Woods Injurious to Human Health: A Manual [Reprint 2016 ed.] 9783110837841, 9783110084856

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B. M. Hausen Woods Injurious to Human Health A Manual

Bjorn M. Hausen

Woods Injurious to Human Health A Manual

Walter de Gruyter • Berlin • New York 1981

CIP-Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek Hausen, Björn M.: Woods injurious to human health: a manual/ Björn M. Hausen. - Berlin; New York: de Gruyter, 1981. Einheitssacht. : Holzarten mit gesundheitsschädigenden Inhaltsstoffen

ISBN 3-11-008485-6

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Main entry under title: Hausen, Björn Manfred 1940 Woods injurious to human health. Translation of: Holzarten mit gesundheitsschädigenden Inhaltsstoffen. Bibliography: p. Includes indexes. 1. Wood-Toxicology. 2. Allergens. 3. Contact dermatitis. 4. Woodworkers-Diseases and hygiene. I. Title. DNLM: 1. Dermatitis, Contact-Etiology. 2. Occupational diseases-Etiology. 3. Respiratory tract diseases-Etiology. 4. Wood. RA 1242.W79H3813 616.97 WA400 H376w ISBN 3-11-008485-6 81-3256 AACR2

© Copyright 1981 by Walter de Gruyter& Co.,Berlin 30. All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by photoprint, microfilm, or any other means - nor transmitted nor translated into a machine language without written permission from the publisher. Cover design: Rudolf Hiibler, Berlin.-Printing: Color-Druck,Berlin.-Binding: Dieter Mikolai,Berlin.-Printed in Germany.

Foreword

W o o d is a m a j o r article of c o m m e r c e w o r l d w i d e , its value and m a n i f o l d uses are obvious b u t it is n o t generally a p p r e a c i a t e d t h a t w o o d and its p r o d u c t s m a y be i n j u r i o u s t o h e a l t h . O p e r a t i v e s in the w o o d w o r k i n g i n d u s t r i e s are the m o s t seriously a f f e c t e d , by d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h w o o d , d u s t , a n d shavings, resulting in m a n y cases of d e r m a t i t i s a n d r e s p i r a t o r y d i s o r d e r s , and t h e y are also p r o n e to c o n t r a c t m o r e serious m a l a d i e s such as c a n c e r of t h e nasal m u c o s a , a n d H o d g k i n ' s disease. A full u n d e r s t a n d i n g of these h e a l t h h a z a r d s , leading to i m p r o v e d s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s , is clearly desirable. T h e c h e m i c a l c o n s t i t u e n t s of w o o d are usually t h e causative a g e n t s , and in this book Dr. H a u s e n discusses b o t h the c h e m i c a l a n d m e d i c a l a s p e c t s of these p r o b l e m s . A maj o r p a r t is d e v o t e d to a survey of the c o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r s responsible for t h e developm e n t of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s . T h e m a i n c u l p r i t s are simple q u i n o n e s and

catechols,

which are s u b s e q u e n t l y oxidised t o q u i n o n e s , and a s t r u c t u r e - a c t i v i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p can be d i s c e r n e d . D r . H a u s e n has w o r k e d extensively in this area, and has i d e n t i f i e d several n e w quin o n e s in w o o d s k n o w n or alleged to p r o d u c e allergic r e a c t i o n s on the s k i n , and conf i r m e d their activitiy. In collecting all this i n f o r m a t i o n t o g e t h e r in b o o k f o r m h e has p r o v i d e d a valuable service to d e r m a t o l o g i s t s , b o t a n i s t s , f o r e s t e r s , and organic chem i s t s , a n d n o t least to those in charge in t h e w o o d w o r k i n g i n d u s t r i e s .

A b e r d e e n , J a n u a r y 1981

R.H.Thomson

Preface

In r e s p o n s e to t h e g r e a t i n t e r e s t e x p r e s s e d by m a n y specialists f r o m all o v e r t h e w o r l d , *

t h i s E n g l i s h e d i t i o n of t h e G e r m a n - l a n g u a g e b o o k originally p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 7 3

has

been m a d e available. A s a r e s u l t of t h e m a n y r e s e a r c h a d v a n c e s m a d e since 1 9 7 3 a n d t h e e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g r a t e of i m p o r t of t r o p i c a l t i m b e r s a m o n g t h e v a r i o u s n a t i o n s , t h i s n e w e d i t i o n h a s u p d a t e d a n d c o n s i d e r a b l y e n l a r g e d . In o r d e r t o p r o v i d e r a p i d e x c e s s t o d e s i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e b o o k c o n t a i n s a b o t a n i c a l i n d e x , a f u l l s u b j e c t i n d e x a n d an i n d e x of local, s t a n d a r d a n d t r a d e n a m e s t o h e l p f i n d i n g a way t h r o u g h t h e c o n f u s e d n o m e n c l a t u r e o f t i m b e r n a m e s . Of special i n t e r e s t t o m a n y r e a d e r s will be the s y s t e m a t i c review listing a l p h a b e t i c a l l y all k n o w n w o o d s p e c i e s i n j u r i o u s t o h e a l t h .

Hamburg, January 1981

B.M.Hausen

'Holzarten mit gesundheitsschädigenden Inhaltsstoffen'. DRW-Verlag:Stuttgart

1973

Acknowledgements

I wish to t h a n k all t h o s e w h o h e l p e d me in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n of this b o o k - firstly t o P r o f . R . H . T h o m s o n , A b e r d e e n , w i t h o u t w h o s e advice, p r o p o s a l s a n d p r o m p t c o r r e c t i o n of t h e t y p e s c r i p t this b o o k w o u l d never have been w r i t t e n . I am also greatly i n d e b t e d to M r . H . G o t t w a l d , Scientific D i r e c t o r at t h e I n s t i t u t e of W o o d B i o l o g y , University of H a m b u r g , f o r t h e b o t a n i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of t h e investigated w o o d species a n d D r . H . G . R i c h t e r of t h e same I n s t i t u t e f o r reading and c o r r e c t i o n of t h e b o t a n i c a l n a m e s of t h e w o o d species. F u r t h e r m o r e I wish to t h a n k all t h o s e w h o kindly t r a n s l a t e d t h e original articles t o G e r m a n or English: Mrs.Zeisske, University L i b r a r y , H a m b u r g , D r . F u m e y , T o g o , and D r . P e r s c h , A u l e n d o r f f o r the t r a n s l a t i o n f r o m Russian (p. 7 0 a n d 9 0 ) , D r . K . I t o , J a p a n , f o r t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of his o w n p u b l i c a t i o n s and o t h e r J a p a n e s e p a p e r s m e n t i o n e d o n page 1 3 1 . F o r t h e k i n d l y supply of f o u r Diospyros

q u i n o n e s , m e n t i o n e d o n page 8 5 , I am m o s t

g r a t e f u l to D r . S i d h u , I n d i a , a n d f o r t h e m a n s o n o n e s , m e n t i o n e d on page 91 I t h a n k P r o f . N . T a n a k a , J a p a n . Finally I a c k n o w l e d g e t h e k i n d l y s u p p l y of clinical p i c t u r e s of p a t i e n t s allergic to t r o p i c a l w o o d s by P r o f . K . H . S c h u l z , H a m b u r g and t h e p a t i e n c e of M r . B . S c h i p k e of t h e P h o t o g r a p h i c Division, D e p a r t m e n t of D e r m a t o l o g y of the University H o s p i t a l , H a m b u r g .

Contents

I.

Introduction

1

I n c i d e n c e of allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s and respiratory diseases c a u s e d by w o o d s

4

Clinical aspects

6

M e c h a n i c a l irritation

6

General symptoms

6

M u c o s a l irritation

6

P r i m a r y irritant skin lesions

7

C o n t a c t urticaria

7

Allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s

8

I m m u n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s of allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s

10

Diagnosis of c o n t a c t sensitivity

14

Botanical identification

17

P r o t e c t i v e and p r e c a u t i o n a r y m e a s u r e s

18

Wood chemistry

20

Animal experiments

29

Previous reviews

32

II.

S y s t e m a t i c review

III.

W o o d s causing b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a and rhinitis

34 127

IV.

E x t r i n s i c allergic alveolitis

138

V.

A d e n o c a r c i n o m a of the n a s o p h a r y n x in w o o d w o r k e r s

141

T h e o r i e s on the etiological f a c t o r s of w o o d w o r k e r ' s a d e n o c a r c i n o m a . . 148 M o u l d s and f u n g i

149

Tar

150

T a n n i n s a n d tannic acids

150

Unsaturated aldehydes and oxidation products VI.

153

H o d g k i n ' s disease in w o o d w o r k e r s

158

Final c o m m e n t

159

List of t o x i c , irritant and sensitising w o o d s n o t m e n t i o n e d in C h a p t e r II . . . 164 Botanical index

169

Zoological index

172

Subject index

173

I n d e x of local, s t a n d a r d and t r a d e n a m e s

182

Introduction

I.

1

Introduction

T h e u s e of w o o d f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n , f u r n i t u r e , v e n e e r p r o d u c t i o n , b o a t - b u i l d i n g a n d m a n y o t h e r p u r p o s e s c o n t i n u e s t o i n c r e a s e ; t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d e x p o r t of w o o d f o r industrial

u s e s h a s g r o w n r a p i d l y in r e c e n t y e a r s . T h e t o t a l w o r l d t i m b e r d e m a n d is •3

a b o u t 2 5 0 0 million m

per y e a r , b u t n e a r l y h a l f of it is u s e d as f u e l ( F i g u r e 1). It is

f o r e c a s t e d t h a t b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 the d e m a n d will r e a c h 4 - 5 0 0 0 m i l l i o n m

. Tropical

r a i n f o r e s t s , i.e. t h e A m a z o n b a s i n , C e n t r a l A f r i c a , e s p e c i a l l y Z a i r e , a n d S o u t h - E a s t Asia are t h e p r i n c i p a l areas w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l t i m b e r r e s o u r c e s . R e c e n t t r e n d s in t h e w o r l d t i m b e r t r a d e s h o w o n o n e h a n d a large i n c r e a s e in t r o p i c a l h a r d w o o d e x p o r t s , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m S o u t h - E a s t Asia t o E u r o p e , a n d on t h e o t h e r h a n d an increase in t h e e x p o r t of p r o d u c t s of h i g h e r value f r o m t h e p r i m a r y p r o d u c e r c o u n t r i e s , i.e. semif i n i s h e d a n d f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e d e m a n d f o r s u c h m a t e r i a l as sawlogs r e m a i n s t h e largest s e c t o r of t r o p i c a l w o o d e x p o r t s . Of t h e g r o u p of m a i n t r o p i c a l h a r d w o o d p r o d u c e r s - S o u t h - E a s t Asia, West a n d C e n tral A f r i c a , S o u t h A m e r i c a - t h e s m a l l e s t is A f r i c a . B r a z i l , w h i c h is t h e largest p r o d u cer in L a t i n A m e r i c a , o n l y e x p o r t s 2 % of its t o t a l o u t p u t : P r o d u c i n g area

P r o d u c t i o n in

Exports

million m 3

%(1974)

S o u t h - E a s t Asia

55.82

60.42

West a n d C e n t r a l A f r i c a

11.79

56.31

South America

16.85

1.06

In t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e o f h a r d w o o d logs t h e t r o p i c a l s p e c i e s p l a y a d o m i n a n t r o l e ; c o m p a r e d w i t h W e s t e r n E u r o p e J a p a n e s e i m p o r t s are s t r i k i n g : a b o u t 2 1 / 2 t i m e s t h a t o f t h e w h o l e of E u r o p e , 1 / 4 of its t o t a l c o n s u m p t i o n a n d ten t i m e s m o r e t h a n t h a t of the United States: Japan

W-Europe

Imports compared with consumption

60 %

29 %

P e r c e n t a g e of t o t a l c o n s u m p t i o n

'25 %

5 %

Usage in s a w n w o o d a n d p l y w o o d

40 %

8%

Usage in p a n e l a n d p a p e r m a n u f a c t u r e

20%

P r o p o r t i o n of r o u n d w o o d in t r o p i c a l h a r d w o o d i m p o r t

95%

>60%

T r o p i c a l h a r d w o o d i m p o r t s i n t o W e s t - G e r m a n y , F r a n c e a n d S p a i n are n e a r l y 6 0 %, in E n g l a n d log i m p o r t s are less t h a n 20 % of the t o t a l w o o d c o n s u m p t i o n s of t h e s e c o u n tries ( C i b u l a 1 9 8 0 ) . With t h e rising w o r l d d e m a n d of t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s a n d the i n c r e a s i n g p r o d u c t i o n of p r e t r e a t e d and s e m i - f i n i s h e d w o o d p r o d u c t s in the d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , h e a l t h p r o b l e m s are i n c r e a s i n g in b o t h d u e to c o n t a c t w i t h t h e d u s t a n d shavings t h a t are c r e a t e d d u r i n g t h e w o o d w o r k i n g p r o c e s s e s . D u s t p a r t i c l e s n o t only cause i r r i t a t i o n of the m u c o u s m e m b r a n e s of t h e n o s e , t h r o a t a n d e y e s , a n d even e f f e c t i n n e r r e g i o n s

2

Introduction

Figure 1

Main f e a t u r e s of w o r l d w o o d c o n s u m p t i o n (in b r a c k e t s : p r o j e c t i o n s of the F A O f o r 1 9 8 5 ) ( m o d i f i e d f r o m Cibula 1 9 8 0 )

Introduction

3

of the respiratory t r a c t , but also they f r e q u e n t l y produce more or less severe lesions of the skin. Certain species produce general s y m p t o m s like h e a d a c h e , nausea,vomiting and cardiac a r r t h y t h m i a , others damage the skin mechanically by bristles and splinters which is followed by infection. Last but n o t least cancer of the n a s o p h a r y n x may develop in w o o d w o r k e r s , induced after several decades by steady contact with the fine wood dust. The a f f e c t e d persons are nearly almost e m p l o y e d in the w o o d w o r k i n g industries as carpenters, cabinet makers, l u m b e r j a c k s , sawmill operators, papermill workers e t c . Those who e n j o y working with wood as a h o b b y are rarely a f f e c t e d . Most of the wood species described in the following chapters produce allergic reactions of the skin ( c o n t a c t dermatitis). The main problem a dermatologist is c o n f r o n t ed with when consulted by a w o o d w o r k e r is (allergic) contact dermatitis; the i n f o r m a tion available being the visible skin reactions, the c o m m o n trade name of the suspected w o o d species, and probably a sample of the wood dust or a piece of the timber. The p a t i e n t probably noticed slight e r y t h e m a of the skin and some itching m o n t h s or years earlier while at w o r k . At first recovery occurred during weekends, later on only on holidays. But one day the patient realised that his lesions were connected with his j o b and they became worse and worse. In this situation a decision had to be t a k e n , either to consult a d o c t o r or change his j o b . As a rule there is a delay of several years before medical advice is sought. Provided that the w o o d w o r k e r shows relevant clinical skin lesions, k n o w s the comm o n trade name of the species, and presents a piece, not sawdust of the incriminated w o o d material it will be easy to clear the case. Exhaustive anamnesis (questioning concerning case history) will reduce the n u m b e r of possible wood species and finally there remain n o t a h u n d r e d but only a few relevant e c z e m a t o u g e n e o u s timbers which necessarily m u s t be tested epicutaneously to discover the causative agents. Finished articles or solid wood are seldom recognised as the source of contact dermatitis. In rare cases it may occur after prolonged c o n t a c t with wooden bracelets, necklaces, knife-handles, w o o d e n shoes (clogs) and musical i n s t r u m e n t s such as the m o u t h pieces of clarinets, flutes and recorders or the chinrest of a string instrument (see Ros e w o o d ) . Jewellery m a d e from E b o n y , Brazilian and East-Indian rosewood and Olive w o o d has been observed to induce c o n t a c t allergy in the wearer. Thus we are n o t only faced with problems concerning the t r e a t m e n t of wood diseases but primarily with the prevention of their development which means that safety prec a u t i o n s m u s t be devised to prevent c o n t a c t with the dust, shavings, and in some cases even with the finished wooden p r o d u c t itself. Reference Cibula, E.J. Trends in timber supply and trade - an i n f o r m a t i o n review. HMSO: L o n d o n 1980

4

Incidence

Incidence of allergic contact dermatitis and respiratory diseases caused by w o o d s The incidence of w o o d dermatitis, allergic rhinitis and bronchial asthma is n o t k n o w n . Similarly, n o i n f o r m a t i o n is available on the incidence of w o o d poisoning. C o m p a r e d with o t h e r trades the o c c u p a t i o n a l risks from sawdust are probably n o t high. Some authors believe that m o s t of the troubles c o n n e c t e d with w o o d w o r k i n g are due m o r e to additives than to the w o o d itself (Bach 1980, B e h r b o h m 1957, Klaschka 1979, Stoke 1979). Only a few epidemiologically studies concerning the problem of wood dermatitis and respiratory disorders have been made in the last decade. The n u m b e r s given by Oleffe ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) , H u b l e t (1972), Roman-Paris ( 1 9 7 2 ) and Castagne ( 1 9 7 6 ) f r o m their native countries are n o t complete, because they cover only a small area or short p e r i o d . However, the a u t h o r is convinced that the problem is u n d e r e s t i m a t e d . Seventeen to t w e n t y wood species are held to be responsible f o r m o s t of the troubles c o n n e c t e d with w o o d dust c o n t a c t and inhalation (Belli 1978, Bleumink 1 9 7 3 , Z a f i r o p o u l o 1968). It is n o t e w o r t h y that certain t i m b e r s have such valuable properties t h a t they are used despite their k n o w n toxicity and sensitising capacity, e.g. Mansonia, Pao ferro (Caviuna vermelha), Teak and Brazilian r o s e w o o d . Only in countries where allergic and in rare cases also toxic disorders must be reported to the National Workmen's Compensation Bureau, or the equivalent, are a p p r o x i m a t e n u m b e r s available every year. In Belgium(L'Office National de Se'curite'sociale), France (Caisse de Se'curite' sociale), West-Germany (Holz-Berufsgenossenschaft), Italy (Federazione Lavoratori delle Costruzioni), Switzerland (Swiss Accident Insurance Association) and o t h e r countries like Australia, Canada, England, the United States and the Soviet Unions the relevant organizations are required to publish - so far as the a u t h o r k n o w s - their statistical material in an annual r e p o r t . However, in m o s t annual reports cases of allergic contact d e r m a t i t i s , rhinitis, bronchial asthma and poisoning are n o t separated f r o m usual working accidents. In the United States each of the compensation laws is d i f f e r e n t in the f i f t y states and most give little attention to occupational diseases related with wood e x p o s u r e . T h u s it is very difficult to get reliable i n f o r m a t i o n . Owing to the lack of such data from other countries, representative n u m b e r s are giver here: f r o m France 1968 and 1969 1 % ( 4 4 / 4 1 2 4 - 1968; 4 0 / 4 0 6 1 - 1969) and f r o m West-Germany 6 3 reported cases of bronchial asthma and 227 cases of skin disorders in 1 9 7 9 (Roman-Paris 1 9 7 2 , Holz-Berufsgenossenschaft 1979). Only one recent study from Switzerland gives such detailed i n f o r m a t i o n on injuries caused by w o o d s t h a t it is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g here (Hartmann 1978, 1980). In the period 1966 - 1978 165 cases were reported to the Swiss Accident Insurance Association (SUVA) of which 130 were allergic or non-allergic cases of c o n t a c t dermatitis and 55 were respiratory disorders; there were 12 cases of classical bronchial a s t h m a . The following list is a selection of the r e p o r t e d cases and the responsible wood species; positive intradermal tests are given in brackets.

Incidence

Botanical name

Trade name

s.l.

r.d.

Chlorophora

Iroko

34

4(1)

Mansonia B r a z . ; E-Indian r o s e w o o d

21 18

3

Teak

1 I

2(1)

Limba

5

Obeche

10 (?) 9(?)

Fir

6

-

S p r u c e , Silver fir

6

-

Tola

6

-

American mahogany

5

3 (1)

excelsa*

Mansonia

altissima*

Dalbergia

nigra;

Tectona

grandis

Terminalia

superba

Triplochiton Pinus

D.latifolia

scleroxylon*

sylvestris

Picea excelsa,

Abies

alba

Gossweilerodendron Swietenia Fagus

macrophylla sylvatica

Tieghemella

heckelii

Bowdichia

nitida

Gonystylus Khaya Juglans Quercus

balsamiferum

bancanus anthotheca* nigra robur

Sequioa

sempervirens

8 (1)

13 ! (:

Beech

3(?)

1

Makore'

3

2

Sucupira

2

-

Ramin

2(?)

-

African mahogany

2

1

Walnut

2

2

Oak

2

Redwood

-

1 (1) 2 2

Cedrus

libani

Liban c e d a r

-

Cordia

goeldiana

Cordia

1

5

* S p e c i e s also s u s p e c t e d by O l e f f e et al. ( 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 5 ) (?) P r o b a b l y cases of c o n t a c t urticaria ;s.l. = skin lesions, r.d. = respiratory disorders

References B a c h , B. et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 6 , 142 ( 1 9 8 0 ) B e h r b o h m , P.: B e r u f s d e r m . 5, 271 ( 1 9 5 7 ) Belli, S. e t al.: A n n . I s t . S u p e r . S a n i t . 14, 8 1 9 ( 1 9 7 8 ) B l e u m i n k , E. el al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 8 8 , 4 9 9 ( 1 9 7 3 ) C a s t a g n e . D . Thesis Univ. B o r d e a u x 1 9 7 6 H a r t m a n n , A . L . Thesis, Univer. Z u e r i c h 1 9 7 8 and S c h w e i z . m e d . W s c h r . 110, 278 (1980) Holz-Berufsgenossenschaft: Annual report for 1979 H u b l e t , P . e t al.: A r c h . B e l g . M e d . S o c . H y g . 3 8 , 3 1 4 ( 1 9 7 2 ) K l a s c h k a , F . e t al.: Z b l . A r b e i t s m e d . 9 , 150 ( 1 9 7 9 ) O l e f f e , J. et al.: R e v . f r a n c . A l l e r g o l . 13, 65 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ; B e r u f s d e r m . 2 3 , 196 ( 1 9 7 5 ) R o m a n - P a r i s , B. Thesis, Univ. Marseille 1 9 7 2 S t o k e , J . C . J . : C o n t a c t D e r m . 5, 284 ( 1 9 7 9 ) Z a f i r o p o u l o , A. et al.: Folia Allergol. 15, 3 9 6 ( 1 9 6 8 )

6

Clinical a s p e c t s

Clinical aspects

T h e a c t i o n of w o o d on t h e h u m a n b e i n g m a y t a k e place in t h e f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t ways: * *

m e c h a n i c a l l y , by s p l i n t e r s t o x i c , by shavings a n d d u s t p a r t i c l e s t h a t cause g e n e r a l s y m p t o m s a f t e r ingestion

*

i r r i t a t i n g , by d u s t p a r t i c l e s w h i c h a f f e c t the skin and m u c o u s m e m b r a n e s

*

sensitising, by fine w o o d dust t h a t p r o d u c e s allergic rhinitis, b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a , e x t r i n s i c allergic alveolitis ( a f t e r i n h a l a t i o n ) a n d allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s by d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e skin

*

c a r c i n o g e n i c , by w o o d dust t h a t c a u s e s a d e n o c a r c i n o m a of t h e n a s o p h a r y n j

Mechanical irritation Bristles and s p l i n t e r s m a y p e n e t r a t e i n t o t h e skin of p e r s o n s h a n d l i n g t h e f r e s h c u t t i m b e r s . S o m e t i m e s t h e w o u n d s are slow to h e a l and c o m p l i c a t i o n s arise f r o m s e c o n d a r y i n f e c t i o n s (sepsis) w h e n t i m b e r - o r w o o d w o r k e r s have t o l a b o u r u n d e r p o o r h y gienic c o n d i t i o n s . W o o d s w h i c h are b l a m e d t o cause such i n f e c t i o n s are A f r o r m o s i a , D o u g l a s fir ( O r e g o n p i n e ) , G r e e n h e a r t , L i m b a , M a n s o n i a a n d o t h e r s c o n t a i n i n g t o x i c a l k a l o i d s or o t h e r p o i s o n o u s c o n s t i t u e n t s . S o m e w o o d s p e c i e s c o n t a i n p o w d e r y m a t e rial ( o f t e n in the b a r k ) w h i c h s t a i n s the skin or c h a n g e s t h e c o l o u r of h a i r . General s y m p t o m s W h e n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l l y active s u b s t a n c e s are a b s o r b e d t h r o u g h the s k i n , t h e respirat o r y t r a c t o r o r a l l y , s y s t e m i c s y m p t o m s like h e a d a c h e , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , g i d d i n e s s , dis t u r b a n c e of vision, d r o w s i n e s s , w e a k n e s s , n o s e b l e e d i n g , s a l i v a t i o n , t h i r s t , loss of appet i t e , c o l i c , m u s c u l a r c r a m p s a n d cardiac a r r h y t h m i a m a y o c c u r . P h a r m a c o l o g i c a l l y active c o n s t i t u e n t s s u c h as a l k a l o i d s and g l y c o s i d e s are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Y e w , O l e a n d e r , M a n s o n i a , A f r o r m o s i a , L a b u r n u m , and c e r t a i n species of t h e A p o c y n a c e a e f a m i l y , e.g. c y t i s i n e , N - m e t h y l c y t i s i n e and s t r y c h n i n e ( T a b l e 4 , p . 25). T h e c o m p o u n d s m a y be abs o r b e d f r o m w o o d e n c o n t a i n e r s , s p o o n s , grill s t i c k s , and s p i t s . But t h e s e m o r e e x t r e m i c o n d i t i o n s of p o i s o n i n g are rare (see O l e a n d e r , p . 9 5 ) Mucosal irritation I r r i t a t i o n of the n o s e a n d t h r o a t , d i f f i c u l t i e s in b r e a t h i n g , d r y n e s s and s o r e n e s s of the t h r o a t , sneesing, as well as s t r e a m i n g e y e s , n o s e b l e e d i n g , c o n j u n c t i v i t i s and a t t a c k s of a s t h m a are f o u n d in w o r k e r s e x p o s e d t o fine w o o d d u s t . T h e c o n s t i t u e n t s of c e r t a i n s p e c i e s p r o d u c e sneesing d u r i n g sawing w h i c h led to the n a m e 'sneeze w o o d ' . E x a m p l e s are K o k k o ( A l b i z z i a lebbeck

B e n t h . ) and U m t a t i ( P t a e r o x y l o n obliquum

(Thunb)

Clinical a s p e c t s

7

R a d l k . ) . G e n e r a l l y , i r r i t a t i o n of t h e u p p e r r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t is c o m m o n , w h e r e a s real allergic r h i n i t i s and b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a is rare. It h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a f t e r p r o l o n g e d exposure t o B e e c h , O a k , and W e s t e r n red c e d a r . A s t h m a t i c a t t a c k s m a y be d e l a y e d f o r several h o u r s a f t e r e x p o s u r e to t h e s a w d u s t . S y m p t o m s b e l o n g i n g to t h e clinical p i c t u r e of ' f a r m e r ' s l u n g ' , also called ' e x t r i n s i c allergic a l v e o l i t i s ' o r ' h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y p n e u m o n i tis' l e a d i n g t o a c h r o n i c d a m a g e of t h e lung tissue have b e e n o b s e r v e d a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o the w o o d d u s t of S e q u o i a ( s e q u o i o s i s ) ( C o h e n 1 9 6 7 ) , C o r k oak ( s u b e r o s i s ) (Avila 1 9 7 2 ) and o t h e r s (see C h a p t e r I V , p. 1 3 8 ) . S o m e t i m e s t h e y are c a u s e d by a f u n g u s . This t y p e of allergy is c o n n e c t e d w i t h c o u g h i n g , d y s p n o e a , chill a n d f e v e r ( A r t h u s - p h e n o m e n o n ) d e v e l o p i n g 4 - 6 h o u r s a f t e r e x p o s u r e t o t h e d u s t p a r t i c l e s and is c h a r a c t e r i sed by p r e c i p i t a t i n g a n t i b o d i e s w h i c h can be d e m o n s t r a t e d in the s e r u m by t h e O u c h terlony-test. References Avila, R . : Les B r o n c h e s 2 2 , 121 ( 1 9 7 2 ) C o h e n , H . J . et al.: A m e r . J . M e d . 4 3 , 7 8 5 ( 1 9 6 7 ) Primary irritant skin lesions P r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n of the skin m a y be p r o d u c e d by t h e sap o r latex w h i c h is t y p i c a l of v a r i o u s species in c e r t a i n p l a n t f a m i l i e s such as A p o c y n a c e a e , E u p h o r b i a c e a e , Moraceae a n d A n a c a r d i a c e a e . P o w d e r s c o n t a i n e d in t h e bark of t r e e s , e.g. of A r a r o b a , Tagayasan a n d Brigalow m a y p r o d u c e rashes ( ' B r i g a l o w i t c h ' ) ( M a i d e n 1 91 2). O t h e r w o o d species c o n t a i n a l k a l o i d s w i t h blistering p r o p e r t i e s , e.g. c r y p t o p l e u r i n e in Poison waln u t ( p . 121) and c h l o r o x y l o n i n e in E a s t - I n d i a n satin w o o d ( p . 11 2 ) , while sensitive areas of t h e b o d y such as t h e c o r n e r s of t h e m o u t h or t h e f i n g e r w e b s m a y

become affec-

ted by q u i t e mild i r r i t a n t s . S t r o n g sensitisers such as 3 - ( p e n t a d e c - 8 - e n y l ) - c a t e c h o l f r o m P o i s o n ivy (Rhus dendron

L . , A n a c a r d i a c e a e ) a n d p r i m i n f r o m Primula

i n c l u d e both

obconica

toxico-

Hance (Primulaceae)

t y p e s of b i o l o g i c a l activity at t h e s a m e t i m e : t h e y are i r r i t a n t s a n d sensi-

tisers. In high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e at 1 %, t h e i r e f f e c t is a p r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n , in low

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , e.g. 0 , 0 1 % t h e y only elicit a r e a c t i o n in a sensitised p e r s o n (or

a n i m a l ) . W o o d d u s t a n d shavings c o n t a i n i n g an unknown t h u s will a f f e c t every

high

a m o u n t of a sensitiser

w o r k e r by causing e r y t h e m a , vesicles, blisters and even bullae.

T h e r e f o r e a p a t c h test with t h e a c t u a l w o o d d u s t m a y p r o d u c e false positive

reactions

(see D i a g n o s i s of c o n t a c t s e n s i t i v i t y , p. 14) and is d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t if it is n o t followed b y s u f f i c i e n t c o n t r o l s . Reference

M a i d e n , J . H . : A g r i c . G a z . N e w S o u t h Wales 3 2 , 2 0 6 ( 1 9 2 1 )

C o n t a c t urticaria C o n t a c t u r t i c a r i a is a weal a n d flare r e a c t i o n of the skin elicited by c u t a n e o u s c o n t a c t with w o o d shavings or with t h e w o o d itself. T h o u g h n o n - i m m u n o l o g i c a l t y p e s of reac-

8

Clinical a s p e c t s

t i o n s m a y b e p r o d u c e d by s o m e s p e c i e s i m m e d i a t e r e a c t i o n s b a s e d o n i m m u n o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m s are m o r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . S p e c i e s w h i c h h a v e i n d u c e d s u c h r e a c t i o n s i n c l u d e O b e c h e , L a r c h , L i m b a , a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y T e a k ( S c h m i d t 1 9 7 8 ) . A s t a t e o f a c u t e sensitiv i t y is p r o v e d by r u b b i n g t h e p a t i e n t s s k i n - m o i s t e n e d s l i g h t l y b e f o r e b y w a t e r - w i t h a p i e c e o f t h e s u s p e c t e d w o o d species 2 0 - 3 0 t i m e s o n t h e f o r e a r m a c c o r d i n g t o t h e ' r u b b i n g t e s t ' o f O e h l i n g ( 1 9 6 3 ) a n d G r o n e m e y e r ( 1 9 6 7 ) . By t h i s p r o c e e d i n g u r t i c a rial r e a c t i o n s are p r o d u c e d

w i t h i n several m i n u t e s y i e l d i n g a large w e a l a n d

flares

while the n o n - o f f e n d i n g species remain i n e f f e c t u a l . T o the same e x t e n t no reactions will be seen w i t h t h e o f f e n d i n g w o o d in c o n t r o l s . References G r o n e m e y e r , W . e t a l . : D e r m a t o l ó g i c a 134, 2 0 8 ( 1 9 6 7 ) O e h l i n g , A.: Allergie A s t h m a 9 , 3 1 2 ( 1 9 6 3 ) S c h m i d t , H . : C o n t a c t D e r m . 4, 176 ( 1 9 7 8 )

Allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s S e v e r a l d e f e n c e m e c h a n i s m s e n a b l e the h u m a n skin t o p r o t e c t itself a g a i n s t i n j u r i e s . W h e r e this p r o t e c t i o n is o v e r c o m e rash, i n f l a m m a t i o n , d e r m a t i t i s ( e c z e m a ) a n d d a m a g e is p r o d u c e d a c c o m p a n i e d by i t c h i n g a n d f o l l o w e d by p u s t u l e s , v e s i c l e s , b l i s t e r s , u l c e r s a n d n e c r o s i s . M a i n t a i n e d c o n t a c t o f the skin w i t h s e n s i t i s e r s s m o o t h e s t h e w a y f o r s p e c i f i c h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y . H o w e v e r , p r o l o n g e d p r e d a m a g e o f t h e s k i n by f r e q u e n t c o n t a c t with acids, alkali, d e t e r g e n t s , disinfectants, h a n d cleansers, solvents, t h i n n e r s or generally w e t w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , f a c i l i t a t e s p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e skin a n d h e n c e s e n s i t i s a t i o n . In s o m e c a s e s t h e u s u a l slightly a c i d c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e n o r m a l h u m a n s k i n ( m a i n ly pH 6 - 5 , in s o m e c a s e s p H 6 , 8 - 4 ) f a c i l i t a t e s t h e ' e x t r a c t i o n ' of c e r t a i n

constitu-

e n t s f r o m the dust particles, shavings or the w o o d itself. S w e a t c o n d i t i o n s , even m o r e a c i d i c i n i t i a l l y ( c a . p H 4 , 5 ) a n d v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 4 , 5 a n d 8 , 4 in m o s t h e a l t h y p e o p l e m a y i n t e n s i f y t h i s p r o c e s s . G e n e r a l l y d e r m a t i t i s a f f e c t s t h o s e w h o are w o r k i n g w i t h t h e w o o d f o r a l o n g t i m e . U n d e r o c c u p a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s an e x t r e m e l y c l o s e c o n t a c t o c c u r s b e t w e e n w o o d d u s t a n d t h e s k i n . T h u s , t h e f i r s t c l i n i c a l s y m p t o m s a p p e a r at t h e e x p o s e d s i t e s , i . e . t h e b a c k o f the h a n d s , t h e f o r e a r m s a n d t h e e y e l i d s . L a t e r o n t h e l e s i o n s s p r e a d o u t to t h e f a c e and n e c k ( F i g u r e 2, a - c) a n d f i n a l l y t h e w h o l e b o dy b e c o m e s i n v o l v e d . F i n e d u s t p a r t i c l e s s e t t l i n g on t h e s k i n a n d c l o t h e s are m a n u a l l y c a r r i e d to t h e g e n i t a l s , b e c o m e t r a p p e d b e t w e e n t h e c l o t h e s a n d s k i n , e s p e c i a l l y a t t h e n e c k a n d s l e e v e s a n d o c c a s i o n a l l y involve the legs by e n t e r i n g f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t r o u s e r s . W o o d d u s t p a r t i c l e s also a t t a i n to t h e s w e a t y b o d y a r e a s s u c h as t h e axillae a n d g r o i n s , in s e v e r e c a s e s t o t h e a n k l e s , waist a n d d o r s a o f t h e f e e t . T h e a c i d c o n d i t i o n s o f s w e a t y r e g i o n s in c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e e n z y m a t i c a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e skin r e s u l t in o x i d a t i o n o f h a r m l e s s w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s t o e f f i c i e n t a l l e r g e n s . E x a m p l e s are p h e n o l i c s u b s t a n c e s w h i c h m a y be o x i d i s e d t o s e n s i t i s i n g q u i n o n e s in t h e s k i n .

Clinical aspects

Figure 2 a,b Allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s of the face (right) and neck (above) due to s e n s i t i s a t i o n by an e x o t i c w o o d species (Teak)

9

10

Clinical aspects

Figure 2 c Allergic e c z e m a t o u s r e a c t i o n s of t h e h a n d s a n d f o r e a r m s

T h e clinical s y m p t o m s

s t a r t w i t h mild r e a c t i o n s c o n s i s t i n g of i t c h i n g e r y t h e m a

burning sensitisation of the u n p r o t e c t e d

and

b o d y a r e a s . In t h e d u e c o u r s e p a p u l e s , v e s i c -

les a n d e x u d a t i o n a p p e a r ; w i t h t i m e t h e i n v o l v e d s k i n b e c o m e s t h i c k e n e d a n d f i s s u r e d f o l l o w e d b y l i c h e n i f i c a t i o n . D u e t o r e c u r r e n t c o n t a c t t h e i n d i v i d u a l d e v e l o p s an a l l e r gic c o n d i t i o n , i.e. t h e w o o d w o r k e r b e c o m e s s e n s i t i s e d t o t h e w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s . T h e l a t e n t p e r i o d e x t e n d i n g b e t w e e n the first c o n t a c t with a w o o d species and the develo p m e n t o f t h e first visible allergic r e a c t i o n s v a r i e s f r o m a few w e e k s to several y e a r s , t h e s h o r t e s t t i m e b e i n g s e v e n d a y s (see I m m u n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s ) . E v e r y r e n e w e d tact with come

the sensitiser p r o d u c e s

a stronger

outbreak

con-

of d e r m a t i t i s ; the a t t a c k s be-

m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d l e s i o n s i n c r e a s e in s e v e r i t y . In s e r i o u s c a s e s t h e w o r k

must

s t o p . A l l c l i n i c a l s y m p t o m s s u b s i d e w i t h i n a s h o r t t i m e w h e n t h e p a t i e n t is r e m o v e d f r o m h i s p l a c e o f w o r k i n g , f o r e x a m p l e d u r i n g h o l i d a y s , o c c a s i o n a l l y a l r e a d y at w e e k ends.

I m m u n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s D u r i n g w o r k w i t h w o o d s p e c i e s t h e e p i d e r m i s is c o n t i n u o u s l y e x p o s e d t o a w i d e variety of p o t e n t i a l l y sensitising c o n s t i t u e n t s , w h i c h are simple c h e m i c a l h a p t e n s . T h u s

Immunological aspects

1 1

c o n t a c t allergy e x p r e s s e d o n the skin as c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s is c a u s e d usually by subs t a n c e s of

low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t v a r y i n g f r o m 1 5 0 to 1 0 0 0 . In c o n t r a s t t o t h e m a i n l y

high m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t a n t i g e n s of i m m e d i a t e t y p e allergy ( t y p e I, a n a p h y l a c t i c react i o n s ) and e x t r i n s i c allergic alveolitis ( t y p e I I I , A r t h u s p h e n o m e n o n ) ( C e l l & C o o m b s , 1 9 6 7 ) w h i c h are m o s t l y u n k n o w n the s t r u c t u r e of the low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t c o n t a c t allergen in w o o d species is k n o w n or easily d e t e r m i n e d . According

to

a specifically stances

the

generally

acquired,

accepted

altered

d e f i n i t i o n allergy

capacity

based on a pathological

of the body

antigen-antibody

is u n d e r s t o o d

to react to foreign

reaction

today

as

sub-

( t y p e I t o III)

and/or a pathological

reaction

due to specifically

sensitised

T

lymphocytes

( t y p e I V , c e l l - m e d i a t e d t y p e of allergy, d e l a y e d t y p e ) ( C e l l & C o o m b s ) . As m o s t of the allergic diseases c a u s e d by e x o t i c w o o d s p e c i e s b e l o n g to t h e d e l a y e d t y p e , r e c e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i m m u n o l o g i c a l p r o c e e d i n g s o c c u r ring d u r i n g i n d u c t i o n of c e l l - m e d i a t e d h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y (allergic c o n t a c t

dermatitis)

will be discussed here b r i e f l y . G e n e r a l l y s e n s i t i s a t i o n will d e v e l o p in a p e r s o n w h e n t h i s i n d i v i d u a l is g e n e t i c a l l y pred i s p o s e d t o w a r d s an allergy a n d / o r the f o l l o w i n g basic r e q u i r e m e n t s are f u l f i l l e d : a m o r e o r less high sensitising a t t a c h m e n t of sufficient s u i t a b l e intensity

potency

amounts

of action

of t h e a g e n t

of t h e allergen to t h e skin

of the c o m p o u n d o n the s k i n .

M o r e t h a n 9 0 % of t h e low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t allergens r e a c h i n g t h e skin d u r i n g c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w o o d o r d u s t are e i t h e r r e p e l l e d by the h o r n y l a y e r or escape f r o m t h e a p p l i c a t i o n site by d i r e c t p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h the e p i d e r m i s a n d d e r m i s w i t h o u t being b o u n d ( t h e ' w r o n g w a y ' ) . O n l y small a m o u n t s are actually r e t a i n e d and e f f e c t i v e l y ind u c e s e n s i t i s a t i o n . T h e s e small a m o u n t s are p i c k e d u p by the L a n g e r h a n s cells ( L C s ) a n d t h e i r d e n d r i t e s localised in the e p i d e r m i s b e l o w the S t r a t u m c o r n e u m ( F i g u r e 3 ) . T h e s u p r a b a s a l l o c a t i o n of the LCs w i t h i n t h e e p i d e r m i s p l a y s a s e n t i n e l ( p r o t e c t i v e ) role by e q u i p p i n g t h e c u t a n e o u s s u r f a c e ( s k i n ) with an e l a b o r a t e n e t w o r k of i n t e r locking dendrites just beneath the keratinised layer, prepared to capture foreign material. T h e strategically i m p o r t a n t p o i n t d e l e g a t e s t h e LCs t o t h e m o s t p e r i p h e r a l o u t p o s t in t h e a f f e r e n t limb of t h e i m m u n e r e s p o n s e , i.e. t h e L a n g e r h a n s cells f o r m a reticulo-epithelial trap f o r external c o n t a c t allergens. L o w m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t c o m p o u n d s a p p l i e d to t h e skin are first b o u n d to t h e Langerh a n s cells and t h e n p r e s e n t e d in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h H L A - D / D R a n t i g e n s ( s u r f a c e antigens of LCs and m a c r o p h a g e s ) t o the T l y m p h o c y t e s . T h e s e H L A a n t i g e n s ( h u m a n leukocyte

a n t i g e n gene p r o d u c t s ) are e n c o d e d for by the D / D R

region of the 6 .

c h r o m o s o m e and are e x p r e s s e d o n the s u r f a c e of s t i m u l a t o r cells - such as L a n g e r h a n s cells and m a c r o p h a g e s . B i n d i n g of the h a p t e n m o d i f i e s t h e m to a ' h a p t e n - s u r f a c e antigen c o m p l e x ' .

12

Immunological aspects

Langerhans

cells

Stratum corneum

Epidermis

Dermis

Figure 3

P a t h w a y of external low molecular weight allergens during i n d u c t i o n of c o n t a c t sensitisation

W h e n t h e h a p t e n - D / D R c o m p l e x is p r e s e n t e d t o t h e e p i d e r m a l T l y m p h o c y t e s t h e p r e s e n t e d s t r u c t u r e is r e c o g n i s e d as ' a l t e r e d s e l f ' . Close

a p p o s i t i o n o f m o n o n u c l e a r cells ( T l y m p h o c y t e s ) t o L a n g e r h a n s c e l l s is f r e -

q u e n t l y s e e n in t h e e p i d e r m i s a n d d e r m i s w i t h i n t h r e e h o u r s a f t e r e l i c i t a t i o n ( a p p l i c a tion of the allergen creased

t o p r o v e t h e i n d u c e d s e n s i t i v i t y ) . A f t e r f o u r t o six h o u r s in-

n u m b e r s of LCs, m o s t of them a p p o s e d to T cells, e n t e r d e r m a l l y m p h a t i c s

a n d c i r c u l a t e t o t h e r e g i o n a l l y m p h n o d e s . T h e L C s in a p p o s i t i o n t o l y m p h o c y t e s gat h e r in t h e c o r t i c e s o f t h e l y m p h n o d e s . I t is s u p p o s e d t h a t t h e L C s p r e s e n t t h e f o r eign s u b s t a n c e s ( a l l e r g e n s ) t o T l y m p h o c y t e s in t h e e p i d e r m i s a n d d e r m i s as well as d u r i n g m i g r a t i o n t o d e r m a l vessels and t h e d r a i n i n g l y m p h

n o d e s . T h e role o f L C s as

a n t i g e n - b e a r i n g a n d p r e s e n t i n g cells in t h e e p i d e r m i s is a d o p t e d in t h e dermis

by the

macrophages. In t h e p a r a c o r t i c a l r e g i o n o f t h e d r a i n i n g l y m p h n o d e s t h e s t i m u l a t e d small T l y m p h o c y t e s p r o l i f e r a t e a n d are t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o i m m u n o b l a s t s w h i c h f u r t h e r d i f f e r e n t i a t e into cells

t w o s u b p o p u l a t i o n s o f s p e c i f i c a l l y s e n s i t i s e d small l y m p h o c y t e s : t h e a n d t h e memory

cells

. T h e memory

effector

cells r e c i r c u l a t e b e t w e e n t h e t h y m u s - d e p e n -

d e n t areas of the l y m p h n o d e s ( p a r a c o r t i c a l region), the s p l e e n , and the d u c t u s t h o r a cicus storing the i n f o r m a t i o n of previous c o n t a c t with the initial allergen.

I m m u n o l o g i c a l aspects

13

U p o n a n e w c o n t a c t with the sensitising s u b s t a n c e they are able to p r o l i f e r a t e and diff e r e n t i a t e i n t o a new p r o g e n y of sensitised small l y m p h o c y t e s ( e f f e c t o r and m e m o r y cells). T h e o t h e r s u b p o p u l a t i o n of sensitised T l y m p h o c y t e s , the effector

cells, circu-

late in t h e b l o o d and t h u s r e t u r n to the skin w h e r e they react with the residual of the applied allergen ( h a p t e n - D / D R c o m p l e x on the surface of the LCs) w h i c h s o m e t i m e s results in a flare-up p h e n o m e n o n recognised on the seventh day a f t e r t h e first applic a t i o n or they react to a new e x p o s u r e with the specific allergen by releasing soluble s u b s t a n c e s , so-called l y m p h o k i n e s , which initiate the i n f l a m m a t o r y skin r e a c t i o n s . Selective u p t a k e of allergens by LCs as well as i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n L a n g e r h a n s cells and T cells in the e p i d e r m i s respectively b e t w e e n m a c r o p h a g e s a n d T l y m p h o c y t e s in the d e r m i s are restricted genetically by the HLA s y s t e m . T h e D / D R genes of the HLA c h r o m o s o m a l c o m p l e x c o n t r o l the cell surface m a r k e r s which are only p r e s e n t on the s t i m u l a t o r cells, i.e. L a n g e r h a n s cells in the e p i d e r m i s and m a c r o p h a g e s in the dermis. E f f e c t i v e L a n g e r h a n s cell - T cell respectively m a c r o p h a g e - T cell i n t e r a c t i o n s are only possible w h e n the s t i m u l a t o r cells and the r e s p o n d e r l y m p h o c y t e s are syngeneic. By t a k i n g u p the antigenic m a t e r i a l t h e syngeneic surface D / D R antigen of t h e LC is c h a n g e d to ' a l t e r e d self'. This event finally i n d u c e s the specific cell s t i m u l a t i o n , prol i f e r a t i o n and d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n f o r which close p h y s i c a l cell to cell c o n t a c t is r e q u i r e d . In c o n c l u s i o n : the m a j o r m e c h a n i s m of i n d u c t i o n of c o n t a c t allergy is a direct c o n j u gation of the sensitising s u b s t a n c e to D / D R s u r f a c e antigens of t h e L a n g e r h a n s cells l o c a t e d in t h e e p i d e r m i s a n d / o r the D / D R gene p r o d u c t s of the m a c r o p h a g e s in the d e r m i s ( t h e 'right w a y ' ) . In c o n t r a s t , e x p o s u r e to a c o n t a c t allergen via the intraven o u s r o u t e ( i n j e c t i o n ) , via ingestion or by p e n e t r a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e e p i d e r m i s and dermis

directly i n t o the general c i r c u l a t i o n w i t h o u t binding t o the s u r f a c e antigen of the

LC or m a c r o p h a g e - b u t p r o b a b l y to a n o t h e r cell particle, e r y t h r o c y t e , p r o t e i n etc.w h i c h h a p p e n s w h e n s u p r a o p t i m a l a m o u n t s of the allergen are applied to the skin m o s t of w h i c h c a n n o t be c o n j u g a t e d t o t h e LC D / D R antigens ( ' w r o n g w a y ' ) - will result in t o l e r a n c e i n s t e a d . It is i m p o r t a n t to state t h a t sensitisation only takes place w h e n the 'right w a y ' is f o l l o w e d , i.e. a p p r o p i a t e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the allergen by LCs to T l y m p h o c y t e s . When L a n g e r h a n s cells are a b s e n t f r o m t h e skin, e.g. by p r o l o n g e d e x p o s u r e to UV light, or are significantly altered in their physiological p r o p e r t i e s , t h e sentinel n e t w o r k is b r e a c h e d a n d a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t i m m u n e response results: E x p o s u r e to e x t e r n a l allergens (even o t h e r foreign agents such as, f o r e x a m p l e , virus-antigens) n o t only fail to sensitise, respectively are n o t p r e s e n t e d , b u t e v o k e p r o f o u n d and specific i m m u n o logical u n r e s p o n s i v e n e s s . References Cell, P . G . H . & C o o m b s , R . R . A . : Clinical a s p e c t s of i m m u n o l o g y . Blackwell Sci. P u b l : O x f o r d , 1967

14

Diagnosis of c o n t a c t sensitivity

Diagnosis of c o n t a c t sensitivity Usually p a t c h tests are p e r f o r m e d on t h e back of the p a t i e n t . T h e p a t c h e s are applied in five units t a p e d on t h e u p p e r back in vertical r o w s . T h e plasters are l e f t o n for 24 h o u r s . Readings are carried o u t after 2 4 , 48 a n d 72 h o u r s . T h e p a t c h test site should be m a r k e d a c c u r a t e l y , o t h e r w i s e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of positive r e a c t i o n s b e c o m e s d i f f i c u l t or impossible. In n o r m a l practice fine w o o d d u s t particles or shavings are a p p l i e d , b u t e x t r a c t s of the w o o d in subtoxic

doses or the p u r e sensitiser (if available) in a n o n -

p r i m a r y irritant c o n c e n t r a t i o n are p r e f e r a b l e . T h o u g h only t w o of the k n o w n sensitising w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s ( j u g l o n e , t h y m o q u i n o n e ) are c o m m e r c i a l l y available (as far as t h e a u t h o r k n o w s ) as y e t , the correct c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t ones are listed in Table ! . A n allergic r e a c t i o n will develop when the c o r r e c t c o n c e n t r a t i o n of an allergen or w o o d e x t r a c t is a p p l i e d to the skin of a sensitised p e r s o n . This c o n c e n t r a t i o n will give n o reaction in c o n t r o l s . In all cases of positive r e a c t i o n s to w o o d dust particles, shavings or w o o d e x t r a c t s it is necessary to clear u p w h e t h e r t h e test response is really an allergic one or n o t , as false positive that

reactions

an

allergic

(non-allergic positive; p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t ) m a y o c c u r due to the f a c t reaction

may

differ very little

f r o m t h a t p r o d u c i n g an

irritant

response. If there is any d o u b t a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l s in at least 2 0 p e o p l e ( C r o n i n r e c o m m e n d s 5 0 controls)

are essential. F o r e x a m p l e a false

positive

reaction

is o b t a i n e d w h e n t h e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e sensitising substance in the s a w d u s t or e x t r a c t is t o o h i g h . T h u s , if there exists any such possibility the p r i m a r y irritant t h r e s h o l d of the c r u d e w o o d e x t r a c t should be ascertained before

p a t c h tests are p e r f o r m e d on the skin of the

sensitised p a t i e n t . ( E x p e r i m e n t s on guinea pigs are m o r e p r e f e r a b l e ) . A n o t h e r possibility f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o r r e c t c o n c e n t r a t i o n is to apply an initial test with l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n , for e x a m p l e 0,1 to 1 %. If the result is negative, the c o n c e n t r a t i o n m a y be increased stepwise. H o w e v e r , false

negative

reactions

(missed allergic positive) m a y also o c c u r w h e n the

c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h e sensitiser in the w o o d or its c r u d e e x t r a c t is t o o low to elicit a skin r e s p o n s e , or w h e n c o r t i c o s t e r o i d - c o n t a i n i n g m e d i c a m e n t s suppress the r e a c t i o n . In the first case it m a y help t o test a n o t h e r sample f r o m a n o t h e r source, b u t it is imp o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r t h a t the same offending

species

m u s t be c h o s e n . In t h e second

case f o u r to five days should elapse b e f o r e the test is r e p e a t e d (in the case of a cortic o s t e r o i d i n j e c t i o n f o u r weeks m u s t elapse). It is k n o w n t h a t results are f r e q u e n t l y m i s i n t e r p r e t e d , h o w e v e r , the general rule that

is

allergic r e a c t i o n s are r e p r o d u c i b l e , but i r r i t a n t r e s p o n s e s s t o p a b r u p t l y w h e n

testing is p e r f o r m e d w i t h s u b s e q u e n t d i l u t i o n s .

Diagnosis of c o n t a c t sensitivity

Table 1

15

C o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f e s s e n t i a l c o n t a c t a l l e r g e n s of w o o d s p e c i e s f o r e p i c u t a n e o u s tests

Sensitiser

Timber

Concentration %

Anthothecol

Khaya

Chlorophorin

Chlorophora

Cordiachromes

Cordia

anthotheca

1

C.DC

excelsa

Benth. & Hook.

a n d Patagonula grandis

species

L . ; Tabebuia

1 - 10 0,1

Deoxylapachol

Tectona

R-3,4-dimethoxydalbergione

Machaerium

sp.

S-4,4'-dimethoxydalbergione

Dalbergia

species

1

S-4'-hydroxy^l-methoxydal.

Dalbergia

species

1 10

species

2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e various w o o d species Lapachol

Tectona

'Macassar q u i n o n e '

o x i d a t i o n p r o d u c t o f m a c a s s a r II

Mansonone A

Mansonia

altissima

Obtusaquinone

Dalbergia

retusa

Oxyayanin A and B

Distemonanthus

Thymoquinone

Calocedrus

grandis

f r o m Diospyros

L.; Bignoniaceae sp. celebica

1-10 1

Bakh.

A.Chev.

0,1

H e m si. benthamianus

decurrens

0 , 0 1 - 0,1 0,01

1 Baili.

(Torr.) Florin

1 0,1

T h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s k i n r e a c t i o n s a f t e r p a t c h t e s t i n g is e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g s c a l e , g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d by m o s t o f t h e d e r m a t o l o g i c a l c l i n i c s in E u r o p e . B u t in c o n t r a s t t o t h e E n g l i s h a n d A m a e r i c a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f +? a n d ± w h i c h m e a n s a d o u b t f u l r e a c t i o n , ( + ) is r e c o r d e d in t h i s b o o k as a d i s t i n c t w e a k r e a c t i o n .

Score 0" (+)

no reaction (negative)

0

slight s p o t t e d e r y t h e m a

0,5

+

distinct e r y t h e m a restricted to the test area

1

++

d i s t i n c t c o n f l u e n t e r y t h e m a a n d i n f i l t r a t i o n , slight s w e l l i n g

2

+++

intense e r y t h e m a , infiltration and e x u d a t i o n with swelling

3

and spreading o u t over the test area 1R

irritant

NT

n o t tested

Active sensitisation

m a y o c c u r , e.g. in c o n t r o l s w h e n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e t e s t

s u b s t a n c e is t o o h i g h a n d t h e c o m p o u n d is a s t r o n g s e n s i t i s e r .

16

D i a g n o s i s of c o n t a c t sensitivity

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are A

f l a r e - u p p h e n o m e n o n : positive test r e a c t i o n at the test site 1 0 - 1 4 d a y s after application

± p o s i t i v e test r e a c t i o n in a n o n - s e n s i t i s e d c o n t r o l a f t e r r e s t e s t i n g s o m e d a y s o r w e e k s or m o n t h s l a t e r . E x a m p l e s have b e e n o b s e r v e d w i t h Pao f e r r o allergen (Machaerium which

scleroxylum

is t h e s t r o n g sensitiser R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e a n d w i t h

Tul.)

deoxylapachol

from Teak. E x t r a c t s of w o o d d u s t o r shavings are easily o b t a i n e d by leaving 1 g of t h e w o o d particles w i t h 9 ml e t h a n o l o v e r n i g h t (or l o n g e r ) at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . A f t e r d e c a n t i n g or f i l t r a t i o n a 1 0 % s t o c k s o l u t i o n is o b t a i n e d w h i c h m a y serve f o r test p u r p o s e s a f t e r s u b s e q u e n t d i l u t i o n . A s e t h a n o l i c e x t r a c t s are n o t stable o v e r a l o n g e r p e r i o d b e c a u s e t h e s o l v e n t t e n d s t o e v a p o r a t e a n d thus t o c o n c e n t r a t e t h e e x t r a c t i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o a n d storage in p e t r o l a t u m (vaseline) is a s u i t a b l e base f o r allergen p r e s e r v a t i o n .

Mh

Figure 4

Positive allergic skin r e a c t i o n s a f t e r p a t c h t e s t i n g w i t h d i f f e r e n t w o o d e x t r a c t s and p u r e sensitisers E x p l a n a t i o n : K a m b a l a ( C h l o r o p h o r a excelsa)\

sensitiser: c h l o r o p h o r i n

P a l i s a n d e r = Brazilian r o s e w o o d (Dalbergia nigra)', C o c o b o l o (Dalb. T e a k (Tectona

retusa)

grand is), sensitiser: d e o x y l a p a c h o l , e l i c i t e r : l a p a c h o l ;

L a p a c h o n o n = l a p a c h e n o l e (Paratecoma

peroba),

probably a cross-reaction

Botanical identification

17

P r e p a r a t i o n of stable w o o d e x t r a c t s have been successfully achieved in our l a b o r a t o r y by e v a p o r a t i n g t h e e x t r a c t to d r y n e s s , m i x i n g t h e residual m a t e r i a l with w h i t e p e t r o l a tum ( 1 + 9 ) for at least a half h o u r to get a h o m o g e n o u s paste which then is t r a n s f e r red t o 1 ml syringes and s t o r e d in the r e f r i g i r a t o r . P r o t e c t i o n f r o m light is e n s u r e d by covering t h e syringe with a l u m i n i u m foil. F r o m our e x p e r i e n c e e x t r a c t s p r e p a r e d in such a m a n n e r and diluted to n o n - p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s m a y be s t o r e d f o r years

w i t h o u t losing their allergenic p o t e n c y . Even relatively u n s t a b l e w o o d c o n s t i t u -

e n t s such as d e o x y l a p a c h o l have been s t o r e d f o r m o r e t h a n o n e y e a r . Positive test reactions are s h o w n in Figure 4 . References C r o n i n , E . C o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s . Churchill L i v i n g s t o n e : L o n d o n , 1980

Botanical identification C o r r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the o f f e n d i n g w o o d species is a b s o l u t e l y necessary, o t h e r wise any p a t c h test is meaningless. T r a d e n a m e s are n o t only o f t e n misleading, b u t in m o s t cases i n s u f f i c i e n t and c o n f u s i n g . O f t e n o n e single n a m e is used f o r a large n u m ber of d i f f e r e n t t i m b e r s , f o r e x a m p l e ' r o s e w o o d ' f o r 3 0 d i f f e r e n t w o o d species. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , f o r one definite species m o r e than ten d i f f e r e n t trade n a m e s m a y be in use. An e x a m p l e is Chlorophora

excelsa

B e n t h . & H o o k , w h i c h is called I r o k o ,

K a m b a l a , Sanga-sanga, T e a k , O d u m , Mvule, Mvalo, T u l e , Intule and Moreira e t c . Tree n o m e n c l a t u r e s o m e t i m e s originates f r o m native d e s i g n a t i o n s , and occasionally derives f r o m the h a r b o u r f r o m where the t i m b e r s are s h i p p e d ; s o m e t i m e s t h e y are based on their c o l o u r or the n a m e s m a y be p u r e f a n t a s y . H o w e v e r , one thing t h e y all have in c o m m o n : i n c o r r e c t n a m e s are misleading and the source of severe m i s t a k e s , occasionally leading to serious c o m m e r c i a l losses. T i m b e r s shipped u n d e r false n a m e to certain d e s t i n a t i o n s m a y be d a m a g e d by n a t u r a l f o r c e s , because their physical prop e r t i e s essential f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n do n o t c o r r e s p o n d to the r e q u i r e d quality of the original species. In m a n y cases skin lesions are caused in w o o d w o r k e r s because the species in use is n o t the original, b u t a s u b s t i t u t e w i t h irritating and sensitising p r o p e r t i e s (see

Pao f e r r o ) . T h e r e f o r e in any case of skin diseases, h e a l t h injuries or allergic reac-

tions of the respiratory tract c o n n e c t e d with i m p o r t e d w o o d , a solid w o o d sample n o t w o o d dust - should be sent to an e x p e r t (wood

anatomist),

with a n o t e of its ori-

gin and available trade n a m e s f o r specific b o t a n i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . A p a t c h test in a s u s p e c t e d allergic p a t i e n t is only valuable with a satisfactorily identified w o o d species. L a t e r r e - e x a m i n a t i o n of the p a t i e n t ' s allergic c o n d i t i o n in the case of a r e c u r r e n c e , and c h e m i c a l investigation of the o f f e n d i n g w o o d are impossible w h e n t h e original w o o d sample is n o t available and the p a t i e n t can only r e m e m b e r ' r o s e w o o d ' f o r the i n c r i m i n a t e d species. A v o u c h e r sample s h o u l d be k e p t at all events! T h e c o n f u s e d n o m e n c l a t u r e has caused such t r o u b l e t h a t a lot of earlier rep o r t s are c o m p l e t e l y unreliable (see also I n d e x on page 1 8 2 ) .

18

Protective measures

Protective and p r e c a u t i o n a r y measures I n c r e a s e d use of e x o t i c t i m b e r s r e i n f o r c e s t h e p r o b l e m s of p r e v e n t i o n and t r e a t m e n t of allergic diseases. G e n e r a l l y s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s m a y be realised by r e m o v i n g the o f f e n d i n g hazard or protecting the w o r k m e n f r o m any possible c o n t a c t with the w o o d dust. D u s t e x t r a c t i o n by e x h a u s t ventilation f o r m o u l d e r s , sanders, polishers, circular saws, and

o t h e r m a c h i n e s a n d w o r k i n g places are t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p r e c a u t i o n a r y

s u r e s . O c c a s i o n a l l y m o i s t e n i n g o f t h e a i r w i t h w a t e r o r oil a t t h e p o i n t w h e r e

meawood

d u s t is g e n e r a t e d m a y b e s u c c e s s f u l . U n d e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s p r o t e c t i o n of t h e w o o d w o r k e r i n c l u d e s ±

P r o t e c t i v e c l o t h i n g w i t h l o n g sleeves, a high collar, g a u n t l e t s ( r u b b e r gloves) a n d - if n e c e s s a r y - m a s k s a g a i n s t i r r i t a t i n g a n d s e n s i t i s i n g d u s t p a r t i c l e s

*

Barrier c r e a m s , silicon-free and f a t t y , to be used b e f o r e , d u r i n g a n d after w o r k i n g . T h e i d e a o f a b a r r i e r c r e a m is to p r e v e n t d e l e t e r i o u s s u b s t a n c e s r e a c h i n g t h e s k i n and to operate

as a s o - c a l l e d ' i n v i s i b l e g l o v e ' w i t h t h e a i m o f l i m i t i n g t h e i n c i -

d e n c e o f d e r m a t i t i s . T h o u g h some b a r r i e r c r e a m s are e f f i c i e n t , m o s t of t h e m fail in p r a c t i c e t o p r e v e n t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t

o f d e r m a t i t i s , b e c a u s e t h e l a y e r is t o o

thin o r t h e y c o u l d n o t be washed o f f , even with strong cleansers. T h u s c o n s i d e r a b l e s c e p t i c i s m a b o u t t h e v a l u e o f b a r r i e r c r e a m s still e x i s t s a n d m u c h f u r t h e r inv e s t i g a t i o n r e m a i n s t o b e d o n e in t h i s f i e l d , p r e f e r a b l y u n d e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s , b e f o r e t h e e f f i e n c y o f b a r r i e r c r e a m s r e a c h e s i h e d e g r e e o f p r o t e c t i o n r e q u i r e d in the wood working industries ± A

A d e q u a t e washing facilities including showers E d u c a t i o n o f t h e w o o d w o r k e r s r e g a r d i n g c a r e in h a n d l i n g a n d t h e a v o i d i n g o f ind u e e x p o s u r e t o d u s t s w h i c h are k n o w n t o p o s s e s s i r r i t a n t a n d s e n s i t i s i n g p r o p e r ties. In p a r t i c u l a r w o r k e r s

should be d i s c o u r a g e s f r o m using p e t r o l , t u r p e n t i n e ,

t h i n n e r s , o r g a n i c s o l v e n t s , a n d h a r s h s o a p s t o r e m o v e t h e d a y ' s g r i m e , as t h e s e materials may

damage

t h e skin b y p r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n a n d e n h a n c e t h e

penetra-

tion of e c z e m a t o u s c o m p o u n d s t h u s paving the way f o r s u b s e q u e n t sensitisation *

W o r k e r s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l l y b e f o r e b e i n g a s s i g n e d t o a d e f i n i t e j o b in o r d e r t o a v o i d t h a t w o r k m e n are e n g a g e d a t a w o r k i n g p l a c e w h o b e l o n g t o t h e a t o p i c s . S u c h w o r k e r s s h o u l d be k e p t u n d e r c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n a n d r e m o v e d f r o m w o r k if a n y e r u p t i o n o c c u r s

*

S o m e a u t h o r s m e n t i o n t h a t nasal s p r a y s w i t h a n t i h i s t a m i n e s h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o b e u s e f u l in s o m e c a s e s a g a i n s t t h e i r r i t a t i n g d u s t o f c e r t a i n w o o d s p e c i e s .

E a r l y a n d c o r r e c t d i a g n o s i s of an o c c u p a t i o n a l o u t b r e a k of allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e . I f t h e c a u s a t i v e w o o d s p e c i e s is e a s i l y r e c o g n i s e d a n d

identi-

f i e d , r e m o v a l f r o m t h e f a c t o r y o r p r o t e c t i o n o f t h o s e s e n s i t i v e t o it is e s s e n t i a l t o p r e v e n t d i s a b i l i t y . H o w e v e r , if it is a v a l u a b l e s p e c i e s w i t h n o a d e q u a t e s u b s t i t u t e its c o n tinued

use s h o u l d be allowed b u t with g r e a t e r insistence on d u s t c o n t r o l , p r o t e c t i v e

c l o t h i n g a n d s i m i l a r p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . T h e s e m e a s u r e s are l i k e w i s e v a l i d f o r a n y o t h e r w o o d d u s t s w i t h p o i s o n o u s or h a z a r d o u s p r o p e r t i e s .

Protective measures

19

In rare cases r e p l a c e m e n t of t h e sensitising s p e c i e s by a less sensitising b u t e f f e c t i v e alt e r n a t i v e m a y be p o s s i b l e . It is w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g t h a t r e p l a c e m e n t s o m e t i m e s m e a n s r e p l a c e m e n t of a w h o l e c o n s i g n m e n t from

of an o f f e n d i n g t i m b e r by t h e same species

a n o t h e r l o c a l i t y , e.g. of irritating a n d sensitising T e a k f r o m S o u t h - E a s t Asia

by an a l l e r g e n - f r e e T e a k g r o w n in A f r i c a . It is g e n e r a l l y k n o w n t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s in the a m o u n t of allergenic a n d irr i t a t i n g c o n s t i t u e n t s m a y o c c u r in t i m b e r s . T h u s a p r e l i m i n a r y c h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e i m p o r t e d w o o d b e f o r e t h e w h o l e c o n s i g n m e n t is a c c e p t e d or t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e c o n s u m e r s o m e t i m e s m a y p r e v e n t w o r k m e n ' s disability and c o m m e r c i a l losses. F r o m o u r e x p e r i e n c e t h e allergen c o n t e n t in the same s p e c i e s f r o m d i f f e r e n t localities m a y vary c o n s i d e r a b l y ; f o r e x a m p l e s o m e y e a r s ago an i n s p e c t i o n revealed t h a t o u t of f o u r s p e c i m e n s of M a n s o n i a (Mansonia

altissima

in H a m b u r g ( W e s t - G e r m a n y ) o n l y one c o n t a i n e d

A.Chev.) from different yards

e n o u g h of t h e allergenic m a n s o n o n e

A to i n d u c e allergic s e n s i t i s a t i o n as well as e l i c i t i n g allergic r e a c t i o n s in p r e s e n s i t i s e d i n d i v i d u a l s . Similar e x p e r i e n c e h a s b e e n g a i n e d w i t h T e a k . N o p r o t e c t i o n exists against t h e a c c i d e n t a l a p p e a r a n c e of an i r r i t a n t t i m b e r as an err o n e o u s s a m p l e in a n o r m a l s h i p m e n t o t h e r t h a n t h a t j u s t m e n t i o n e d .

Once

a s e n s i t i s a t i o n h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t o p i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of c o r t i c o s t e r o i d o i n t m e n t s is

i n d i c a t e d . T h o u g h several e f f i c i e n t t o p i c a l s t e r o i d s are a v a i l a b l e , a l o n g t r e a t m e n t is n o t r e c o m m e n d e d . A n y d e r m a t o l o g i s t c o n f r o n t e d w i t h o u t b r e a k s of d e r m a t i t i s in a f a c t o r y k n o w s t h a t r e c u r r e n t d e r m a t i t i s is o n l y c o u n t e r e d e f f i c i e n t l y by strict

avoid-

ance o f f u r t h e r c o n t a c t w i t h t h e o f f e n d i n g w o o d species.

S e n s i t i s e d p a t i e n t s s h o u l d be given e m p l o y m e n t in s o m e o t h e r c a p a c i t y ( o f t h e s a m e p l a n t - if p o s s i b l e ) to p r o t e c t t h e m f r o m f u r t h e r c o n t a c t w i t h the sensitising w o o d and c r o s s - r e a c t i v e species. W h e n c o n t a c t allergy h a s b e e n m a n i f e s t e d so s t r o n g l y t h a t w o r k has t o s t o p a r e p o r t to t h e N a t i o n a l W o r k m e n ' s C o m p e n s a t i o n B u r e a u ( o r t h e e q u i v a l e n t )

is n e c e s s a r y

w h i c h in m o s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s and a b r o a d will p a y f o r r e t r a i n i n g a n d / o r a c c e p t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t h e c o s t s of an a p p r o p r i a t e a n n u i t y .

R e t r a i n i n g s h o u l d n o t involve o c c u p a t i o n s t h a t b e a r the r e n e w e d risk of r e c u r r e n t allergic r e a c t i o n s . Possibilities of c r o s s - r e a c t i o n s to c h e m i c a l l y related c o m p o u n d s in ano t h e r w o r k i n g place e x i s t in i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t are sensitive t o c e r t a i n q u i n o n o i d w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s - such as d e o x y l a p a c h o l , l a p a c h e n o l e , m a n s o n o n e s , d a l b e r g i o n e s etc.a n d c h a n g e t h e i r j o b t o t h a t of a g a r d e n e r , f l o r i s t or p h a r m a c i s t . In t h i s case c o n t a c t m a y o c c u r w i t h related q u i n o n e s - such as p r i m i n , c y p r i p e d i n e t c . - o c c u r r i n g in f l o w ers a n d d r u g s derived f r o m o t h e r p l a n t f a m i l i e s , as s h o w n in F i g u r e 5.

20

Protective measures

Primula obconica (Primulaceae)

Téctona grandis

\

_ (Verbenaceae)

Primula

II

Primin

Deoxylapachol

XDalberqia sppX Machaerium spjj. \ P (Leg.-Pap.)

/

Peroba

Rose-/ woods

M a n s o n o n e A a n d other XMansonories/

Figure 5

OCH,

Lapachenole g

•rgiones

Mansonia altissima (Sterculia ceae) i

/ P a r a t e c o m a peroba (Bignoniaceae) v

Phaqnalon spp. (Compositae) Mediterranean v plants n 2-Dimethylallylbenzoquinone

C r o s s - r e a c t i o n s o b t a i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y in s e n s i t i s e d g u i n e a p i g s b e t w e e n q u i n o n o i d c o n s t i t u e n t s of p l a n t s a n d w o o d s

Wood chemistry

21

Wood chemistry T h e t o x i c , irritant and sensitising c o n s t i t u e n t s of w o o d s are ' a c c e s s o r y ' s u b s t a n c e s which m a i n l y occur in t h e h e a r t w o o d . M o s t of them are e x t r a c t a b l e by organic solve n t s . O f t e n t h e y have a f u n c t i o n as p r o t e c t i v e a g e n t s against i n j u r y or a t t a c k s by f u n g i , insects ( t e r m i t e s ) a n d b a c t e r i a . Most of t h e m m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d as b y - p r o d u c t s and e n d - p r o d u c t s of t h e biological f u n c t i o n s of a living t r e e , which are of n o f u r t h e r use f o r the species and t h e r e f o r e are stored in t h e dead cells of the h e a r t w o o d , c o l o u r i n g it d i f f e r e n t l y . Bark a n d s a p w o o d m a y c o n t a i n c o n s t i t u e n t s d i f f e r i n g f r o m those of the h e a r t w o o d or t h e y m a y be the same o n e s b u t in d i f f e r i n g a m o u n t s . It is a general o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t w o o d d e r m a t i t i s is mainly caused by the h e a r t w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s of tropical species. T h e a m o u n t s of t h e responsible sensitisers vary seasonally, geographically a n d even between

s p e c i m e n s growing in the same p l a c e . S o m e t i m e s trees l o c a t e d only 3-4 m

f r o m o n e a n o t h e r c o n t a i n ten f o l d d i f f e r i n g a m o u n t s of the same c o n s t i t u e n t . T h e m o r e rare cases of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s in w o o d c u t t e r s d e b a r k i n g trees and local t i m b e r w o r k e r s are m o s t l y due to the c o m p o u n d s of t h e o u t e r s a p w o o d a n d lichens g r o w i n g on the b a r k . O c c u p a t i o n a l d e r m a t i t i s a m o n g f o r e s t w o r k e r s , called ' w o o d cutter's disease' is caused by c o n t a c t with l i c h e n s , liverworts a n d m o s s e s of the genera Cladonia

( m a i n l y C. alpestris

F. nisqualensis)

L . ) , Parmelia,

and Isothecium.

Usnea, Frullania

(F. tamariscii,

F.

dilatata,

T h o u g h usnic acid a n d a t r a n o r i n have been incrimi-

n a t e d as the causative agents, the allergens of m o s t cases of ' w o o d c u t t e r ' s disease' are s e s q u i t e r p e n e l a c t o n e s such as f r u l l a n o l i d e (see B e e c h ) . In Frullania-sensitive c r o s s - r e a c t i o n s to C o m p o s i t a e species such as Chrysanthemum

patients

a n d Taraxacum

(dan-

d e l i o n ) have been o b s e r v e d . T h e b o t a n i c a l families c o n t a i n i n g species with toxic a n d / o r sensitising p r o p e r t i e s are well k n o w n . Those including only sensitising species are listed in T a b l e 2. Table 2

Botanical families c o n t a i n i n g species w i t h sensitising p r o p e r t i e s ( m a i n l y t i m b e r s ; the A n a c a r d i a c e a e i n c l u d e s h r u b s )

Family Leguminosae

N u m b e r of species 109

Anacardiaceae

32

Meliaceae

27

Bignoniaceae

21

Lauraceae

18

Cupressaceae Ebenaceae

13

Pinaceae

13

Moraceae

12 7

Boraginaceae

13

22

Wood chemistry

Family

N u m b e r of species

Sterculiaceae

7

Sapotaceae Menispermaceae

6 6

Proteaceae

3

2

Verbenaceae

1 1

Burseraceae Oleaceae

T h e w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s responsible for injuries to h u m a n health belong to d i f f e r e n t c h e m i c a l classes a n d

possess different physiological or pharmacological

properties.

T a b l e 3 r e v i e w s t h e t y p e s of c o m p o u n d s w h i c h a l l t o g e t h e r h a v e b e e n f o u n d h a r m i n g h u m a n b e i n g s . A p a r t f r o m t h e q u i n o n e s all o t h e r classes are o n l y l i t t l e i n v o l v e d . Table 3

W o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s a n d their e f f e c t s

Type of c o m p o u n d

Effects

Alkaloids

toxic, sometimes histamine-liberating

Anthraquinones

p r i m a r y irritant, especially w h e n ingested, rarely sensitising

B e n z o - and n a p h t h o -

s e n s i t i s i n g , in h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t

quinones Catechols

strong sensitisers, p r i m a r y irritants

Flavonoids

c a r d i a c e f f e c t s , i n c r e a s e o f b l o o d p r e s s u r e , p u r g a t i v e , sel-

Furocoumarins

p h o t o t o x i c , seldom sensitising

Glycosides Minerals

mainly cardiac e f f e c t s

Phenols

primary irritant, sensitising

Saponins

haemolytic, irritant

Sesquiterpene lactones

sensitising, also irritant

Stilbenes

s e n s i t i s i n g , a l s o i r r i t a n t ( s u s p e c t e d t o be c a r c i n o g e n i c )

Terpenes

sensitising, also irritant

d o m sensitising

p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t by m e c h a n i c a l a c t i o n

W h i l e t o x i c r e a c t i o n s , s y s t e m i c e f f e c t s a n d c a r d i a c s y m p t o m s a r e m a i n l y c a u s e d by alkaloids, f l a v o n o i d s a n d glycosides, the principal allergens of w h i c h m o s t are p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t s in h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , are b e n z o - a n d n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s a n d p h e n o l i c c o m p o u n d s ( i n c l u d i n g t h e c a t e c h o l s ) . T h e l a t t e r are easily o x i d i s e d t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g q u i n o n e s in t h e s k i n . Sensitising

catechols,

are mainly

f o u n d in t h e A n a c a r d i a c e a e

dron

which

are the m o s t

L . ) , P o i s o n o a k ( R h u s radicans

potent

sensitisers f r o m natural

f a m i l y , e . g . in P o i s o n ivy (Rhus

sources, toxicoden-

L . ) , J a p a n e s e l a c q u e r t r e e ( R h u s vernicifera

a n d a r e well k n o w n in t h e f a m i l y of P r o t e a c e a e a n d G i n k g o a c e a e .

DC)

Wood chemistry

23

D u r i n g p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e skin the c a t e c h o l s are e n z y m i c a l l y o x i d i s e d t o the c o r r e s p o n d i n g p e n t a d e c y l - q u i n o n e s . H o w e v e r , as s o u r c e of o c c u p a t i o n a l c o n t a c t allergy in w o o d w o r k e r s t h e i r role is relatively m i n o r d u e t o the f a c t t h a t o n l y a few m e m b e r s of t h e s e f a m i l i e s , e.g. E s p a v e l (Anacardium fraxinifolium contomelum

excelsum

Skeels), G o n ^ a l o alves (A

S c h o t t ) , Q u e b r a c h o ( S c h i n o p s i s balansae

stronium

Engl.) a n d D a o (=Paldao)(Z)ra-

dao Merrill & R o l f e ) are t i m b e r s of c o m m e r c i a l v a l u e .

T h e o c c u r r e n c e of a l l e r g y - i n d u c i n g q u i n o n e s is n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o o n e or t w o f a m i l i e s but widely distributed among Bignoniaceae, Boraginaceae, Ebenaceae, Leguminosae e t c . T h e r e s u l t s of r e c e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d clinical o b s e r v a t i o n s have revealed t h a t q u i n o n e s are increasingly i m p o r t a n t e t i o l o g i c a l a g e n t s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r o c c u p a t i o n a l woodworker's dermatitis. E x a m p l e s of

t o x i c , i r r i t a n t and sensitising w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s n o t f u r t h e r m e n t i o n e d

in t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s a n d the S y s t e m a t i c review are given in T a b l e 4 .

R e t u r n i n g t o the Immunological

aspects

it m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t e v i d e n c e is ac-

c u m u l a t i n g t h a t s t i m u l a t o r cells such as L a n g e r h a n s cells in t h e e p i d e r m i s and m a c r o p h a g e s in t h e d e r m i s p l a y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t role in allergic c o n t a c t allergy. It is und o u b t e d l y clear t h a t t h e b o u n d f o r e i g n s u b s t a n c e - the low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t allergenis p r e s e n t e d to t h e i m m u n e c o m p e t e n t cell - the T l y m p h o c y t e - d u r i n g cell-to-cell app o s i t i o n and t h a t t h e p r e s e n t e d ' h a p t e n - s u r f a c e antigen c o m p l e x ' is r e c o g n i s e d as 'altered-self'. B i n d i n g of t h e c o n t a c t allergen t o the D / D R s u r f a c e antigen of t h e L a n g e r h a n s cells is t h e basic p r e s u p p o s i t i o n f o r the i n d u c t i o n of an allergy of t h e d e l a y e d t y p e . T h e c o n j u g a t i o n t a k e s place m o r e easily the m o r e reactive t h e c a p t u r e d c o m p o u n d is. Quin o n e s are highly reactive c h e m i c a l s u b s t a n c e s . N u c l e o p h i l i c a t t a c k on u n s u b s t i t u t e d c a r b o n a t o m s of t h e q u i n o n e ring in b e n z o - a n d n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s

o c c u r s w i t h SH-

a n d N H 2 " g r o u p s of t h e a m i n o acids f o r m i n g t h e h i s t o c o m p a t i b i l i t y a n t i g e n s of the L a n g e r h a n s cells and m a c r o p h a g e s ( D / D R a n t i g e n s ) . Based o n t h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g it is o b v i o u s t h a t o n l y t h o s e b e n z o - a n d n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s h a v i n g at least o n e f r e e q u i n o n e p o s i t i o n m a y f u n c t i o n as p r i m a r y sensitisers ( i n d u c tors).

W h e n all p o s i t i o n s are b l o c k e d by s u b s t i t u e n t s c o n j u g a t i o n t o t h e cell s u r f a c e

a n t i g e n s is i n h i b i t e d or n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e . Clinical o b s e r v a t i o n s and r e s u l t s f r o m a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t s with k n o w n p l a n t and w o o d b e n z o q u i n o n e s have d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t p r e f e r r e d sites of n u c l e o p h i l i c a t t a c k o n benz o q u i n o n e rings are p o s i t i o n s 3 and 5 , d e p e n d e n t on t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s in p o s i t i o n s 2 and 6 . F o r e x a m p l e in p r i m i n , w h e r e t h e g r o u p in C-6 is a m e t h o x y - g r o u p a n d t h e c h a i n at C-2 is n - p e n t y l ( C j H j j ) , p o s i t i o n 5 is m o r e e l e c t r o p h i l i c ( w h i l e p o s i t i o n 3 is h i n d e r e d by the C ^ H j j - g r o u p ) t h a n f o r e x a m p l e in a c o m p o u n d w i t h a h y d r o x y - g r o u p at t h i s site ( d r a w i n g o n page 26).

24

W o o d chemistry

Renahol

o = f

Laccol

R

Gl utarenghol

Cardol

C a t e c h o l s R = C15H27

H O

and

H 15 29

° C 1 7 H 31 R = C 1 ? H 33

in Anacardiaceae R . C17H28

; 8 , 1 1 , 1 3 and 8,11,14

side chains in Poison i v y and Poison Rhus toxicodendron L . ,

trienyl

oak

R.verni c i fera DC,

R.radicans L. and R . d i v e r s i l o b a TORR. et A.GRAY

C o u m a r i

ns

(Rutaceae)

Psoralene

(R =

8-Methylpsoralene

(R = CH.)

H)

Xanthotoxin

(R = OCH,)

Xanthyletin

(R «

Xanthoxyletin

(R = OCHj)

H)

O R S t i 1 b e n e s

H O

(Moraceae)

O R ,

O R '

Maclurin

2,3',4,5'-Tetrahydroxystilbene P t e r o s t i l b e n e (R = CH3, Rj = H)

Maclura pomi fera RAF. (Osage orange) Chlorophora t i n c t o r i a GAUD. 0 II

H

0

t ^ ti

S

11

i

Table 4

C O , Calcium oxalate

Embelin

c

i

Q Q ~

A r d i s i a macrocarpa MALL. O H

0 Qu

(Fustic)

Rapanone R

(R=H,Rj=OH)

Rapane« maximowiczii

KOIDZ.

(Myrsinaceae)

M i n e r a l ( i n v a r i o u s wood s p e c i e s )

n o n e s

C h e m i c a l structures o f toxic, irritant and sensitising w o o d constituents not r e p e a t e d in the f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s

Wood chemistry

S k i n and mucosa

irritant

H O

25

O H

A n t h r o n e s Vateirea g u i a n e n s i s AUBL. (Quassia wood, Gele kabbes)

H J C O

II

(Leguminosae-Papi1ionaceae)

0

Chrysophanol-9-anthrone (R = H) Physcion-9-anthrone

Physcion-10 -anthrone

(R = 0CH 3 )

C H H 3 C - |NS |- ÇC - -0 0 > ^ s ,

A l k a l o i d s

H

(Rj=0CH 3 , R 2 =0H) Balfourodendron

.„ . . (Rutaceae)

c

C H ,

(Euphorbiaceae)

p o i s o n s

Strychnine Strychnos spc. (Loganiaceae)

O H

RJ= CH 2 0H

g - S t r o p h a n t h 1 d i n - Ouabagenin Acokanthera venenata G.DOW. (1,1% i n heartwood)

Table 4

(Apocynaceae)

C h e m i c a l structures of toxic, irritant and sensitising w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s n o t r e p e a t e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r s

,

Hippomane mancinella L.

r i e d e l i a n u m ENGL.

A r r o w

3

3

Physostigmine

F l i n d e r s i n e ( R j = H, R ? = H) F l i n d e r s i a a u s t r a l i s R.BR. 4-lsobalfourodine

I

26

Wood chemistry

0

0

p-benzoquinone

o-benzoquinone

In o r f / i o - q u i n o n e s l i k e 3 - p e n t a d e c y l - o - q u i n o n e t h e c a r b o n y l g r o u p s a n d t h e s i d e c h a i n direct nucleophiles to C-5. S t r u c t u r e - s e n s i t i s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p studies have also revealed t h a t the length of t h e side c h a i n in b e n z o - a n d n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s g e n e r a l l y h a s a m a r k e d i n f l u e n c e o n t h e s e n s i t i sing p o w e r o f t h e c o m p o u n d . S t u d i e s w i t h P o i s o n ivy c a t e c h o l s h a v e l e d t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t an o p t i m u m

sensiti-

s i n g e f f e c t is e x p e c t e d in q u i n o n e s w i t h a s i d e c h a i n l e n g t h o f a b o u t 1 1 c a r b o n

atoms.

S h o r t e n i n g o r l e n g t h e n i n g r e d u c e s t h e s e n s i t i s i n g c a p a c i t y . A s all n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g q u i n o n e s isolated u p to n o w either possess a s h o r t e r side c h a i n , e.g. p r i m i n ( C $ H j j ) o r l o n g e r c h a i n s , e . g . r a p a n o n e (C 2 3 H 2 7 ) o r a r e o t h e r w i s e d i m i n i s h e d in t h e i r r e a c t i v i t y , e . g . e m b e l i n (C j 2 ^ 3 ) b y its h y d r o x y - g r o u p in C - 6 , t h e s y n t h e t i c p e n t a d e c y l - b e n z o q u i n o n e s are t h e o n l y o n e s t h a t a p p r o a c h t o the ideal s t r u c t u r e of an o p t i m u m eff e c t i v e c o n t a c t allergen. I n d e e d , the c a t e c h o l s respectively t h e i r o x i d i s e d p r o d u c t s are the strongest sensitisers k n o w n .

It m a y

be i m a g i n e d , t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e of a q u i n o n e a p p r o a c h e s the ideal f o r m of a

s e n s i t i s e r w h e n it h a s a r e a c t i v e ' h e a d ' ( t h e q u i n o n e r i n g ) a n d a l i p o p h i l i c ' t a i l ' ( a s i d e chain

of

11-13 carbon

a t o m s ) , b e c a u s e t h e l a t t e r a n c h o r s t h e s e n s i t i s e r in t h e l i p i d

l a y e r o f t h e c e l l m e m b r a n e w h i l e the q u i n o n e ring w i t h i t s r e a c t i v e s i t e s ( C = C d o u b l e b o n d s ) is p r e s e n t e d t o t h e ' a n t i g e n b i n d i n g s i t e s ' o f t h e s u r f a c e a n t i g e n s ( D / D R

anti-

g e n ) of t h e s t i m u l a t o r cells ( F i g u r e 6). Among

the sensitising q u i n o n o i d c o n s t i t u e n t s of c o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r s

(DOL) from Teak

deoxylapachol

is o n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t o n e s . I t s f o r m u l a f i t s w e l l i n t o

the

h y p o t h e s i s o n s t r u c t u r e - s e n s i t i s i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s : t h e C - 3 o f t h e q u i n o n e r i n g is available f o r nucleophilic

attack

e p i d e r m a l L a n g e r h a n s cells.

of SH- a n d N l ^ - g r o u p s

of the H L A - D / D R

antigens of

Wood chemistry

Figure 6

27

S e n s i t i s i n g c o m p o u n d w i t h i t s s i d e c h a i n a n c h o r e d in t h e l i p i d l a y e r o f t h e cell m e m b r a n e o f a s t i m u l a t o r c e l l p r e s e n t i n g i t s r e a c t i v e s i t e s ( ' h e a d ' ) t o the antigen binding sites of the D / D R surface antigen

D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e s s t h e q u i n o n e is r e d u c e d a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y o x i d i s e d , e . g . b y a i r , as s h o w n in F i g u r e 7 . L a p a c h o l , d i f f e r i n g f r o m D O L o n l y b y a n a d d i t i o n a l O H - g r o u p , is n o t a b l e t o f u n c tion

as a p r i m a r y

sensitiser ( i n d u c t o r ) d u e to t h e h y d r o x y l g r o u p at C-3. (If

the

' b l o c k i n g g r o u p ' w a s O C H j , C I , O A c o r o - p h o s p h a t e , e t c . it c o u l d b e r e p l a c e d b y S H o r N H 2 " g r o u p s ) . T h o u g h L a p a c h o l o c c u r s in m a r k e d l y h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in T e a k t h a n D O L a t t e m p t s t o s e n s i t i s e g u i n e a p i g s w i t h it h a v e f a i l e d . L a p a c h o l c a n o n l y be c o n s i d e r e d as a ' s e c o n d a r y a l l e r g e n ' ( e l i c i t o r ) t h a t is a b l e t o e l i c i t s k i n r e s p o n s e s in ind i v i d u a l s ( o r g u i n e a p i g s ) p r i m a r i l y s e n s i t i s e d by T e a k , i . e . i t s c o n s t i t u e n t

deoxylapa-

c h o l , b u t it will a l w a y s f a i l t o i n d u c e c o n t a c t s e n s i t i v i t y . Evidence for these remarkable

d i f f e r e n c e s is s h o w n

by t h e f a c t t h a t skin

reactions

w i t h D O L are a l w a y s 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 t i m e s s t r o n g e r t h a n w i t h l a p a c h o l at e q u a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . T h u s it b e c o m e s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e , t h a t f u l l y s u b s t i t u t e d b e n z o - a n d

naphthoqui-

n o n e s m a y o n l y f u n c t i o n as p r i m a r y s e n s i t i s e r s ( i n d u c t o r s ) in t h e c a s e t h e y p o s s e s s a free position or a slightly separable g r o u p at the q u i n o n e ring. ( A n t h r a q u i n o n e s m a y possibly

be

changed

by

b e n z o - or n a p h t h o q u i n o n e

patterns

of m e t a b o l i c

structure).

d e v i a t i o n , e.g. a f t e r ingestion, to a

28

Wood chemistry

Figure 7 N u c l e o p h i l i c a t t a c k on d e o x y l a p a c h o l during i n d u c t i o n of c o n t a c t sensitivity; Nu = Nucleophile Cross-reactivities b e t w e e n chemically related q u i n o n e s derived f r o m plants and w o o d s h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d in s e n s i t i s e d i n d i v i d u a l s ( s e e

Brazilian r o s e w o o d , P a o ferro) and

also e x p e r i m e n t a l l y in g u i n e a p i g s ( S c h u l z e t al. 1 9 7 7 , 1 9 7 9 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s e s t u dies c r o s s - r e a c t i v i t i e s e x i s t b e t w e e n p r i m i n , d e o x y l a p a c h o l , v a r i o u s d a l b e r g i o n e s , m a n s o n o n e s and other q u i n o n e s . 2-dimethylallyl-benzoquinone derived from the Mediterr a n e a n w e e d Phagnalon

saxatile

(L.) Cass, possesses similar sensitising capacities a n d

c r o s s - r e a c t s w i t h o t h e r q u i n o n o i d c o m p o u n d s as well ( H a u s e n 1 9 7 7 ) (see F i g u r e 5 , p . 20).

Q u i n o n e s o f the b e n z o - a n d n a p h t h o q u i n o n e - t y p e , w h i c h are s u s p e c t e d to induce sens i t i s a t i o n , c a n be d e t e c t e d in w o o d e x t r a c t s a f t e r t h i n - l a y e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h i c s e p a r a t i o n b y s p r a y i n g t h e p l a t e s w i t h C r a v e n - s o l u t i o n , g i v i n g well d e f i n e d c o l o u r r e a c t i o n s with q u i n o n e s . T h e Craven-test is p e r f o r m e d by m i x i n g e q u a l a m o u n t s ( v / v ) o f a b s o l u t e e t h a n o l a n d a m m o n i a ( 2 5 %) t o w h i c h 3 - 5 d r o p s o f e t h y l c y a n o - a c e t a t e a r e a d d e d s h o r t l y b e f o r e u s e . T h e s o l u t i o n is s p r a y e d o r p o u r e d on t h e p l a t e s giving b l u e t o g r e e n c o l o u r r e a c t i o n s a f t e r a f e w s e c o n d s in t h e p r e s e n c e of m o r e t h a n 5 fig of t h e q u i n o n e .

Wood chemistry

29

In c o n c l u s i o n , b e n z o - a n d n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s , d e t e c t e d in c o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r s , with at least o n e u n s u b s t i t u t e d c a r b o n atom in the q u i n o n e ring (positive CraVen-test) and an alkyl side chain m u s t u n d o u b t e d l y be c o n s i d e r e d as p o t e n t i a l l y s t r o n g c o n t a c t allergens.

F o r all those w h o are specially interested in n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g q u i n o n e s the excellent b o o k of T h o m s o n ( 1 9 7 1 ) is r e c o m m e n d e d .

References C r a v e n , R . : J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 3 1), 1605 H a u s e n , B.M.: P l a n t a m e d . 3 2 , 2 8 7 ( 1 9 7 7 ) S c h u l z , K.H. et al;: A r c h . D e r m . R e s . 2 5 8 , 4 1 ( 1 9 7 7 ) S c h u l z , K . H . et al.: A r c h . D e r m . R e s . 2 6 4 , 275 ( 1 9 7 9 ) T h o m s o n , R . H . : N a t u r a l l y occurring q u i n o n e s . Academic Press: L o n d o n , N.Y. 1 97 1

Animal experiments D e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n on the relationship b e t w e e n c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e and sensitising c a p a c i t y can only be o b t a i n e d in animal e x p e r i m e n t s . D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e sensitising p o t e n c y of e c z e m a t e o u s w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s is p r e f e r a b l y carried o u t on guinea pigs. T h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l animal m o d e l is suitable e i t h e r f o r t h e e x a m i n a t i o n of isolated p u r e c o m p o u n d s or f o r c r u d e w o o d e x t r a c t s . F o r this p u r p o s e

t h r e e sensitisation m e t h o d s are available: the o p e n

epicutaneous

m e t h o d ( O E T ) , the m a x i m i s a t i o n test ( G P M T - guinea pig m a x i m i s a t i o n test) (Magn u s s o n & Kligman 1 9 7 0 ) and t h e o p t i m i s a t i o n test ( M a u r e r et al. 1 9 7 5 ) . Usually the O E T and the m a x i m i s a t i o n test are used in o u r l a b o r a t o r y . Male or f e m a l e , b u t n o t m i x e d albino guinea pigs of t h e Pirbright white strain (or an a d e q u a t e strain which m a y be easily sensitised with low m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t s u b s t a n c e s ) are u s e d , fed with pellets of a special animal f o o d and w a t e r ad

libitum.

W o o d shavings or w o o d d u s t s are e x t r a c t e d at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e (or by c a r e f u l heating to 4 0 - 6 0 ° C )

with e t h a n o l , c h l o r o f o r m , e t h e r or e t h y l a c e t a t e for at least 24 h.

In cases where the w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s are s u f f i c i e n t l y stable a h o t e x t r a c t i o n ( in a S o x h l e t a p p a r a t u s ) yields higher a m o u n t s of the sensitising c o n s t i t u e n t s . The filtered e x t r a c t is e v a p o r a t e d to d r y n e s s (at r e d u c e d t e m p e r a t u r e ) and the residue dissolved in a c e t o n e , e t h a n o l or a m i x t u r e of e t h a n o l ( 4 5 %),

m e t h y l glycol M 8 5 9 (45 %) and

T w e e n 8 0 ( 1 0 %). Similar vehicles are used f o r p u r e c o m p o u n d s . C o n c e n t r a t i o n s e m p l o y e d f o r the open e p i c u t a n e o u s m e t h o d are s u b t o x i c or slightly t o x i c , i.e. weak p r i m a r y irritant reactions on the skin of u n t r e a t e d animals p r o d u c e d by a single a p p l i c a t i o n .

30

Animal experiments

In all o t h e r cases a 10 % c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f the w o o d e x t r a c t or c o m p o u n d is s u f f i c i e n t . P r e v i o u s to t h e s e n s i t i s a t i o n p r o c e d u r e t h r e s h o l d s of p r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n of t h e w o o d e x t r a c t s or p u r e c o m p o u n d s are d e t e r m i n e d by a single a p p l i c a t i o n o f at least t h r e e d i f f e r e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , e.g. 1 %, 3 % a n d 10 %, to the skin of u n t r e a t e d g u i n e a pigs. R e a d i n g s are carried o u t a f t e r 24 and 4 8 h o u r s . Open epicutaneous method (OET) 0 , 0 3 m l of t h e s o l u t i o n is a p p l i e d daily ( w e e k e n d s e x e m p t e d ) t o a 2 cm

t e s t area of

t h e c l i p p e d and s h a v e d f l a n k of the a n i m a l s a n d e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d by m e a n s of a glass r o d . A p p l i c a t i o n s are c o n t i n u e d f o r a p e r i o d of u p to t h r e e w e e k s b u t m a y be int e r r u p t e d s o o n e r if t h e r e is a s t r o n g i n f l a m m a t o r y r e a c t i o n ( + + + ) (see p . 15). T w o w e e k s a f t e r t h e e n d of t h e sensitising p r o c e d u r e c h a l l e n g e is carried o u t by epic u t a n e o u s a p p l i c a t i o n of 0 , 0 3 m l of 3 - 4 d i f f e r e n t s u b t o x i c ( n o n - p r i m a r y

irritant)

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of t h e w o o d e x t r a c t or i s o l a t e d f r a c t i o n or p u r e c o m p o u n d t o an of 2 cm

of t h e opposite

2 4 , 4 8 and 7 2 h o u r s at c o n s t a n t lightning ( F i g u r e 8).

Figure 8

area

f l a n k of the sensitised a n i m a l s . T h e r e a c t i o n s are read a f t e r

Allergic r e a c t i o n s o b t a i n e d a f t e r c h a l l e n g e w i t h p u r i f i e d isolated c o n s t i t u e n t s on t h e skin of a g u i n e a pig previously sensitised w i t h a c r u d e w o o d e x t r a c t f r o m w h i c h the c o n s t i t u e n t s were o b t a i n e d by c h r o m atographic separation

Animal experiments

31

T h e intensity of t h e o b t a i n e d r e a c t i o n s is e v a l u a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o the degree of r e d n e s s ( e r y t h e m a ) , swelling and e x u d a t i o n of the skin as described on page 15. In o u r l a b o r a t o r y t h e O E T has been used m o s t as it c o r r e s p o n d s closely to the n a t u r a l sensitisation c o n d i t i o n s of the h u m a n skin u n d e r the i n f l u e n c e of e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d occupational hazards.

M a x i m i s a t i o n test ( G P M T ) A r o w of three i n j e c t i o n s , six in all, are m a d e in the s h o u l d e r region of a clipped a n d shaved area of 4 x 6 cm where the f o l l o w i n g are a p p l i e d : 1. 0 , 0 5 ml of F r e u n d ' s a d j u v a n t w i t h o u t the allergen 2. 0 , 0 5 ml of the allergen in p h y s . saline or oil w i t h o u t F r e u n d ' s a d j u v a n t 3 . 0 , 0 5 ml of the allergen e m u l s i f i e d in F r e u n d ' s a d j u v a n t . I n j e c t i o n s are set i n t r a d e r m a l deep i n t o the dermis to minimise sloughing. Allergen c o n c e n t r a t i o n s vary f r o m 1 % to 25 %, usually b e t w e e n 5 and 1 0 %. Water-soluble allergens are dissolved in w a t e r , oil-soluble and p u r e s u b s t a n c e s are inc o r p o r a t e d into oil (e.g. p a r a f f i n ) p r i o r to e m u l s i f i c a t i o n . O n e week later topical a p p l i c a t i o n is carried o u t . 24 h o u r s b e f o r e a mild i n f l a m m a tory r e a c t i o n is p r o d u c e d by t r e a t m e n t with 10 % sodium lauryl sulfate in p e t r o l a t u m (vaseline) massaged i n t o the skin by a glass r o d . The allergen is spread over a 2 x 4 cm p a t c h of W h a t m a n N o . 3 MM filter p a p e r i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o p e t r o l a t u m or in 7 0 % e t h a nol t o s a t u r a t i o n . T h e p a t c h is covered by an overlapping strip of plastic t a p e a n d f i r m l y secured f o r 4 8 h o u r s by elastic adhesive plastic w o u n d a r o u n d the torso of the animal.

Challenge is carried o u t t w o weeks a f t e r the last e x p o s u r e using three d i f f e r e n t subtoxic c o n c e n t r a t i o n s by o p e n e p i c u t a n e o u s or closed p a t c h t e s t , and read a f t e r 2 4 , 4 8 and 7 2 h o u r s ( M a g n u s s o n & Kligman 1 9 7 0 ) . Mean response T h e m e a n response is t h e score calculated by s u m m i n g the n u m e r i c a l readings (see t h e right row p . 15) of all challenge c o n c e n t r a t i o n s and dividing this by the total n u m b e r of t r e a t e d animals.

References M a g n u s s o n , B., K l i g m a n , A.M.: Allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s in t h e guinea pig. C . C . T h o m a s : S p r i n g f i e l d , Illinois, 1 9 7 0 M a u r e r , T . et al.: A g e n t s and A c t i o n s 5, (1975)

32

Previous reviews

Previous reviews R e v i e w s on irritant a n d sensitising w o o d s a n d p l a n t s have been p u b l i s h e d f o r m o r e t h a n 100 y e a r s . One of the first and m o s t e x c e l l e n t reviews is W h i t e ' s ' D e r m a t i t i s ven e n a t a ' of 1 8 8 7 ; he was a p r o f e s s o r of D e r m a t o l o g y in B o s t o n . A r e c e n t well-docum e n t e d m o n o g r a p h is t h a t o f Woods & Calnan ( 1 9 7 6 ) . G e n e r a l l y , the reviews and m o n o g r a p h s w r i t t e n b e f o r e 1 9 3 0 are unreliable c o n c e r n i n g b o t a n i c a l n a m e s and c h e m i c a l s t r u c t u r e s . A l t h o u g h t h e y are p a r t i c u l a r l y u n c r i t i c a l a n d c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n both wood a n d p l a n t species t h e y have been listed in the f o l l o w i n g table ( T a b l e 5 ) . C e r t a i n reviews consist of little m o r e t h a n a list of toxic w o o d s , b u t they are i n c l u d e d f o r the b e n e f i t of t h o s e w h o are interested in o l d e r r e f e r e n c e s .

Table 5 1887

Reviews on t o x i c , irritant and sensitising w o o d and p l a n t species

1887

White, J.C. C o r n e v i n , C.

Des p l a n t e s vene'neuse. F i r m i n - D i d o t & Cie: Paris

Dermatitis venenata. Cupples & Hurd: Boston

1901

Koelsch,F.

Z s c h r . G e w e r b e h y g . Unfallverhiit. 2 3 , 6 2 2

1901

B re tin, P.M.

C o n t r i b u t i o n ^ l ' i t u d e de l'origine ve'ge'tale de

1910

Grossmann, J.

B a y e r . I n d . G e w e r b e b l . 9 6 , 51 Der H o l z k ä u f e r 1 0 0 - 1 0 3 , 5 2 9 - 545 ( 1 9 2 0 )

1912

Brezina, E.

I n t e r n a t i o n a l e Ü b e r s i c h t über G e w e r b e k r a n k h e i t e n

certaine d e r m a t i t e s . Thesis: L y o n

in: T e l e k y , L . ( e d . ) : Wiener A r b e i t e n aus dem Gebiet d e r sozialen Medizin. A . H ö l d e r : V i e n n a 1914

Cleland, J.B.

Plants, including f u n g i , p o i s o n o u s or o t h e r w i s e i n j u r i o u s to m a n in A u s t r a l i a . A u s t r . M e d . G a z . 3 5 , 541 and 5 6 9 Med.J.Austr. 1 2 , 4 4 3 (1925) M e d . J . A u s t r . ( 1 9 3 1 ) , 775

1914

Schreiber, E.

Über h a u t r e i z e n d e H ö l z e r . Thesis: Berlin

1922

Ridley, H.N.

J . t r o p . M e d . H y g . 2 5 , 225

1926

Broers, H.

publ.: B e r . d t s c h . p h a r m . G e s . 2 4 , 3 8 5 in: Die S c h ä d i g u n g der H a u t durch Beruf u n d gewerbliche A r b e i t . E d . K. U l l m a n n et al. Verlag L. V o s s : Leipzig, V o l . 2, 5 0 9 1926

Touton, K.

Zbl.Haut Geschlkrkh. 1 7 , 7 1 3

1928

L e w i n , L.

Gifte u n d V e r g i f t u n g e n . 4 . B o o k :

1932

F r e i s e , F.W.

A r c h . G e w e r b e h y g . & - p a t h o l . 3, 1

Zbl.Haut Geschlkrkh. 20, 833 5. u n c h a n g e d e d i t i o n , K . F . H a u g : U l m , 1 9 6 2 S a m m l . V e r g i f t u n g s f ä l l e C 7, 1 ( 1 9 3 6 )

P r e v i o u s reviews

33

S a m m l . Vergiftungsfälle C 7, 61 ( 1 9 3 6 ) S a m m l . V e r g i f t u n g s f ä l l e C 8 , 13 ( 1 9 3 7 ) 1933

Senear, F.E.

JAMA 101, 1527

1934

Rasch, H.

I n t . L a b o r . O f f . 2, 6 8 0 and Hyg.Trav. 22, 1 ( 1 9 2 5 )

1935

B a r d e l , S.

Les d e r m a t o s e s par bois t o x i q u e s . T h e s i s : Paris

1937

Weber, L.F.

A r c h . D e r m . 35, 129

1943

Allen, P.H.

1944

Arnold, H.L.

1948

Webb, L.J.

1951

M u e n s c h e r , W.C.

Arch.Derm. 67, 388 (1953) Am.J.trop.Med. 23, 1 P o i s o n o u s p l a n t s of H a w a i i . T o n g g P u b l . C o m p . : Honolulu G u i d e t o t h e m e d i c i n a l a n d p o i s o n o u s p l a n t s of Queensland. Coun.Sci.Ind.Res.Bull. 232, 1 (Melb.) P o i s o n o u s p l a n t s of the U n i t e d S t a t e s .

C o n o r , H .E.

MacMillan C o : N e w Y o r k P o i s o n o u s p l a n t s in N e w Z e a l a n d . D e p t S c i . l n d . R e s . N . Z . B u l l . N o . 11 : W e l l i n g t o n , N . Z . Holz als R o h - W e r k s t o f f 14 , 3 7 and 8 7

1956 1957

S a n d e r m a n n , W et al S c h w a r t z , L . e t al.

1958

G o t t w a l d , H.

Handelshölzer. F.Holzmann: Hamburg

1959

Koelsch, F.

H a n d b u c h der Berufskrankheiten. 2nd ed.

1961

M o r s , W.B. et al.

Die i n d u s t r i e l l v e r w e r t b a r e n P f l a n z e n Brasiliens.

1962

W o o d s , B.

T r a n s . S t . J o h n ' s H o s p . D e r m . S o c . 4 8 , 75

1966

B e h l , P . N . e t al.

S k i n - i r r i t a n t and s e n s i t i z i n g p l a n t s f o u n d in I n d i a .

1968

L a m p e , K . F . et al.

P l a n t t o x i c i t y and d e r m a t i t i s . Williams & W i l k i n s :

1969

R o o k , A . et al.

T e x t b o o k of D e r m a t o l o g y . B l a c k w e l l S c i . P u b l . :

1970

F o u s s e r e a u , J . et al.

O c c u p a t i o n a l diseases of t h e s k i n . 3 r d e d . Lea & F e b i g e r : P h i l a d e l p h i a

Fischer: Jena Bras. H a n d e l s k a m m e r : S a o P a u l o

P.N.Behl: New Delhi, private printing Baltimore Oxford L e s ecze'mas allergiques p r o f e s s i o n n e l s . Masson & Cie: Paris 1971

Morton, J.F.

P l a n t s p o i s o n o u s to p e o p l e . F a i r c h i l d T r o p i c a l

1972

R o m a n - P a r i s , B.

C o n t r i b u t i o n à l'e'tude de la p a t h o l o g i e due a u x

Schuerkaemper, H.

Allergie d u r c h t r o p i s c h e H ö l z e r . T h e s i s : M u n i c h

H a u s e n , B.M.

Holzarten mit gesundheitsschädigenden Inhalts-

Garden: Florida; 2nd ed. 1977 bois. T h e s i s : Marseille 1973

s t o f f e n . 1st e d . D R W - V e r l a g : S t u t t g a r t (References published privately 1973) 1976

Castagne, D.

D e r m a t o s e s p r o f e s s i o n n e l l e s p r o v o q u é e s par les bois t r o p i c a u x . Thesis: B o r d e a u x

34

P r e v i o u s r e v i e w s , S y s t e m a t i c review

1976

W o o d s , B. e t a l .

Toxic w o o d s . Brit.J.Derm. 9 5 , Suppl. 13, 1

1978

B e l l i , S . e t al.

Ann.Ist.Super.Sanita

1979

M i t c h e l l , J . C . e t al.

Botanical Dermatology. Greengrass: Vancouver

II.

14,819

S y s t e m a t i c review o f irritant, t o x i c a n d sensitising w o o d s p e c i e s o f c o m m e r c i a l value

F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g review of t o x i c , irritant and sensitising w o o d species some general r e f e r e n c e s h a v e b e e n u s e d t h a t are n o t f u r t h e r m e n t i o n e d in d e t a i l in t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h single t i m b e r . E x t e r n a l c o m p o u n d s a n d s o l v e n t s such a s d y e s , g l u e s , v a r n i s h e s , w o o d

preservatives

and o t h e r m a t e r i a l applied to w o o d after c u t t i n g , and t h u s being n o t of n a t u r a l origin are n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .

Anonymous

I n f o r m a t i o n s d i e n s t Holz. E d i t e d by Verein D e u t s c h e r H o l z e i n f u h r h ä u s e r : H a m b u r g , since 1 9 7 2 ( F l o w sheet c o l l e c t i o n )

Anonymous

F ö r d e r u n g a f r i k a n i s c h e r T r o p e n h ö l z e r . P u b l i s h e d by the C o m m o n M a r k e t : Brussels 1977

B o l z a , E . e t al

African timbers. CSIRO: Melbourne

D a h m s , K.-G.

Afrikanische Exporthölzer. DRW-Verlag: Stuttgart

Farmer, R.H.

A h a n d b o o k o f h a r d w o o d s . 2nd e d . H M S O : L o n d o n

G o t t w a l d , H.

Handelshölzer. F.Holzmann: Hamburg

Krauth, E.H.

Holznamenverzeichnis. Th. Nagel: H a m b u r g

M e n i a d o , J . A . e t al.

T i m b e r s of t h e P h i l i p p i n e s .

1972 1968 1972

1958

1 st e d i t i o n

G o v . Printing O f f i c e : Manila P a l u t a n , E.

1974

1974

M o n o g r a f i e di l e g n i c o n c a m p i o n i di v e r o l e g n o . Palutan Editrice: Milano 1975

P e a r s o n , F . G . O . e t al

T i m b e r s used in t h e m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t i n d u s t r y . Forest Products Research L a b o r a t o r y : Princes Risborough England 1967

T i t m u s s , F .H.

C o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r s of the w o r l d . 3 r d e d . Technical Press: L o n d o n

1965

Systematic review

Mitragyna

cilia ta A u b r . & P e l l .

Mitragyna

stipulo

35

Abura

sa Q K u n t z e

Bahia

(Naucleaceae)

Subaha

West A f r i c a n t i m b e r , mainly f r o m Nigera, G h a n a and Zaire for general p u r p o s e s , medium

weight

and small dimensions, used

instead of Alder. U n i f o r m l y light

yellow-

b r o w n , plain a p p e a r a n c e . Used for d r a w e r sides, f r a m e s , shop-fittings, e x t e n s i v e l y f o r f i t t i n g a n d d e c o r a t i v e m o u l d i n g s , o t h e r i n t e r i o r w o r k s a n d f o r j o i n e r y . In t h e N e t h e r lands used f r e q u e n t l y for m a n u f a c t u r i n g of clogs. T h e f i n e s a w d u s t h a s i r r i t a n t p r o p e r t i e s . O c c a s i o n a l l y c o m p l a i n t s of d e r m a t i t i s , nasal a n d m u c o s a l i r r i t a t i o n h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d in N i g e r i a n w o r k e r s ( T i t m u s s 1 9 6 5 , W o o d s 1 9 7 6 ) , also v o m i t i n g h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d ( H e r i n g 1 9 6 6 , W a g e n f ü h r 1 9 6 1 ) . T h e c a u s a l f a c t o r s are u n k n o w n , p o s s i b l y t h e o x i n d o l e a l k a l o i d s isolated by S h e l l a r d e t a l . ( 1 9 7 4 ) a r e i n v o l v e d in t h e i r r i t a n t a n d p o i s o n i n g p r o p e r t i e s o f A b u r a .

References Hering, H.: Derm.Wschr. 152, 8 0 7 ( 1 9 6 6 ) S h e l l a r d , E . J . et al.: P l a n t a m e d . 2 5 , 8 0 and 172 ( 1 9 7 4 ) T i t m u s s , F. H . C o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r s o f t h e w o r l d . T e c h . P r e s s : L o n d o n 1 9 6 5 Wagenführ, R.: Möbel und Wohnraum 4, 120 (1961) W o o d s , B. et a l . : B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 1 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Per ico p sis elata

van Meuven

Afrormosia

( L e g u m i n . -Papillon.)

Kokrodua Asamela

Native to West A f r i c a b e t w e e n Ivory Coast and Zaire. T i m b e r of good a p p e a r a n c e and strength properties. Used for exterior and interior w o r k , boat-building, j o i n e r y , furn i t u r e , f l o o r i n g , f r a m i n g , m a r i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , a n d as d e c o r a t i v e v e n e e r

in f u r n i t u r e .

A f r o r m o s i a is s a i d t o b e l o n g t o t h e w o o d s w h i c h i r r i t a t e t h e s k i n ( H u b l e t 1 9 7 2 , O l e f f e 1 9 7 3 , O r s l e r 1 9 6 9 ) . P o s i t i v e p a t c h t e s t s in p a t i e n t s h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i s e d b y S c h l e i cher ( 1 9 7 4 ) , and Woods & Calnan ( 1 9 7 6 ) . Marweg ( 1 9 6 8 ) isolated and

N-methylcytisine.

three alkaloids f r o m the w o o d , t w o of t h e m being cytisine Both

paralytic s y m p t o m s observed

have

been

incriminated

in a p a t i e n t ( H a u s e n

for causing cramps and 1973). Furthermore

other

afrormosin

(= 7 - h y d r o x y - 6 , 4 ' - d i m e t h o x y i s o f l a v o n e ) h a s b e e n f o u n d in t h e t r e e ( M c M u r r y

1960).

S e n s i t i s a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s in g u i n e a p i g s u s i n g t h e O E T w e r e s u c c e s s f u l . T h e r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s a r e n o t k n o w n , t h o u g h 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y b e n z o q u i n o n e c o u l d be isolated wood).

from

the w o o d , which m a y

f u n c t i o n as a s e n s i t i s e r ( s e e

Australian

black-

36

S y s t e m a t i c review

N-R II 0

R = H R = CH3

Cytisine N-methylcytisine

References Hausen, B.M.: Holzarten m i t gesundheitsschädigenden Inhaltsstoffen. DRW-Verlag: Stuttgart 1973 H u b l e t , P. e t al.: A r c h . B e l g . M e d . S o c . H y g . 3 8 , 3 1 4 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Marweg, C.: unpublished results, Hamburg

1968

M c M u r r y , T . B . H . et a k . : J . c h e m . S o c . (1 9 6 0 ) , 1 4 9 1 O l e f f e , J . e t al.: R e v . f r a n c . A l l e r g o l . 1 3 , 6 5 ( 1 9 7 3 ) Orsler, R.J.: Timberlab. Papers N o . 1 1 , 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) Schleicher, H.: Derm.Mschr. 160, 433 ( 1 9 7 4 ) W o o d s , B . et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , Suppl. 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Afzelia africana SM A. bipindensis A. bella

Afzelia

Harms

Doussie"

Harms

A. bachyloba A. quanzensis

Lingue'

Harms

Apa

Welw.

(Legumin. - Caesalpin.) N a t i v e t o W e s t a n d C e n t r a l A f r i c a . N o d i s t i n c t i o n is m a d e b e t w e e n t h e d i f f e r e n t s p e cies of Afzelia c o m m e r c i a l l y . A f z e l i a is a h e a v y t i m b e r w i t h o u t s t a n d i n g s t a b i l i t y a n d d u r a b i l i t y , u s e d f o r s t a i r c a s e s , d o o r a n d i n d o o r f r a m e s , u n d e r f r a m e s o f r o a d a n d r a i l w a y w a g o n s , w o o d e n f l o o r s as w e l l as f o r d e c o r a t i v e f l o o r s f o r p e d e s t r i a n t r a f f i c . N o t r e c o m m e n d e d f o r k i t c h e n

and

l a u n d r y u s e b e c a u s e it m a y s t a i n f a b r i c s u n d e r m o i s t c o n d i t i o n s d u e t o i t s y e l l o w d y e stuff. D e r m a t i t i s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d several t i m e s ( D a n t i n - G a l e g o 1 9 5 2 , K o e l s c h mond

1959, Ray-

1 9 5 9 ) . In W e s t A f r i c a s k i n r e a c t i o n s , n a s a l i r r i t a t i o n a n d s n e e s i n g c a u s e d by the

fine d u s t have been o b s e r v e d . T h e responsible agents are u n k n o w n . B l e u m i n k ( 1 9 7 4 ) s a w t h r e e p o s i t i v e p a t c h t e s t s w i t h A f z e l i a in w o o d w o r k e r s . S e n s i t i s a t i o n o f g u i n e a p i g s u s i n g the O E T w a s s u c c e s s f u l ( H a u s e n

1978).

S y s t e m a t i c review

37

References B l e u m i n k , E . et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 ) D a n t i n - G a l e g o , J . et al.: I n d . M e d . S u r g . 2 1 , 4 1 ( 1 9 5 2 ) H a u s e n , B.M. : C o n t a c t Derm. 4, 204 ( 1 9 7 8 ) H u b l e t , P. et al.: A r c h . B e l g . M e d . S o c . H y g . 3 8 , 3 1 4 ( 1 9 7 2 ) K o e l s c h , F . : H a n d b u c h der B e r u f s k r a n k h e i t e n . 2 n d e d . F i s c h e r : J e n a 1 9 5 9 O l e f f e , J . et al.: R e v . f r a n c . A l l e r g o l . 13, 6 5 ( 1 9 7 3 ) R a y m o n d , V . : R e v . P r a c t . (Paris) 9, 2 6 3 8 ( 1 9 5 9 )

Gossweilerodendron

balsam if era H a r m s

Agba

(Legumin.- Caesalpin.)

Tola Tola branca

M a i n l y e x p o r t e d f r o m N i g e r i a , C a m e r o o n , P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c of C o n g o , A n g o l a and Z a i r e to E u r o p e . T i m b e r f o r g e n e r a l p u r p o s e s , l i g h t . J o i n e r y w o o d f o r i n t e r i o r and e x t e r i o r u s e s , freq u e n t l y u s e d as an a l t e r n a t i v e f o r O a k . Skin i r r i t a t i o n s

have been d e s c r i b e d . T h e w o o d is g e n e r a l l y said to be i n j u r i o u s to

h e a l t h . T w o p a t i e n t s with d e r m a t i t i s p a t c h t e s t e d by W o o d s ( 1 9 7 6 ) gave positive rea c t i o n s to A g b a . T h e causal f a c t o r s are u n k n o w n . References A n o n y m o u s : i n t e r n . H o l z m a r k t 17/18, 3 2 ( 1 9 5 7 ) Heilig, P . M . : V a k b l . v o o r m e u b e l i n d u s t r . 3 8 , 1 4 4 0 ( 1 9 5 7) H u b l e t , P. et al.: A r c h . B e l g . M e d . S o c . H y g . 3 8 , 3 1 2 4 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Jones, J.: Furniture Dev.Coun.Tech.Inform .Serv.Inform .Rep. No. 6 ( 1 9 4 6 ) M o r g a n , J.W.W. et al.: I U F R O P r o c . M e e t . S e c . 41, V o l . 3 , 1 ( 1 9 6 5 ) O r s l e r , R . J . : T i m b e r l a b . P a p e r s N o . 11 , 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) W o o d s , B . et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 94,

Ainus glutinosa

S u p p l . 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Gaertn.

(Betulaceae)

Aider C o m m o n or black alder Erie

G r o w s in E u r o p e a n d W e s t e r n Asia. It is light and s o f t a n d t h e r e f o r e easy t o work w i t h . Used f o r t o y s , general t u r n e r y , b r o o m and b r u s h b a c k s . In 1 9 2 7 d e r m a t i t i s of the f a c e a n d h a n d s was o b s e r v e d in f o u r w o r k e r s u s i n g A l d e r .

38

S y s t e m a t i c review

P a t c h tests with d i f f e r e n t e x t r a c t s and Alder t a n n i n were positive a n d negative in controls (Briigel et al. 1 9 2 7 ) . T h e a u t h o r s suggested one of the t a n n i n s m i g h t be the sensitisers. Dassler & U r z y n i c o k ( 1 9 5 8 ) c o n f i r m e d this with the isolated t a n n i n , b u t g o t negative p a t c h test results in t w o A Mer-sensitive p a t i e n t s . T w o f u r t h e r cases of allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s of the face, h a n d s and arms were seen in 1974 by F r e g e r t . E p i c u t a n e o u s tests with t h e s a w d u s t and the j u i c e pressed f r o m the shavings of t h e tree were positive, twelve c o n t r o l s negative. N o f u r t h e r investigations were carried o u t , t h o u g h o t h e r a u t h o r s h a v e r e p o r t e d A l d e r d e r m a t i t i s ( M c C o r d 1958, Zafiropoulo 1968). References Briigel, S. et al.: A r c h . D e r m . ( B e r l i n ) 152, 661 ( 1 9 2 7 ) Dassler, H . G . et al.: H o l z R o h - u n d Werkstoff 16, 3 2 7 ( 1 9 5 8 ) F r e g e r t , S.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 5 7 ( 1 9 7 4 ) M c C o r d , C.P.: I n d . M e d . S u r g . 2 7 , 202 ( 1 9 5 8 ) Z a f i r o p o u l o , A . et al.: Folia Allergol. 15, 396 ( 1 9 6 8 )

Antiaris

toxicaría

Antiaris

africana

var. africana

Lesch.

Engl.

Antiaris B o n k o n k o , Oro

(Moraceae)

Kirundu A n d o u m , Upas

Antiaris o c c u r s in W e s t , C e n t r a l and East A f r i c a . T h e t i m b e r is light y e l l o w - b r o w n , resembling O b e c h e . It is slightly a f f e c t e d by insects and f u n g a l a t t a c k s and t h e r e f o r e m u s t be p r o t e c t e d . It is generally used f o r f u r n i t u r e ; polishes with a r e m a r k a b l e golden lustre. Also suitable f o r carcassing and shelves, f r a m e s and m o u l d i n g s . V e n e e r s s o m e t i m e s show an a t t r a c t i v e stripe. T h e s a w d u s t irritates

the n o s e , throat and skin ( B a u m e r 1 9 5 5 , White 1 8 8 7 , Woods

1 9 7 6 ) . T h e n a m e ' t o x i c a r í a ' p o i n t s to t h e p o i s o n o u s p r o p e r t i e s of this w o o d . The species of A f r i c a and Asia c o n t a i n some glycosides with cardiac e f f e c t s in their latices. T h e highest a m o u n t s are f o u n d in the b a r k . Five o u t of the 27 k n o w n glycosides of the A f r i c a n species have p o i s o n o u s p r o p e r t i e s . Their s t r u c t u r e s were i d e n t i f i e d by Wehrli and c o - w o r k e r s in 1 9 6 2 , as shown b e l o w . The toxic p r o p e r t i e s were e x a m i n e d in animal e x p e r i m e n t s using cats and dogs. The lethal doses f o r cats are given on page 3 9 . In its native c o u n t r i e s the latices of Antiaris species are used as a r r o w p o i s o n , but it is said t h a t the sap is h a r m l e s s in m a n on unb r o k e n skin (Wehrli et al. 1 9 6 2 ) .

S y s t e m a t i c review

39

Lethal dose Name

R = Sugar

R

R2

cat, mg/kg

OH

R.3 OH

a-Antiarin

Gu

1 CHO

6-Antiarin

Rh

CHO

OH

OH

0,1000

Evomonosid

Rh

CH3

H

H

0,2784

Malayosid

Rh

CHO

H

H

0,1070

Convallatoxin

Rh

CHO

H

OH

0,0789

Gu = 'Gulomethylose',

0 , 1 164

Rh = Rhamnose

References B a u m e r , M ; Rev.Bois F o r . T r o p . 4 3 , 27 ( 1 9 5 5 ) W e h r l i , W . e t a!.: H e l v . c h i m . A c t a 4 5 , 1 1 8 3 a n d 1 2 0 6 ( 1 9 6 2 ) White, J.C. Dermatitis venenata. Cupples & Hurd: Boston

1887

W o o d s , B. e t a l . : B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 1 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Turraeanthus

africanus

Pellegr.

A

vodire

(Meliaceae) I m p o r t e d f r o m West A f r i c a , mainly f r o m G h a n a and especially the Ivory Coast. E x t e n s i v e l y u s e d in d e c o r a t i v e v e n e e r p r o d u c t i o n , h i g h - c l a s s i n t e r i o r j o i n e r y , b u t also s u i t a b l e f o r all k i n d s o f f u r n i t u r e . Dermatitis,

n o s e b l e e d i n g a n d i r r i t a t i o n of t h e m u c o u s m e m b r a n e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d

by H u b l e t ( 1 9 7 2 ) , O l e f f e ( 1 9 7 3 ) , Peche ( 1 9 3 9 ) and Wagenfiihr ( 1 9 6 7 ) . Positive patch t e s t s w e r e o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e s a w d u s t in t h r e e c a s e s by W o o d s ( 1 9 7 6 ) .

40

S y s t e m a t i c review

C a l n a n ( 1 9 7 0 ) o b s e r v e d a p o s i t i v e p a t c h test ( + + ) in a 4 3 y e a r old c a b i n e t m a k e r w i t h a n i n e m o n t h s o l d d e r m a t i t i s of the h a n d s , a r m s a n d sides of t h e n e c k , b u t t h e pat i e n t also r e a c t e d t o s o m e o t h e r w o o d d u s t s and p l a n t m a t e r i a l . T h e r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s are u n k n o w n .

References C a l n a n , C . D . : C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 8, 1 9 0 ( 1 9 7 0 ) H u b l e t , P. e t al.: A r c h . B e l g . M e d . S o c . H y g . 3 8 , 3 1 4 ( 1 9 7 2 ) O l e f f e , F . et al.: R e v . f r a n c . A U e r g o l . 1 3 , 6 5 ( 1 9 7 3 ) P e c h e , F.: L e s b o i s du C o n g o b e i g e . 2nd e d . G e o m a e r e : B r u x e l l e s 1 9 3 9 W a g e n f u h r , R . : Wiss. u n d F o r t s c h r . 6, 2 7 9 ( 1 9 6 7 ) W o o d s , B. et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 1 3 , 1 (1 9 7 6 )

Distemonanthus

benthamianus

Baillon

Ayart

(Legumin.-Caesalpin.) Imported

f r o m West A f r i c a , m a i n l y C a m e r o o n

Movingui a n d Nigeria. A d e c o r a t i v e

yellow

s m o o t h and h e a v y t i m b e r w i t h good d i m e n s i o n a l s t a b i l i t y . S u i t a b l e f o r the s a m e p u r p o s e s as O a k , e.g. d o o r f r a m e s , w i n d o w s , c a b i n e t w o r k i n g . In E n g l a n d m a i n l y used f o r c a b b o d i e s . S u i t a b l e also f o r d o m e s t i c f l o o r i n g , b u t n o t r e c o m m e n d e d f o r k i t c h e n and l a u n d r y e q u i p m e n t b e c a u s e of its y e l l o w d y e - s t u f f , w h i c h m a y stain f a b r i c s . T e r m i t e r e s i s t a n t . I m p o r t is still r e s t r i c t e d , b u t it is said t h a t this w o o d h a s a f u t u r e . M o r g a n & T h o m s o n ( 1 9 6 7 ) r e p o r t e d a case of severe d e r m a t i t i s r e c u r r i n g f o r f o u r y e a r s in a c a r p e n t e r e n g a g e d in m a k i n g c o f f i n s . P a t c h t e s t s were positive w i t h t h e sawd u s t and t w o of the f o u r i s o l a t e d f l a v o n o i d s ( K i n g 1 9 5 2 , 1 9 5 4 ) . Allergic r e a c t i o n s were o b s e r v e d w i t h o x y a y a n i n A (++++) and o x y a y a n i n B ( + + + ) . T h i r t e e n f u r t h e r cases of A y a n d e r m a t i t i s have been r e c e n t l y d e s c r i b e d by W o o d s & C a l n a n . O n e case was o b s e r v e d by Orsler in 1 9 6 9 . It c a n n o t be e x c l u d e d t h a t o t h e r still u n k n o w n c o n t a c t allergens o c c u r in t h e w o o d b e s i d e s the f l a v o n o i d s m e n t i o n e d . F o r s t r u c t u r e s see n e x t page ( p . 4 1 ) . T h e t w o o t h e r f l a v o n o i d s a y a n i n and d i s t e m o n a n t h i n m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d as m i n o r allergens. References K i n g , F . E . e t al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 5 2 ) , 9 2 and ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 4 5 87 M o r g a n , J . W . W . et al.: B r i t . J . i n d . M e d . 2 4 , 156 ( 1 9 6 7 ) O r s l e r , R . J . : T i m b e r l a b . P a p e r s N o . 11, 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) W o o d s , B. et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

S y s t e m a t i c review

H 3 CO

41

OCH3

R. 0 Oxyayanin A ( R j = H, R 2 = O H ) O x y a y a n i n B (R j = O H , R 2 = H ) S e n s i t i s i n g f l a v o n o i d c o n s t i t u e n t s o f A y a n ( D i s t e m o n a n t h u s benthamianus

Baill.)

Dicorynia

Basra

guionensis

( = Dicorynia

Amshoff

paraensis

Bentham)

(Legumin.- Caesalpin.)

locus

Ange'lique Angelim

I m p o r t e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a , m a i n l y f r o m S u r i n a m , F r e n c h G u i n e a and Brazil. The colour varies f r o m d a r k e r t o lighter t y p e s ('Ange'lique gris'). A g o o d t i m b e r for m a r i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n s , d o c k s , l o c k g a t e s a n d o t h e r h a r b o u r w o r k s d u e t o its e x t r e m e resistance to m a r i n e borer d e c a y . Also suitable f o r o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k s where good strength p r o p e r t i e s are n e e d e d , e.g. bridge f l o o r i n g and railway sleepers. Because o f its r e s i s t a n c e t o a c i d also u s e d f o r b a r r e l a n d v a t s t a v e s . T h o u g h n o d e s c r i p t i o n o f cases are k n o w n , t h e w o o d is g e n e r a l l y s u s p e c t e d

t o be

toxic (Baumer 1955). T h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t m a r i n e b o r e r a t t a c k s is d u e t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t w o a l k a l o i d s , o n e o f w h i c h h a s b e e n i d e n t i f i e d as t r y p t a m i n e ( 0 , 0 5 %) ( S a n d e r m a n n e t al. 1 9 6 7 ) . It m a y be s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e s e a l k a l o i d s are r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i n j u r i o u s p r o p e r t i e s of t h e w o o d d u s t , as t r y p t a m i n e is k n o w n f o r its p o i s o n o u s e f f e c t s .

References B a u m e r , M.: Rev.Bois F o r . T r o p . 4 3 , 27 ( 1 9 5 5 ) S a n d e r m a n n , W . e t al.: H o l z f o r s c h . 2 1 , 154 ( 1 9 6 7 ) ; N a t u r w i s s . 1 0 , 2 4 9 ( 1 9 6 7)

42

S y s t e m a t i c review

Castanospermum

australe

A. C u n n .

Black

(Legumin.- Papilion.)

bean

M o r e t o n Bay C h e s t n u t Q u e e n s l a n d red b e a n

T h i s t r e e f r o m E a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a is n o t e x p o r t e d , b u t u s e d m o d e r a t e l y in A u s t r a l i a . R e c e n t i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i c a t e s t h a t it is also c u l t i v a t e d in S o u t h A f r i c a d u e t o its resista n c e t o t e r m i t e a t t a c k s ( F r a n c i s e t al. 1 9 6 7 ) . Based on its a t t r a c t i v e a p p e a r a n c e m o s t of t h e p r o d u c t i o n is v e n e e r , b u t t h e r e are uses as solid w o o d f o r j o i n e r y , f u r n i t u r e and i n t e r i o r f i t t i n g s t o o . I r r i t a t i o n o f t h e m u c o u s m e m b r a n e s h a s r e p o r t e d in 1 9 0 9 by M a i d e n a n d G r e s h o f f . Later reports originate f r o m Aldersey ( 1 9 2 5 ) and C h i t t e n d e n ( 1 9 3 1 ) . O u r o w n a t t e m p t s t o sensitise g u i n e a pigs u s i n g t h e O E T a n d a 10 % e t h a n o l i c e x t r a c t of t h e w o o d f a i l e d . A f r a c t i o n o b t a i n e d by c h r o m a t o g r a p h y gave a p o s i t i v e c o l o u r rea c t i o n w i t h t h e C r a v e n - t e s t (see

p . 2 8 ) , w h i c h p o s s i b l y c o n t a i n e d a q u i n o n e . But this

c o m p o u n d w a s u n s t a b l e a n d gave no e v i d e n c e of sensitising p r o p e r t i e s ( u n p u b l i s h e d results). Black bean also c o n t a i n s t w o p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y active s a p o n i n s , c a s t a n o g e n i n ( m e d i c a genic

acid) a n d b a y o g e n i n , as well as the i s o f l a v o n e s f o r m o n o n e t i n ( 7 - h y d r o x y - 4 ' -

methoxyisoflavone)

and

afrormosin

(=

castanin)

(7-hydroxy-6,4'-dimethoxyiso-

flavone) (Eade 1963, 1966) References Aldersey, R.B.: M e d . J . A u s t r . 2, 25 ( 1 9 2 5 ) C h i t t e n d e n , F . J . : G a r d . C h r o n . 90, 3 3 2 ( 1 9 3 1 ) E a d e , R . A . e t al.: A u s t r . J . C h e m . 16, 1 8 8 and 9 0 0 ( 1 9 6 3 ) E a d e , R . A . e t al.: A u s t r . J . C h e m . 19, 1 7 1 7 ( 1 9 6 6 ) F r a n c i s , D . F . et al. P l a n t s h a r m f u l to m a n in A u s t r a l i a . M i s c . B u l l . N o . 1. B o t a n i c Garden: Adelaide 1967 (Australia) G r e s h o f f , M . : K e w Bull. 1 0 , 3 9 7 ( 1 9 0 9 ) M a i d e n , J H . : A g r i c . G a z . N e w S o u t h Wales 2 0 , 1 0 7 3 ( 1 9 0 9 )

Fagus

sylvatica

L.

(Fagaceae)

Beech Buche Hêtre

Beech is t h e m o s t e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d n a t i v e w o o d s p e c i e s in C e n t r a l E u r o p e . T h e largest c o n s u m e r is the f u r n i t u r e i n d u s t r y . W h e n B e e c h is s t e a m e d it gives a p i n k i s h c o l o u r w h i c h is p r e f e r r e d f o r special p u r p o s e s , such as b o b b i n s , b r u s h b a c k s a n d h a n d l e s , domestic woodware. Its s t r e n g t h m a k e s is s u i t a b l e f o r such f u r n i t u r e as s c h o o l d e s k s a n d c h a i r s . G e n e r a l l y it is u s e d f o r t o o l h a n d l e s , k n i f e - h a n d l e s , s p o r t s g o o d s a n d special p a r t s of m u s i c a l in-

S y s t e m a t i c review

43

s t r u m e n t s . In D e n m a r k and W e s t - G e r m a n y o f t e n used f o r f l o o r i n g . P l y w o o d is freq u e n t l y m a d e f r o m Beech and e x p o r t e d . Many cases of Beech d e r m a t i t i s (so-called ' w o o d c u t t e r ' s disease') are caused by liverw o r t s and l i c h e n s growing on t h e bark of Beech trees. Most of them belong to the genera Parmelia,

Frullania,

Cetraria,

Cladonia,

Usnea

a n d o t h e r s , and c o n t a i n besides

o t h e r c o m p o u n d s s e s q u i t e r p e n e l a c t o n e s with sensitising p r o p e r t i e s , such as f r u l l a n o lide in Frullania

species (Mitchell 1 9 6 5 , 1 9 6 9 ; S u i r e 1 9 7 6 , T e n c h i o 1 9 4 8 ) .

T h o u g h it seems n o w d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r real e c z e m a t o u s d e r m a t i t i s can be i n d u c e d by c o n t a c t with t h e s a w d u s t of Beech its o c c u r r e n c e m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d ( F i s h e r 1 9 6 7 , H o w e s 1 9 5 1 , Malespine 1 9 3 5 , U r b a c h 1 9 4 9 ) .

CH2

(+)-Frullanolide

(-)-Frullanolide

References Fisher, A . A . C o n t a c t D e r m a t i t i s . Lea & F e b i g e r : Philadelphia 1 9 6 7 H o w e s , H.C.: C a n a d . W o o d w o r k e r ( 1 95 1), 3 4 and 6 4 Malespine, E . : A n n . H y g . p u b l . N . s . 13, 3 1 3 ( 1 9 3 5 ) Mitchell, J . C . : A r c h . E n v i r n m . H e a l t h 4 , 701 ( 1 9 6 5 ) Mitchell, J . C . : A r c h . D e r m . 1 0 0 , 4 6 ( 1 9 6 9 ) Suire, C. e t al. Les d e r m i t e s de c o n t a c t aux F r u l l a n i a . U n i l a b o : L e v a l l o i s - P e r r e t

1976

Tenchio, F.: Dermatologica 97, 72 (1948) U r b a c h , E . Allergy. H e i n e m a n n : L o n d o n 1 9 4 9

Tabebuia

serratifolia

(Bignoniaceae)

Nichols.

Bethabara Surinam g r o e n h e a r t Pau d ' A r c o Guaycan

I m p o r t e d f r o m S o u t h A m e r i c a in small a m o u n t s , m o s t l y f r o m C o l u m b i a , V e n e z u e l a

44

S y s t e m a t i c review

G u y a n a and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s of t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t of S o u t h A m e r i c a , i n c l u d i n g Brazil. T h e t i m b e r h a s g o o d s t r e n g t h p r o p e r t i e s and high r e s i s t a n c e to d e c a y . U s e d f o r s p o r t s e q u i p m e n t a n d h a n d l e s , similar t o the u s e of H i c k o r y . F r e q u e n t l y u s e d in w o o d p u l p ing m a c h i n e s as ' k n i f e h o l d e r s ' ( G a r r a t 1 9 2 2 ) . Allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s was d e s c r i b e d in 1 9 6 7 by W e i t b r e c h t . A j o i n e r d e v e l o p e d d e r m a t i t i s of t h e f a c e a n d h a n d s lasting f o r t w o w e e k s a f t e r c u t t i n g , p l a n i n g a n d sanding of

B e t h a b a r a ' k n i f e h o l d e r s ' . F o u r y e a r s later t h e d e r m a t i t i s r e c u r r e d w h e n he

w o r k e d again w i t h t h i s w o o d . Our

c h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of t h e w o o d and f o l l o w i n g e p i c u t a n e o u s t e s t s w i t h iso-

l a t e d c o n s t i t u e n t s in W e i t b r e c h t ' s p a t i e n t p r o v o k e d positive t e s t r e a c t i o n s ; t h e o b t a i n e d c o m p o u n d s w e r e i d e n t i f i e d as l a p a c h o l and d e o x y l a p a c h o l (see T e a k ) , t h e latter b e i n g r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the o b s e r v e d d e r m a t i t i s ( H a u s e n et al. 1 9 7 1 ) . L a p a c h o l and d e o x y l a p a c h o l are m o d e r a t e l y d i s t r i b u t e d q u i n o n o i d c o n s t i t u e n t s , w i t h eliciting ( l a p a c h o l ) a n d sensitising ( d e o x y l a p a c h o l ) p r o p e r t i e s , in d i f f e r e n t a n d Tecoma

Tabebuia

s p e c i e s , w h i c h o n l y rarely r e a c h f o r e i g n t i m b e r m a r k e t s .

A m o n g these are f o u n d : Tabebuia

avellanedae

Lor. ex Griseb.

Tabebuia

pentaphylla

Hemsl.

Tecoma

chrysotricha

M a r t . (Ipe' t a b a c o )

(Burnett 1967,Cordero

1951)

(Zafiropoulo 1968) (Freise 1932)

References B u r n e t t , A . R . et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . (C) ( 1 9 6 7 ) , 2 1 0 0 C o r d e r o , A . et a l . : P r e n s a m e d . A r g e n t . 3 8 , 8 3 8 ( 1 9 5 1) Freise, F.W.: A r c h . G e w e r b e p a t h . - h y g . 3, 1 ( 1 9 3 2 ) Garrat, G.A.: J . F o r e s t . 20, 4 7 9 ( 1 9 2 2 ) H a u s e n , B . M . e t al.: B e r u f s d e r m . 1 9 , 3 2 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) W e i t b r e c h t , U . : B e r u f s d e r m . 1 5 , 183 ( 1 9 6 7 ) Z a f i r o p o u l o , A . et al.: F o l i a Allergol. 1 5 , 3 9 6 ( 1 9 6 8 )

Betula

papyracea

(= B. papyrifera Betula

alba L.

Betula

verrucosa

Ait Marsh.)

Birch P a p e r birch W h i t e birch

Ehrh.

Birke

(Betulaceae) P a p e r birch g r o w s in the U n i t e d S t a t e s and C a n a d a , while White birch o r i g i n a t e s f r o m W e s t e r n and E a s t e r n E u r o p e . T h e w o o d is w i d e l y used in f u r n i t u r e a n d d e c o r a t i v e v e n e e r p r o d u c t i o n , as well as for p u l p and p a p e r . In 1 9 2 7 D u k e o b s e r v e d t w o l u m b e r m e n w i t h r e c u r r i n g d e r m a t i t i s of t h e face and h a n d s a f t e r s a w i n g B i r c h . Positive p a t c h tests were seen by him and also by W o o d s &

S y s t e m a t i c review

45

C a l n a n ( 1 9 7 6 ) . F u r t h e r cases of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s are m e n t i o n e d b y C o c a ( 1 9 3 1 ) , Fisher ( 1 9 6 7 ) , Howes ( 1 9 5 1 ) and Senear ( 1 9 5 3 ) . Cases of skin e r u p t i o n s are r a r e , their s o u r c e is u n k n o w n . S o m e t i m e s Birch w o o d c o n t a i n s a q u i n o n e ( b e t u l a c h r y s o q u i n o n e ) , w h i c h is a metabolite

( C h e n 1 9 7 7 ) , d e c a y e d by Phanerochaete

chrysosporium

fungal

Burds.

Not a natural wood constituent, but present in the w o o d a f t e r f u n g a l a t t a c k References C h e n , C.- L . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 1 6 , 1 9 8 3 ( 1 9 7 7 ) Coca.A.F.etal.

A s t h m a a n d h a y f e v e r . Bailliere, T i n d . & C o x : L o n d o n 1931

D u k e , W . W . Allergy, A s t h m a , Hay fever. 2nd ed. H . K i m p t o n : L o n d o n

1927

F i s h e r , A . A . C o n t a c t D e r m a t i t i s . Lea & Fe biger: P h i l a d e l p h i a 1 9 6 7 H o w e s , H . C . : C a n a d . W o o d w o r k e r ( 1 9 5 1), 3 4 a n d 6 4 S e n e a r , F . E . : J A M A 1 0 1 , 15 27 ( 1 9 3 3 ) W o o d s , B . et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Dalbergia

melanoxylon

(Legumin.- Papilion.)

Guill. & Perr.

Blackwood,

African

G r e n a d i l l , Pau P r e t o Mozambique ebony

T h i s h a r d a n d h e a v y , b l u e - b l a c k c o l o u r e d w o o d is m a i n l y i m p o r t e d f r o m East A f r i c a ( S u d a n , M o z a m b i q u e , Z i m b a b w e , T o g o , S e n e g a l ) . It c a u s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y d i f f i c u l t i e s in w o r k i n g , especially rapid b l u n t i n g of saws, b u t it is e x c e l l e n t f o r t u r n e r y , finishes well a n d is r e s i s t a n t t o t e r m i t e s . It is u s e d p r i m a r e l y for w o o d w i n d i n s t r u m e n t s such as f l u t e s , c l a r i n e t s , o b o e s , c h a n t e r s of b a g p i p e s , a n d s o m e t y p e s of r e c o r d e r s , and also for knife-handles, brush backs, chessmen, truncheons, and o t h e r turnery and ornamental purposes. Cases of d e r m a t i t i s and c o n j u n c t i v i t i s have been o b s e r v e d by M e i s t e r ( 1 9 3 4 ) , Moll ( 1 9 5 0 ) , N e s t l e r ( 1 9 2 4 ) , W e b e r ( 1 9 3 7 ) , and r e c e n t l y t w o cases in c l a r i n e t - m a k e r s by

46

S y s t e m a t i c review

W o o d s & C a l n a n ( 1 9 7 6 ) w h o also o b t a i n e d p o s i t i v e p a t c h t e s t s w i t h t h e s a w d u s t . C h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e w o o d y i e l d e d t w o q u i n o n e s o f the d a l b e r g i o n e t y p e , namely S-4-methoxydalbergione, S-4'-hydroxy-4-methoxydalbergione and S-3'-hydroxy-4,4'-dimethoxydalbergione

(Donnelly

1969,

1975; Hausen

1970), which

are

k n o w n f o r t h e i r sensitising p r o p e r t i e s , a n d t h u s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d as the r e s p o n s i b l e a g e n t s ( S c h u l z et al. 1 9 7 9 ) . 2 , 5 - D i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e was also d e t e c t e d , b u t revealed no sensitising p o t e n c y (see

Macassar).

i-uco

0CH3

Jjr o

2,5-Dimethoxy-l ,4-benzoquinone

S-4-methoxy dalbergione S-4'-hydroxy-4-methoxydalbergione

R = Rj = H R = OH, R j = H

S - 3 ' - h y d r o x y - 4 , 4 ' - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e R = O C H 3 , R j = OH

References D o n n e l l y , B . J . et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n 2 5 , 4 4 0 9 ( 1 9 6 9 ) D o n n e l l y , B . J . et al: P h y t o c h e m . 14, 2 2 8 7 ( 1 9 7 5 ) H a u s e n , B.M.: T h e s i s , U n i v . H a m b u r g 1 9 7 0 M e i s t e r , H . : S c h w e i z . m e d . W s c h r . ( 1 9 3 4 ) II, 9 9 3 Moll, F.: Holz 4, 77 ( 1 9 5 0 ) Nestler, A.: Umschau 28, 1007 (1924) S c h u l z , K . - H . et al.: A r c h . D e r m . R e s . 2 6 4 , 2 7 5 ( 1 9 7 9 ) W e b e r , L . F . : A r c h . D e r m . 3 5 , S u p p l . , 125 ( 1 9 3 7 ) W o o d s , B . et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 1 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

S y s t e m a t i c review

Acacia melanoxylon

Blackwood,

R.Br.

47

Australian

( L e g u m i n . - Mimos.) B l a c k w o o d is a West A u s t r a l i a n t i m b e r of dark b r o w n c o l o u r , fine and d e c o r a t i v e , used for high-quality f u r n i t u r e , panelling, s h o p and b a n k fittings, interior j o i n e r y , b e n c h w o r k in c o a c h and b o a t - b u i l d i n g , h a n d l e s and o r n a m e n t a l t u r n e r y , m u s i c a l ins t r u m e n t s ( s o u n d b o a r d s ) . Mainly used in its native c o u n t r y A u s t r a l i a , b u t occasionally e x p o r t e d in small q u a n t i t i e s to E u r o p e . N o t t ( 1 9 2 5 ) s u f f e r e d f r o m a rash of his h a n d s and f o r e a r m s a f t e r h a n d l i n g this w o o d h i m s e l f . N o s e - b l e e d i n g and b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a w e r e recognised by Pulleine in 1 9 2 5 . Cleland (1 9 2 5 , 1 93 1) observed several cases of w e e p i n g d e r m a t i t i s in j o i n e r s and b o a t builders ( f a c e , n e c k , f o r e a r m s ) c o n n e c t e d with severe itching and c o n j u n c t i v i t i s . Rob e r t s o n ( 1 9 2 7 ) saw o n e case of a s t h m a and nine cases of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s . T h o u g h his p a t c h tests r e m a i n e d negative he suggested t h a t sensitisation m u s t play a role. F u r t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s with positive p a t c h test results have been c o n t r i b u t e d by Behl in 1966 and Burry in 1 9 6 9 and 1 9 7 3 . An i n t e n s i f i e d s t u d y of Australian b l a c k w o o d samples by animal e x p e r i m e n t s and c h e m i c a l s e p a r a t i o n of its c o n s t i t u e n t s revealed a m o d e r a t e sensitising p o t e n c y . Contact allergy is due to t w o ( t h r e e ?) q u i n o n o i d w o o d c o m p o n e n t s . T h e main c o n t a c t sensitisers were i s o l a t e d , and i d e n t i f i e d by X-ray analysis. The first q u i n o n e o b t a i n e d was 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e ( S c h m a l l e et al. 1 9 7 7 , H a u s e n 1978). T h e sec o n d q u i n o n e was i d e n t i f i e d as 6 - m e t h o x y - 2 - m e t h y l - b e n z o f u r a n - 4 , 7 - q u i n o n e and has been n a m e d acamelin ( S c h m a l l e & Hausen 1 9 8 0 ) . This s u b s t a n c e belongs to the rare g r o u p of f u r a n o q u i n o n e s w h i c h show some similarities to the f u r a n o n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s of White p e r o b a ( P a r a t e c o m a peroba

K u h l m . ) (see p. 101).

0

0

II

II

II

II 0

0

2,6-Dimethoxy-l ,4-benzoquinone

Acamelin

While 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e e x h i b i t s a relatively weak sensitising c a p a c i t y w h e n c o m p a r e d with o t h e r naturally occurring q u i n o n e s (see

Macassar), acamelin

48

S y s t e m a t i c review

s h o w e d a s t r o n g e r s e n s i t i s i n g e f f e c t in t h e g u i n e a p i g e x p e r i m e n t s ( H a u s e n & S c h m a l l e 1981). A

third

noxylon

quinone

only

was found occasionally

in t h e f i v e s a m p l e s o f Acacia

mela-

i n v e s t i g a t e d f r o m d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s in A u s t r a l i a a n d t h u s i t s r e l e v a n c e as a c o n -

tact sensitiser m a y be neglected.

References B e h l , P . N . e t a l . S k i n - i r r i t a n t a n d s e n s i t i s i n g p l a n t s f o u n d in I n d i a . P . N . B e h l , p r i v a t e printing: New Delhi 1966 B u r r y , J . N . : M e d . J . A u s t r . ( 1 9 6 9 ) I, 1226 Burry, J.N.: Med.J.Austr. ( 1 9 7 3 ) 11,681 Cleland, J.B.: Med.J.Austr. 1 2 , 4 4 3 (1925) C l e l a n d , J . B . : M e d . J . A u s t r . 18, 7 7 5 ( 1 9 3 1 ) H a u s e n , B . M . : C o n t a c t D e r m . 4, 2 0 4 ( 1 9 7 8 ) H a u s e n , B . M . e t a l . : B r i t . J . i n d . M e d . ( 1 9 8 1 ) in p r e s s Nott, H.: Med.J.Austr. 12,464 (1925) P u l l e i n e , R . H . : M e d . J . A u s t r . 12, 2 5 ( 1 9 2 5 ) R o b e r t s o n , D . G . : C o m m o n w e a l t h of A u s t r a l i a , D e p t . H e a l t h . S e r . P u b l . , D i v . I n d . H y g . N o . 4, 1-36 (1927) S c h m a l l e , H . e t a l . : N a t u r w i s s . 64, 5 3 4 ( 1 9 7 7 ) S c h m a l l e , H . et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n L e t t . 21, 149 ( 1 9 8 0 )

Buxus

sempervirens

L.

Boxwood,

(Buxaceae)

European Buchsbaum

G r o w s in E u r o p e , W e s t e r n A s i a a n d N o r t h A f r i c a . A c c o r d i n g t o o r i g i n n a m e d I r a n i a n , P e r s i a n , T u r k i s h b o x w o o d e t c . U s e d f o r t o o l h a n d l e s a n d s h u t t l e s in t h e silk i n d u s t r y . F a m o u s for musical i n s t r u m e n t s , especially recorders and flutes, w h e n old and

dry.

O c c a s i o n a l l y used f o r c h i n r e s t s of violins and o t h e r small f a n c y t u r n e r y . D e r m a t i t i s , skin i r r i t a t i o n s and a s t h m a have b e e n d e s c r i b e d by s o m e a u t h o r s . M a r k i n (1930) obtained

a p o s i t i v e s c r a t c h t e s t in a w a t c h m a k e r w h o s u f f e r e d f r o m

asthma

w h e n c l e a n i n g g o l d a r t i c l e s w i t h B o x w o o d s a w d u s t . A s i m i l a r c a s e w a s r e c o g n i s e d by W a l k e r ( 1 9 1 9 ) . N o r d i n ( 1 9 4 7 ) o b s e r v e d e c z e m a d u r i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g of rulers f r o m B o x w o o d . G r o s s m a n n ( 1 9 2 0 ) m e n t i o n e d two cases with mild general s y m p t o m s . N o n e o f t h e s e c a s e s is c o n v i n c i n g . T e s t in c o n t r o l p e r s o n s a r e n o t m e n t i o n e d . It m u s t be suggested t h a t i r r i t a n t d e r m a t i t i s o c c u r r e d . T h e B o x w o o d a l k a l o i d s , w h i c h o n l y o c c u r in t r a c e s in t h e w o o d i t s e l f ( D o l e j s 1 9 6 5 , Tomko

1964, Voticky

1 9 6 5 ) , m a y p o s s i b l y h a v e p l a y e d a r o l e as p o i s o n s o r p r i m a r y

irritants. By no m e a n s can

t h e y be r e g a r d e d

as c o n t a c t a l l e r g e n s ; r a t h e r

they

may

f u n c t i o n as h i s t a m i n e l i b e r a t o r s . A s n o f u r t h e r c a s e s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d in t h e last 4 0 y e a r s d u b i o u s b o t a n i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e B o x w o o d c a s e s m a y be s u s p e c t e d .

S y s t e m a t i c review

49

CH3

Buxtanin

R j = R2 = H

Bebuxin

Buxpiin

R ! = CH3, R2 = H

= Cyclovirobuxin D

References D o l e j s , L . e t al.: C o l l . C z e c h . C h e m . C o m m . 3 0 , 2 8 6 9 ( 1 9 6 5 ) Grossmann, J.: Holzkäufer 100-103, 529 (1920) M a r k i n , L . E . : J . A l l e r g y ( 1 9 3 0 ) I, 3 4 6 N o r d i n , J. Y r k e s s j u k d o m a r . Vol. 2 ( 1 9 4 7 ) , 605 (Uppsala) T o m k o , J . e t al.: C h e m . Z v e s t i ( B r a t i s l a v a ) 1 8 , 7 2 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) V o t i c k y , Z . e t al.: C o l l . C z e c h . C h e m . C o m m . 3 0 , 3 4 8 a n d 3 7 0 5 ( 1 9 6 5 ) V o t i c k y , Z . e t al.: T e t r a h e d r o n L e t t . ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 3 5 7 9 W a l k e r , I . C . B r o n c h i a l a s t h m a . O x f o r d M e d . V o l . 2 , P a r t 1. L o n d o n

Gonioma

kamassi

E.Mey

1919

Boxwood,

(Apocy naceae)

Knysna Kamassi

N a t i v e t o S o u t h A f r i c a ( C a p e P r o v i n c e ) . S i m i l a r t o a n d u s e d as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r E u r o pean b o x w o o d especially for shuttles, f a n c y t u r n e r y and engraver's w o r k . S e v e r a l t i m e s it h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s a w d u s t c a u s e s p a i n a n d i n f l a m m a t i o n o f the eyelids a n d n o s e , dilatation of the pupils of t h e eyes, and s y m p t o m s

resembling

those of bronchial catarrh, dizziness, dryness of the throat, h e a d a c h e , sleepiness, etc. in m e n e n g a g e d in s a w i n g a n d s a n d p a p e r i n g o f r u l e r s a n d s h u t t l e s ( H a y

1907,Legge

1907). In 1 9 0 6 G i b s o n i s o l a t e d an a l k a l o i d w i t h c u r a r e - l i k e p r o p e r t i e s f r o m a w o o d s a m p l e , identified

as Sarcocephalus

diderichii

Wildemann

(= Nauclea

trillesii

Merr.)

today

50

S y s t e m a t i c review

n a m e d Bilinga. B u t this piece o f w o o d was in f a c t Gonioma

kamassi.

In 1 9 1 1 D i x o n

e x a m i n e d t h e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l a c t i o n of t h i s a l k a l o i d . He suggested t h a t the s y m p t o m s w e r e m o r e r e l a t e d t o an ' i d i o s y n c r a s y ' t h a n a d i r e c t p o i s o n i n g . M o r e t h a n 4 0 y e a r s l a t e r t h e alkaloid k a m a s s i n was isolated f r o m t h e bark of G. kamassi

and s h o w n t o be

i d e n t i c a l w i t h q u e b r a c h a m i n e . We do n o t k n o w w h e t h e r this c o m p o u n d was i d e n t i c a l w i t h D i x o n ' s a l k a l o i d of 1 911 o r n o t . Q u e b r a c h a m i n e h a s c u r a r e - l i k e e f f e c t s u p o n t h e nerves (Dixon 1924). U n t i l 1 9 5 4 n o m o r e t h a n five cases of B o x w o o d p o i s o n i n g w e r e o b s e r v e d ( M a c k e n n a ) . T h i s is p r o b a b l y d u e t o the f a c t t h a t K n y s n a b o x w o o d is being slowly r e p l a c e d by s u b s t i t u t e s such as M a r a c a i b o b o x w o o d ( G o s s y p i u m praecox San D o m i n g o b o x w o o d (Phyllostylon (Cornus

florida

brasiliensis

P.Wils., F l a c o u r t i a c e a e ) ,

Cap., Ulmaceae), American cornel

L . , C o r n a c e a e ) and P e r s i m m o n ( D i o s p y r o s virginiana

In t h e 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 3 0 ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l d e r m a t i t i s

L., E b e n a c e a e ) .

c a u s e d b y K n y s n a b o x w o o d was c o m -

p e n s a t e d by law o n l y in M i n n e s o t a ( U S A ) ( G a n z o n i 1 9 2 9 ) .

Quebrachamine = Kamassin

References D i x o n , W.E.: P r o c . R o y . S o c . S e r . B. 8 3 , 2 8 7 ( 1 9 1 1) D i x o n , W.E. in: H e f f t e r , A . : H a n d b u c h e x p e r i m e n t . P h a r m a k o l . V o l . 2, Part 2, Berlin 1924 Ganzoni, M.: Schweiz.med.Wschr. 59, 1 169 ( 1 9 2 9 ) H a r v e y - G i b s o n , R . J . : B i o c h e m . J . 1, 3 9 ( 1 9 0 6 ) Hay, J.: Ann.Rep.Chief Insp.Fact.Workshops 1907, 266 Legge, T.M.: Ann.Rep.Chief Insp.Fact.Workshops 1907, 248 M a c k e n n a , R . M . B , et al.: I n d . M e d . H y g . E d . by M e r e w e t h e r . B u t t e r w o r t h : 1919

London

S y s t e m a t i c review

Guibourtia

tessmannii

Guibourtia

demeusei

J.Leonard

51

Bubinga

(Harms) J.Leonard

Kevazingo

( L e g u m i n . - Caesalpin.) B u b i n g a is i m p o r t e d f r o m West A f r i c a , especially f r o m C a m e r o o n . O n l y t i m b e r shipp e d f r o m G a b o o n is n a m e d K e v a z i n g o . In E n g l a n d and W e s t - G e r m a n y used chiefly because of its attractive a p p e a r a n c e as a veneer f o r decorative panelling and inlay w o r k . Used also f o r high-class f u r n i t u r e , f a n c y t u r n e r y , k n i f e - h a n d l e s and b r u s h backs. Only verbal i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t d e r m a t o l o g i c a l risks is available. O u r o w n sensitising e x p e r i m e n t s in guinea pigs w e r e s u c c e s s f u l w i t h an e t h a n o l e x t r a c t of the w o o d (GPMT - see

p. 2 9 ) . T h e c r u d e e x t r a c t y i e l d e d f o u r q u i n o n e s which all

gave positive test r e s p o n s e s in the sensitised animals. T h e q u i n o n e with t h e highest R p - v a l u e elicited the s t r o n g e s t r e a c t i o n . O n e of the q u i n o n e s c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d as 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e (see

Australian blackwood) (Hausen

1 9 7 8 ) . On

testing this c o m p o u n d gave a weak r e a c t i o n ( o n e plus). T h e s t r u c t u r e s of the r e m a i n i n g q u i n o n e s are still u n k n o w n ( u n p u b l i s h e d results). T h e n e a r related species Guibourtia

arnoldiana

J . L e o n a r d , called M u t e n y e , is alleged

to cause skin lesions as well. M u t e n y e is i m p o r t e d mainly i n t o Belgium w h e r e it is used as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r W a l n u t . References H a u s e n , B . M . : C o n t a c t D e r m . 4 , 204 ( 1 9 7 8 )

Machaerium

scleroxylum

Machaerium

spc.

Tul.

Caviuna

vermelha

Pao f e r r o , Moradillo

( L e g u m i n . - Papilion.)

Jacaranda'pardo S a n t o s Palisander

Caviuna v e r m e l h a or Pao f e r r o resembles Brazilian r o s e w o o d (Dalbergia its a p p e a r a n c e and is closely related to Dalbergia

nigra All.) in

species, t h u s it is f r e q u e n t l y used as

a s u b s t i t u t e and o f t e n m i s t a k e n f o r real R o s e w o o d . H o w e v e r , Caviuna v e r m e l h a is c o n s i d e r a b l y m o r e irritant and sensitising than Brazilian r o s e w o o d itself. O u t b r e a k s of d e r m a t i t i s were observed in 1968 by Morgan et al. and single cases were r e p o r t e d by H j o r t h ( 1 9 7 4 ) , H o i s t ( 1 9 7 6 ) , Maibach ( 1 9 7 0 ) , Orsler ( 1 9 6 9 ) and Phillips ( 1 9 6 6 ) . Also in its native c o u n t r y , Brazil, allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s f r o m Pao f e r r o is n o t u n k n o w n (Miranda-Bastos 1962). In N o r w a y recently ( 1 9 7 7 ) six w o r k e r s b e c a m e sensitive a f t e r

a two-week contact

with M o r a d i l l o . At least 35 cases have been observed in W e s t - G e r m a n y in the last t w o

52

S y s t e m a t i c review

y e a r s ( H a u s e n , in p r e p a r a t i o n ) and five in M a d r i d ( C o n d e - S a l a z a r et al. 1 9 8 0 ) . P a t c h t e s t s were positive in m o r e t h a n 75 % o f the w o o d w o r k e r s c o n f r o n t e d with the sawd u s t . T h e w o o d s a m p l e s p l a c e d at our disposal y i e l d e d u p t o 2 % of t h e sensitiser. In m o s t cases t h e w o o d species h a d been sold u n d e r the m i s l e a d i n g n a m e ' S a n t o s Palis a n d e r ' or ' P a l i s a n d e r r o s é ' . O n e o f the r e c e n t l y o b s e r v e d cases o c c u r r e d in a 12 y e a r old girl w h i c h d e v e l o p e d severe p e r i o r a l d e r m a t i t i s w i t h swelling o f t h e lips a f t e r p l a y i n g a r e c o r d e r , m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m ' P a l i s a n d e r r o s é ' , f o r t w o y e a r s . In a first e x p e r i m e n t a s t r o n g positive react i o n (+++ - ++++) was o b t a i n e d a f t e r t y i n g the w h o l e i n s t r u m e n t with a p l a s t e r to t h e u p p e r arm of the y o u n g girl f o r 24 h o u r s . A f t e r b o t a n i c a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of the r e c o r d e r w o o d a s M a c h a e r i u m scleroxylum

strong

p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s w e r e o b t a i n e d with t h e m a i n sensitiser R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e ( 0 , 1 %) as well as c r o s s - r e a c t i o n s with t h e related c o m p o u n d s 4 - m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e ( r a c e m a t e ) a n d S-4 4 ' - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e . A f t e r t h e r e c o r d e r h a d b e e n r e p l a c e d by an Olive w o o d r e c o r d e r n o f u r t h e r c o m p l a i n t s were h e a r d . T h e Olive w o o d h a d b e e n t e s t e d e p i c u t a n e o u s l y b e f o r e w i t h o u t giving a (cross-) r e a c t i o n .

T h e c o n t a c t sensitisers of C a v i u n a v e r m e l h a are R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e and its q u i n o l ( E a t o n et al. 1 9 6 5 , G o t t l i e b et al. 1 9 6 4 , M o r g a n e t al. 1 9 6 8 ) . S e n s i t i s a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s in g u i n e a pigs ( O H T ) w i t h f o u r d i f f e r e n t d a l b e r g i o n e s rev e a l e d t h a t R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e possesses t h e highest

sensitising

power

of all

d a l b e r g i o n e s ( S c h u l z et al. 1 9 7 9 ) . C r o s s - r e a c t i o n s b e t w e e n the r e l a t e d d a l b e r g i o n e s were

also d i s c l o s e d . C r o s s - r e a c t i o n s t o 4 - m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e ( r a c e m a t e ) , S-4,4'-di-

methoxydalbergione

a n d S - 4 ' - h y d r o x y - 4 - m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e were seen in m o s t of

t h e p a t i e n t s allergic to C a v i u n a v e r m e l h a m e n t i o n e d a b o v e .

As o f t e n e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h s t r o n g sensitisers, R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e is a p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t in c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of 1 %. Only d i l u t i o n s to 0,1 - 0 , 0 1 % p r o d u c e real allergic r e a c t i o n s in sensitised p e r s o n s and remain negative in c o n t r o l s . It m u s t be e m p h a s i s e d t h a t R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e only o c c u r s in Machaerium f o u n d in t h e r e l a t e d Dalbergia

species and h a s n o t b e e n

species.

A c c o r d i n g t o M o r g a n e t al. ( 1 9 6 8 ) C a v i u n a v e r m e l h a c o n t a i n s a b o u t three q u a r t e r s of t h e sensitiser in f o r m of t h e q u i n o l and o n e q u a r t e r as t h e q u i n o n e . T h e q u i n o l is easily o x i d i s e d to the c o r r e s p o n d i n g q u i n o n e d u r i n g e x t r a c t i o n , s e p a r a t i o n or by an o x i d i s i n g chemical. S o m e related Machaerium

s p e c i e s also have b e e n d e s c r i b e d as t h e source of allergic

c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s . T h e f o l l o w i n g table lists all t h e species in w h i c h R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e has b e e n d i s c o v e r e d as the c a u s a t i v e f a c t o r . T h e sensitising c a p a c i t y of a n o t h e r Machaerium

constituent-mucroquinone-is unknown.

S y s t e m a t i c review

53

quinol

OH R-3,4-dimethoxy-4'-hydroxy-

Mucroquinone

dalbergione Species

Dermatitis described

Evidence for R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y dal.

Machaerium

schomburghkii

Bentham

Grossmann

1910

(Jacaranda*, X i m b o )

Hanslian

M. pedicellatum

Ogiyama 1 973

Vog.

1960 Ogiyama 1 973

('Jacaranda') M. kuhlmannii

Hoehne *

-

Ollis 1 9 7 8

-

Ollis 1 9 6 8

('Jacaranda') M. nictitans

-

(Veil.)

Bentham*

('Jacarandä') M. violaeeum

Ollis 1 9 7 8

-

Vog.

(Orelha d'onca, Knyswood)

Freise

1932

Reinl

1965

-

54

S y s t e m a t i c review

M. villosum

Vog.

B r a g a de O live ira

(Jacaranda'paulista)

1968

M. mucronulatum

Kursawa

M a r t , ex B e n t h . * *

1968,

1978

* c o n t a i n s also R - 4 ' - h y d r o x y - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e ** contains mucroquinone

References B r a g e de O l i v e i r a , A . e t a l . : A n . a c a d . b r a s . C i e n c . 4 0 , 1 4 7 ( 1 9 6 8 ) C o n d e - S a l a z a r , L. e t al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 6 , 2 4 6 ( 1 9 8 0 ) E y t o n , W.B. et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n 2 1 , 2 6 9 7 ( 1 9 6 5 ) F r e i s e , F.W.: A r c h . G e w e r b e p a t h . -hyg. 3 , 1 ( 1 9 3 2 ) G o t t l i e b , O . R . et al.: A n . a c a d . b r a s . C i e n c . 3 6 , 3 3 ( 1 9 6 4 ) G r o s s m a n n , J . : B a y e r . I n d . G e w e r b e b l . 9 6 , 51 ( 1 9 1 0 ) H a n s l i a n , L. et al.: D r e v o 2 1 , 1 5 7 ( 1 9 6 6 ) H j o r t h , N.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 7 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ) H o i s t , R . e t al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 2 , 295 ( 1 9 7 6 ) K u r a s a w a , K . et al.: C h e m . C o m m . 20, 1 2 6 3 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , P h y t o c h e m . 17, 1 4 0 5 ( 1 9 7 8 ) Maibach, H.I.: Contact Derm .Newslett. No. 7, 149 ( 1 9 7 0 ) M i r a n d a - B a s t o s , A . de e t a l . : P r o c . F i f t h F o r . C o n g r . 3 , 1 4 1 4 ( 1 9 6 2 ) M o r g a n , J . W . W . e t a l . : B r i t . J . i n d . M e d . 2 5 , 1 19 ( 1 9 6 8 ) O g i y a m a , K . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 12, 2 5 4 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ) O l l i s , W . D . e t al.: C h e m . C o m m ( 1 9 6 8 ) , 1 3 9 2 OUis, W . D . e t al.: P h y t o c h e m . 1 7 , 1 3 8 3 ( 1 9 7 8 ) O r s l e r , R . J . : T i m b e r l a b . P a p e r s N o . 11, 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) Phillips, E.W.J.: Wood 3 1 , 4 4 (1966) R e i n l , W.: Z b l . A r b . m e d . A r b . s c h u t z 1 5 , 101 ( 1 0 6 5 ) S c h u l z , K . - H . e t al.: A r c h . D e r m . R e s . 2 6 4 , 2 7 5 ( 1 9 7 9 )

Cedrela

odorata

( = Cedrela Cedrela

L.

mexicana

fissilis

Cedar, M.J.Roem.)

Central American Cedro

(L.} Veil.

South American cedar

(M e l i a c e a e ) O c c u r s f r o m M e x i c o t h r o u g h Central A m e r i c a to the S o u t h , e x c e p t Chile and W e s t I n d i e s . T h e r e l a t e d Cedrela

toona

the

R o x b . g r o w s in S o u t h E a s t A s i a a n d A u s t r a l i a .

I t is also s h i p p e d t o E u r o p e u n d e r t h e n a m e B u r m a c e d a r , T o o n o r T o o n a a n d u s e d for the

s a m e p u r p o s e s as t h e C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n c e d a r .

Australian

t i m b e r v a r i e s in c o l o u r f r o m p a l e p i n k - b r o w n

t o d a r k r e d d i s h - b r o w n . It

r e s e m b l e s s o m e t y p e s o f M a h o g a n y . A l l s p e c i e s are c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a d i s t i n c t f r a g r a n t s c e n t . T h e t i m b e r s a r e m a i n l y used in t h e i r n a t i v e c o u n t r i e s a n d l i t t l e is e x p o r t e d . T i m b e r s c o m i n g t o E u r o p e are s u i t a b l e f o r c a b i n e t m a k i n g , i n t e r i o r j o i n e r y a n d p a n e l -

S y s t e m a t i c review

ling; s o m e t i m e s e m p l o y e d

55

f o r p l y w o o d in E n g l a n d . T h e h e a r t w o o d of the S o u t h -

A m e r i c a n cedar is e x t r e m e l y resistant and t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r p l a n k i n g , b o a t building and for the skins of racing b o a t s and c a n o e s . Also used for cigar b o x e s . Specially e m p l o y e d f o r s o u n d b o a r d s of o r g a n s . Allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s has been described by Schleicher ( 1 9 7 4 ) caused by toona

Cedrela

w h o also o b t a i n e d positive p a t c h tests with the s a w d u s t . W o o d s & Calnan also

have k n o w l e d g e of some r e p o r t s of skin i r r i t a t i o n s . Several t r i t e r p e n o i d c o n s t i t u e n t s of the h e a r t w o o d have been isolated and i d e n t i f i e d by

Chan ( 1 9 7 2 ) , H o d g e s ( 1 9 6 3 ) , N a g a s a m p a s i ( 1 9 7 5 ) and Zelnik ( 1 9 7 1 ) , b u t they

c a n n o t be considered as c o n t a c t allergens. O u r o w n investigations revealed the o c c u r r e n c e of 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - p - b e n z o q u i n o n e in t h e h e a r t w o o d of the C e n t r a l A m e r i c a n species and in B u r m a c e d a r ( H a u s e n 1 9 7 8 ) ; it m a y play a s u b o r d i n a t e role as a sensitiser (see p . 4 7 ) . O t h e r u n k n o w n c o n s t i t u e n t s m a y be suggested as f u r t h e r sensitising agents in the cedar species. References C h a n , W . R . et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n 2 8 , 4 3 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Hausen, B.M.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 4 , 204 ( 1 9 7 8 ) H o d g e s , R . et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 2 5 2 2 N a g a s a m p a s i , B.A. et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 14, 1 6 7 3 ( 1 9 7 5 ) S c h l e i c h e r , H.: D e r m . M s c h r . 1 6 0 , 4 3 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ) W o o d s , B . et al.: Brit.J .Derm . 9 4 , S u p p l . 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 ) Z e l n i k , R . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 10, 1955 ( 1 9 7 1 )

Calocedrus

decurrens

( T o r r . ) Florin

Cedar,

Incense

( = Heyderia decurrens ( T o r r . ) K . K o c h ( = Libocedrus decurrens T o r r . ) (Cupressaceae) A tree native to C a l i f o r n i a , used f r e q u e n t l y for pencil m a n u f a c t u r e and locally for fence p o s t s , b o a r d i n g , Venetian blinds, c h e s t s and toys. T w o cases of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s of the h a n d s have been described by Calnan ( 1 9 7 2 ) . In a f e m a l e clerk t h e e c z e m a d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n the m i d d l e and the ring finger of the right h a n d , where she used to hold t h e p e n c i l . Later on the d e r m a t i t i s spread o u t to t h e l e f t a r m , the c h e s t , f a c e , tighs and calves. In the second case a c o n t a c t e c z e m a developed b e h i n d the ear, w h e r e t h e pencil was k e p t . In b o t h p a t i e n t s strong positive p a t c h tests were o b t a i n e d w i t h t h y m o q u i n o n e and t h y m o q u i n o l , weak r e a c t i o n s with carvacrol and a negative o n e with the three t h u j a plicins.

56

S y s t e m a t i c review

>cr 0 II

ii 0

Carvacrol

Thymoquinone

Thymoquinol

Incense cedar contains about 3 2 % carvacrol, 1 % t h y m o q u i n o l , 4 %

thymoquinone

a n d a b o u t 3 % of a - , 6 - a n d 7 - t h u j a p l i c i n ( A n d e r s o n et al. 1 9 6 5 ) . Positive patch

tests w i t h a 0 , 1 % c o n c e n t r a t i o n of t h y m o q u i n o n e w e r e also o b t a i n e d

b y B l e u m i n k ( 1 9 7 4 ) in a p a t i e n t . I n v e s t i g a t i o n s in o u r l a b o r a t o r y d i s c l o s e d t h y m o q u i n o n e as a r e l a t i v e l y s t r o n g s e n s i tiser (see

W e s t e r n red c e d a r ) . Cross-reactions are to be e x p e c t e d d u e to the c h e m i c a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s t r u c t u r e w i t h o t h e r k n o w n q u i n o n o i d sensitisers. T h e t h r e s h o l d of p r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n is b e t w e e n 0 , 3 a n d 1 % . T h u s p a t c h t e s t s o n l y s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s n o t e x c e e d i n g 0,1 % .

References A n d e r s o n , A . B . e t a l . : J . I n s t . W o o d Sci. ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 3 B l e u m i n k , E . et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 ) Calnan, C.D.: Trans.St.John's Hosp.Derm.Soc. 58, 43 ( 1 9 7 2 )

Thuja

plicata

( = Thuja

Donn ex D.Don

gigantea

Cedar,

Nuttal)

Western red A r b o r vitae

(Cupressaceae)

Rotzeder

A t r e e n a t i v e t o t h e W e s t c o a s t o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , b u t e x p o r t e d all o v e r t h e w o r l d , especially to Australia and J a p a n . A t i m b e r of g o o d stability, useful for interior and exterior

constructions,

Venetian

blinds, shingles, buildings, boat-building,

planking,

panelling and framing. B e s i d e s m a n y cases of b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a due to t h e s a w d u s t (see o b s e r v a t i o n s of allergic c o n t a c t

dermatitis have been

reported

next chapter) some by B l e u m i n k

(1972,

1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 4 ) , Burry ( 1 9 7 3 ) , Mitchell ( 1 9 7 4 ) and Orsler (1 9 6 9 ) . Bleumink got positive p a t c h t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h 7 - t h u j a p l i c i n , t h y m o q u i n o n e , m e t h y l - 1 , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e a n d 7hydroxy-4-isopropyltropolone, above).

thymoquinone

giving

the

strongest

response

(see

S y s t e m a t i c review

R

B-thujaplicin

R=-CH(CH3)2 R j

0

0

7-thujaplicin

OH

57

=

R2 ~ H

R = R2 = H R j =-CH(CH3)2

Methyl-1,4-benzo-

7-hydroxy-4-isopropyltropolone

quinone

R = H, R 2 = OH, R j

=-CH(CH3)2

A l r e a d y in 1 9 6 7 S u s k i n d s u c c e e d e d in s e n s i t i s i n g g u i n e a p i g s w i t h an e x t r a c t o f W e s t e r n r e d c e d a r . M a i d e n a l s o m e n t i o n e d a Thuja

s p e c i e s as e a r l y as 1 9 0 4 in a list o f 18

p l a n t s c a u s i n g d e r m a t i t i s . G r o s s m a n n ( 1 9 1 0 ) s u s p e c t e d Thuja gigantea

t o be i n j u r i o u s

to h e a l t h . Sensitisation of g u i n e a pigs using the m a x i m i s a t i o n test ( G P M T ) (see p. 29) w i t h ten different naturally occurring quinones demonstrated that t h y m o q u i n o n e developed the t h e h i g h e s t s e n s i t i s i n g c a p a c i t y in t h e a n i m a l s . P o s i t i v e t e s t r e s p o n s e s w e r e

obtained

d o w n to d i l u t i o n s of 0 , 0 1 % ( B u s k e 1 9 7 4 , H a u s e n 1 9 7 8 ) (see also Macassar). A c c o r d i n g to B l e u m i n k ( 1 9 7 4 ) the t h r e s h o l d of p r i m a r y irritation of

thymoquinone

lies a t 0 , 3 % in m a n ; h e t h e r e f o r e r e c o m m e n d e d t e s t i n g w i t h 0 , 1 % d i l u t i o n s . C a l n a n ( 1 9 7 2 ) tested his p a t i e n t s w i t h a 1 % c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d d e c l a r e d the r e s p o n s e s to be allergic o n e s . P r o b a b l y

h i s t h y m o q u i n o n e s a m p l e ( c o m m e r c i a l t h y m o q u i n o n e is i m -

pure) was c o n t a m i n a t e d , thus he got no p r i m a r y irritant reactions.

B e s i d e s t h a t Cal-

nan obtained a positive reaction to 6-thujapIicin. O u r o w n e x p e r i m e n t s in g u i n e a p i g s o f t h e P i r b r i g h t w h i t e - s t r a i n s h o w e d 0 , 3 % c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o be n o t p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t , b u t p a t c h

tests with the same c o n c e n t r a t i o n

in

n o n - s e n s i t i v e c o n t r o l s gave a w e a k r e s p o n s e . H o w e v e r , a n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t s u s i n g a n o t h e r g u i n e a p i g s t r a i n p r o d u c e d n o i r r i t a n t rea c t i o n s u p to 1 / 1 0 m o l a r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ( = 1,64 %). These discrepancies may

be a v o i d e d

by p a t c h

testing always with a 0,1 % d i l u t i o n .

References B l e u m i n k , E. et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 1 2 , 3 3 9 ( 1 9 7 2) B l e u m i n k , E. et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 8 8 , 4 9 9 ( 1 9 7 3 ) B l e u m i n k , E . et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 ) Buske, H.-H. Thesis: H a m b u r g

1974

Calnan, C.D.: Trans.St.John's Hosp.Derm.Soc. 58, 43 ( 1 9 7 2 ) G r o s s m a n n , J.: B a y e r . I n d . G e w e r b e b l . 96, 51 ( 1 9 1 0 ) H a u s e n , B . M . : C o n t a c t D e r m . 4 , 2 0 4 (1 9 7 8 )

58

Systematic review

Maiden, J.: Lancet ( 1 9 0 4 ) I, 1208 Orsler, R . J . : Timberlab. Papers N o . 1 1 , 1 ( 1 9 6 9 ) S u s k i n d , R . R . : Arch.Envirnm.Health I S , 322 ( 1 9 6 7 )

Castanea sativa Mill. (Fagaceae)

Chestnut, Sweet Spanish chestnut European chestnut

Grows in E u r o p e , N o r t h Africa and the Near East. Resembles Oak in its appearance. Is used for furniture, ornamental bowls, kitchen utensils, walking sticks, umbrella handles, veneers, fences, gates, railroad sleepers, boat-building. Extraction of tannins is c o m m o n in some countries. Dermatitis of the h a n d s in woodmen working with Chestnut in the forests has been described as ' main de crocodile' in the 1930's (Horand 1907, Navarro Martin 1932, Senear 1933, Spillman 1931). It is suggested, however, that all these s y m p t o m s of dermatitis were not due to the wood itself, but probably to the occurrence of liverworts and lichens occurring on and in the bark of the trees. These Frullania and Parmelia species contain sensitising agents which have been identified as sesquiterpene lactones (Mitchell 1965, 1969, Tenchio 1948) (see Beech p. 42). There is only slight evidence that the wood itself contains any sensitising substance. References H o r a n d , R.: Gaz.HR-and S-4-methoxydalbergione > S-4,4'-dimethoxydalbergione >S-4'-hydroxy-4-metho x y d a l b e r g i o n e (see also Brazilian r o s e w o o d , p . 107, C o c o b o l o , p . 58 and Caviuna verm e l h a , p. 5 1).

0

Dihy d r o - 2 ' , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e

S o m e o t h e r Dalbergia

Latinone

Ph = P h e n y l

species are used c o m m e r c i a l l y , e.g. for f u r n i t u r e , x y l o p h o n e

k e y s , t u r n e r y and p a r t s of m u s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s . Most of t h e m have been r e p o r t e d t o be toxic or i r r i t a n t , o t h e r s are k n o w n t o contain the sensitising d a l b e r g i o n e s :

Botanical name Dalbergia

baroni

Baker

Trade name

References

Madagascar r o s e w o o d

Dietrichs 1971 Donnelly 1965/68

D.barretoana

Hoehne

D.cocchinchinensis

Pierre

Silva Braga 1967 Siam r o s e w o o d

Dietrichs 1971 D o n n e l l y 1968

D.inundata D.lanceolaris

Bentham & Hooker L.

Leite de A l m e i d a Lewin 1928

S y s t e m a t i c review

D.riparia D.sisso

(Mart.) Bentham

11 1

Braz Filho 1973

Roxb.

Sisham

Dietrichs 1971 K u l s h r e s t h 1974

D.spruceana

(Veil.) F r . A l l .

Para Jacaranda'

C o o k 1978

Honduras rosewood

W o o d s 1976

Brazilian t u l i p w o o d

K u r a s a w a 1978

Dietrichs 1971 D.stevensonii

Standley

D.toxicaría

Baillon

D.variabilis

Vog.

D.villosa

L e w i n 1928

Bentham

D. violacea

Silva Braga 1967

(Vog.) Malme

E y t o n 1965 G o t t l i e b 1966 Gregson 1978 Ollis 1964

( O u r investigation of a sample of Dalbergia rence of dalbergiones)

variabilis

gave n o evidence f o r the occur-

References Braz F i l h o , R . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 12, 1 187 ( 1 9 7 3 ) C o o k , J . T . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 17, 1419 ( 1 9 7 8 ) C r i o d a i n , R . O . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 2 0 ( 1 9 8 1 ) in press C r o n i n , E. et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 1, 120 ( 1 9 7 5 ) D e m p s e y , C.B. et al.: C h e m . I n d . ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 4 9 1 D i e t r i c h s , H . H . et al.: H o l z f o r s c h . 25, 183 ( 1 9 7 1 ) D o n n e l l y , B . J . et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n lett. ( 1 9 6 5 ) , 4 4 5 1 ; P h y t o c h e m . 4 , 3 3 7 ( 1 9 6 5 ) T e t r a h e d r o n 2 4 , 2 6 1 7 ( 1 9 6 8 ) ; P h y t o c h e m . 7, 6 4 7 ( 1 9 6 8 ) E y t o n , W.B. et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n 2 1 , 2 6 8 3 ( 1 9 6 5 ) Findley, L.J.: Brit.J.Ind.Med. 29, 343 (1972) Garrat, G.A.: J.Forest. 2 0 , 4 7 9 (1922) G o t t l i e b , O . R . et al.: A n . A s s o c . b r a s i l . Q u i m . 2 5 , 85 ( 1 9 6 6 ) G r e g s o n , M. et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 17, 1375 ( 1 9 7 8 ) H a u s e n , B.M. et al.: O c c u p a t . E n v i r n m . D e r m . 2 7 , 18 ( 1 9 7 9 ) H a u s t e i n , H . D . : D e r m . M s c h r . 1981 in press K u l s h r e s t h , S.V. et al.: I n d i a n J . C h e m . 12, 10 ( 1 9 7 4 ) K u m a r i , D. et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n l e t t . ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 3 7 6 7 K u r a s a w a , K . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 1 7 , 1 4 1 7 ( 1 9 7 8 ) Leite de A l m e i d a , M. et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 13, 75 1 ( 1 9 7 4 ) L e w i n , L. G i f t e im H o l z g e w e r b e . G.Stilke: Berlin 1928, H e f t 1 Ollis, W.D. e t al.: A n . A c a d . b r a s i l . C i e n c . 3 6 , 3 1 ( 1 9 6 4 ) R a o , M.M. et al.: T e t r a h e d r o n l e t t . ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 21 1 S c h m a l l e , H . et al.: N a t u r w i s s . 6 6 , 5 2 7 ( 1 9 7 9 ) S c h u l z , K . H . et al.: A r c h . D e r m . R e s . 2 6 4 , 2 7 5 ( 1 9 7 9 ) Silva Braga, A . d e et al.: A n . A c a d . b r a s i l . C i e n c . 3 9 , 2 4 9 ( 1 9 6 7 ) S t e r n , E . : M u n c h . m e d . W s c h r . 4 2 , 739 ( 1 8 9 1 ) S t e r n b e r g , M.: Med.Klinik 14, 4 7 9 ( 1 9 0 8 ) W o o d s , B. et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

112

Systematic review

Entandophragma (Meliaceae)

cylindricum

Sprague

Sapete Sapeli

A tree mative to West Africa. A timber of m a h o g a n y - t y p e , used as for African mahogany species (see p. 87) for f u r n i t u r e , j o i n e r y , mouldings, p l y w o o d , flooring, and as a decorative veneer. Irritations of the skin have been m e n t i o n e d by several a u t h o r s (see References), but all reports were w i t h o u t convincing patch testing results. T w o cases have been seen by Woods & Calnan with weakly positive test responses. The causative factors are unk n o w n . Sensitising e x p e r i m e n t s are in progress. References Brezina, E. in: T e l e k y : Wiener Arbeiten aus dem Gebiet der sozialen Medizin, Verlag A .Holder: Vienna 1 9 1 2 / 1 9 1 3 Samygija-Tolordava, T . A . : Gig.Sanit. 3 7 , 93 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Sevljakov, L.V.: V e s t n . D e r m . V e n e r o l . (Moscov) 4 3 , 73 ( 1 9 6 9 ) Woods, B. et al.: Brit.J.Derm. 9 4 , Suppl. 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 ) Z a f i r o p o u l o , A. et al.: Folia Allergol. 15, 3 9 6 ( 1 9 6 8 )

Chloroxylon (Rutaceae)

swietenia

DC

Satinwood, Ceylon East Indian satinwood

A tree native to India, and especially to Sri Lanka. The h e a r t w o o d is light to golden yellow, darkening a f t e r some time to a s o f t brown colour. As it is remarkable lustrous its n a m e is S a t i n w o o d . Owing to its decorative appearance it has been used for 80 years for cabinet work and interior f u r n i t u r e in ships. Generally used as a decorative veneer, but also for interior joinery and fancy goods. The first report of c o n t a c t dermatitis in cabinet makers in ship yards in England are from J o n e s ( 1 9 0 4 ) . As West Indian satinwood was also imported into England at that time there has been some confusion as to which of these timbers - East Indian or West Indian - was producing the toxic and irritant effects. Legge ( 1 9 0 7 ) accused the East Indian wood whereas Bidie ( 1 9 0 5 ) blamed the West Indian satinwood. There is also d o u b t in Gardiner's ( 1 9 0 8 ) and Wechselmann's ( 1 9 0 9 ) cases as to the causative species. Nestler ( 1 9 2 4 ) p e r f o r m e d some investigations on his own skin (with a sample of ' S a t i n w o o d ' ) , but w i t h o u t success. The chemical investigation of Auld ( 1 9 0 9 ) led to the isolation of the alkaloid skimmianine (see p.113), which was studied two years later by Cash ( 1 9 1 1 ) . The c o m p o u n d p r o d u c e d inflammation of the skin. Cash's study was o n e of the first e x p e r i m e n t s in the field of delayed-type hypersensitivity. At that time patch tests were u n c o m m o n and m o s t of the authors were n o t familiar with that kind of experiment in h u m a n beings. The term 'allergy' had been introduced to medicine some five years before by von Pirquet (1906). The 'sensitising' effect of skimmi-

S y s t e m a t i c review

113

OCH 3 H3CO OCH3 Skimmianine Alkaloid of East Indian s a t i n w o o d w i t h blistering p r o p e r t i e s ( n a m e d C h l o r o x y l o n i n e by Auld 1 9 0 9 )

n i n e , which had been n a m e d c h l o r o x y l o n i n e by A u l d ( 1 9 0 9 ) , was n o t c o n v i n c i n g , but Cash c o u l d

n o t k n o w at t h a t time t h a t alkaloids are n o t sensitisers,but at best hista-

mine-liberating s u b s t a n c e s . S o m e 3 0 y e a r s later M o o k e r j e e et al. ( 1 9 4 6 ) s h o w e d that c h l o r o x y l o n i n e is identical with s k i m m i a n i n e . It has blistering p r o p e r t i e s . B e y o n d this alkaloid East Indian s a t i n w o o d c o n t a i n s s o m e c o u m a r i n s and f u r o c o u m a r i n s w i t h p h o t o t o x i c p r o p e r t i e s (King 1 9 5 4 , V r k o c 1 9 7 2 ) . O u r sensitising e x p e r i m e n t s in 15 guinea pigs using the O E T (see p. 3 0 ) failed. Chemical investigation of t h e e t h e r - , a c e t o n e - and e t h a n o l e x t r a c t s revealed n e i t h e r a quin o n e n o r any o t h e r c o m p o u n d which c o u l d be suspected as a sensitiser

(unpublished).

As n o f u r h t e r cases have b e e n r e p o r t e d since the p u b l i c a t i o n s of 1 9 0 8 - 191 1 it may be suggested t h a t t h e f o r m e r o u t b r e a k s of d e r m a t i t i s were n o t allergic but r a t h e r phot o t o x i c r e a c t i o n s p r o d u c e d by t h e f u r o c o u m a r i n s and related c o m p o u n d s of the w o o d . References A u l d , J.M.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 0 9 ) , 964 Bidie, G.: B r i t . m e d . J .

( 1 9 0 5 ) , 74

Cash, F . : B r i t . m e d . J . ( 1 9 1 1 ) , 7 8 4 Gardiner, F.: Brit.med. J . ( 1 9 0 8 )

II, 1231

J o n e s , H . E . : B r i t . m e d . J . ( 1 9 0 4 ) II, 1484 King, F . E . et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 5 4 ) , 1 3 9 2 Legge, T . M . A n n . R e p . C h i e f I n s p . F a c t . W o r k s h o p s ( 1 9 0 7 ) , 248 M o o k e r j e e , A. et al.: J . I n d i a n c h e m . S o c . 2 3 , 1 ( 1 9 4 6 ) Nestler, A.: Umschau 28, 1007 (1924) von P i r q u e t , C.: Miinch.med.Wschr. 5 3 , 1 4 5 7 ( 1 9 0 6 ) V r k o c , J . e t al.: P h y t o c h e m . 1 1 , 2 6 4 7 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Wechselmann: Dtsch.med.Wschr. 35, 1389 ( 1 9 0 9 )

114

Systematic review

Fagara flava Krug & Urban ( = Zanthoxylum flavum Vahl)

Satinwood, West Indian San Domingan satinwood

(Rutaceae) There is still disagreement between t a x o n o m i s t s and among p h y t o c h e m i s t s as to where to p u t this species - in the Fagara or Zanthoxylum (Xanthoxylum) genus. O t h e r species with a lustrous appearance have also been named ' S a t i n w o o d ' though they do n o t belong to either of these genera, but they are all described as toxic. Grows in the West Indies, Bermuda, the Bahamas and southern Florida. The timber is non-durable, b u t has a lustrous or golden yellow colour, darkening with e x p o s u r e . Suitable for cabinet w o r k , high-class f u r n i t u r e and interior decorative work, inlays, fancy goods and for turnery. S a t i n w o o d dermatitis has been reported by several authors (see References). West Indian satinwood was also examined by Auld & Pickles in 1912 (see East Indian satinw o o d p. 1 12). They isolated two c o m p o u n d s believed to be lactones. Both were passed to Cash ( 1 9 1 1 ) for f u r t h e r pharmacological studies but he never published his results so it m u s t be supposed that the studies were w i t h o u t success. A later chemical study by Freise ( 1 9 3 6 ) yielded an oily alkaloid which when tested on dogs and cats was f o u n d to be highly toxic. King et al. isolated in 1954 several coumarins of the Psoralene type (see Table 4 , p. 24) which are k n o w n for their p h o t o t o x i c and photosensitising properties. At least two other so-called Satinwoods have been held responsible for irritating effects: Fagara macrophylla Engler (African s a t i n w o o d , Olongvogo) (Hausen 1970) and Fagara heitzii A u b r . & Pell. (Olon) (Pillon 1935, Woods 1976). References A u l d , S.J.M. et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 1 2 ) , 1052 Balban, W. in: Wiener Arbeiten aus dem Gebiet der sozialen Medizin. Ed. by Teleky. A .Holder: Vienna 1910 Cash, J . T . : Brit.med.J. (1 91 1), 784 Freise, F.W.: S a m m l . V e r g i f t f . C 7, 61 ( 1 9 3 6 ) G r a b h a m , M.: Brit.med.J. ( 1 9 0 5 ) , 822 H a u s e n , B.M. Thesis, Univ. Hamburg 1970 H e r x h e i m e r , K.: Dtsch.med.Wschr. 1, 18 ( 1 9 1 2 ) Koelsch, F.: Zsch.Gewerbehyg.Unfallverh. 23, 622 ( 1 9 0 9 ) Meachen, G.N.: Hospital ( L o n d o n ) 43, 625 ( 1 9 0 8 ) Noll, R.: Zbl.Haut Geschlkrkh. 3 8 , 4 3 7 ( 1 9 3 1 ) O p p e n h e i m , M.: Med.Blätter 36, 25 ( 1 9 1 4 ) Pillon et al.: Bull.Soc.franc.Derm. 42, 3 8 0 ( 1 9 3 5 ) Siegheim: Berl.klin.Wschr. 45, 2020 ( 1 9 0 9 ) S m i t h , E.P.: J.Bot. 58, 130 ( 1 9 2 0 ) T o u r r a i n e , J. et al.: Bull.Soc.franc.Derm. 39, 1392 ( 1 9 3 2 ) V o l k , R.: Arch.Derm. (Berlin) 109, 163 ( 1 9 1 1 ) W o o d s , B. et al.: Brit.J.Derm. 94, Suppl. 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

S y s t e m a t i c review

Picea abies

Karsten

Spruce,

(Pinaceae)

1 15

European

(White w o o d ) , Fichte

O n e o f t h e m o s t u s e d t i m b e r s of E u r o p e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n s , t e l e g r a p h p o l e s , f r a m e w o r k , flooring, boxes etc. M o s t c a s e s s e e n c o n c e r n i n g S p r u c e are a s t h m a t i c ( s e e C h p a t e r I I I ) . D e r m a t i t i s is r a r e . P r o s s e r W h i t e ( 1 9 3 4 ) s a w v e s i c l e s o n t h e h a n d s a f t e r c u t t i n g a n d s a n d p a p e r i n g o f Silver s p r u c e ( P . s i t c h e n s i s C a r r . ) . F r e g e r t e t al. ( 1 9 6 3 ) r e p o r t e d c a s e s o f s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e b a l s a m s of Pine a n d S p r u c e . White ( 1 9 1 7 ) m e n t i o n e d ' p o i s o n i n g ' by S p r u c e . B o n n e v i e ( 1 9 3 9 ) observed t w o cases of dermatitis with positive patch tests to turpentine, while Kriiger ( 1 9 2 4 ) m e n t i o n e d a n e c z e m a c a u s e d b y f r e s h c o n s t r u c t i o n w o o d , p r o b a b l y S p r u c e . B l e u m i n k e t al. ( 1 9 7 4 ) o b t a i n e d f o u r p o s i t i v e p a t c h t e s t s w i t h S p r u c e , W o o d s ( 1 9 7 6 ) o n e . We h a v e s t u d i e d t h e c a s e o f a p l u m b e r e n g a g e d m a i n l y in t h e f i x i n g o f gutters on new h o u s e s . F o r this p u r p o s e he h a d to saw and s m o o t h S p r u c e p l a n k s ( b o a r d s ) o n w h i c h h e l a t e r f i x e d t h e g u t t e r s . H e d e v e l o p e d d e r m a t i t i s o f t h e f a c e a n d n e c k recurring several t i m e s . O n e severe a t t a c k h a p p e n d e d w h e n he w o r k e d inside a vat, lined w i t h S p r u c e p l a n k i n g . E t h a n o l i c e x t r a c t s o f t h e w o o d gave s t r o n g p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s ; S p a n i s h t u r p e n t i n e oil a l s o p r o d u c e d a p o s i t i v e s k i n r e s p o n s e . S e v e n f r a c t i o n s o b t a i n e d f r o m the e x t r a c t by thin-layer c h r o m a t o g r a p h y p r o d u c e d weak t o strong reactions, one of t h e m c o n t a i n e d a Craven-positive c o m p o u n d

(unpublished).

T h e t u r p e n t i n e o b t a i n e d f r o m S p r u c e is r i c h in t e r p e n e s , e s p e c i a l l y in A - c a r e n e . It is s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e h y d r o p e r o x i d e s o f t h e s e t e r p e n e s ( S c h a n t z e t al. 1 9 6 6 ) m a y p l a y a r o l e as s e n s i t i s e r s ( s e e F i r , p . 6 8 ) .

References B l e u m i n k , E . et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 ) B o n n e v i e , P. A tiologie u n d P a t h o g e n e s e der E k z e m k r a n k h e i t e n . N o r d i s k F o r l a g : Kflbnhavn 1939 F r e g e r t , S. e t al.: A r c h . D e r m . 8 7 , 6 9 3 ( 1 9 6 3 ) Kriiger, H.: Z b l . H a u t G e s c h l k r k h . 1 1 , 4 3 6 ( 1 9 2 4 ) Prosser White, R. T h e dermatergoses. 4th ed. H.K.Lewis & Co: L o n d o n

1934

v o n S c h a n t z , M . e t al.: A c t a B o t . F e n n . N o . 7 3 , 5 1 ( 1 9 6 6 ) White, J.C.: J . A m . m e d . A s s o c . 6 8 , 81 ( 1 9 1 7 ) W o o d s , B . e t al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 1 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Bowdichia

nitida

Bentham

Sucupira

(Legumin.- Papilion.) T h e n a m e S u c u p i r a o r S e b i p i r a is also u s e d f o r t h e B r a z i l i a n s p e c i e s o f Diplotropis Ferreira

spectabilis

F r . A l l . T h e h e a r t w o o d is d a r k c h o c o l a t e - b r o w n w i t h

and

conspicous

p a l e r m a r k i n g s g i v i n g a d e c o r a t i v e a p p e a r a n c e . I t is b e s t s u i t e d f o r s t r u c t u r a l p u r p o s e s

116

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a n d m o s t l y u s e d in E u r o p e f o r f l o o r i n g . I t is also of i n t e r e s t f o r t u r n e d articles a n d as a v e n e e r f o r i n l a y s in high-class f u r n i t u r e . C a s e s of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s have been m e n t i o n e d by Freise ( 1 9 3 2 ) and D a n t i n - G a l e g o ( 1 9 5 2 ) . In 1 9 6 6 H e y l d e s c r i b e d an allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s in a j o i n e r . O u r investig a t i o n s r e v e a l e d the o c c u r r e n c e of three q u i n o n e s in t h e w o o d w h i c h w e r e i s o l a t e d , p u r i f i e d and p a t c h - t e s t e d in H e y l ' s p a t i e n t . All t h r e e q u i n o n o i d f r a c t i o n s p r o d u c e d s t r o n g p o s i t i v e b u t d i f f e r e n t r e a c t i o n s . T h e f i r s t q u i n o n e was i d e n t i f i e d as 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - 1 , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e ( H a u s e n et al. 1 9 7 2 ) (see also p . 4 7 ) . T h e s e c o n d q u i n o n e was f o u n d t o be t h e first n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g i s o - f l a v o n e q u i n o n e ( B r o w n et al. 1 9 7 4 ) . It w a s n a m e d b o w d i c h i o n e . T h e t h i r d q u i n o n e is still u n k n o w n b u t m a y be r e l a t e d t o t h e d a l b e r g i o n e s , as t h e p a t i e n t d e v e l o p e d c r o s s - r e a c t i o n s t o R - 3 , 4 - d i m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e a n d S - 4 ' - h y d r o x y - 4 - m e t h o x y d a l b e r g i o n e (see R o s e w o o d s , p p . 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 ) . Sensitising e x p e r i m e n t s in g u i n e a pigs using t h e o p e n e p i c u t a n e o u s m e t h o d ( O E T , see. p . 3 0 ) w e r e s u c c e s s f u l . A r e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of S u c u p i r a w o o d revealed t h e o c c u r r e n c e of at least five q u i n o n o i d c o n s t i t u e n t s all o f w h i c h gave positive r e a c t i o n s in t h e sensitised animals (unpublished).

Bowdichione 7-Hy d r o x y - 3 ( 5 - m e t h o x y - l ,4-benzoquinone-2-yl)-chromone

References B r o w n , P.M. et al.: L i e b . A n n . C h e m . ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 2 9 5 D a n t i n - G a l e g o , J. et al.: I n d . m e d . S u r g . 2 1 , 1 ( 1 9 5 2 ) Freise, F.W.: A r c h . G e w e r b e h y g . 3, 1 ( 1 9 3 2 ) H a u s e n , B.M . et al.: B e r u f s d e r m . 2 0 , 1 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Heyl, U.: Berufsderm. 14, 239 (1966)

S y s t e m a t i c review

Tectona

grand is L.

117

Teak

(Verbenaceae) T e a k c o m e s f r o m I n d i a , B u r m a , T h a i l a n d , I n d o - C h i n a and J a v a , a n d h a s also been p l a n t e d in A f r i c a and t h e West I n d i e s . T h e w o o d is b r o w n and s o m e t i m e s f i g u r e d with d a r k s t r e a k s , T e a k is strongly t e r m i t e r e s i s t a n t . Like L e b a n o n cedar it is one of the o l d e s t t r a d e t i m b e r s of t h e w o r l d , and was used in B a b y l o n and E g y p t 4 0 0 0 y e a r s ago. U s e d especially in ship building y a r d s f o r d e c k i n g , rails, b u l w a r k s , h a t c h e s , w e a t h e r d o o r s owing to its g o o d resistance to w a t e r w h i c h m a y be a t t r i b u t e d to its high r u b b e r c o n t e n t . Used also f o r i n t e r i o r f i t t i n g s and m o u l d i n g s , f u r n i t u r e , e x t e r i o r j o i n e r y and f l o o r i n g . Has a g o o d resistance t o c h e m i c a l s and is t h e r e f o r e used f o r s c r u b b i n g t o w e r s , vats a n d f u m e d u c t s . T e a k h a s l o n g b e e n k n o w n for its ' t o x i c ' p r o p e r t i e s . T h e first case of d e r m a t i t i s w a s rep o r t e d in a ' l e t t e r t o t h e e d i t o r ' in ' T h e L a n c e t ' 1 8 9 6 ( A n o n y m o u s ) , while t h e first f u l l d e s c r i p t i o n of a case of c o n t a c t allergy was given by Evans ( 1 9 0 5 ) . S i n c e t h a t time m o r e t h a n 55 p a p e r s dealing w i t h T e a k allergy or its sensitising c o n s t i t u e n t s have been p u b l i s h e d all over t h e w o r l d . T h e first c h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n was carried o u t by M a t t h e s & S c h r e i b e r in 1 9 1 4 . H o f f m a n n ( 1 9 2 6 ) was t h e first to d e c l a r e t h a t T e a k d e r m a t i tis is d u e to a s p e c i f i c h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y against t h i s w o o d . O n e of the possible sensitisers - l a p a c h o l - was f o u n d in 1 9 5 9 by S a n d e r m a n n & D i e t r i c h s , b u t S c h u l z ( 1 9 6 2 ) noticed d u r i n g p a t c h t e s t i n g t h a t t h e r e o u g h t to be a n o t h e r - s t r o n g e r - sensitiser in the w o o d . T h i s s e c o n d c o n s t i t u e n t - d e o x y l a p a c h o l ( D O L ) - was first d i s c o v e r e d and ident i f i e d by S a n d e r m a n n & S i m a t u p a n g ( 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 3 ) . D e o x y l a p a c h o l d i f f e r s f r o m lapac h o l o n l y b y t h e a b s e n c e of t h e h y d r o x y g r o u p at the third c a r b o n a t o m of t h e quin o n e ring. S c h u l z ( 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 7 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t this c o n s t i t u e n t was the sensitiser,

primary

giving 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 t i m e s s t r o n g e r p a t c h test r e a c t i o n s t h a n l a p a c h o l . O u t -

b r e a k s of allergic c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s in a f u r n i t u r e f a c t o r y w e r e s t u d i e d by K r o g h in 1 9 6 2 and 1 9 6 4 . In seven o u t of 13 p a t i e n t s c r o s s - r e a c t i o n s t o R o s e w o o d ( p r o b a b l y Brazilian r o s e w o o d ) w e r e o b s e r v e d , a l t h o u g h R o s e w o o d had never b e e n used in t h a t factory.

F o r t y f o u r p a t i e n t s sensitive to T e a k have b e e n seen in r e c e n t y e a r s at St.

J o h n ' s H o s p i t a l in L o n d o n ( W o o d s & C a l n a n ) ; m o s t of the i n t e r e s t i n g cases dealing w i t h T e a k allergy are given in t h e R e f e r e n c e s . T h e c o n t e n t of t h e p r i m a r y sensitiser - d e o x y l a p a c h o l - m a y vary so m u c h in the heartw o o d t h a t s o m e s a m p l e s c o n t a i n n o n e , w h e r e a s o t h e r s a m p l e s f r o m o t h e r s o u r c e s may yield very large a m o u n t s . P l a n t a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s carried o u t n e a r H a m b u r g ( W - G e r m a n y ) s h o w e d t h a t it is possible to grow T e a k w i t h c o n t a i n i n g little or n o d e o x y l a p a c h o l . T e a k g r o w n in S o u t h A f r i c a a l w a y s c o n t a i n s very small a m o u n t s of the sensitiser ( D u e holm 1970, Simatupang 1964). E x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s on the sensitising c a p a c i t y of D O L and l a p a c h o l in g u i n e a pigs w e r e m a d e a n d p u b l i s h e d b e t w e e n 1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 7 7 ( S c h u l z et al. 1 9 7 7 ) . Using d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d such as t h e o p e n e p i c u t a n e o u s and s u b c u t a n e o u s s e n s i t i s a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s (see p . 3 0 ) it c o u l d be d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t D O L is a very s t r o n g sensitiser. By m e a n s of t h e s a m e m e t h o d s is was not possible to sensitise guinea pigs w i t h l a p a c h o l ; o n l y cross r e a c t i o n s c o u l d be elicited with l a p a c h o l in D O L - s e n s i t i v e g u i n e a pigs. L a p a c h o l t h u s

118

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must be considered as elicitor or secondary allergen that may elicit reactions but is n o t able to induce specific hypersensitivity alone ( f o r structure see p. 28, 8 0 , 102). These results are in accordance with the hypothesis of Mayer, w h o suggested in 1928/ 1929 t h a t only those benzo- and n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s which are able to conjugate with p r o t e i n s of the body and thus complete to a full antigen are effective, i.e. q u i n o n e s with an u n s u b s t i t u t e d position in the q u i n o n o i d ring, (see also Chapter on Wood Chem i s t r y , p. 21 - 2 9 ) . Cross-reactions obtained in animal experiments with DOL-sensitive guinea pigs and related q u i n o n e s have been seen for example between DOL and primin ( f r o m Primula obconica), dalbergiones and mansonones. These results corroborate the findings of Krogh ( 1 9 6 2 , 1964) and H j o r t h (1966) m e n t i o n e d above in connection with Brazilian rosewood supporting the view t h a t closely related quinones are able to elicit cross-reactions (see Figure 5, p. 20). References (Selected) A n o n y m o u s : Lancet ( 1 8 9 6 ) , 1 113 and 1 193 Carrie, C. et al.: Dtsch.med.Wschr. 80, 3 3 ( 1 9 5 5 ) Cleland, J.B.: Aust.Med.Gaz. 3 5 , 569 ( 1 9 1 4 ) D u e h o l m , S. Thesis, Univ. Hamburg 1970 Evans, W.: Brit.J.Derm. ( 1 9 0 5 ) , 4 4 7 H j o r t h , N.: T r a n s . S t . J o h n ' s Hosp.Derm.Soc. 5 2 , 207 ( 1 9 6 6 ) H o f f m a n n , H.: Zbl. G e w e r b e h y g . (1926), 333 H u n t , E.: Lancet ( 1 9 3 1 ) I, 75 J o h n : Ä rztl.Sachverst.Ztg 8, 170 (1913) J o n e s , H.E.: Glasgow m e d . J . 126, 286 ( 1 9 3 6 ) K r o g h , H.K.: Brit.J.Ind.Med. 19, 42 ( 1 9 6 2 ) and 21, 65 ( 1 9 6 4 ) M a t t h e s , H. et al.: Ber.dtsch.pharm.Ges. 24, 3 8 5 ( 1 9 1 4 ) Mayer, R.L.: A r c h . D e r m . (Berlin) 156, 331 ( 1 9 2 8 ) and 158, 266 ( 1 9 2 9 ) Klin.Wschr. 7, 1958 ( 1 9 2 8 ) Oliver, T. Diseases of O c c u p a t i o n . Methuen & Co: L o n d o n 1908 R e u s c h e r , B.: Klin.Monatsbl.Augenheilk. 82, 8 0 2 ( 1 9 2 9 ) S a n d e r m a n n , W. et al.: Holzforsch. 13, 137 (1 9 5 9 ) ; Angew.Chem. 74, 782 ( 1 9 6 2 ) Chem.Ber. 9 6 , 2182 ( 1 9 6 3 ) S c h m i d t , H.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 4 , 176 ( 1 9 7 8 ) S c h m i d t , P. Thesis, Univ. Hamburg 1963 Schulz, K.H. et al.: Berufsderm. 10, 1 7 ( 1 9 6 2 ) ; Zschr.Haut Geschlkrkh. 4 2 , 499 (1967); Arch.Derm.Res. 258,41 (1977) S i m a t u p a n g , M.H. Thesis, Univ. Hamburg 1964 V o n k e n n e l , H.: Zbl. Haut Geschlkrkh. 3 0 , 14 and 691 ( 1 9 2 9 ) Wenger: Zbl. H a u t Geschlkrkh. 2 2 , 607 ( 1 9 2 7 ) Wiener: Arch.Derm. (Berlin) 137, 139 ( 1 9 2 1 ) Wilson, D.R. A n n . R e p . C h i e f Insp.Fact.Workshops ( 1 9 3 5 ) , 60 Woods, B. et al.: Brit.J .Derm. 9 4 , Suppl. 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

S y s t e m a t i c review

Entandophragma

utile

119

Utile

Sprague

Sipo

(Meliaceae)

A W e s t A f r i c a n t i m b e r o f m a h o g a n y - t y p e . U s e d as f o r S a p e l e a n d A f r i c a n m a h o g a n y , e.g. f o r f u r n i t u r e , c a b i n e t w o r k , i n t e r i o r a n d e x t e r i o r j o i n e r y , c o n s t r u c t i o n s , f r a m e s , mouldings, fittings, decoratice veneer etc. I r r i t a t i o n s c a u s e d b y t h e w o o d h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d in N i g e r i a n w o r k e r s ( W o o d s 1 9 7 6 ) . A case of Utile d e r m a t i t i s was r e p o r t e d from East-Germany kov (1969) from

(Schleicher

from England (Woods & Calnan), another

1974). F u r t h e r observations originate from Shevlja-

the Soviet U n i o n . Bleumink ( 1 9 7 4 ) obtained three positive

patch

t e s t s in h i s p a t i e n t s . S a p e l e a n d U t i l e a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y , b u t t h e i r s e n s i t i s i n g e f f e c t s are l o w . S e n s i t i s i n g e x p e r i m e n t s in g u i n e a p i g s w e r e s u c c e s s f u l , b u t t h e m e a n r e s p o n s e ( see p . 3 1 ) r e m a i n e d l o w . A possible role m a y be p l a y e d by 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e , identified recently (Hausen

1978).

References B l e u m i n k , E . et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 ) H a u s e n , B.M.: C o n t a c t D e r m . 4, 2 0 4 ( 1 9 7 8 ) S c h l e i c h e r , H . : D e r m . M s c h r . 160, 4 3 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ) S e v l j a k o v , L . V . : V e s t n . D e r m . V e n e r o l . ( M o s c o v ) 43, 73 ( 1 9 6 9 ) W o o d s , B. e t a l . : B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 13, 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

Juglans

regia

L.

Juglans

nigra

L.

Walnut,

European

Walnut,

(Juglandaceae)

Black Walnuß

T h o u g h t h i s t r e e is n a t i v e t o E u r o p e , w e s t e r n a n d c e n t r a l A s i a t i m b e r - p r o d u c i n g t r e e s o f c o m m e r c i a l v a l u e o n l y g r o w in I t a l y , F r a n c e , Y u g o s l a v i a a n d T u r k e y . W a l n u t t r e e s a r e c u l t i v a t e d in n o r t h I n d i a a n d C h i n a . In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B l a c k w a l n u t is u s e d . Waln u t is o n e

o f t h e m o s t d e s i r a b l e t i m b e r s f o r u s e as v e n e e r , in c a b i n e t m a k i n g , f u r n i -

t u r e m a n u f a c t u r e a n d d e c o r a t i v e p a n e l l i n g ; in s o l i d f o r m f o r h i g h - q u a l i t y

furniture,

f a n c y g o o d s , gun a n d rifle s t o c k s . C a s e r e p o r t s o f d e r m a t i t i s c a u s e d b y b o t h w o o d s a r e rare a n d d o u b t f u l . T h e n u t shells, o n l y , o f W a l n u t t r e e s c o n t a i n a s i m p l e n a p h t h o q u i n o n e - j u g l o n e - w h i c h m a y be responsible for some cases of c o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s of the h a n d s

contracted after handling

t h e g r e e n s h e l l s r e p o r t e d b y B a r n i s k e 1 9 5 7 ) a n d S i e g e l ( 1 9 5 4 ) . S c h ü r k ä m p e r ( 1 9 7 2 ) in his screening tests of s o m e h u n d r e d w o o d w o r k e r s f o u n d positive p a t c h tests t o E u r o pean

w a l n u t in five p e r s o n s , b u t t h e s e t e s t r e s p o n s e s o c c u r r e d a l w a y s in c o n n e c t i o n

w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s p o s i t i v e r e a c t i o n s t o T e a k a n d C o c o b o l o . S c h l e i c h e r ( 1 9 7 4 ) saw a c a s e o f c o n t a c t e c z e m a in a c a b i n e t m a k e r w i t h p o s i t i v e t e s t s t o m o i s t W a l n u t s a w d u s t .

120

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C o n t r o l s w e r e n e g a t i v e . H e s u p p o s e d t h a t j u g l o n e was i m p l i c a t e d b a s e d on his belief t h a t this c o m p o u n d o c c u r s in t h e w o o d . We e x a m i n e d a w o o d w o r k e r w h o d e v e l o p e d slight d e r m a t i t i s , i t c h i n g a n d r h i n i t i s a f t e r intensive c o n t a c t w i t h s a w d u s t d u r i n g t h e c u t t i n g of W a l n u t b o a r d s a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n of W a l n u t v e n e e r s . E p i c u t a n e o u s t e s t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t w o o d species o n l y gave a + + - r e a c t i o n w i t h W a l n u t a n d a w e a k r e a c t i o n t o Brazilian r o s e w o o d and T e a k . The ' r u b b i n g t e s t ' (see p . 8) w i t h W a l n u t shavings p r o d u c e d a rash a f t e r 2 - 3 m i n u t e s . A c h e m i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n of a W a l n u t e t h a n o l ext r a c t led to a p o s i t i v e c o l o u r r e a c t i o n w i t h t h e C r a v e n - t e s t on a n a l y t i c a l t h i n - l a y e r plates (see p . 2 8 ) . F u r t h e r s e p a r a t i o n by p r e p a r a t i v e t h i n - l a y e r c h r o m a t o g r a p h y y i e l d e d 4 m g of p u r e j u g l o n e f r o m a t o t a l of 50 g w o o d shavings. T h i s s e e m s t o be t h e first rep o r t of t h e i s o l a t i o n of j u g l o n e f r o m t h e heartwood

of a Juglans

species. P a t c h t e s t s

w i t h j u g l o n e in the p a t i e n t gave a +-reaction t o a 0,1 % c o n c e n t r a t i o n , w h e r e a s the toxic limit of j u g l o n e ( t h r e s h o l d o f p r i m a r y skin i r r i t a t i o n ) h a d b e e n d e t e r m i n e d b e f o r e t o lie b e t w e e n 1 % a n d 0 , 3 %. Seven c o n t r o l s r e m a i n e d n e g a t i v e . It m a y be c o n c l u d e d f r o m t h e s e r e s u l t s t h a t t h i s p a t i e n t had a slight h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o j u g l o n e f r o m Waln u t . T h e i t c h i n g c o m p l a i n e d b y t h e p a t i e n t p r e v i o u s l y m a y be e x p l a i n e d by t h e highly p r i m a r y i r r i t a n t e f f e c t of j u g l o n e .

HO

0'C 6 Hn0 5

HO

06 ii 0

OH a - H y d r o j u g l o n e glucoside

Guinea

0

Juglone

pig s e n s i t i s a t i o n using t h e O E T in ten P i r b r i g h t - w h i t e a n i m a l s (see p . 3 0 ) was

s u c c e s s f u l . All a n i m a l s c o u l d be sensitised. T h e t h r e s h o l d of p r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n of juglone was f o u n d b e t w e e n 0 , 3 a n d 1 % in the g u i n e a pigs t o o . Eliciting with a 0 , 1 % dil u t i o n was p o s i t i v e in all a n i m a l s , with a 0 , 0 3 % d i l u t i o n still p o s i t i v e in t w o o u t of t h e t e n s e n s i t i s e d g u i n e a pigs. C r o s s - r e a c t i o n s w e r e o b t a i n e d in t h e sensitised a n i m a l s w i t h some

o t h e r q u i n o n e s , e.g. p r i m i n , d e o x y l a p a c h o l and

R-3,4-dimethoxydalbergione

( H a l w a s s 1 9 7 8 ) . C o n c l u s i o n : j u g l o n e is a s t r o n g i r r i t a n t , a weak sensitiser a n d p o s s i b l y a h i s t a m i n e l i b e r a t o r . Test c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 0,1 % (see also p . 1 4 , 1 5 ) . T h e s e r e s u l t s t h r o w light on t h e findings of S c h i i r k a m p e r ( m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ) w h o suggested t h a t his p o s i t i v e test r e s p o n s e s t o Juglans

nigra,

which were always c o n n e c t e d

w i t h s i m u l a t e n o u s r e a c t i o n s t o Teak a n d C o c o b o l o , m a y be based on the cross-reactivities e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n t h e n a p h t h o q u i n o n e s j u g l o n e and d e o x y l a p a c h o l , a n d the b e n zoquinonoid dalbergiones.

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121

J u g l o n e o c c u r s in W a l n u t tissues as a g l u c o s i d e of a - h y d r o j u g l o n e (Daglish 1 9 5 0 ) . Hay es & T h o m s o n

( 1 9 5 5 ) could d e m o n s t r a t e that the naturally occurring a-hydrojuglone

g l u c o s i d e is t h e 4- a n d n o t t h e 5 - g l u c o s i d e . References Barniske, R.: Derm.Wschr.

135, 189 ( 1 9 5 7 )

D a g l i s h , C.: B i o c h e m . J . 47, 4 5 2 and 4 5 8 ( 1 9 5 0 ) Halwass, V. Thesis, Univ. H a m b u r g 1978 H a y e s , N . F . et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 5 5 ) , 9 0 4 S c h l e i c h e r , H . : D e r m . M s c h r . 160, 4 3 3 ( 1 9 7 4 ) Schurkamper, H. Thesis, Munich 1 972 Siegel, J . M . : A r c h . D e r m . 7 0 , 5 1 1 ( 1 9 5 4 )

Cryptocarya

pleurosperma

White & Francis

Walnut,

Poison

(Lauraceae) A l t h o u g h t h e t r a d e n a m e p o i n t s to its t o x i c p r o p e r t i e s P o i s o n w a l n u t is used a good d e a l in A u s t r a l i a as a c o n s t r u c t i o n w o o d , f o r stairs, m o u l d i n g s and f i t t i n g s , f u r n i t u r e , f l o o r i n g a n d p a n e l l i n g , a n d as a v e n e e r ( P r i v . c o m m . L . J . W e b b and E . G e l l e r t 1 9 7 0 ) . S a w i n g and c u t t i n g of t h e w o o d leads t o p a i n f u l d e r m a t i t i s in c a b i n e t w o r k e r s a n d join e r s t w o t o t h r e e d a y s a f t e r t h e first c o n t a c t w i t h the s a w d u s t . P r i m a r i l y the skin bec o m e s red a n d b l i s t e r s , and vesicles d e v e l o p w h i c h t h e n b e c o m e s q u a m o u s t o g e t h e r with dry p r u t i t u s . The s y m p t o m s reach their m a x i m u m after two weeks and spread o u t t o the f a c e a n d s c r o t u m t o g e t h e r w i t h h e a d a c h e and dizziness ( W e b b 1 9 4 8 ) . T h e s e s y m p t o m s c o u l d be r e p r o d u c e d b y a p p l i c a t i o n of the a l k a l o i d c r y p t o p l e u r i n e , isolated f r o m t h e h e a r t w o o d by de La L a n d e ( 1 9 4 8 ) , to v o l u n t e e r s in c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of 0,1 %. T h e e l u c i d a t i o n of t h e s t r u c t u r e was m a d e by G e l l e r t et al. ( 1 9 5 4 , 1 9 5 6 ) .

Cryptopleurine

122

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T h e alkaloid o c c u r s in the b a r k , leaves and h e a r t w o o d . C r y p t o p l e u r i n e also has been discovered in related Cryptocarya

species and in Boehmeria

species w h e r e it revealed

its c y t o t o x i c e f f e c t t o o ( H o f f m a n n 1978). T h e p r i m a r y irritant d e r m a t i t i s p r o d u c e d by c r y p t o p l e u r i n e is n o t based on an i m m u n o l o g i c a l m e c h a n i s m , b u t arises f r o m the h i s t a m i n e - l i b e r a t i n g p r o p e r t i e s of the alkaloid.

References G e l l e r t , E. et al.: A u s t . J . C h e m . 7, 1 13 ( 1 9 5 4 ) a n d 9, 4 8 9 ( 1 9 5 6 ) H o f f m a n n , J . J . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 17, 1 4 4 8 ( 1 9 7 8 ) de La L a n d e . S . : A u s t . J . e x p . M e d . S c i . 2 6 , 181 ( 1 9 4 8 ) W e b b , L.J.: F o r e s t P r o d . N e w s l e t t . 169, 1 ( 1 9 4 8 )

Millettia

laurentii

Millettia

stuhlmannii

Wild.

Wenge'

Taub.

Panga-panga

(Legumin.- Papilion.) A tall tree f r o m t r o p i c a l West A f r i c a ( C a m e r o o n to Z a i r e ) , especially f r o m Zaire. T h e r e is no d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a p p e a r a n c e and p r o p e r t i e s of b o t h species. H e a r t w o o d dark b r o w n with c h a r a c t e r i s t i c bands . Used as veneer and panelling on p u b l i c buildings, h o t e l s , show- and b o a r d r o o m s , for f l o o r i n g , general c o n s t r u c t i o n , interior and exterior j o i n e r y , high-class f u r n i t u r e , also in k i t c h e n s . Increasing in p o p u l a r i t y - a t i m b e r with f u t u r e . O l e f f e ( 1 9 7 3 ) , H u b l e t ( 1 9 7 2 ) and others list Wenge' and Panga-panga a m o n g o t h e r species as t o x i c , b u t give no details. The s a w d u s t causes a b d o m i n a l c r a m p s ( H a u s e n 1 9 7 0 ) splinters of Wenge are said to cause persistent w o u n d s . B l e u m i n k ( 1 9 7 4 ) o b t a i n e d a positive p a t c h test in a w o o d w o r k e r . Sensitisation s t u d i e s in guinea pigs using e t h a n o l and c h o r o f o r m e x t r a c t s were successf u l , and were r e p e a t e d several times in d i f f e r e n t years. B o t h t i m b e r s s h o w e d the same sensitising c a p a c i t y and c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n . O u t of seven q u i n o n e s d e t e c t e d five were isolated and tested o n the sensitised guinea pigs giving positive reactions f r o m w e a k to s t r o n g . T h e s t r o n g e s t p a t c h test was o b t a i n e d with a q u i n o n e of violet c o l o u r , c o n t a m i n a t e d by a Craven-negative c o m p o u n d which seemed to be inseparable f r o m the q u i n o n e ( u n p u b l i s h e d results). One of t h e o t h e r q u i n o n e s of yellow c o l o u r was 2 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e (Hausen

1 9 7 8 ) . T h o u g h no d e f i n i t e case r e p o r t s

have been p u b l i s h e d these t w o wood species develop a considerable sensitising p o w e r in animal e x p e r i m e n t s , and t h e r e f o r e m u s t be regarded as p o t e n t sensitisers of the f u t u r e in the f u r n i t u r e and w o o d w o r k i n g industries.

Systematic review

123

References Bleumink, E. et al. C o n t a c t Derm.Newslett. No. 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 ) Hausen, B.M. Thesis, Univ. H a m b u r g 1970; Contact D e r m . 4, 204 ( 1 9 7 8 ) H u b l e t , P. et al.: Arch.Belg.Med.Soc.Hyg. 3 8 , 314 ( 1 9 7 2 ) Oleffe, J. et al.: Rev.franc.Allergol. 13, 65 ( 1 9 7 3 )

Liriodendron tulipifero (Magnoliaceae)

Whitewood, American Tulip tree, Canary wood Yellow wood

L.

A tree native to the eastern United States. The h e a r t w o o d is yellowish-brown or pale olive b r o w n . S o f t , light and easily w o r k e d . Used for interior parts of f u r n i t u r e , interior joinery, and m a n y other purposes including p l y w o o d . No description of cases in the literature despite two cases of dermatitis in a f u r n i t u r e factory in H a m b u r g (W-Germany) in 1912 (Brezina) due to 'Canary w o o d ' which may have been W h i t e w o o d , and a m e n t i o n of the toxicity of ' T u l i p w o o d ' due to the occurrence of an 'alkaloid' (Lewin 1928). T w o cases of allergic c o n t a c t dermatitis were recently observed by us on the hands, f o r e a r m s , and neck and face due to American whitewood which occurred in a f a m o u s piano factory in n o r t h e r n Germany (Schulz et al. 1980). The wood had been used to make the cover of grand pianos. During debarking and cutting of the w o o d the two patients had c o n t a c t with the moist wood dust and shavings. Whitewood shavings Whitewood bark

A +++ -

B (+)

While patient A reacted strongly to the wood itself and only weakly to the bark, patient B

++

only gave a patch test response to the bark.

Chemical investigation of the bark and wood led to the isolation of different quinonecontaining fractions, two of them giving a weak positive reaction on guinea pigs sensitised previously with a crude extract of the w o o d . One of the q u i n o n e s was 2,6-dim e t h o x y - 1 , 4 - b e n z o q u i n o n e (see p. 4 7 ) . Only fresh wood p r o d u c e d dermatitis, and quinones could only be detected in fresh wood and bark. The sensitising results using the maximisation procedure (see p. 30) indicate that Whitewood is a very weak sensitiser. There is some evidence that o t h e r constituents of the wood may play a m o r e imp o r t a n t role than these relatively ineffective q u i n o n e s , for example the alkaloids ( f o r primary irritant e f f e c t s ) and sesquiterpene lactones, which have been isolated in larger a m o u n t s ( A b d u s a m a t o v 1974, H u f f o r d 1975). Some of them occur in the roots and sapwood ( D o s k o t c h 1976, S e n t e r 1977). Mitchell ( 1 9 7 5 ) obtained positive patch tests in f o u r out of five patients with the leaves of W h i t e w o o d , five controls remained negative. The leaves contain at least f o u r sesquiterpene lactones which may have sensitiing power: epitulipinolide, lipiferolide, peroxyferolide etc. ( D o s k o t c h 1969, 1970). Sesquiterpene lactones are well k n o w n for their sensitising capacity (Hausen 1979).

124

S y s t e m a t i c review

,OAc

=CH2

Liriodenine

Epitulipinolide

(heartwood)

(leaves)

References A b d u s a m a t o v , A . e t al.: K h i m . P r i r o d . S o e d . 1 0 , 1 1 2 ( 1 9 7 4 ) B r e z i n a , E . i n : W i e n e r A r b e i t e n a u s dem G e b i e t d e r s o z i a l e n M e d i z i n . E d . T e l e k y A .Holder: Vienna

1912/1913

D o s k o t c h , R . W . e t al.: J . P h a r m . S c i . 5 8 , 8 7 7 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; J . o r g . C h e m . 3 5 , 1 9 2 8 ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; J.chem.Soc. Chem.Comm.

(1976),402

H a u s e n , B.M.: C o n t a c t Derm. 4, 204 ( 1 9 7 8 ) ; Dermatologica 159, 1 ( 1 9 7 9 ) H u f f o r d , C . D . et al.: J . P h a r m . S c i . 6 4 , 7 8 9 ( 1 9 7 5 ) L e w i n , L. G i f t e im H o l z g e w e r b e . G . S t i l k e : B e r l i n 1 9 2 8 , H e f t 1 Mitchell, J.C.: Int.J.Derm. 1 4 , 3 0 1 (1975) S c h u l z , K . H . et al.: O c c u p a t . E n v i r n m . D e r m . 2 8 , 158 ( 1 9 8 0 ) S e n t e r , P . D . et a l . : P h y t o c h e m . 1 6 , 2 0 1 5 ( 1 9 7 7 )

Taxus baccara L.

Yew

(Taxaceae)

Eibe

T h i s s m a l l t r e e is n a t i v e t o E u r o p e , Asia a n d N o r t h A f r i c a . T h e h e a r t w o o d is p a l e y e l l o w t o red b r o w n , f r e s h l y c u t w i t h a v i o l e t l u s t r e . A v a l u a b l e w o o d f o r c a r v i n g a n d t u r n e r y , s o m e t i m e s u s e d as a v e n e e r , also f o r c a b i n e t m a k i n g , f o r a r r o w s a n d b o w s . In c e r tain c o u n t r i e s t h e t r e e is p r o t e c t e d . T h e f i n e w o o d d u s t is said t o p r o d u c e i r r i t a t i o n a n d d e r m a t i t i s ( M o l l 1 9 5 0 ) . A case o f severe d e r m a t i t i s of t h e f a c e , n e c k , h a n d s and f o r e a r m s has been d e s c r i b e d by S e n e a r ( 1 9 3 3 ) in a k e e n a r c h e r w h o c a r v e d a b o w f o r h i m s e l f in h i s l e i s u r e t i m e . H e p a t c h t e s t e d h i m s e l f w i t h m o i s t s a w d u s t and g o t a r e s p o n s e . G r o s s m a n n ( 1 9 1 0 ) e x p e r i e n c e d h e a d a c h e a n d d i s c o m f o r t a f t e r w o r k i n g w i t h Y e w . T h e w o r d t o x i c is b a s e d o n

Taxus.

All s y m p t o m s o b s e r v e d s u p p o r t t h e s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h i s w o o d is n o t a b l e t o i n d u c e an

S y s t e m a t i c review

125

allergy - t h e y are toxic s y m p t o m s . T h e leaves, s t e m s , b a r k , pollen and w o o d c o n t a i n at least eleven d i f f e r e n t c o m p o u n d s called t a x i n e s , w h i c h are responsible f o r the toxic e f f e c t s of Y e w . T h e y are t e r p e n e s ( B a x t e r 1 9 6 2 , H a r r i s o n 1 9 6 6 ) . S o m e cause cardiac a r r h y t h m i a a n d decrease of b l o o d pressure ( B a u e r e i s 1 9 5 9 ) . Higher doses p r o d u c e cessation of r e s p i r a t i o n a n d d e a t h ( F r o h n e 1 9 6 5 ) . I r r i t a t i o n of t h e skin m a y be due to an essential oil ( N i c h o l s o n 1 9 3 2 ) . P o i s o n i n g of cattle and m e n by leaves of Yew is also well k n o w n ( F r o h e n 1 9 6 5 , P o w e t z 1 9 4 9 , C z e r w e k 1 9 6 0 ) . Screening investigations of Yew h e a r t w o o d with D r a g e n d o r f - r e a g e n t gave evidence f o r the o c c u r r e n c e o f D r a g e n dorf-positive c o n s t i t u e n t s ( 0 , 0 3 %), which p r o b a b l y were a m i x t u r e of the taxines (Hausen 1970).

H e a r t w o o d c o n s t i t u e n t s of Tacus boccata

L.

(Harrison 1 9 6 6 , Della Casa de M a r c a n o 1 9 6 9 ) Derivatives

Rj

R2

R3

R4

R

I

H

OAc

H

OAc

11

H

OH

H

OAc

OAc OH

III

OAc

OAc

H

OAc

OAc

IV

H

OAc

OAc

OAc

OAc

V

OAc

OAc

VI

OAc M*

OAc

OAc

OAc H

OAc H

VII

M*

OH

OAc

OAc

H

VIII

M*

OAc

OAc

IX**

H

OH

H

OAc OH

OH

* M = a - M e t h y l b u t y r a t e , ** OH at C-10

H

126

S y s t e m a t i c review

References B a x t e r , J . N . e t al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 2 9 6 4 B a u e r e i s , R . e t al.: D r u g R e s . 9 , 7 7 ( 1 9 5 9 ) C z e r w e k , H . e t al.: A r c h . T o x i c o l . 18, 8 8 ( 1 9 6 0 ) Delia Casa de M a r c a n o , D . P . et a l . : C h e m m . C o m m . ( 1 9 6 9 ) , 1 2 8 2 F r o h n e , D . et al.: A r c h . T o x i c o l . 2 1 , 1 5 0 ( 1 9 6 5 ) Graf, E.: A r c h . P h a r m . 2 9 1 , 443 ( 1 9 5 8 ) G r o s s m a n n , J . : B a y e r . I n d . G e w e r b e b l . 9 6 , 51 ( 1 9 1 0 ) H a r r i s o n , J . W . et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . (C) ( 1 9 6 6 ) , 1 9 3 2 H a u s e n , B.M. T h e s i s , Univ. H a m b u r g 1 9 7 0 Moll, F . : H o l z 4 , 7 7 ( 1 9 5 0 ) N i c h o l s o n , J . A . : U n i v . C a m b r i d g e I n s t . A n i m . P a t h . R e p . 3 , 169 ( 1 9 3 2 ) P o w e t z , J . A l l g . f o r s t h o l z w i r t s c h . Z t g 6 0 , 59 ( 1 9 4 9 ) Senear, F.E.: J.Am.med.Assoc. 101, 1527 ( 1 9 3 3 )

Bronchialasthma

III.

127

Woods causing bronchial asthma and rhinitis

Fine d u s t p a r t i c l e s are p r o d u c e d during w o o d w o r k i n g processes like sawing, sanding, p l a n i n g , t u r n i n g , shaping e t c . T h e m e a n particle size of the dust f o r m e d during the various o p e r a t i o n s ranges f r o m 5 - 1 1 /Lim. 75 % of the dust samples have a d i a m e t e r of 4 , 5 - 13,5 i i m , b u t less t h a n 25 % of the air-borne dust is less than 5jum. S t u d i e s of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of dust in English f a c t o r i e s s h o w e d t h a t it ranged f r o m 1-25 m g / m with a m e d i u m at 5,9 m g / m ^ [ 1 11 .In an earlier s t u d y m a d e in C z e c h o s l o v a k i a , Hansli"5 an & K a d l e c [ 10] d e t e r m i n e d an average dust c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 4 0 m g / m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u p to 2 0 0 m g / m

with peak

. 9 0 % of the d u s t particles were less t h a n 5 u m in di-

a m e t e r . T h e s e results indicate t h a t in w e s t e r n E u r o p e e x t r a c t v e n t i l a t i o n m a c h i n e s have b e c o m e m o r e m o d e r n and e f f e c t i v e in r e c e n t y e a r s . I n h a l a t i o n of the fine dust p a r t i c l e s m a y develop a c o m p o s i t e p i c t u r e of respiratory diseases with c o m p l a i n t s of c o u g h i n g , w h e e s i n g , d y s p n o e a , tightness, soreness of the c h e s t , rhinitis and asthma [ 2 8 ] , It is d o u b t f u l l w h e t h e r n o t i c e a b l e a m o u n t s of the w o o d dust p a r t i c l e s are inhaled i n t o the d e e p e r p a r t s of the r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m , i.e. into the alveolar regions and b r o n c h i of the lungs; m o s t of the m a t e r i a l will e f f e c t i v e l y be t r a p p e d in the nasal passages on i n h a l a t i o n [1 1,27]. H o w e v e r , small a m o u n t s of the dust p a r t i c l e s will finally pass d o w n to the b r o n c h i , w h e r e they m a y cause c r a m p s and spasms in t h e tiny muscles of the b r o n c h i . T h e r e f o r e the correct n a m e m u s t be b r o n chial a s t h m a . Immunological aspects Bronchial a s t h m a may be caused by d i f f e r e n t f a c t o r s , for e x a m p l e by u n s p e c i f i c irrit a n t s like an i n f e c t i o n , c h e m i c a l and p h y s i c a l h a z a r d s , or physical e f f o r t s and even emo t i o n s . Allergic

b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a is always the c o n s e q u e n c e of an a n t i g e n - a n t i b o d y -

r e a c t i o n due to the inhalation of a specific a n t i g e n , which c o m e s i n t o c o n t a c t with the c e l l - b o u n d a n t i b o d i e s in the b r o n c h i a l tree, t h e nasal m u c o s a and t h e c o n j u n c t i v a l tissues. Allergic b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a belongs to the t y p e - I - r e a c t i o n s a c c o r d i n g to Gell & C o o m b s [9] (see I m m u n o l o g i c a l aspects p . 10). T h e a n t i b o d i e s are i m m u n o g l o b u l i n s belonging m o s t l y to the IgE-class. These I g E - a n t i b o d i e s m a y be d e t e c t e d in the serum and can be d e m o n s t r a t e d by the ability of the p a t i e n t ' s serum to passively sensitise the skin of n o r m a l h u m a n s or m o n k e y s (Prausnitz-Kiistner-test). T h e antigen reacts with this specific class of a n t i b o d i e s which are b o u n d to the s u r f a c e of mast cells or circulating b a s o p h i l s t h r o u g h a specialised region of their b o d y , the F c piece, while ano t h e r p a r t , t h e F a b f r a g m e n t , r e m a i n s free ( F i g u r e 12). The I g E - a n t i b o d i e s are fixed to the m a s t cells in the d i f f e r e n t tissues over a long p e r i o d which b e c o m e s 'sensitised' in this w a y . C o n t a c t with inhaled or ingested specific antigens is f o l l o w e d by degranulation of the m a s t cells and release of d i f f e r e n t p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l active c o m p o u n d s - the vasoactive a m i n e s - which cause the typical clinical p i c t u r e of an a c u t e a s t h m a a t t a c k : *

i n t e n s e c o n s t r i c t i o n of the b r o n c h i o l e s and b r o n c h i ( c o n t r a c t i o n of s m o o t h muscle)

*

d i l a t a t i o n of capillaries

*

dyscrinism (perversion of the secretion of an e n d o c r i n e gland)

128

Bronchial asthma

antigen =pol1 en =wood dust =spores

YT release ot mediator substances from granules ( h i s t a m i n e . SRS-A)

antibody IgE

X

edema

bronchospasm

dyscrinism

di l a t a t i o n of capi 1 l a r i es

c o n t r a c t i o n of smooth muscle

mucous glands

F i g u r e 12

A l l e r g y of t h e i m m e d i a t e t y p e ( t y p e - I ) . D e g r a n u l a t i o n of m a s t cells f o l l o w i n g i n t e r a c t i o n of a n t i g e n s w i t h b o u n d

IgE-antibodies

Bronchialasthma

] 29

T h e s e m e d i a t o r s u b s t a n c e s are h i s t a m i n e , s e r o t o n i n , SRS-A (slow r e a c t i n g s u b s t a n c e of a n a p h y l a x i s ) and o t h e r s [ 2 4 ] , The d e g r a n u l a t i o n of the m a s t cells o c c u r s w h e n t h e b o u n d a n t i b o d i e s are c r o s s - l i n k e d e i t h e r by s p e c i f i c a n t i g e n s or b y the c o r r e s p o n d i n g divalent anti-immunoglobulin (anti-IgE) (Figure 12). A t t a c k s of b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a d u e to i n h a l a t i o n of w o o d d u s t last f r o m a few m i n u t e s t o several h o u r s ; t h e y have b e e n c a t e g o r i s e d as i m m e d i a t e , late and c o m b i n e d , i.e. d u a l a s t h m a t i c r e a c t i o n s . G e n e r a l l y , m o s t p a t i e n t s are e x p o s e d t o a variety o f w o o d d u s t s f o r y e a r s b e f o r e r e s p i r a t o r y s y m p t o m s o c c u r . A f t e r a p e r i o d of s t e a d y e x p o s u r e t h e y begin to c o u g h a n d b e c o m e b r e a t h l e s s . A f e w d e v e l o p b u r n i n g a n d r u n n i n g of t h e e y e s as well as nasal o b s t r u c t i o n s or r h i n o r r h o e a . In t h e early stages c o u g h i n g occ u r o n l y at n i g h t or in t h e late a f t e r n o o n and is a c c o m p a n i e d by little o r no s p u t u m . R e l i e f m a y o c c u r d u r i n g t h e w e e k e n d s , e s p e c i a l l y on S u n d a y s . A single e x p o s u r e in a sensitised s u b j e c t m a y p r o d u c e s y m p t o m s r e c u r r i n g f o r t w o or t h r e e n i g h t s . T h e final clinical p i c t u r e is t h a t of c h r o n i c a s t h m a or b r o n c h i t i s w i t h e v e n i n g or n o c t u r n a l exa c e r b a t i o n s . By this t i m e t h e r e is little o b v i o u s t e m p o r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n e x p o s ure a n d the e x a c e r b a t i o n of s y m p t o m s [ 1 8 ] . Allergic r h i n i t i s and b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a are e x a m i n e d by s c r a t c h - t e s t , i n t r a d e r m a l test or p r i c k - t e s t w i t h a q u e o u s e x t r a c t s of t h e s a w d u s t of t h e o f f e n d i n g w o o d species. M o s t f r e q u e n t l y t h e i n t r a d e r m a l test is u s e d . In cases w h e r e this test r e m a i n s n e g a t i v e an i n h a l a t i v e p r o v o c a t i o n test ( b r o n c h i a l c h a l l e n g e t e s t ) s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d . All tests m u s t be c a r r i e d o u t w i t h c a r e , c o n t r o l t e s t s are o f t e n necessary f o r t h e c o r r e c t interp r e t t a t i o n of t h e r e s p o n s e o b t a i n e d . O c c u p a t i o n a l allergic r h i n i t i s a n d b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a d u e to the i n h a l a t i o n of d i f f e r e n t w o o d d u s t s h a s b e e n n o t i c e d a n d d e s c r i b e d all o v e r t h e w o r l d [ 2 ] . A c c o r d i n g to t h e n u m b e r of r e p o r t s s u b m i t t e d t o the W o r k m e n C o m p e n s a t i o n B u r e a u x in W e s t e r n E u r o p e it s e e m s t h a t i m m e d i a t e h y p e r s e n s i t i v i t y ( t y p e - I - a l l e r g y ) d u e t o w o o d d u s t s c o n s t i t u t e s one

third

of all allergic diseases c a u s e d b y c o m m e r c i a l t i m b e r s (see also p. 4 ) .

A list of w o o d species causing allergic r h i n i t i s and b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a is given in Table 8. I n t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h has b e e n c a r r i e d o u t o n b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a c a u s e d b y e x p o s u r e t o W e s t e r n red c e d a r Thuja

plicata

D . D o n . T h i s t i m b e r is one of t h e seven species of ce-

dar g r o w i n g in N o r t h A m e r i c a w h i c h are of s u b s t a n t i a l c o m m e r c i a l value. Its g o o d durability m a k e s it suitable f o r o u t d o o r and i n d o o r c o n s t r u c t i o n s . W e s t e r n red c e d a r h a s been e x p o r t e d f r o m British C o l u m b i a and s o m e S t a t e s of t h e USA to A u s t r a l i a , J a p a n and o t h e r c o u n t r i e s since 1 9 6 0 . It has f o u n d i n c r e a s i n g f a v o u r in t h e j o i n e r y t r a d e , especially in A u s t r a l i a [ 8 , 1 8 ] . R e s p i r a t o r y s y m p t o m s have been m e n t i o n e d as early as in 1 9 0 4 by M a i d e n [ 1 6 ] . Large a m o u n t s of W e s t e r n red c e d a r were e x p o r t e d f r o m Canada a n d t h e USA to J a p a n as a g i f t a f t e r t h e g r e a t e a r t h q u a k e in 1 9 2 3 . T h e w o o d was used m a i n l y f o r r e b u i l d i n g of t h e h o u s e s d e s t r o y e d . I n h a l a t i o n of t h e f i n e w o o d d u s t by J a p a n e s e j o i n e r s was s o o n f o l l o w e d by a t t a c k s of W e s t e r n red c e d a r a s t h m a called 'beisugi a s t h m a ' . Several cases w e r e r e p o r t e d by J a p a n e s e a u t h o r s [ 1 5 , 1 7 , 2 6 ] . Beisugi a s t h m a was c o n t r a c t e d even by p e o p l e w h o n e v e r had c o n t a c t w i t h t h e w o o d dust or p a r t i c l e s , b u t w h o lived in h o u s e s built of W e s t e r n red c e d a r . T h e a t t a c k s w e r e initiated by the c o n s t i t u e n t s e x c r e t e d by d i f f u s i o n f r o m t h e walls and ceilings of Western

130

Bronchialasthma

red c e d a r [ 1 8 ] . A c c o r d i n g t o Mue et al ( 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 5 ) [ 2 1 ] a b o u t 9,5 % of all J a p a n e s e w o o d w o r k e r s e n g a g e d in h o u s e building t o d a y d e v e l o p a s t h m a t o g e n i c s y m p t o m s a f t e r i n h a l a t i o n of i m p o r t e d W e s t e r n red cedar s a w d u s t . S i m i l a r c o n d i t i o n s of b r o n c h i a l asthm a a n d r h i n i t i s r e s u l t i n g f r o m e x p o s u r e to t h e related J a p a n e s e c e d a r species standishii

Thuja

C a r r . h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d [ 1 4 ] and i n v e s t i g a t e d b y I t o ( 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 4 ) [ 1 3 ] ,

Brief r e p o r t s of a s t h m a a m o n g s t m e n u s i n g W e s t e r n red c e d a r in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s have b e e n m a d e b y O r d m a n in S o u t h A f r i c a [ 3 ] and Doig in E n g l a n d [5], T h e clinical pict u r e was first d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l by Milne et al. ( 1 9 6 9 ) [ 1 8 ] , G a n d e v i a ( 1 9 7 0 ) [8] a n d M i t c h e l l ( 1 9 7 0 ) in A u s t r a l i a [ 1 9 ] as well as by C h a n - Y e u n g et al. ( 1 9 7 2 , 1 9 7 3 , 1 9 7 6 ) in C a n a d a [ 4 ] , a n d b y I s h i z a k i et al. ( 1 9 7 3 ) in J a p a n [ 1 2 ] . T h e y s t a t e d t h a t a s t h m a to W e s t e r n red c e d a r is a t y p i c a l d u a l a s t h m a t i c r e a c t i o n . C h a n - Y e u n g c o u l d s h o w t h a t skin t e s t i n g w i t h e x t r a c t s of Western red c e d a r - as a l r e a d y s t a t e d by Milne in 1 9 6 9 is n o t h e l p f u l in d i a g n o s i s . O n l y i n h a l a t i o n p r o v o c a t i o n tests p r o v i d e a reliable m e t h o d of c o n f i r m i n g t h e d i a g n o s i s . T h i s test is c a r r i e d o u t b y an a e r o s o l of the w o o d e x t r a c t or of t h e s u s p e c t e d sensitising a g e n t (e.g. plicatic acid) w h i c h is inhaled u n d e r c o n t r o l led c o n d i t i o n s t o r e p r o d u c e t h e s y m p t o m s and t o o b t a i n o b j e c t i v e e v i d e n c e of a i r w a y o b s t r u c t i o n s . C o n t r o l t e s t s - i n h a l a t i o n of the d i l u e n t or an e x t r a c t of a n o t h e r w o o d s h o u l d be p e r f o r m e d o n t h e previous d a y to e x c l u d e any n o n - s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s e [4], T h o u g h it is a g e n e r a l belief t h a t the causative a g e n t s in allergic b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a , i.e. t y p e - I - a l l e r g y , d u e t o p l a n t s and w o o d d u s t s are high m o l e c u l a r weight c o m p o n e n t s , e. g. p r o t e i n s , C h a n - Y e u n g et al. d e m o n s t r a t e d b y their i n v e s t i g a t i o n s and p r o v o c a t i o n t e s t s t h a t a d i a l y s e d e x t r a c t of Western red c e d a r lost its p o t e n t i a l to p r o d u c e a b r o n chial r e a c t i o n , t h u s e x c l u d i n g the possibility of small q u a n t i t i e s of high

molecular

w e i g h t s u b s t a n c e s a c t i n g as a n t i g e n s . O n the c o n t r a r y , by positive results in t h e i r p r o v o c a t i o n t e s t s w i t h p l i c a t i c acid, w h i c h is the m a j o r f r a c t i o n ( 3 0 - 4- % of t h e e x t r a c t ) of t h e n o n - v o l a t i l e c o m p o n e n t s of Western red c e d a r [1], t h e y s h o w e d t h a t this c o n s t i t u e n t is p r o b a b l y t h e cause of the r e s p i r a t o r y s y m p t o m s .

OH CH 2 0H C00H OH

OH Plicatic acid

0CH3

Bronchialasthma

131

P l i c a t i c acid p r o d u c e d b r o n c h i a l r e a c t i o n s o n l y in p a t i e n t s w h o also r e a c t e d t o the W e s t e r n red c e d a r e x t r a c t . T h e a u t h o r s suggested t h a t this i n h a l a t i o n b e h a v i o u r was an allergic r e a c t i o n [4]. On the o t h e r h a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s by J a p a n e s e a u t h o r s [ 1 4 , 2 0 ] , c a r r i e d o u t b e t w e e n 1 9 7 0 and 1 9 7 2 , s h o w e d p o s i t i v e f i n d i n g s to an a q u e o u s e x t r a c t o f W e s t e r n red c e d a r in t h e skin t e s t s , i n h a l a t i o n t e s t , P r a u s n i t z - K i i s t n e r r e a c t i o n and h i s t m i n e release in vitro.

P u r i f i c a t i o n of this e x t r a c t by g e l - f i l t r a t i o n o n

Sephadex

y i e l d e d an active f r a c t i o n h a v i n g a m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t of a b o u t 1 0 0 . 0 0 0 a n d c o n s i s t i n g mainly

of p o l y s a c c h a r i d e s . F u r t h e r s t u d y

of W e s t e r n red c e d a r a s t h m a w o u l d be

w o r t h wile. S p e c i a l t r o u b l e s w i t h t h e fine w o o d d u s t of M a n s o n i a (Mansonia

altissima)

resulting

in p r i m a r y i r r i t a t i o n o f the m u c o s a e , allergic r h i n i t i s a n d b r o n c h i a l a s t h m a are r e p o r t ed f r o m I t a l y , w h e r e this species is f r e q u e n t l y u s e d as a s u b s t i t u t e f o r E u r o p e a n waln u t [ 3 , 6 , 7 , 2 2 , 2 5 ] . G a f f u r i et al. ( 1 9 6 8 ) [7] state t h a t u p t o 2 6 , 7 % of t h e e m p l o y e e s in w o o d w o r k i n g f a c t o r i e s in P a d u a s u f f e r f r o m r e s p i r a t o r y d i s o r d e r s d u e t o M a n s o n i a wood dust. References 1.

B a r t o n , G . M . et al.: D e p t F i s h . F o r . C a n a d . F o r . S e r v . P u b l . N o . 1 9 2 3 ( 1 9 7 1 )

2.

B e r n s t e i n , I.L.: A l l e r g o l o g y ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 12

3.

C a r a p e l c a , C. et al.: R i v . I n f . M a l . p r o f . 6 3 , 81 ( 1 9 7 6 )

4.

C h a n - Y e u n g , M. et al.: C a n . m e d . A s s o c . J . 1 0 5 , 5 6 ( 1 9 7 2 ) and 1 1 4 , 4 3 3 ( 1 9 7 6 ) Am.Rev.Respir.Dis. 108, 1094 and 1103 ( 1 9 7 3 )

5.

Doig, A.T.: Postgrad.Med.J. 25, 639 (1949)

6.

F o r t u n i , M. et al.: R i v . P a t . C l i n . T u b e r c . 4 2 , 3 ( 1 9 6 9 )

7.

G a f f u r i , E . et al.: F o l i a M e d . 5 1 , 5 6 9 ( 1 9 6 8 )

8.

G a n d e v i a , B.: A r c h . E n v i r n m . H e a l t h 2 0 , 59 ( 1 9 7 0 ) ; B r i t . J . l n d . M e d . 2 7 ,

9.

G e l l , P . G . H . et al. Clinical a s p e c t s of i m m u n o l o g y . B l a c k w e l l : O x f o r d 1 9 6 8

10.

H a n s l i a n , 1. et al.: D r e v o 19, 3 2 6 ( 1 9 6 4 )

11.

H o u n a m , R . F . et al.: B r i t . J . l n d . M e d . 3 1 , 1 ( 1 9 7 4 )

12.

I s h i z a k i , T . et al.: J . o c c u p . M e d . 15, 5 8 0 ( 1 9 7 3 ) ( i n c l u d e s m a n y f u r t h e r J a p a n e s e

13.

I t o . K . : R o d o K a g a k u 3 9 , 2 7 , 8 0 , 5 0 1 , 5 6 8 ( 1 9 6 3 ) ; M e d . J . S h i n s h u Univ. 9 ,

14.

K o m a t s u , F . : E x c e r p t a m e d . l n t . C o n g . S e r . 6 2 , 1 7 4 8 (1 9 6 4 ) ; J a p . J . A l l e r g o l . 2 1 ,

235 (1970)

references) 165(1964) 693 (1972) 15.

Machida, H.: Rinsho no Nippon 4, 1091 ( 1 9 3 6 )

16.

M a i d e n , J . H . : L a n c e t ( 1 9 0 4 ) I, 1 2 0 8

17.

M a n a b e , K . : R i n s h o n o N i p p o n 1, 168 ( 1 9 3 3 )

18.

M i l n e , J . et al.: M e d . J . A u s t . ( 1 9 6 9 ) 11, 7 4 1

19.

M i t c h e l l , C.: M e d . J . A u s t . (1 9 7 0 ) II, 2 3 3

20.

M i t s u i , S. et al.: J a p . J . A l l e r g o l . 19, 182

21.

M u e , S. et al.: J a p . J . c l i n . e x p . M e d . 4 9 , 2 5 6 9 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ; A n n . A l l . 3 4 , 2 9 6 ( 1 9 7 5 )

132

Bronchialasthma

22.

Nava, C.: Med.Lav. 6 5 , 1 (1974)

23.

O r d m a n , D.: Ann.All. 7, 4 9 2 ( 1 9 4 9 ) ; S-Afr.med.J. 23, 973 ( 1 9 4 9 )

24.

R o i t t . I . M . Essential i m m u n o l o g y . 3rd ed. Blackwell: O x f o r d 1977

25.

S a l a m o n e , L . e t al.: F o l i a M e d . 5 2 , 4 2 7 ( 1 9 6 9 )

26.

Sato, K.: Shindan to chiryo 23, 1006 ( 1 9 3 6 )

27.

S c h w e i s s h e i m e r , W.: W o o d 17, 181 ( 1 9 5 2 )

28.

Vallander, A.: Nordisk Med. 44, 1315 (1950)

Bronchialasthma

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167

R e f e r e n c e s ( T a b l e 13) 1.

A l e m a n y V a i l , R . O c c u p a t i o n a l allergy. K r o e s e : L e i d e n 1 9 5 8

2.

A n o n y m o u s : Timber Trad.J. 60, 860 (1906)

3.

A n o n y m o u s : H o u t 2 0 , 184 ( 1 9 4 0 )

4.

A n o n y m o u s : R e v . B o i s F ó r . T r o p . 3 6 , 25 ( 1 9 5 4 )

5.

B a r d e l , S. T h e s i s , U n i v e r . Paris 1 9 3 5

6.

von B a s s e w i t z , E . : A r c h . S c h i f f s - T r o p e n h y g . 3 2 , 4 9 4 (1 9 2 8 )

7.

B a u m e r , M.: R e v . B o i s F ó r . T r o p . 4 3 , 27 ( 1 9 5 5 )

8.

B e r n h a r d - S m i t h , A . : P o i s o n o u s p l a n t s of all c o u n t r i e s . Baillière, T i n d a l & C o x : London 1923

9.

Bisset, J . W . : F o r . P r o d . N e w s l e t t . N o . 1 7 8 , ( 1 9 4 9 )

10.

B l e u m i n k , E . et al.: C o n t a c t D e r m . N e w s l e t t . N o . 16, 4 3 6 ( 1 9 7 4 )

11.

Boulger, G.S. Wood. Arnold: L o n d o n 1 908, 2nd. edition

1 2.

B r e z i n a , E . in: I n t e r n a t i o n a l e Ü b e r s i c h t ü b e r G e w e r b e k r a n k h e i t e n . E d . by L . T e l e k y . A . H o l d e r : V i e n n a 1 9 1 2 / 1 3

13.

C h a r p i n , J . : E x c e r p t a M e d . I n t . C o n g . S e r . ( 1 9 7 4 ) , 1 20

14.

C o c k e r , W. et al.: J . c h e m . S o c . ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 4 9 0 6

15.

Dahms, K.-G. Afrikanische Exporthölzer. DRW-Verlag: Stuttgart 1968

16.

D u b r e u i l h , W.: A n n . D e r m . 2, 199 ( 1 9 3 1 )

17.

F a r m e r , R . H . H a n d b o o k of h a r d w o o d s . H M S O : L o n d o n 1 9 7 2

18.

Freise, F.W.: Arch.Gewerbehyg. 3, 1 ( 1 9 3 2 )

19.

F r e i s e , F . W . : S a m m l . V e r g i f t u n g s f . 7 C, 1 ( 1 9 3 6 )

20.

G r i f f i o e n , K . : T e c t o n a 3 9 , 175 ( 1 9 4 9 )

21.

Gottwald, H. Handelshölzer. F.Holzmann: Hamburg 1958

22.

G r o s s m a n n , J.: B a y e r . I n d . G e w e r b e b l . 9 6 , 51 ( 1 9 1 0 )

23.

G r o s s m a n n , J.: Holzkäufer 100-103, 5 2 9 , 5 3 5 , 5 4 0 , 5 4 5 ( 1 9 2 0 )

24.

H a n s l i a n , L.: B e r u f s d e r m . 1 4 . 4 1 ( 1 9 6 6 )

25.

Hausen, B.M. Thesis, Univ. H a m b u r g 1 9 7 0

26.

Heilig, P . M . : V a a k b l . M e u b e l i n d . 3 8 , 1 4 4 0 ( 1 9 5 7 )

27.

H o f f m a n n , E.: Miinch.med.Wschr. 7 8 , 1966 ( 1 9 0 4 )

28.

Holcik, L.: Csl.Derm. 3 4 , 93 ( 1 9 5 9 )

29.

H o l t z a p f e l , C. et al. in: T u r n i n g and m e c h a n i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n . C . H o l t z a p f e l :

30.

Hurst, E.

L o n d o n 1 8 4 3 ( c i t e d by W o o d s , B. et al. see R e f e r e n c e N o . 7 0 ) T h e p o i s o n p l a n t s of N e w S o u t h Wales. P o i s o n p l a n t s C o m m i t t e e :

N e w S o u t h Wales, S y d n e y 1 9 4 2 31.

de H u r t a d o , I.: I n t . A r c h . A l l . 2 8 , 3 2 1 ( 1 9 6 5 ) and 3 3 , 2 0 9 ( 1 9 6 8 ) , J . i n v e s t . D e r m . 5 5 , 94 ( 1 9 7 0 )

32.

Irvine, F . R . W o o d y p l a n t s of G h a n a . O x f o r d Univ.Press: L o n d o n

33.

J o n e s , I.: F u r n i t u r e D e v . C o u n . T e c h . I n f . S e r . R e p . N o . 6, L o n d o n

34.

L a s l e t t . T . T i m b e r and t i m b e r t r e e s . M a c M i l l a n : L o n d o n 1 8 9 4 , 2nd e d .

35.

L e w i n , L. G i f l e im H o l z g e w e r b e . G . S t i l k e : Berlin 1 9 2 8 , H e f t I

36.

di L u l l o , O . : C o m p . r e n d . S o c . B i o l . 9 9 , 1 0 0 0 ( 1 9 2 8 )

37.

di L u l l o , O : R e v . s u d - a m e r . M e d . C h i r . 5 . 5 1 3 ( 1 9 3 4 )

1961 1946

168

List of t o x i c , i r r i t a n t and sensitising w o o d s

38.

M a c K e n n a , R . M . B , et al. in: I n d u s t r i a l m e d i c i n e and h y g i e n e . E d . b y

39.

M c C o r d , C.P.: Ind.Med.Surg. 2 7 , 202 ( 1 9 5 8 )

40.

Maiden, J.H.: Agric.Gaz.N.S.W. 20, 1073 ( 1 9 0 9 )

E.R.A. Merewether. Butterworth: L o n d o n 1954

41.

Maiden, J.H.: Agric.Gaz.N.S.W. 32, 206 ( 1 9 2 1 )

42.

Moll, F.: Holz 4, 77 ( 1 9 5 0 )

43.

Nordin, J. Yrkessjukdomar. Uppsala 1947, Vol. 2

44.

O r d m a n , D.: Ann.All. 7 , 4 9 2 ( 1 9 4 9 )

45.

Ordman, D.: South-Afric.med.J. 23, 973 (1949)

46.

Orsler, R.J.: Timberlab.Papers No. 1 1 , 1 ( 1 9 6 9 )

47.

Trade report - personal communication 1978 (German Workmen's Compen-

48.

Petrie, J.M.: Proc.Linn.Soc.N.S.Wales 46, 3 3 3 ( 1 9 2 1 )

49.

Piorkowski, O.: East-Afric.Med.J. 21, 60 ( 1 9 4 4 )

50.

Preissler, R . T h e s i s , U n i v . D r e s d e n 1 9 5 9

sation B u r e a u )

51.

Rasch, H.: Hyg.Trav. 22, 1 (1925)

52.

R a y m o n d , A . : R e v . P r a t . (Paris) 9 , 2 6 3 8 ( 1 9 5 9 )

53.

Sachs, O.: Wien.med.Wschr. 3 1 , 933 ( 1 9 2 6 )

54.

Schleicher, H.: Derm.Mschr. 1 6 0 , 4 3 3 (1974)

55.

S c h u l m a n n , E . et al.: Paris m e d . 8 3 , 55 ( 1 9 3 2 )

56.

S c h w a r t z , L . e t al.

O c c u p a t i o n a l diseases of t h e skin.

Lea & F e b i g e r : Phila-

delphia, 3rd ed. 1957 57.

S e z a r y , A . e t al.: B u l l . S o c . f r a n c . D e r m . ( 1 9 3 2 ) II, 1 3 7 0

58.

S i m a t u p a n g , M . H . e t al.: H o l z f o r s c h . 2 1 , 8 9 ( 1 9 6 7 )

59.

S t a n d l e y , P.C.: T r o p , woods 9, 3 ( 1 9 2 7 )

60.

Swain, E.H.F.

T h e t i m b e r s a n d f o r e s t p r o d u c t s of Q u e e n s l a n d . G o v e r n m e n t

Printing: Brisbane 1928 61.

S y m a n s k i , H . : M e d . K l i n i k 5 2 , 198 ( 1 9 5 7 )

62.

Symanski, H.: Dtsch.med.J. 23, 658 ( 1 9 7 2 )

63.

T a k a o k a , D . et al.: B u l l . C h e m . S o c . J a p a n 5 0 , 2 8 2 1 ( 1 9 7 7 )

64.

T a k a o k a , D . et al.: P h y t o c h e m . 1 8 , 4 8 8 ( 1 9 7 9 )

65.

Vorreiter, L.

66.

Wagenführ, R . : Möbel Wohnraum 4, 120 ( 1 9 6 1 )

Holztechnologisches H a n d b u c h . F r o m m e : Vienna 1949, Vol. 1

67.

Wagenführ, R.: Wiss.Fortschr. 6, 279 ( 1 9 6 7 )

68.

Webb, L.J.: Coun.Sci.Ind.Res.Bull. N o . 232, Melbourne 1958

69.

Weber, L.F.: Arch.Derm. 67, 388 ( 1 9 5 3 )

70.

W o o d s , B. et al.: B r i t . J . D e r m . 9 4 , S u p p l . 1 3 , 1 ( 1 9 7 6 )

71.

Z a f i r o p o u l o , A . et al.: Folia A l l e r g o l . 1 5 , 3 9 6 ( 1 9 6 8 )

Botanical index

169

Botanical index Abies

5,68,133 68

alba

Abies

balsamea

A bies

grandis

Acacia

harpophylla

Acacia Acacia Acacia

mearnsii melanoxylon molissima

Albizzia

africana

Antiaris

toxicaria

23 164 133

Araucaria angustifolia Ardisia macrocarpa Aspidosperma Aspidosperma

peroba vargasii

Astronium fraxinifolium Aucoumea klaineana Autranella congolensis Baikiea plurijuga Baillonella toxisperma Balfourodendron Baphia nitida Betula alba Betula papyracea Betula papyrifera Betula verrucosa Boehmeria spp. Bowdichia

nitida

decurrens

164 164

robusta

Antiaris

echinata

Calocedrus

6,164 37

Amoora polystachya Anacardium excelsum And ira inermis Aningeria

Caesalpinia

36,133 36 36 36,133 36 164

lebbeck

sempervirens

156

152 133,164

Alnus glutinosa Alstonia congensis

ebenus

Buxus

68,133 156 47,133 152 152

Acacia pycnantha Acacia villosa Acer spc. Afzelia africana Afzelia bella Afzelia bachyloba Afzelia bipindensis Afzelia quanzensis A Ibizzia ferruginea

Brya

Camerario belizensis Castanea sativa Castanospermum Cedrela Cedrela

australe

fissilis

60 48,133 138 55,86,156 164 58,152 42 54 54

mexicana

54

Cedrela odorata Cedrela toona Cedrus libani

54,55 5,133

43 Cetraria spc. 133 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Chlorophora excelsa 5,17,ii l , 1 3 3 , 1 3 8 153 2 4 , 81 Chlorophora tinctoria 112 Chloroxylon swietenia spc.

21

camphora papavifera

164

Chrysanthemum Cinnamomum Cistanthera Cladonia Copaifera

alpestris bracteata

165 21,43 164 62.63

38,153 38 164

Cordia Cordia Cordia

gerascanthus

86

Cordia

goeldiana

99

Cordia

millenii

62,63

99 23,70 69,133

Cordia Cornus

platythyrsa florida

62,63

164 133,164 133,153,164 164 164 44

riedelianum

44 44 44 122 5,115

abyssinica alliodora

Cryptocarya Cypripedium

pleurosperma calceolus

62,63 62,63 5,62,63

50 121

Dalbergia

baroni

110 1 10

Dalbergia

barretoana

110

Dalbergia Dalbergia

cocchinchinensis inundata

110 110 110

Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia

lanceolaris latifolia melanoxylon nigra obtusa refusa

5,108,109 45,133 5,107,133 58,86,133 58,86,133

170

Botanical index

Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dalbergia Dicorynia Dicorynia Diospyros Diospyros Diospyros Diospyros Diospyros Diospyros Diospyros

riparia sisso spruceana stevensonii toxic aria variabilis villosa violacea guianensis paraensis spc. buxifolia celebica chloroxylon crassiflora ebenum ferrea

Eugenia spc. Fagara spc. , flava Fagara heitzii Fagara macrophylla Fagraea gracilepes Fagus sylvatica Ferreira spectabilis Fraxinus excelsior 4 4 66,138 65 84,86

66

Frullania Frullania

153 7 5 , 1 14 114 114 153 5,42,133,152,157

dilatata, nisqualensis tamarisci

65

Diospyros japonica var. buxifolia 65 Diospyros kaki var. sylvestris 65 Diospyros maritima 65 Diospyros melanoxylon 67,86 Diospyros virginiana 50,67 Diplotropis spc. 1 15 Dipteryx ododrata 164 ( = Coumarouma odorata) Dipterocarpus alatus 133,164 Distemonanthus benthamianus 40 Dracantomelum dao 23 Dysoxylon muelleri 165 Entandophragma angolense 33,70 Entandophragma cylindricum 112 Entandophragma utile 3 3 , 1 19 Erythrophleum guineense 165 Erythrophleum ivorense 165 Eucalyptus citriodora 157 Eucalyptus globulus 7 6 , 1 13 Eucalyptus hemiphloia 76 Eucalyptus maculata 76 Eucalyptus microcorys 76 Eucalyptus microtheca 76 Eucalyptus redunca 152 Eucalyptus regnans 76 Eucalyptus saligna 76,157 Eucalyptus tissilaris 76

21,43,58 21,43,58

Gaertneria c f . paniculata 153 Gonioma kamassi 49 Gonystylus bancanus 5,106,133,138 Gossweilerodendron balsamifera 5,37

65 67

115 133

133

Gossypiospermum Grevillea robusta Guarea cedrata

praecox

50 73 74

Guarea thompsonii

74

Guibourtia Guibourtia

51 51

arno/diana tessmannii

Haematoxylon campechianum Heritiera u tilis Heyderia decurrens Hura crepitans Hymenea courbaril Isothecium

spc.

165 135,166 55,86,156 77 64 21

Juglans nigra

5,119

Juglans regia

86,119,133

Julbernardia brieyi 153 Juniperus procera 165 Juniperus virginiana 165 Khaya anthotheca 5 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 9 , 1 53 Khaya grandifolia 87,133,138,153 Khaya ivorensis 87,88,133,138,153 Khaya senegalensis 87,133,138,153 K ram e ria ix ina 1 52 Larix decidua Larix europaea Larix occidentalis Libocedrus decurrens Liquidambar orientalis

82,133 82 152 55 75

Liquidambar

styraciflua

75

Liriodendron

tulipifera

123

Botanical index

5

Lithraea

brasiliensis

165

Picea

excelsa

Lithraea

caustica

165

Picea

mariana

Lophira

aiata

Lovoa

trichilioides

Machaerium

kuhlmannii

Machaerium

mucronulatum

Machaerium

nictitans

Machaerium

pedicellatum

Machaerium

schomburghkii

Machaerium

scieroxylum

133

165

Picea

sitchensis

115

133,165

Pinus

insignis

103

53

Pinus

maritima

104

54

Pinus

palustris

104,133

53

Pinus

pinaster

104

53

Pinus

ponderosa

152

53

Pinus

16,51,107

Pinus

103

radiata

5,104,133

sylvestris

Machaerium

villosum

54

Piptadeniastrum

Machaerium

violaceum

53

Pithecolobium

africanum arboreum

Magnolia

obovata

133

Platanus

Manilkara

huberi

165

Populus

Mansonia

altissima

5 , 1 9 , 9 1 , 1 3 1,1 3 3 , 1 5 3

Populus

balsami/era

Populus

deltoides

Melanoxylon

brauna

Microberlinia Millettia

brazzavillensis laurentii

Millettia

stuhlmannii

Mitragyna

ciliata

171

165 133,165

Populus

122

Populus

122,133

Populus

aceri/olia

133,165 165 133 105

alba

105 105,152

gileadensis

105 105

nigra

105,133

tremula

Pouteria Primula

mesozygia

153

Prosopis

trillesii

49

Prosopis

glandulosa

93

spc.

71

Prosopis

juliflora

93

Nerium

indicum

95

Prosopis

Nerium

oteander

95

Prunus

stipulosa

Morus Nauclea Nectandra

Nesogordonia Ocotea

spc.,

surinamensis

133

35 35,133

Mitragyna

conica

7 , 1 0 7 , 1 18

africana

93

ob

specigera

93 165

avium

papavifera

165

Pseudotsuga

douglasii

67,133

barcellensis

62,71

Pseudotsuga

menziesii

67,133

Ocotea

bullata

71

Pseudotsuga

taxifolia

94,133

Ocotea

porosa

79

Pterocarpus

angolensis

94,133

Ocotea

rodiaei

71

Pterocarpus

Ocotea

rubra

71,165

Pterocarpus

indicum

98

71

Pterocarpus

santalinum

98

96

Pterocarpus

soyauxii

98

98

Ptaeroxylon

Ocotea

usambarertsis

Olea

europaea

Olea

hochstetteri

Oxystigma

oxyphyllum

Paratecoma

peroba

Parmelia

spc.

Patagonula

elata

Phagnalon Phoebe

saxatiie

Picea

abies

brasiliensis

Pterygota Quercus

62,64

Rhus Rhus

28 50 1 15,133,152

Rhus

6

macrocarpa

165

angolensis spc., robur

165 5, 133,1 5 2 , 1 5 7 22

radicans toxicodendron

7,22 22,166

vernici/era

Robinia

pseudoacacia

Santalum

album

Sarcocephalus

98

obliquum

Pycnanthus

35,133 62,79

porosa

Phyllostylon

47,101 21,43,58

americana

Pericopsis

133,165

dalbergioides

166 133,157

diderichii

49

1 72

B o t a n i c a l i n d e x , Z o o l o g i c a l index

Schinopsis

balansae

23

Thuja

Schinopsis

lorentzii

152,166

Thuja

Sequoia Shorea

sempervirens

5,133,138,152 83,133

spp.

gigantea

56,57 133,166

occidentalis

Thuja plicata Thuja

56,129,133,138,15 2 130,133

standishii

153,166

Tieghemella

africana

133

macrophylla

5,88,133,138,153

Tieghemella

heckelii

5,89,133

Swietenia

mahagoni

88,138

Triplochiton

Tabebuia

avellanedae

Staudtia

stipitata

Swietenia

Tabebuia

ipe

Tabebuia

serratifolia

Tarrietia Taxus

80 pentaphylla

Tabebuia

44,80 44

Ulmus Usnea

utilis

133,166 124

chrysothricha

Tectona Terminalia Terminalia

44

scleroxylon

canadensis

Turraeanthus

43

boccata

Tecoma

Tsuga

hollandica

166

Voucapoua

americana

153

Weinmannia

spc.

153

79,160

Xylia

79,152

Z( Xjanthoxylum

ivorensis superba

78,133,166 5,84,133

166

araroba

alata

Terminalia

92

guianensis

Vateireopsis

5,86,117,133

Terminalia

39,133 21,43

grandis chebula

152

africanus

spc.

Vateirea

5,94,133

xylocarpa

Zollernia Zschokkea

166 flavum

paraensis aculeata

114 166 133

Zoological index Ceratocystis Teredo

ulmi

navalis

92 101

Phanerochaete

chrysosporum

45

S u b j e c t index

173

Subject index 35,94

Abachi Abiurana

134 35,134

Abura A c a c i a , False

166 152

Acajou blanc Acamelin Aceraceae

75

Amboyna

98

Amora

164

47

Andoum

38

Anegre'

133

Angelin

41,164

90 151

Ellagic

151

Gallic

151

Tannic

166

Amberbaum

Anacardiaceae

Acid(s) Digallic

138

Amargo

87 133,164

Bassic

Alveolitis, extrinsic

41

Ange'lique Anthothecol

15,88

Anthraquinones Anthrone, Chrysophanol-9

150,151

A d e n o c a r c i n o m a of the n a s o p h a r y n x 141

21,70,164,166

22 25

Physcion-9

25

Physcion-10 a-Antiarin

25

Etiological f a c t o r s

148

Development

143

ß-Antiarin

39

Occurrence

141

Antiaris

38

39

A f a r a , Black

78

Antibodies, precipitating

Dark

84

Apa

Light

84

Apocynaceae

A f r i c a n pencil tree

165

Afrormosia

35,134

Afrormosin

35

Afzelechin

151

36 166

Araucariaceae

164

A r b o r vitae Aroeira

36,133

Arthus-phenomenon

Agba

37,133

Asamela

Aldehyde(s), unsaturated Coniferyl

153

Ash

153

Aspects

153,154 153,154

Sinapic 3,4,5-Trimethoxycinnamic

154

A l d e r , Black

37

Common

37 6 , 2 2 , 7 1 , 7 2 , 9 3 , 1 0 1 ,1 13,121

Alkaloids

Allergy, Contact D e f i n i t i o n of Diagnosis of I m m e d i a t e t y p e of (Term) Alstonia Altingiaceae

8

56 165 1 1,138 35 133

Clinical Immunological Immunological (asthma) Aspen, European Assacu A s t h m a , bronchial 'Beisugi'

11

A vodire'

14

Ayan

127,128

49,95,99,135,164

Araroba

Afzelia Ako

138,1 3 9 , 1 4 0

6 10 127 105 77 127 129 39,135 40

Azobe'

165

112

Bagassosis

140

164

B a h a m a Sabicu

165

22,75

Bahia

35

174

Subject index

Baku Balm of Gilead

89

Buchsbaum

48

105

Burseraceae

22,69,133

Barwood

98

Buxaceae

Basralocus

41

Buxpiin

Bayogenin

42

Buxtanin

B e a n , Black

42

Campeche

165

Red

165

Campherwood

164

Q u e e n s l a n d red Bebuxin Beech Berberine Be'te' Be'thabara Betulaceae Bignoniaceae Bilinga Birch, White

42 49 5,42,133,152,153 71 91,134,153 43

48,133 49 49

71

East A f r i c a n Camwood

98,164 62

Canalete Canary wood

123

Canel(l)a

71

Caoba

88

37,44

A3-Carene

6 8 , 8 3 , 1 0 4 , 1 0 5 , 1 15

21,43,80,101

Carvacrol

56

49,50 44,153

Castanin

42

Castanogenin

42

44

Catechol(s) (Cardol)

Birke

44

Caviuna legitima

Bilsted

75

Caviuna vermelha

45

Cedar, Central American

Paper

Blackwood, African Australian Bongossi Bonkonko Boraginaceae Bosse' Bowdichione Boxwood, European

33,47

22,24,151 107 16,51,107 54

Incense

55,156

165

of L e b a n o n

51,133

38

Port Orford

133

21,62 74 116

South American Western red

54

56,135,138,1 5 2,153

White

135,166

48,133

Cedrela, Cedro

54

Iranian

48

Cells, E f f e c t o r

12,13

Knysna

49

Mast

Maracaibo

50

Memory

Persian

50

Langerhans

128 1 2

San D o m i n g a n

50

Chemistry, Wood

Turkish

48

Cherry

B racelet

59,65,97,107 165

Moreton

Brigalow

164

Spanish

itch

7,164

bay

Sweet

Bryaflavan

61

Chinrest

Bryaquinone

61

Chlorophorin

Bryebinal

61

Chloroxy lonine

Buba

153

C h r i s t m a s tree

Bubinga

40

Cocobolo

Buche

42

Cocus

21 89,144,165

Chestnut, European

Brauna

1 1 .1 2 . 1 3 , 2 3

58,144 42 58,152 58,152 3,107,108 15,81,82 113 104 5 8 , 1 20,1 33 60

Subject index

78,84,135,166

Combretaceae Coniferyl benzoate

104

C o n s u m p t i o n , World w o o d

1,2 3,4,8

C o n t a c t d e r m a t i t i s , allergic I m m u n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s of

10 4

I n c i d e n c e of Convallatoxin

39

Copaiba C o r a y a o de n e g r o

71 15,16 ,26,27,28,44,65 80,102,107,1 17,120

De o x y p o d o p h y l l o t o x i n Dibetou Difou Diospyrin Dipterocarpaceae

166

Dirosine

15,63,64

Cordiachromes Cornel, American

Deoxylapachol

164 5,62,63

C o r d i a , West A f r i c a n

Demerarine

175

Djave Douglasie

50

Douka

Coromandel

84

Doussie'

Cottonwood

152

Ebenaceae

156 134,165 153 66 83,133,134,164 71 164 67 135 36,133 27,65,67,84

Eastern

105

Coumarins

24

E b o n y , African

Courbaril

64

Brown

Craven-test

28

Ceylon

67

East I n d i a n

67

Cross-reactions

Ebenholz

2 0 , 5 2 , 1 0 2 , 1 0 7 , 1 1 7,1 20

Cryptopleurine

121

65 65,138 60

Green

67

Cupressaceae 21,5 5 , 5 6 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 5 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 6

Jamaica

60

Cyclovirobuxin

49

Macassar

84

Cypress, Oregon

133

Mozambique

45

Cypripedin

19,1 10

Cy tisine N-methyl

124

6,36

Ekki

165

Elang

164

134,165

Dahoma

165 1 5 , 2 8 , 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 10,1 18

Dihydro-2',4-dimethoxy R-3,4-dimethoxy

1 10

16,46,52,53,107 116,120

S -4,4 '-dime t h o x y

46,52,59

R-4'-hydroxy-3,4-dimethoxy

54

S-3'-hy droxy-4,4'-dimethoxy

46

S-4'-hydroxy-4-methoxy

46,52,59

Elliptinone Elm Embelin

79 79

Emeri

78

Emien

164

Epitulipinolide Erie

R-4 -methoxy

46,107

Ethmoid

S-4-methoxy

46,107

Dao D/DR-antigens

23 11, 12,13,23,26

24,26

Embuya

Espavel

165

66 92,144

Embuia

1 0 7 , 1 16

Danta

70

Eibe

Dabema Dalbergione(s)

Edinam

6,26

Eucalyptus

123,124 37 23 145 76,1 1 3 , 1 5 2 , 1 5 7

Euphorbiaceae

77

Evomonosid

39

Experiments, Animal

Deal, R e d

104

Fagaceae

Dehydro-iso-a-lapachone

102

F a r m e r ' s lung

29 42,58,133 7,138

176

Subject index

109

Fiddler's neck

70

Fir Douglas

5,67,134

Grand

68.133

Silver

5,68,133

White

68.134

Flavone, 7-hydroxy-4'-methoxy-iso 7-hydroxy-6,4'-dimethoxy-iso

42 35,42

G u m , Saligna

76

S y d n e y blue

76 76

Spotted Gurjun

133,164

H e m l o c k , Western

152

H i t re

42

H i s t a m ine

27

-liberating s u b s t

22,48,90,1 13,120

release

122,131

Flavonoids

22

Flindersine

25

H o d g k i n ' s disease

Formononetin

42

Hura

77

Huratoxin

78

Framire

78,135,166

158

Freijo

62

Hydroquinone, Geranyl

Freijorge

62

H y d r o p e r o x i d e s of t e r p e n e s

43

7-Hydroxycadelene

Frullanolides Fungi Furocoumarins Fustic Gaboon Gallocatechol

149

64 6 8 , 8 3 , 1 15 92

7 - H y d r o x y - 3 ( 5 - m e t h o x y - l ,4-

116

22

benzoquinon-2-yl)-chromone

24,81

7-Hydroxy-isopropenyltropolone

56,57

Hypersensitivity, Pulmonary

7,138

69 151

Iatandza

164

Gedunin, Dihydro

74

Identification, Botanical

Gedu nohor

70

Idigbo

Ginkgoaceae

22

Ilomba

165

Glycosides

22

Imbuia

79

Imbuya

79

G o a p o w d e r tree G o n y a l o alves G r e e n h e a r t , Black

166 70

17 78,166

I n s t r u m e n t s , M u s i c a l 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 7 , 4 8 , 5 1,54 58,60,67,96,107,108,164,165

71

Brown

71

Intule

17

Demerara

71

Ipe' p r e t o

80

Grenadil(l)

45,133

Iroko

5,17,81,133,138,153

Groenheart, Surinam

43

Grevillea

73

Mucosal

Grevillol

73

Primary

Grey box

76

4-Iso-Balfourodine

G u a r e a , Black

74

Isodiospyrin

66

White

74

Isoshinanolone

66

Guatambu

99,164

Guayacan

43

Irritation, Mechanical

Ivy, Poison Jacaranda

G u a i a c o x y a c e t i c acid

154

Para

a-guaiacoxyacetosyringone

156

Pardo

G u i n e a pigs, A n i m a l e x p e r i m e n t s with 2 9 G u m , American sweet

Paulista

6 6 7 25

7,22,26 53,107,133 111 51 54

75

J a p a n e s e l a c q u e r tree

Grey

76

Jewellery, Wooden

3,60,96

Red

76

Juglandaceae

119,133

166

Subject index

Juglone -Hydro

14,86,119

Leguminosae-Caesalpiniaceae

120

177

36,37,40

41,51,64,133

7-Methyl

66

K a b b e s , Gele

166

Leguminosae-M imosaceae

164,166

Rode

164

Leguminosae-Papilionaceae 35,42,45,5 1

Kalungi

70

Kamassi

49

Lichen(s)

Kamassin

50

Lignin p r e c u r s o r s

Kambala Kejaat Keruing Kevazingo

5,17,81,133,138,153 94,134 164

47,93,133

5 8 , 6 0 , 9 4 , 9 8 , 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 , 1 15,1 2 2 , 1 3 3

Degradation products Limba Lingue'

21,43,58 153 153 5,84,135 36,133

51

Lipiferolide

123

Khaya

87,88

Liriodenine

124

Kiefer

104

Litre

165

Kikula

153

L o c u s t , West I n d i a n

Kirundu Knife-handles Knyswood Kokko

38 3,51,59,107,108 53 6,164

Logwood Louro, Red inamni vermelha

64 165 71 71 165

Kokrodua

35

M a c a s s a r II

Korina

84

M a c a s s a r III

Kotibe'

165

Macassar quinone

15,85

Koto

165

Maclurin

24,81

Krala

87

Macrophages

1 1,1 2

135

Magnoliaceae

123,134

Kurobe Laburnum Laccol Lärche

6

Mahogany

85 85

138

24

African

5,87,134

82

American

5,88,135

L a n g e r h a n s cells

1 1,12,13,23

Big leaf

87

Lapachenole

8 0 , 1 0 2 , 1 17

Ceylon

98

Dry z o n e

87

Lapacho wood Lapachol Larch, European Western

80 2 7 , 4 4 , 8 0 , 8 6 , 1 17 82,134

G r a n d bassam

87

Honduras

88

152

'Miva'

1 10

Spanish

88

34

Tabasco

88

Dark

83

West I n d i a n

88

Red

83

'Main de c r o c o d i l e '

58

White

83

Makore'

Yellow

83

Malayosid

Latinone Lauan

Lauraceae Laurel, Indian

21,71,79,121,164 79,166

Manegakinone Mansonia

Laurier-rose

95

Mansonia quinone

Leguminosae

21

Mansonone A, Mansonones

165

5,89,135 39 66 5, 1 9 , 9 1 , 1 3 4 28 15,91,92

178

S u b j e c t index

Maple

133,153,164

b a r k disease Maritinone

O a k , Cork European

140

Poison

66

Obeche

Massaranduba

165

Mbandi

153

Obobo

Melawis

106

Ochnaceae

Meliaceae

21,39,70,74,87,88,11 2,119 133,134,164

Meranti

Ocodemerine

7 134,152 22 5,94,135 74 165 71

Ocoteamine

71,72 17,81

134

Odum

Dark

83

Okoue'

Red

83

Okoume'

White

83

Okuro

Yellow

83

Oleaceae

22,96,133

93

Oleander

95

93

Oleandrin

95

Minerals

24

Olive w o o d

Missanda

165

Mesquite Prairie

Moabi

133,153,164

164 69,133 164

96

Olon

1 14

Olonvogo

114

Orange wood

100

Moraceae

21,38,81,133

Moradillo

51

Orelha d'onca

53

Moreira

17

Oro

38

Moulds

149

Osan

133

Movingui

40

Mricondi

153

Otocamine O u c h t e r l o n y test

M rime'hou

153

Oxyayanin A and B

Mtankoumi

153

Padauk, Andaman

Mucostasis

148

Mukulungu

164

Muniga

94,134

Musine

164

Mutenye

51

Mvalo

17

Mvule

17,81

Myristicaceae Myrtaceae Naucleaceae

165,166 76

Red African Paldao Palisander, Ostindisch Rio Santos Panga-panga P a o bugre Pao ferro

71 139 15,40,41 98 98 23 108 107 51,107 122,134 165 16,51

Pappel

105

Partridge

164

35 3,5 1 , 6 5 , 9 6 , 9 7 , 1 0 7

Pau d'arco

43

66

marfim

100,164

Neriine

95

preto

45

Nezuko

135

santo

166

Necklace Neodiospyrin

Niangon

135,166

Pentachlorphenol

Niove'

153,166

5-(Pent a dec-10-enyl)-resorcinol

Norrodiasine

71

3-Pentadecylcatechol

O a k , A u s t r a l i a n silky

73

Pernambuc

158 73 7 138

Subject index

101

Proteaceae

branca

101

Protective measures

dos campos

101

Psoralene

Peroba amarela

Red

99

rosa

99

White

47,101

Peroxyferolide

1 23

Persimmon Phenols Physostigmine Pinaceae

24 165

Pyinkado

166

Quebrachamine

50,99 99,101

Quebracho

23,152,166

134

Oregon

8-Methyl Pterygota, African

Quebrachin

2 1,67,68,82,1 03,104,1 15,133

Monterey

18 1 14

22 79

Pine, Maritime

22,73

50,67 25,99

Pilla m u r d a

Colorado

166

Quinone(s)

22

7-Hydroxy-2,8-dime thoxy1,4-phenanthra

110

104,134

2,5-Dimethoxy-l ,4-benzo

46,86

103

2,6-Dimethoxy-l ,4-benzo

15,47,83

67,134

8 6 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 0 , 1 0 6 , 1 1 6 , 1 19,1 2 2 , 1 2 3

164

Parana Pitch

104,134

154,156 2-Hydroxy-6-( 1 3'-hy d r o t e t r a d e -

Ponderosa

153

canyl)-l ,4-benzo

Radiata

103

6-Methoxy-2-methylbenzo-

Scots

104

furan-4,7-

Western yellow

152

Methyl-benzo

White Pine pollen a-Pinene

45 47 56,57

153

Betulachryso

45

158

Mucro

53

68,83,105

B-Pinene

179

68,83

5 , 6 - D i m e t h o x y - 2 - m e t h y l - l ,4naphtho

85

P i n o s y lvine

104

'a-Ethylfurano-1,4-naphtho

102

Platanaceae

134

' B - H y d r o x y - a - m e t h y l - p y r a n o - 1 ,4-

P l a n e , English ( E u r o p e a n )

134

naphtho'

Plicatic acid

130

2 - M e t h y l - 5 , 6 - d i m e t h o x y - l ,4-

Plumbagin

66

Pneumonitis, Hypersensitivity P o i s o n i n g by G r e v i l l e a Poplar

138 73

103

naphtho (Q4)

85,86

2-Methyl-3-hy d r o x y - 5 - m e t h o x y 1,4-naphtho ( Q t )

86

134

2 - M e t h y l - 5 - m e t h o x y - l ,4-

American

105

naphtho ( Q ^

Balsam

105

2-Methyl-5-methoxy-6-hy droxy-

Black

105

1,4-naphtho ( Q 3 )

White

105

Obtusa

77

Orange

Possentrie P r a u s n i t z - K i i s t n e r test Precaution(ary) measures Primin Propolis Prosopinine

127,131 18

7,19,23,26,28,118,120 106 93

Tolu Racemate Ramin Rapanone Reaction, delayed

85,86 85,86 15,59,85,86 61 85,86 46,107 5.1 06,1 3 3 , 1 3 8 24,26.86 8,10-13

180

Subject index

Reaction, primary irritant

7 165

R e d w a t e r tree Redwood Rengas

5,104,134,152

Sesquiterpene lactones

22,123

Shinanolone

66

Shoe(s), Wooden

3

70

Sipo

119,133

Renghol, Gluta-

24

Siris

164

Resperine

71

Sisham

Response, Mean

31

Skimmianine

32

'Sneeze wood*

34

Spruce, European

Review(s), Previous Systematic Rhinitis

127-130

Robinia

166

Rodiasine

165

6 5,115,152

Silver

115,134

S R S - A (slow r e a c t i n g s u b s t a n c e of anaphylaxis)

71,72

Rosaceae

1 11 1 12,1 13

Sterculiaceae

129 22,91,94,134,135,164

107,198

Rosewood

5,107,120,133

Brazilian East Indian

166 Stilbenes

22,24,81,82

5,108

Stinkwood

71

Honduras

111

Strychnine

6,25

Madagascar

110

Styrax

75

Siam

1 10

Subaha

35

Rotzeder

56

Suberosis

Rubiaceae

134

Sucupira

Rutaceae

112,114,164

Salicaceae

134

Samba

94

Sandalwood, Red

98,134

7 5,1 15

S y m p t o m s , general

6

Syringylglycol-ß-guaiacyl ether 154,156 Tabasco

88

Tali

165

S a n d b o x tree

77

Tango

Sanga-sanga

17

Tannins

Santalaceae

134

Condensed

150,151

Sapele, Sapeli

112

Hydrolysable

150,151

22

O c c u r r e n c e of

152

P r o p e r t i e s of

150

Saponines Sapotaceae

22,89,133,134,135,164

166 58,150

Sasswood

165

Tar

150

Satinwood, African

114

Tasua

164

Ceylon

112

Taxaceae

124

East Indian

112

Taxines

125

San D o m i n g a n

1 14

Taxodiaceae

West Indian

114

Tchitola

115

Teak

Sebipira Sensitisation Sepeerine Sequoia Sequoiosis Seraya Serotonine

6,8 ,29-31,127,134 72 7,134 7 83,134 129

134 134,165 19,117,120,135

a lie r g e n - f r e e

5

'Rhodesian' Terpenes

133,164 2 2 , 6 8 , 1 15

Test(s), Inhalative provocation Intradermal Maximisation

1 29 1 27,138 31

Subject index

Test, Open epicutaneous (OET) Optimisation Patch

Utile' Vanillic acid

156

14-17

Verbenaceae

22,117,135

Rubbing

8 55,57

Thymelaeaceae Thymoquinol Thymoquinone Hydro Tiama Tigerwood Tiliaceae Tola, Tola branca

68 106,133 55,56 14,15,55,85,86 54 70,133 70 165 5,37,133

Tonka

164

Tonquin, Tonguin

164

Toon(a) Toxic

1 19,133

30 29

Thujaplicins Thunbergol

181

54 123

98

Vermilion w o o d

165

Virginian p e n c i l t r e e

153

Wacapou Walnut, African

134,165

American

119

Black

119 119

Brazilian European

5,119,133

Poison Walnuss

121 119

W a t t l e , Black

152 152

Golden Wawa

94

Wenge'

122

Whitewood, American

123,133 164

5-n-Tridecylresorcinol

73

White p o i s o n w o o d

Tryptamine

41

Wood cutter's eczema (disease)21,43,83

17

Workmen's C o m p e n s a t i o n Bureau

Tule

and L a w s

4,19,129

Tulip tree

123

T u l i p w o o d , Brazilian

111

Xanthotoxin

24

Turnip wood

165

Xanthoxyletin

24

Turpentine

68

Xanthyletin

24 53

Type-I-allergy

11,127

Ximbo

Type-III-allergy

11,138

Yang

Type-IV-allergy

8-17

123 124

Ukola

135

Yew

Uragusi

164

Yohimbine

Umtati

6

Upas Urticaria, Contact

133,164

Yellow w o o d

Zebra wood, African

101 70,134

38

Zebrano

165

7

Zingana

165

182

I n d e x of n a m e s

I n d e x of local, s t a n d a r d a n d t r a d e n a m e s

A bang Abele Abenbegne Aborbora Aboudik ro(u) Acajou Acajou d'Afrique A c a j o u Sipo

S t a n d a r d name Kambala

Standard name Apitong

Poplar

Apopo

Tiama

Aprono

Kotibe

Apru, Apuro

Sapele

A re re

(American) mahogany African mahogany Sipo

Arzagi Asamela Asna, Asne

Acra

African mahogany

Adza

Moabi

Assacu

Afara

Limba

Assang-assie, Assie

Aspe, Aspen

African walnut

Dibetou

Afzelia

Doussie'

Assore

Agamokwe

Makore'

A t o m Assie

Agbe

Avodire'

Avati

Dabema

A wari

Agboin Aguano

American mahogany

Assi, Assie

Awiemfa samina

Yang Dibetou Mansonia Kotibe' Obeche Yew Afrormosia Indian laurel Poplar Hura Sipo Sapele Kosipo Kosipo Courbaril Koto Iatandza

Ahia

Kotibe

Awong

Ahmin

Ram in

Axim

African mahogany

Dabema Antiaris (Bonkonko)

Ayab Ayan

Doussie

Limba Sipo

Ayan

Ake Akede, Ako Akom Akug Akuraten Alcornoque Aliga, Aligna Allen ale Almon Alona wood Aluk Amargoso Amata prieta

Bosse' Sucupira Doussie'

Ayin, Ayinre

Wenge' Moabi Movingui Afrormosia

Ayous

Obeche

Azodau Azobe

Doussie Bongossi

Zebrano

Badi

Bilinga

Light red m e r a n t i

Bagi

Limba

Dibetou Cedrela P e r o b a rosa

Bahia Bahia r o s e w o o d Bajee, Bajii

Abura Brazilian r o s e w o o d Framire

Ipe

Baka

Kotibe

Amazokue'

Bubinga

Baku

Makore

Ambila

Muninga

Balake'

Kotibe'

Ampira

F ram ire'

Bangui

Kambala

Andoum Angouma Anón Anyaran Apa Apaya, Apapaya

Antiaris (Bonkonko) Okoume' Wenge' Movingui A f z e l i a (Doussie") Avodire'

Bark B a r k e l o t h tree Barre Barwood Bassi Basswood

Framire Antiaris ( B o n k o n k o ) Movingui African Padauk Framire" American whitewood

I n d e x of n a m e s

Standard name

Standard name Bataan

Red meranti

Batuan

Dao

Bay w o o d

American mahogany

B'boti

F ram ire' Mutenye

B e n g e , Bengi

African mahogany

Benin mahogany

Mansonia

Be'té

1 83

Framire'

Boti

Sapele

Bouboussou

Birch

Bouleau blanc

Kosipo

Bousousson rouge Bovili

Antiaris ( B o n k o n k o )

Brazilian w a l n u t

Imbuia

Bucheira

P e r o b a rosa

Bhera

East I n d i a n s a t i n w o o d

Bibitu

Sapele

Buvenga

Bubinga

Bibolo

Dibetou

Cabeuna

Brazilian r o s e w o o d

Bili Bilsted Bin B i s s e l o n , Bissilongo Biti Black Afara Black h i c k o r y n u t Boana Bobwe B o f o ovale Bohalala Bois de rose

Limba A m e r i c a n red g u m Dibetou African mahogany Rosewood Framire American walnut Agba Sapele Koto Afrormosia Bahia r o s e w o o d

Burus, Burutu

Caixeta

Cedrela

Cambogala Cambore

Okoume' Brazilian r o s e w o o d

Camwood

African Padauk

Carna

American walnut

Canaletto Canary wood

American walnut American whitewood

Canela f o r e t a , negra, preta Canella i m b u i a Caoba

Bubinga

Carobeira

Dibetou

Caryon

Bokonge

Wenge

Louro preto Imbuia

Canuguate

Bokongo

Agba

Ipe'

Calicedro

Bokongo

Bokuku

East I n d i a n s a t i n w o o d

Ipe' American mahogany Ipe Walnut

Castagno, Castano

Chestnut

Cauri

Framire'

Bokungu

Dabema

Caviuna

Bolengu

Doussie'

C a y ca-gan

Bolimba

Agba

Bombalu

Dibetou

Cedro cebello

Bombanga

Doussie'

Cerisier

Cherry

B o m b a y b l a c k w o o d ¡East I n d i a n r o s e w o o d

Cevitza

Walnut

Bona

Chai

Framire'

Brazilian r o s e w o o d I n d i a n laurel

Cedar, Cedrela, Cedro

American cedar

American mahogany

White m e r a n t i

Bonkangu

Bilinga

Chanfuta

Afzelia

Bonkonko

Antiaris

Chenchen

Antiaris ( B o n k o n k o )

Bonsamdua Bontue Bope-bambale Boroua Bosassa Bosolu Bosassa Bosse', Bossi

A y a n , Movingui Koto Niove' Mansonia Bosse' Padauk

Chene Chiculte Choga Ciliegio

Oak American mahogany Yew Cherry

Cimiri

Courbaril

Coapinal

Courbaril

Niove'

C o e u r de h o u r s

Sucupira

Guarea

Combo Combo

Okoume'

184

Index of names

S t a n d a r d name Congowood

Dibetou

Copal, Copalier, Copinol

Courbaril

Standard name Edoussie'

Doussie', T i a m a

Efam

Moabi

Corail

Padauk

Corina

Limba

Efok

Koto

Sequoia

Egbi

Afrormosia

C o ria Corobore

Courbaril

Coromandel

Macassar ebony

Crura C u c u m b e r tree

American mahogany American whitewood

Sipo

Efau-Konkonti

Egoin

Limba

Ejen

Afrormosia

Ekbale

Limba

Ekhimi, Ekkimi

Dabema

Cunculo

Moabi

Ekki

Dahoma

Dabema

Ekop

Niove

Elolom

Abura

Daku

Moabi

Damar

Meranti

Danta

Kotibe'

Debe Degema mahogany Dehor

Kotibe' African mahogany Framire'

Bongossi

Elo uta

Afrormosia

Emri, Emeri

Idigbo (Framire)

Eng

Yang

Engan

Avodire'

Epicea

Spruce

Demohi

Dao

Eprou

Kotibe

Determa

Red Louro

Erable

Dhunu Diambi Diamuni Dikala-kala, Dikela Dikase kasa Dilolo Dilolo f i o t e Dimori Dimpampi Diolosso

Yew Bosse'

Erun

Wenge'

Esaki

Tiama

latandza

Essec

latandza

Sapele

Essingang

Bubinga

Estoraque

American sweet gum

Makore'

Eucalitto Eyan

Dibetou

Antiaris

Eyen

Movingui

Faggio False Iroko

Djati

Teak

Djave

Moabi latandza

F o l t h a larga

Dibetou

Fou

Ebanghemwa Edinam Edo

Limba

Fela

Djongoamba

Movingui

Beech Bonkonko

Farayen

Dominguila

Eb'ene j a u n e , E . v e r t e

Eucalyptus

Moabi Ayan

Eba

Kosipo

Dibetou

Bosse'

Dumori

Tali

Esaka

Divuiti

Dubimi mahogany

Rosewood

Kosipo

Distemonanthus

Duabai

Maple

Eravadi kalaruk

Framire' Imbuia Bonkonko

Frake', F r a m e r i , F r a m o

Limba

African mahogany

Framire

Idigbo

Makore'

Frassino

Bongossi Bosse' Ipe' G e d u n o h o r , Tiama Movingui

Freijo

Ash American cordia

F re ne Gaboon, Gabun Gedu lohor, G.noha, G.nohor Già thi

Ash Okoume Tiama Teak

Index of names

Standard name 'Gold teak' Gongo moitomo G o m a Colorado G r a n d bassam Greenheart Grogoli Guapinol Guarea Guayacan Gurjun

Afrormosia Macassar e b o n y American sweet gum African mahogany Ipe' Anegre

Standard name Ka-bari Kaku Kali Kalulu

Dabema Bongossi Anegre' Bonkonko

K alungi

Tiama

Kamaj

Moabi

Courbaril

Kamashi

Niove'

Bosse'

K a m assi

Knysna boxwood

Ipe' Yang

Habas

Dao

Hadri

Indian laurel

Halda

East Indian satinwood

Hamrak

185

Dao

Kambi Kanawang Kà tema K a y a garu

Moabi Meranti Kambala R a m in

K e dire

Teak

Kefe

Koto

Haoul

Chestnut

Kembal

Teak

Hatna

Indian laurel

Kendra

Courbaril

Hazel pine Hêtre Hickory poplar Holda

American sweet gum Beech American whitewood Indian laurel

Hudoke

Sucupira

Hurgalu

East Indian satinwood

Kevazingo Keruing Kiboto Kiombe Kion Kirundu

Bubinga Yang Wenge Bubinga Koto Bonkonko

Hwamu

Chestnut

Kise'sd

Padauk

Iataiba

Courbaril

K itola

Tchitola

Yew

Klatie

Kosipo

Koan

Meranti

Iba Ibira romi Idigbo If Ikwapobo Ing Intuele, Intule Ipaki Ireme Iroko, Iroco Ischingesha Itaiba Izingana Jati

P e r o b a rosa Framire' Yew Kosipo Yang Kambala Tiama Framire'

Koili Kojoe itam Koki phonom

Meranti

Kokango

Framire'

Koko Kokongo Kol

Iatandza

Kongo

Bubinga

Courbaril

Korina

Limba

Zebrano Teak

Kosi kosi Kotibe'

Courbaril

Kouan

Courbaril

Koul

Courbaril

Koyagei

Jutahi, Jutay

Walnut

Kokrodua

Jenni Julchihout

Siris Doussie'

Kambala

Jatoba

Junero

Dao Macassar ebony

Brazilian r o s e w o o d Courbaril

Krasse Krot

Afrormosia

Sipo Danta Mutenye Mansonia Limba Bosse' Walnut

186

I n d e x of n a m e s

Standard name

S t a n d a r d name Kungulu

Moabi

Makaba

Kusiaba, K u s i a b o , Kusia

Bilinga

Makadany

Kwanari Kyenkyen Kyere Kyonix Kyun Lanutan-bagio Lapacho

Courbaril Bonkonko Koto A m e r i c a n s w e e t gum Teak Ramin

Chestnut Dao

Makai

Meranti

Makarou

Makore' Dao

Mamakau Maranda

Tchitola Courbaril

Marbre Maripende

A m e r i c a n s w e e t gum

Ipe'

Mayapis

Red meranti

Dao

M'banga

Doussie'

Padauk

M'babou

Makore'

L e g n o rosa

P a u rosa

M'babou

Tchitola

Lianu

Bubinga

M'bel

Laup Legno corallo

Libayo Libenge, Libengi

Tiama Mutenye

Padauk

M'benge

Bubinga

M'bengi

Mutenye

Libuyu

Sapele

M'bero

Dibetou

Libuyu

Kosipo

M'beza

Pau rosa

Lidia

F ram ire' Sapele

M'bosse

Lifaki

Tiama

M'boti

Lifaki m o i n d u Lifaki m p e m b e

Niove"

M'bonda

Lifaki

Bosse F ram ire'

Dibetou

M'boun

Niove'

Kosipo

Mebrou

Sapele

Lifaki p e m b e

Dibetou

Mebrou zuiri

Lifow

Avodire'

Melapi

Meranti

Kosipo

Melavis

Ramin

Melèze

Larch

Lifuco Liquidambar Locust Log-otsi Lokoa popo Lolagbola

A m e r i c a n s w e e t gum Courbaril Bonkonko Tiama Tchitola

Memenga, Menga-menga M'gunda Mibotu Mirim

Longo

Tiama

Missanda

Lotue

Sapele

Mkora

Lovoawood Luet

Dibetou Yew

Lumbern

Meranti

Luole

Bubinga

Lupigi Lusamba

Dao Avodiri

Sipo

Mnai Moboron Mogano Mogoubi Mohole Mojondi

Niove' Kambala Wenge' Sucupira Tali Afzelia Pau rosa Agba

American mahogany Niove' Afrormosia Macassar ebony

Macula

S p o t t e d gum

Mokole'

Madera negra

I n d i a n laurel

Mologotoe

Macassar ebony Kambala

Teak

Molondou

Maitem

Mai Sak

Macassar ebony

Momboyo

Majaine

American mahogany

Monga

Afrormosia

Sipo Bubinga

I n d e x of n a m e s

Standard name

Standard name Monkonge M'pele Moreira Moutchibanaie

Wenge' Agba Kambala Dibetou

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'Nigerian s a t i n w o o d ' Niabi Njame Noce Noce africano

Movingui Mobai Dao Walnut Dibetou

Movingui

Ayan

Mucarane

Pau rosa

Noce m a y o m b e

Limba

Muenge

Padauk

Noce tanganika

Anegre

Mufula

Kambala

Nogal

Walnut

Mukali

Anegre'

Mukama

Dibetou

Noibwood Noyer Nson-so

Ipé Walnut Wengé

Mukangu

Anegre'

Mukonia

Abura

N'tola

Tiama

N'towo

Taima

Nungu

Moabi

Pau rosa

N'vero

Dibetou

Nyankom

Niangon

Mukumi, Mukushi Mukusi, Mukusu Mulatchine Mulimba Mumangala Muna Mundambi

Limba Doussie' Anegre' Wenge'

Agba Abura

Nzali

Padauk

Obasuluk

Meranti

Obeche Obobo-nofwa

Abachi Guarea (Bossé)

Murada

I n d i a n laurel

Músase

Iatandza

Odo

Doussie'

Museka

Agba

Odo

Mansonia

E a s t A f r i c a n olive

Odum

Musongo

Iatandza

Afram

Mutene

Mutenye

Ofun

Musharagi

Mutigbanaye Mutsanya Mutsekamambole Mut(t)i

Bosse'

Ogbon-eli

Kotibe'

Ogiovu

Agba

Ogove'

Indian laurel

Ogueminya Ogwango

Muvenghi

Movingui

Muyembe

Moabi

Okeang

Muyovou

Taima

Oko

M'vovo

Sapele

Okoume

M'vule Nazareno N'dola Neang peak Nemesu N'gollon N'gondou N'gula N'gulumaza Nhire

Kambala

Okpe

Kambala Limba Mansonia Mutenye Bonkonko Niangon Movingui African mahogany Sipo Moabi Gaboon Movingui

Ole

Afrormosia

African mahogany

Olivo

Olive w o o d

Indian laurel

Olmo

Courbaril

Meranti African mahogany Wengi Padauk

Omo Ombolo M'bolo Omu Ongo ayem

Elm Cordia Dibetou Kosipo Iatandza

Bilinga

Onidijo

F ram iré

Pau rosa

Opapea

Anegre'

188

Index of n a m e s

Standard name Opepe

Bilinga

Oporipo

Koto

O r e re Ori Ormeau, Orme champêtre Oro

Standard name Quercia

Oak Louro preto

Quizarra

Moabi

R a m i n telur

Ramin

Anegre'

Reang phak

Indian laurel

Elm Bonkonko

Redbark

Afrormosia

Red peroba

P e r o b a rosa

Oroko

Kambala

Oropa

Niove'

Rokko

Kambala

Orura

American mahogany

Sabica

American mahogany

Redwood

Sequoia

Brazilian r o s e w o o d

Osan

Anegre'

Saborana

Osun

Padauk

Sagon

Otutu

Kotibe'

Saia, Sain

Ovang

Bubinga

Sak

Teak

Kotibe'

Sali

East Indian satinwood

Ovoe', O v o v e ' Ozocote Ozonga Pahi Paldao Palo Colorado Pao h u a Papao Pau cravo Pau d'arco Pearwood Penkwa Penkwa P e r o b a dos c a m p o s Peterebt Pha-yom 'Pink ivory w o o d ' Pioppo Pohouro Poirier d'Afrique Popple Poroposo

A m e r i c a n sweet gum Okoume Teak Dao Sequoia Chestnut Doussie'

Teak Indian laurel

Samarie-japo

Cedrela

Samba

Obeche

Samfona

Anegre'

Sapin Sapoton

Fir American mahogany

Sapupira preta 'Satin walnut'

Sucupira American sweet gum

Bahia rosewood

Sebipira

Sucupira

Ipe

Sekundi

African mahogany

Moabi Dibetou Sapele White Peroba Louro preto Meranti P a u rosa

Semarang

Teak

Semli Sengel

Kambala East Indian satinwood

Sengkuane Senhungo Shingle w o o d Shisham

Dao Kotibe Framire' Rosewood

Poplar

Sibo

Bilinga

Koto

Sida

Dibetou

Sifou-sifou

Iatandza

Moabi American whitewood Koto

Sifu Simme

Doussie' Kambala

P o r s u k ag

Yew

Simi

Possentrie

Hura

Singa

Dabema

Potodrom

Tali

Siris

Kok(k)o

Proboko Pruno

Antiaris ( B o n k o n k o ) Mansonia

Songo Sonokling

Courbaril

Avodire' Rosewood

Pterygota

Koto

Sonosoengoe

Rosewood

Pue

Agba

S t a n t h o r p e yellow-jacket

Eucalyptus

Puget sound pine

Oregon pine

Subaha

Abura

I n d e x of n a m e s

Standard name

Standard name Sungangona

Pau rosa Doussie'

Sungula

Undianunu Urodo

Sipo

African mahogany

Uvala

Doussie

Teak

Vavona

Tallowwood

Blue g u m

Vermilion wood

Tali

Missanda

Voukov

Tanga tanga, Tango

Iatandza

Vovo

Red meranti

Tanguile Tasso

Yew

Tataboe

Sucupira

Tegina Teio

Vummarary Wahala Waka

Bubinga

Wane

Thekku

Teak

Wanga

Thona

Yew

Wansenwa Ware'

Timbi

Sipo

Timbi

Tiama

Washiba

Timbi

Sapele

Wawa

Tremble

Doussie' Yew Agba

Wawampe We-we 'White A f a r a '

Tchitola

Wombolu

Dabema

Xen

Kambala Poplar

Tsangu

Bonkonko

Tsanya

Kotibe

Tsibudimba

Tchitola

Yaga-bito Yalam Yali Yang-gulk Yatandza

Tsikalakala

Wenge'

Yellow poplar

Tshimaye

Tiama

Yembe

Tshimaje noir, T.rouge T s u g a de p a t t o n

Sipo Hemlock

Ysipo-oby Yulu

Tuba

Tchitola

Zambesi redwood

Tubini

Dibetou

Zante wood

T u l i p w o o d , tulip tree

A m e r. w h i t e w o o d

Tungi

Mutenye

Ubelu

Agba

Ubilesan Ubiri

Bubinga

Walola

F ram ire'

Tola chinfuta, Tola m a f u t a

Afrormosia

Yew

T e r m in alia

Tola, Tola blanc

Sipo East Indian s a t i n w o o d

Afrormosia

Wamba

Tinyu

Abura

Walola

Dibetou

Tindalo

Sequoia Andaman Padauk

Teak

Temamire

T o u m b o h i r o noir

Mansonia

Utile'

Tadi

Toum

African mahogany

Niove'

Sussu-menga Tacoradi

189

Sapele Framire'

Zapatero Zingana Zopilote Zougou-ban Zwarte kappes

Agba Red Louro Niove' Avodire' Koto Ipe Obeche Koto Brazilian r o s e w o o d Limba Dibetou Meranti American sweet gum Cedrela Yew Walnut Iatandza American whitewood Moabi Bahia r o s e w o o d American mahogany 'Rhodesian teak' East Indian s a t i n w o o d Maracaibo b o x w o o d Zebrano American mahogany Tiama Sucupira

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Walter de Gruyter Berlin-New York Journal of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Biochemistry Zeitschrift für Klinische Chemie und Klinische Biochemie Gemeinsames Organ der Deutschen, der Österreichischen und der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Klinische Chemie This journal publishes all IFCC Recommendations regularly Johannes Büttner, Hannover; Ernst Schütte, Berlin. Friedrich Körber, Berlin. Nils-Eric Saris, Helsinki.

Editors in Chief Managing Editor Special Editor for IFCC Recommendations Editors

Hugo Aebi, Bern; Heinz Breuer, Bonn; Joachim Brugsch, Berlin; Johannes Büttner, Hannover; Hans Joachim Dulce, Berlin; Jörg Frei, Lausanne; Wolfgang Gerok, Freiburg; Helmut Greiling, Aachen; Erich Kaiser, Wien; Hermann Mattenheimer, Chicago; Ernst Schütte, Berlin; Dankwart Stamm, München; Hansjürgen Staudinger, Freiburg; Otto Wieland, München.

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H.-J. Merker H. Nau D. Neubert (Editors)

Walter de Gruyter Berlin-New York Teratology of the Limbs Fourth Symposium on Prenatal Development September 1980, Berlin Edited by H.-J. Merker, H. Nau, D. Neubert with the assistance of B. Steyn, J. Klein-Friedrich, R. Kreft 1980.15,5 cm x 23 cm. XII, 454 pages. 247 figures (13 in color). Hardcover. DM 98,-; approx. US $ 45.00 ISBN 311 008462 7 Proceedings of the 4th Symposium on Prenatal Development organized by the, "Institut für Toxikologie und Embryonal-Pharmakologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Sonderforschungsbereich 29", and held from September 25 to 27, 1980, in Berlin (West). More than 100 scientists from all over the world participated. The major topics covered are: • Basic Problems of Normal Limb Development • Acetylcholine Receptors and Inductive Influences of Nerves • Intercellular Substances • Teratology • Limb Defects in Humans

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HOLZFORSCHVNQ Mitteilungen zur Biologie, Chemie, Physik und Technologie des Holzes

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