feedback and set goals for the next phase. When their writing assignment is complete, be sure to add clear, explicit feedback so that students have a clear understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of their work. When students begin the next assignment, ask them to identify one or two elements on the checklist where they would like to improve.

Differentiation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 226 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

Stage of Writing Process Reflection

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Consider limiting the elements on the checklist for English language learners and below-level students while still maintaining a focus of using and applying the grade-appropriate language arts content. English language learners will need the checklist adapted to develop expectations that are appropriate for their current level of language development. Below-level students may focus on one or two elements in each category so that they do not get overwhelmed. Above-level students should be challenged to apply higher-level writing strategies, use more advanced vocabulary, and incorporate more complex sentence structures. Their checklists can also be revised to include areas where they are still developing their skills to ensure that they are appropriately challenged.

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Teacher Conference Title: _______________________________________________________________________________________ Topic: ______________________________________________________________________________________ Needs Work

Good

Excellent

The writing is well thought out.

______________

______________

______________

The writing is easy to follow.

______________

______________

______________

The writing is creative and interesting.

______________

______________

______________

The writing is organized.

______________

______________

______________

The writing uses the correct format.

______________

______________

______________

The writing is complete.

______________

______________

______________

The writing has complete sentences.

______________

______________

______________

The writing uses correct punctuation.

______________

______________

______________

The writing uses capitalization correctly.

______________

______________

______________

The writing uses correct spelling.

______________

______________

______________

The writing uses transition words.

______________

______________

______________

The writing is written or typed neatly.

______________

______________

______________

The writing has a capitalized title.

______________

______________

______________

The writing has been illustrated, if needed.

______________

______________

______________

Brainstorming

Drafting

Editing and Revising

Publishing

Teacher Comments Your writing is very good in these ways:___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ Your writing could be made better by doing these things:____________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Assessing Writing

Portfolio Assessment Background Information The Portfolio Assessment strategy is a longitudinal tool used to assess the development of students’ writing skills over a period of time. When using this assessment strategy, students compile a collection of personal writing samples from a specific period of learning (e.g., grading period, literature unit) and then choose the pieces that they want to include in their portfolio. Students complete written reflections for each piece, outlining the purpose the piece plays in the portfolio, and then the teacher assesses the portfolio using students’ writing samples and reflections. This assessment technique gives students the decision-making power to choose which pieces will be included in the portfolio, thereby fostering student ownership over their writing (Genesee and Upshur 1996). Furthermore, the longitudinal nature of this assessment strategy allows students to demonstrate how their writing skills have grown over time and understand that they are assessed on their progress rather than the final writing product.

Activity In order to use the Portfolio Assessment strategy, students must first compile a collection of writing samples over the course of a designated time period. For younger students, it may be easier for the teacher to keep these collections in student folders in the classroom while older students compile their own collections. Once students have collected a series of writing samples, explain that they need to choose a set number of pieces (e.g., five) upon which they will be assessed. Encourage students to choose the pieces that they feel showcase their best writing samples. If students have samples that include multiple drafts, ask them to include all of the drafts as evidence of their writing improvement and progress. The teacher may also choose to add other guidelines for selecting writing samples (e.g., students must choose one piece of writing from each genre). Once students have chosen the pieces to include, they complete the Student Writing Sample Reflection activity sheet (page 241, writingreflection.pdf) for each piece, explaining their reasoning behind choosing this particular piece. The portfolio is then assessed by the teacher using the Portfolio Assessment activity sheet (page 242, portfolioassessment.pdf). If possible, provide students with the opportunity to share their portfolios with their peers, teachers, and parents through student-led conferences.

Differentiation Grade Levels/Standards Addressed See page 226 for the standards this strategy addresses, or refer to the Digital Resources (standards.pdf) to read the correlating standards in their entirety.

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Make sure that English language learners understand the guidelines for choosing portfolio writing samples, and provide them with samples of the type of work that they should include. It may also be helpful for these students to work with a partner to choose the pieces for their portfolio so they can practice discussing their reasoning before they complete the reflections. Above-level students should be challenged to critically evaluate their own work and to provide evidence of learning and improvement through their portfolio. Below-level students may need assistance in choosing pieces for their portfolio and completing the written reflections. Individual or small-group conferences with the teacher will help guide these students through the process. © Shell Education

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Student Writing Sample Reflection Author’s Name: _____________________________________________________________________________ Writing Assignment: _________________________________________________________________________

1. I chose this writing assignment because... _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 2. Two things I want others to notice about my writing include... _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 3. This piece of writing shows improvement or progress because... _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 4. I have/have not chosen to revise this piece because... _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ 5. The next time I complete a similar writing assignment, my goal will be to... _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________

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Name: ______________________________________________ Date: _________________________

Portfolio Assessment Student Name: _______________________________________ Date: _________________________ Teacher Name: ______________________________________________________________________________ Criteria

Improvement Needed

Somewhat Disagree

Somewhat Agree

Excellent

1. The portfolio includes the correct number and type of writing samples. 2. The portfolio includes a reflection for each writing sample. 3. The portfolio is well organized/well presented. 4. The student consistently strives to improve writing. 5. The portfolio reveals student improvement and progress in writing. 6. The portfolio shows evidence of personal reflection. 7. The student demonstrates awareness of personal strengths and weaknesses. Teacher Comments: ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________________

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Appendix A

References Cited Adams, Marilyn Jager. 1990. Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Allyn, Pam. 2013. Be Core Ready: Powerful, Effective Steps to Implementing and Achieving the Common Core State Standards. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Anderson, Richard C., and Peter Freebody. 1985. “Vocabulary Knowledge.” In Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading. 3rd edition. Edited by Harry Singer and Robert B. Ruddell. Newark, DE: International Reading Association, 343–371. Angelo, Thomas A., and K. Patricia Cross. 1993. Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. 2nd edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Atwell, Nancie. 1984. “Writing and Reading Literature from the Inside Out.” Language Arts 61 (3): 240– 252. Barr, Mary A., and Mary K. Healy. 1988. “School and University Articulation: Different Contexts for Writing Across the Curriculum.” New Directions for Teaching and Learning 36 (Winter): 43–53. Bean, John C. 1996. “Helping Students Read Difficult Texts.” In Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 133–147. Becker, Wesley C. 1977. “Teaching Reading and Language to the Disadvantaged—What We Have Learned from Field Research.” Harvard Educational Review 47 (4): 518–543. Bintz, William P. 2011. “Teaching Vocabulary Across the Curriculum.” Middle School Journal 42 (4): 44–53. Boutwell, Marilyn A. 1983. “Reading and Writing: A Reciprocal Agreement.” Language Arts 60 (6): 723– 730. Bringle, Robert G., and Julie A. Hatcher. 1996. “Reflection Activities for the College Classroom.” Paper presented at the National Gathering on June 21. Britton, James, Tony Burgess, Nancy Martin, Alex McLeod, and Harold Rosen. 1975. The Development of Writing Abilities, 11–18. New York: Macmillan Education. Brozo, William G., and Michele L. Simpson. 2003. Readers, Teachers, Learners: Expanding Literacy Across the Content Areas. 4th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Buehl, Doug. 2008. Classroom Strategies for Interactive Learning. 3rd edition. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. © Shell Education

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References Cited (cont.) Calkins, Lucy McCormick. 1983. Lessons from a Child: On the Teaching and Learning of Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Calkins, Lucy, Amanda Hartman, and Zoë White. 2005. One to One: The Art of Conferring with Young Writers. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Calkins, Lucy, Mary Ehrenworth, and Christopher Lehman. 2012. Pathways to the Common Core: Accelerating Acheivement. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Carey-Webb, Allen. 2001. Literature and Lives: A Response-Based, Cultural Studies Approach to Teaching English. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Chamot, Anna Uhl, and J. Michael O’Malley. 1994. The CALLA Handbook. Reading, MA: AddisonWesley. Christen, William L., and Thomas J. Murphy. 1991. “Increasing Comprehension by Activating Prior Knowledge.” ERIC Digest. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication. ERIC Identifier: ED328885. Cohen, Andrew D. 1994. Assessing Language Ability in the Classroom. 2nd edition. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle. Combs, Warren E. 2012. Writer’s Workshop for the Common Core: A Step-by-Step Guide. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. Corona, Cathy, Sandra Spangenberger, and Iris Venet. 1998. “Improving Student Writing through a Language Rich Environment.” M.A. Action Research Project, St. Xavier University and IRI/Skylight, 61 pages. Dechant, Emerald. 1991. Understanding and Teaching Reading: An Interactive Model. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Dingli, Alexiei. 2011. Knowledge Annotation: Making Implicit Knowledge Explicit. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Duke, Nell K., and P. David Pearson. 2001. “Developing Comprehension in the Primary Grades.” A Presentation to the International Reading Association. http://www.ciera.org/library/ presos/2001/2001IRA/ira01ddp.pdf. Dunlap, Carmen Zuñiga, and Evelyn Marino Weisman. 2006. Helping English Language Learners Succeed. Huntington Beach, CA: Shell Education. Eanet, Marilyn G., and Anthony V. Manzo. 1976. “REAP—A Strategy for Improving Reading/Writing/ Study Skills.” Journal of Reading 19 (8): 647–652. 244

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References Cited (cont.) Elbow, Peter. 1973. Writing Without Teachers. New York: Oxford University Press. Emig, Janet. 1977. “Writing as a Mode of Learning.” College Composition and Communication 28 (2): 122–128. Feuer, Michael J., and Kathleen Fulton. 1993. “The Many Faces of Performance Assessment.” Phi Delta Kappan 74 (6): 478. Fink, Rosalie. 2006. Why Jane and John Couldn’t Read—And How They Learned. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Fisher, Douglas, and Gay Ivey. 2005. “Literacy and Language as Learning in Content Area Classes: A Departure from ‘Every Teacher a Teacher of Reading.’” Action in Teacher Education 27 (2): 3–11. Fisher, Douglas, and Nancy Frey. 2004. Improving Adolescent Literacy: Content Area Strategies at Work. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Frayer, Dorothy A., Wayne C. Fredrick, and Herbert J. Klausmeier. 1969. “A Schema for Testing the Level of Concept Mastery. Working Paper No. 16.” Madison, WI: Wisconsin Research and Development Center for Cognitive Learning. Fulwiler, Toby. 1980. “Journals across the Disciplines.” English Journal 69 (12): 14–19. Gahn, Shelley Mattson. 1989. “A practical guide for teaching and writing in the content areas.” Journal of Reading 32 (6): 525–531. Genesee, Fred, and John A. Upshur. 1996. Classroom-Based Evaluation in Second Language Education. New York: Cambridge University Press. Gentry, J. Richard. 2006. Breaking the Code: The New Science of Beginning Reading and Writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Goldman, Susan R., Jason L. G. Braasch, Jennifer Wiley, Arthur C. Graesser, and Kamila Brodowinska. 2012. “Comprehending and Learning From Internet Sources: Processing Patterns of Better and Poorer Learners.” Reading Research Quarterly 47 (4): 356–381. Graves, Donald H. 1983. Writing: Teachers & Children at Work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Graves, Donald H., and Jane Hansen. 1983. “The Author’s Chair.” Language Arts 60 (2): 176–83. Greenberg, Joel, and Christine Rath. 1985. “Empowering Students through Writing.” Educational Leadership 42 (5): 10–13.

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Appendix A

References Cited (cont.) Haggard, Martha Rapp. 1982. “The Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy: An Active Approach to Word Learning.” Journal of Reading 26 (3): 203–207. Haggard, Martha Rapp. 1986. “The Vocabulary Self-Collection Strategy: Using Student Interest and World Knowledge to Enhance Vocabulary Growth.” Journal of Reading 29 (7): 634–642. Hamilton-Wieler, Sharon. 1988. “Writing as a Thought Process: Site of a Struggle.” Journal of Teaching Writing 7 (2): 167–180. Hamilton-Wieler, Sharon. 1989. “Awkward Compromises and Eloquent Achievements.” English Education 21 (3): 152–169. Hamp-Lyons, Elizabeth. 1983. “Developing a Course to Teach Extensive Reading Skills to UniversityBound ESL Learners.” System 11 (3): 303–312. Harste, Jerome C., Kathy G. Short, and Carolyn Burke. 1988. Creating Classrooms for Authors: The Reading-Writing Connection. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Harvey, Stephanie. 1998. Nonfiction Matters: Reading, Writing, and Research in Grades 3–8. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers. Hefflin, Bena R., and Douglas K. Hartman. 2002. “Using Writing to Improve Comprehension: A Review of the Writing-to-Reading Research.” In Improving Comprehension Instruction: Rethinking Research, Theory, and Classroom Practice, edited by Cathy Collins Block, Linda B. Gambrell, and Michael Pressley. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 199–228. Herman, Joan L., Pamela R. Aschbacher, and Lynn Winters. 1992. A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Hightshue, Deborah, Dott Ryan, Sally McKenna, Joe Tower, and Brenda Brumley. 1988. “Writing in Junior and Senior High Schools.” Phi Delta Kappan 69 (10): 725–728. Hoyt, Jeff E. 1999. “Remedial Education and Student Attrition.” Community College Review 27 (2): 51–73. Huba, Mary E., and Jann E. Freed. 2000. “Using Rubrics to Provide Feedback to Students.” In LearnerCentered Assessment on College Campuses: Shifting the Focus from Teaching to Learning. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 151–200. Johns, Jerry L., and Roberta L. Berglund. 2010. Strategies for Content Area Learning. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Publishing.

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References Cited (cont.) Jones, Beau Fly, Annemarie Sullivan Palincsar, Donna Sederburg Ogle, and Eileen Glynn Carr, eds. 1987. Strategic Teaching and Learning: Cognitive Instruction in the Content Areas. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development. Karelitz, Ellen Blackburn. 1982. “The Rhythm of Writing Development.” In Understanding Writing: Ways of Observing, Learning, and Teaching. Edited by Nancie Atwell and Thomas Newkirk. Chelmsford, MA: Northeast Regional Exchange. Laflamme, John G. 1997. “The Effect of Multiple Exposure Vocabulary Method and the Target Reading/ Writing Strategy on Test Scores.” Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 40 (5): 372–384. Lenski, Susan Davis, Mary Ann Wham, and Jerry L. Johns. 1999. Reading & Learning Strategies for Middle & High School Students. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Maria, Katherine. 1990. Reading Comprehension Instruction: Issues & Strategies. Parkton, MD: York Press. Marzano, Robert J., Debra J. Pickering, and Jay McTighe. 1993. Assessing Student Outcomes: Performance Assessment Using the Dimensions of Learning Model. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Moore, David W., and Sharon Arthur Moore. 1986. “Possible Sentences.” In Reading in the Content Areas: Improving Classroom Instruction. 2nd edition. Edited by Ernest K. Dishner, Thomas W. Bean, John E. Readence, and David W. Moore. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Moore, David W., Sharon Arthur Moore, Patricia M. Cunningham, and James W. Cunningham. 1994. Developing Readers and Writers in the Content Areas K–12. 2nd edition. White Plains, NY: Longman. Morrow, Lesley Mandel. 1996. “Collection and Analysis of the Qualitative Data.” In Motivating Reading and Writing in Diverse Classrooms: Social and Physical Contexts in a Literature-Based Program. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Nagy, William E. and Judith A. Scott. 2000. “Vocabulary Processes.” In Handbook of Reading Research, Volume III, edited by Michael L. Kamil and Rebecca Barr. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., 269–284. National Center for Education Statistics. 2013. “120 Years of Literacy.” National Assessment of Adult Literacy. http://nces.ed.gov/naal/lit_history.asp. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. 2010. Common Core State Standards: English Language Arts Standards. Washington, DC: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, Council of Chief State School Officers. © Shell Education

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Appendix A

References Cited (cont.) Ogle, Donna M. 1986. “K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text.” Reading Teacher 39 (6): 564–70. Palmatier, Robert A. 1973. “A Notetaking System for Learning.” Journal of Reading 17 (1): 36–39. Pauk, Walter. 1988. A User’s Guide to College: Making Notes and Taking Tests. Lincolnwood, IL: Jamestown Publishers. Peregoy, Suzanne F., and Owen F. Boyle. 2005. Reading, Writing, and Learning in ESL: A Resource Book for K–12 Teachers. 4th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Perkins, Kyle. 1983. “On the Use of Composition Scoring Techniques, Objective Measures, and Objective Tests to Evaluate ESL Writing Ability. TESOL Quarterly 17 (4): 651–671. Pinnell, Gay Su. 1988 (January). “Success of Children at Risk in a Program That Combines Writing and Reading. Technical Report No. 417.” In Reading and Writing Connections, edited by Jana M. Mason. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Pressley, Michael. 1990. Cognitive Strategy Instruction That Really Improves Children’s Academic Performance. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books. Resnick, Lauren B., and Leopold Klopfer, eds. 1989. Toward the Thinking Curriculum: Current Cognitive Research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Routman, Regie. 2004. Writing Essentials: Raising Expectations and Results While Simplifying Teaching. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Ryder, Randall J. and Michael F. Graves. 2003. Reading and Learning in Content Areas. 3rd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Santa, Carol Minnick, Lynn Havens, and Shirley Harrison. 1996. “Teaching Secondary Science through Reading, Writing, Studying, and Problem Solving.” In Content Area Reading and Learning: Instructional Strategies, edited by Diane Lapp, James Flood, and Nancy Farnan. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 165–179. Schwartz, Robert M., and Taffy E. Raphael. 1985. “Concept of definition: A key to improving students’ vocabulary.” The Reading Teacher 39 (2): 198–205. Self, Judy, ed. 1987. Plain Talk About Learning and Writing Across the Curriculum. Richmond, VA: Virginia Department of Education. Sloan, Megan S. 1996. “Encouraging Young Students to Use Interesting Words in Their Writing.” The Reading Teacher 50 (3): 268–269. 248

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References Cited (cont.) Smith, Christine C., and Thomas W. Bean. 1980. “The Guided Writing Procedure: Integrating Content Reading and Writing Improvement.” Reading World 19 (3): 290–294. Speck, Bruce W. 2002. “Facilitating Students’ Collaborative Writing.“ ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 28 (6): 8–9. Staton, Jana. 1980. “Writing and Counseling: Using a Dialogue Journal.” Language Arts 57 (5): 514–518. Steffens, H. 1988. “The value and difficulties of teaching the history of science and technology in secondary schools.” Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Historical Association. Cincinnati, OH: 17 pages. ED 306 182. Sullo, Bob. 2007. Activating the Desire to Learn. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Tileston, Donna Walker. 2004. What Every Educator Should Know About Student Motivation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. University of Nebraska-Lincoln Writing Center. 2013. “Assessing Student Writing.” University of NebraskaLincoln. Accessed June 20. http://www.unl.edu/writing/assessing-student-writing. Van Zile, Susan. 2001. Awesome Hands-On Activities for Teaching Literacy Elements. New York: Scholastic, Inc. Wagner, Tony. 2008. The Global Acievement Gap. New York: Basic Books. Walker, Anne. 1988. “Writing-across-the-Curriculum: The Second Decade.” English Quarterly 21 (2): 93–103. Weinstein, Claire E., and Richard E. Mayer. 1986. “The Teaching of Learning Strategies.” In Handbook of Research on Teaching and Learning, edited by Marlin C. Wittrock. New York: MacMillan, 315–327. Widmayer, Sharon, Elena Collins, Holly Gray, Laurie Miller, and Gray Rossen. 2004. “Technology that Reaches and Teaches Every Student.” TESOL Pre-Convention Institute. Last modified March 27, 2004. http://www.soundsofenglish.org/Presentations/TESOL2004PCI/index.html. Wolk, Ronald A. 2011. Wasting Minds: Why Our Education System Is Failing and What We Can Do About It. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Worsley, Dale, and Bernadette Mayer, 1989. The Art of Science Writing. New York: Teachers and Writers Collaborative. Yinger, Robert. 1985. “Journal Writing as a Learning Tool.” Volta Review 87 (5): 21–33. © Shell Education

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Appendix B

Cited Literature by Grade Level Grades 1–2 Berenstain, Jan, and Mike Berenstain. 2009. The Berenstain Bears’ Sick Days. New York: HarperFestival. Bradley, Kimberly Brubaker. 2007. The Perfect Pony. New York: Dial Books for Young Readers. Brown, Marc. 1995. D. W. the Picky Eater. New York: Little, Brown Books for Young Readers. Cole, Joanna. 1986–2010. The Magic School Bus. New York: Scholastic, Inc. Henkes, Kevin. 2006. Lilly’s Purple Plastic Purse. New York: Greenwillow Books. Lobel, Arnold. 1976. Frog and Toad All Year. New York: HarperCollins. McCloskey, Robert. 1952. One Morning in Maine. New York: Viking Penguin. McCloskey, Robert. 1969. Make Way for Ducklings. New York: The Viking Press. Osborne, Mary Pope. 1992. Dinosaurs Before Dark. New York: Random House Books for Young Readers. Waddell, Martin. 1996. Owl Babies. Somerville, MA: Candlewick Press. Zion, Gene. 1984. Harry the Dirty Dog. New York: HarperTrophy.

Grades 3–5 Allard, Harry. 1977. Miss Nelson Is Missing! New York: Houghton Mifflin. Blume, Judy. 1971. Freckle Juice. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers. Brown, Marcia. 1947. Stone Soup. New York: Aladdin Paperbacks. Burnett, Frances Hodgson. 1951. The Secret Garden. New York: Puffin Books. Burnett, Frances Hodgson. 1994. A Little Princess. New York: Random House Books for Young Readers. Cannon, Janell. 1997. Stellaluna. New York: HMH Books for Young Readers. Cannon, Janell. 2005. Crickwing. New York: HMH Books for Young Readers. Cleary, Beverly. 1955. Beezus and Ramona. New York: Avon Books. Cleary, Beverly. 1982. Ralph S. Mouse. New York: HarperCollins. Curtis, Christopher Paul. 1995. The Watsons Go to Birmingham—1963. New York: Yearling. Dahl, Roald. 1964. The Magic Finger. New York: Puffin Books. Hoban, Russell. 1960. Bedtime for Frances. New York: HarperCollins Children’s Books.

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Cited Literature by Grade Level

(cont.)

Lindgren, Astrid. 1950. Pippi Longstocking. New York: The Viking Press. MacLachlan, Patricia. 1996. Sarah, Plain and Tall. New York: Scholastic, Inc. Smith, Robert Kimmel. 1972. Chocolate Fever. New York: Coward, McCann & Geoghegan. Spyri, Johanna. 1956. Heidi. New York: Puffin Books. White, E. B. 1952. Charlotte’s Web. New York: HarperTrophy. White, E. B. 1945. Stuart Little. New York: HarperTrophy. Wilder, Laura Ingalls. 1932. Little House in the Big Woods. New York: HarperCollins.

Grades 6–8 Alcott, Louisa May. 1983. Little Women. New York: Bantam Dell. Avi [pseud.]. 1990. The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle. New York: Scholastic, Inc. Babbitt, Natalie. 1975. Tuck Everlasting. New York: Square Fish. Balliet, Blue. 2012. Chasing Vermeer. New York: Scholastic. Bulla, Clyde Robert. 1981. A Lion to Guard Us. New York: HarperCollins. Burnett, Frances Hodgson. 1951. The Secret Garden. New York: Puffin Books. Carroll, Lewis. 1993. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. Catling, Patrick Skene. 1952. The Chocolate Touch. New York: Bantam Books, Inc. Cushman, Karen. 2012. The Midwife’s Apprentice. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Dahl, Roald. 1961. James and the Giant Peach. New York: Bantam Books, Inc. Golding, William. 1954. Lord of the Flies. New York: Penguin Putnam. Levine, Gail Carson. 1997. Ella Enchanted. New York: HarperCollins. Palacio, R. J. 2012. Wonder. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Paulsen, Gary. 1996. Hatchet. New York: First Aladdin Paperbacks. Peck, Robert Newton. 1972. A Day No Pigs Would Die. New York: Laurel-Leaf. Raskin, Ellen. 2004. The Westing Game. New York: Puffin Modern Classics. Rawls, Wilson. 1997. Where the Red Fern Grows. New York: Scholastic, Inc. Riordan, Rick. Rick Riordan’s Heroes of Olympus Series Three Book Set. New York: Hyperion. Rowling, J. K. 1997–2007. Harry Potter. New York: Scholastic, Inc. © Shell Education

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Appendix B

Cited Literature by Grade Level

(cont.)

Scott, Michael. 2007. The Alchemyst: The Secrets of the Immortal Nicholas Flamel. New York: Delacorte Press. Shelley, Mary. 2000. Frankenstein. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin’s. Steinbeck, John. 1938. Of Mice and Men. New York: The Viking Press. Vanderpool, Clare. 2010. Moon Over Manifest. New York: Yearling.

Grades 9–12 Achebe, Chinua. 1996. Things Fall Apart. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Agee, James. 2008. A Death in the Family. New York: Penguin Books. Austen, Jane. 1995. Pride and Prejudice. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. Bradbury, Ray. 1950. Fahrenheit 451. New York: Ballantine Books. Brontë, Emily. 1996. Wuthering Heights. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. Brontë, Emily. 2008. Jane Eyre. Radford, VA: Wilder Publications. Cather, Willa. 1994. My Ántonia. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. Cisneros, Sandra. 1984. The House on Mango Street. New York: Vintage Books. Collins, Suzanne. 2010. The Hunger Games. New York: Scholastic. Conrad, Joseph. 1990. Heart of Darkness. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. 2004. The Great Gatsby. New York: Scribner. Gaines, Ernest J. 1993. A Lesson Before Dying. New York: Vintage Books. Hemingway, Ernest. 2012. A Farewell to Arms. New York: Scribner. Hoskins, Esther Forbes. 1943. Johnny Tremain. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Kingsolver, Barbara. 1988. The Bean Trees. New York: HarperCollins. O’Brien, Tim. 1990. The Things They Carried. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Shakespeare, William. 2007. A Midsummer Night’s Dream, edited by Mario Digangi. New York: Barnes & Noble. Steinbeck, John. 1939. The Grapes of Wrath. New York: The Viking Press. Tan, Amy. 1991. The Kitchen God’s Wife. New York: Penguin Books. Zusak, Markus. 2005. The Book Thief. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 252

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Appendix C

Digital Resources Accessing the Digital Resources The Digital Resources can be downloaded by following these steps:

1. Go to www.tcmpub.com/digital



2. Use the ISBN number to redeem the Digital Resources.



3. Respond to the question using the book.

ISBN



4. Follow the prompts on the Content Cloud website to sign in or create a new account.



5. The redeemed content will now be on your My Content screen. Click on the product to look through the Digital Resources. All files can be downloaded, while some files can also be previewed, opened, and shared.

Pages

Resource

Filename

29

Correlation to Standards

standards.pdf

41

Frayer Model

frayermodel.pdf frayermodel.doc

50

Word Trails

wordtrails.pdf wordtrails.doc

55

Word Questioning

wordquestioning.pdf wordquestioning.doc

60

Open Word Sort

wordsort.pdf wordsort.doc

68

Think Sheet

thinksheet.pdf thinksheet.doc

72

Free-Association Brainstorming

freeassociation.pdf freeassociation.doc

83

Reader-Response Writing Chart

readerresponse.pdf readerresponse.doc

88

Story Impressions

storyimpressions.pdf storyimpressions.doc

93

Story Prediction Chart

predictionchart.pdf predictionchart.doc

113

Double-Entry Journal

doubleentry.pdf doubleentry.doc

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Appendix C

Digital Resources (cont.) Pages

254

Resource

Filename

117

Questioning Journal

questioning.pdf questioning.doc

122

Cornell Note-Taking System

cornellsystem.pdf cornellsystem.doc

126

Note-Taking System for Learning

notesystemlearning.pdf notesystemlearning.doc

129

T-List

tlist.pdf tlist.doc

140

Frame

frame.pdf frame.doc

144

Venn Diagram

venndiagram.pdf venndiagram.doc

148

Conflict-Resolution Map

conflictresolution.pdf conflictresolution.doc

152

Semantic Word Map

semanticwordmap.pdf

156

Story Strip

storystrip.pdf storystrip.doc

161

Plot Diagram

plotdiagram.pdf plotdiagram.doc

173

Read, Encode, Annotate, Ponder

reap.pdf reap.doc

185

GIST

192

Guided Reading and Summarizing Procedure

198

Character Summary

204

Story Mapping

209

Summary-Writing Microtheme

211

RAFT Assignment

213

Formal Letter

215

Friendly Letter

gist.pdf gist.doc grasp.pdf grasp.doc charactersummary.pdf charactersummary.doc storymapping.pdf storymapping.doc summarywriting.pdf summarywriting.doc raft.pdf raft.doc formalletter.pdf formalletter.doc friendlyletter.pdf friendlyletter.doc

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Appendix C

Digital Resources (cont.) Pages

Resource

217

Newspaper Article

219

Historical/Science Fiction Story

221

Character Diary

223

Story Additions

228

Holistic Assessment

230

Analytic Assessment

232

Primary Trait Assessment

234– 235 237

Self-Assessment

239

Teacher Conference

241

Student Writing Sample Reflection

242

Portfolio Assessment

Peer Assessment

© Shell Education

Filename newspaperarticle.pdf newspaperarticle.doc historicalscience.pdf historicalscience.doc characterdiary.pdf characterdiary.doc storyadditions.pdf storyadditions.doc holistic.pdf holistic.doc analytic.pdf analytic.doc primarytrait.pdf primarytrait.doc selfassessment.pdf selfassessment.doc peerassessment.pdf peerassessment.doc teacherconference.pdf teacherconference.doc writingreflection.pdf writingreflection.doc portfolioassessment.pdf portfolioassessment.doc

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Notes

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Improve students’ understanding of fictional text! Help your students develop the writing skills they need to succeed with this timely resource! Writing Strategies for Fiction provides teachers with standards-based strategies to help students demonstrate their learning of fiction-related concepts as they navigate the complexities of literary works. This book offers detailed strategies for using graphic organizers, developing vocabulary, journal writing, taking notes, applying knowledge, and assessing student writing. The strategies also help prepare students for success in college and careers. Classroom examples and differentiation suggestions with every strategy provide clear models for success!

Jessica Hathaway, M.S.Ed., earned her B.A. in Psychology from Pomona College and her M.S. in Education from Northwestern University, with a concentration in literacy. She has conducted research on the effects of aging on cognitive memory retrieval as well as the integration of different learning modalities into literacy instruction. She spent several years working in the Los Angeles Unified School District where she taught early elementary, instructed art enrichment classes, and supported novice teachers. She also has a passion for working with students who have learning disabilities and autism. Currently, Jessica lives in California where she enjoys writing and publishing educational texts and spending time outdoors with her family and two young daughters.

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