Women’s Rights in Islam: A Critique of Nawal El Saadawi’s Writing 9783111105314, 9783111104058

Citation preview

Asmaa Shehata Women’s Rights in Islam

Studies on Modern Orient

Volume 49

Asmaa Shehata

Women’s Rights in Islam A Critique of Nawal El Saadawi’s Writing

ISBN 978-3-11-110405-8 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-110531-4 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-110738-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2023944684 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2024 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover image: Iulilel/iStock/Getty Images Plus Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

To Ibrahim my love

Acknowledgments I would like to express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to all those who supported me during the writing of this book. It would not have been possible without their encouragement, guidance, and assistance. Firstly, I owe a great deal of gratitude to my friend Neelam, whose comments and inquiries about women’s rights in Islam aroused my interest and led me to research a new field of study in an attempt to seek answers to her queries. Thanks to her, I acquired new skills, and expanded my perspective, which led to fascinating breakthroughs and ideas that have a lasting influence on my life. Secondly, I would like to thank my professors at the University of Ottawa who provided me with the necessary knowledge and skills to undertake this project. Dr. Naomi Goldenberg was always a source of guidance, steady encouragement, and boundless understanding in every communication we shared. I am indebted as well to Dr. Adele Reinhartz and Dr. Anne Vallely whose valuable feedback, insightful critiques, and suggestions are very significant. Thirdly, I am grateful to my colleagues and classmates who generously shared their expertise and provided me with invaluable insights and perspectives. Their feedback and suggestions were instrumental in refining my ideas and improving the overall quality of the work. Fourthly, I want to express my gratitude to the University of Ottawa for the Admission Scholarship, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for the Joseph-Armand Bombardier Canada Master’s Scholarship, and the Department of Classics and Religious Studies for their support of my graduate studies. Additionally, I want to thank all of my professors at the Institute for Feminist and Gender Studies for all the support, and an unforgettable learning experience. Last but not least, I want to sincerely thank and appreciate my family members who have always supported me, listened to me compassionately without passing judgment, communicated with me without bias, helped me without expecting anything in return, and loved me unconditionally. Without them, this project would not have been possible because they were essential. I want to express my deep gratitude to them for their never-ending generosity, care, tolerance, and support. I cannot sufficiently convey how grateful I am to them, but they have my undying respect and sincere affection. I would especially like to thank my lovely sister Doaa, who tragically passed away just as I was completing my monograph after a valiant fight with cancer. Once again, I want to thank you all for your help. This book would not have been possible without your support and encouragement.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-202

Preface This book aims to shed light on Nawal El Saadawi’s contributions to the feminist movement in Egypt and the Middle East. It delves into her early experiences and the social as well as political conditions that shaped her views, exploring how her activism and writings challenged the dominant discourse around women’s rights in the Muslim world. I still vividly remember the first time I saw Nawal El Saadawi on a TV screen speaking passionately about the issue of women’s rights in Egypt. I was very little at that time and I was totally surprised that the mere mention of her name was enough to ignite heated discussions among those around me who were arguing passionately about her views on Islam and women’s rights. While some fervently disagreed with her beliefs and considered her as a destroyer of traditional values, others viewed her as a bold defender of women’s rights and gave her their full support. As a young child, I did not fully understand the depth of the conversation, but I was intrigued by this woman who seemed to have such an impact on people. Years later, as I grew older and became more interested in women’s rights, I began to read both her literary and non-fiction works and I was also lucky enough to attend one of her book readings in Virginia in 2008. It was pleasant to hear her speak, and I had the opportunity to briefly speak with her after that. As I delved further into her writings, I increasingly felt the need for a comprehensive examination of her beliefs. In an attempt to better understand her arguments, I began collecting all her views related to Muslim women’s rights and doing a thorough analysis of them using two different lenses. One of them is that of classical scholars whose views enable us to understand the historical context in which the target topics were made on the one hand and evaluate the strength and weaknesses of the arguments, contributing to a more robust analysis on the other hand. The other lens, moreover, is that of modern feminists who lived the same era of El Saadawi. Upon completing this monograph, I was planning to meet with El Saadawi and further discuss its contents with her. However, my plans were abandoned since El Saadawi passed away while I was still writing this monograph. As El Saadawi lived with heated arguments around her, she left with the same level of controversy surrounding her final destination. The beginning of this book explores the life and work of Nawal El Saadawi, from her early childhood in a rural Egyptian village to her rise as a pioneering feminist and outspoken critic of patriarchy as well as oppression. Then her writings and contributions to feminist literature and her activism in advocating for women’s rights are presented. After that five controversial issues are introduced accompa-

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-203

X 

 Preface

nied with El Saadawi’s views regarding them and followed with an analysis of her arguments in light of two different lenses: classical and modern. I hope this book aids readers in gaining a deeper understanding of El Saadawi’s perspectives and makes a valuable contribution to the ongoing discussions concerning the rights of Muslim women.

Contents  VII

Acknowledgments  Preface 

 IX

List of Tables 

 XIII  XV

A Note on Translation  1

 1

Introduction 

Part I: Eyes on Nawal El Saadawi’s Writings  19

2

Egyptian Feminism 

3

Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World 

4

Feminist Writings and Creative Output 

 48

Part II: Imagining Relationship Norms  61

5

Marriage 

6

Polygamy Dilemma 

7

Divorce Issue 

 79

 88

Part III: Traditions and Customs 8

The Veil Controversy 

9

Inheritance Rights 

10 Final Comments 

 99  112

 118

 32

XII 

Tables 

 Contents

 123

A list of El Saadawi’s Newspaper Interviews  A list of El Saadawi’s TV Shows 

 129

A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)  References  Index 

 157

 145

 127

 131

List of Tables Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6

A list of El Saadawi’s novels   123 A list of El Saadawi’s short stories   123 A list of El Saadawi’s memoirs   124 A list of El Saadawi’s plays   124 A list of El Saadawi’s non-fiction writings  Compilations in English   125

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-205

 124

A Note on Translation This monograph is based on an analysis of some texts in Arabic. In order to illustrate and prove certain points, consequently, it includes various translated passages from primary sources, secondary sources, academic and newspaper articles as well as TV interviews. All of the translations from Arabic, whether from Classical/ Modern Arabic or colloquial Arabic dialects, are my own, unless otherwise indicated. Please see the list of Qur’anic verses at the end of the book for the Arabic text and English translation of each verse covered in this book.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-206

1 Introduction The emotional, sexual, and psychological stereotyping of females begins when the doctor says: “It’s a girl.” -SHIRLEY CHISHOLM, Uncrowned Queens1 I was a child, I did not know anything about the village or the city, I did not know that despite the difference in everything, they agree on one thing, one thing I see from the eye, something I do not know exactly, I feel it on my body with chills, a female was born in A world that only wants males. -NAWAL EL SAADAWI, My Life2

It might seem strange to open a book about women’s rights with words that passionately describe the suffering that women experience beginning at birth. Yet the bitterness between the words of the two quotations, which were written by two different authors from different countries, paints a vivid picture of the agony experienced by women all over the world. Chisholm’s and El Saadawi’s alert to the “challenge” posed by the society is also an indication of how unpleasant the conditions are in numerous communities around the world for women who have frequently been marginalized, oppressed, and denied equal chances in a variety of aspects of life, including the economy, society, and politics.3 The battle over women has recurringly treated as like second-class citizens4 with fewer possibilities than males.5 In recent times, for example, every woman is claimed6 to be either a target of or a victim of numerous forms of violence committed by men, including physical assault, verbal and sexual harassment, stalking, and emotional abuse.7 The gender 1 Peggy Brooks-Bertram, et al., “Uncrowned Queens, Volume 3: African American Women Community Builders of Western” 146. 2 Nawal El Saadawi, “My life, part I, autobiography” 36. 3 See Kathy Davis, “Feminist politics of location.” 4 Nancy Mandel (1998) claims that men often overlook the ideas, preferences, and critical insights of women in favor of their own unconstrained privileges and freedoms. This problem carries implications not only for women themselves but also for their children and society at large. 5 Margaret L. Anderson, “Thinking about women: Sociological perspectives on sex and gender.” 6 See Jacquelyn Campbell  & David Boyd, “Violence against women: Synthesis of research for health care professionals.” 7 A tragic example of this occurred in the 1989 Montreal Massacre at the University of Montreal, where a young man killed 14 female engineering students and injured 10 others. According to police sources, the Montreal massacre shooter was upset that women were filling positions that were usually filled by men. He thus divided the class into gender-specific groups and told the male students to leave the room. The shooter then specifically spoke out at female students, saying “You are all a bunch of feminists, and I hate feminists.” See Julie Bindle, “The Montreal massacre: Canada’s feminists remember” for details. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-001

2 

 1 Introduction

gap is also plain in divorce legislation. For instance, in some regions of the Middle East and South Asia, women are not allowed to receive a divorce unless there are eyewitnesses to the adultery, while in other regions, women must pay back their dowries in order to get a divorce and regain their freedom.8 This is exacerbated dreadful for women of color since they make less money than their white counterparts and experience racism and other forms of harassment at work because they are disproportionately underrepresented in positions of leadership.9 In the confines of this oppressive restrictions, the situation for Muslim women is significantly worse; for example, Afghan women are not allowed to attend school and must cover their entire bodies when outside in burkas. Muslim men, however, are not subject to the same limitations.10 Along the same lines, Iranian women should obtain their husbands’, fathers’, or male siblings’ formal consent before leaving the country.11 Other Islamic countries, such as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, have male guardianship systems that control every aspect of a woman’s life from birth to death, such as her education, marriage, divorce, and job.12 Muslim women in non-Muslim countries nevertheless experience bias of a different kind, especially in the wake of the 9/11 attacks, despite the fact that freedom of religion is recognized by national and international law.13 To meet the current situation, numerous governmental and non-governmental groups have established violence prevention measures. These programs are mostly geared toward teaching young boys and girls about gender equality and promoting healthy relationships. Many nations have also passed legislation that forbids gender inequality and the mistreatment of women. The 1977 Canadian Human Rights Act, for instance, forbids all discrimination based on sex, race, color, religion, gender, and sexual orientation. Nevertheless, despite the progress made by

8 A thorough discussion is provided by Leila Ahmed “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate”  & Haideh Moghissi, “Feminism and Islamic fundamentalism: The limits of postmodern analysis.” 9 Sanchez-Hucles & Davis, “Women and women of color in leadership: Complexity, identity, and intersectionality.” 10 Rostami-Povey, “Afghan women: Identity and invasion.” 11 Perhaps the clearest example is the Iranian women’s soccer captain, Niloufar Ardalan, whose husband forbade her from traveling to a competition in Malaysia. See Marissa Payne 2015 for details. 12 For more details, see Bandar Al-Shahrani, “A critical legal analysis of the impact of male guardianship system on women’s rights in Saudi Arabia.” 13 For instance, 69% of American women who wear veils report experiencing prejudice at least once, compared to 29% of their counterparts who do not. See Rana El Mir, “Muslim women experience thinly veiled discrimination” for more details.

Islam and Women’s Rights 

 3

women, gender inequality still exists in many international nations,14 with women still having to deal with the negative effects of patriarchal institutions, such as the pay gap between genders.15

Islam and Women’s Rights Islam’s view of women’s roles is nuanced, diverse, and has generated a lot of debate and differing interpretations. It varies among Muslims and academics as well as across numerous cultural, socioeconomic, and geographic contexts. Some scholars argue that Islam’s marginalization of women’s responsibilities and granting of benefits to men resulted in Muslim women’s current lower social standing.16 Moreover, Islam is referred to as “anti-women” since it is said to encourage “a segregated social system” that eventually pushes women out of the workforce and into political marginalization.17 In a similar vein, Alya Baffoun notes that Islamic shariah is the main factor behind women’s current inferior status in the world because it “introduced Muslim Law and its double moral standard, found upon the repression and sexual control of women as well as the practice of polygamy by men.”18 That is, Shariah is biased against women who are granted fewer rights than their male counterparts. Haideh Moghissi expresses a similar point of view when she notes that Islamic Shariah law is unfair to women, disregards gender equality, violates fundamental human rights, and is not referenced in the Qur’an.19 Moreover, according to Barbara Stowasser, the Qur’anic verse 4:34, which describes the domestic relationship between husbands and wives and allows husbands to beat their wives in the event of disobedience, is just one of many commentaries on the Qur’an that demonstrate the numerous restrictions on women in Islam.20 On the other hand, other scholars confirm Islam’s massive support of equal women’s rights and women’s advancement. For example, Huda Shaarawi refers 14 This is especially noticeable in the field of engineering, for instance, female engineers still face greater challenges and lower levels of acceptance than their male counterparts. Moreover, according to Fouad et al., (2017), female engineers’ salaries are lower as well. 15 In Iceland, for example, there is a 14% gender salary disparity, some women have taken matters into their own hands. Icelandic women therefore opted to leave their workplaces 14% earlier, which is equal to two hours and 22 minutes. See Witw 2016. 16 See Haideh Moghissi, “Feminism and Islamic fundamentalism: The limits of postmodern analysis” & Barbara Stowasser, “Gender issues and contemporary Qur’an interpretation.” 17 Iman Hashim, “Reconciling Islam and feminism” 7. 18 Alya Baffoun, “Women and social change in the Muslim Arab world” 230. 19 See Haideh Moghissi, “Islamic feminism revisited.” 20 Barbara Stowasser, “Gender issues and contemporary Qur’an interpretation.”

4 

 1 Introduction

to Khadija, the wife of the Prophet Muhammad, as an illustration of how Islam upholds female equality rather than undermining it.21 In addition, Mohammed Arkoun points out that the patriarchal interpretation of the Qur’an is to be expected because the holy book “has been ripped from its historical, linguistic, literary, and psychological contexts and then continuously re-contextualized in various cultures and according to the ideological needs of various actors.”22 According to Iman Hashim, as a result, the Qur’anic passages that advocate for gender equality have been misconstrued. That is, Islam does not oppress women; rather, misinterpretations of the Qur’an by uninformed scholars are to fault, not the Qur’an itself. In this sense, it is underlined that the Qur’an bestows important rights on women who seem to be unaware of them and that understanding the equality of rights granted to Muslim women in Islam is necessary to improve women’s current inferior status. Additionally, Islamic teachings, in the opinion of Miriam Cooke, set the groundwork for an “ideal just society” in which Muslim women are free to exercise their faith and fulfill their equal roles in a number of ways. More specifically, it is asserted that Islam, like feminism, emphasizes “the role of gender in understanding the organization of society.”23 Likewise, Victoria Brittain notes that despite the high position women have in Islam, “over the years, the patriarchal system and political power have marginalized and made them invisible.”24 Conversely, according to Nimat Barazangi, “Islam regards men and women as equal for different but complementary biological functions.” Islam’s teachings therefore do not discriminate against either gender; rather, they uphold justice and gender equality by honoring each person’s unique abilities and giving them the positions that best suit them.25 However, a third group of scholars’ work offers a different perspective on the subject of Muslim women’s rights and does not fit into any of these two categories. An example of this group is Saba Mahmood who investigates the practices of devout Muslim women with the aim of extracting an epistemology of the body, politics, ethics, and religion and questioning key assumptions of Western feminist thought. Her fieldwork in Egypt, for example, sheds light on the social, religious, economic, and educational problems that Muslim women’s groups face not just in Egypt or the Middle East, but also globally.26 Similarly, Aysha Hidayatullah explores how Muslim scholars like Asma Barlas and Riffat Hassan have absorbed a liberal-secular

21 Huda Shaarawi, “Mudhakkirati.” 22 Mohammed Arkoun, “Rethinking Islam: Common questions, uncommon answers” 5. 23 Miriam Cooke, “Women claim Islam” 149, ix. 24 Victoria Brittain, “Islamic feminists on the move” 29. 25 Nimat Barazangi, “The Absence of Muslim women in shaping Islamic thought: foundations of Muslims’ peaceful and just co-existence” 417. 26 Saba Mahmood, “Politics of piety: The Islamic revival and the feminist subject.”

Islam and Women’s Rights 

 5

understanding of gender equality and have attempted to map it out onto Islam, which is in and of itself quite problematic.27 Tabassum Fahim Ruby reexamines the theoretical and methodological framework that has traditionally framed the debate over Muslim women’s rights from a liberal–secular standpoint using the debates over the proposed tribunal in Canada (2003–2006) as a case study.28 The fact that there is disagreement over the status of women in Islam highlights the need for further research to examine these claims and provide new insights that will help us better understand the Qur’anic perspective on women’s rights. This leads to this book that analyzes the writings of renowned Egyptian author, Nawal El Saadawi, whose books are widely read throughout the Middle East and many Western countries, and which focus on the struggle of Muslim women. Because of her outspoken feminism about politics, religion, and gender, she is referred to as the “Simone de Beauvoir of the Arab world.”29 The purpose of this book is twofold: 1) to investigate El Saadawi’s viewpoints on five particular themes—marriage, polygamy, divorce, inheritance rights and veiling—that appear in her creative works, such as novels, plays, articles, press interviews, and TV shows; and 2) to analyze her viewpoints on these target issues in light of two interpretive lenses: the pre-modern Qur’anic exegesis provided by Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d. 923 CE) and Abu l-Fida Ismail Ibn Umar Ibn Kathir (d.1373 CE) and the modern Muslim feminism put forth by two Muslim feminists: Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri. This monograph critically examines her views in order to assess how they align with or diverge from those of contemporary Muslim feminists and traditional Qur’anic exegeses. The significance of this project lies in its contribution to the body of knowledge on the subject of Muslim women’s rights, while simultaneously delving into the perspective of contemporary secular scholars, such as Nawal El Saadawi, whose contentious feminist ideas provide a unique lens on this subject. We can have a better understanding of the range of viewpoints on gender-related issues within the Islamic faith by contrasting her opinion with those of traditional and modern scholars. By doing so, readers can gain a deeper knowledge of the relevant Qur’anic verses as well as how Islamic textual sources and traditions address the targeted contentious themes, which helps us better grasp the diversity of perspectives on gender issues within the Islamic tradition. The findings can also aid readers in understanding the ongoing conflicts between feminism and Islam. More importantly, they help to comprehend the conflicts that currently exist between Muslim communities and Western governments, such as

27 Aysha Hidayatullah, “Feminist edges of the Qur’an.” 28 Tabassum Fahim Ruby, “Muslim women’s rights: Contesting liberal-secular sensibilities in Canada.” 29 Emma Batha, “I don’t fear death: pioneering Egyptian feminist defies threats.”

6 

 1 Introduction

the challenging situation in Québec following the passage of the controversial Bill 62, which would require Muslim women who wear the niqab30 or burqa to uncover their faces while using public services in the province, such as hospitals, libraries, and public transportation.

Theoretical Frameworks The classical interpretation of the Qur’an and Islamic feminism serve as the foundation for the current study. While Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (839–923 CE) and Abu l-Fida Ismail Ibn Umar Ibn Kathir (1301–1373 CE) represent the first, Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri, two contemporary Muslim feminists, represent the latter. Before exploring the presuppositions of each of them, a brief historical background is introduced.

Qur’anic Exegesis in Early Islam As one of the primary sources of Islam, the Qur’an has been interpreted by various scholars in an exertion to assist Muslims to comprehend its commandments and rules. One of the foremost solid Qur’anic commentaries is the classical exegesis that first appeared within the early ages of Islam, between the ninth and the fourteenth century, as Islamic civilization flourished. During this period, Islamic theology and jurisprudence evolved as scholars worked to comprehend the divine revelation presented in the Qur’an and classical commentary scholars employed language analysis, historical context, and the Hadith (sayings and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad) to comprehend the Qur’anic verses.31 Classical exegetes assert that the Arabic language in which the Qur’an was revealed is precise, nuanced, and that each word and sentence has a different meaning since the Qur’an has a major linguistic legacy. In order to decipher the text’s intended meanings, therefore, they studied Arabic syntax, grammar, and vocabulary. This method attempted to reveal the more nuanced linguistic distinctions used by the Qur’an to convey its ideas. Understanding the historical context in which the Qur’an was revealed, including the circumstances surrounding each revelation, the social dynamics of the time, and the challenges the early Muslim community faced, has been an essential part of

30 Niqab is an Arabic word that refers to a garment of clothing that covers the face which is worn by a small minority of Muslim women as a part of a particular interpretation of hijab. 31 See Andrew Rippin, “Approaches to the history of the interpretation of the Qur’an.”

Theoretical Frameworks 

 7

early Qur’anic exegesis and has been extensively studied by scholars. This contextual analysis helps understand the Qur’anic teachings within the specific historical setting of seventh-century Arabia and sheds light on the holy scripture’s intended messages.32 Traditional exegetes also regarded the Qur’an as a single, cohesive text whose words are interconnected and that each verse should be understood in light of the wider themes and teachings of the book. Through comparison and legal reasoning “Qiyas,” additionally, the Qur’anic commentators derived legal conclusions from the Qur’an and Hadith. They ensured that their interpretations supported justice, equity, and the benefit of society by adhering to the fundamentals of Islamic law, which helped to form Islamic jurisprudence “fiqh”. By doing so, the early Islamic interpretation of the Qur’an was crucial in laying the groundwork for Islamic scholarship. Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir’s commentaries are chosen because they reflect pre-modern Qur’anic exegesis, which is widely appreciated and utilized in the field.33 Their interpretations of the Qur’an take into consideration the circumstances in which each verse was revealed and tend to clarify grammatical structures that illustrate special features such as the repetition of words. The two scholars’ Qur’anic commentaries are “comprehensive, hadith-based commentaries” that are often seen as the highest reliable point in the traditional interpretation of the Qur’an.34 They are also said to typically “follow the text of the Qur’an from the beginning to the end” and “provide an interpretation of segments of the text (wordby-word, phrase-by-phrase, or verse-by-verse) as a running commentary.”35

Islamic Feminism and Qur’anic Interpretation The modern Islamic feminist interpretation of the Qur’an is the second theoretical framework. The term Islamic feminism is first used to describe an inter-Islamic phenomenon that is broadly accepted in various contexts throughout Muslim societies in the Middle East in the 1990s. But today, “the geographical area of Islamic Feminism has expanded to include North America, and a number of Asian, African, Arab, and European countries.”36 It is defined as “a progressive reading of the

32 Andrew Rippin, “Approaches to the history of the interpretation of the Qur’an.” 33 Herbert Berg, “The development of exegesis in early Islam: The authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative period.” 34 Jane Dammen McAuliffle, “The tasks and traditions of interpretation” 196. 35 Andrew Rippin & Jan Knappert, “Textual sources for the study of Islam” 1. 36 Amal Grami, “Islamic feminism: A new feminist movement or a strategy by women for acquiring rights?” 102.

8 

 1 Introduction

Qur’an, the Hadith and of early Islamic history.”37 That is, it is “a double commitment: to a faith position on the one hand, and to women’s rights both inside and outside the home on the other hand”38 with the intention of promoting equality between men and women in Muslim communities in both the public and private spheres through a gender-neutral interpretation of sacred texts.39 Islamic feminism, according to Ziba Mir-Hosseini, aims to eliminate patriarchy from Islamic principles and holy texts, enhance traditional norms and laws, bring about societal and legal changes that allow Muslim women more power, and “give voice to an ethical and egalitarian vision of Islam.”40 Islamic feminists achieve this by utilizing the two traditional Islamic methods of ijtihad and tafsir,41 which aid in elucidating Muslim women’s roles in modern societies.42 In doing so, Islamic feminists highlight the notion that “women are as human as men, and their rights and duties are complementary”;43 as a result, it is thought that Islamic feminism is a branch of Western feminism that is based on Qur’anic concepts.44 Nevertheless, Islamic feminism is opposed and criticized by many secular scholars who perceive it as a type of patriarchy that seeks to uphold the status quo, which is predominantly characterized by female subordination and uneven power relations.45 They also emphatically reject the theological basis of the Islamic feminism movement.46 They believe that a feminist movement cannot be founded on the principles and teachings of religion. According to Valentine Moghadam, for instance, Islamic feminism is a modest movement because its values are incompatible with the social and cultural contexts in Muslim societies. Nonetheless, “women’s rights and human rights are best promoted and protected in an environment of secular thought and secular institutions.”47 In my analysis of El Saadawi’s texts, I theoretically draw on Azizah al-Hibri and Amina Wadud’s scholarship on Muslim feminism. The two scholars are chosen for

37 Deniz Kandiyoti, “Women, Islam and the state” 1. 38 Miriam Cooke, “Women claim Islam” 114. 39 Isobel Coleman, “Women, Islam, and the new Iraq.” 40 Ziba Mir-Hosseini, “Muslim women’s quest for equality: Between Islamic law and feminism” 645. 41 Tafsir is an Arabic word that means an interpretation of the Qur’anic verses. 42 Margot Badran, “Islamic feminism: What’s in a name?” 43 Louise Halper, “Law and women’s agency in post-revolutionary Iran” 131. 44 Leila Ahmed, “A border passage: From Cairo to America–a women’s journey.” 45 See further discussion against Islamic feminism in Haideh Moghissi “Islamic feminism revisited” & Shahrzad Mojab, “Islamic feminism: Alternative or contradiction?” 46 Haideh Moghissi, “Feminism and Islamic fundamentalism: The limits of postmodern analysis”; Nayereh Tohidi, “Women’s rights in the Muslim world: The universal-particular interplay.” 47 Valentine Moghadam, “Islamic feminisms and its discontents: Toward a resolution of the debate” 1162.

Theoretical Frameworks 

 9

a variety of reasons. First, they interpret the divine text through a feminist lens that offers a non-sectarian, non-sexist interpretation of the Qur’an. They also address a wide range of issues related to the status of women in Islam from a theoretical Islamic feminist perspective. Unlike other Muslim feminist scholars, additionally, each of them reads the sacred book using a unique methodology. That is, whereas al-Hibri uses a womanist method that makes use of the rules of Islamic law to interpret Qur’anic verses, Wadud employs a hermeneutical approach that looks at the context, grammar and linguistic structure, as well as the unity of the Qur’an as a complete text. The two scholars have been acknowledged for their contributions to the field, which, according to Debra Mubashshir Majeed, “promote a Qur’anic hermeneutics that is inclusive of female experiences and of the female voice and can yield greater gender justice to Islamic thought and contribute toward the achievement of that justice in Islamic praxis.”48 In this regard, Wadud, for instance, is seen as having “explored new frontiers of Qur’anic exegesis, advanced and nuanced gender conscious approaches to the Text, and provided a model for women scholar activists.” Her hermeneutic approach, moreover, is considered as encouraging “critical engagement rather than passive acceptance of traditional authorities,” which can help to transform society in the Arab East, and this distinguishes her contribution from others in the subject.49 Al-Hibri, on the other hand, believes that “the Qur’an is an integral whole and thus the full and proper meaning of any verse cannot be understood in isolation from other verses in the rest of the Qur’an.”50 In the following lines, I include a brief biographical summary of each of the four figures to introduce readers to other essential aspects of their unique professions. Muhammad Ibn Jarr al-Tabari Abu Jaʿfar Muḥammad Ibn Jarir Ibn Yazid al-Tabari (839–923 CE) was a Muslim historian and scholar from Amol, Tabaristan. He began memorizing the Qur’an at age seven, was an adept leader of prayer at age eight, and began studying the prophetic traditions at age nine. In 850 CE, when he was twelve years old, he left home to pursue his education.51 His travels throughout his life took him to numerous locations in the Middle East. He first went to Ray (Rhages), where he was exposed to pre-Islamic and early Islamic history while studying Hanafi school law.52 After 48 Debra Mubashshir Majeed, “Womanism encounters Islam” 47. 49 Ali et al., “A jihad for justice: Honoring the work and life of Amina Wadud” 9. 50 Azizah al-Hibri, “Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities” 60. 51 Franz Rosenthal, “The history of al-Tabari, Volume I: General introduction and from the creation to the flood” 15–16. 52 Barbara Stewart, “Muhammad b. Jarir al-Tabari’s al-Bayan ‘an Usul al-Ahkam and the Genre of Usul al-Fiqh in Ninth Century Baghdad” 325.

10 

 1 Introduction

that, al-Tabari went to Baghdad to study under Ahmad Ibn Hanbal before continuing on to Basra, Kufah, and Wasit in the south, where he met a number of eminent scholars and studied the Maliki, Zahiri, and Shafi’i rites.53 When he was in his late 20s, he also visited Syria, Palestine, India, and Egypt.54 Al-Tabari is one of the most well-known figures from the Islamic Golden Age, who is praised for his historical writings and his mastery of Qur’anic exegesis “tafsir,” yet he has also been dubbed “an impressively prolific polymath.”55 He also wrote essays on a variety of topics, including poetry, lexicography, linguistics, ethics, mathematics, and medicine.56 His most famous and well-known works are his commentary on the Qur’an, Jamiʿ al-bayan ʿan taʾwil ay al-Qur’an, and his historical encyclopedia history of the prophets and kings (Tarkh al-rusul wa-l-mulk). Al-Tabari’s Qur’anic exegesis is described as the “summative repository of the first two- and one-half centuries of Muslim exegetical endeavor” that expresses the consensus of Muslim scholars on the targeted issues, especially the most controversial ones.57 Due to its significance, his Qur’anic commentary has been translated into several languages, including Persian and English. ʿImad ad-din Ismaʿil Ibn ʿUmar Ibn Kathir ‘Imad ad-din Isma’il Ibn ‘Umar Ibn Kathir known as Ibn Kathir (1301–1373 CE) was a notable Muslim historian who was born in Mijdal in Syria. After completing his studies, he was given his first official position in 1341 and joined an inquisitorial court established to make decisions about various heresy-related issues.58 Ibn Kathir was recognized for his contributions to Islamic law, Qur’anic interpretation, historical study, and other subjects. One of his most renowned books is his masterpiece, “al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah” (The Beginning and the End), which includes numerous volumes and provides a thorough historical description of the entire globe from its origin through the author’s time such as the lives of prophets, prehistoric civilizations, and Islamic history. The book is well known for its meticulous investigation, reliance on trustworthy sources, and methodical portrayal of historical events. His second noteworthy book is his interpretation of the Qur’an, Tafsir Ibn Kathir, which is an extensive commentary on the Qur’an that offers in-depth analyses of 53 Ibn al-Nadim, “al-Fihrist” 291. 54 Franz Rosenthal, “The history of al-Tabari, Volume I: General introduction and from the creation to the flood” 23. 55 Lindsay Jones, “Encyclopedia of religion” 8943. 56 Fisher, Frye, & Frye, “The Cambridge history of Iran” 599.  57 Jane Dammen McAuliffe, “The tasks and traditions of interpretation” 192. 58 Ian Netton, “Encyclopedia of Islamic civilization and religion.”

Theoretical Frameworks 

 11

the Qur’anic verses and uses linguistic studies, jurisprudential principles, historical narratives, and prior scholars’ interpretations. It is lauded that Ibn Kathir’s commentary “extrudes the exegetical accomplishments and accretions of the intervening centuries” and ignores any “forms of interpretation which have been “infected” by biblical narratives or other non-Muslim literary sources.” 59 Hence, it is a useful tool for academics, students, and casual readers who want to properly understand the Qur’anic text. The fact that his informative publications are still cited as trustworthy resources for research on Islam and its history both within and outside of the Islamic world attests to his writings’ enduring importance. Azizah al-Hibri Azizah al-Hibri was born in 1943 and raised in Lebanon, where she was also taught classical Arabic and the Qur’an at home. She graduated from the American University of Beirut with a B.A. in philosophy. She then moved to the US in 1966 to pursue her graduate education, where she graduated with a law degree in 1985 and a doctorate in philosophy in 1975 at Pennsylvania University.60 She was a philosophy professor at Texas A&M University and Washington University from 1975 to 1983. She was also a professor at the Virginian University of Richmond School of Law from 1992 until 2012, where she is currently a professor emerita. Her interest in feminism and women’s issues led her to become the first editor of the journal Hypatia in 1986. Al-Hibri, however, began to strongly critique American feminism in the 1980s, asserting that it had lost its “anti-establishment” stance, participated in cultural imperialism in American foreign policy, and gave rise to a “new breed of American feminists” with whom she no longer associated.61 Al-Hibri is also the founder and president of Karamah, which means dignity in Arabic, a non-profit group of Muslim women lawyers for human rights. Through its publications and programs, which represent a non-patriarchal viewpoint and primarily emphasize fundamental Islamic values of civil and human rights, the group seeks to advance gender equality on a global scale. She believes that societal norms, not Islamic teachings, are to blame for the current patriarchal oppression that Muslim women endure. She also calls for the reintroduction of ijtihad to Islamic law in her writings, which are mostly influenced by American feminism and Marxism, especially when it comes to resolving issues impacting Muslim women. She urges reform arguing that the Qur’anic verses should be understood in light of both their revelation

59 Jane Dammen McAuliffe, “The tasks and traditions of interpretation” 198. 60 Azizah al-Hibri, “Hagar on my mind” 203. 61 Al-Hibri, “Hagar on my mind” 203.

12 

 1 Introduction

and the Prophet’s Sunnah. Al-Hibri’s argument depends on reinterpreting gender-specific Qur’anic verses in the context of their historical background. She further contends that failing to consider the historical setting results in a misinterpretation of the sacred text’s true meaning.62 She used  the term “womanizer” to describe her method to reinterpreting the Qur’an.63 In her interpretation of the language of the Qur’an, she employs the intra-textual approach and highlights “the danger of separating an ayah, or part of an ayah, from its context to reach an isolated interpretation of its meaning.”64 Amina Wadud Amina Wadud, a professor of Islamic studies at Virginia Commonwealth University who was born in Maryland in 1952 and had previously taught from 1989 to 1992 at the International Islamic University Malaysia, retired in 2008. She has attended the Stan King School for the Ministry as a visiting scholar. Before earning her B.S. in education from the University of Pennsylvania and her Ph.D. in Arabic and Islamic studies from the University of Michigan in 1988, she studied classical Arabic and the Qur’an at several universities in Egypt. As an African American Muslim woman, Wadud has written extensively about how racism toward African Americans has significantly influenced her identity, experience, and scholarship.65 In 1992, she published in Malaysia the seminal book Qur’an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective, which is today regarded as a classic of feminist Qur’anic interpretation. It was eventually released in the US in 199966 and started doing research for it in 1986 which she mentions in her book Qur’an and Woman saying, “I approached this research as if my life depended on the understandings I gained from studying the Qur’an.”67 Wadud, on the other hand, claims that the book is a tafsir that makes use of gender as a category of thinking and illustrates how the Qur’an can be used to address the problems that modern women are facing.68 For her, “The Qur’an adapts to the context of the modern woman as smoothly as it adapted to the original Muslim community fourteen centuries ago.”69

62 Al-Hibri, “An introduction to Muslim women’s rights.” 63 Al-Hibri employs the term “womanist” in her 1998 contribution on Islamic law to an edited volume on feminist philosophy: Al-Hibri, “Islamic Law” 542. 64 Al-Hibri, “An Islamic perspective on domestic violence” 206. 65 Wadud, “On belonging as a Muslim woman.” 66 Wadud, “Qur’an and woman.” 67 Wadud, “Qur’an and woman” ix, xv. 68 Wadud, “Qur’an and woman” 102. 69 Wadud, “Inside the gender Jihad: Women’s reform in Islam” 96.

Source and Method 

 13

Wadud believes that gender is a social construct in which femininity, and masculinity are “defined characteristics applied to female and male persons respectively on the basis of culturally determined factors of how each gender should function.”70 She is concerned with the methodology of interpreting the Qur’an and asserts that “any interpretations which narrowly apply the Qur’anic guidelines only to literal mimics of the original community do an injustice to the text.”71 She further criticizes the process of interpreting the Qur’an, saying “no method of Qur’anic exegesis is fully objective” rather “each exegete makes some subjective choices” making no distinction between the original “text and interpretation.”72 Hence, Wadud contends that the tafsir tradition is flawed because it primarily focuses on men who “have proposed what it means to be Muslim on the presumption that the male experience is normative, essential, and universal to all humankind”73 and does not “sufficiently explain or exemplify the extent and impact of total Qur’anic coherence and perhaps never tried to nor made claim to such.”74 Instead, she advocates a reinterpretation of the Qur’an that takes into account both the experiences of women and the experiences of males, which now dominate interpretations of Islamic primary sources including the Qur’an and hadith. In her opinion, moreover, women’s empowerment depends on incorporating their experiences into how the holy scripture is interpreted.75 Wadud identifies herself as “pro-faith, pro-feminist,76 elaborates on her exegetical work from Qur’an and Woman and shares her experiences and larger perspectives as a Muslim woman scholar, including the debated Friday congregational prayer she led for both men and women in New York City in March 2005.

Source and Method I employ a qualitative methodology to analyze EL Saadawi’s viewpoints, relying on words and sentences to provide specifics about the important issues. For instance, some of the several designs utilized in qualitative research include ethnography, case studies, and phenomenology studies.77 I use discourse analysis, one of social

70 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a women’s perspective” 22. 71 Wadud, “Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam” 96. 72 Wadud, “Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam” 1. 73 Wadud, “Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam” 96. 74 Wadud, “Qur’an, gender and interpretive possibilities” 331. 75 Wadud, “Inside the gender jihad: Women’s reform in Islam” 7. 76 Wadud, “Inside the gender jihad: Women’s reform in Islam” 79–80. 77 Paul Leedy & Jeanne Ormrod, “Practical research: Planning and design.”

14 

 1 Introduction

constructivism’s most popular approaches, in my work because it is described as an integrated methodology.78 More specifically, I use the content analysis method to investigate El Saadawi’s perspectives on women’s rights and contrast them with traditional and modern readings of the pertinent Qur’anic passages on gender. There are numerous ways to define content analysis. It is described, for example, as a “research technique for making replicable and valid inferences from texts to the contexts of their uses”79 that generally aims to comprehend a variety of texts, such as “written transcripts of speeches or conversations, written documents (letters, personnel records, newspapers, magazines, textbooks), and electronic documents (audiotapes, films, videotapes, computer files).” 80 Content analysis has a number of benefits that help make it a feasible strategy. First, rather of creating new texts, it analyses those already in existence. Second, it enables researchers to “move beyond manifest content found in texts to latent content or interpretations,”81 which is more essential than simply summarizing a lot of data. In this way, content analysis makes clear how each text relates to other texts. As a result, it is a useful tool that aids in outlining concise interpretations of the Qur’anic verses and prophetic sayings that are the focus of this study and reveals their underlying premises. Third, content analysis helps scholars understand religious ideas and theoretical concepts, examine religion in the media, and evaluate religion in culture and various institutions. Fourth, it enables academics to clarify the hidden signals in the target texts by placing them in their historical and social settings. To undertake content analysis, some steps must be taken. The appropriate analytical units are then determined after selecting the pertinent texts. Examples include the five analytical categories provided by Krippendorff: word count, phrases, published papers, arguments, and themes. Messages are then coded in the analysis units by being assigned a content category that discriminated between form and content. The researchers’ data analysis is presented after that.82 These steps are used in this study, which focuses on supporting data from the target texts and uses deductive reasoning. I began by selecting all the publications that are relevant to my study from three main primary sources. I first compiled the key arguments El Saadawi advanced in favor of women’s rights in Islam from a range of books, articles, and press interviews that were released. The associated verses from the holy Qur’an were then compiled. Then, I used the interpretations of pertinent Qur’anic verses made by two eminent classical scholars, al-Tabari and Ibn 78 Marianne Jorgensen & Louise Phillips, “Discourse analysis as theory and method.” 79 Klaus Krippendorff, “Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology” 18. 80 Chad Nelson & Robert Woods, “Content analysis” 109. 81 Chad Nelson & Robert Woods, “Content analysis” 116. 82 Bernard Berelson, “Content analysis in communications research.”

Source and Method 

 15

Kathir, as well as two contemporary Muslim feminists, Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri, whose studies on the subject were published within the past thirty years.

Outline of Chapters The chapters of this book are organized into three main parts. Part I, Eyes on Nawal El Saadawi’s Writings, mainly focuses on introducing everything about the prominent feminist scholar, Nawal El Saadawi. Initially, Chapter 1, Egyptian Feminism, locates her writings by introducing a brief overview of the Egyptian feminist movement underlining objectives, different waves, and major scholars. Chapter 2, Biographical Sketch and Reception, presents a concise background on her personal life, family, education, academic status, the social and political environments in which she lived, and her imprisonment. It also touches on her academic status, how she was received in the Arab world, and the controversy surrounding her thoughts. Chapter 3, Feminist Writings and Creative Output, furthermore, provides a description of her feminist writings including fiction, non-fiction, and newspaper articles. The chapter also maps out the central tenets including her views on women’s rights in Islam, which she has highlighted in discussions with the press, radio, and television. Then, Parts II and III mostly focus on providing a critique of El Saadawi’s perspectives on five different issues that are thought to cause Muslim women’s sorrow. There are initially three distinct chapters in Part II, Imagining Relationship Norms. While Chapter 4 is devoted to exploring the issues of marriage, Chapter 5 provides a considerable discussion of the issue of polygamy and Chapter 6 discusses the issue of divorce. In addition, Part III, Traditions and Customs, includes two chapters that further discuss two other issues. Whereas Chapter 7 explores the issue of inheritance rights, Chapter 8 provides a considerable discussion of the issue of the veil. The first section of each of the final five chapters provides some background information on the subject being discussed. Then El Saadawi’s arguments concerning the topic are presented, followed by an analysis of her claims within an Islamic framework that discusses interpretations of gender-related Qur’anic verses as construed by two traditional Qur’anic scholars—al-Tabari (839–923 CE) Ibn Kathir (1301–1373 CE)—and two contemporary Muslim feminists—Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri. By presenting the classical discourses and the contemporary feminist Muslim debates, my main goal is to read El Saadawi’s work via two different lenses that demonstrate how the current language of women’s rights supports historical ethnocentrism that constructs Western cultural norms as distinct from and superior to Muslim ones. This portrayal reveals the so-called racialization of Islam and gender discourse in the debates and aids in examining comparable

16 

 1 Introduction

representations of Muslim women in other contexts. My purpose is certainly not to suggest the superiority or inferiority of El Saadawi’s standpoint. Instead, I want to critically evaluate the arguments presented and highlight the strengths and weaknesses of different perspectives, which contributes to the body of knowledge on how the Qur’an portrays women and women’s rights. The final chapter, Final Comments, provides the key arguments and main conclusions.

Part I: Eyes on Nawal El Saadawi’s Writings

2 Egyptian Feminism Women in Egypt created their own feminism. It grew out of their own changing lives, their own needs, and their own developing consciousness and analysis. Feminism was not created for women by men. We know this was underway in the last third of the nineteenth century, if not before, from women themselves, from their memoirs, the journals they founded and to which they contributed, their books and oral histories. -MARGOT BADRAN, The Feminist Vision in the Writings of Three Turn-of-the-Century Egyptian Women83 For me feminism includes everything. It is social justice, political justice, sexual justice . . . It is the link between medicine, literature, politics, economics, psychology, and history. Feminism is all that. You cannot understand the oppression of women without this. -NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s Radical Feminist84

In one unpretentiously simple sentence, encapsulates her belief that feminism applies to all areas in one unpretentiously direct statement. knowing feminism is vital to knowing how women are treated since it places an emphasis on social, political, and sexual justice as well as requiring knowledge of history, politics, economics, literature, and medicine. The success or failure of feminism in Egypt, moreover, is influenced by secular political and social movements since it is a reality of society rather than a singular movement. In order to contextualize El Saadawi’s feminist beliefs, therefore, this chapter provides a brief account of the historical framework of Egyptian feminism, in which she was raised, tracing its development from its early roots to its modern and contemporary forms.

Development of Egyptian Feminism Egyptian Feminism has a long and complex history that spans several decades. According to Middle Eastern historian Thomas Philipp, however, the issue of the emancipation of Egyptian women has been a significant one that directly impacts everyone’s lives,85 and therefore it was embraced by both the liberal and nationalist organizations.86 Women’s emancipation was sparked by nationalism in the second half of the 19th century, when middle- and upper-class women embraced

83 Margot Badran, “The feminist vision in the writings of three turn-of-the-century Egyptian women” 12. 84 Homa Khaleeli, “Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s radical feminist.” 85 Thomas Philipp, “Feminism and nationalist politics in Egypt” 278. 86 Juan Cole, “Feminism, class and Islam in turn-of-the-century Egypt.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-002

20 

 2 Egyptian Feminism

the secular, western feminism movement and all of its ancillary beliefs, started to fight for their rights, and challenged traditional gender norms.87 With this posture, they opposed both the government establishment and the clergy. In this respect, Badran adds that despite the fact that “historians have all missed women’s hidden feminism, crediting Qasim Amin with founding feminism in Egypt,”88 unpublished memoirs, letters, and essays written by Egyptian women in the 1890s served as the catalyst for the emergence of the feminist movement in Egypt. In contrast, Juan Cole and Thomas Philipp argue that the works of Western women and Egyptian men such as Rifa`a al-Tahtawi, Mohammad and Qasim Amin in the early nineteenth century served as the foundation for the Egyptian feminist movement. Despite disagreements about whose publications served as the impetus, the feminist movement in Egypt may be divided into three major eras. The first phase, which lasted from 1830 to 1939, was supported by the voices of men, the majority of whom had studied in France during Muhammed Ali’s rule, who promoted the modernization of Egypt’s governmental, cultural, and educational systems. Muhammad Ali did this by establishing multiple schools in Egypt where French texts were studied, sending Egyptian students to study abroad at European universities, and establishing the Bulaq Press, the first Arab-owned publishing business. During that time, many early male pioneers in Egypt made a substantial contribution to the liberation of Egyptian women. One of the earliest Egyptian academics, Rifa’a Rafi al-Tahtawi (1801–1873), was a translator, teacher, and author whose writings sought to harmonize Western and Islamic traditions. In 1935, he established the school of languages and translated numerous works from the West into Arabic that helped spark the Egyptian Renaissance. Al-Tahtawi believed that the only route to the liberation and equality of Egyptian women was via education. Guide to the Education of Girls and Boys (1872) and A Summary Framework on Paris (1902) are two publications he wrote that “are considered milestones as far as the cause of women is concerned”89 in which he advocated for the need to liberate and educate women. Despite making a substantial contribution to Egyptian feminism, al-Tahtawi was never referred to be a feminist; rather, he was referred to as a reformist or a forerunner of nationalism and modernity. Another well-known pioneer was the French-educated lawyer Qasim Amin (1863–1908), who was the first to be classified as a feminist. According to Amin, women are “the foundation of the towering constructs of modern civilization,”

87 Kumari Jayawardena, “Feminism and nationalism” 17. 88 Margot Badran, “Independent women: A century of feminism in Egypt” 10. 89 El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 253.

Development of Egyptian Feminism 

 21

and their status in society has a direct bearing on the development of the nation.90 His two volumes were the main feminist writings that discussed the roles of women in Egypt. In his first book, Tahrir al Mar’a (The Liberation of Women), which was released in 1899, Amin claimed that “in reality, I do not see any difference between the situation imposed upon European women and that imposed upon Muslim.”91 In addition, he demanded that laws governing divorce and polygamy be changed in order to emancipate Arab women. He used a number of Qur’anic texts that he claimed to be pro-women but that were purposefully misunderstood to bolster his claims. For instance, he offered a fresh interpretation of Qur’anic verse 3:4, which made it clear that the phrase does not allow polygamy as has been generally believed, but rather encourages it. Amin said that because it is not an Islamic practice, polygamy should be banned. Additionally, he stated that if Islam “had power and influence over customs, Muslim women would today be supreme among women on earth,”92 as it supports gender equality. Unlike his previous work, al-Mar’a al-Jadida (The New Woman), which was first published in 1900, rejected the Qur’an in favor of the views of European intellectuals like Jean Jacques Rousseau. In this sense, Amin called for adopting Western science and technology to do away with traditional superstition and liberate women. Amin also stressed the value of a marriage based on parental love in order for a couple to successfully raise their children and suggested that the new Egyptian lady should dress like a western woman in order to break free from the constraints of patriarchy. For Amin, the veil is “a huge barrier between woman and her elevation, and consequently a barrier between the nation and its advance.”93 In addition to polygamy, divorce laws, male guardianship of females, planned marriages, and other customs, Amin asserted that the veil isolates women from society and is not essential in Islam. It should be banned because, contrary to popular belief in Muslim communities, it really boosts men’s sexual drive. Furthermore, he denied the idea that men and women have inherently different personalities and defended the current dominance of men by pointing out how women have long been denied access to equal educational opportunities. Women were consequently compelled

90 Qasim Amin, “The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism” 58. 91 Amin, “The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism” 279. 92 Amin, “The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism” 35. 93 Amin, “The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism” 54.

22 

 2 Egyptian Feminism

to “remain in a situation of degradation which varies in severity and moderation according to time and place.”94 Despite advocating for women’s education, Amin made clear that only an elementary education was necessary for women to carry out their roles as mothers and wives. The “most important duty” of a woman, in his opinion, is to raise the family and take care of the kids on a physical, mental, and moral level.95 Some academics backed Amin’s claims, but others sharply disagreed. For instance, El Saadawi believes that Amin is the real founder of the Egyptian feminist movement, and his two books are the two primary works addressing the topic of women’s emancipation in the Arab world.96 As opposed to this, Leila Ahmed argues that Amin’s argument that the veil was to blame for the nation’s illiteracy was a Western lie that was used to subjugate Muslim nations. Thus, in Ahmed’s opinion, Amin’s book illustrates the inferiority of Muslims and native peoples in colonial texts and the superiority of Europeans in turn as represented in local vernacular. Moreover, the upper-class indigenous voice, which was financially linked to the invaders and had already assimilated their way of life, Ahmed adds, rearticulated the colonial story and gave it a class dimension. It consequently turns into a criticism of lower-middle-class customs.97 Amin’s views, according to Ahmed, did not promote true feminism; rather, they generated new forms of patriarchal supremacy rather than maintaining the status quo. Mona Russell argues in favor of the same idea and asserts that Amin was significantly influenced by his foreign education and upper middle-class background, which prized the West over the East, and this resulted in the bias in his ideas. Amin’s writings have frequently sparked debate due to their tendency to focus more on the concerns of middle-class and upper-class women than those of impoverished and lower-class women, as well as criticism for being Westernized. Huda Shaarawi, an upper-class woman who lived from 1879 to 1947, was another well-known supporter of women’s independence in Egypt who received an excellent education at home, picked up languages like French and English, and began to learn the Arabic version of the Qur’an at a young age. At the age of 13, Shaarawi wed her cousin Ali Shaarawi, the vice president of the Wafd Political Party, who was in his late 40s. Both Shaarawi and her husband participated in the Egyptian revolution of 1919 and supported Egypt’s independence from Great 94 Amin, “The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism” 12. 95 Amin, “The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism” 159. 96 El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world.” 97 Leila Ahmed, “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate” 162.

Development of Egyptian Feminism 

 23

Britain. She presided over the Wafdist Women’s Central Committee (WWCC), which worked to further the feminist movement in Egypt. Shaarawi also established numerous groups that promoted women’s rights, including the Egyptian Feminist Union in 1910, the New Women Society in 1919, and the Arab Feminist Union in 1925. These organizations primarily emphasized the freedom of women in terms of their access to voting, voting rights, and education. She additionally took part in a convention of the International Women Suffrage Alliance in Italy in 1923 alongside Ceza Nabarwi and Nabawiya Mousa. Upon their return to Egypt, they took off their veils in a Cairo railway station. The women who came to greet them were startled to see them acting in such a manner in public, but they then cheered, and they followed suit. After this significant event, women in Egypt ceased to cover their faces for several decades, officially ending the harem era in Egyptian society. They did this to express their opposition to the limitations placed on women. According to Shaarawi, “the veil and sex segregation were not required by Islam but were simply a function of patriarchal control. They also understood that they as women had rights with Islam which patriarchy withheld from them.”98 Shaarawi demanded that the veil be taken off since it restricted women from engaging in public activities. Shaarawi also fought for the reinstatement of the political rights that women had previously enjoyed under Islamic law and during the time of the Prophet. She also sponsored a number of young feminists and activists as part of her social engagement. Additionally, she penned a memoir titled The Harem Years, which Margot Badran translated and released in 1986. The book is broken up into various sections that cover her upbringing, early years, education, marriage, divorce, and feminist pursuits. Shaarawi was regarded as the pioneer of the Arab women’s freedom movement because of her work to support women not only in Egypt but also in all other Arab nations. Malak Hifni Nassif (1886–1918), a feminist from the middle class, was profoundly influenced by Amin’s writings, which claimed that the West was superior to the East and vice versa. She was one of the first Egyptian girls to graduate from an elementary school in 1901 and continued her study till she earned her degree from the Saniyyah Teacher Training College. She had to give up teaching after getting her degree, despite doing so for a few years. As a result, she dedicated her life to fighting for women’s rights and established the Women’s Education Union, which connected Egyptian women with their counterparts in Europe and other Arab nations. Additionally, Nassif was a founding member of the Ladies Literary Improvement Society, an organization that supported Arab women writers. She wrote early writings against men’s mistreatment of women in relation to divorce

98 Huda Shaarawi, “Harem years the memoirs of an Egyptian feminist” 7.

24 

 2 Egyptian Feminism

and polygamy, which were published under the pseudonym Bahithat Al Badiyah (Searcher in the Desert). Nassif proposes that in order to raise the status of women in Egypt, secular Western feminist concepts should be adopted. Nassif supported ending polygamy, like Amin and Shaarawi, but she opposed unveiling, which she saw as a matter of personal preference. She expressed her opinions on many feminism-related topics, including education, marriage, and divorce, in a number of essays published in the Liberal Umma Party newspaper, which were later collected in the 2014 book Nissa’yat (women). For instance, Nassif stated that it was important to preserve the veil because it was a common fashion in the East. Nassif stated that women did not need to dress like Western women in order to be free and modernized. She believed that because upper-class women were so fixated on European fashion, they chose to be exposed, imitating ladies in the West. Nassif also favored women’s segregation and disagreed with Amin’s call for men and women to participate equally in social activities because he believed that doing so would degrade both women’s and society’s morals. By presenting a ten-point agenda to the Egyptian Legislative Council that called for raising the age of marriage to 16, expanding girls’ education, and giving women the authority to start divorce proceedings, she was also the first Egyptian woman to openly express demands for women. Despite the fact that her demands were turned down, Nassif persisted in advocating for women’s rights, paying particular attention to the problems with their physical and mental health brought on by men’s aggression. Instead of putting them up as Western women, she sought to eradicate domestic violence against women in Arab nations. In order to do this, Nassif urges teaching women “real knowledge” in addition to “correct education” and to “improve the young generation and their morality” in order to enhance society.99 She worked very hard to persuade Egyptian parents to enroll their daughters in girls’ schools. Both Shaarawi and Nassif made constructive contributions to the conversation in Egypt about women’s rights, but their actions lacked independence. The majority of their male guardians recruited them to take part in community and national events. Another important Egyptian feminist was Nabawiyya Musa (1886–1951), who pioneered women’s rights, women’s journalism, and education for girls. She was one of the first Egyptian women to take a teaching position at a public school, and she was also the first woman to be able to command the same salary as a man because she had the same level of education as her male counterparts. Musa was an outspoken advocate for women’s suffrage who thought they should have the ability to vote and participate in politics and she was a founding member and leader of the

99 Malak Hifni Nassif, “Al-Nisa’iyyat” 28.

Development of Egyptian Feminism 

 25

Egyptian Feminist Union, an organization dedicated to advancing women’s rights and gender equality, along with Huda Shaarawi. She also founded the Association for the Progress of Women to advance similar goals and founded Majallat Al-Fattah (The Girl’s Magazine), which was published from 1937 to 1943. She utilized this magazine to distribute her autobiography from 1938 to 1942. Her life and career were extensively detailed in 91 installments of a book titled Dhikiriyyati (Memoirs) and then compiled these pieces into a book titled Ta’rikhi bi-qalami (My History with my Pen), making history as one of the first Muslim women to write an autobiography. Margot Badran, a specialist in Islam and feminism, refers to the book as a key work of Egyptian feminism history and it was released by her own Alexandria publishing company. Besides, she authored Woman and Work, a 1920 book that made a strong case for women’s participation in the workforce and in higher education. Musa furthermore held the position of editor for the women’s sections at the periodicals Al-Balagh al-Usbri and al-Mara aw al-Amal and established her own private schools for girls in Cairo and Alexandra. Since she spent her entire life advancing the rights of women and girls, she never got married. In an era when marriage was seen as the sole respectable duty for women, she indicated that she preferred living as a man’s master to living as his servant. Her professional career was ended when the Egyptian authorities imprisoned her for objecting to Egypt’s support of British war endeavors. After eight years of retirement, Musa passed away, leaving the schools she had founded behind. The second phase of Egyptian feminism began in the 1940s, following the conclusion of World War II, and was ushered in by the founding of the first Egyptian women’s party in 1942, under the leadership of Fatma Neamat Rashed. The party advocated for equality between the sexes in terms of political participation, employment opportunities, and access to education, which aided Egyptian women in obtaining the right to vote in 1956. In 1984, the Daughter of Nile Association was subsequently founded. Doria Shafiq (1908–1975), a well-known Egyptian feminist who led the feminist movement in Egypt throughout the 1940s and 1960s by adopting a militant and independent stance, was one of the most significant scholars of this time period. She was awarded a scholarship by the Egyptian Ministry of Education, allowing her to enroll in Paris and complete her doctoral studies in philosophy. In 1945, Shafiq established Bint al-Nile, a feminist publication, as well as the same-named political organization, both of which promoted gender equality in all spheres of society. Shafiq was a politician who led the members of her party in a number of protests and strikes in favor of women’s political rights. She was also detained by the Egyptian police, her journal and party were shut down, and she was forbidden from taking part in public events as a result of her protests and rejection of the dictatorship of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the Egyptian president. Essays,

26 

 2 Egyptian Feminism

memoirs, and poems written in French and Arabic by Shafiq were published in thirteen volumes. She died at the young age of 31 and her early death was cited by Leila Ahmed as one of the causes of “the emergence of the westernizing voice of feminism as the prevailing, uncontested voice of feminism in the Arab context in those early years.”100 In a similar vein, Zaynab al-Ghazali (1917–2005) collaborated with Huda Shaarawi for a short period of time before parting ways with her due to her disagreement with Saharawi’s secular viewpoints. She joined the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood movement, whose objective it was to create an Islamic state regulated by Shariah law, and in 1936 she created the Muslim Women’s Association. She held that because Islam upheld gender equality, women did not need to be freed; rather, Islamic writings needed to be read differently. Nevertheless, according to al-Ghazali, “[Muslim woman`s] first, holy, and most important mission is to be a mother and wife. She cannot ignore this priority. If she then finds she has free time, she may participate in public activities.”101 Al-Ghazali described the torture of the Muslim brothers by Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser in her memoir Days from My Life, which was released in 1986. Al-Ghazali highlighted in her interview with Miriam Cooke in 2001 that women’s involvement in public life should not be for the sake of their emancipation but rather for the development of a Muslim state. Together with other scholars including Nawal El Saadawi, she was imprisoned in 1981 for holding political beliefs. She believed that Islam is where women may truly find true liberation, and as a result, she justified women’s oppression by pointing out how it violated Islamic customs. Feminism, according to al-Ghazali, is an anti-Islamic, secular movement that is linked to Western imperialism. Al-Ghazali supported the veil and wore one herself, in contrast to Amin and Shaarawi. The third phase was the modern era, which began in the 1970s and is still going strong today. It was distinguished by the crucial role the Egyptian government played in advancing feminism by establishing the National Council for Women, which advocates for women’s rights in Egypt. Two important laws are passed by the Egyptian parliament. The first one is the Khul’ law, which allowed women to file for divorce. The second is the citizenship law, which allowed women to give their citizenship to their offspring, even if their fathers are not Egyptians. Amina As-Said (1914–1995), the first magazine editor in the Middle East and one of the earliest female journalists in Egypt, was a well-known feminist of the third phase. As-Said studied English literature at Cairo University under the tutelage of Huda Shaarawi,

100 Leila Ahmed, “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate” 175. 101 Zaynab al Ghazali, “Days from my life” 237.

Development of Egyptian Feminism 

 27

who also paid for her tuition there. In 1954, As-Said established the first women’s publication in Egypt, Hawaa “Eve”, which tackled gender inequality and advocated for women’s equal rights in politics, business, and education. She resisted and refused to wear the veil because she saw it as a symbol of enslavement and a long-standing custom that stymied the advancement of civilization. As-Said thought that, in contrast, Islam liberated women who had been oppressed in pre-Islamic times and she wrote: Islam restored to woman her total humanity; it armed her with weapons of independence and freed her from the domination of the male by giving her (a) the right to education, (b) the right to buy and sell property, and (c) the right to hold a job and go into business. She was even drawn into participating in managing affairs of religion and politics.102

As-Said also called for equal gender rights in politics, the economy, education, and all other spheres of life, criticizing the oppression of women in Egyptian society. She fought for women’s rights to higher education and economic independence in the same manner. Nawal El Saadawi is another well-known Egyptian feminist of the modern era, whose work promotes women’s rights, social justice, and equality by combating societal norms and structures that encouraged gender inequity. Human nature, according to El Saadawi, “is the same, whether it belongs to a man or a woman,” but it can only alter in response to “the environment and society in which the man or woman lives.”103 In an interview with Sophie Smith in 2007, she asserts that women’s oppression is “a universal phenomenon” that also affects Muslim women, who endure the same types of discrimination as other women because of “class, gender, and religion.”104 Even if “there are facts which confirm that woman is biologically superior to man,” when women are “independent intellectually and physically,” they will be equal to their male counterparts “in all-rational and psychological faculties.”105 In order to change their current unequal status, El Saadawi contends that women must first become economically and socially autonomous.106 El Saadawi publicly criticizes religious ideologies and patriarchal systems that have encouraged the exploitation of women. The “global post-modern capitalist system, which is supported by religious fundamentalism,” Islam and its numerous

102 Amina As-Said, “Al-Mar’a‘l-’Arabiyya wa tahadi al-mujtama” 376. 103 Nawal El Saadawi, “Qadiyvat al mar’a ‘l-Misrivya ‘l-siyasiyya wa ‘l-jinsiyya” 41. 104 Sophie Smith, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi” 68. 105 Nawal El Saadawi, “Qadiyvat al mar’a ‘l-Misrivya ‘l-siyasiyya wa ‘l-jinsiyya” 42. 106 Nawal El Saadawi, “Qadiyvat al mar’a ‘l-Misrivya ‘l-siyasiyya wa ‘l-jinsiyya” 43.

28 

 2 Egyptian Feminism

customs, such as the Hajj, when Muslims are required to stone the devil with small stones and kiss the Black Stone,107 are among the principal causes of women’s servitude.108 For her, these rituals are “remnants of paganism”109 that made her ask, “why do they need to stone the devil? Why must they kiss that dark stone?” Thus, “censorship” rather than “liberalism” is to blame for the media’s failure to question Islam’s peculiar religious practices.110 In contrast to the majority of Egyptian feminists, she fiercely opposes fundamentalist readings of the Bible, as well as the Islamization and Westernization of Egyptian society, and she accuses religious leaders of oppression and dishonesty. El Saadawi also argues that God in monotheistic religions, such as Islam, is a male who primarily benefits men at the expense of women, who are not permitted to do things like pass on their names to their children. She is dissatisfied with the fact that El Saadawi’s brother has had more privileges than she does. However, she could not help but question, “Why is this preference given to her brother, despite the fact that they are the same or that she may even be superior to him in many ways?”111 El Saadawi became upset with God when her mother told her that “God said so” and granted her brother advantages she did not have. Because of this, she asked God in a letter she furiously penned at a young age why women are treated differently from men, adding: Yes, God. You are not just. And You treat me badly. And You treat my brother better than me though I am more intelligent than he is. And this is not fair! If You are not going to be fair, I am not “ready” to believe in You.112

El Saadawi waited for a response from God, but she never did, and she found that to be an eye-opening experience. She further elaborates in a TV interview in 2018 that she first became aware of the gender disparity in her society while she was in primary school and the teacher asked her to write her name. She wrote “Nawal” followed by “Zainab”, her mother’s first name, she was shocked to see her teacher replace her mother’s name with her father’s. At the time, she was well aware that both society and God place a higher importance on men.

107 The Black Stone is a Muslim relic that is placed into the eastern corner of the sacred structure located in the center of the mosque in Mecca in Saudi Arabia. 108 Arian Fariborz, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi: “They do not want any really courageous people!” 109 Samira Hepburn, “No compromise.” 110 Rachel Cooke, “Nawal El Saadawi: Do you feel you are liberated? I feel I am not.” 111 Nawal EL Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 12. 112 El Saadawi, “‫”مناقشة اول كتاب كتبته نوال السعداوي‬

Development of Egyptian Feminism 

 29

Along with opposing religion and the patriarchal class system, El Saadawi criticizes Western racism and intervention. She also contends that Arab Muslim women are seen negatively by the West in all respects, saying: The colonizers tended to alienate us from our past and our history and to impose only the negative part of our history. We have discovered that the Arab woman of many years ago was very strong. We are restudying our history-that of people, not of kings and governors-the history of people’s participation in political power and revolution.113

She holds Western feminists and colonizers responsible for establishing the unfavorable stereotype of Arab Muslim women and ignoring their history of active participation in various facets of life. El Saadawi further attempts to portray Western colonizers in a negative light in her writings and portrays Westerners as arrogant, well-off, heartless, and exploitational of other national and racial groupings. She places particular emphasis on the difficult cross-cultural contacts and frequently expresses her opposition to Western colonialism and imperialism of Arab countries. Moreover, El Saadawi argues against Western political hegemony and economic exploitation of the East and claims that ancient Egypt and the Arab countries acted as models for Western culture: The forces of imperialism which hurled themselves in successive waves on the Egyptian river valley and the Arab countries were able to plunder many of their material and cultural riches, to conceal many historical truths and facts, and to distort or falsify the contributions that great Arab thinkers and savants have made to the cause of human progress and to laying the foundations of important areas in science and art.114

El Saadawi holds differing views on feminism, both secular and Islamic, and claims that “feminism is not a Western invention. Feminism was not invented by American women, as many people think. No, feminism embedded in the culture and in the struggle of all women all over the world.” Being a feminist and adopting pro-women’s liberation sentiments, argues El Saadawi, are universal issues and not restricted to specific geographical areas. For her, the term secular feminism encompasses “social justice, political justice, and sexual justice” that connects various disciplines, including history, literature, politics, economics, and psychology.115 Furthermore, she attacks the superiority complex and racial prejudice of Western feminists as well as their ignorance of the plight of Arab women. In this sense, El Saadawi argues that because Arab women are more familiar with their

113 Sarah Graham Brown, “Feminism in Egypt: A conversation with Nawal Saadawi” 27. 114 Nawal El Saadawi, “Hidden face of Eve” 251–252. 115 Krishnan Guru-Murthy, “Nawal El Saadawi on feminism, fiction and the illusion of democracy.”

30 

 2 Egyptian Feminism

conditions than anyone outside the region, Western sisters should let them handle their problems in accordance with their experience and points of view. In an interview with Sarah Brown, moreover, she says “others cannot liberate us. . . the enemy is the same, but the struggle is different” to illustrate her point.116 For her, the term secular feminism encompasses “social justice, political justice, and sexual justice” that connects various disciplines, including history, literature, politics, economics, and psychology.117 She thus contends that despite the fact that secular feminism has considerably contributed to women achieving equal rights in the West, Western feminists should not be concerned with resolving the issues faced by Muslim women. Instead, they should make use of the freedoms that earlier generations of secular feminists won for them in their individual societies. She opposes incorporating religion into social and political matters because she sees it as a private matter that has no influence on people’s everyday lives, rights, or obligations. However, El Saadawi advocates disconnecting feminism from religion because “women are oppressed within all religions, and you cannot really liberate yourself within any religion,” and she rejects Islamic feminism as a result.118 She argues that the feminist movement in Egypt is limited to a small number of women’s organizations, which ignore the rights of working-class and poor women to better income and working conditions.119 While she overlooks the criticism of “many Egyptian men—fathers,  and husbands—they do not like me because I make their daughters and their wives rebel against them,” she is criticized for being the free human they are unable to be because they “were born in fear, live in fear, and die in fear.”120 The situation of women in Egyptian culture has been examined and criticized in a number of books, novels, and articles by El Saadawi who has used literature skillfully to educate the public and spark a discussion on women’s rights. Her writings have addressed different themes including women’s liberation, gender equality, and the connections between these issues as well as other current social and political issues. She frequently clashes with the Egyptian authorities over her activity, which at various points result in her imprisonment and exile. She is also the first female Egyptian to bring up the subject of female genital mutilation (FGM) and its detrimental effects, and she has tirelessly worked to raise awareness of the emotional and physical suffering that FGM causes and to put an end to it through

116 Sarah Graham-Brown, “Feminism in Egypt: A conversation with Nawal EL Saadawi” 26. 117 Krishnan Guru-Murthy, “Nawal El Saadawi on feminism, fiction and the illusion of democracy.” 118 Nichole Joseph, “9–11, From a different Perspective: Interview with Nawal El Saadawi and Sherif Hetata.” 119 El Saadawi, “Hidden face.” 120 Sarah Raphael, “Women are pushed to be just bodies  – veiled under religion or veiled by makeup.”

Development of Egyptian Feminism 

 31

advocacy, research, and educational efforts that were covered in her publications, such as Women and Sex and The Hidden Face of Eve. Due to El Saadawi’s significant contribution to the modern Egyptian feminist movement, this book largely focuses on her feminist perspectives on five significant issues: marriage, polygamy, divorce, and inheritance distribution, which are thoroughly discussed in the following chapters.

3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World Can we be creative if we submit to the rules forced upon us under different names: father, God, husband, family, nation, security, stability, protection, peace, democracy, family planning, development, human rights, modernism, or postmodernism? - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, The Nawal El Saadawi Reader121 Society will not accept the idea that a woman can achieve success without changing into a man. In the eyes of society, excellence and brilliance are exclusively qualities associated with men and the masculine sex. And how often the word “man” haunted me whenever I did well in school or at work, and if I kept my word and followed through on a promise, they would say “man,” as if a woman had broken her promise and wasn’t supposed to keep it. They refer to me as a guy if I take fast steps and wear low-heeled shoes, as if a woman must walk slowly, lazily, and swing on high heels. They assumed it was a guy if I participated in sports and had stronger muscles because they reasoned that if a woman had weak muscles and an undernourished physique, a man’s blow would knock her to the ground and cause her bones to fracture. - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Woman and Sex122

Given what Nawal El Saadawi observes, society expects successful women to exhibit traits or actions that are generally associated with men. That is, society does not readily accept the notion that a woman can achieve success while staying true to her femininity or without adhering to masculine ideals. In order to be taken seriously or succeed in traditionally male-dominated areas or positions of authority, El Saadawi argues, women are frequently required to exhibit more stereotypically masculine traits, such as aggressiveness, competitiveness, and toughness. It is also implied that drawing attention to gender biases and the difficulties experienced by women who want to succeed while embracing their femininity. She further discusses her frustration with gender stereotypes and cultural conventions as well as her own experiences with them, saying that if a woman participates in sports and her body muscles get stronger, people assume she must have weak muscles and a lean body because a man’s blow would knock her to the ground and cause her bones to break under his powerful fist. She also explains how people refer to her as a “man” when they see her excel in her career or academic goals.123 This demonstrates that women’s accomplishments were tied to characteristics that are often associated with men rather than being given to them entirely on the basis of their

121 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 158. 122 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and sex” 59–60. 123 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and sex” 59. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-003

Concise Biography 

 33

own merits. To better understand El Saadawi’s perspective, it is necessary to have some background knowledge about her personal life, education, and professional career, which is illustrated in the following lines.

Concise Biography El Saadawi was born in the Egyptian Delta hamlet of Kafr Tahla in 1931 to a middle-class Muslim family. Her mother was from an upper-class Turkish family, whereas her father was a government employee in the Ministry of Education and from a poor family. Although her mother stopped attending school when she turned ten, she demanded that her kids finish school. El Saadawi’s parents supported her academic success by paying for her tuition, which allowed her to earn her medical degree from Cairo University’s Faculty of Medicine in 1955 with a concentration in psychiatry. She has five sisters, but she rarely talks about them; instead, she frequently mentions how her parents love her brother Tala’at. She underlines how her upbringing and that of her older brother were in sharp contrast to one another. In her childhood, for example, she was unable to play outside unattended like her brother. El Saadawi adds that they also differed in other ways, including variations in the acceptable sitting postures, as she had experienced being compelled to sit in specific positions during her childhood. While she was required to keep her hair long and combed when she was a young girl, moreover, her brother was free to style his hair whatever he pleased without even having to brush it. She was not allowed to play with the neighborhood kids, so she used to sit on the janitor’s bench and watch them from a distance, which led to the janitor attempting to harass her. El Saadawi decided to remain silent because she felt even more imprisoned by her mother’s accusation that she was too responsible for the janitor’s attempt to sexually assault her. She also had problems with men since she believed they just saw her as a “girl” whose femininity needed to be exploited in various ways, so she purposefully avoided them. When she asked her parents why she and her brother were treated differently, they invariably responded, “because you are a girl, and he is a boy” which made no sense to her.”124 El Saadawi wrote about these experiences and how being a girl made her particularly vulnerable to these overly careful precautions, which made her loathe her feminine features and the duties of growing up as a girl, which made her feel trapped in a “female body.”125

124 Nawal El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 18. 125 Ayah Ouda, “‫ نوال السعداوي قائدة ثورة تحرر المرأة ومساواتها بالرجل‬.‫”في ذكرى ميالدها‬

34 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

As she grew older, El Saadawi decided that her long, thick hair was her first victim, and she went to the “barber” to get it cut. When she saw her hair start to tumble to the floor, she felt as though she was letting go of a crown. At the time, El Saadawi believed that one should not place faith in things that are subject to quick abandonment. That was her first infraction of the social norms that had been imposed upon her, and she felt as though she had broken the first bar around her neck. She therefore felt confident enough to confront her mother, who had earlier voiced her vehement opposition to “cutting her long hair.” She was not scared or shaken by her mother throughout the dispute that brought them together, and she fought her mother’s repeated slaps with fortitude. When El Saadawi was six years old, furthermore, she underwent a highly traumatic incident that she often compared to torture. She underwent circumcision, which was a very common practice in Egypt that the majority of Egyptian women underwent at the time, including her grandmother, mother, and sisters. She described that terrifying experience by saying, “this wound in my body has not only not recovered since childhood but has also left behind a deep mark in my soul.”126 Over time, she started to denounce these discriminatory norms in her patriarchal community. More significantly, El Saadawi’s employment as a doctor in her native Kafr Talha gave her the opportunity to learn about the struggles faced by rural women and the domestic violence perpetrated against them, which served as an inspiration for her writing. She gained insight from this experience on the difficulties Arab women faced in fulfilling societal obligations in a society where men predominated. Although it gave her the opportunity to see nude bodies, it also served as a stark reminder of how horribly flawed human civilization was. El Saadawi only became aware of the struggles Arab women experience as a result of the gender pay gap after working as a gynecologist in rural Egypt which she mentioned “All the tragedies of the society enter into my clinic. All the results of disguise and swindle are exposed before me on the examination table. The bitter realities which people deny come and lay under my hand on the operating table.”127 When El Saadawi was transferred to study psychiatry at Columbia University in the 1960s, she was able to consider women’s issues from a more global standpoint. America was coping at the time with the actions of the feminist and civil rights movements, who were demanding equal rights following the Vietnam War. She was drawn to anti-government groups and literature that favored freedom while criticizing the conservatism and fundamentalism that had dominated American society in recent years. El Saadawi and many other intellectuals and writers were inspired by

126 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a Woman Doctor” 74. 127 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a Woman Doctor” 86.

Concise Biography 

 35

growing up in a social and political setting marked by ups and downs in the domestic and international domains between the two world wars. As a result, many Arab scholars were enlightened by the ideas of Western freedom revolutionaries. A lot of Arabic literature has dealt with the themes of protest, discontentment, alienation, and futility. Arab countries of the period were marked by unhappiness, turbulence, and upheaval, which was mirrored in the literature of the region. Consequently, “Egypt and other Arab societies made radical changes: new political, economic, and social structures have arisen, and modern ideologies have been introduced.” Besides, education “largely secularized, and new aspirations have appeared in all sections of society.”128 That time period in Egypt was characterized by the emergence of a strong nationalism opposed to British colonization and led to “the exhaustion of old political ruling groups from their internecine struggle” which “left them divided among themselves, thus permitting the greater autocracy of the monarch.”129 El Saadawi’s involvement in nationalist themes and her use of political slogans like revolution, nationalism, and anti-colonization in her writings are only inevitable given that she, like so many other Egyptian writers, is a representation of Egyptian society. She views herself as a courageous and imaginative person who has always battled injustice and developed creative means of criticism rather than accepting any type of it.130 Many years later, particularly after going through her second divorce and practicing medicine in rural regions, El Saadawi developed a greater interest in feminism. Her awareness of female tragedies at the time and the tensions that patriarchal authority and gender standards produced among women in her community motivated her to write about women’s experiences in Egyptian culture. Later, El Saadawi was appointed director of the Cairo Ministry of Public Health. She lost her position at the Egyptian Health Ministry as a result of her writings, social commentary, and political involvement, which resulted in the end of her medical career in 1972. She then collaborated with the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). She was also designated senior program officer in charge of the West Africa voluntary fund. El Saadawi resigned the UN after two years, saying that there was “too much bureaucracy and discrimination against women” and added that “they do not believe very much in creativity. They want people who just obey.”131 El Saadawi contributed to the creation of Confrontation, a feminist publication, and served as the magazine’s chief editor until it was outlawed in 1973 for its frank treatment of topics including female sexuality, circumcision, and psychiatric sickness in Egyptian society. El Saadawi also contributed to the establishment of the 128 Hillary Kilpatrick, “Women and literature in the Arab world” 73. 129 Panayiotis Jerasimof Vatikiotis, “The history of Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to As-Sadaat” 356. 130 Helena Frith Powell, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi.” 131 Sarah Graham Brown, “Feminism in Egypt: A conversation with Nawal Saadawi” 25.

36 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

Association of African Women for Research and Development (AAWORD), whose mission was the emancipation of all African women. El Saadawi established the Arab Women’s Solidarity Association (AWSA) in 1982, following in Huda Shaarawi’s footsteps, and was later chosen to serve as its president. The main goal of the AWSA was to “lift the veil from the mind” of Arab Muslim women so they might participate fairly in all facets of social, political, economic, and cultural life in the Arab world and be granted equal rights.132 El Saadawi argued that the AWSA supported the independence of Arab women as well as the freedom of Arab lands because they were thought to be related. Ten years later, the AWSA was outlawed, and the government also closed down the Health magazine as a result of El Saadawi’s opposition to female genital mutilation and the revolutionary viewpoints of her feminist group. Nawal mentioned that her first experience with marriage came when a “strange man” came to her house and sat with her father. She was surprised when her mother instructed her to put on the brown dress because it highlights her femininity more than others. As soon as she sat down in the brown dress in front of the unexpected visitor, she felt that he was abusing her body with his appearance and yelled at him before leaving and returning to her room. During this period, Nawal came to the realization that society considers a girl’s marriage as an “inevitable fate” and that she must take all necessary precautions to prepare for it. This infuriated her since everyone could see what her future held.133 While referring to marriage as slavery and an unjust institution on numerous occasions, El Saadawi got married three times and had a son and a daughter. She insisted on being married to Dr. Ahmed Helmy, the father of her daughter, a classmate from medical school, in 1955 over her family’s objections because of his political activism. She believed that, unlike her, he had not matured in line with the patriarchal norms of society. She thus believed that by getting married to him, social constraints and gender divides would be removed. Before their wedding, however, El Saadawi objected to having a contract like the one used for buying and selling affairs. She was then persuaded by her husband that it was nothing more than “mere routine paper” and that it would not affect the course of their lives. She complied with his request but felt as though she was signing a death certificate rather than a marriage certificate. Once they got married, her husband started to manipulate her by claiming she was jealous of him and fearful of other men as well. He also tried to restrict her ability to travel, including to and from her place of employment. During their talk, he declared to her, “I am the man. The power in this house is

132 Fedwa Malti-Douglas, “Men, women, and god(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab feminist poetics” 11. 133 Ayah Ouda, “‫ نوال السعداوي قائدة ثورة تحرر المرأة ومساواتها بالرجل‬.‫”في ذكرى ميالدها‬

Concise Biography 

 37

under my control.” She found that her spouse is not much different from other men in this sense, having many psychological oddities and a strong desire to dominate women. Due to her husband’s attempts to dominate her and his drug addiction, their marriage was short-lived, and she ultimately decided to get a divorce after two years and go back to living alone without sharing her small world with anyone.134 Her second marriage also ended abruptly. Unlike her first marriage, her family was insistent that she marry her second husband because of his wealth; nevertheless, she later discovered that he was a staunch traditionalist who exhibited extreme conservatism. Similar to her first marriage, he attempted to dominate El Saadawi, but given how severely she was suppressed, she eventually divorced him. However, the writer and politician Sharif Hatata was her third spouse, and their 43-year marriage was the longest. She was overjoyed that they were together and often boasted that he was the only man on the earth who shared her viewpoints and supported women’s rights. Despite being her favorite spouse, her third husband—the translator of the majority of her works and the man she once referred to in interviews as “the only feminist man on earth”—and she separated in 2010 because he had an extramarital affair.135 El Saadawi did not mind sharing the reasons for dissolving her third marriage in multiple interviews, in contrast to her divorcee who strongly refused to discuss the divorce in detail. In an interview with Magdy Samaan in 2010, she once said that she did not accept her husband’s betrayal because she believed he had “violated” her rights. In addition, she said that “a woman who defends her pride and freedom refuses to remain in a state that violates her principles” and that nothing would make her “live with a husband who violates” her rights.136 El Saadawi further stated that “after many years of marriage, I became sure that I was not born to marry because the institution of marriage is not suitable for a woman who thinks like me” on a Lebanese TV program with Zahi Wahbi in 2014. El Saadawi used to sign her books with her first name as well as the first names of her parents, “Nawal Zainab Al Sayed.” She believed that the name of the child should appear on the birth certificate under the names of both parents, not only his father. In this regard, El Saadawi, notes: In Ancient Egypt, children carried the name of their mother. The name of the mother gave honor to the child. But in Egypt today, children only carry the name of their fathers. If the father’s name is unknown, then child becomes illegitimate. The name of the mother brings dishonor and disgrace to the child.137

134 Ayah Ouda, “‫ نوال السعداوي قائدة ثورة تحرر المرأة ومساواتها بالرجل‬.‫”في ذكرى ميالدها‬ 135 Rachel Cooke, “Nawal El Saadawi: Do you feel you are liberated? I feel I am not.” 136 Magdy Samaan, “A lawsuit, an alleged affair behind feminist Nawal El Saadawi’s divorce.” 137 El Saadawi, “Marriage and Motherhood.”

38 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

Here, she highlighted the difference between present Egyptian naming practices, which mostly rely on the father’s name, and ancient practices. She believes that this societal shift is the result of cultural and social attitudes that minimize or downplay maternal heritage and favor patrilineal inheritance. Due to her contentious beliefs and works, moreover, El Saadawi has faced many difficulties in life. For instance, because of her political beliefs, she spent three months as a prisoner of conscience under the third Egyptian president, Anwar As-Sadaat.138 As-Sadaat sought peace between Egypt and Israel following years of political and military conflict. However, his peace campaign was rebuffed not only by the Arab nations, but also by the Egyptian opposition. Therefore, President As-Sadaat confronted ferocious resentment that led to political and economic issues when a peace treaty was negotiated between Egypt and Israel in 1979. As-Sadaat accordingly imprisoned 1,500 prominent opposition figures in August 1981, including activists, Coptic priests, journalists, Muslim sheiks, and well-known academics. He saw them as a threat to his authority and El Saadawi was one of those Egyptian leaders who was imprisoned for 85 days without charge due to his opposition to his political and economic policies. However, in November 1981, a month before President As-Sadaat was assassinated by fundamentalist Muslims during the annual triumph parade staged in Cairo, El Saadawi and other prisoners were released. El Saadawi has written her memoirs despite not having access to writing instruments during her brief incarceration. She did this by utilizing toilet paper and eyebrow pencils that female prisoners and prostitutes smuggled out. El Saadawi further noted that her time in jail was “a good experience” and added: Prison is like death, like exile, you face something horrible that you were so afraid of all your life- I was afraid of prison, and of death and of exile and of loneliness, of everything, but when I was in it, I lost my fear. You have to face these things to lose your fear.139

She insisted on writing despite the prison guards’ repeated threats to confiscate her pen and paper, which they deemed to be more lethal than a pistol. El Saadawi was also the target of numerous lawsuits accusing her of a variety of offenses. For instance, she was charged with the crime of contempt against religion by the pro-government attorney Samir Sabry due to her liberal viewpoints on various religious traditions and support for a resurgence of religious debate. Nabih al-Wahsh, an Egyptian attorney, filed a second case to break up El Saadawi’s marriage to her third husband on the grounds that she was an apostate. AlWahsh’s accusations against El Saadawi were based on remarks made by Egypt’s

138 Helena Frith Powell, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi.” 139 Krishnan Guru-Murthy, “Nawal El Saadawi on feminism, fiction and the illusion of democracy.”

El Saadawi’s Reception in Egypt and the Arab Word 

 39

Grand Mufti, Nasr Farid Wasel, who criticized her for rejecting religious precepts. The title of her 2006 play, God Resign at the Summit, led the al-Azhar institution to accuse her of heresy and apostasy. El Saadawi was the subject of other cases seeking to have her Egyptian citizenship revoked, all of which were dismissed by the Administrative Court. El Saadawi also confirmed in several interviews that she frequently got numerous death threats throughout various stages of her life, with her offense being her desire to “think” and “feel.” However, despite receiving death threats, she continued to write because, in her opinion, it is “like breathing in the air of life” and “it cannot stop.”140 She underlined numerous times that neither death nor incarceration were her fears.141 In 1992, after receiving grave death threats from Islamic fanatics who accused her of apostasy, El Saadawi was compelled to emigrate to the United States. She lived there for eight years, during which she worked as a professor at several famous American universities, including Yale, Florida State, Florida International, Georgetown, Harvard, and Washington. She encountered many people from many cultural backgrounds during her years of exile, which was highly profitable for her because it inspired her and enabled her to produce more novels. She also said that, compared to her own Egypt, exile made her feel safer. El Saadawi’s writings made it clear where she stood on a variety of issues regarding Islamic fundamentalists, their sexism, and how they twisted the Qur’an to suit their own purposes. More importantly, she discussed issues affecting Muslim women in the Middle East and North Africa, such as female genital mutilation. More recently, she spoke sarcastically about her simple living in her one-bedroom flat on the 26th floor of a building overlooking Cairo in her later years. She said in an interview with The Financial Times in 2012 that “many people come here, and they think my apartment is a poor relative to my name” and that it is challenging to be “wealthy and radical,” which is another challenging assertion.

El Saadawi’s Reception in Egypt and the Arab Word El Saadawi held a distinctive position as an Egyptian feminist author who highlighted the plight of Muslim women in her works. She was referred to as the “Simone de Beauvoir of the Arab world” because of her outspoken feminist views on politics and gender.142 She was prohibited from appearing on any Egyptian TV or radio

140 Nawal El Saadawi, “Walking through fire a life of Nawal El Saadawi” 54. 141 Thomson Reuters, “I don’t fear death: Egyptian feminist, novelist Nawal El Saadawi.” 142 Emma Batha, “I don’t fear death: Pioneering Egyptian feminist defies threats.”

40 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

station, and her publications were outlawed in Egypt and other Muslim nations,143 but she continued to be one of the most powerful women in the Arab World.144 El Saadawi, however, was welcomed favorably in the West as opposed to Egypt and other Muslim nations. El Saadawi, in the opinion of Ahmed, was a knowledgeable author whose works were not comparable to those of other authors. To confirm this idea, Ahmed wrote that she knew “no other woman within her society who has attacked its patriarchal values-particularly those enshrined in such notions as that of honour or all importance of virginity - as openly, cogently, and uncompromisingly as she.”145 Amal Amireh provided further evidence that El Saadawi was a well-known Arab feminist who enjoyed great support from Western audiences. Her writings, argued Amireh, even those that were fictional, were regarded as “windows onto a timeless Islam instead of as literary works governed by certain conventions and produced within specific historical contexts” because they addressed women’s difficulties in a direct and unyielding manner.146 Thus, El Saadawi was successful in drawing readers into the fictional worlds she created. Amireh, additionally, noted that “the western interest in her is not innocent, some critics believe. They argue that she is acclaimed not so much because she champions women’s rights, but because she tells western readers what they want to hear.”147 El Saadawi’s contribution to Arab feminism was also called “profound,” and according to Smith, her works are “the most widely read of contemporary Egyptian authors- male or female.”148 In a 2017 interview with Jill Nicholls, Margaret Atwood added her support for El Saadawi’s advocacy for women equality in the Middle East by stating that “her life has been one long death threat. At a time when nobody else was talking, she spoke the unspeakable.”149 However, El Saadawi’s writings sparked a variety of opinions among Egyptian writers and researchers. While some authors criticized her for distorting the true position of Egyptian women, others applauded her work. For instance, the Egyptian journalist Abdelmonim Said stated in 2021 that El Saadawi was among the most important writers and feminists in the Arab world during the modern age. According to him, “views about women, their freedom, and their status in Arab states have always been a source of great appreciation, not only from intellectual and theoretical aspects, but from the perspective

143 Jill Nicholls, “She spoke the unspeakable.” 144 Fatima Naoot, “‫ نوال الﺴعﺪاوى‬: ‫”ﻋﯿﻨاها فﻰ وهﺞ الﺸﻤﺲ‬ 145 Leila Ahmed, “Review of the hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 750. 146 Amal Amireh, “Framing Nawal El Saadawi: Arab feminism in a transnational world” 240. 147 Amal Amireh, “Publishing in the West: Problems and prospects for Arab women writers” 6. 148 Sophie Smith, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi” 59. 149 Jill Nicholls, “She spoke the unspeakable.”

El Saadawi’s Reception in Egypt and the Arab Word 

 41

of human “development” in general, and in Egypt in particular.”150 In the same vein, Maher Hassan underlined that El Saadawi was a contentious author whose works had created a social intellectual and rational posture that profoundly redefined axioms and myths that many people believed unquestionable realities and not open to discussion or criticism. Hassan believed that El Saadawi’s flaw was her use of symbols to express her critique of both men and governments, as well as her description of men’s exploitation of women as an expression of rulers’ control over their subjects.151 Fatima Naoot also valued El Saadawi’s contributions to the growth of human values generally and the worth of women specifically. She summed up El Saadawi’s important contribution to literature by saying: El Saadawi is an enlightened writer who has pushed a lot for human rights through her knowledge, money, comfort, and years of life. The whole world honors her and her “Egyptian colleagues” deny her. But not all Egyptians, only those who hear and do not see, and those who imitate and do not think, and those who are lazy in reading and are active in criticism. Only the rational intelligentsia of this country knows the value of that great lady, respects her, and goes where she goes to learn how to think outside the box, how to reject what destroys man and insults mind and body, and she is ready for it.152

El Saadawi, however, was criticized by a number of intellectuals in the Arab world and Egypt in particular. They saw her as the Western voice in the Middle East whose opinions were deemed to be controversial and who primarily spoke to a Western audience rather than the Muslim populace. For instance, El Saadawi’s fiction books in Egypt were described as “bad novels” that did not represent “Arab women’s creative writing” by Egyptian novelist Ahdaf Soueif in 1996. According to Soueif, El Saadawi actually published excellent research articles, making it inappropriate to refer to her novels as examples of Arabic literature.153 In a similar vein, Gamal El Ghitany claimed in an interview with Peter Lennon from 1994 that El Saadawi primarily wrote for the West in an effort to earn a “Nobel Prize,” but that she “cannot feel the true problems” of women in Muslim nations.154 Furthermore, Afif Faaraj called her characters “empty boards aside from the ideological statements written in large type.”155 Nawal El Saadawi is also criticized by Alia Mamdouh for “turning creativity, which is imagination and living memory, into a lab to show sick samples which are

150 Abdelmonim Said, “Dr. Nawal El Saadawi” 25. 151 Maher Hassan, “‫ نﻮال الﺴعاﺪوى وسﻘﻮط اﻹمام‬:‫”ذاكرة الكتب‬ 152 Fatima Naoot, “‫ نوال الﺴعﺪاوى‬: ‫”ﻋﯿﻨاها فﻰ وهﺞ الﺸﻤﺲ‬ 153 Ahdaf Soueif, “Translating the life of the Arab woman.” 154 Peter Lennon, “Out in a volatile climate” 29. 155 Afif Farraj, “Freedom in women’s literature” 320.

42 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

deformed and which she represents as generalized social types.”156 In addition, she asserts that El Saadawi “does not present the true picture of the creativity of Arab women” and that this raises “large question marks about the West’s celebration and focus on El Saadawi.”157 Mamdouh’s criticism is supported by George Tarabishi, a Syrian writer and critic, who claims that El Saadawi’s writings promoted absurd, extreme instances and ignore reality rather than making an effort to improve it. He believes that El Saadawi has adopted the attitude of the male colonizer in her portrayals of the unbelievable female characters, as well as her tendency to portray prostitution as a frequent practice. Tarabishi blames El Saadawi for deviating from portraying women in accordance with their natural role of humanizing the world and embracing a macho philosophy in sketching her feminine characters. Her novels, in his opinion, are too one-dimensional, and he claims that “abstractions do not make for good literature.”158 Hence, he criticizes El Saadawi for using prostitution as a symbol of Arab women’s liberation and accuses her of portraying prostitution as an all-encompassing behavioral attitude that should direct every woman’s life, claiming that “[a]ny other path to the liberation of women is a dead-end, even having a job.”159 In a later version of his book, however, El Saadawi responds to his harsh criticism by saying: It is surely unjust to judge a revolutionary hero or heroine as psychologically sick or neurotic merely because we have not studied the social and political conditions which forged such characters, and which forced them to take the path of struggle and rebellion.160

El Saadawi contends that the social and political conditions in which her female heroines, who were subjected to prostitution and murder, were motivated to revolt. She also adds: The political climate in the Arab world has produced a number of false revolutions bandying the slogans of justice and socialism, only to murder or imprison the genuine socialists and seekers after justice. In the shadow of such false revolutions, new breeds of revolutionaries have sprung up, mouthing the slogans of revolution, but in fact oppressing and exploiting those under their domination. This schism between words and deeds is prevalent in our part of the world.161

156 Amal Amireh, “Publishing in the West: Problems and prospects for Arab women writers” 22. 157 Amal Amireh, “Publishing in the West: Problems and prospects for Arab women writers” 22. 158 George Tarabishi, “Woman against her sex: A critique of Nawal El Saadawi with a replay by Nawal El Saadawi” 18. 159 Tarabishi, “Woman against her sex” 25. 160 Tarabishi, “Woman against her sex: A critique of Nawal El Saadawi with a replay by Nawal El Saadawi” 201. 161 Tarabishi, “Woman against her sex” 203.

El Saadawi’s Reception in Egypt and the Arab Word 

 43

That is, in patriarchal, class-hierarchical societies in the Arab World, the weak and women are preyed upon. Even though El Saadawi opposes neocolonialism, moreover, Nora Drosihn claims in her critique of El Saadawi’s books that El Saadawi “is implicated in Western discourses [as] seen in her reproduction of Orientalist stereotyping[,] feeding into Western tendencies of simultaneously superiority and fear of the Middle East and especially Islam.”162 She also adds that El Saadawi orientalizes the Other in Woman at Point Zero since the book’s primary imagery of the East “generates a pervasive fear of Islam due to its confusion with fundamentalist terrorism.”163 This is because the novella exhibits a Eurocentric viewpoint and neocolonial Western hegemony. Drosihn also notes that El Saadawi’s viewpoint on religion ‘‘serves as an excellent vantage point for Westerners to study the allegedly harsher oppression of Muslim women.’’164 Additionally, the story becomes problematic because the reader might draw conclusions about all Arab women as a result when teachers and students treat this novella as an anthropological report rather than as a work of fiction, especially given that the novella opens with the phrase “this is the story of a real woman.” In contrast, El Saadawi’s work, according to a more contemporary argument made by Luma Balaa, does not stereotype; rather, she is “occupying a space in between, where at times she employs stereotypes but at other times challenges them.”165 In a similar vein, Juliet O’Keefe asserts that El Saadawi’s writings provided a wealth of criticism of Islam and Eastern society and are thus valued by the West.166 Despite the fact that El Saadawi’s book searching is well received in the West, it is met with harsh criticism in the East and is seen as, in the words of Amireh, “a testament to the progress that American women have achieved in contrast to their oppressed Arab sisters, supposedly still groaning under the shackles of Islam.”167 Similarly, Fedwa Malti-Douglas notes that El Saadawi is a contentious feminist researcher whose opinions have sparked heated debates in public. Malti-Douglas wrote: No Arab woman inspires as much emotion as Nawal El Saadawi. No woman in the Middle East has been the subject of more polemic. No Arab woman’s pen has violated as many sacred enclosures as that of Nawal El Saadawi.168

162 Nora Drosihn, “Orientalizing the other today: Arab feminism in Western discourse” 62. 163 Nora Drosihn, “Orientalizing the other today: Arab feminism in Western discourse” 42. 164 Nora Drosihn, “Orientalizing the other today: Arab feminism in Western discourse” 26. 165 Luma Balaa, “El Saadawi does not orientalize the other in women at point zero” 237. 166 Juliet O’Keefe, “A review of a Woman a Point Zero”. 167 Amal Amireh, “Framing Nawal El Saadawi: Arab feminism in a transnational world” 248. 168 Fedwa Malti-Douglas, “Men, women, and god(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab feminist poetics” 1.

44 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

In addition, Malti-Douglas thought that El Saadawi’s fiction “has been castigated as mere propaganda, as tireless repetition of her radical message” as opposed to her non-fiction books that faithfully portrayed the oppression of women in patriarchal communities in the Middle East.169 El Saadawi is referred to be “a tool of Western imperialism” because of her focus on Western misconceptions of Islam and her rise to fame.170 Similarly, Amireh claims that El Saadawi gained popularity in the West not because she “championed women’s rights” but rather because she published what Western readers wanted to read about Muslim communities and their patriarchal practices against women.171 Moreover, Ahmad al-Hamidi argues that El Saadawi’s novels misrepresent the current socioeconomic struggle that both men and women face as a fight between the two sexes. Due to the harsh criticism, she has continually received from them, El Saadawi frequently displays her disinterest in what Arab detractors have to say about her. She also argues that her Arab critics lack the same credentials as their Western counterparts, whose judgments tend to be more objective. She has asserted this claim in numerous interviews; therefore, it stands to reason that she is less interested in the writings of Arab intellectuals and more concerned with Western criticism of her. El Saadawi, on the other hand, denies writing for the West and states in an interview with Adele Newson-Horst in 2008 that she writes primarily in Arabic to speak to Arabs because her target audience is “people everywhere who believe in justice, freedom, love, equality, peace, and creativity.”172

Awards and Legacy El Saadawi sought the Nobel Prize in Literature in recognition of her work and the various books she has written, many of which have been translated into different languages. However, she was unable to achieve her goals and stated, just a few days before she passed away, “I do not expect anything from the Nobel Prize because they nominate me every year, but my biggest prize is male and female readers, not any other award.”173 EL Saadawi prioritized her youthful readership over winning the Nobel Prize. Despite not winning the Noble Prize, she received numerous honors, including the International Generalitat Catalana Prize in 2003, the North-South Prize of the 169 Fedwa Malti-Douglas, “Men, women, and god(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab feminist poetics” 1. 170 Fedwa Malti-Douglas, “Men, women, and god(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab feminist poetics” 14. 171 Amal Amireh, “Publishing in the West: Problems and prospects for Arab women writers” 6. 172 Adele Newson-Horst, “Conversations with Nawal El Saadawi” 58. 173 Zyad Ahmed Salama, “‫ ظالمة أم مظلومة؟‬:‫”!نوال السعداوي‬

Awards and Legacy 

 45

European Council in 2004, the Inana International Prize in 2005, the Stig Dagerman Prize in 2011, and the Seán MacBride Peace Award in 2012. According to the American magazine “Time” in 1981, Nawal El Saadawi was named one of the most significant women in the Arab world over the previous 100 years as a result of her efforts as a feminist to improve the condition of women. Additionally, El Saadawi received numerous honorary doctorates from other universities, including the National Autonomous University of Mexico, the University of York, the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, and the Université libre de Bruxelles. She has served as the subject of Jill Nicholls’ 2007 film “She Spoke the Unspoken,” which was aired by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Despite receiving multiple honors from around the world, she was not granted any honors or prizes in Egypt. Besides, she was not even invited to any official national conferences or other cultural events. In contrast to Huda Shaarawi, whose name was given to one of Cairo’s well-known streets, El Saadawi did not get any official recognition from the Egyptian government during her lifetime. El Saadawi passed away on March 21, 2021, at the age of 89 at a hospital in Cairo, after a protracted battle with sickness. She left behind a feminist legacy and controversial opinions. It is interesting to note that El Saadawi, who spent her entire life championing women’s rights, passed away on Egyptian Mother’s Day, which also happened to be the day when the Egyptian parliament approved a heavier penalty for the crime of circumcision. A separate rule that made the simultaneous marriage of young girls illegal was also suggested by Egyptian President As-Sisi. Ironically, on the day of El Saadawi’s departure, the rights of Egyptian women for which she had battled her entire life were enacted into law. Her death, like her life, sparked a whirlwind of debates and criticism in the Egyptian press as well as women’s press all around the world. Additionally, her thoughts and arguments received millions of comments and discussions across a variety of social media platforms. Some people lamented her passing and her commitment to women’s concerns, while others rejoiced in her passing and wished her the worst punishment possible in the hereafter for what they perceived to be her “destructive thoughts.”174 According to Dr. Muhammad al-Baz, the chairman of the board of directors and editorial board of the Egyptian newspaper, moreover, Al-Dustour, “God loves the writer Nawal Al-Saadawi because she died on the day the Senate issued a law to increase the penalty for female circumcision.”175 He added that female circumcision was one of the issues that Nawal El Saadawi vigorously addressed during her career. If a doctor or nurse practitioner conducted the circumcision, they were subject to a hard labor punishment under the legislation. However, others were

174 Fatima Naoot, “‫ نوال الﺴعﺪاوى‬: ‫”ﻋﯿﻨاها فﻰ وهﺞ الﺸﻤﺲ‬ 175 Ghazal Othman, “‫ شفاﻋة نسوية وخذالن سياسي‬،‫ بين ﻋﻘاب إلهي‬:‫”وفاة نوال السعداوي‬

46 

 3 Biographical Sketch and Reception in Egypt and the Arab World

unable to overlook the news of her departure without bringing up her political affiliation with the Sisi government. Palestinian feminist activist Fidaa al-Za’anin wrote on Twitter in a number of tweets: We cannot ignore Nawal Al-Saadawi’s political ideas without drawing attention to them, even if those beliefs are different from support for Egypt’s military government and everything that government rule has brought about. Egyptian women and gender minorities face a number of difficulties. If this is the sole viewpoint we want to discuss, we cannot describe it as incidental. What else does feminism represent except a sociopolitical change agent? She decided to support a conservative Yemeni military institution that conducts virginity tests, arrests and tortures gender minorities, and enacts discriminatory laws that view women as inferior, the majority of which are derived from Shariah. This institution uses religious authority to consolidate its power and repress the populace.176

That is, El Saadawi failed to follow through on her writings on freedom and put her words into action. Her political views are questionable. She supported Egyptian President Sisi wholeheartedly despite the atrocities carried out by his regime, which is the exact reverse of what Nawal believes and supports. Hisham Azmy, Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Culture, sent his sympathies in response to Dr. Nawal El-Saadawi’s death underlining the loss of a well-known literary activist for Egyptian and Arab culture. Azmy noted: The late author dedicated her life to advancing women’s rights, as seen by the substantial body of creative work she created, which transcends the normative standards of men and has an impact on others on the cultural, social, and political levels.177

The head of the General Syndicate of the Egyptian Writers Union, poet Dr. Alaa Abdel Hadi, expressed his sorrow at the passing of Dr. Nawal El Saadawi. The syndicate said in their statement that Dr. Nawal El Saadawi had championed women’s rights throughout the course of her literary career and had left behind an extraordinary body of work that would be beneficial to all future generations.178 El Saadawi, who appears to be aware of the many verdicts handed down against her after her passing, writes in her play God Resign at the Summit: In recent years, two scary words have become commonplace on people’s lips. Anybody who writes something that differs from what they say will be pursued by unidentified forces that claim to speak for God, carry explosives, and machine guns. They will condemn them to disbelief or apostasy from Islam, add their names to the list of the dead, and carry out the sentence with bullets. They subsequently escape.179 176 Ghazal Othman, “‫ شفاﻋة نسوية وخذالن سياسي‬،‫ بين ﻋﻘاب إلهي‬:‫”وفاة نوال السعداوي‬ 177 Elham Zidan, “‫”األمين العام للمجلس األﻋلﻰ للثﻘافة ينعﻰ نوال السعداوى‬ 178 Shimaa Shinawy, “‫”نﻘابة كتاب مصر تنعي نوال السعداوي‬ 179 Nawal El Saadawi, “God resign at the summit” 5–6.

Awards and Legacy 

 47

She effectively communicates in her work her awareness of the tradition- and custom-bound Arab mentality as well as her understanding of the contradictory reactions that would emerge following her departure and how to handle them. Because of this, El Saadawi claimed in an interview with Mufid Fawzy in 2016 that she had “no regrets” and that, if she could go back in time, she would be even more revolutionary and rebellious than she had ever been at all points in her life because “they seek to suppress my thoughts, writings, and voice because I am a woman.”180 Additionally, when asked if she might tone down her criticism by B.B.C. broadcaster Zainab Badawi in 2018, she replied, “No. Because the world is getting more violent and because we need people to speak up against injustice, I have to be more assertive and forceful.” She goes on to say, “I talk out loud because I am angry.”181 After her death, Nawal El Saadawi left behind critical and intellectual works that would be difficult for any censorship institutions to remove from the Arab Library. Her ideas and viewpoints will continue to shape discussions about gender, social justice, and women’s rights. Her contributions to the feminist movement had a long-lasting effect and continue to inspire people who work to create a more just world.

180 Nawal El Saadawi, “1‫”نوال السعداوي في ضيافة مفيد فوزي ج‬ 181 BBC News Channel-HARDtalk, “Nawal El Saadawi-Egyptian writer and activist.”

4 Feminist Writings and Creative Output From the moment she is born and even before she learns to pronounce words, the way people look at her, the expression in their eyes, and their glances somehow indicate that she was born (incomplete) or with something missing. From the day of her birth to the moment of death, a question will continue to haunt her: why? Why that preference is given to her brother, despite the fact that they are the same or that she may even be superior to him in many ways, or at least in some respects. -NAWAL El Saadawi, Searching: Women in the Arab World182 I do not usually elevate or denigrate women based on my biological make-up. A woman is not a perfect angel, a crafty monster, or a cloaked mystery. A woman has the right to use her independence in the same manner that a man does, whether in his personal marriage life or in his political life and international connections. She is a full-fledged human being like a man. Any nation’s constitution must include this moral and political obligation concurrently. -NAWAL EI SAADAWI, Searching: Women in the Arab World183

According to Nawal El Saadawi, the fight for women’s rights and the issue of gender equality started with their birth. It is no wonder, El Saadawi argues, that a woman is treated unfairly and insufficiently by the culture in which she lives in comparison to her male counterpart in all facets of life, beginning very early in life and lasting until death. In El Saadawi’s view, moreover, it is improper to evaluate a woman solely on the basis of her gender since women are neither angels nor devils and every nation’s constitution must reflect the moral and political belief that women ought to have the same rights and liberties as men. The information that follows pertains to El Saadawi’s feminist writing and creative output.

El Saadawi and Writing Nawal El Saadawi has begun writing when she was a young child and views writing as “a stronger weapon than medicine in the fight against poverty and ignorance”184 and is the means by which she “reaches people” not just in her own nation but also “in other countries of the world.”185 The barriers separating her from other people disappear when she writes, says El Saadawi, and nothing can stop her from continuing to write because of her profound conviction in the transformational

182 Nawal El Saadawi, “Searching: Women in the Arab world” 12. 183 Nawal El Saadawi, “The twin of power and sex” 202. 184 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 2. 185 Nawal El Saadawi, “Walking through fire a life of Nawal El Saadawi” 10. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-004

El Saadawi and Writing 

 49

power of words. In A Daughter of Isis, a memoir of her early years that was released in English in 1999, she states, “writing became a weapon with which to fight the system, which draws its authority from the autocratic power exercised by the ruler of the state, and that of the father or the husband in the family.” El Saadawi further emphasizes the importance of writing when she remarked in her interview with Alan Cowell, “the written word for me became an act of rebellion against injustice exercised in the name of religion, or morals, or love” which serves as further evidence of the worth of writing.”186 When discussing the importance of writing for her in a 2016 TV interview with Wafaa El Kilani, El Saadawi says: If Descartes had reasoned that “I think; therefore, I am,” in my perspective, “I write, therefore I live.” The ability to express one’s thoughts in writing is essential for existence; otherwise, why would the gods have authored their books and given them to us in written form?

She continues by saying “she never feels alienated or lonely as the most important thing for her is to write a new book, memoirs, and articles.” 187 The core theme of El Saadawi’s writings, moreover, centers on the relationship between the liberation of women and men in general and, on the other side, the notion of liberating the motherland politically, culturally, and socially. In both her fiction and nonfiction writings, she focuses on the three main taboos in the Islamic world: politics, religion, and sex. Her original Arabic texts have been translated into thirty various languages, including English, Finnish, French, Indonesian, Japanese, Persian, and Spanish. Ironically, some Middle Eastern nations, notably Egypt, have banned her books and her thoughts, which largely promote equality and just treatment of everyone everywhere. The Egyptian Writers Union, however, has released a statement in 1981 complimenting Dr. Nawal El Saadawi’s stature and her leadership in the creative movement in the Arab world, stating: Because writing and freedom of expression are guaranteed in the constitution and the law, the Freedom Committee in the Writers Syndicate grieves over the return of the confiscation of literary books because the art of the novel can only be judged by those with experience and practice, whether in creativity or literary criticism.Her press appearances, moreover, frequently display her passion for writing. Ayah Ouda, for example, drew attention to a disagreement she had with her second husband, a lawyer, regarding her passion for writing. When her second spouse asked her, “Me or your writings?” She answered right away, “my writings,” and they subsequently broke up.188 The sections that follow give descriptions of the

186 Alan Cowell, “Nawal El Saadawi, advocate for women in the Arab World, dies at 89.”  187 Nawal El Saadawi, “‫[ نوال السعداوي في بدون رقابة‬Video]” 188 Ayah Ouda, “‫ نوال السعداوي قائدة ثورة تحرر المرأة ومساواتها بالرجل‬.‫”في ذكرى ميالدها‬

50 

 4 Feminist Writings and Creative Output

books, articles, TV and newspaper interviews, and other expository works she has published.

El Saadawi’s Fiction Writings El Saadawi gained notoriety as a feminist in the Arab world throughout the 1970s after starting to publish her novels in the latter half of the 1960s. She spent her entire life fighting the oppression and discrimination of the patriarchal class system. El Saadawi compares the colonization of Arab women by Arab men to the colonization of her country by Western imperialist powers in her writings, contending that “women were victims of a double exploitation: they shared class exploitation with men, but in turn they were subject to exploitation by men, to sex discrimination, and to patriarchy.”189 Her fiction writings included many short stories, plays, and novels. She published her first book, a collection of short stories titled I Learned Love, in 1957. In 1958, then, she published her debut novel, Memoirs of a Female Doctor, and in 1986, she published her most well-known book, Memoirs in a Women’s Prison. In The Absent One, one of El Saadawi’s first novels, which was released in 1969, she examines the life of an Egyptian scientist named Fouda who lives in the city and describes how she battles many forms of tyranny in her patriarchal culture. The explicit sexual harassment of a female character is depicted in this book for the first time in any Arabic literary work. In addition, she addresses issues of female circumcision and other forms of female oppression in the Arab world in her literary work, which includes Doctor’s Notes, My Life Papers, Memoirs in a Women’s Prison, the Zarqa Play, The Fall of the Imam, Egyptian Women’s Political and Sexual Issues, A New Battle for the Woman’s Cause, and others. El Saadawi develops her own kind of secular feminism by portraying her female characters as outspoken opponents of Islamic patriarchal legislation. She grants her female characters the authority to use a variety of, occasionally violent, techniques in an effort to contrast the brutality of Arab women’s life. El Saadawi, a nationalist and feminist author, has merged the histories of the country with the lives of her fictional heroines. In her novels Zeina (2009), The Fall of the Imam (1988), and Woman at Point Zero, for example, El Saadawi critiques how Islam is used in Muslim societies to subjugate women. The most well-known of her novels, Woman at Point Zero, is based on the true account of a murderous prostitute that El Saadawi encountered in prison. She has

189 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 58.

El Saadawi’s Fiction Writings 

 51

spoken to El Saadawi about her upbringing and the marital violence that caused her to become a prostitute before she is murdered for killing her pimp. El Saadawi is pleased and proud of herself for having written her story since, in her opinion, the book brings that woman back to life. The prologue, main story, and epilogue are the three main portions of the book. El Saadawi, a psychiatrist researching how jail affects female convicts, recalls her travels to Qanatir prison in the introduction. She encounters the prison doctor there, who informs her of Firdaus, a prisoner who has been given the death penalty and is awaiting the execution of her sentence. Although the doctor drafts a petition for a pardon believing the prisoner is innocent, the prisoner herself declines to sign it. When El Saadawi asks to speak with Firdaus so that she can hear her story, moreover, Firdaus repeatedly declines to do so. Firdaus finally has a conversation with El Saadawi on the day of her execution. The main plot, however, is on Firdaus, the daughter of an Egyptian villager who lives in a small neighborhood. Growing up, she experiences verbal and physical abuse and is taught that women are inferior to men. When she is a young child, she experiences her first sexual gratification while playing the game “bride and groom” in the fields with a youngster by the name of Mohammadain. She is barred from playing with him after getting circumcised. After her parents pass away, Firdaus is sent to Cairo to live with her uncle, who sexually harasses her. This is what she asserts: I paid no attention until the moment when I would glimpse my uncle`s hand moving slowly from behind the book he was reading to touch my leg. The next moment I could feel it travelling up my thigh with a cautious, stealthy, trembling movement.190

She explains that although her uncle’s sexual attack makes her think of what Mohammadain used to do to her, she no longer finds enjoyment in it following her circumcision. Additionally, Firdaus connects the concept of the holy book to sexual harassment. El Saadawi conveys her disapproval of religious persons whose duplicity she believes is covered up by depicting these instances. Firdaus is transferred to a boarding school when her uncle marries. Firdaus’ uncle forces her to wed Sheikh Mahmoud, an elderly man who beats her constantly when she graduates. Her uncle dismisses her complaint by stating that “a virtuous woman was not supposed to complain about her husband. Her duty was perfect obedience.”191 Because of her husband’s treatment of her, she fled his home and encountered Bayoumi, who pressured her into prostitution. Firdaus fights with him, then flees and encounters Sharifa, who teaches her how to be a sophisticated prostitute. Despite being very

190 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman at Point Zero” 13. 191 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman at Point Zero” 47.

52 

 4 Feminist Writings and Creative Output

wealthy, Firdaus decides to give up prostitution and begin working as an administrative assistant. She falls in love with a coworker, but despite her sentiments, he ignores her and proposes to marry the daughter of the office owner. Firdaus decides to quit her work as a result and return to prostitution, but this time, her pimp not only treats her poorly and steals all of her money, but also threatens to kill her. Firdaus kills him in self-defense and receives a death sentence; she does not want the punishment to be commuted, though, because she is eager to go on to a better life. When the judge accuses her in court of being a cruel and dangerous woman, she answers, “I speak the truth. And the truth is savage and dangerous.”192 El Saadawi claims that Firdaus believes the male judges killed her because they were afraid to hear her reveal the truth rather than out of concern that she might kill someone else. After hearing Firdaus’s narrative, El Saadawi expresses her own thoughts in the epilogue, including the belief that Firdaus is more courageous than she is. Despite the fact that no Egyptian publisher prints Woman at Point Zero, it is first released in Arabic in Lebanon before being translated into numerous other languages. The Fall of the Imam is another major novel that analyzes the imam as a symbol of politicians who exploit religion to achieve their political ambitions. The plot of the book centers on the murder of an unjust king who was commemorating his triumph anniversary. Many critics claim that As-Sadaat, the president of Egypt, is portrayed in the novel. Although the book has garnered positive reviews in the West, it is prohibited in Egypt and other Arab nations. El Saadawi also writes a number of plays, such as God Resigns at the Summit Meeting, in which all the prophets and notable women gathered to meet with God. No prophet, including Jesus, Muhammad, or Moses, is willing to take Satan’s position after he enters the meeting to offer his resignation. Finally, even God gives in and resigns. Due to the religious allusion, various religious and political organizations in Egypt accuse El Saadawi of insulting God and call for the burning of her books. El Saadawi is also one of the first Arab women writers to pen her autobiography, which has been collected in a variety of memoirs that describe her hardships, triumphs, and failures. Personal memoirs, in the words of Margot Badran and Miriam Cooke, “can offer special insights into the workings of patriarchal institutions and ideology because they can show how their imperatives are internalized and suppressed or how they cause conflict and inspire attempts to escape from their control.”193 This stresses the value of memoirs as knowledge sources. For instance, El Saadawi’s Memoirs from the Women’s Prison details her stay in jail in

192 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman at Point Zero” 110. 193 Badran and Cooke, “Opening the gates: A century of Arab feminist writing” 41.

El Saadawi’s Fiction Writings 

 53

1981. It demonstrates the harshness of the Egyptian police as well as the inhumane abuse she and the other prisoners endure. El Saadawi also provides the following descriptions of all the prisoners she is surrounded by, even those who are religious: I heard from Budur nothing but the word “Haram I” (Forbidden!). Everything to her is Haram including physical exercise, since a woman should not shake her body. Laughter too is Haram since a verse in the Koran says that “Indeed God does not like the joyful people.” I saw her once laughing unconsciously, but then she lifted her hand quickly over her mouth and, choking her laugh, she prayed: “May the greedy be reformed, oh, God.”194

In addition, the book describes the miserable lives of her mother and other women in Egyptian culture. El Saadawi also writes Memoirs of a Doctor, in which she describes her time working as a doctor in a tiny Egyptian town. The poor patients’ appalling health situation is shown in the book, along with what the patients can offer the doctors who care for them in outlying medical facilities. She says: All the tragedies of the society enter into my clinic. All the results of disguise and swindle are exposed before me on the examination table. The bitter realities which people deny come and lay under my hand on the operating table.195

The author, who asserts that women are marginalized, sexually separated, and prohibited from being heard or seen outside of their houses in these sexist communities, has strongly influenced the protagonist of the book’s early adventures. The only way for women in her society to acquire security and financial assistance is through marriage, but the narrator rejects this option because she is searching for her identity and independence as a free individual. The narrator communicates her disgust with patriarchal society by willfully breaking all social and cultural conventions placed on her. For instance, she frequently leaves the house without her parents’ consent and has cut her hair in defiance of her mother’s insistence that she comb it twice daily. In order to disprove the notion that women are less valuable than males, the narrator rejects her femininity, saying: I will deny my femininity. I will challenge my nature. I will carry on all my physical desires. I will confirm to my mother and grandmother that I am not a woman like them, that I will not live my life in the kitchen peeling onions and garlic, waste my life for the sake of a man who does nothing but eat.196

194 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs from the women’s prison” 60. 195 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a woman doctor” 86. 196 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a Woman Doctor” 20–21.

54 

 4 Feminist Writings and Creative Output

Her training in medicine has also allowed her to learn more about a man’s biology, and she is now aware that neither males nor women have biological advantages over the other. After her anatomy class, she reflects: Why did my mother put such horrible differences between me and my brother, and make the man a god over me that I spend my whole life cooking for him? Why does the society always try to convince me that masculinity is an advantage and noble, while femininity is a trial and weakness? Could my mother believe that I stand in front of a naked man with a lancet in my hand to open a man’s belly and head? (Or the society believes that I can contemplate a man’s body, and dissect it without any feeling of his sex?197

In her book Memoirs of a Woman Doctor, moreover, El Saadawi outlines the different difficulties she has encountered as soon as her knowledge began to expand. These obstacles have a significant impact on her life and make her loathe being feminine because she perceives it as a prison. The narrator chooses to become a doctor because she wants to earn others’ respect and admiration, yet she feels disrespected at work because she is treated like a nurse and so, she queries: How ignorant are those people! Those people who surrender their body and soul to me that I save them from unconsciousness and death. How can they make any protest against me? How can they even disagree with me? I am the one who directs them to what they must eat and drink. I teach them how to breath, sleep and live. Did they forget? Or do they think that when I take off the stethoscope and white gown, I also take off my intelligence and mind?198

Despite the fact that doctors have a role in advising patients on a variety of life choices, such as eating habits, breathing exercises, sleep patterns, and general lifestyle, patients often have a negative opinion of them. Here, El Saadawi suggests that medical professionals’ knowledge goes beyond the particular role they play during medical consultations and asks whether people forget or undervalue their intellect and skill. She further expresses the medical professional’s displeasure or consternation about the supposed lack of respect or understanding from patients. She also reiterates the importance of valuing and acknowledging the talent, expertise, and attention that medical professionals provide.

197 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a Woman Doctor” 24–25. 198 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a Woman Doctor” 72.

El Saadawi’s Non-Fiction Writings 

 55

El Saadawi’s Non-Fiction Writings El Saadawi’s first book, Women and Sex, is released in 1972 and is banned in Egypt because it places a strong emphasis on taboo subjects like sex and religion. She has had no choice except to publish it in Lebanon. Her banned book includes a scientific analysis of the female anatomy, various hymens, and the effect of the concept of a woman’s honor on her bodily and mental health. El Saadawi criticizes society’s abuse of women’s bodies, such as FGM and virginity testing, and claims that cutting a young woman’s clitoris serves to strip her of her sexual pleasure in an effort to shame her, which she refers to as the core of patriarchy. Similar to Simone de Beauvoir, El Saadawi highlights the value of the human body and denounces such harsh acts. She is accused of apostasy and has lost her job as the Minister of Health as a result of this book. Yet her termination from her position as a doctor frees her up to focus more on her creative writing, which spans several genres. El Saadawi also writes about her terrible experience with FGM at the age of six in her second book, The Hidden Face of Eve. She not only rejects these harsh practices against both male and female youngsters as a result of this encounter, but she also protests against them in the religiously conservative country of Egypt. As a result, El Saadawi attacks religions, noting that “Arab women are sacrificed on the altars of God and Money from the moment of birth to the hour of death.”199 Nonetheless, Vivian Gornick describes the book in her online book review as: A curious work. Written by a Marxist who has read Freud, in a country and for a people that require an educated introduction to the idea of equality for women, the book seems disoriented by the inorganic nature of its understanding.200

Furthermore, she condemns FGM in Walking through Fire: A Life of Nawal El Saadawi and states that “since I was a child that deep wound left in my body has never healed. But the deeper wound has been the one left in my spirit, in my soul.”201 El Saadawi also describes the distressing psychological and physical impacts of FGM on young girls and attributes its prevalence to meaningless religious and cultural slogans in many Muslim countries. In her third book, The Nawal El Saadawi Reader, she recounts experiences as a doctor working in a tiny Egyptian town where she saw many forms of gender oppression, including honor killings. The book contains 20 pieces on a variety of topics, including prostitution, marriage and divorce troubles, sexual assault against women and children, and girls’ circumcision. The role of early

199 El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 49. 200 Vivian Gornick, “About the Multilated Half.” 201 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal EL Saadawi Reader” 63.

56 

 4 Feminist Writings and Creative Output

Arab feminists who made a substantial contribution to their countries’ freedom is discussed in one of the chapters. One significant pioneer and leader of this awakening, according to El Saadawi, was Gamal El Dine El Afghani who “played a prominent role in propagating progressive ideas on many important issues” along with a number of his followers.202 She claims that as a result of their patriarchal civilizations, women in the Arab world “have ended up as prisoners of the home, of the veil and of a system which prevents them from participating in the economic and social life of their society.”203 A list of all the nonfiction books that El Saadawi has written is shown in Table 5.

El Saadawi’s Press Interviews and TV Shows El Saadawi has discussed a number of divisive topics in her newspaper articles and television talks, including prostitution, domestic abuse, and religious fundamentalism. This section focuses on two main topics that she usually discusses in her published papers and her TV interviews. First, El Saadawi repeatedly talks about her upbringing and how her parents influenced her feminist beliefs and attitude. In an interview with al-Aan TV, El Saadawi, for instance, has addressed in great depth how her father inspired the way she formed her critical thinking. She states that her father has advised her to question everything and everyone, even God, and not to trust anything unless she is completely convinced of it. She is also unafraid to write because she has received assurance from her mother that there would be no pain in the hereafter, telling her, “there is no fire in the hereafter to burn you, Nawal,” that she would not face retribution in this life or the next. Her mother has further stressed that the Qur’anic use of the word “fire” is merely symbolic and that it does not actually exist.204 Second, El Saadawi criticizes both Egyptian and American society, claiming that they are patriarchal and discriminate against women. For instance, El Saadawi critiques Egyptian society in an interview with Sarah Raphael by saying: In Egypt, you find contradictions, because there is the Islamization of Egypt, and the Americanization of Egypt. Nakedness and veiling so hand in hand. Some Egyptian women, like the Americans, show their breasts and wear miniskirts and a lot of makeup, and then other women are very veiled. In the middle you have women who accommodate Islamization and Americanization, so they cover their head and their hair, but they uncover their belly with

202 Nawal El Saadawi, “Nawal EL Saadawi reader” 253. 203 Nawal El Saadawi, “Nawal EL Saadawi reader” 197. 204 Al-Aan TV, “‫”الدكتورة نوال السعداوي طبيبة وكاتبة مصرية‬

El Saadawi’s Press Interviews and TV Shows 

 57

jeans that are very low, and the stomach is visible. So, in fact women are really oppressed by both Islamization and Americanization.205

She also criticizes a number of feminists and politicians from the West, including Simone de Beauvoir, whom she has attacked in several TV interviews and newspaper pieces. In her essay titled “An Hour of Silence with the Word Maker,” El Saadawi discusses meeting Simone de Beauvoir and Paul Sartre when they traveled to Egypt in the 1960s. She argues that Simone de Beauvoir’s behavior makes her dislike her since it gives the impression that she is submissive to Sartre. In a subsequent piece published in 2018 titled Women’s Creativity and the Imprisonment of the Subconscious, she adds the following: Simone de Beauvoir, in my opinion, could have been a more important philosopher than “Jean-Paul Sartre,” but she gave up her philosophy for his sake and came to believe in him and his liberal socialist existential philosophy. Sartre overcame her intellectually as well as emotionally. While Simon was living tears of single love on him, he lived multiple relationships, moving as he pleased among women, declaring that he had not shed a single tear on any woman.206

El Saadawi therefore underlines how the lives of Simone de Beauvoir and Jean-Paul Sartre are in glaring contrast to their writings. Despite advocating for the emancipation of African Americans from white supremacy and Algerians from French colonialism in his writings, Sartre has a history of mistreating and utilizing women. However, while writing about the liberation of women from sexism, political oppression, and economic exploitation, Simone de Beauvoir has experienced the humiliation of being subordinated to Sartre. In a different newspaper article, moreover, El Saadawi says that Simone de Beauvoir’s Catholic mother severely controlled her while she was a young girl. Because of this, according to El Saadawi, Simone de Beauvoir was predisposed to despise her mother and adore her father, whom she exalted to the highest level of divinity. El Saadawi adds, “Sartre, her beloved, came to take the seat of the Holy Father, and the ghost of the evil mother lurked in the subconscious, which seemed to her terrifying in the dark, outside of time and space like the devil.” She consequently believes that the author of Women and Sex had not a major influence on her life. As a result, she thinks the author of Women and Sex wasn’t her life’s inspiration.207 Instead, as El Saadawi argues, Simone de Beauvoir’s life evolved in

205 Sarah Raphael, “Women are pushed to be just bodies – veiled under religion or veiled by makeup.” 206 Nawal El Saadawi, “‫”الحوار المتمدن بإبداع الﻤﺮأة وسﺠﻦ الالوﻋﻰ‬ 207 Nawal El Saadawi, “‫”الحوار المتمدن بإبداع الﻤﺮأة وسﺠﻦ الالوﻋﻰ‬

58 

 4 Feminist Writings and Creative Output

accordance with her unique collection of experiences, and her primary goal was to get past her own frustration. El Saadawi, in contrast, declares her appreciation for significant female figures throughout Egyptian history, including her uneducated peasant grandmother and the ancient deity Isis (See two complete lists of print and television interviews).

Part II: Imagining Relationship Norms

5 Marriage Arab society still considers that fine membrane which covers the aperture of the external genital organs is the most cherished and most important part of a girl’s body, and is more valuable than one of her eyes, or an arm, or a lower limb. An Arab family does not grieve as much at the loss of a girl’s eye as it does if she happens to lose her virginity. In fact, if the girl lost her life, it would be considered less of a catastrophe than if she lost her hymen. - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Hidden Face208 Using a woman as a commodity to be bought and sold under the cover of marriage is a form of prostitution that goes against the very nature of honor and its lofty meaning. In its purest form, honor opposes slavery and servitude, upholds human dignity, and establishes human relationships based on affection, love, mutual will, and free will. - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Woman and Sex209

El Saadawi highlights the startling inequality in treatment of men and women in Arab cultures when it comes to sex and sexuality, where virginity for women is treasured but not for men. She claims that male promiscuity is a well-known and accepted phenomena in many Arab societies. She argues that while Islamic Shariah law mandates that both men and women should abstain from sexual activity until they are married, Arab cultures only hold the female body to a different set of standards that value male virility and sexual experience as markers of worth. She further explains that even though this is required by Islamic law for both men and women, only Arab women’s bodies are utilized as platforms for men to demonstrate their masculinity and pride to other men. Since “nothing shames a man but an empty pocket,” or not having any money, is the only thing that makes a person feel humiliated, having several relationships is not as embarrassing for a man in Arab society as it is for a woman.210 This chapter focuses on El Saadawi’s viewpoint on marriage in comparison to those of modern Muslim feminists and traditional Qur’anic scholars.

The Concept of Marriage Marriage is seen as a social institution based on a number of interactions, all of which must be strong bonds founded on solid foundations in order for a marriage to be successful and to promote the greatest environment for having children,

208 Nawal El Saadawi, “Hidden Face” 40. 209 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and Sex” 107. 210 Nawal El Saadawi, “Women at point zero” 32. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-005

62 

 5 Marriage

nurturing them, and properly preparing them. The thrills, reactions, and circumstances that married couples deal with on a daily basis sparked remarks from notable individuals in various disciplines. Islam places a lot of emphasis on marriage, viewing it as a sacred union between a man and a woman as well as a crucial institution that promotes peace, love, and community. The Qur’an says, “And one of His signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves, in order to have tranquility and contentment with each other, and He placed in your hearts love and care towards your spouses.”211 Hence, amid their marriage, a spouse and spouse are assumed to produce a solid bond of adore, benevolence, and camaraderie that would serve as a source of comfort and back for them. The Qur’an also states, “And marry the unmarried among you and the righteous among your male captives and female slaves. If they become poor, Allah will enrich them from His bounty. For Allah is All-Bountiful, All-Knowing.”212 Thus, marriage is viewed as a means of establishing a family that upholds the principles of love, mercy, and righteousness. The term “family” in Muslim countries, however, is not only used to refer to the nuclear family unit, which consists of parents and children, but also to encompass grandparents, maternal and paternal uncles, aunts, and cousins. A person’s choice of education, employment, and marriage are just a few examples of how various family members can affect that person’s life.213 Muslims can also only satiate their natural sexual urges through marriage because dating is prohibited in Islam. However, the difficulty is worse for women who, unlike men, are only permitted to marry Muslim spouses.214 For a variety of reasons, marriage is currently a contentious topic in the majority of Muslim societies. The lives of young girls are at danger in many underdeveloped regions of the Islamic world today due to the widespread societal practice of child marriage. According to a 2014 UNICEF research, for instance, 57% of Afghan girls marry before the age of 16 and 37% of girls in Bangladesh married before the age of 15 (Bangladesh). Young moms’ and their children’s health are both impacted by early marriage and motherhood. Another difficulty is the late marriage issue in many Islamic nations where there are many older, highly educated women who are still single and have never had sex. For example, 60% of Emirati women and 45% of Saudi women over the age of 30 are single. Some have made suicide 211 Qur’an, 30:21. 212 Qur’an, 24:32. 213 Abdullah Omar Naseef, “Today’s problems, tomorrow’s solutions”; Tarek Ramadan, “Muslims need creative pluralism.” 214 Alex Leeman, “Interfaith marriage in Islam: An examination of the legal theory behind the traditional and reformist positions.”

El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 63

attempts in an effort to escape the stigma associated with being spinsters.215 The third important factor is the health issues that result from domestic abuse against women by their male relatives, such as husbands, dads, and brothers. Islam is presently held responsible for all of these issues. Therefore, it is highly advantageous to carefully consider this divisive issue.

El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage El Saadawi has consistently referred to marriage as a cruel institution and a form of enslavement and frequently proclaims her hatred of the word marriage, adding that every married woman she knows, including her grandmother, aunts, cousins, and others, is “miserable.” The sole exception, according to El Saadawi, was her mother, whom she considers to be “the happiest of all women” since her father “was an extraordinarily faithful husband.”216 El Saadawi further argues that marriage is an oppressive system that restricts Muslim women’s independence and suppresses their sexual demands yet emphasizes the significant role that the family plays in a person’s personal life. Her mother, for example, “hated marriage because her own mother hated marriage and cursed marriage as a cemetery for women.”217 Although El Saadawi has been married three times and has two children whom she likes and deeply respects, she feels that “marriage was a grave” to her and “motherhood was a prison” notwithstanding the rare truly wonderful moments.218 On the other hand, El Saadawi discusses the importance of the family in Muslim-majority nations, stating that the goal is to “alleviate the burdens of everyday life” and that “children were cared for and looked after by members of the extended family whenever work called their mothers to the fields or elsewhere.”219 Nevertheless, according to El Saadawi’s standards, she is an excellent mother who strives to be more emancipated than her mother and, at the very least, never pretends to be a good or poor wife to her husband. In order to further encapsulate the issue facing couples, she adds: During marriage, a man behaves like a husband, not as a human being. He takes on absolute authority over his wife and children under the family law; and the family law is derived from

215 Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, “Woman between Islam and western society.” 216 Nawal El Saadawi, “Marriage and motherhood.” 217 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 1. 218 Nawal El Saadawi, “Marriage and motherhood.” 219 Nawal El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 12.

64 

 5 Marriage

divine law. In His holy books, God ordered the social, sexual and moral rights of husbands over their wives. But He did not give women any rights over their husbands.220

It is erroneous and backwards for women to believe that having children makes them happy and content with their lives. Humans must work in order to survive, but breeding is a biological imperative for all living things, from amoeba to monkeys. In all of her writings, moreover, she criticizes the stereotypical position of the housewife and claims that it is a form of servitude. She continues to perpetuate the unflattering stereotype of the submissive, unquestioning woman who abides by patriarchal norms. One of the first instances of this is El Saadawi’s criticism of her mother for relegating women in Egyptian culture to the kitchen: The world of woman is limited and ugly and diffuses a garlic smell. I did not escape into my small world until my mother dragged me into the kitchen saying that “your fate is bound to marriage. You have to learn cooking; your fate is marriage! Marriage! Marriage!” That hateful word my mother repeated every day until I denied it. Whenever I listened to it, it always makes me picture a man before me with a big belly full of food inside him.221

El Saadawi recalls her mother telling her frequently as a child, “Your fate is bound to marriage.” You must become a competent cook because marriage is in your near future! “Wedding, wedding!” This led her to the conclusion that “the world of woman is limited and ugly and diffuses a garlic smell.”222 Due to her mother’s frequent usage of these terms, El Saadawi challenges the traditional role of women in Muslim nations as housewives, who are primarily responsible for taking care of their families and managing household issues. She further accuses her mother of ignoring her intelligence by forcing her into the limited role that she loathes. In her novels, for example, she uses the image of a subservient mother or woman who submits to oppression and humiliation to emphasize how the psychological toll affects both the mother and the daughter. Her writings typically discuss the idea of the undesirable woman who defends the authority of men. This sense of alienation and estrangement from her mother is felt by El Saadawi who admits in her book Memoirs of a Woman Doctor that she has a good relationship with her father better than she does with her mother and that he is the reason for her academic achievement. Yet she describes her mother and grandmother as being controlling and pressuring her to take the traditional course, and she perceives her mother as a suffragette forcing her to adopt the predetermined stance. Following her anatomy class, El Saadawi poses the following questions:

220 Nawal El Saadawi, “Marriage and motherhood.” 221 El Saadawi, Memoirs of a woman doctor, 10. 222 El Saadawi, Memoirs from the Women’s Prison, 10.

El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 65

Why did my mother put such horrible differences between me and my brother, and make the man a god over me that I spend my whole life cooking for him? Why does the society always try to convince me that masculinity is an advantage and noble, while femininity is a trial and weakness. Could my mother believe that I stand in front of a naked man with a lancet in my hand to open a man’s belly and head?223

She also challenges her mother’s assertion that women are incapable of handling difficult chores or working in demanding fields that are generally associated with men, like surgery, and asks if this is really what her mother believes. She laments the disparities in how men and women are treated as well as the social expectations placed on women. El Saadawi expresses her concern about unjust treatment, challenges gender conventions, and rejects the widely held belief that masculinity is inherently superior to femininity. She also disputes the concept that femininity translates to weakness or ineptitude and expresses worry about the limitations imposed on women. Despite the fact that she is aware there is nothing exceptional about her brother, she accuses her mother of treating her like she is beneath him. El Saadawi does not truly start to relate with women until much later; at that point, she begins to perceive her mother and women with greater sympathy. She portrays the suffering of both women in Egyptian culture and her own mother’s life in her work with respect and agony. Like El Saadawi’s mother, for instance, who gives birth for ten children, the narrator of Memoirs from the Women’s Prison discontentedly states: My mother’s voice, while her eyes were looking at mine, If my father had not married me off, I would have finished my education! I used to love reading and writing. I used to hope that I can do something important for my life, instead of the mere procreation of children like cats.224

She bemoans the archaic custom that a girl’s and her family’s honor are based on whether or not she is virginal. El Saadawi holds Islam accountable for the subordinate condition of women. She thinks that the unequal treatment of men and women in many Muslim nations, which Christian women in the West have already contested and gradually overcame, is the cause of the current misery experienced by Muslim women.225 In addition, El Saadawi regularly alleges in her writings that Islam is sexist and disregards women and their invaluable experiences by claiming that “the oppression of women exercised by the temple and the church has been even more ferocious than that in the case of Islam.”226 Not only does El Saadawi attribute the poor status of women in 223 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a woman doctor” 24–25. 224 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs from the women’s prison” 160. 225 Nawal El Saadawi, “Walking Through Fire a Life of Nawal El Saadawi.” 226 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi Reader” 86.

66 

 5 Marriage

Muslim countries to Islam, but she also decries these societies’ educational systems for encouraging gender inequity, saying: I read in school discriminating sentences; “Soad cleans, and Ahmed reads. Zeinab cooks and Saad writes.” I fought after that to free myself from the servitude of cleaning and cooking and grab the right to read and write.227

By portraying men as active and successful while portraying women as submissive housewives, textbooks and other educational materials support gender stereotypes in her country of origin, Egypt. She responds that marriage is “the system built on the most cruel suffering for women”228 and that it does not help women succeed; instead, she claims that her work keeps her safe, gives her strength, allows her to think, and helps her accomplish, as opposed to a spouse who does not do this and “is willing to leave her on a whim.”229 El Saadawi frequently challenges the notion that the Qur’an only mentions Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the only other woman whose name appears in the text. She does not comprehend the rationale of neglecting women who have given their lives in service of Islam in contrast to men whose names are repeatedly referenced in the Qur’an, including Abraham, Jacob, Yajuj, Zaid, Isaac, Lot, and Maju. The subjection of women in all Islamic communities, according to El Saadawi, is mostly due to Islamic law and the Qur’an’s language, which is sexist. Hence, she questions why, as the Qur’an claims, God pardons Adam but not Eve. Adam “then received from his Lord [some] words, and He accepted his repentance.”230 For El Saadawi, the verse disregards Eve and says nothing about her turning to God in repentance or receiving his forgiveness, unlike with regard to Adam. In contrast, argues El Saadawi, women “enjoyed a greater degree of liberty and independence” during the pre-Islamic era, and that they were able to make decisions about their relationships, such as who they would marry, and exercise their right to divorce.231 Women were given greater freedom of speech in the seventh century in al-Madinah al-Munawwarah, an early Muslim neighborhood also known as “The Luminous City.” Nonetheless, El Saadawi generally criticizes Islam in her writings with regard to a number of matters pertaining to women’s rights. For example, the marriage contract, according to her, is constitutionalized and treated like a business transaction. She employs irony to the process of writing the contract for her second marriage by saying: 227 Nawal El Saadawi, “2‫”نوال السعداوي في ضيافة مفيد فوزي ج‬ 228 Nawal El Saadawi, “Women at Point Zero” 94. 229 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and Sex.” 230 Qur’an, 2:37. 231 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and Sex” 194.

El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 67

The old man with a big white turban on his head was looking at him [her husband] with all respect and listened to him. But he did not see me or listen to me as if my existence were not there before him. In his hand he had a pen and a big ruled notebook. “How much in advance, sir, and how much afterward?”. . . . . .I looked at the old man with superiority and told him; “do not write anything.” He looked at me with disdain. How could a woman speak in the presence of men! He spoke, his intonation scholarly; “the contract becomes useless.” I asked why? He said; “the law ordered us that way.” So, I said; “you do not know the law.” The man jumped from his seat, while grabbing his turban on his head from falling, and shouted; “My God, my God please forgive this!”232

That is, she learns that in her community, marriage is seen as a form of slavery in which the man is the buyer, and the woman is the product to be sold. El Saadawi compares the marriage contract to slavery since she views it as a legally enforceable agreement. She also learns that because her life in marriage melds with her husband’s, she loses her freedom and privacy, and her impressive intellect, in the opinion of El Saadawi, endangers her husband’s masculine ego. Therefore, according to El Saadawi, both Islam and society bear some of the blame because of their “rules and traditions that make the man a guardian of his wife and make him dominate her body, thought, and her social, economic, and political activities.”233 El Saadawi’s main objections to marriage in Muslim societies can be summarized in three key arguments. First, El Saadawi asserts that women are never let choose their husbands; instead, their fathers or male guardians almost always pressure them into marriage. In Muslim societies, where the family is “highly patriarchal, both socially and legally,” she strongly believes that the father’s control “over his daughters is absolute.”234 In other words, Muslim women are not afforded a full range of freedom or a fair say in who they marry. Instead, the woman is compelled to marry the man her father or male guardian chooses for her, regardless of her feelings for him. Second, El Saadawi refutes the notion that Muslim wives must always be submissive and should not voice their complaints about their husbands who are permitted to physically abuse them. More specifically, she rejects violence against women and attacks the Qur’anic verse 4:34 that states, “those [wives] from whom you fear arrogance -[first] advise them; [then if they persist], abandon them in beds; [then if they still persist], [finally] strike them.” Thus, she rejects the male guardianship system, which includes the husband’s parental responsibilities, and contends that the allocation of Qiwamah235 should not be gender-specific but

232 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and Sex” 65. 233 Nawal El Saadawi, “Creative women in changing societies: A personal reflection” 169. 234 Nawal El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 71. 235 Qiwamah is an Arabic word that literally means a male guardianship and refers to men’s authority and guidance in the family.

68 

 5 Marriage

rather go to those who are smarter and more rational than their partners. Third, El Saadawi claims that males “bind women in marriage and then punish them with menial labor for life, or insults, or blows.” and suggests that women are in a worse position than slaves or full-time workers.236 A Muslim woman is often expected to care for her children, household duties, employment, and husband as well. However, the husband’s duties are primarily limited to outdoor work. Hence, some of the major themes of El Saadawi’s works center on her claim that these patriarchal roles of men as laborers and women as homemakers are still prevalent in Muslim states. El Saadawi blames Islam for this, saying it gives men greater rights in marriage, allowing them to have more influence over their wives, forcing them to have a less beneficial position in marriage. She also thinks that such treatment of women is done with the intention of keeping them perpetually lower in society’s hierarchy and completely dependent on their husbands, who the Qur’an refers to as their guardians. El Saadawi draws the conclusion that “Islam is not exceptional in having transformed women into slaves of their men” and that “Judaism and Christianity subjected women to exactly the same fate.”237

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage The traditional and feminist readings of the Qur’an are used to assess El Saadawi’s three primary criticisms of the Islamic marriage institution. Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri represent the contemporary feminist exegesis, whereas al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir give the traditional reading. Al-Tabari asserts that Islam places a high value on marriage, which is regarded as a sacred contract and is one of the most honorable and reputable organizations, marked by serenity, compassion, and love. The formation of a family, which is seen as the fundamental unit of society, is the primary goal of marriage in Islam, and as a result, the importance of the married relationship is emphasized by numerous Qur’anic verses. For example, the Qur’anic verse 30:21 states: One of His signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves, so that you may seek peace and comfort with them. He has plant affection and mercy between you and them. In this, there are signs for people who think.

Al-Tabari identifies two key points that the verse highlights. First, it emphasizes the idea that gender equality, which is introduced as the foundation of marriage,

236 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman at point zero” 94. 237 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 86.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 69

is based on the idea that men and women are produced from the same source. Second, it stresses the importance of peace and compassion in a marriage where the spiritual component, “mercy,” is one of the main components. Therefore, argues al-Tabari, Islam asserts the concept of mutual love and respect between a wife and a husband that secures a relaxing atmosphere for Muslim spouses. Another objective of marriage, according to al-Tabari, is to produce a new generation that is also confirmed by another Qur’anic verse “God has provided you with spouses from among yourselves and, through your spouses, sons and grandchildren, and He has provided you with the good things. Would they then believe in falsehood and deny God’s favors?”238 For al-Tabari , the verse displays the scope of marriage that includes emotional and sexual aspects on the one hand and gives birth to children on the other hand. Al-Tabari contends that God commands males to provide dowries for women as a necessary gift before marriage and that Muslim women have the right to choose their life mates and turn down any unwanted marriage proposals under Islamic law.239 The same point is illustrated by Ibn Kathir, who claims that God created all of Adam’s offspring, including both male and female. God continues by saying that He made offspring and grandchildren from these wives. The fact that God produced Eve from Adam’s own kind and established kindness and love between them, in Ibn Kathir’s opinion, is more evidence of God’s mercy. Ibn Kathir argues that there would never have been peace between women and their husbands if God had made all of Adam’s progeny male and the females from another sort, such as Jinn or animals. Instead, there would have been disgust and animosity. A woman’s assent, according to Ibn Kathir, is not only one of her rights in Islam but also a necessary requirement for the validity of the marriage contract. He adds that the Prophet’s hadith also affirms a woman’s ability to select her husband. Ibn Kathir cites an instance in which the Prophet Muhammad granted a Muslim girl the ability to annul her marriage after she complained to him that her father had compelled her to wed a man against her will. The woman nonetheless expressed her willingness to consent to the marriage by saying, “Now that I am free, I willingly consent to this marriage. I only wanted it to be known that men have no say over women in their marriages.”240 Ibn Kathir further notes that, in accordance with the Qur’anic command to “give women ‘you wed’ their due dowries graciously. But if they waive some of it willingly, then you may enjoy it freely with a clear conscience.”241 The Qur’an states in this verse that if they voluntarily forego some of it, you can do 238 Qur’an, 16:72. 239 Abu Ja’far Muhammed Ibn Jarir al-Tabari, “Jami al Bayan fi T’awil al Qur’an.” 240 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 468. 241 Qur’an, 4:4.

70 

 5 Marriage

so guilt-free and freely. In other words, a man must offer his wife a dowry, and according to the Qur’an, if the wife gives her husband some or all of the dowry, he may then keep it. Similar arguments are presented by Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri.  For instance, Wadud explains that “within marriage, there should be harmony mutually built with love and mercy. The marriage tie is considered a protection for both the male and the female.”242 Wadud notes that the dowry is a required gift that the groom must provide to his bride. Along the same lines, al-Hibri argues that the Qur’an contains a number of passages, including 2:187 and 30:21, that “refer to the fact that spouses are each other’s sanctuary insofar as each covers the other’s shortcomings and preserves his or her privacy; hence the tranquility.”243 Al-Hibri adds that the dowry might be given to the woman in full or in part in advance or deferred until a certain later date, and that it can range from teaching her a few verses of the Qur’an to lavish wealth. In addition to being an “independent legal entity,” a Muslim woman also retains her “financial independence” and her “name after marriage.”244 If a wife lends her husband money for any reasons, al-Hibri explains, it is considered a loan unless the wife specifies differently. Al-Hibri points out that even after marriage, women retain their legal position, which entitles them to rent, purchase, sell, and own without their husbands’ consent. The legal position of Muslim women is therefore equal to that of men and can be maintained after marriage. This is supported by other contemporary academics including Maulana Wahiduddin Khan245 and Fazlur Rahman.246 Therefore, the first argument of El Saadawi is at conflict with both the traditional and feminist readings of the marriage-related verses in the Qur’an. The second critique of El Saadawi is that wives must submit to their husbands, who are permitted to “strike their wives.”247 Al-Tabari recounts this incident when the verse was revealed, and it included a woman who had come to the Prophet to complain about her husband’s violence against her. After hearing her complaint, the Prophet forbade the practice and gave the woman the right to retaliation, which was later refuted by the revelation. Therefore, the Prophet stated, “We wished something, and God Wished something else. What God wishes is best. And the retaliation

242 Amina Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 78. 243 Azizah al-Hibri, “Divine justice and the human order: An Islamic perspective” 5. 244 Azizah al-Hibri, “Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities” 47. 245 See Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, “Woman between Islam and western society.” 246 See Fazlur Rahman, “Role of Muslim women in society.” 247 The second part of the Qur’anic verse (4:34) states “those [wives] from whom you fear arrogance [first] advise them; [then if they persist], abandon them in beds, but if they still persist [finally], strike them.”

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 71

was revoked.”248 Al-Tabari continues by saying that because males are required to support their spouses financially, they are superior to women, but if they are unable to do so, their qiwamah is constrained. In the same vein, Ibn Kathir claims that “men are protectors and maintainers of women” and offers two justifications for this claim. First, only men are permitted to practice prophecy since “men excel over women and are better than them for certain tasks.”249 He connects this explanation further to the lack of women in judicial or other leadership roles. Second, men have some obligations to women since they are expected by the Qur’an and the prophetic Sunnah250 to support them financially. Regarding obedience, al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir agree that if a wife disobeys her husband, he should first counsel her. If she does not pay attention, he is instructed to leave her in bed. If she keeps acting in the same way, the husband is advised to gently discipline her using only a siwak, or “a thinner small toothbrush.” Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir underline the sequential nature of the three methods for dealing with a disobedient wife and the need for light punishment. The objective is to prevent violence against women. Physical discipline is only permitted according to the Prophetic hadith provided it is not “violent” or “severe.”251 Al-Qurtubi,252 a well-known Muslim scholar, also claims that a man’s authority in the family is based on his role as the breadwinner. The Prophet Muhammad advised men to “treat women well and be kind to them” because they are their partners and “committed helpers” (Prophet Muhammad’s Last Sermon Date delivered: 632 A.C.). Al-Qurtubi notes that this is true even if a husband does not have guardianship over his wife in these situations when he is unable to provide for his family. Furthermore, Al-Qurtubi cites another incident when the Prophet advised a woman not to marry a man who had made a marriage proposal to her because he had a habit of striking women. The Qur’anic verse 4:34 that El Saadawi attacks, according to American Muslim feminist Amina Wadud, does not, however, allude to the wife’s submission to her husband. Wadud claims: The norm at the time of the revelation [of the Qur’an], no correlation is made that a husband should beat his wife into obedience. Such as interpretation has no universal potential and

248 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 291–292. 249 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 442. 250 Sunnah is an Arabic word that refers to the Prophetic tradition. 251 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 446. 252 Al-Qurtubi is a famous Muslim jurist in the 13th century who is well known for his commentary on the Qur’an named “Tafsir Al-Qurtubi.”

72 

 5 Marriage

contradicts the essence of the Qur’an and the established practices of the Prophet. It involves a severe misreading of the Qur’an to support the lack of self-constraint in some men.253

Instead, Wadud argues, it “intends to provide a means for resolving disharmony between husband and wife.”254 In other words, verse 4:34’s list of sequential stages is primarily meant to help spouses settle domestic disagreements and its objective is to assist married couples in improving their relationships, not to make the wife weaker than her husband. As a result, Wadud rejects the notion that the verse encourages violence against women and writes: The problem of domestic violence among Muslims today is not rooted in this Qur’anic passage . . . The goal of such men [who strike their wives] is harm, not harmony . . . they cannot refer to verse 4:34 to justify their action.255

Wadud adds, “any kind of strike, or any intention to apply the verse in that manner, violates other principles of the Qur’anic text itself- most notably ‘justice’ and human dignity.”256 According to her, the purpose of the Qur’an is to “lead humankind to establish a just and moral social order.”257 In addition, Wadud claims that the term daraba can also imply “to strike,” “to depart,” and “to prevent from danger,” all of which are stated in other verses of the Qur’an (such as verses 16:75–76 and 66:11). She believes that the verse does not condone violence against women, but rather seeks to limit the currently accepted forms of violence against them after a husband accuses his wife and deserts her. As a result, she says, he is encouraged to “set an example” for her. Wadud further makes a comment about the word nushuz, stating that she thinks it actually means “lack of harmony” as opposed to “disobedient to the husband.”258 In accordance with the same logic, Wadud disputes the notion that verse 4:34 condones violence against women “If the Prophet remains the best exemplary of Qur’anic meaning, then he should have moved from the separation to beating his wives.” That is, the Qur’anic verse does not advocate beating spouses because the Prophet, who was the first to carry out God’s instructions, did not engage in such behavior. Al-Tabari’s tafsir, according to Wadud, highlights the Prophet’s nonviolent character and support for women’s rights. The Prophet said, “I wanted one thing and Allah wanted another,” in response to this revelation. She thus argues

253 Amina Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 77. 254 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 74. 255 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 76. 256 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 108. 257 Wadud, “Alternative Qur’anic interpretation and the status of Muslim women” 15. 258 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 75.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 73

that “he never implemented this text [this portion of verse 4:34] in his life. He never struck a woman or beat a slave.”259 Al-Hibri, in a similar vein, clarifies that before Islam, violence against women was a widespread practice in the Arabian Peninsula, which was a common practice in the hard desert life. She refers to the incident in which the Prophet was confronted by a lady who had come to him to report her husband’s abuse of her in the account reported by al-Tabari. Al-Hibri believes that the Prophet Muhammad forbade any forms of violence against women, and she quotes two of his hadiths that make this claim. The Prophet questioned in the first hadith, “how can one of you hit his wife like an animal, then he may embrace her?” and expressed surprise in the second hadith by asking, “how can one of you whip his wife like a slave, and he is likely to sleep with her at the end of the day?”260 Al-Hibri additionally explains verse 4:34 in terms of what she refers to as “the philosophy of gradualism,” which tries to put a stop to wife abuse by giving them a number of steps to take in order to get over whatever issues they may experience. Al-Hibri points out that before Islam, men would beat their wives till they died; nevertheless, Islam prescribes particular actions that a man must take with his disobedient wife. A husband is initially urged to counsel his wife and clarify the issue to her rather than engaging in an argument with her because doing so provides her the chance to speak up and defend her perspective. Then he is instructed to “forsake her in bed” if she refuses to listen, which suggests that he may turn his back on her for a bit in order to demonstrate his anger. Al-Hibri refers to this as “a gestation period” in which the Qur’an gives the two couples a chance to communicate and work for reconciliation. As a result, this stage is referred to by numerous academics, including Wadud, as a “cooling-off period” that enables both the husband and wife to “reflect on the problem at hand” and preserve the marital harmony.261 The husband, according to al-Hibri, might employ his standard method of hitting if the first two do not work and nothing changes, but it must be done gently, such as by striking her with the siwak as the Prophet Muhammad indicated causes no harm. Two significant points are emphasized in al-Hibri’s discussion. The Qur’an’s spirit, which should be seen as a single entity when addressing the subject of violence, is first and foremost assured by the fact that assaulting a woman is prohibited. Second, the license given to men in verse 4:34 to beat their wives is a limitation on what men can do to them. El Saadawi’s third criticism of marriage focuses mostly on two issues: the husband’s superiority over the wife and the overabundance of domestic duties on

259 Wadud, “Inside the gender jihad: Women’s reform in Islam” 202. 260 Al-Hibri, “Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities” 61. 261 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 76.

74 

 5 Marriage

women. Her assertion conflicts with how al-Tabari interpreted Qur’anic verse 9:71, which reads: The believers, men and women, are supporters of one another; they enjoin good, and forbid evil; they perform the Salah, and give the Zakah, and obey Allah and His Messenger. Allah will have His mercy on them. Surely, Allah is All-Mighty, All-Wise.262

Al-Tabari accords  equal responsibilities and benefits to both men and women. The same argument is reiterated in another verse of the Qur’an, which guarantees family harmony: “It is He who created you from one soul and (then) He created from him his wife, in order that he might enjoy the pleasure of living with her.” Al-Tabari additionally emphasizes that the Qur’an reveals no distinctions between men and women in terms of benefits in the hereafter because it clarifies: And whoever does righteous good deeds male or female and is a (true) believer {in the oneness of Allah (Muslim)}, such will enter Paradise and not the least injustice, even to the size on the back of a date-stone, will be done to them.263

Al-Tabari interprets the verse as indicating that regardless of gender, all Muslims are rewarded equally for their good works. The next verse was revealed in response to a Muslim woman’s protest against the man’s rule over religious life, which his wife Aisha conveyed to Prophet Muhammad, according to al-Tabari, and it expresses the same meaning: Truly, those who submit, men and women, those who have faith, men and women, those who are devout, men and women, those who are true, men and women, those who show patience, men and women, those who humble themselves, men and women, those who give in charity, men and women, those who fast, men and women, those who guard their chastity, men and women, those who remember God often, men and women: for them has God prepared forgiveness and great reward!264

Al-Tabari clarifies that the verse indicates that men and women who behave well and possess these virtues would receive the same benefits and be elevated to the same rewards in Heaven for their allegiance, commitment, and dedication. To emphasize the idea of equality between men and women, the two genders are explicitly acknowledged and repeated for each act in this scene. In addition, according to al-Tabari, the Prophet Muhammad made several statements that speak to the special status of women in Islam. Al-Tabari, for instance, cites a Prophetic hadith in which the Prophet is reported to have said, “Whoever raises 262 Qur’an, 7:189. 263 Qur’an, 3:124. 264 Qur’an, 33:35.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 75

two daughters, he and I will come side by side in the Day of Judgment.”265 The Prophet also reportedly said, “Paradise is at the feet of mothers.”266 Contrary to the justifications given above, other scholars, such as El Saadawi, assert that the Qur’an affirms the intrinsic supremacy of men over women. This viewpoint is founded on how they interpret the Qur’anic passage concerning qiwamah, which Barbara Stowasser calls “the pivotal Qur’anic verse on gender relations.”267 Al-Tabari clarifies that a Muslim woman has the right to be supported by her male guardian, who can be a parent, husband, brother, or uncle. In other words, men are referred to in the Qur’an as qawwamun, which means “maintainers” or “protectors” in the matrimonial relationship, as in the following verse: Men are in charge of women by [right of] what Allah has given one over the other and what they spend [for maintenance] from their wealth. So righteous women are devoutly obedient, guarding in [the husband’s] absence what Allah would have them guard.268

Al-Tabari notes that when Aisha was asked about the Prophet’s household responsibilities “what did the Prophet use to do in his house?” She answered that “he used to keep himself busy serving his family and when it was the time for prayer, he would go for it.”269 Al-Bukhari quotes the Prophet as saying, “The best of you is the one who is best to his wife, and I am the best of you to my wives.” In this regard, al-Bukhari reports that the Prophet declared, “the best of you is the one who is best to his wife, and I am the best of you to my wives.”270 Al-Tabari also remarks that when the Prophet’s daughter Fatimah complained to him about housework and sought for assistance, the Prophet reportedly said, “Shall I not teach you something better than what you asked for? When you go to your bed, magnify Allah thirty-four times, glorify Him thirty-three times and praise Him thirty-three times. That is better for you than a servant.” Al-Tabari writes in his commentary on this hadith: We may understand from this hadith that every woman who is able to take care of her house by making bread, grinding flour and so on, should do so. It is not the duty of the husband if it is the custom for women like her to do this themselves.

Ibn Kathir emphasizes a similar view by stating that there is no personal bond between two souls, akin to that between spouses because God created Eve from the short rib on Adam’s left side. Ibn Kathir asserts that there would not be harmony 265 Narrated by Sahih Muslim, 1761, p. 465. 266 Al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari.” 267 Barabra Stowasser, “Gender issues and contemporary Qur’an interpretation” 32. 268 Qur’an, 4:34. 269 Al-Tabari, “Tafsir al-Tabari.” 270 Al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari” 632.

76 

 5 Marriage

between Adam and Eve if they were of different species and uses the following Qur’anic passage to illustrate gender equality: “Whoever does righteous deeds -whether male or female- while he (or she) is a believer; then We will certainly give them a good life, and We will certainly grant them their rewards in proportion to the best of what they used to do.”271 Ibn Kathir also shows that the same idea is conveyed in another Qur’anic verse, which reads: On the Day you shall see the believing men and the believing women: their light running forward before them and by their right hands. Glad tidings for you this Day! Gardens under which rivers flow (Paradise), to dwell therein forever! Truly, this is the great success!272

All of the Qur’anic verses and Prophetic ahadith mentioned above, in the opinion of al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir, evidently demonstrate that men and women, who were similarly formed, have the same obligations, rewards, and penalties before God. This viewpoint runs counter to El Saadawi’s position on this crucial issue. Wadud explains in her interpretation of Qur’anic verse 4:34, males are referred to as Qawwmun273 in Islam because they are expected to support their wives financially. As a result, males are portrayed as “maintainers” because women have no financial responsibilities for their partners or any other members of the family. In addition, Wadud points out that if a husband is unable to meet this criterion, his qiwamah over his wife terminates. She also remarks that the verse “does not read ‘they (masculine plural) are preferred over them (feminine plural).’” Instead, it says, “Ba’d (some) over ba’d (others)” and this small variation in the verse is another proof of the verse’s applicability to that situation.274 She further asks: What is the responsibility of the male in [his] family and society at large?.  .  . The Qur’an establishes his responsibility as qiwamah: seeing to it that the woman is not burdened with additional responsibilities [in the context of childbearing]. This ideal scenario establishes an equitable and mutually dependent relationship. However, it does not allow for many of today’s realities. . .Therefore, the Qur’an must eternally be reviewed with regard to human exchange and mutual responsibility between males and females.275

The Qur’an offers the causes for men’s qiwamah, which Wadud claims to be “a limitation upon the apparently general statement,” further reaffirming the significance of the historical setting in which the verse was revealed. She resists any readings of the

271 Qur’an, 16:97. 272 Qur’an, 57:12. 273 Qawwmun is an Arabic worm means “maintainers.” 274 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 71. 275 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 73.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Marriage 

 77

text that imply the supremacy of males over women since she highlights the shared responsibilities of a man and a woman in the household. Likewise, al-Hibri disagrees with the notion that men should serve as keepers or protectors and adds two more requirements that males must meet in order to be qawwamun. Men should first educate themselves on the subject at issue so they may offer “guidance and advice in those areas in which he happens to be more qualified or experienced.”276 Second, husbands should support their wives financially. A man does not have qiwamah over his wife if he is unable to meet either of these two requirements.277 The historical setting in which the verse was revealed is interestingly highlighted by al-Hibri because she believes that “the Qur’an was revealed in a world that was and continues to be highly patriarchal, it engaged in affirmative action to protect women. The revelation about maintenance provided women against poverty.”278 Al-Hibri argues that the goal of qiwamah is to safeguard women who were: financially dependent [upon some men]. In those circumstances . . . God gave the man supporting her the responsibility (taklif, not privilege) of offering the woman guidance and advice in those areas in which he happens to be more qualified or experienced.279

That is, understanding the passage requires knowledge of its historical setting. The Qur’anic verse “The believers, men and women are ‘awliya’, in charge of one of another,” which signifies that men and women are protectors of one another, according to al-Hibri, contends that the dominance of men over women is in conflict with it.280 Al-Hibri asks, “how could women be ‘Awliya’ of men if men are superior to women in. . . physical and intellectual strength?”281 The verse thus refutes the idea that males are inherently superior to women and affirms the equality of the sexes, who are meant to support one another. For al-Hibri, the Qur’anic verse 4:34 also emphasizes that men are only Qawwmun in the context of marriage but not in general as it says: “abandon them in beds, but if they still persist, then strike them.”282 That is, the notion of male guardianship is not broadly permitted for a man in all aspects of life, but it is only restricted to his personal relationship with his wife. This understanding strongly

276 Al-Hibri, “An introduction to Muslim women’s rights Islam” 30. 277 Sh. Nuh Keller, “What is the meaning of qawwamuna as used in Surat al-Nisa’, verse 34?” 278 Al-Hibri, “An introduction to Muslim women’s rights” 64. 279 Al-Hibri, “Deconstructing patriarchal Jurisprudence in Islamic law: A faithful approach” 228. 280 Qur’an, 9:71. 281 Al-Hibri, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess?” 218. 282 Qur’an, 4:34.

78 

 5 Marriage

agrees with the following Prophet’s saying that emphasizes complete equality between the two genders: All people are equal, as equal as the teeth of a comb. There is no claim of merit of an Arab over a non-Arab, or of a white over a black person or of a male over a female. Only Godfearing people merit a preference with God’ [emphasis added].283

Although these two obligations are specifically mentioned in the verse above, according to al-Hibri, men currently use them in patriarchal societies to assert that they are divinely superior to women, a claim that is unsupported by any other sources. However, the duties of wives are enumerated in this verse: “Our Lord! Grant unto us wives and offspring who will be the joy and the comfort of our eyes and guide us to be models of righteousness”,284 in which the two words “joy” and “comfort” are emphasized to refute any accusations of bias against women. The only superiority of a human being over the other, however, is limited to being “more muttaqi (righteous)” regardless of one’s gender.285 Furthermore, many Islamic scholars, like Imam Malik, Al Shafi, and Abu Hanifa,286 claim that a Muslim woman is not obligated to help her husband with housekeeping. Instead, the husband must appoint someone to do all of his wife’s household chores as she is not compelled to undertake them herself. A woman can willingly opt to undertake to housekeep, according to Islamic jurisprudence scholars, and husbands are encouraged to assist them like the Prophet Muhammad did. In this regard, the Prophet’s wife Aisha emphasized that the Prophet “used to keep himself busy serving his family” by performing a variety of duties like mend sandals, patching clothing, and milking his goat.287 Al-Hibri, however, asserts that in a number of Muslim societies today, husbands disobey this Prophetic sunnah. Contrary to the third critique of wives doing the housework made by El Saadawi, this claim asserts that Muslim women are not meant to endure hardship in marriage.288

283 Muhammad Abdul-Rauf, “The Islamic view of women and the family” 21. 284 Qur’an, 25:74. 285 Qur’an, 49:13. 286 Imam Malik, Al Shafi’, and Abu Hanifa are prominent sunni jurisprudence scholars. 287 Nasiruddin Al-Albaani, “Sahih Adab Al Mufrad” 1183. 288 Al-Hibri, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess?”

6 Polygamy Dilemma A woman is considered successful in society when she is good at doing things like cooking, dishwashing, and fixing socks. Success, supremacy, or knowledge on the intellectual plane are all viewed as flaws for a woman who has attained full femininity. In other words, how does a lady not only increase her mental capacity but also demonstrate it?!! All wives eventually prove to be foolish because their intelligence offends their husbands’ machismo, which is why women must conceal their knowledge to keep their marriages from falling apart. Success in marriage is connected to being foolish. - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Woman is the Origin289 Eighty years ago, when I was seven years old, my older brother hit me in the face for refusing to bring him water while he was seated. I reached up and punched him in the face in response and we continued fighting with our fists and feet until my mother and father came. After investigating the matter, my mother advised my brother to “water himself as your sister waters herself” after my father reprimanded him, saying, “You are at fault.” My character was primarily shaped by this fair judgment I experienced as a child. - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Forbidden Questions and Mind-Freezing290

El Saadawi’s statements reflect her early experience in which, at the age of seven, she refused to provide her brother with water while he was seated in a chair. She then hit her brother back in retaliation. Her parents intervened, and while her father admitted her brother’s mistake, her mother urged him to be accountable for looking for himself just like his sister does. It appears that the mother’s approach contested the gender-based norms and disparate treatment by promoting fairness and equality for all of the siblings, regardless of their gender. El Saadawi emphasizes the significance of early experiences and fair treatment in forming one’s personality and morals, particularly when it comes to defying gender stereotypes and advancing equality. It underlines the transforming effect of such encounters in influencing one’s perspective on the world and approaches to gender and justice concerns which El Saadawi has fought for throughout her entire life. In this chapter, the issue of polygamy is discussed.

The Issue of Polygamy The term “polygamy” is derived from the Greek word πολυγαµία (polygamia), which designates the custom of having many spouses. It is a well-known practice that was common in ancient societies long before Islam, not a novel system that

289 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman is the Origin” 117–118. 290 Nawal El Saadawi, “Forbidden Questions and Mind-Freezing” 107. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-006

80 

 6 Polygamy Dilemma

was initially introduced by the Islamic faith. For instance, according to the Talmud, “a man may marry wives, for Rabba saith, it is lawful to do so, if he can provide for them. Nevertheless, the wise men have given good advice, that a man should not marry more than four wives.”291 Polygamy was a common practice in Judaism up to the beginning of the eleventh century, when it was outright forbidden. However, A man should only have one wife, according to the New Testament, which explicitly condemns polygamy: Have ye not read, that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female, and said, for this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh?292

Furthermore, many of the revered characters from the Old Testament had multiple spouses and concubines at the same time. Jacob had two wives and two concubines, compared to Abraham’s two wives, Sarah and Hajar.293 David is reportedly polygamous as well.294 Moreover, numerous texts in the New Testament express the Christian restriction on polygamy, such as Titus 1:6 and 1 Timothy 3:2, which state that a church leader may only be the “husband of one wife.” The same view is supported by Martin Luther’s response to a query on polygamy in 1526: It is my earnest warning and counsel that Christians especially shall have no more than one wife, not only because it is a scandal, which a Christian should avoid most diligently, but also because there is no word of God here to show that God approves it in Christians. I must oppose it, especially in Christians, unless there be need, as for instance if the wife be a leper, or be taken away from the husband in some other way.295

Additionally, polygamy, which enabled men to wed an arbitrary number of wives at one time during the pre-Islamic era, was a common practice in the Arabian Peninsula. The decline in the number of men due to their involvement in intertribal fighting was used to justify the polygamous practice, which was supported by many Arab tribes.296 As a result, Arab males in the Peninsula did so because they wanted to increase the size of their families and tribes, which was also a source of pride. In order to boost the number of their tribal allies, furthermore, men in the Arabian Peninsula used to marry a lot of wives from various tribes. For instance, a Quraysh man might have had ten or more wives.297 291 Thomas Patrick Hughes, “A dictionary of Islam Hughes” 462. 292 Genesis 2:24. 293 Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, “Woman between Islam and western society.” 294 Elizabeth Koltun, “The Jewish woman: New perspectives.” 295 Erwin Doernberg, “Henry VIII and Luther: An account of their personal relations” 73. 296 Doreen Ingrams, “The awakened: Women in Iraq.” 297 Jawad Ali, “Tarikh al Arab qabl Al Islam.”

El Saadawi’s Views on Polygamy 

 81

Polygamy is also an accepted practice in Hinduism as well as practiced by numerous tribes in Australia. Likewise, due to the “so many men killed during the Thirty Years’ War,” the German parliament permitted men “to marry up to 10 women” in 1650. More recently, polygamy was long encouraged by Mormons in the US before being outlawed in 1904. Nevertheless, the Salt Lake Tribune estimated that 10,000 Mormons were married in polygamous unions in 2005. Moreover, polygamy is pervasive throughout several regions of North, East, and West Africa. This demonstrates that polygamy exists in other cultures and religions in addition to Islam and Muslim societies.298 In the current period, polygamy is one of the most contentious topics for which Islam is blamed, and it is also a topic that has received a great deal of criticism. Polygamy is also one of the troubling concerns that humiliate women today for a variety of causes. In the first place, it stands for the patriarchal male control of women, which denies them the same options as men to have several partners. Second, it damages both women and children, which is consistent with the results of numerous research. For example, women in polygamous relationships have worse levels of self-esteem and depression than their counterparts in non-polygamous unions, and their kids perform worse in school than kids from monogamous homes.299 Thirdly, polygamy is a major contributor to a number of devastating reproductive disorders, including HIV infection and acquired immune deficiency syndrome, also known as “HIV/ Aids.”300

El Saadawi’s Views on Polygamy El Saadawi, a longtime supporter of women’s rights and gender equality, is vehemently opposed to polygamy because, in her words, “men are polygamous in all religions and cultures, but women are expected to be monogamous.”301 She sees it as a cruel tradition that oppresses women and promotes gender inequality because it reinforces the notion that women are objects or possessions to be acquired by men, robbing them of agency and autonomy and undermining the principles of equality and respect between partners, which has several negative social effects in addition

298 Paul Valley, “The big question: What’s the history of polygamy, and how serious a problem is it in Africa?” 299 Vered Slonim-Nevo & Alean al-Krenawi, “Success and failure among polygamous families: The experience of wives, husbands, and children.” 300 Samuel Siringi, “Polygamous marriages exposing Kenyans to risk of HIV/Aids, warns new survey.” 301 El Saadawi, “Marriage and Motherhood.”

82 

 6 Polygamy Dilemma

to the psychological suffering of women. In her books and interviews, she thus attacks polygamy as a form of legalized adultery, highlighting the injustice it causes to women. El Saadawi also questions the religious explanations for polygamy, which are routinely offered to support it and are, in her opinion, utilized to support male supremacy and control over women. She additionally blames the discriminatory abuses of polygamy on the Islamic Shariah law, which she describes as strict and difficult to overcome. She believes that permitting polygamy drives women to “compete for the favors of men and excel in subtle allures to attract men towards marriage, love, and sex.”302 In other words, the fact that a Muslim man is permitted to take multiple wives at once demonstrates that, even at the sacrifice of their dignity, women are nothing more than a source of amusement for men. El Saadawi further criticizes the common sayings’ claim that every man will have 72 virgins in heaven in contrast to his wife, who “is promised no one except her husband, that is if he is not busy with the virgins who surround him.”303 She sees it as an invitation to men to have multiple wives as well as confirmation that polygamy is the best marriage pattern for men to adopt in their lives. El Saadawi argues that males cannot treat all the women they marry equally by getting married to more than one of them. Even the Prophet Muhammad, according to El Saadawi, did not treat all of his wives equally, favoring and loving Aisha more than the others. For instance, the Prophet’s request to go to Aisha’s room as he was dying so she could nurse him demonstrates his love for her. As highlighted by El Saadawi, the preference for one wife over another “in itself is sufficient to make equality and justice impossible even if the man were to be the Prophet himself.”304 A further claim made by El Saadawi is that women had more rights in the pre-Islamic era than they do now, making it a golden age for them. El Saadawi presented Khadija, the Prophet’s wife and a prosperous businesswoman, as an example. Another example, El Saadawi adds, “Umar Ibn Hind” is one of the “kings before Islam who were sometimes named after their mothers.”305 As a result, she advocates for the elimination of polygamy and exhorts women to reject preconceived notions about gender and to assert their independence. Her focus is on removing the obstacles that keep women from achieving economic independence and uphold gender inequality.

302 El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 135. 303 El Saadawi, “Walking through fire a life of Nawal El Saadawi” 4. 304 El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 80. 305 El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 74.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Polygamy 

 83

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Polygamy In order to understand the polygamy issue in Islam, it is important to review the topic’s historical context. Before the birth of Islam, al-Hibri notes, female infanticide was common due to poverty or the embarrassment of being captured as slaves during raids.306 Women were traded for goods or animals, much like other material items,307 and they were not awarded any inheritance rights when family members passed away.308 In contrast, the man was free to have as many wives as he wanted, and only his male siblings received inheritance rights after his passing. Additionally, the son had the freedom to wed any of his father’s wives after his passing because they were considered to be his property and had no right to object.309 Contrary to El Saadawi’s claim that the pre-Islamic era was a turning point for women’s rights, these examples show how mistreated women were throughout that time. Although the women she identified as independent were exceptional individuals from wealthy tribes, the majority of women at the time were victims of the pervasive patriarchal practices, such as female infanticide.310 Many modern academics, however, contend that women enjoyed full rights at the time of the Prophet Muhammad. For instance, according to Mernissi, Muslim women were granted a number of rights, such as “the right to enter into councils of the Muslim ummah, to speak freely to its prophet-leader, to dispute with the men, to fight for their happiness, and to be involved in the management of military and political affairs.”311 Reviewing the Qur’an reveals that Islam limits the number of wives to four instead of the unrestricted number that existed in pre-Islamic times, as stated in the following Qur’anic verse: If you fear that you might not treat the orphans justly, then marry the women that seem good to you: two, or three, or four. If you fear that you will not be able to treat them justly, then marry (only) one, or marry from among those whom your right hands possess. This will make it more likely that you will avoid injustice.312

Al-Tabari underlines in his interpretation of the passage that it does not call for men to take more than one wife; rather, it calls on men to treat orphan girls and their spouses justly. He further explains that some male guardians at the time of

306 Al-Hibri, “Women and Islam.” 307 See Ahmed, “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate.” 308 Mernissi, “The veil and the male elite: A feminist interpretation of women’s rights in Islam.” 309 See al-Hibri, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess?” 310 Al-Hibri, “An introduction to Muslim women’s rights.” 311 Mernissi, “The veil and the male elite: A feminist interpretation of women’s rights in Islam” viii. 312 Qur’an, 4:3.

84 

 6 Polygamy Dilemma

revelation mismanaged the funds of young orphan girls, thus the verse intended to give them permission to marry such female orphans in order to elevate the status of those children and stop such mismanagement. By holding these male guardians financially liable for orphaned girls, argues al-Tabari, the Qur’an limits men’s access to their wealth on the one hand and the unrestricted number of wives that were a common practice in society at the time to four. In order to be able to give each wife he intends to marry adequate living and housing conditions, according to al-Tabari, a man must be financially secure. Moreover, he contends that the Qur’anic verse 4:129 clearly states that men, despite their best efforts, are unable to treat women correctly and that as a result, a man is not permitted to have even one wife. Ibn Kathir, like al-Tabari, asserts that polygamy must be accompanied by justice in affection and love. To support this claim, he interprets verse 4:129 as follows: O people, you will never be able to be fair (equalize) among your wives in all aspects, because even if you divide their turn each night, but there must be a difference in the love (in the heart), the desire of lust in the intimate relationships, as Ibn ‘Abbas has described, ‘Ubaidah As-Salmaani, Hasan Al Bashri, and Dhahhak bin Muzahim.313

The term ankihu “marry” in the aforementioned passage, according to Ibn Kathir, does not imply that polygamy is required but rather that it is acceptable under specific circumstances. The two classical experts concur that the two Qur’anic verses have a dual purpose. First, they affirm that polygamy is a solution to address social issues like the issue of orphaned girls rather than a privilege for men. Second, it shows that justice between women is impossible to achieve. In other words, the objective is to forbid polygamy rather than support it. Al-Hibri’s interpretation of the Qur’anic verse 4:3 is equivalent to that of alTabari and Ibn Kathir, and reads as follows: If you fear that you shall not be able deal justly with the orphans, marry women of your choice, two, three or four; But if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly [with them], then only one, or that which your right hand.314

Today, however, according to al-Hibri, men misuse the aforementioned verse to support polygamy; they disregard the first portion of the verse, which defines the acceptable context, i.e., to care for widows and orphans. She also cites another verse from the Qur’an that forbids polygamy:

313 Ibn Kathir, I. U. I., L-Mubarakfuri, S. R., & Al Atsari, A. I. (2006). Shahih tafsir Ibnu Katsir. Jakarta: Pustaka Ibnu Katsir, 784. 314 Azizah al-Hibri, “An introduction to Muslim women’s rights” 66.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Polygamy 

 85

Ye are never able to be fair and just among women, even if you tried hard [to do so]. So, do not incline completely [toward one] and leave another hanging. And if ye amend [your affairs] and fear Allah–then indeed, Allah is ever Forgiving and Merciful.315

She claims that the verse here speaks to a particular kind of justice and equality for women, embracing traits that are both physically and emotionally impossible. The opening line of the verse, “you will never be able to be equal between wives,” which expressly shows its impracticality, makes the futility of these conditions clear.  According to al-Hibri, the two Qur’anic verses (i.e., Qur’an 4:3 and 4:129) suggest that a Muslim man may have up to four wives, but only if he can treat each wife equally. In light of the fact that this demand cannot be satisfied, it is advised that a man only marry one woman. That is, the two verses strongly oppose polygamy in Islam, and “it seems rather evident that the whole issue of polygamy is the result of patriarchal attempts to distort the Qur’an in men’s favor.”316 In her discussion of the Prophet’s polygamy, al-Hibri asserts that this circumstance does not justify any other males engaging in the practice as Prophet Muhammad was monogamous while his first wife Khadijah was alive and quotes Qur’anic verse 33.32, which states, “neither the Prophet nor his wives are like other men and women.”317 This argument supports El Saadawi’s assertion that it is impossible to treat spouses equally.318 In addition, according to Wadud, the Qur’anic verse 4:3 is intended to address the “treatment of orphans” because some “male guardians, responsible for managing the wealth of orphaned female children, were unable to refrain from unjust management of that wealth.”319 In order to care for widows and orphans during a time when society did not have access to government social aid, Wadud argues that polygamy is permitted in Islam.320 Her argument is supported by two crucial factors. First, the historical background of the verse demonstrates that polygamy is accepted in Islam as a reform strategy meant to better the prevalent circumstances of widows and orphan children and integrate them financially and socially into society. Second, polygamy is applicable in a historical setting because “marriage of subjugation at the time of revelation was premised on the need for females to be materially provided for by some male.”321 The verse and its meaning, whose original historical circumstance no longer exists, must be reevaluated because

315 Qur’an, 4:129. 316 Al-Hibri, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess?” 217. 317 Al-Hibri, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess?” 216. 318 See El Saadawi, “Woman and Islam” for further details. 319 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 83. 320 See Wadud, “Alternative Qur’anic interpretation and the status of Muslim women.” 321 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 82–83.

86 

 6 Polygamy Dilemma

women today, claims Wadud, “neither have nor need male supporters.”322 Other scholars, like Karen Armstrong, who emphasizes that “polygamy was not designed to improve the sex life of the boys, but it was a piece of social legislation,” concur with this interpretation. However, Armstrong adds that polygamy was a means of changing the social structure that was in place at the time, where marriage to an arbitrary number of women was permitted.323 Other scholars are also concerned about the issue of polygamy, including the modern reformist Muhammad Abduh, who argues that monogamy is the norm for marriage in Islam. Abduh then issues a fatwa324 to the Egyptian government outlawing polygamy in Egypt due to the complications it creates for Muslim families. Additionally, Mushir Hosain Kidwai proclaims that the Qur’anic verse 4:3 does not encourage males to take on multiple wives; rather, it seeks to address the social issue of the widows and kids of combat martyrs.325 Amira Mashhour also notes that the verse was first made public following the Battle of Uhud,326 which resulted in the deaths of many Muslim males and the placement of many unmarried widows and young girls in the care of their male guardians. Therefore, polygamy is proposed as a lifestyle option that is neither a luxury nor a condition of submission; rather, it is intended to stand in for community-based care for young orphan children of widowed moms who need both financial and emotional support.327 Furthermore, some scholars, like Amira El-Azhary Sonbol, contend that polygamy should first be tolerated as a method of gradually reining in that traditional practice before it is outright prohibited, much like the prohibition of alcohol.328 Another Qur’anic verse that discourages polygamy states that “God has not made for any man two hearts” and implies that it is impossible for a man to love two women equally.329 The Prophet Muhammad also forbade Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, from taking a second wife while his daughter Fatima was still alive. The Prophet explained the reasoning by stating: “because Fatima is a part of my body,

322 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 84. 323 Karen Armstrong, “Muhammad: A prophet for our time” 190. 324 Fatwa (‫ )فتوى‬is an Arabic that refers to a legal opinion or ruling provided by an Islamic scholar, known as a mufti (‫) ُمفتي‬, on a specific issue within Islamic Shariah law. 325 See Mushir Hosain Kidwai, “Woman under different social and religious laws, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam.” 326 Uhud is a battle that took place in AD 624 between the early Muslims and their Quraish Meccan enemies. 327 See Amira Mashhour, “Islamic law and gender equality: Could there be a common ground? A  study of divorce and polygamy in Shariah law and contemporary legislation in Tunisia and Egypt.” 328 For further details check Amira El-Azhary Sonbol, “Rethinking women and Islam.” 329 The Qur’an, 33:4.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Polygamy 

 87

and I hate what she hates to see, and what hurts her, hurts me,” was the cause.330 The Prophet’s remarks highlight the suffering a woman experiences when her husband weds someone else, which lends credence to his concern for his daughter and his desire to prevent her from going through it, therefore prohibiting it for all Muslim women. These arguments lead to the conclusion that polygamy is seen by some classical and contemporary scholars as a solution to the social issue of assimilating widows and orphan girls, although monogamy is seen as the default option by many of them. The aforementioned arguments suggest that many traditional and modern researchers view monogamy as the default option in marriage in Islam, with polygamy serving as a socially acceptable solution to specific social problems, such as the issue of assimilating widows and orphan girls. This entirety contradicts El Saadawi’s arguments against polygamy.

330 See al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari” 352.

7 Divorce Issue Freedom is oxygen. We cannot live without freedom. If there is no freedom within the family or society, then there can be no creativity. -NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Marriage and Motherhood331 I’ve already divorced two husbands before and when the third violated my rights, I divorced him as well and refused to live with him. There are women who accept that, but what would force me to stay with someone who violates my rights. - NAWAL EL SAADAWI, A lawsuit, an Alleged Affair Behind Feminist Nawal El Saadawi’s Divorce332

After passing through several divorces, El Saadawi’s quotes reveal her opinion on divorce and demonstrate her familiarity with the divorce procedure in Muslim nations. Her words also show that she cannot tolerate a partner who abuses her rights, as she does with her third husband, whom she divorces for doing so by engaging in an adulterous relationship with a younger woman. Although she claims that some women may overlook such oppressive behavior within marriage and agree to carry on with their partners, El Saadawi personally refuses to accept it, reiterating her resolve to end a relationship in which her rights are abused. In doing so, she expresses her strong belief in one’s freedom to self-determination and the value of individual rights in marriage. She also emphasizes the importance of freedom for both individual and societal well-being and stresses how lacking it can stunt human development, restrict possibilities, and prevent the generation of original ideas and solutions. El Saadawi further underscores the significance of fostering an environment that values and respects freedom and adds that she believes she has the right to file for divorce in these circumstances, even though cultural expectations or norms would otherwise require women to put up with or tolerate such mistreatment. In addition, she highlights how unwilling she is to make a commitment to a relationship if exercising her right to personal freedom and well-being necessitates putting her dignity or well-being in danger. The issue of divorce in Muslim countries is discussed in the lines that follow, along with El Saadawi’s opinions on the subject and an analysis of her reasoning.

331 Nawal El Saadawi, “Marriage and motherhood.” 332 Magdy Samaan, “A lawsuit, an alleged affair behind feminist Nawal El Saadawi’s divorce.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-007

El Saadawi’s Views on Divorce 

 89

The Issue of Divorce The history of divorce in Islam dates back to the seventh century, the period of the Prophet Muhammad, when the Arabian civilization had its own unique customs around marriage and divorce. Before the advent of Islam, divorce was a common occurrence in Arab society, but it commonly occurred without any social or legal limits, and men had the authority to unilaterally divorce their partners, occasionally doing so in an impetuous or arbitrary manner. However, women had fewer power and rights throughout the divorce process because it was believed to be a private matter only controlled by men. The concept of divorce was significantly altered by Islam, as evidenced by a few significant verses, such as those in Surah at-Talaq (Chapter 65) and Surah Al-Baqarah (Chapter 2, verses 226–242), which advocate a more just and reasonable divorce procedure that tries to preserve the rights and welfare of both spouses. While the Qur’an advises married couples to try every method of mending their relationship when they encounter problems, divorce is seen as a last resort after all other attempts at reconciliation have failed in order to lessen harm and give people a way out of unpleasant or dysfunctional marriages. In this respect, Islamic jurisprudence has established a number of legal frameworks to address divorce-related issues such child custody, property division, and resolving financial responsibilities (mahr and maintenance). Moreover, several legal traditions and schools of thought within Islamic Shariah law have evolved over time as a result of the expansion and interpretation of the Qur’anic teachings by Islamic legal scholars and jurists who employ various methods and understandings of divorce laws that differ from one another. It is important to note that cultural traditions and regional norms often have an impact on divorce laws in nations with a majority of Muslims, causing changes to and occasionally departures from the original Islamic teachings on divorce. To provide readers with a greater idea of how divorce is currently handled in Muslim countries and how El Saadawi sees it, the topic of divorce is further examined in the lines that follow.

El Saadawi’s Views on Divorce El Saadawi’s views on divorce are obviously related to her larger feminist agenda, which seeks to overthrow repressive systems and change social norms pertaining to gender. She works to advance women’s rights to equality, self-determination, and personal independence, especially the right to divorce. She notes: In Egypt, a husband has the right to divorce his wife orally, any time he wants, by uttering just one word: talaq, which means ‘you are divorced’ in Arabic. The divorce rate in Egypt is one of the highest in the world.

90 

 7 Divorce Issue

Even though “the Egyptian President Sisi suggested in his media address that oral divorce should be abolished, so that a man cannot divorce his wife without making an official registration,” argues El Saadawi, the Islamic authorities at al-Azhar publicly declared that “nobody can change God’s orders” and added that “oral divorce was granted to men by their God and their prophet Mohammad.”333 El Saadawi adds that as a wife cannot legally separate from her husband without a judge’s consent in court, she may need to wait ten years or longer before filing for divorce due to the lengthy duration of the divorce process. Accordingly, El Saadawi criticizes Islam in this way by standing up for her liberal views on divorce as well as her pro-women’s rights stance within the constraints of the institution of marriage. She challenges the prevailing patriarchal standards and practices that forbid women from getting a divorce and from exercising their legal rights. According to El Saadawi, women should be able to file for divorce, and divorce rules should be fair and just to prevent women from being forced into abusive or unpleasant unions. She herself has gone through three divorces, each of which has been unpleasant for her. She has struggled for her second divorce in particular because her second husband does not let her go, which has made her strongly dislike men who treat women like property and assume an authoritative role. Besides, she critiques Muslim social institutions that downplay the importance of single mothers and questions the notion that a woman cannot be fully acknowledged as a reliable entity unless she is married or has a man in her life. In one of her books, Memoirs of a Woman Doctor, El Saadawi describes an event at Cairo Airport where a security guard forbade her from leaving without displaying a permit from her husband. Despite telling the security agent that she had divorced her spouse, he informed her that in order to board the plane and fly, she would need to present the divorce certificate, which is a crucial document indicating a divorce took place. Therefore, El Saadawi believes that divorce papers enslave women to marriage and violate their right to privacy because they serve as a woman’s birth certificate.334 Moreover, she thinks that when she divorces her husband, she simultaneously divorces all customs, rules, religious doctrines, and conventions that support men’s supremacy over women. In this context, El Saadawi criticizes Islamic Shariah law in an interview with Sarah Raphael in 2018 for prohibiting a Muslim lady from divorcing her spouse. The fact that “the man decides to divorce and not the woman,” according to El Saadawi, causes problems for the husband’s wife since she feels powerless and unable to initiate the divorce herself.335

333 El Saadawi, “Marriage and Motherhood.” 334 El Saadawi, “Memoirs of a Woman Doctor” 66. 335 El Saadawi, “My life, part II, autobiography.”

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Divorce 

 91

Instead, a Muslim wife should ask her husband for a divorce; the divorce must be granted with his consent. El Saadawi further argues that some Muslim women decide against getting a divorce while being subjected to abuse by their spouses because they lack financial independence. In order to keep her sole source of income, a woman may consequently be forced by her need for financial assistance to save her unhappy marriage. El Saadawi views this as another instance of sexism against women because whether or not a Muslim woman agrees to a divorce does not alter the fact that Muslim women are still merely the executors of their husbands’ wills. She supports equal access to divorce for both men and women, as well as the freedom for everyone to leave restrictive or unsatisfying relationships.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Divorce Men are advised to treat women with respect, consideration, and tolerance as the Qur’an says, “Live with them honorably.”336 Yet, divorce is permissible in Islam as a last choice, even though it is not encouraged, as the Prophet said, “of all the lawful things, divorce is the most hated one.”337 Due to its significance, there is a chapter in the Qur’an entitled aṭ-talaq338 “divorce” that is devoted to the topic of divorce, its procedures, before initiating the divorce. Al-Tabari explains that the Qur’an outlines certain guidelines for the spouse to follow in this regard. They are first instructed to work out their differences in the hopes of resolving their issues and continuing their partnership. The next step, which must be completed if they fail to do so, is to “appoint an arbitrator from among his people and an arbitrator from among her people; if they both want to set things right, God may bring about their reconciliation.”339 In other words, it is suggested that the partners enlist the support of their families by selecting a neutral third party to mediate their conflicts. Divorce, however, is introduced as a last choice for the two parties in order to end the marriage connection in a cordial, dignified manner if the two arbitrators are unable to amicably resolve the issues and entirely eradicate them. Likewise, according to Ibn Kathir, experts of Fiqh concur that when a dispute arises between a husband and wife, they should be directed to a reliable person who may assist them in resolving it. The couple is advised to sit down with a trusted member of the woman’s family and a trustworthy member of the man’s family, but, 336 Qur’an, 4:19. 337 Al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari” 456. 338 At-talaq is an Arabic word that means “freeing or undoing the knot.” 339 Qur’an, 4:35.

92 

 7 Divorce Issue

if the issue persists or worsens. The two arbitrators are given the task of speaking with the two spouses about the issue and assisting them in determining whether it would be best for them to remain married or split. Ibn Kathir adds that God prefers for husbands and wives to be together and that as a result, God declares, “If they both wish for peace, Allah will cause their reconciliation.” However, it is preferable not to terminate the marriage if the two arbitrators cannot agree. Ibn Kathir notes that the Qur’anic verse 4:19, in which God Almighty states: “If you dislike them, it may be that you dislike a thing and Allah brings through it a great deal of good,” justifies the arbitrators’ decision as binding even if it is not agreed with by the couples. Ibn Kathir explains that during the divorce process, the husband is advised to honorably release his wife from any injury or pain as stated in the Qur’anic verse below: And when you divorce women and they have [nearly] fulfilled their term, either retain them according to acceptable terms or release them according to acceptable terms, and do not keep them, intending harm, to transgress [against them]. And whoever does that has certainly wronged himself. And do not take the verses of Allah in jest. And fear Allah and know that Allah is Knowing of all things.340

Ibn Kathir claims that the verse reveals God’s instruction to men not to keep their divorcing spouses with the intention of injuring them. Furthermore, he believes that doing so invalidates the rights given to women and subjects the offending man to God’s wrath. Ibn Kathir adds that after divorce, the wife is permitted to keep all gifts received from her husband, who is forbidden from taking any gifts back: But if you intend to replace a wife by another and you have given one of them a Qintar, take not the least bit of it back; would you take it wrongfully without a right and (with) a manifest sin? And how could you take it (back) while you have gone in unto each other, and they have taken from you a firm and strong covenant.341

It is forbidden to remove a woman’s dowry from her, according to al-Tabari (2000), and the verse commands men not to do so since it is “illegal” and “improper.” More significantly, the Qur’an states that a woman must wait three months after a divorce before she can get married: Divorced women shall undergo, without remarrying, a waiting-period of three-monthly courses: for it is not lawful for them to conceal what God may have created in their wombs, if

340 Qur’an, 2:231. 341 Qur’an, 4:20–21.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Divorce 

 93

they believe in God and the Last Day. And during this period their husbands are fully entitled to take them back, if they desire reconciliation; but, in accordance with justice, the rights of the wives [with regard to their husbands] are equal to the [husbands’] rights with regard to them, although men have a degree over them [in this respect], and Allah is Mighty, Wise.342

Al-Tabari provides an example to show that God has mandated a three-month waiting period for divorced women before they can get married again. Similarly, Wadud defines the term darajah as “step, degree,” claiming that the preference given to men in this verse is only limited to this context of being “individually able to pronounce divorce against their wives without arbitration or assistance” and cannot be extended to be an absolute one.343 This limits rather than provides a global viewpoint on the topic, Wadud continues, because the convention is a product of its time and location. According to the passage, if a divorced woman becomes pregnant, Wadud explains, she must wait until after giving birth before getting married again. By doing so, Wadud claims, the Qur’an imposes “a limitation rather than a universal perspective on this issue because convention is relative to time and place” and that the verse indicates that if the divorced woman becomes pregnant, she must wait until she gives birth before she marries another man.344 Her spouse is obligated to cover all of her expenditures at this time, and if both of them want to start over as husband and wife, they can reconcile and renew their marriage vows. However, if reconciliation is not feasible, a Muslim woman is allowed to wed any man she chooses after giving birth, and her husband is commanded in the verse below not to stand in her way: And when you divorce women, and they have come to the end of their waiting period, hinder them not from marrying other men if they have agreed with each other in a fair manner.345

The Qur’an places a strong emphasis on maintaining a respectful relationship between the two spouses even after a divorce, as is shown in the passage above where the word “fair” is used. For Wadud, “what is important is mutual and peaceable reconciliation or separation. The Qur’an applies explicit measures to prevent abandonment and misuse of women, who were subject to the whims of husbands in marriage and divorce.”346 Wadud explains that the Qur’an emphasizes the prescribed requirements and obligations rather than renunciation of any of the rights of women with regard to divorce. This is consistent with Rahman who notes that a woman may apply for divorce and that both spouses must agree for a divorce to 342 Qur’an, 2:228. 343 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 68. 344 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 69. 345 Qur’an, 2:232. 346 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 80.

94 

 7 Divorce Issue

take place. Islam permits the rejection of divorce, whereby a husband can call off the marriage by telling his wife that he does not love her. After then, there is a threemonth repudiation period during which the husband can change his mind, undo the divorce, and get his wife back. A man is given two opportunities to repudiate the divorce; beyond those, it is final, and he cannot resume his marital relationship again.347 Al-Hibri further states that “a Muslim woman has the right to sue her husband for domestic abuse or to get a divorce from him.”348 Muslim women have three options for getting a divorce, despite the fact that males can divorce women whenever they want. First, a woman can use the faskh procedure, in which she asks for the dissolution of the marriage because her husband is unable to meet his commitments to her. That is, there must be a reason for faskh to occur and it has to be approved by a judicial authority. Men are commanded in the Qur’an to “treat them fairly” and not to “mistreat them to make them return some of the dowry as a ransom for divorce.”349 The same idea is affirmed in another Qur’anic verse that instructs spouses not to “forget kindness among yourselves” when they decide to terminate their marriage.350 The second way for women to end their marriage is through the Khula’ practice, which enables a wife to pay for the dissolution of her marriage by returning her dowry. As a result, while it may appear unjust for a woman to pay for her release, in actuality she is paying for her decision to quit an unpleasant marriage as restitution for breaking the marriage contract. For instance, a Muslim woman who could no longer bear to live with her husband, whom she loathed, approached Caliph Omar and requested Khula’ during his reign. The woman said in her appeal to Khula’ that neither her husband’s faith nor morality was lacking; rather, it was her dislike of him that drove her to seclude herself in a room for three nights, which she described as the happiest days of her life. That was enough proof in the Caliph’s eyes, so he granted the woman a divorce.351 Thirdly, divorce is not an arbitrary decision made by men, according to al-Hibri, who also claims that a woman is free to impose any terms she sees fit in her marriage contract, including the freedom to divorce her spouse at any time. Furthermore, she argues that Islam should not be held responsible for the fact that many women do not utilize their right to divorce because of certain social or cultural customs, even though this right is primarily exercised by highly educated women who are 347 See Afzalur Rahman, “Role of Muslim women in society.” 348 Al-Hibri, “Women claim Islam: Creating Islamic feminism through literature” 60. 349 Qur’an, 4:19. 350 Qur’an, 2:237. 351 See Al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari.”

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Divorce 

 95

members of the upper class. Al-Hibri adds that “the oppressive form of the marriage contract we find now in the Arab World was standardized and propagated by patriarchy to serve its interests.”352 The Qur’an, however, demonstrates that divorce should be done in a cordial and pleasant manner, saying that “when you divorce women, and they reach their prescribed term, then retain them in kindness and retain them not for injury so that you transgress (the limits).”353 During the early Islamic state in the seventh century, during the rule of the Prophet Muhammad and the first four succeeding Caliphs, women had access to all of these privileges. Nevertheless, during the age that followed (1250–1900), women’s rights began to deteriorate, and divorce once again became a man’s decision to make without consulting his wife, whose agreement was not even taken into consideration. This is in line with Rahman’s potential justifications for the reversal of women’s rights in this regard, which also includes political unrest, feudalism, and the creation of regional variances in the application of Islamic Shariah law. Although women have regained some of their lost rights in the years that followed, from the 1900s until the 1970s, divorce remains a man’s decision, and it still is today,354 and it is the law’s fault for not enforcing “these teachings and values of the Qur’an into specific legal restrictions on the husband’s right to divorce to guard against abuses.”355

352 El Saadawi, “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world” 217. 353 Qur’an, 2:231. 354 See Afzalur Rahman, “A survey of the modernization of Muslim family law.” 355 John Esposito & Natana DeLong-Bas “Women in Muslim family law” 29.

Part III: Traditions and Customs

8 The Veil Controversy Veiling - to Western eyes, the most visible marker of the differentness and inferiority of Islamic societies became the symbol now of both the oppression of women (or, in the language of the day, Islam’s degradation of women) and the backwardness of Islam, and it became the open target of colonial attack and the spearhead of the assault on Muslim societies. -LEILA AHMED, Women and Gender in Islam356 Many Arab women have succumbed to the heavy load of a patriarchal class society and have ended up prisoners of the home, of the veil and of a system which prevents them from participating in the economic andsocial life of their society. -NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Hidden Face357

Given what Leila Ahmed observes, the wearing of veils, which is common in Muslim countries, is one distinguishing feature that separates some Islamic civilizations away from Western conventions that Western observers typically interpret as a sign of the perceived “otherness” or distinctiveness of Islamic civilizations. Because of this blatant sign of difference, Western perspectives interpret the wearing of veils as a sign of Islam’s alleged treatment of women as property or servitude, as well as a way to highlight and demonize Muslim nations as backward, especially in the wake of the September 11 attacks, which heightens Islamophobic sentiment. Many secular feminists also refer to veiled Muslim women as “victims of the Islamic code” because it limits their freedom of action.358 For them, wearing a veil is a representation of how oppressed women are in patriarchal Muslim societies; as a result, several Western nations, like France, have taken steps to stop this barbaric practice and have outlawed the veil in public institutions like schools and all government offices.359 Even though wearing a veil is viewed as “a racial” identification in the West, wearing one has many meanings in Islam, including the expression of Islamic identity, adherence to tradition, public safety, and modesty. Some women in Western societies even see the veil as their ticket to freedom.360 For instance, Homa Hoodfar demonstrates that, particularly among younger generations, the number of veiled women in Canada grew. Sixty-nine Muslim women from Quebec and Ontario, including just seven who wear veil, are questioned to examine that phenomenon. According to the findings, parents frequently forbid

356 Leila Ahmed, “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate” 152. 357 Nawal El Saadawi, “Hidden face” 17. 358 Chandra Talpade Mohanty, “Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses” 57. 359 See Joan Wallach Scott, “The politics of the veil.” 360 Miriam Cooke, “The Muslim women. Contemporary Islam” 140. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-008

100 

 8 The Veil Controversy

their daughters from leaving the house unaccompanied by their male brothers, forcing them to cover up in order to regain their lost freedom. Among the participants, one remarks: The veil has freed me from arguments and headaches. I always wanted to do many things that women normally do not do in my culture. I had thought living in Canada would give me that opportunity. But when I turned fourteen, my life changed. My parents started to limit my activities and even telephone conversations. My brothers were free to go and come as they pleased, but my sister and I were to be good Muslim girls. Even the books we read became subject to inspection. Life became intolerable for me. The weekends were hell.361

Hoodfar continues by mentioning that she attends Qur’anic classes, where she interacts with numerous Muslim women and learns that “the veil is the solution to all Muslim girls’ problems here in North America.” Similarly, other women believe that conversing with males is now easier than it was before they wore the veil. One of them cites how she used to worry constantly about conversing with men for fear of being misunderstood because it “is not good for one’s reputation in the community,” but she also claims that these worries about conversing with male classmates or coworkers have disappeared since donning the veil.362 It is important to keep in mind that people’s perspectives on veiling and its implications fluctuate depending on the individual as well as the context and that Muslims may interpret it differently in terms of Islamic teachings and practices. To continue the objective of part II, which is to explain El Saadawi’s views regarding various issues in relation to Muslim women’s rights, in this chapter I discuss the veiling dilemma and how El Saadawi perceives it, as well as how her claims are viewed through the lenses of traditional and modern Muslim scholars.

The Issue of Veil The word hijab363 is an Arabic word that refers to Muslim women’s veiling. Linguistically, the word hijab is derived from the Arabic verb hajaba, meaning to hide, conceal, or protect what is beneath it.364 The controversy surrounding the veil has persisted for a long time, predating the rise of Islam, as it has specifically been incorporated into other Abrahamic religions, Judaism, and Christianity and has

361 Homa Hoodfar, “More than clothing: Veiling as an adaptive strategy” 20. 362 Homa Hoodfar, “More than clothing: Veiling as an adaptive strategy” 21. 363 In this monograph, the Arabic word hijab is used interchangeably with its English equivalent “veil.” 364 Murtada al-Zabaidi, “Taj al Arus min Jawahir al Qamus” 203.

The Issue of Veil 

 101

also been mentioned in the Bible and the Torah, or Halakhoth.365 For example, “the head of every woman is man. Every man praying or prophesying, having his head covered, dishonoureth his head. But every woman that prayeth or prophesieth with her head uncovered dishonoureth her head.”366 The teachings of the apostle Paul about head coverings during prayer and prophesying in the early Christian community state that men should not cover their heads because doing so is considered to be dishonoring to their head. In contrast, Paul says that women should cover their heads when praying or making prophecies. The veil was also worn by women mostly from the elite classes in the Persian and Byzantine empires, as well as the Arabian Peninsula.367 In the Byzantine empire, for instance, “women were always supposed to be veiled” and it was the veil that separated between “honest women and prostitutes,” as exposed bodies were inherently shameful.368 In pre-Islamic Arabia and other pre-Islamic countries, moreover, women’s clothing varied by tribe and social standing, and wearing a veil was not a common practice. Nevertheless, some women, particularly those from affluent backgrounds, used to cover their hair and wear loose clothing as a sign of modesty and social standing as well as to protect themselves from the arid climate. During the time of the Prophet Muhammad, moreover, hijab commonly referred to covering the entire body of women who are expected to dress modestly in public. Furthermore, in the thirteenth century, only “respectable” women were allowed to wear the veil; female servants and prostitutes were not.369 Additionally, the Hasidic sect held the veil in high regard in the seventeenth century, a time when married women were expected to cover their hair with wigs or sheitels.370 In the Middle Ages, the veil was also a sign of aristocracy in the Middle Ages,371 but today the term “hijab” only applies to Islamic societies where women wear it as a devout means of self-empowerment. It is also referred to by a variety of other names in various cultures, including burka, chador, and dupatta, and it is frequently used as shorthand for the headscarf that covers a woman’s neck and hair.372 Muslim women commonly give a variety of reasons for wearing the veil, such as spiritual ones, as well as ways to express their cultural identity and political

365 See Homa Hoodfar, “More than clothing: Veiling as an adaptive strategy.” 366 New Testament, 1 Corinthians 11:3–5. 367 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir.” 368 Leila Ahmed, “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate” 26. 369 Homa Hoodfar, “More than clothing: Veiling as an adaptive strategy” 6. 370 Leora Auslander, “Jews and material culture.” 371 For further details, see Nancy J. Hirshmann, “Eastern veiling, western freedom?” 372 See Leila Ahmed, “Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate”; Fadwa El Guindi, “Veil: Modesty, privacy, resistance.”

102 

 8 The Veil Controversy

ideas; nevertheless, scholars have differing opinions on it. Whereas some scholars clarify that the veil “functions to define Muslim identity, perform a behavior check, resist sexual objectification, afford more respect, preserve intimate relationships, and provide freedom,”373others view the veil as “a tangible marker of separateness and independence”374 or as a “vehicle for distinguishing between women and men and a means of controlling male sexual desire”375 and protect women from sexual harassment. A third group of scholars, led by Fedwa El Guindi, claims that the veil is a “creative alternative” that helps women communicate in public settings, shields them from sexual harassment, and is “largely about identity, largely about privacy of space and body.”376 The discussion above demonstrates how the veil is viewed differently depending on the social context. One of the academics who condemns the veil is El Saadawi, and the next section outlines her arguments.

El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil El Saadawi asserts that the veil was first worn before the advent of Islam and claims: The veil originates with the fact that Eve is looked upon as the source of evil and sin and must feel shame for her corrupt nature. She must therefore cover her body including the head and face, and refrain from exhibiting any part of it. It is also inspired by the idea that Eve (woman) is a body without head and that Adam (her spouse and man) is her head.377

El Saadawi has resisted and criticized wearing the veil throughout her life, calling it “a tool of oppression of women” and battling against it in her works and interviews. In an interview with Sophie Smith, for instance, El Saadawi notes that “the veil of the mind is more dangerous than the religious veil” and that men and women must work together to solve this problem since “this isn’t an issue for women only.”378 She recalls that when she attended medical school in the 1950s, there were no veiled students. However, in the 1970s, her daughter’s classmates at the same university reported that 30% of the student body was covered; as a result, she finds it astonishing to see an increase in the proportion of veiled women, which she attributes to President

373 Rachel A. Droogsma, “Redefining hijab: American Muslim women’s standpoints on veiling” 294. 374 See Nancy J. Hirshmann, “Eastern veiling, western freedom?” 474. 375 Caitlin Killian, “The other side of the veil: North African women in France respond to the headscarf affair” 570. 376 Fedwa El Guindi, “Veil: Modesty, privacy, resistance” xvii. 377 El Saadawi, “Woman and Islam” 202. 378 Sophie Smith, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi” 64.

El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil 

 103

As-Sadaat’s support of the fundamentalist movement in its fight against progressive political organizations. In her opinion, depriving a woman of her inherent beauty is akin to denying her the responsibilities of being a human being. That is, it is like liberating her from the very core of what constitutes a human being’s personality because a human being’s bodily integrity is a vital aspect of what sets a human being apart from non-human beings. In a televised interview, El Saadawi further adds: Who said women can choose to be veiled or not? young female students who are veiled at a number of Egyptian schools did they choose to veil at that young age? Absolutely not. It is part of a political and religious system that forces women to veil or be naked.379

Although her sisters are veiled, El Saadawi refuses to accept the veil as a free choice. In this respect, she discusses the definition of the word “choice” itself and asks, What do you mean by choice? It is pressure, but it is hidden pressure–she is not aware of it. I was exposed to different pressures from my sisters. We are all the products of our economic, social and political life and our education. Young people today are living in the era of the fundamentalist groups.380

EL Saadawi’s opposition to the veil is primarily motivated by three key factors. First, she sees the veil as a form of pre-Islamic servitude that “has nothing to do with Islam; it is not historical, and it is not positive,” but rather “it started with the evolution of the slave society when a woman is considered as property.” According to her, “there is not a single verse with the conception of the veil”381 that is a non-Islamic custom originating in Arabic culture. In this regard, she notes: The veil has nothing to do with Islam; it is not historical, and it is not a good thing. It all started with the development of the slave society, when a woman was treated as property and was under the protection of her husband. There is not a single scripture in the Koran that mentions the veil’s conception.382

That is, El Saadawi concludes that there is no support for the veil in the sacred scriptures and that there is no connection between Islam and wearing a veil. Second, El Saadawi argues that Muslim women are compelled to wear the veil by intense social pressures rather than making the decision to do so. In other words, a Muslim woman who wears a veil does not do so voluntarily; rather, she has

379 El Saadawi, “‫الحلﻘة الكاملة‬-‫”نوال السعداوي مع نيشان‬ 380 Homa Khaleeli, “Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s radical feminist.” 381 El Saadawi, “The status of Muslim women” 43. 382 El Saadawi, “In Conversation with Nawal El Saadawi” 21.

104 

 8 The Veil Controversy

been brainwashed and “considers herself a stigma, so she covers herself.”383 In an interview with Sarah Wajid in 2008, El Saadawi states repeatedly that women who claim to want to wear veils “are either lying or ignorant”384 and that she herself is “exposed to different pressures” from her sisters and other family members to be veiled like them, but she consistently rejects the veil and denies it as a free choice she would like to make one day.385 Third, according to El Saadawi, the veil is “simply a piece of clothing, not a symbol; if we regard it to be such, “an authentic identity” is reduced to a piece of clothing,” and it is merely an instrument of oppression.386 She further asks why Muslim women should be covered and why they are viewed as “sex targets.”387 El Saadawi finds the veil’s association with morality to be the most troubling aspect; she fiercely rejects the idea that women are expected to be simple bodies, “either to be veiled under religion or to be veiled by makeup,” and are commonly taught not to “face the world with their real face.”388 For her, “the veiling and the nakedness of women are two sides of the same coin” portraying women as something to be controlled, whether through the veil, nudity, or cosmetics, which completely minimizes the importance of a woman’s personality, thoughts, feelings, and education and reduces the value of her as a person to how she looks.389

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil Although wearing a veil was a prevalent custom before to the advent of Islam, it is now primarily restricted to Muslims and is commonly regarded as a symbol of religious fanaticism and oppression of Muslim women. As a result, Islam has come under heavy fire for what are claimed to be its oppressive religious practices. Contrary to El Saadawi’s assertion that the veil is not a religious custom but rather a cultural act that has no support in the Qur’an, al-Tabari explains that the veil is mentioned in four separate Qur’anic passages that clarify the Islamic attire for

383 Sarah Raphael, “Women Are Pushed to Be Just Bodies – Veiled Under Religion Or Veiled By Makeup.” 384 Sarah Wajid, “Nawal El Saadawi in dialogue.” 385 Homa Khaleeli, “Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s radical feminist.” 386 El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader” 260. 387 Sarah Raphael, “Women Are Pushed to Be Just Bodies–Veiled Under Religion Or Veiled By Makeup.” 388 El Saadawi said so in an interview in 2018 with Refinery29. 389 Helena Frith Powell, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi.”

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil 

 105

women. For instance, the Prophet’s wives are addressed in the first revealed verse on the veil, which reads: O you who believe, do not enter the house of the Prophet for a meal without awaiting the proper time, unless asked, and enter when you are invited, and depart when you have eaten, and do not stay on talking. This puts the Prophet to inconvenience, and he feels embarrassed in (saying) the truth. And when you ask his wife for something of utility, ask for it behind curtain [hijab]; This is for the purity of your heart and theirs.390

Even though the veil is not specifically mentioned in this verse, it instructs Muslim males to converse with the Prophet’s wives when they visit him from behind a veil. Men are also instructed to “lower their gaze and guard their chastity” in another verse that “is purer for them.”391 According to al-Tabari, the verse commands men to entirely divert their eyes from women who are also instructed in the following verse to be veiled: And say to the believing women that they should avert their gaze and guard their modesty, and that they should not display their adornment (zınah) except what is apparent (zahirah) thereof, and that they should throw (yadrIbna) their head-scarves (khumur) over their bosoms/necklines (juyüb), and not display their adornment (zınah) except to their husbands, or fathers, their husband’s fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, their brothers or their brothers’ sons, or their sisters’ sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments.392

Al-Tabari notes that the verse underlines the demand for women to cover their necks and chests with modest clothing and forbids them from showing off their hidden adornments as they did before Islam. The verse also states that Muslim women may only be exposed while they are around their mahrams,393 which include their fathers, sons, brothers, uncles, and nephews. Here, al-Tabari makes a distinction between two sorts of adornment: obvious and hidden. Whereas women are instructed in that verse to conceal the hidden adornment, they are asked to show the apparent ones. Although the Qur’an does not provide a description of hidden and apparent adornment, al-Tabari describes hidden adornment to include anklets, bracelets, earrings, and necklaces, in addition to the woman’s entire body. According to al-Tabari, there are different meanings for the apparent adornment by early traditional commentators. Whereas some interpret it as referring 390 Qur’an, 33:53. 391 Qur’an, 24:30. 392 Qur’an, 24:31. 393 Mahrams is an Arabic plural word that refers to family members whom a Muslim cannot marry like father, brother, mother, son and uncle.

106 

 8 The Veil Controversy

to outerwear, others claim it is referring to a woman’s face or ring. The phrase “apparent adornment,” argues al-Tabari, refers to both the hands and the face, and he claims that the veil is shown as a requirement that complies with the ideas of modesty and physical attractiveness concealment. He also cites another Qur’anic verse that commands the Prophet to tell his daughters and all Muslim women to cover up, so they are recognized, and wounded that confirms the same meaning: O Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, and the believing women, that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): that is most convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not molested. And Allah is oft-forgiving, most merciful.394

The verse, argues al-Tabari, evidently legalizes the veil for all Muslim women, including the wives of the Prophet, who are mandated to wear the veil in order to be protected from harassment. In this respect, al-Tabari adds: God is telling His Prophet to tell his wives, daughters and the women of the believers that they should not dress themselves like slave women by revealing their hair and face. Rather they should bring their cloaks closer to themselves so that no dissolute person harasses them when he knows that they are free women.

Thus, wearing a veil is regarded as a required custom that upholds the values of modesty and concealing physical attractiveness. Accordingly, al-Tabari explains that the verse gives support for the Islamic custom that requires women to be veiled in order to avoid being falsely thought of as slaves and becoming subject to sexual harassment. This interpretation is further supported by Ibn Kathir, who cites the hadith of Aisha, the Prophet’s wife, who claimed that upon hearing the aforementioned verse, women in Madinah cut the edges of their waist sheets and used the trimmings to cover their heads and necks.395 Ibn Kathir further argues that “many people of knowledge hold that a woman is not allowed to look at men who are not her close relatives at all, whether or not her glances are lustful” which is not applied to men even though there is a similar verse for them.396 Ibn Kathir emphasizes the significance of modest attire for a Muslim woman and the requirement to cover her entire body, including her hair, for safety, adding that God’s order for women to cover their bosom indicates that they must wear the veil in public. Ibn Kathir also makes it clear that non-Muslim women are not required to wear the veil, and his clarification is reinforced by citations from older thinkers like Sufyan al-Thawri,397 394 Qur’an, 33:59. 395 Al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari.” 396 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 311. 397 Sufyan al-Thawri was an Islamic scholar, Jurist and one of the famous compilers of hadith.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil 

 107

who claims that Muslim women must wear the veil in order to be regarded as free people and not as slaves. On the other hand, modern interpretations of the aforementioned verses present various perspectives. Wadud, for example, argues that when discussing Islam and gender, the veil assumes such importance that it is referred to as “the sixth pillar” of Islam which is not a requirement for a Muslim woman to wear, and the “best dress is the dress of taqwa [piety].”398 Although hijab is a clear symbolic depiction of Islam, it is not referenced in the Qur’an, which solely makes statements regarding women’s attire. Wadud believes that the veil is a personal choice, and she herself has chosen to wear it for more than 35 years for two reasons: to reach out to persecuted Muslim women and to facilitate all her discussions about Islam and gender. To emphasize her argument, she writes “If you think that the difference between heaven and hell is 45 inches of material, boy will you be surprised”399 and further notes: I believe in the wearing of choice, and I believe in the taking off of choice. Because I both wear it and do not wear it, I live in one hundred percent a place of choice, and that is where I am.400

Likewise, al-Hibri notes that modesty is a value that both men and women should keep, but instead of delving into it and expressing her opinion, she looks into the veil in the context of the alleged gender apartheid and claims: Western Feminists do not attempt to educate themselves about Islam as a world religion, or about the points of view of Muslim or Arab women. Instead, western feminists hold an Orientalist view of Islam, and act on that view. This attitude has already resulted in western feminists silencing Muslim/ Arab-American women not through coercion, but rather by their astounding inability to hear us, regardless of how loudly we protest. And that inability to hear is not the result of a cultural gap.401

Al-Hibri argues that whereas Western feminists give the veil a lot of attention, Muslim women do not. As such, she rejects the current controversy about the veil, which she views as a personal choice made by Muslim women. Although traditional and modern scholars concur that a Muslim woman must dress modestly, there is disagreement among them as to whether the veil is necessary or optional. Their interpretations, however, conflict with El Saadawi’s claim that the veil is a sort of enslavement. Looking back on the Arabian Peninsula and other parts of the world during the early ages, it can be seen that free women were distinguished from slaves by wearing the veil. The practice of veiling was “a symbol of

398 Qur’an, 7:26. 399 Wadud, “Inside the Gender Jihad: Women’s reform in Islam” 220. 400 Hera Diani, “Meet Amina Wadud, The Rock Star of Islamic Feminist.” 401 Al-Hibri, “Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities” 160–161.

108 

 8 The Veil Controversy

privilege” and was mainly worn by upper-class women during pre- Islamic times.402 El Saadawi’s second claim against the veil is based on her personal assumption that Muslim women do not choose to wear the veil, but rather it is imposed on them. To support her argument, El Saadawi presents her personal experience with the veil as an example that reflects the societal pressure women typically face. Contrary to what she claims, divergent opinions on this topic have been documented in a number of research studies. While some Muslim women who wear the veil claim to do so “by choice as an expression of their religious faith commitment and for the benefits they perceive it to bestow,”403 others claim that their parents have forced them to wear it and that their freedom of choice is restricted to the color of the veil.404 I argue that having various readings of the Qur’anic veil verses gives women the choice of whether or not to wear veils. Some parents in certain societies may force their female dependents to wear the veil, but El Saadawi’s generalization that veiled women do not freely choose to wear it seems to be imprecise because it ignores other people’s freedom to choose to do so. Moreover, El Saadawi’s decision to defy family and cultural pressure and refuse to wear the veil is unequivocal evidence that women do not have to comply with the restrictions placed on them and wear the veil against their will. Instead, they can follow El Saadawi’s example and refuse it. Although some women reject the veil, others accept it and regard it as a necessary ritual that satisfies religious responsibilities.405 El Saadawi’s claims that wearing a veil is unfair and that veiled women have been deceived appear to contravene the fundamental idea of freedom of choice. Regarding her third critique, moreover, El Saadawi emphasizes that Islam treats women as mere objects and confuses their value as human beings with their physical attributes. However, several Qur’anic verses that illustrate gender equality in terms of composition, rights, and obligations are discussed in classical interpretations of the Qur’an. Al-Tabari, for instance, asserts that both men and women are made of dust and have undergone the same stages of composition which is explained in the verse below: We created you from dust, then from a sperm-drop, then from a clinging clot, and then from a lump of flesh, formed and unformed- that We may show you. And We settle in the wombs whom We will for a specified term, then We bring you out as a child, and then [We develop you] that you may reach your [time of] maturity.406

402 Emile Marmorstein, “The veil in Judaism and Islam” 11. 403 Myfanwy Franks, “Crossing the borders of whiteness? White Muslim women who wear the hijab in Britain today” 927. 404 See Jhanghiz Syahrivar, “Hijab no more: A phenomenological study.” 405 See Syed Ali, “Why here, why now? Young Muslim women wearing hijab.” 406 Qur’an, 22:5.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil 

 109

In his interpretation of the verse, Ibn Kathir illuminates those men and women are created equally and there are no genuine differences between them in terms of the early stages of composition which is also confirmed in the following Qur’anic verses: And indeed, We created man out of an extract of Tin. Thereafter We made him a Nutfah (sperm-drop) in a safe lodging. Then We made the Nutfah into a clot, then We made the clot into a little lump of flesh, then We made out of that little lump of flesh bones, then We clothed the bones with flesh, and then We brought it forth as another creation. So blessed is Allah, the Best of creators.407

The word “Man” in the above verses, argues Ibn Kathir, refers to the two genders as humans who pass through the same phases of creation. He also asserts that the Qur’an acknowledges gender equality and complementary roles even though it shows that men and women have different responsibilities. Ibn Kathir cites the verse “O mankind, fear your Lord, who created you from one soul and created from it its mate and dispersed from both of them many men and women”408 as evidence that there is no superiority of a man over a woman. Al-Tabari also refers to the Prophet’s adage that “women are the twin halves of men,” which denotes that they are complementary to one another in terms of nature and creation. As a result, the Prophet admonished men to “treat women nicely.” When asked who his favorite person was, the Prophet Muhammad replied that it was his wife, Aisha, from whom he had instructed Muslims to “take half of their religion.” According to al-Tabari, this response reveals the elevated status of women, whose intelligence the Prophet himself greatly values.409 Furthermore, Ibn Kathir emphasizes that the idea that women are inferior in Islam is “pure fiction and should be completely disregarded.”410 His stance is in keeping with the following Qur’anic verse: O mankind, we have created you from a male and a female; and We have made you tribes and sub-tribes that you may know one another. Verily, the most honorable among you, in the sight of Allah, is the one who is the most righteous among you. Surely, Allah is All-Knowing, All- Aware.411

Ibn Kathir explains that both men and women must abide by Islamic Shariah laws, which is reinforced by a different Qur’anic verse that states, “Every soul will be

407 Qur’an, 23:12–14. 408 Qur’an, 4:1. 409 Al-Tabari, “Tafsir al-Tabari” 575. 410 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 526. 411 Qur’an, 49:14.

110 

 8 The Veil Controversy

(held) in pledge for its deeds.”412 According to Ibn Kathir, the Qur’an treats women with high regard and contains a chapter titled An-Nissaa, or “Women,” but not one titled Al Rijal, or “Man.” In addition, Mary, the mother of Jesus Christ, has a chapter in the Qur’an named after her, and several other chapters in the book tell how she gave birth to her son miraculously. For instance, in the third chapter of the Qur’an, Al ‘Imran, Mary’s mother is quoted as saying, “(Remember) when the wife of Imran said: “O my lord! I have vowed to You what (the child that) is in my womb to be dedicated for Your service, so accept this from me.”413 Al-Tabari also claims that additional women are referenced in the Qur’an, including Asiya bint Muzahim,414 who is mentioned twice, in verses 28:7–9 and 66:11, underscoring both her piety and the oppression of her husband. The same argument is asserted by al-Hibri, who quotes the second Caliph of Islam Umar as saying: “By God, we did not use to pay attention to women until God said about them in the Qur’an what is said and gave them their share on matters.”415 Moreover, al-Hibri demonstrates that the so-called Islamic patriarchy stems from cultural and social practices rather than the Islamic religion itself whose values and principles are based mainly on equality and fairness. Al-Hibri adds that all human beings, regardless of gender or race, according to the Islamic faith, are equal before God and are not distinguished except by their piety that is directly mentioned in the following Qur’anic verse: O humanity! Indeed, we created you from a male and a female, and made you into peoples and tribes so that you may get to know one another. Surely the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous among you.416

Al-Hibri also notes that the Qur’an affirms the equality of men and women in the reward for their deeds in the hereafter “I will never deny any of you -male or femalethe reward of your deeds. Both are equal regarding hereafter rewards.”417 Another Qur’anic verse clarifies gender equality in the rewards of the hereafter by saying: Surely, men who submit themselves to God and women who submit themselves to Him, and believing men and believing women, and obedient men and obedient women, and truthful men and truthful women, and men steadfast in their faith and steadfast women, and men who are humble and women who are humble, and men who give alms, and women who gives

412 Qur’an, 74:38. 413 Qur’an, 3:35. 414 Asiya bint Muzahim was the wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh who adopted Moses according to Islamic traditions. 415 Al-Hibri, “Women and Islam” 213. 416 Qur’an, 49:13. 417 Qur’an, 3:195

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on the Veil 

 111

alms, and men who fast and women who fast, and men who are chaste and women who are chaste, and men and women who remember Allah much- Allah has prepared for all of them forgiveness and a great reward.418

Al-Hibri, thus, underscores that “from the perspective of these Qur’anic passages, no man is superior to a woman by a virtue of his gender alone.”419 In a similar vein, Wadud claims that “the Qur’anic version of the creation of humankind is not expressed in gender terms” but rather by the word nafs “soul” and that the Qur’an also emphasizes that “everything created in pairs,” as in verse 36:36 “Glory be to Him Who created all the azwaj, of that which the earth grows, and of their own nafs, and of that which they know not.”420 Furthermore, Wadud claims that the Qur’an expressly mentions that both Adam and Eve were enticed by Satan, who “made them slip and removed them from the state they were in,”421 and does not hold Eve responsible for the first sin. Thus, the scripture affirms that both of them sinned and that, after turning from their sins, they received forgiveness. Wadud also explains that “the Qur’an always uses the Arabic dual form to tell how Satan tempted both Adam and Eve and how they both disobeyed” and the only time the Qur’an uses a single form in the story of temptation of Adam and Eve by Satan is to blame Adam alone in verse 20:121 “And Adam disobeyed his Lord, so went astray.” By doing so, argues Wadud, “the Qur’an overcomes the negative Greco-Roman and Biblical- Judaic implications that woman was the cause of evil and damnation.” She additionally indicates that the Qur’an always refers to the responsibility of each individual for his/ her deeds and repeatedly states that “every man and woman individually and every people collectively are alone responsible for what they do. In conclusion, it appears that contrary to El Saadawi’s statements, both classical and modern scholars agree that women are generally treated in Islam with equal regard to men and are not seen as simple bodies. According to the abovementioned sources, women are frequently depicted as highly respected human beings with high status and equal rights to males in the Qur’an and the Prophet’s ahadith. Regarding the issue of veil, however, several modern and classical scholars agree that Muslim women are mandatorily required to wear loose-fitting clothing when going out in public places. They differ about whether or not the veil is mandatory. Whereas Ibn Kathir and al-Tabari believe that women should be veiled, Wadud and al-Hibri indicate that every Muslim woman is free to choose whether or not to be veiled and is responsible for her choice.

418 Qur’an, 33:36. 419 Al-Hibri, “An introduction to Muslim women’s rights” 51. 420 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 21. 421 Qur’an, 2:36.

9 Inheritance Rights The way in which the legal status of women in a given Muslim society is actually defined, and perhaps more importantly, the de facto application of their legal rights, cannot be isolated from a host of other variables, such as cultural specificity, social and political structures as well as the level of economic development -CAMILLA FAWZI EL SOHL & JUDY MABRO, Muslim Women’s Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality422 Whose perspective and definition are we to apply if we are to determine if [the Qur’an’s] teachings are ethical and egalitarian—those of the Qur’an itself or of (Muslim and Western) patriarchies, feminists, or some combination? This is a critical question since different perspectives yield different assessments. -ASMA BARLAS, Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an423

According to Asma Barlas, an exegete of the Qur’an whose specialties include Qur’anic hermeneutic, and women’s studies, a number of potential viewpoints might affect how the teachings of the Qur’an are evaluated. She begins by referring to the viewpoint of the Qur’an itself, which alludes to a thorough examination of the text of the Qur’an. Then she draws attention to the impact of patriarchies (both Muslim and Western), arguing that social and cultural norms can affect how people interpret the teachings of the Qur’an. She also incorporates the viewpoint of feminists, who provide their own interpretations and values to the analysis. In this respect, Barlas emphasizes the significance of understanding how different viewpoints that can result in varying appraisals of the ethical and egalitarian nature of the Qur’an’s teachings. Because different viewpoints could result in different interpretations and understandings of these teachings, she raises the fundamental question of whose perspective should be employed in evaluating them. Camilla Fawzi El Sohl and Judy Mabro, moreover, assert that a variety of elements outside of religious regulations must be taken into account in order to comprehend the legal status of women in a Muslim society. They place a strong emphasis on the significance of contextual factors like culture, social dynamics, political institutions, and economic development. These components influence how women’s legal rights are defined and put into practice, demonstrating the complexity and interaction of several factors when determining women’s legal status in a particular society.

422 Camilla Fawzi El Sohl & Judy Mabro, “Muslim Women’s Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality” 11. 423 Asma Barlas, “Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an” 169. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-009

The Issue of Inheritance Rights and El Saadawi’s Perspective 

 113

The Issue of Inheritance Rights and El Saadawi’s Perspective One of the legal rights given to women in the Qur’an that has caused controversy is the distribution of inheritance due to the gender-based disparities in inheritance shares as defined by Islamic law. Islam has distinct inheritance rights for men and women, as stated in the Qur’an, which states that “there is a share for men and a share for women from what is left by parents and those nearest related, whether the property is small or large, an obligatory share.”424 The passage affirms that women are given specific shares in their relatives’ inheritances, which was not the case for women in the Arabian Peninsula during the time before Islam. Nevertheless. Islam is constantly criticized for the unequal inheritance shares that are provided for each gender. The verse that has generated the most controversy in this regard is Surah an-Nisa (4:11), where Allah states: “Allah commands you regarding your children: for the male, what is equal to the share of two females.” In this case, male heirs may have a right to an inheritance that is two times larger than that of female heirs under specific circumstances. This gender-based inequality in inheritance percentages has been the subject of ongoing debate among researchers and within Muslim communities. There are various perspectives on how this divergence should be understood and applied in the contemporary day. Supporters argue that the Qur’an’s verses on inheritance offer a divine framework that should be followed exactly and that the different inheritance shares are a result of the unique familial commitments and financial obligations that are customarily given to men and women. Others, on the other hand, argue that a more equitable approach to inheritance is necessary since the gender-based disparity within Islamic teachings is in opposition to the ideals of social justice and gender equality. They offer alternative interpretations that place more of an emphasis on greater ideas of fairness and human needs rather than insisting on strict adherence to gender-based ratios. El Saadawi is one of many who criticize Islam for what they see as gender-based inequity in the inheritance system., saying: Since I was a young child, I have not delighted in the feast as much as my brother has. My grandmother used to secretly give him cash when the daughters were not around. Half of what she provides the boy goes to the girl. My brother was thrilled to receive twice as much as each girl. Once he revealed the secret, I fling my grandmother’s coins into her lap and refuse to receive half of what my brother does. My brother continually fails while I succeed with distinction. My grandmother uses the Qur’an to defend her unjust treatment, saying: “Our Lord said the girl is half of the boy, my son’s daughter.”425

424 Qur’an, 4:7. 425 El Saadawi, “‫ تحليل أدبﻰ لمرض نفسﻰ‬:‫ نوال السعداوى تكتب‬.‫”د‬

114 

 9 Inheritance Rights

She mentions the disparity in the siblings’ levels of joy or excitement caused by the unequal treatment symbolized by receiving only half the money her brother received as a child, which was justified by the grandmother by quoting a verse from the Qur’an (4:11) that implies women are entitled to receive only half of men’s inheritance. Using her own personal experience of unfair treatment, she criticizes gender-based discrimination. She shows the psychological effects of such discrimination and highlights how religious texts are often used to support unfair practices. El Saadawi poses concerns regarding fairness, gender equality, and how to understand religious doctrine in light of these challenges. In an interview with Bart Moore-Gilbert in 2009, additionally, El Saadawi vehemently condemns the Qur’anic verse 4:11, which, in her opinion, demonstrates overt discrimination against women and displays Islam as oppressing women by allocating half of the male share to the female and asserting the superiority of men.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Inheritance Rights Al-Tabari claims that male or female gender has no bearing on inheritance in Islam.  Instead, it is determined by three key factors: the degree of connection between the inheritor and the deceased, the inheritor’s age, and the amount of debt that Islamic Shariah law compels the inheritor to carry. According to the general rule, the heir who is less mature, farther away from the decedent, and burdened by greater financial obligations receives a larger portion of the bequest. The difference in inheritance shares occurs when the degree of kinship and age of the heirs are similar, as well as when the financial responsibilities are different. Contrary to El Saadawi’s claim of inequality between men and women, al-Tabari clarifies that Islamic Shariah law shows three different cases of inheritance shares with women inheriting more than men, half a man’s share and an equal share for men. Hence, the claim that men are given a higher inheritance than women is not a general rule, but it is rather limited to certain cases. Here, al-Tabari explains that the word “children” in the Qur’anic verse 4:11, which is criticized by El Saadawi, confirms that a woman does not receive half of a man’s share except in the case of brothers. This interpretation allows for a description of the verse based on the primary roles that each gender is assigned. A woman is excluded from this economic obligation, but a male is accountable for all of the family’s financial demands, including those of his wife, sisters, and parents. For example, before marriage, the father is the daughter’s primary financial supporter. The woman’s financial responsibilities are transferred to her husband after marriage, who is now solely responsible for covering all of her expenses. Al-Tabari further demonstrates that a man and a woman receive the same share in other scenarios that are discussed in verse 4:12, which is

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Inheritance Rights 

 115

about the case of a person who passes away without a father or child and simply leaves behind a brother and a sister. In that instance, they each get a sixth of the estate’s total worth. Al-Tabari continues by saying that if there are more than two siblings, each one will receive a share of the inheritance.426 Similarly, Ibn Kathir gives the same verse the following interpretation: If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question was left in Kalalah,427 but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies he (or she) may have bequeathed or debts, so that no loss is caused (to anyone).

Here, Ibn Kathir presents a comprehensive debate of the meaning of the word kalala including the opinion of Abu Bakr who said: I will say my own opinion about it, and if it is correct, then this correctness is from Allah. However, if my opinion is wrong, it will be my error and because of the evil efforts of Satan, and Allah and His Messenger have nothing to do with it. Kalalah refers to the man who has neither descendants nor ascendants.428

Ibn Kathir clarifies that by kalalah, Umar Ibn Al Khattab meant a person without parents or children. In verse 4:176, the word Kalalah is spoken, superseding the allowance for siblings in verse 4:12. In the absence of parents or children, the Qur’an states that a woman inherits half of her brother’s property; however, if the deceased brother had two sisters, they would receive two-thirds of the estate, according to Ibn Kathir. However, the same inheritance norm established previously in verse 4:11 is confirmed if there are more siblings, with the man receiving twice as much as the female. Similarly, Ibn Kathir’s interpretation of the first part of verse 4:34 displays that, “Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has made one of them to excel the other, and because they spend (to support them) from their means.” The same concept is further developed in Ibn Kathir’s interpretation of another verse, which reads, “let a man of wealth spend from his wealth, and he whose provision is restricted - let him spend from what Allah has given him.”429 In this sense, the traditional reading of the two verses affirms a woman’s right to receive financial support from her husband. If the husband dies, the son or a male relative takes care of his widow. 426 Al-Tabari, “Tafsir al-Tabari.” 427 Kalalah is a derivative of Iklil; the crown that surrounds the head. The meaning of Kalalah in this verse is that the person’s heirs come from other than the first degree of relative. That is a person left neither ascendants nor descendants. 428 Ibn Kathir, “Tafsir Ibn Kathir” 1460. 429 Qur’an, 65:7.

116 

 9 Inheritance Rights

Al-Hibri, however, asserts that while the Qur’an does state that a sister inherits half of what a brother inherits, it also states that other females with different degrees of kinship may inherit more than other males. But unlike her brother, who must spend the inheritance to maintain the entire family, a woman who inherits a family member has the right to keep the wealth for herself. According to al-Hibri, the man “must support the women in his family regardless of their financial condition, unless there is a financially able male relative who is closer to them.”430 Al-Hibri clarifies that a sister’s inheritance is “a net amount added to her wealth” whereas a brother’s inheritance is “a gross amount” that he must spend to support other family members, including his sister. She also claims that the girl is financially supported by her father up until the point of her marriage, after which point her husband will do so. A wealthy Muslim woman is also not expected to provide for herself. Al-Hibri clarifies that “her closest male relative has that obligation, which she may waive only if she so chooses.”431 She further argues that it is rational and equitable for a guy to receive two times as much as a female. She contends that the disparate distributions are not “based on gender; it is rather based on the different economic roles of men and women in the family.”432 Her reasoning holds that the unequal inheritance distributions to men and women promote equality and allow them to fulfill their financial obligations rather than signifying masculine dominance. On the other hand, Wadud observes: Although the initial Qur’anic statement, in verses 4:11–12, makes ‘the share of the male is equivalent to the portion of two female (siblings)’, a complete look at this same verse enumerates a variety of proportional divisions between males and females.433

Although a woman is entitled to inherit one half of her brother’s share of the inheritance, Wadud argues, Muslim women generally receive a higher share of the inheritance than their male counterparts. For example, a female child gets half of her deceased parent’s property which is higher than her grandfather and her uncles who together share the other half of the inheritance. Wadud also explains that if a person dies and leaves behind a wife, sister, and nephew, then the wife has a quarter of the estate, and the sister inherits half of the estate, and the rest is for the nephew. This means that the sister will receive a larger portion than the nephew. There are several such instances where women inherit equally to men. If a woman dies and leaves behind only a husband and a sister, for example, her 430 Al-Hibri, “Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities” 47. 431 Al-Hibri, “Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities” 50. 432 Niaz Shah, “Women, the Koran, and international human rights law: The experience of Pakistan” 55. 433 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 87.

Analysis of El Saadawi’s Views on Inheritance Rights 

 117

property is divided equally between the two. If the deceased person leaves a son, father, and mother, moreover, each of the father and mother has one-sixth of his property.434 Likewise, if a man dies and has a son, grandfather, and grandmother then each of the grandparents inherits one-sixth of his property. In addition, if the deceased person leaves a girl and a grandson, then the girl has half of the inheritance, and the grandson inherits the other half. In this respect, Wadud notes that two significant points. First, the Qur’an states that women are not deprived of inheritance under any circumstance which was the case in the pre-Islamic era, and it may exist today in some societies. Second, “consideration must be given to the circumstance of the bereft, their benefit to the deceased, and the benefits of the wealth inherited.”435 Prophet Muhammad also forbade one of his companions, i.e., Sa’ad Ibn Abi Waqqas, to donate most of his wealth to charity. Instead, the Prophet advised him to donate a “third and a third is a lot, and it is better that you leave your heirs wealthy rather than leave them needy begging from the people. You will not spend anything seeking Allah’s countenance, but you receive a reward for that expenditure, even the morsel of food you put into your wife’s mouth.”436 Together, the above lines display some agreement between the traditional and modern interpretations of Qur’anic verses regarding the issue of inheritance, showing that the Qur’an gives women a lot of attention and seeks to address them equally with males. This contradicts El Saadawi’s claim that men are arbitrarily given more inheritance rights in Islam than women.

434 Ma’ruf al-Dawlibi, “Status of women in Islam.” 435 Wadud, “Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective” 88. 436 Al-Bukhari, “The correct traditions of al-Bukhari” 2591.

10 Final Comments The great crime is that I am a free woman at a time when they only wanted maids and slaves. Born with a thinking mind at a time when they are trying to abolish the mind. -NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Memoirs from the Women’s Prison437 The oppression of women is triple. Triple–globally by colonization, locally by the State and personally by the family. The man is oppressed globally by the colonization and locally by the State, but in the family, he is the oppressor of the woman -NAWAL EL SAADAWI, Interview with Nawal El Saadawi438

El Saadawi, who has frequently argued that religion ought to uphold justice and equality for all people, regardless of their race or gender, and ought to protect them from persecutors, asserts that “Islamic beliefs did not conflict with reality and the need for men and women to have equal access to and opportunities for employment.”439 She claims that in order to be a true Muslim, one must uphold and obey the progressive spirit of Islam. She argues that “women are not oppressed by religion. They are oppressed by political and economic systems. Whenever these systems change, the interpretation of religion changes with them.”440 Therefore, the political and economic objectives of Muslim patriarchs are used to interpret Islamic texts. El Saadawi critiques a number of contentious Qur’anic verses that have long been the subject of contentious debate and raises a number of intriguing questions about women’s rights in Islam. According to El Saadawi, Islam is a sexist faith that unfairly favors men over women, whose lives are destined to be supported by male guardians (such as a father, brother, husband, uncle, etc.).441 This book primarily examines her works and evaluates her claims regarding Muslim women’s rights in the context of traditional scholars’ (such as al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir) and modern Muslim feminists’ (Amina Wadud and Azizah al-Hibri) readings of the Qur’an. After looking through her arguments, a few things stand out. First, El Saadawi frequently mentions that she has studied all major religions for ten years and highlights how well she understands them all. Her writings, however, primarily critique religions without providing an in-depth investigation or examination of their claims. Second, El Saadawi presents conflicting viewpoints on numerous subjects. 437 Nawal El Saadawi, “Memoirs from the women’s prison” 11. 438 Sophie Smith, “Interview with Nawal El Saadawi” 66. 439 Marcel Farry, “In Conversation with Nawal El Saadawi” 22. 440 El Saadawi, “In Conversation with Nawal El Saadawi” 24. 441 See El Saadawi, “Creative women in changing societies: A personal reflection”; “The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world”; “Woman and Islam”; “The status of Muslim women.” https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-010

10 Final Comments 

 119

The first example is that she has contradictory views on all religions. According to El Saadawi, all religions are dominated by men, which makes them repressive to women and the root of their servitude. However, she claims in an earlier statement that while the idea of equality exists in all major religions, it is increasingly politicized and misapplied by those in positions of authority to further their own agendas.442 Religions’ support for gender equality is hampered as a result, and people reject it. In an interview with Homa Khaleeli, El Saadawi further remarks that “the problem is not Islam, it is the political systems that use Islam and religion.”443 On a different issue, El Saadawi also emphasizes her opposition to polygamy since it fosters animosity amongst children and harshly criticizes Islam for tolerating it.444 Later, El Saadawi contradicts her earlier statement by claiming that “polygamy is a lie, it is not in the Qur’an, and Arab countries like Tunisia have banned it” on a recent TV program.445 Aside from that, El Saadawi recognizes Prophet Muhammad as the first liberator of women despite harshly criticizing many aspects of Muslim society on a number of issues pertaining to women’s rights.446 El Saadawi explains that throughout his rule, Muslim women had access to gender equality, unrestricted freedom of speech, and participation in all facets of life. Furthermore, she claims that “women in the time of the Prophet obtained rights, which today are denied in most Arab countries,”447 and that as a result, the political and economic structures that “attempt to misinterpret religion and utilize it as an instrument of fear, oppression, and exploitation” are to blame for the oppression of women in Islamic societies rather than Islam itself.448 In other words, the political and social structures of Muslim nations are to blame for the subordinate position of women. Her arguments therefore appear to be inconsistent. While El Saadawi occasionally holds the Islamic faith responsible, other times she criticizes the social, political, and cultural structures of Muslim societies. Third, El Saadawi’s viewpoints about several gender issues are at odds with both traditional and contemporary interpretations of the Qur’an. For instance, she asserts that Muslim women are compelled to marry men chosen by their male guardians without taking their permission into account.449 El Saadawi further claims that the husband is permitted to physically abuse his wife, who must

442 Nawal El Saadawi, “The status of Muslim women.” 443 Homa Khaleeli, “Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s radical feminist.” 444 Nawal El Saadawi, “The Nawal El Saadawi reader.” 445 Nawal El Saadawi, “1‫”نوال السعداوي في ضيافة مفيد فوزي ج‬ 446 Nawal El Saadawi, “Walking through fire a life of Nawal El Saadawi.” 447 Nawal El Saadawi, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess? 212. 448 Nawal El Saadawi, “A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess? 41. 449 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and Islam.”

120 

 10 Final Comments

submit to him and perform household duties. It is found that her claims about marriage are in conflict with traditional and some modern scholars’ interpretations of the Qur’an, which affirms the equality of men and women (e.g., Qur’an 9:71, 33:35 and 7:189) and emphasizes the necessity of a woman’s consent for a marriage contract to be valid (e.g., Qur’an 2:232). Furthermore, the wife is found not to be required to handle home duties. In this regard, Wadud argues that the husband should hire a housekeeper instead and that he should also help out with the chores, much like Prophet Muhammad used to do for his wife.450 However, Ibn Kathir and al-Tabari discuss various arguments regarding the issue of violence against women and contend that wives’ rebellion against their husbands should be dealt with in a series of steps, such as light beatings with a small toothbrush, to draw their attention to the error they make rather than harm them. El Saadawi also criticizes Islam for allowing polygamy, which she portrays as a way for men to appease women and demean them.451 In addition, she claims that it is impossible to treat women equitably and that even the Prophet Muhammad favored his wife Aisha to his other spouses. According to al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir’s reading of the Qur’anic verse that reads, “you will never be able to do perfect justice between wives even if it is your ardent desire,”452 this is consistent with the Qur’an’s meaning. They both make it clear that, despite his sincere wish to do so, the husband will not be able to fully reconcile his wives. Al-Hibri and Wadud also argue that polygamy is sanctioned more for the purpose of addressing social issues and promoting the successful integration of orphans and widows into society than for the fulfillment of male sexual cravings. El Saadawi further notes that women are not granted the same freedom to end a marriage as males are in Islam. This treatment, according to her, is an illustration of how Muslim women are oppressed. But Ibn Kathir and al-Tabari note that the two couples are counseled to first seek reconciliation before considering divorce as a final option. However, the couple is urged to part ways respectfully without causing either of them any harm or pain if they decide it is impossible to rekindle their relationship later. Men can divorce their wives whenever they want, but women can do so as well through faskh and Khula’. Additionally, Wadud and al-Hibri underline that a woman may stipulate in her marital contract that she has the right to divorce her husband. El Saadawi’s opinions generally mirror the difficulties that Muslim women now encounter. Despite her conflicting opinions, I contend that El Saadawi’s goal is not to criticize Islam per se but rather to draw attention to contemporary interpretations

450 Nawal El Saadawi, “A daughter of Isis.” 451 Nawal El Saadawi, “Woman and Islam.” 452 Qur’an, 4:129.

10 Final Comments 

 121

of major Islamic sources that, in her opinion, are dominated by men. In this sense, according to Asma Barlas, “Islam is not based on the idea of male epistemic privilege, in a formally ordained interpretive community, or in clergy.”453 It is also odd that Islam is blamed instead of those cultural norms when, for example, various Muslim cultures allow for different behaviors, such as gender segregation. This does not, however, imply that each and every one of these cultural customs is inextricably linked to Islam, as many scholars have noted. For instance, when Islam is examined in terms of how it is culturally interpreted in patriarchal Muslim communities, according to Randa Abdel-Fattah, Islam is solely utilized to support the subordination of women, which results from patriarchal cultural practices.454 To prevent this misconception, therefore, it is essential to distinguish between Islamic law and cultural practices. In conclusion, a distinctive literature on women and Islam continues to be inspired by the question of how to grasp the Qur’anic language. The text’s ambiguity and adaptability inspire numerous, occasionally incompatible readings that necessitate careful consideration and comparison. It is crucial to keep in mind that this field of research is dynamic and developing, with fresh viewpoints and discoveries appearing on a regular basis. The ongoing efforts to understand how the Qur’anic language relates to women is influenced by scholarly debate and the real-life experiences of Muslim women around the world.

453 Asma Barlas, “Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an” 209. 454 Randa Abdel-Fattah, “Ending oppressing in the Middle East: A Muslim feminist call to arms.”

Tables A List of El Saadawi’s Fiction Writings Table 1: Novels and Novellas. Title The Absent One The Death of The Only Man On Earth  Death of an Ex-Minister Two Women in One Woman at Point Zero God Dies by The Nile  The Children’s Circling Song  The Fall of the Imam  The Circling Song Ganat and the Devil  The Well Of Life and the Thread The Innocence of the Devil  The Well of Life Love in the Kingdom of Oil  Searching  The Novel  Zeina

Year of Publications 1969 1975 1987 1992 1983 1984 1986 1987 1989 1991 1993 1994 1994 2001 2008 2009 2011

Table 2: Short Stories. Title I learnt love Moment of truth Little tenderness The thread and the wall Ain el-Hayat She was the weaker Death of an ex-minister She has no place in paradise Adab am Kellet Abad

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-011

Year of Publications 1957 1959 1960 1972 1976 1977 1978 1987 2000

124 

 Tables

Table 3: Memoirs. Title Memoirs From the Women’s Prison My Travels Around the World Memoirs of a Women Doctor Memoirs of a Child Called Souad My Life, Part I, Autobiography My Life, Part II, Autobiography My Life, Part III A Daughter of Isis Walking Through Fire

Year of Publications 1986 1986 1989 1990 1996 1998 2001 2002 2002

Table 4: Plays. Title

Year of Publications

Twelve Women in A Cell 

1984

Isis

1985

Twelve Women in a Cell: Plays by Mediterranean Women 

1994

God Resigns at The Summit Meeting

1996

Table 5: A list of El Saadawi’s non-fiction writings. Title Women and Sex Woman is the Origin Men and Sex The Naked Face of Arab Women Women and Neurosis The Hidden Face of Eve My Travels Around the World On Women A New Battle in Arab Women Liberation The Nawal Saadawi Reader A Daughter Of Isis, Autobiography (Part I) Collections of Essays 1 Collections of Essays 2 Breaking Down Barriers Walking Through Fire, Autobiography (Part II) The Twin of Power and Sex Forbidden Questions and Mind-Freezing

Year of Publications 1969 1971 1973 1974 1975 1882 1985 1986 1992 1997 1998 1998 2001 2004 2008 2017 2019

A List of El Saadawi’s Fiction Writings 

Table 6: Compilations in English. The Nawal El Saadawi Reader New Writings on Fear and Sin

1997 2019

 125

A List of El Saadawi’s Newspaper Interviews Abraham, A. (2015, November 12). An Interview with Nawal El Saadawi, Egypt’s Most Fiery Feminist. Vice. https://www.vice.com/en/article/3bjjdw/nawal-el-saadawi-interview-activism-934. Addis, E. (2020, March 2). Review–An Artist’s Awakening: Two Women in One by Nawal El Saadawi. WordPress.Com. https://africainwords.com/2020/03/02/an-artists-awakening-two-women-in-oneby-nawal-el-saadawi. Akkawi, H. (2021, April 6). An Introduction to Nawal El Saadawi’s Controversial Views on Religion, Politics, Women, and Death. Watchdogs Gazette. https://watchdogsgazette.com/affairs/anintroduction-to-nawal-el-saadawis-controversial-views-on-religion-politics-women-and-death. Amin, O. (2016). Interview with Nawal El Saadawi. In Nawal El Saadawi and Omnia Amin (Eds.), Diary of a Child Called Souad (pp. 159–165). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1137-58730-5_5. Batha, E. (2018, May 24). “I don’t fear death”: pioneering Egyptian feminist defies threats. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-women-rights/i-dont-fear-death-pioneering-egyptianfeminist-defies-threats-idUSKCN1IP2V9. Bhaduri, A. (2006, July 1). Interview: Dr. Nawal El Saadawi. News Line Magazine. https:// newslinemagazine.com/magazine/interview-dr-nawal-el-saadawi. Cooke, R. (2015). Nawal El Saadawi: Do you feel you are liberated? I feel I am not. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/11/nawal-el-saadawi-interview-do-you-feel-youare-liberated-not. Crowcroft, O. (2018, June 14). Nawal El Saadawi: “Hillary Clinton and Theresa May Are More Patriarchal Than Men.” Newsweek. https://www.newsweek.com/egypts-feminist-warrior-nawal-el-saadawireligion-revolution-and-rage-974877. El Saadawi, N., & Beall, J. (1989). Nawal El Saadawi. Agenda, 5, 33. https://doi.org/10.2307/4065647. El Saadawi, N. (1995). “But Have Some Art with You”: An Interview with Nawal El Saadawi. Literature and Medicine, 14(1), 60–71. doi:10.1353/lm.1995.0004. El Saadawi, N., & Newson-Horst, A. (2008). Conversations with Nawal El Saadawi. World Literature Today, 82(1), 55–58. Retrieved March 29, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/40159615. El Saadawi, N., (2009, December 8). ‫ تحليل أدبى لمرض نفسى‬:‫ نوال السعداوى تكتب‬.‫د‬. ‫المصري اليوم‬. https://www. almasryalyoum.com/news/details/211014. Emenyonu, E. N., & Emenyonu, E. N. (2019, August). Conversations with Nawal El Saadawi: Online interview - ALT 35: Focus on Egypt. Cambridge Core. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ alt-35-focus-on-egypt/conversations-with-nawal-el-saadawi-online-interview/1575938DBC08901 C1A6670B2608E4294. Etezadosaltaneh, N., & Kabir, A. (2015a, February 3). Q&A with Nawal El Saadawi. Intonational Policy Digest. https://intpolicydigest.org/q-a-with-nawal-el-saadawi. Graham-Brown, S. (1981). Feminism in Egypt: A Conversation with Nawal Sadawi. MERIP Reports, (95), 24–27. Hepburn, S. (2001, October 26). No compromise. BBC NEWS. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/ correspondent/1619902.stm. Johnson, A., & El-Saadawi, N. (1992). Interview: Speaking at Point Zero: “oob” Talks with Nawal El-Saadawi. Off Our Backs, 22(3), 1–7. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20833964. Joseph, N. (2002, March 1). 9–11, From a Different Perspective: Interview with Nawal El Sadaawi and Sherif Hetata. Isis Women. http://www.isiswomen.org/index.php?option=com_content&view= article&id=682&Itemid=452. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-012

128 

 A List of El Saadawi’s Newspaper Interviews

Khaleeli, H. (2017, November 25). Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s radical feminist. The Guardian. https:// www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/15/nawal-el-saadawi-egyptian-feminist. Khalil, R. (2016, March 23). ‫ والقانون منعني من الزواج بمسيحي‬..‫ تعدد الزوجات ليس من اإلسالم‬:‫نوال السعداوي‬. ‫بوابة اخبار اليوم‬. https://m.akhbarelyom.com/news/newdetails/10332/1. Khoury, N. (1970). Nawal EI Saadawi: Woman and Psychological Struggle. Al-Raida Journal, 12–13. https://doi.org/10.32380/alrj.v0i0.1367. Kommentare, K. (2014, May 12). “they don’t want any really courageous people!” interview with nawal el saadawi. Holger Ehling Worldwide Blog. http://www.ehlingmedia.com/blog/?p=3468. Mayton, J. (2021, March 23). Nawal El Saadawi Interview. Progressive.Org. https://progressive.org/ magazine/nawal-el-saadawi-interview. McGrath, C. (2009, October 23). Q&A: “Women Will Benefit from Secularism.” Inter Press Service. http:// www.ipsnews.net/2009/10/qa-women-will-benefit-from-secularism. Mellouk, I. (2019, January 4). Interview with Egyptian activist Nawal El Saadawi: “We are a hundred years behind” -Qantara.de. Qantara.de- Dialogue with the Islamic World. https://en.qantara.de/ content/interview-with-egyptian-activist-nawal-el-saadawi-we-are-a-hundred-years-behind. Mitchell, A. (2010, May 16). Nawal al Saadawi. The Global Dispatches. http://www.theglobaldispatches. com/articles/nawal-al-saadawi. Obrist, H. U. (2013, February). In Conversation with Nawal El Saadawi. Journal #42 February 2013 e-Flux. https://www.e-flux.com/journal/42/60256/in-conversation-with-nawal-el-saadawi. Powel, H. F. (2012, October 10). Interview with Nawal El Saadawi. Helena Frith Powel. http:// helenafrithpowell.com/blog/interview-with-nawal-el-saadawi. Raphael, S. (2018, June 7). “Women Are Pushed to Be Just Bodies–Veiled Under Religion Or Veiled By Makeup”: Nawal El Saadawi On Feminism Today. Refinery29. https://www.refinery29.com/ en-gb/2018/06/200895/nawal-el-saadawi-interview. Samaan, M. (2015, August 20). A lawsuit, an alleged affair behind feminist Nawal El-Saadawi’s divorce. Dailynewsegypt. https://www.dailynewsegypt.com/2010/07/09/a-lawsuit-an-alleged-affairbehind-feminist-nawal-el-saadawis-divorce. Shaker, B. A. A. A. N. (2018, May 16). “My principle is to unveil the mind.” The Cairo Review of Global Affairs. https://www.thecairoreview.com/q-a/my-principle-is-to-unveil-the-mind. Smith, S. (2006). An interview with Nawal El Saadawi. Feminist Review, 85(1), 59–69. https://doi. org/10.1057/palgrave.fr.9400322. Stransky, O. (2013, June 19). Egyptian Writer Nawal El Saadawi: “Hope is Power” | Sampsonia Way Magazine. Sampsonia Way Magazine | a Magazine of Literary Freedom of Expression. https://www. sampsoniaway.org/blog/2011/08/18/egyptian-writer-nawal-el-saadawi-%E2%80%9Chope-ispower%E2%80%9D. Suparman, N. F. N. (2020). Ketidakadilan Gender Dalam Novel Perempuan Di Titik Nol Karya Nawal El-Saadawi. Telaga Bahasa, 7(1), 97–108. https://doi.org/10.36843/tb.v7i1.60. Sussman, L. A. (2015, June 29). An interview with Nawal El Saadawi. The Nation. https://www.thenation. com/article/archive/interview-nawal-el-saadawi. Wahbi, Z. (2014, January 21). Al Mayadeen Documentaries. Almayadeeb.tv. Wajid, S. (2008). Nawal El Saadawi in dialogue. Darkmatter. Retrieved from http://www.darkmatter101. org/site/2008/02/13/nawal-el-saadawi-in-conversation.

A List of El Saadawi’s TV Shows A. A. (2021, March 20). ‫حوار جريء للمفكرة النسوية الدكتورة نوال السعداوي عن العلمانية‬. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=StBOL0U36tg. Al Aan TV ‫تلفزيون اآلن‬. (2015, December 26). ‫الدكتورة نوال السعداوي طبيبة وكاتبة مصرية‬. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=p2DaegpSsM0. A Lassuoty. (2013, June 22). ‫ مواجهة ساخنة مع نبيه الوحش ومحمد عمارة‬, ‫[ حمدى االسيوطى ود نوال السعداوى‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=brZyN_aSW_k. Al-Hiwar TV ‫قناة الحوار‬. (2009, April 11). ‫ نوال السعداوي‬.‫اوراق مصرية | حوار مع د‬. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=YKsPlckdgT4&t=4s. Al-jazeera Media Library ‫مكتبة الجزيرة المرئية‬. (2018 , October 12). ‫ ما أسباب اضطهاد‬-‫ االتجاه المعاكس‬1998/5/5 ‫المرأة العربية؟‬. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DXF4hAnrti0. Al Masry. (2015, July 23). 22/07/2015 ‫ األربعاء‬-‫ملتقى نوال السعداوى السادس باألسكندرية‬. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=iFJxvbiBMNg. Al Mayadeen Documentaries. (2014, January 21). -‫ باحثة وكاتبة مصرية‬- ‫ نوال السعداوي‬- ‫[ بيت القصيد‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1wLGdQE3l3g&t=4s. Badawi, Z. (2018, May 23). BBC World Service – HARDtalk, Egyptian Writer and Activist – Nawal El Saadawi. BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/w3cswjdy. BBC News ‫عربي‬. (2018, July 1).“‫”بال قيودمع الكاتبة والروائية المصرية نوال السعداوي‬. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=Ovr2_fUUDMU. BBC News Channel -HARDtalk, Nawal El Saadawi- Egyptian writer and activist. (2018, May 23). BBC. https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0b3q58n. Channel 4 News. (2018, June 13). Nawal El Saadawi on feminism, fiction and the illusion of democracy. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djMfFU7DIB8. Cuny Tv75. (2011, March 13). Nawal El Saadawi -Interview Excerpt #5- On equality for women and true democracy [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y_3ysXeDqMw. Festival TWIZA Tanger. (2017, August 12). Nawal El Saadawi ‫نوال السعداوي لقاء مع ضيفة شرف المهرجان الدكتورة‬. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-fk_TjSMSJM. Fuuse. (2015, April 13). In conversation: Nawal El Saadawi with Kenan Malik [Video]. YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=giRhtxYRTzg. Global Thinkers Forum. (2018, June 5). Athena40 Interview: Nawal El Saadawi, Egyptian Writer [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fY4Z2k7gcCw. IKKR-Kvinnojouren Nina. (2012, July 14). Seminar with Nawal Saadawi (2012) at IKKR locales [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFoVLsKV9i0. Nawal El Saadawi. (2006, September 25). ‫ الحلقة الكاملة‬-‫[ نوال السعداوي مع نيشان‬Video]. YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=gy6zcroya5g. Nawal El Saadawi. (2016a, November 21). 1 ‫[ نوال السعداوي في ضيافة مفيد فوزي ج‬Video]. YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=u0MEaGFziAE&t=3s. Nawal El Saadawi ‫نوال السعداوي‬. (2016b, November 27). 2 ‫[ لقاء مفيد فوزى مع نوال السعداوي ج‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62sLmP_QVPo&t=3s. Nawal El Saadawi ‫نوال السعداوي‬. (2016c, December 28). ‫[ نوال السعداوي في بدون رقابة‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WTTkY74qKZg&t=2364s. Nawal El Saadawi ‫نوال السعداوي‬. (2017, January 10). ‫[ نوال السعداوي ونضال االحمدي‬Video]. YouTube. https:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=233qaitLUsE. Nawal El Saadawi. (2017, June 26). ‫[ مناظرة بين نوال السعداوي ونبيه الوحش ومحمد عمارة‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iDle3KV6MRc. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-013

130 

 A List of El Saadawi’s TV Shows

Nawal El Saadawi ‫نوال السعداوي‬. (2018a, March 15). ‫[ مناقشة اول كتاب كتبته نوال السعداوي‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ndrd7EAjcgo. Nawal El Saadawi (2021, March 24). ‫[ الجزء التاني|مناظرة الدكتور محمد عمارة ونوال السعداوي‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiXY73rdxvE. Nawal El Saadawi (2021, March 26). ‫[ الحوار الممنوع من العرض حلقة نوال السعداوي مع الشيخ يوسف البدري‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8GDNSt5Zv4. Nileculture2013. (2015, September 17). ‫ إيمان‬/‫ نوال السعداوى على النيل الثقافية| إعداد‬/‫لقاء الكاتبة والناقدة د‬ ‫ إيمان الشامية‬/‫تقديم‬،‫[ الحسينى‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tQtMDkLuRQc. Niqach. (2017, October 7). 2009 - ‫ قناة بي بي سي‬- ‫ نوال السعداوي‬Nawal saadawi BBC [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q1hiloqGLDA. Sada Elbalad. (2013, December 27). ‫نوال السعداوى فى برنامج نظرة‬.‫[ د‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=y9ZoQaTCAss. SAT7AR. (2013, March 11). ‫ نوال السعداوي‬.‫ د‬- ‫[ ممنوع‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=REwslYryC7A. SAT7AR. (2015, May 12). ‫ مرة اخرى في ممنوع‬.. ‫ نوال السعدواي‬.‫[ د‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=6rtaiN96PCk. SAT7AR. (2015, September 21). “ ‫ في ممنوع‬.‫ نوال السعداوي في حوار عن المرأة والجنس‬.‫[ ”د‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jCDxNG-Sum0&ab_channel=SAT7AR. TeN TV. (2016, August 7). ‫[ مساء القاهرة يستضيف الكاتبة نوال السعداوي وحوار في اهم القضايا‬Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=am_ggifUsSo. UW Video. (2014, February 8). Walking Through Fire [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=QBhjubxMkUk. ‫القاهرة والناس‬. (2014, April 19). ‫ ابريل فقط وحصريا على‬19 ‫حوار الكاتبة نوال السعداوي في نبض القاهرة جزء ثاني‬ ‫القاهرة_والناس‬# [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8-u_Murvfs. ‫القاهرة والناس‬. (2015, February 4). # ‫ نبض_القاهرة القاهرة_والناس | سحر عبدالرحمن تحاور نوال السعداوي الحلقة الكاملة‬# [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=te58y4pNH08. ‫شبكة يقين اإلخبارية‬. (2014, December 22). ‫السعداوي يقين | تستضيف مكتبة القاهرة الكبرى الملتقى األول للدكتورة نوال‬. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uHMEgpzCISw. 24 ‫ فرانس‬/ FRANCE 24 Arabic. (2017a, September 11). ‫ الكاتبة الروائية المصرية نوال السعداوي في ضيف‬1‫ ج‬-‫ومسيرة‬. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=siRnYSqv0js&t=3s. 24 ‫ فرانس‬/ FRANCE 24 Arabic. (2017b, September 11). ‫ الكاتبة الروائية المصرية نوال السعداوي في ضيف‬2‫ ج‬-‫ومسيرة‬. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VpHXikhjeYM&t=188s. ‫ – كابيتال‬Capital. (2015, June 4). ‫حد يفهمنا | لقاء الكاتبة نوال السعداوى مع هند فرحات‬. YouTube. https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=ynMriRueB3U&t=2s.

A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes) For each of the Qur’anic verses to which this study refers, this appendix provides: – The Arabic text – The English translation Source: ‘Abdullah Yusuf ‘AIT, The Holy Qur’an: Text, Translation, and Commentary, 4th ed. (Brentwood, MD: Amana Corporation, 1989).

1 Marriage Verse 30:21 ٍ ۢ ‫َومِ ْن َءايَ ٰـتِ ِ ٓۦه أ َ ْن َخلَقَ لَ ُكم ِ ّم ْن أَنفُ ِس ُك ْم أ َ ْز ٰ َو ۭ ًجا ِلّت َ ْس ُكنُ ٓو ۟ا إِلَ ْي َها َو َجعَ َل بَ ْينَ ُكم َّم َودَّ ۭة ً َو َرحْ َمةً ۚ إِ َّن فِى ٰذَلِكَ َأليَ ٰـ‬ َ‫ت ِلّقَ ْو ٍۢم يَتَفَ َّك ُرون‬ English Translation And one of His signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves, in order to have tranquility and contentment with each other, and He placed in your hearts love and care towards your spouses. Surly in this, there are lessons for people who think. Verse 2:187 ُ َ‫ٱلرف‬ .‫اس لَّ ُه َّن‬ ّ ِ ‫أُحِ َّل لَ ُك ْم لَ ْيلَةَ ٱل‬ َّ ‫صيَ ِام‬ ٌ َ‫اس لَّ ُك ْم َوأَنت ُ ْم ِلب‬ ٌ َ‫سآئِ ُك ْم ۚ ه َُّن ِلب‬ َ ِ‫ث إِلَ ٰى ن‬

English Translation Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments and ye are their garments.

Verse 16:72 َّ َ‫والله َجعَ َل لَ ُكم ِ ّم ْن أَنفُ ِس ُك ْم أ َ ْز ٰ َو ًجا َو َجعَ َل لَ ُكم ِ ّم ْن أ َ ْز ٰ َو ِج ُكم بَنِينَ َو َحفَدَة ً َو َرزَ قَ ُكم ِ ّمن‬ ‫ت‬ ِ َ‫ٱلط ِيّ ٰب‬ ِ ‫ت ۚ أَفَبِ ْٱل ٰبَطِ ِل يُؤْ مِ نُونَ َوبِنِ ْع َم‬ . َ‫ٱللَّ ِه ُه ْم يَ ْكفُ ُرون‬ English Translation And Allah has made for you mates (and companions) of your own nature, and made for you, out of them, sons and daughters and grandchildren, and provided for  you sustenance of the best: will they then believe in vain things, and be ungrateful for Allah’s favors?

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-014

132 

 A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)

Verse 4:4 ۟ ُ ‫َو َءات‬ .‫سا فَ ُكلُوهُ َهنِ ٓيـًٔا َّم ِر ٓيـًٔا‬ َ ‫عن‬ ً ‫ش ْىءٍ ِ ّم ْنهُ نَ ْف‬ َ ‫صدُ ٰقَتِ ِه َّن نِحْ لَةً ۚ فَإِن طِ بْنَ لَ ُك ْم‬ َ ّ‫وا ٱل ِن‬ َ ‫سا ٓ َء‬

English Translation And give the women (on marriage) their dower as a free gift; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit any part of it to you, Take it and enjoy it with right good cheer. Verse 4:34 ۟ ُ‫ض َوبِ َما ٓ أَنفَق‬ َ ٰ ‫ص ِل ٰ َحتُ ٰقَنِ ٰت َتٌ ٰ َح ِف‬ ‫ب‬ َّ َ‫سآءِ بِ َما ف‬ ٍ ‫علَ ٰى بَ ْع‬ َّ ٰ ‫وا مِ ْن أ َ ْم ٰ َو ِل ِه ْم ۚ فَٱل‬ ِّ ِ ‫ظتٌ لّ ِْلغَ ْي‬ َ ‫ض َل ٱللَّهُ بَ ْع‬ َ ‫ض ُه ْم‬ َ َ‫ٱلر َجا ُل قَ ٰ َّو ُمون‬ َ ّ‫علَى ٱل ِن‬ ٰ ۟ ْ َ ُ َ ‫اجعِ َوٱض ِْربُوه َُّن ۖ فَإِ ْن أ‬ َ ‫بِ َما َح ِف‬ ‫علَ ْي ِه َّن‬ َ ‫ظ ٱللَّهُ ۚ َوٱلَّتِى تَخَافُونَ نُشُوزَ ه َُّن فَ ِعظوه َُّن َوٱ ْه ُج ُروه َُّن فِى ٱل َم‬ َ ‫ط ْعنَ ُك ْم فَ َال ت َ ْبغُوا‬ ِ ‫ض‬ ً ِ‫سب‬ .‫يرا‬ ً ِ‫ع ِليًّا َكب‬ َ َ‫يال ۗ إِ َّن ٱللَّهَ َكان‬ َ English Translation Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband’s) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them Means (of annoyance): For Allah is Most High, great (above you all). Verse 25:74 .‫َوٱلَّذِينَ يَقُولُونَ َربَّنَا هَبْ لَنَا مِ ْن أ َ ْز ٰ َو ِجنَا َوذُ ِ ّر ٰيَّتِنَا قُ َّرة َ أ َ ْعي ٍُن َوٱجْ عَ ْلنَا ل ِْل ُمتَّقِينَ إِ َما ًما‬

English Translation And those who pray, “Our Lord! Grant unto us wives and offspring who will be the comfort of our eyes and give us (the grace) to lead the righteous.” Verse 24:32 ۟ ُ‫ص ٰـلِحِ ينَ مِ ْن ِعبَا ِد ُك ْم َوإِ َمآئِ ُك ْم ۚ إِن يَ ُكون‬ ۟ ‫َوأَن ِك ُح‬ .‫علِي ۭ ٌم‬ ْ َ‫وا فُقَ َرآ َء يُ ْغنِ ِه ُم ٱللَّهُ مِ ن ف‬ َّ ‫وا ْٱألَيَ ٰـ َم ٰى مِ ن ُك ْم َوٱل‬ َ ‫ض ِلِۦه ۗ َوٱللَّهُ ٰ َو ِس ٌع‬ English Translation Marry off the ˹free˺ singles among you, as well as the righteous of your bondmen and bondwomen. If they are poor, Allah will enrich them out of His bounty. For Allah is All-Bountiful, All-Knowing. Verse 49:13 ُ ‫اس ِإنَّا َخلَ ْق ٰنَ ُكم ِ ّمن ذَك ٍَر َوأُنث َ ٰى َو َجعَ ْل ٰنَ ُك ْم‬ .‫ير‬ ٌ ‫علِي ٌم َخ ِب‬ ُ َّ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلن‬ َ َ‫ارفُ ٓو ۟ا ۚ ِإ َّن أ َ ْك َر َم ُك ْم عِندَ ٱللَّ ِه أَتْقَ ٰى ُك ْم ۚ ِإ َّن ٱللَّه‬ َ َ‫شعُوبًا َوقَبَا ٓ ِئ َل ِلتَع‬

1 Marriage 

 133

English Translation O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things). Verse 16:97 ۟ ُ‫س ِن َما كَان‬ َ ً ‫ص ِل ًحا ِ ّمن ذَك ٍَر أ َ ْو أُنث َ ٰى َوه َُو ُمؤْ مِ نٌ فَلَنُحْ يِيَنَّ ۥهُ َحيَ ٰوة‬ . َ‫وا يَ ْع َملُون‬ َ ‫َم ْن‬ َ ْ‫ط ِيّبَةً ۖ َولَنَجْ ِزيَنَّ ُه ْم أَجْ َرهُم بِأَح‬ َ ٰ ‫عمِ َل‬ English Translation Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has Faith, verily, to him will We give a new Life, a life that is good and pure and We will bestow on such their reward according to the best of their actions. Verse 57:12 َ‫ورهُم بَيْنَ أ َ ْيدِي ِه ْم َو ِبأ َ ْي ٰ َمنِ ِهم بُ ْش َر ٰى ُك ُم ْٱليَ ْو َم َج ٰنَّتٌ تَجْ ِرى مِ ن تَحْ تِ َها ْٱأل َ ْن ٰ َه ُر ٰ َخ ِلدِين‬ ِ َ‫يَ ْو َم ت ََرى ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ نِينَ َو ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ ٰن‬ ُ ُ‫ت يَ ْسعَ ٰى ن‬ .‫فِي َها ۚ ٰذَلِكَ ه َُو ْٱلف َْو ُز ْٱلعَظِ ي ُم‬ English Translation One Day shalt thou see the believing men and the believing women- how their Light runs forward before them and by their right hands: (their greeting will be): “Good News for you this Day! Gardens beneath which flow rivers! to dwell therein for aye! This is indeed the highest Achievement!” Verse 33:4 ٓ َ ٰ ُ ‫َّما َجعَ َل ٱللَّهُ ل َِر ُج ٍل ِ ّمن قَ ْلبَي ِْن فِى َج ْوفِِۦه ۚ َو َما َجعَ َل أ َ ْز ٰ َو َج ُك ُم ٰٱلَّـِٔى ت‬ ۚ ‫ظ ِه ُرونَ مِ ْن ُه َّن أ ُ َّم ٰ َهتِ ُك ْم ۚ َو َما َجعَ َل أ َ ْد ِعيَا ٓ َء ُك ْم أ َ ْبنَا ٓ َء ُك ْم‬ .َ‫سبِيل‬ َّ ‫ٰذَ ِل ُك ْم قَ ْولُ ُكم بِأ َ ْف ٰ َو ِه ُك ْم ۖ َوٱللَّهُ يَقُو ُل ْٱل َح َّق َوه َُو يَ ْهدِى ٱل‬ English Translation Allah has not made for any man two hearts in his (one) body: nor has He made your wives whom ye divorce by Zihar your mothers: nor has He made your adopted sons your sons. Such is (only) your (manner of) speech by your mouths. But Allah tells (you) the Truth, and He shows the (right) Way.

134 

 A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)

2 Polygamy Verse 4:3 ۟ ‫ط‬ ۟ ‫وا فِى ْٱليَ ٰت َ َم ٰى فَٱن ِك ُح‬ ۟ ُ‫سآءِ َمثْن َٰى َوث ُ ٰلَثَ َو ُر ٰبَ َع ۖ فَإِ ْن خِ ْفت ُ ْم أ َ َّال ت َ ْع ِدل‬ ُ ‫َو ِإ ْن خِ ْفت ُ ْم أ َ َّال ت ُ ْق ِس‬ َ ‫وا َما‬ ‫وا فَ ٰ َوحِ دَة ً أ َ ْو َما‬ َ ‫ط‬ َ ّ‫اب لَ ُكم ِ ّمنَ ٱل ِن‬ ۟.‫َملَكَتْ أ َ ْي ٰ َمنُ ُك ْم ۚ ٰذَلِكَ أ َ ْدن ٰ َٓى أ َ َّال تَعُولُوا‬ English Translation If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, Marry women of your choice, Two or three or four; but if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or (a captive) that your right hands possess, that will be more suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice. Verse 4:129 ۟ ُ‫وا َوتَتَّق‬ ۟ ‫ص ِل ُح‬ ۟ ُ‫صت ُ ْم ۖ فَ َال تَمِ يل‬ ۟ ُ‫َولَن ت َ ْستَطِ يعُ ٓو ۟ا أَن ت َ ْع ِدل‬ ‫وا فَإِ َّن‬ ْ ُ ‫وا ُك َّل ْٱل َم ْي ِل فَتَذَ ُروهَا ك َْٱل ُمعَلَّقَ ِة ۚ َوإِن ت‬ ْ ‫سآءِ َولَ ْو َح َر‬ َ ّ‫وا بَيْنَ ٱل ِن‬ َ َ‫ٱللَّهَ َكان‬ .‫ورا َّرحِ ي ًما‬ ً ُ‫غف‬ English Translation Ye are never able to be fair and just as between women, even if it is your ardent desire: But turn not away (from a woman) altogether, so as to leave her (as it were) hanging (in the air). If ye come to a friendly understanding, and practice selfrestraint, Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.

3 Divorce Verse 2:232 ُ ‫ع‬ َ ‫َوإِذَا‬ ‫ظ بِِۦه َمن‬ ُ ‫سا ٓ َء فَبَلَ ْغنَ أ َ َجلَ ُه َّن فَ َال ت َ ْع‬ َ ‫ضلُوه َُّن أَن يَنكِحْ نَ أ َ ْز ٰ َو َج ُه َّن إِذَا ت ٰ ََر‬ َ ‫ض ْو ۟ا بَ ْينَ ُهم بِ ْٱل َم ْع ُروفِ ۗ ٰذَلِكَ يُو‬ َ ّ‫طلَّ ْقت ُ ُم ٱل ِن‬ ْ َ ‫َكانَ مِ ن ُك ْم يُؤْ مِ نُ ِبٱللَّ ِه َو ْٱليَ ْو ِم ٱلْ َءاخِ ِر ۗ ٰذَ ِل ُك ْم أ َ ْزك َٰى لَ ُك ْم َوأ‬ . َ‫ط َه ُر ۗ َوٱللَّهُ يَ ْعلَ ُم َوأَنت ُ ْم َال ت َ ْعلَ ُمون‬ English Translation When ye divorce women, and they fulfil the term of their (‘Iddat), do not prevent them from marrying their (former) husbands, if they mutually agree on equitable terms. This instruction is for all amongst you, who believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is (the course Making for) most virtue and purity amongst you and Allah knows, and ye know not. Verse 4:35 ٰ ْ ‫وا َح َك ًما ِ ّم ْن أ َ ْه ِلِۦه و َح َك ًما ِ ّم ْن أ َ ْه ِلها ٓ إن يُريدَآ إ‬ ۟ ُ ‫َوإِ ْن خِ ْفت ُ ْم ِشقَاقَ بَ ْينِ ِه َما فَٱ ْبعَث‬ ‫علِي ًما‬ َ َ‫ق ٱللَّهُ بَ ْينَ ُه َما ٓ ۗ إِ َّن ٱللَّهَ َكان‬ ِ ِ ِ َ ِ ّ‫صلَ ًحا ي َُو ِف‬ َ .‫يرا‬ ً ِ‫َخب‬

3 Divorce 

 135

English Translation If ye fear a breach between them twain, appoint (two) arbiters, one from his family, and the other from hers; if they wish for peace, Allah will cause their reconciliation: For Allah hath full knowledge, and is acquainted with all things. Verse 2:231 ۟ ‫ارا ِلّت َ ْعتَد‬ َ ‫َوإِذَا‬ ‫ُوا ۚ َو َمن‬ ً ‫ض َر‬ ِ ‫س ِ ّر ُحوه َُّن بِ َم ْع ُروفٍ ۚ َو َال ت ُ ْم ِس ُكوه َُّن‬ َ ‫سا ٓ َء فَبَلَ ْغنَ أ َ َجلَ ُه َّن فَأ َ ْم ِس ُكوه َُّن بِ َم ْع ُروفٍ أ َ ْو‬ َ ّ‫طلَّ ْقت ُ ُم ٱل ِن‬ ٰ ۟ ۟ ْ َّ َّ َ ْ ٰ ُ ْ َ َ َ َ َّ ُ ُ ُ َ‫يَ ْفعَلْ ٰذ‬ ٓ َ ُ َ َ ْ َ َ ُ َ‫نز‬ َ ‫ت‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ٱل‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ء‬ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ال‬ ‫و‬ ۚ ‫ۥ‬ ‫ه‬ ‫س‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ن‬ ‫م‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ظ‬ ‫د‬ ‫ق‬ ‫ف‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ب َو ْٱلحِ ْك َم ِة‬ ‫م‬ ‫م‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ل‬ ‫أ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫م‬ ‫و‬ ‫م‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ي‬ ‫ل‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ٱلل‬ ‫م‬ ‫ع‬ ‫ن‬ ‫وا‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ك‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ٱ‬ ‫و‬ ۚ ‫ا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ُز‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ٱلل‬ ‫ت‬ ْ ْ َ‫ن‬ ِ َ‫ِك‬ َ َ‫ت‬ ِ ِ ِ‫خ‬ ِ ِ ِ ْ ّ ُ َ ً َ َ ٓ ِ َ َ َ ْ َ َ َ َ َ ۟ ُ‫ظ ُكم بِ ِهۦ ۚ َوٱتَّق‬ ُ ‫يَ ِع‬ .‫علِي ٌم‬ َ ‫وا ٱللَّهَ َوٱ ْعلَ ُم ٓو ۟ا أ َ َّن ٱللَّهَ بِ ُك ِّل‬ َ ٍ‫ش ْىء‬ English Translation When ye divorce women, and they fulfil the term of their (‘Iddat), either take them back on equitable terms or set them free on equitable terms; but do not take them back to injure them, (or) to take undue advantage; if anyone does that; He wrongs his own soul. Do not treat Allah’s Signs as a jest, but solemnly rehearse Allah’s favors on you, and the fact that He sent down to you the Book and Wisdom, for your instruction. And fear Allah and know that Allah is well acquainted with all things. Verse 4:20–21 ۟ ُ‫ارا فَ َال ت َأ ْ ُخذ‬ َ ‫َو ِإ ْن أ َ َردت ُّ ُم ٱ ْستِ ْبدَا َل زَ ْوجٍ َّم َكانَ زَ ْوجٍ َو َءات َ ْيت ُ ْم ِإحْ دَ ٰى ُه َّن قِن‬ ‫ْف‬ َ ُ‫وا مِ ْنه‬ ً ‫ط‬ َ ‫شيْـًٔا ۚ أَت َأ ْ ُخذُونَ ۥهُ بُ ْه ٰت َنًا َو ِإثْ ًما ُّم ِبينًا َو َكي‬ ً َ ‫ض َوأ َ َخ ْذنَ مِ ن ُكم ِ ّمي ٰث َقًا‬ .‫غلِيظا‬ ُ ‫ض ٰى بَ ْع‬ ٍ ‫ض ُك ْم إِلَ ٰى بَ ْع‬ َ ‫ت َأ ْ ُخذُونَ ۥهُ َوقَ ْد أ َ ْف‬ English Translation But if ye decide to take one wife in place of another, even if ye had given the latter a whole treasure for dower, Take not the least bit of it back: Would ye take it by slander and manifest wrong? And how could ye take it when ye have gone in unto each other, and they have Taken from you a solemn covenant? Verse 2:228 َ ‫َو ْٱل ُم‬ ‫طلَّ ٰقَتُ يَت ََربَّصْنَ بِأَنفُ ِس ِه َّن ث َ ٰلَثَةَ قُ ُر ٓوءٍ ۚ َو َال يَحِ ُّل لَ ُه َّن أَن يَ ْكت ُ ْمنَ َما َخلَقَ ٱللَّهُ ف ِٓى أ َ ْر َحامِ ِه َّن إِن ُك َّن يُؤْ مِ َّن بِٱللَّ ِه َو ْٱليَ ْو ِم‬ ٰ ٰ ۟ ٌ‫علَ ْي ِه َّن دَ َر َجة‬ ْ ِ‫ٱلْ َءاخِ ِر ۚ َوبُعُولَت ُ ُه َّن أ َ َح ُّق بِ َر ِدّه َِّن فِى ذَلِكَ إِ ْن أ َ َراد ُٓوا إ‬ ّ ِ ‫علَ ْي ِه َّن بِ ْٱل َم ْع ُروفِ ۚ َول‬ َ ‫ِلر َجا ِل‬ َ ‫صلَ ًحا ۚ َولَ ُه َّن مِ ثْ ُل ٱلَّذِى‬ ٌ ‫ع ِز‬ .‫يز َحكِي ٌم‬ َ ُ‫ۗ َوٱللَّه‬ English Translation Divorced women shall wait concerning themselves for three monthly periods. Nor is it lawful for them to hide what Allah Hath created in their wombs, if they have faith in Allah and the Last Day. And their husbands have the better right to take them back in that period, if they wish for reconciliation. And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them. And Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise.

136 

 A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)

Verse 4:19 ۟ ‫ضلُوه َُّن ِلت َ ْذ َهب‬ ۟ ُ ‫وا َال يَحِ ُّل لَ ُك ْم أَن ت َِرث‬ ۟ ُ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلَّذِينَ َءا َمن‬ ٓ َّ ِ‫ض َما ٓ َءات َ ْيت ُ ُموه َُّن إ‬ ‫ش ٍة‬ َ ِ‫ال أَن يَأْتِينَ بِ ٰفَح‬ ُ ‫سا ٓ َء ك َْرهًا ۖ َو َال ت َ ْع‬ ِ ‫ُوا بِبَ ْع‬ َ ّ‫وا ٱل ِن‬ ۟ .‫ِيرا‬ َ ‫س ٰ ٓى أَن ت َ ْك َرهُوا‬ ً ‫شيْـًٔا َويَجْ عَ َل ٱللَّهُ فِي ِه َخي ًْرا َكث‬ َ ‫ُّمبَ ِيّنَ ٍة ۚ َو‬ َ َ‫عاش ُِروه َُّن بِ ْٱل َم ْع ُروفِ ۚ فَإِن ك َِر ْهت ُ ُموه َُّن فَع‬ English Translation O ye who believe! Ye are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should ye treat them with harshness, that ye may Take away part of the dower ye have given them,-except where they have been guilty of open lewdness; on the contrary live with them on a footing of kindness and equity. If ye take a dislike to them it may be that ye dislike a thing, and Allah brings about through it a great deal of good. Verse 2:232 ُ ‫ع‬ َ ‫َو ِإذَا‬ ‫ظ ِبِۦه َمن‬ ُ ‫سا ٓ َء فَبَلَ ْغنَ أ َ َجلَ ُه َّن فَ َال ت َ ْع‬ َ ‫ضلُوه َُّن أَن يَنكِحْ نَ أ َ ْز ٰ َو َج ُه َّن ِإذَا ت ٰ ََر‬ َ ‫ض ْو ۟ا بَ ْينَ ُهم ِب ْٱل َم ْع ُروفِ ۗ ٰذَلِكَ يُو‬ َ ّ‫طلَّ ْقت ُ ُم ٱل ِن‬ ْ َ ‫َكانَ مِ ن ُك ْم يُؤْ مِ نُ ِبٱللَّ ِه َو ْٱليَ ْو ِم ٱلْ َءاخِ ِر ۗ ٰذَ ِل ُك ْم أ َ ْزك َٰى لَ ُك ْم َوأ‬ . َ‫ط َه ُر ۗ َوٱللَّهُ يَ ْعلَ ُم َوأَنت ُ ْم َال ت َ ْعلَ ُمون‬ English Translation When ye divorce women, and they fulfil the term of their (‘Iddat), do not prevent them from marrying their (former) husbands, if they mutually agree on equitable terms. This instruction is for all amongst you, who believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is (the course Making for) most virtue and purity amongst you and Allah knows, and ye know not. Verse 2:237 َ ‫َوإِن‬ ٓ َّ ِ‫ضت ُ ْم إ‬ ‫ال أَن يَ ْعفُونَ أ َ ْو يَ ْعفُ َو ۟ا ٱلَّذِى بِيَ ِد ِهۦ‬ ْ ‫ف َما فَ َر‬ ْ ‫طلَّ ْقت ُ ُموه َُّن مِ ن قَ ْب ِل أَن ت َ َمسُّوه َُّن َوقَ ْد فَ َر‬ ْ ِ‫ضةً فَن‬ ُ ‫ص‬ َ ‫ضت ُ ْم لَ ُه َّن فَ ِري‬ .‫ير‬ ْ َ‫س ُو ۟ا ْٱلف‬ ُ ٌ ‫ص‬ ِ َ‫ض َل بَ ْينَ ُك ْم ۚ ِإ َّن ٱللَّهَ ِب َما ت َ ْع َملُونَ ب‬ َ ‫ع ْقدَة ُ ٱل ِنّكَاحِ ۚ َوأَن ت َ ْعفُ ٓو ۟ا أ َ ْق َربُ لِلت َّ ْق َو ٰى ۚ َو َال ت َن‬ English Translation And if ye divorce them before consummation, but after the fixation of a dower for them, then the half of the dower (Is due to them), unless they remit it or (the man’s half) is remitted by him in whose hands is the marriage tie; and the remission (of the man’s half) is the nearest to righteousness. And do not forget Liberality between yourselves. For Allah sees well all that ye do.

4 Inheritance Verse 4:7 ‫َصيبًا‬ ّ ِ ّ‫ل‬ ِ ‫ان َو ْٱأل َ ْق َربُونَ مِ َّما قَ َّل مِ ْنهُ أ َ ْو َكث ُ َر ۚ ن‬ ِ ‫سآءِ ن‬ ِ ‫ِلر َجا ِل ن‬ َ ّ‫ان َو ْٱأل َ ْق َربُونَ َولِل ِن‬ ِ َ‫َصيبٌ ِ ّم َّما ت ََركَ ْٱل ٰ َو ِلد‬ ِ َ‫َصيبٌ ِ ّم َّما ت ََركَ ْٱل ٰ َو ِلد‬ .‫َّم ْف ُروضًا‬

4 Inheritance 

 137

English Translation From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large,-a determinate share. Verse 4:11–12 ّ ِ ‫ُوصي ُك ُم ٱللَّهُ ف ِٓى أ َ ْو ٰلَ ِد ُك ْم ۖ لِلذَّك َِر مِ ثْ ُل َح‬ ‫سا ٓ ًء فَ ْوقَ ٱثْنَتَي ِْن فَلَ ُه َّن ثُلُثَا َما ت ََركَ ۖ َوإِن كَانَتْ ٰ َوحِ دَة ً فَلَ َها‬ ِ ‫ي‬ َ ِ‫ظ ْٱألُنثَيَي ِْن ۚ فَإِن ُك َّن ن‬ ُ ُ ُ‫ُس مِ َّما ت ََركَ إِن َكانَ لَ ۥهُ َولَدٌ ۚ فَإِن لَّ ْم يَ ُكن لَّ ۥهُ َولَدٌ َو َو ِرث َ ٓۥهُ أَبَ َواهُ فَ ِل ِ ّم ِه ٱلثُّل‬ ‫ث ۚ فَإِن‬ ُّ ‫ف ۚ َو ِألَبَ َو ْي ِه ِل ُك ِّل ٰ َوحِ ٍد ِ ّم ْن ُه َما ٱل‬ ْ ّ‫ٱل ِن‬ ُ ‫سد‬ ُ ‫ص‬ ً‫ضة‬ ُّ ‫َكانَ لَ ٓۥهُ ِإ ْخ َوة ٌ فَ ِل ُ ِ ّم ِه ٱل‬ ُ ‫سد‬ َ ‫ُوصى ِب َها ٓ أ َ ْو دَي ٍْن ۗ َءابَا ٓ ُؤ ُك ْم َوأ َ ْبنَا ٓ ُؤ ُك ْم َال تَد ُْرونَ أَيُّ ُه ْم أ َ ْق َربُ لَ ُك ْم نَ ْفعًا ۚ فَ ِري‬ ِ ‫صيَّ ٍة ي‬ ِ ‫ُس ۚ مِ ۢن بَ ْع ِد َو‬ َّ َّ َ َ َ َ َ َ ُ ُ ُ ُ ْ َ َ َّ َّ ٰ َ ‫ٱلربُ ُع مِ َّما‬ ْ ِ‫ َولك ْم ن‬.‫علِي ًما َحكِي ًما‬ ُّ ‫ف َما ت ََركَ أز َو ُجك ْم إِن ل ْم يَكن ل ُهن َولدٌ ۚ فإِن كانَ ل ُهن َولدٌ فلك ُم‬ ُ ‫ص‬ َ َ‫ِ ّمنَ ٱللَّ ِه ۗ إِ َّن ٱللَّهَ َكان‬ َّ َّ َ ُّ ‫ٱلربُ ُع مِ َّما ت ََر ْكت ُ ْم إِن ل ْم يَ ُكن ل ُك ْم َولَدٌ ۚ فَإِن َكانَ لَ ُك ْم َولَدٌ فَلَ ُه َّن ٱلث ُمنُ مِ َّما‬ ُّ ‫ُوصينَ بِ َها ٓ أ ْو دَي ٍْن ۚ َولَ ُه َّن‬ ِ ‫صيَّ ٍة ي‬ ِ ‫ت ََر ْكنَ ۚ مِ ۢن بَ ْع ِد َو‬ ُ ‫ُور‬ ‫ث َك ٰلَلَةً أ َ ِو ْٱم َرأَة ٌ َولَ ٓۥهُ أ َ ٌخ أ َ ْو أ ُ ْختٌ فَ ِل ُك ِّل ٰ َوحِ ٍد ِ ّم ْن ُه َما‬ ُ ‫صيَّ ٍة تُو‬ ِ ‫ت ََر ْكتُم ۚ ِ ّم ۢن بَ ْع ِد َو‬ َ ‫صونَ بِ َها ٓ أ َ ْو دَي ٍْن ۗ َوإِن َكانَ َر ُج ٌل ي‬ َ ‫ص ٰى ِب َها ٓ أ َ ْو دَي ٍْن‬ ‫صيَّةً ِ ّمنَ ٱللَّ ِه‬ ِ ُ‫ُس ۚ فَإِن كَانُ ٓو ۟ا أ َ ْكث َ َر مِ ن ٰذَلِكَ فَ ُه ْم ش َُر َكا ٓ ُء فِى ٱلثُّل‬ ُّ ‫ٱل‬ ُ ‫سد‬ َ ‫غي َْر ُم‬ ِ ‫ضا ٓ ٍ ّر ۚ َو‬ ِ ‫ث ۚ مِ ۢن بَ ْع ِد َو‬ َ ‫صيَّ ٍة يُو‬ َّ .‫علِي ٌم َحلِي ٌم‬ َ ُ‫ۗ َوٱلله‬ English Translation Allah (thus) directs you as regards your Children’s (Inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased Left brothers (or sisters) the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases (‘s) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah; and Allah is Allknowing, Al-wise. In what your wives leave, your share is a half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to anyone). Thus, is it ordained by Allah; and Allah is All-knowing, Most Forbearing. Verse 4:34 ۟ ُ‫ض َوبِ َما ٓ أَنفَق‬ َ ٰ ‫ص ِل ٰ َحتُ ٰقَنِ ٰت َتٌ ٰ َح ِف‬ ‫ب‬ َّ َ‫سآءِ بِ َما ف‬ ٍ ‫علَ ٰى بَ ْع‬ َّ ٰ ‫وا مِ ْن أ َ ْم ٰ َو ِل ِه ْم ۚ فَٱل‬ ِّ ِ ‫ظتٌ لّ ِْلغَ ْي‬ َ ‫ض َل ٱللَّهُ بَ ْع‬ َ ‫ض ُه ْم‬ َ َ‫ٱلر َجا ُل قَ ٰ َّو ُمون‬ َ ّ‫علَى ٱل ِن‬ ۟ ُ ‫ظ ٱللَّهُ ۚ َو ٰٱلَّتِى تَخَافُونَ نُشُوزَ ه َُّن فَ ِع‬ َ َ ‫اجعِ َوٱض ِْربُوه َُّن ۖ فَإِ ْن أ‬ َ ‫بِ َما َح ِف‬ ‫علَ ْي ِه َّن‬ َ ‫ظوه َُّن َوٱ ْه ُج ُروه َُّن فِى ْٱل َم‬ َ ‫ط ْعنَ ُك ْم فَ َال ت َ ْبغُوا‬ ِ ‫ض‬ ً ‫س ِب‬ .‫يرا‬ ً ‫ع ِليًّا َك ِب‬ َ َ‫يال ۗ ِإ َّن ٱللَّهَ َكان‬ َ English Translation Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their

138 

 A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)

means. Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband’s) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (Next), refuse to share their beds, (And last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them Means (of annoyance): For Allah is Most High, great (above you all). Verse 65:7 َ‫سيَجْ عَ ُل ٱللَّهُ بَ ْعد‬ ً ‫ِف ٱللَّهُ نَ ْف‬ ُ ّ‫علَ ْي ِه ِر ْزقُ ۥهُ فَ ْليُنف ِْق مِ َّما ٓ َءات َٰىهُ ٱللَّهُ ۚ َال يُكَل‬ َ ‫سعَتِِۦه ۖ َو َمن قُد َِر‬ َ ۚ ‫سا إِ َّال َما ٓ َءات َٰى َها‬ َ ‫سعَ ٍة ِ ّمن‬ َ ‫ِليُنف ِْق ذُو‬ .‫عس ٍْر يُس ًْرا‬ ُ English Translation Let the man of means spend according to his means: and the man whose resources are restricted, let him spend according to what Allah has given him. Allah puts no burden on any person beyond what He has given him. After a difficulty, Allah will soon grant relief.

5 Veiling Verse 33:53 ۟ ُ‫وا َال ت َ ْد ُخل‬ ۟ ُ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلَّذِينَ َءا َمن‬ ۟ ُ‫غي َْر ٰنَظِ ِرينَ إِن َٰىهُ َو ٰلَك ِْن إِذَا دُعِيت ُ ْم فَٱ ْد ُخل‬ َ ‫ال أَن يُؤْ ذَنَ لَ ُك ْم إِلَ ٰى‬ ٓ َّ ِ‫ى إ‬ َ ‫طعَ ٍام‬ ‫وا فَإِذَا‬ ّ ِ ِ‫وا بُيُوتَ ٱلنَّب‬ ٰ ۟ ‫طع ِْمت ُ ْم فَٱنتَش ُِر‬ َ ٍ ‫وا َو َال ُم ْست َـْٔنِسِينَ ِل َحدِي‬ ‫ق ۚ َوإِذَا‬ ‫ى مِ ن ُك ْم ۖ َوٱللَّهُ َال يَ ْستَحْ ِۦ‬ ‫ى فَيَ ْستَحْ ِۦ‬ ِ ّ ‫ى مِ نَ ْٱل َح‬ َّ ِ‫ث ۚ إِ َّن ذَ ِل ُك ْم َكانَ يُؤْ ذِى ٱلنَّب‬ ٰ ۟ ُ‫ط َه ُر ِلقُلُو ِب ُك ْم َوقُلُو ِب ِه َّن ۚ َو َما َكانَ لَ ُك ْم أَن تُؤْ ذ‬ ْ َ ‫ب ۚ ذَ ِل ُك ْم أ‬ ٓ َ ‫سو َل ٱللَّ ِه َو‬ ‫ال أَن‬ ُ ‫وا َر‬ ٍ ‫سأ َ ْلت ُ ُموه َُّن َم ٰت َعًا فَسْـَٔلُوه َُّن مِ ن َو َرآءِ حِ َجا‬ َ .‫عظِ ي ًما‬ َ ‫ت َن ِك ُح ٓو ۟ا أ َ ْز ٰ َو َج ۥهُ مِ ۢن بَ ْع ِد ِٓۦه أَبَدًا ۚ إِ َّن ٰذَ ِل ُك ْم َكانَ عِندَ ٱللَّ ِه‬ English Translation O ye who believe! Enter not the Prophet’s houses,-until leave is given you,- for a meal, (and then) not (so early as) to wait for its preparation: but when ye are invited, enter; and when ye have taken your meal, disperse, without seeking familiar talk. Such (behavior) annoys the Prophet: he is ashamed to dismiss you, but Allah is not ashamed (to tell you) the truth. And when ye ask (his ladies) for anything ye want, ask them from before a screen: that makes for greater purity for your hearts and for theirs. Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy Allah’s Messenger, or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in Allah’s sight an enormity.

5 Veiling 

 139

Verse 24:30–31 ۟ ‫قُل لّ ِْل ُمؤْ مِ نِينَ يَغُض‬ ۟ ‫ظ‬ ُ َ‫ص ِر ِه ْم َويَحْ ف‬ ‫ت‬ ِ َ‫صنَعُونَ َوقُل لّ ِْل ُمؤْ مِ ٰن‬ ْ َ‫ير بِ َما ي‬ ٌ ۢ ِ‫وا فُ ُرو َج ُه ْم ۚ ٰذَلِكَ أ َ ْزك َٰى لَ ُه ْم ۗ إِ َّن ٱللَّهَ َخب‬ َ ٰ ‫ُّوا مِ ْن أ َ ْب‬ ْ ‫ص ِره َِّن َويَحْ ف‬ َ ‫َظنَ فُ ُرو َج ُه َّن َو َال يُ ْبدِينَ ِزينَت َ ُه َّن إِ َّال َما‬ ۖ ‫علَ ٰى ُجيُوبِ ِه َّن‬ ُ ‫يَ ْغ‬ َ ‫ظ َه َر مِ ْن َها ۖ َو ْليَض ِْربْنَ بِ ُخ ُم ِره َِّن‬ َ ٰ ‫ضضْنَ مِ ْن أ َ ْب‬ ‫َو َال يُ ْبدِينَ ِزينَت َ ُه َّن ِإ َّال ِلبُعُولَتِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو َءابَآئِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو َءابَآءِ بُعُولَتِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو أ َ ْبنَآئِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو أ َ ْبنَآءِ بُعُولَتِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو ِإ ْخ ٰ َونِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو بَن ِٓى ِإ ْخ ٰ َونِ ِه َّن‬ ۟ ‫ظ َه ُر‬ ْ َ‫ٱلط ْف ِل ٱلَّذِينَ لَ ْم ي‬ ّ ِ ‫ٱلر َجا ِل أ َ ِو‬ َ َ‫سآئِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو َما َملَكَتْ أ َ ْي ٰ َمنُ ُه َّن أ َ ِو ٱل ٰت َّبِعِين‬ ‫وا‬ ّ ِ َ‫ٱإل ْربَ ِة مِ ن‬ َ ِ‫أ َ ْو بَن ِٓى أَخ ٰ ََوتِ ِه َّن أ َ ْو ن‬ ِ ْ ‫غي ِْر أ ُ ۟ولِى‬ ۟ ْ َّ َّ َ َ ‫سآءِ ۖ َو َال يَض ِْربْنَ بِأ ْر ُج ِل ِه َّن ِليُ ْعلَ َم َما ي ُْخفِينَ مِ ن ِزينَتِ ِه َّن ۚ َوتُوب ُٓوا إِلَى ٱلل ِه َجمِ يعًا أيُّهَ ٱل ُمؤْ مِ نُونَ لَعَل ُك ْم‬ ِ ‫ع ْو ٰ َر‬ َ ‫علَ ٰى‬ َ َ ّ‫ت ٱل ِن‬ . َ‫ت ُ ْف ِلحُون‬ English Translation Tell the believing men to reduce [some] of their vision and guard their private parts. That is purer for them. Indeed, Allah is Acquainted with what they do. And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husband’s fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, their brothers or their brothers’ sons, or their sisters’ sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And O ye Believers! turn ye all together towards Allah, that ye may attain Bliss. Verse 33:59 ُ‫علَ ْي ِه َّن مِ ن َج ٰلَ ِبي ِب ِه َّن ۚ ٰذَلِكَ أ َ ْدن ٰ َٓى أَن يُ ْع َر ْفنَ فَ َال يُؤْ ذَيْنَ ۗ َو َكانَ ٱللَّه‬ َ َ‫سآءِ ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ نِينَ يُ ْدنِين‬ َ ِ‫ى قُل ِّأل َ ْز ٰ َو ِجكَ َوبَنَاتِكَ َون‬ ُّ ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلنَّ ِب‬ َ .‫ورا َّرحِ ي ًما‬ ً ُ‫غف‬ English Translation Prophet! Tell thy wives and daughters, and the believing women, that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): that is most convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not molested. And Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. Verse 23:12–14 ٰ ُ ‫سنَ مِ ن‬ ْ ُّ‫ِين ث ُ َّم َخلَ ْقنَا ٱلن‬ ْ ُ‫ين ث ُ َّم َجعَ ْل ٰنَهُ ن‬ ‫ضغَةً فَ َخلَ ْقنَا‬ ْ ‫علَقَةً فَ َخلَ ْقنَا ْٱلعَلَقَةَ ُم‬ َ َ‫طفَة‬ َ ٰ ‫ٱإلن‬ ٍ ‫طفَةً فِى قَ َر ٍار َّمك‬ ٍ ِ‫سلَلَ ٍة ِ ّمن ط‬ ِ ْ ‫َولَقَ ْد َخلَ ْقنَا‬ ٰ ْ ٰ ٰ َ ٰ ‫ضغَةَ ِع‬ َ ‫س ْونَا ْٱل ِع‬ . َ‫سنُ ْٱل َخ ِلقِين‬ ْ ‫ْٱل ُم‬ َ ‫ظ ًما فَ َك‬ َ ْ‫اركَ ٱللَّهُ أَح‬ َ َ‫ظ َم لَحْ ًما ث ُ َّم أَنشَأنَهُ خ َْلقًا َءاخ ََر ۚ فَتَب‬ English Translation Man, We did create from a quintessence (of clay); Then We placed him as (a drop of) sperm in a place of rest, firmly fixed; Then We made the sperm into a clot of congealed blood; then of that clot We made a (fetus) lump; then we made out of that

140 

 A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)

lump bones and clothed the bones with flesh; then we developed out of it another creature. So blessed be Allah, the best to create! Verse 4:1 ۟ ُ‫سا ٓ ًء ۚ َوٱتَّق‬ ۟ ُ‫اس ٱتَّق‬ َّ َ‫وا َربَّ ُك ُم ٱلَّذِى َخلَقَ ُكم ِ ّمن نَّ ْف ٍس ٰ َوحِ دَةٍ َو َخلَقَ مِ ْن َها زَ ْو َج َها َوب‬ ‫وا ٱللَّهَ ٱلَّذِى‬ ً ‫ث مِ ْن ُه َما ِر َج ًاال َكث‬ ُ َّ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلن‬ َ ِ‫ِيرا َون‬ َّ َ ْ .‫علَ ْي ُك ْم َرقِيبًا‬ َ َ‫ام ۚ إِ َّن ٱللهَ َكان‬ َ َ‫ت‬ َ ‫سا ٓ َءلُونَ بِ ِهۦ َوٱأل ْر َح‬ English Translation mankind! reverence your Guardian-Lord, who created you from a single person, created, of like nature, His mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless men and women;- reverence Allah, through whom ye demand your mutual (rights), and (reverence) the wombs (That bore you): for Allah ever watches over you.

6 The Story of Mary “Marriam” in the Qur’an Verse 3:35 ْ َ‫ت ْٱم َرأَتُ ع ِْم ٰ َرنَ َربّ ِ إِنِّى نَذَ ْرتُ لَكَ َما فِى ب‬ .‫طنِى ُم َح َّر ًرا فَتَقَبَّلْ مِ نّ ِٓى ۖ إِنَّكَ أَنتَ ٱلسَّمِ ي ُع ْٱلعَلِي ُم‬ ِ َ‫إِ ْذ قَال‬ English Translation Behold! a woman of ‘Imran said: “O my Lord! I do dedicate unto Thee what is in my womb for Thy special service: So, accept this of me: For Thou hearest and knowest all things.” Verse 28:7–9 َ‫علَ ْي ِه فَأ َ ْلقِي ِه فِى ْٱليَ ِ ّم َو َال تَخَافِى َو َال تَحْ زَ ن ِٓى ۖ إِنَّا َرآدُّوهُ إِلَيْكِ َو َجا ِعلُوهُ مِ ن‬ ِ ‫ضعِي ِه ۖ فَإِذَا خِ ْف‬ َ ‫ت‬ ِ ‫س ٰ ٓى أ َ ْن أ َ ْر‬ َ ‫َوأ َ ْو َح ْينَا ٓ إِلَ ٰ ٓى أ ُ ِ ّم ُمو‬ ۟ ُ‫ع ْونَ َو ٰ َه ٰ َمنَ َو ُجنُودَ ُه َما كَان‬ َ َ‫سلِينَ فَ ْٱلتَق‬ ُ‫ت ْٱم َرأَت‬ ِ َ‫وا ٰ َخطِ ـِٔينَ َوقَال‬ َ ‫عد ًُّوا َو َحزَ نًا ۗ ِإ َّن ف ِْر‬ َ ‫ع ْونَ ِليَ ُكونَ لَ ُه ْم‬ َ ‫ط ٓۥهُ َءا ُل ف ِْر‬ َ ‫ْٱل ُم ْر‬ ّ َ َ ُ ْ ُ َ َ َّ َ ُ ْ ٓ َ َ َ ُ َ . َ‫س ٰ ٓى أن يَنفعَنَا أ ْو نَتخِ ذهۥُ َولدًا َوه ْم ال يَشعُ ُرون‬ َ ُ‫عي ٍْن لِى َولكَ ۖ ال تقتلوه‬ َ ُ‫ع ْونَ ق َّرت‬ َ ‫ف ِْر‬ َ ‫ع‬

English Translation So, We sent this inspiration to the mother of Moses: “Suckle (thy child), but when thou hast fears about him, cast him into the river, but fear not nor grieve for We shall restore him to thee, and We shall make him one of Our messengers.” Then the people of Pharaoh picked him up (from the river): (It was intended) that (Moses) should be to them an adversary and a cause of sorrow: for Pharaoh and Haman and (all) their hosts were men of sin. The wife of Pharaoh said: “(Here is) joy of the eye, for me and for thee: slay him not. It may be that he will be used to us, or we may adopt him as a son.” And they perceived not (what they were doing)!

7 Creation/Equality 

 141

Verse 66:11 ۟ ُ‫ب ٱللَّهُ َمث َ ًال لِّلَّذِينَ َءا َمن‬ ‫ع َم ِلِۦه‬ َ ‫ع ْونَ َو‬ َ ‫ع ْونَ إِ ْذ قَالَتْ َربّ ِ ٱب ِْن لِى عِندَكَ بَ ْيتًا فِى ْٱل َجنَّ ِة َونَ ِ ّجنِى مِ ن ف ِْر‬ َ ‫وا ْٱم َرأَتَ ف ِْر‬ َ ‫َو‬ َ ‫ض َر‬ َّ ٰ ‫َونَ ِ ّجنِى مِ نَ ْٱلقَ ْو ِم‬ . َ‫ٱلظلِمِ ين‬ English Translation And Allah sets forth, as an example to those who believe the wife of Pharaoh: Behold she said: “O my Lord! Build for me, in nearness to Thee, a mansion in the Garden, and save me from Pharaoh and his doings, and save me from those that do wrong.”

7 Creation/Equality Verse 7:189 َّ َ‫ه َُو ٱلَّذِى َخلَقَ ُكم ِ ّمن نَّ ْف ٍس ٰ َوحِ دَةٍ َو َجعَ َل مِ ْن َها زَ ْو َج َها ِليَ ْس ُكنَ إِلَ ْي َها ۖ فَلَ َّما تَغ‬ ‫ش ٰى َها َح َملَتْ َح ْم ًال َخفِيفًا فَ َم َّرتْ بِِۦه ۖ فَلَ َّما ٓ أَثْقَلَت‬ َّ ٰ ‫ص ِل ًحا لَّنَ ُكون ََّن مِ نَ ٱل‬ . َ‫شك ِِرين‬ َ َّ‫د‬ َ ٰ ‫ع َوا ٱللَّهَ َربَّ ُه َما لَئ ِْن َءات َ ْيتَنَا‬ English Translation It is He Who created you from a single person, and made his mate of like nature, in order that he might dwell with her (in love). When they are united, she bears a light burden and carries it about (unnoticed). When she grows heavy, they both pray to Allah their Lord, (saying): “If Thou givest us a goodly child, we vow we shall (ever) be grateful.” Verse 9:71 َّ َ‫صلَ ٰوة َ َويُؤْ تُون‬ َ ‫ٱلزك َٰوة‬ ُ ‫َو ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ نُونَ َو ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ ٰنَتُ بَ ْع‬ ٍ ‫ض ُه ْم أ َ ْو ِليَا ٓ ُء بَ ْع‬ َّ ‫ع ِن ْٱل ُمنك َِر َويُقِي ُمونَ ٱل‬ َ َ‫ض ۚ يَأ ْ ُم ُرونَ بِ ْٱل َم ْع ُروفِ َويَ ْن َه ْون‬ ٓ َّ َّ ٌ ‫ع ِز‬ .‫يز َحكِي ٌم‬ ُ ‫َويُطِ يعُونَ ٱللَّهَ َو َر‬ َ َ‫سيَ ْر َح ُم ُه ُم ٱللهُ ۗ إِ َّن ٱلله‬ َ َ‫سولَ ٓۥهُ ۚ أ ُ ۟و ٰلَئِك‬ English Translation Believing men and believing women are supporters and protectors of one another: They enjoin goodness and forbid evil; They establish prayer and give charity; They obey Allah and His Messenger. Allah will shower mercy upon them. Truly, God is Mighty, Wise. Verse 2:36 ۟ ‫ط‬ ُ ِ‫ع ْن َها فَأ َ ْخ َر َج ُه َما مِ َّما كَانَا فِي ِه ۖ َوقُ ْلنَا ٱ ْهب‬ َ ٰ ‫ش ْي‬ َّ ‫فَأَزَ لَّ ُه َما ٱل‬ ‫ض ُم ْستَقَ ٌّر َو َم ٰت َ ٌع إِلَ ٰى‬ ُ ‫وا بَ ْع‬ ٍ ‫ض ُك ْم ِلبَ ْع‬ ِ ‫عد ٌُّو ۖ َولَ ُك ْم فِى ْٱأل َ ْر‬ َ ‫ض‬ َ ُ‫طن‬ .‫ين‬ ٍ ِ‫ح‬ English Translation Then did Satan make them slip from the (garden) and get them out of the state (of felicity) in which they had been. We said: “Get ye down, all (ye people), with

142 

 A List of Qur’anic Verses (Listed by Themes)

enmity between yourselves. On earth will be your dwelling-place and your means of livelihood -for a time.” Verse 22:5 ْ ُّ‫ب ث ُ َّم مِ ن ن‬ َ ‫ضغَ ٍة ُّمخَلَّقَ ٍة َو‬ ‫غي ِْر‬ ْ ‫علَقَ ٍة ث ُ َّم مِ ن ُّم‬ ِ ‫ب ِ ّمنَ ْٱلبَ ْع‬ ٍ ‫ث فَإِنَّا َخلَ ْق ٰنَ ُكم ِ ّمن ت ُ َرا‬ ٍ ‫اس إِن ُكنت ُ ْم فِى َر ْي‬ ُ َّ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلن‬ َ ‫طفَ ٍة ث ُ َّم مِ ْن‬ ۟ َ َ َ ُ ُ ُ ْ َّ ً ُ ‫س ًّمى ث َّم نُ ْخ ِر ُج ُك ْم طِ ْفال ث َّم ِلت َ ْبلغُ ٓوا أ‬ ‫شدَّ ُك ْم ۖ َومِ ن ُكم َّمن يُت ََوف ٰى‬ َ َ‫ُمخَلَّقَ ٍة ِلّنُبَ ِيّنَ لَ ُك ْم ۚ َونُق ُِّر فِى ٱأل ْر َح ِام َما ن‬ َ ‫شا ٓ ُء إِلَ ٰ ٓى أ َج ٍل ُّم‬ ْ‫علَ ْي َها ْٱل َما ٓ َء ٱ ْهت ََّزتْ َو َربَت‬ َ ‫َومِ ن ُكم َّمن ي َُردُّ إِلَ ٰ ٓى أ َ ْرذَ ِل ْٱلعُ ُم ِر ِل َكي َْال يَ ْعلَ َم مِ ۢن بَ ْع ِد ع ِْل ٍم‬ َ ‫ض هَامِ دَة ً فَإِذَآ أَنزَ ْلنَا‬ َ ‫شيْـًٔا ۚ َوت ََرى ْٱأل َ ْر‬ .ٍ‫َوأ َ ۢنبَت َتْ مِ ن ُك ِّل زَ ْو ۭجٍ بَ ِهيج‬ English Translation mankind! if ye have a doubt about the Resurrection, (consider) that We created you out of dust, then out of sperm, then out of a leech-like clot, then out of a morsel of flesh, partly formed and partly unformed, in order that We may manifest (our power) to you; and We cause whom We will to rest in the wombs for an appointed term, then do We bring you out as babes, then (foster you) that ye may reach your age of full strength; and some of you are called to die, and some are sent back to the feeblest old age, so that they know nothing after having known (much), and (further), thou seest the earth barren and lifeless, but when We pour down rain on it, it is stirred (to life), it swells, and it puts forth every kind of beautiful growth (in pairs). Verse 33:35 ‫ت‬ ِ ‫صبِ ٰ َر‬ ِ َ‫ت َو ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ نِينَ َو ْٱل ُمؤْ مِ ٰن‬ ِ ‫إِ َّن ْٱل ُم ْسلِمِ ينَ َو ْٱل ُم ْس ِل ٰ َم‬ ِ َ‫ص ِد ٰق‬ ِ َ ‫ت َو ْٱل ٰقَنِتِينَ َو ْٱل ٰقَنِ ٰت‬ َّ ٰ ‫صبِ ِرينَ َوٱل‬ َّ ٰ ‫ت َوٱل‬ َّ ٰ ‫ص ِدقِينَ َوٱل‬ َّ ٰ ‫ت َوٱل‬ ٰ ٰ ٓ ٓ ْ ْ َ ‫ت َو ْٱل ٰ َحفِظِ ينَ فُ ُرو َج ُه ْم َو ْٱل ٰ َح ِف‬ َ َ ّ ‫ت‬ ‫م‬ ‫ٱل‬ ‫و‬ ‫ق‬ ‫د‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ت‬ ‫م‬ ‫ٱل‬ َ‫ِين‬ ِ ‫صئِ ٰ َم‬ ِ ِ َ‫َو ْٱل ٰ َخ ِشعِينَ َو ْٱل ٰ َخ ِش ٰع‬ ِ َ‫ص ِدّ ٰق‬ ِ ‫ظ‬ َ‫ت َوٱلذَّك ِِرينَ ٱللَّه‬ َّ ٰ ‫صئِمِ ينَ َوٱل‬ َّ ٰ ‫ت َوٱل‬ َ ُ َ َ ُ ‫ت َو‬ َّ َ َ ْ ً .‫عظِ ي ًما‬ ِ ‫ِيرا َوٱل ٰذَّك ٰ َِر‬ ً ‫َكث‬ َ ‫عدَّ ٱللهُ ل ُهم َّمغف َِرة َوأجْ ًرا‬ َ َ‫ت أ‬ English Translation For Muslim men and women,-for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in Charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s praise,-for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward. Verse 49:13 ُ ‫اس ِإنَّا َخلَ ْق ٰنَ ُكم ِ ّمن ذَك ٍَر َوأُنث َ ٰى َو َجعَ ْل ٰنَ ُك ْم‬ .‫ير‬ ٌ ‫علِي ٌم َخ ِب‬ ُ َّ‫ٰيَٓأَيُّ َها ٱلن‬ َ َ‫ارفُ ٓو ۟ا ۚ ِإ َّن أ َ ْك َر َم ُك ْم عِندَ ٱللَّ ِه أَتْقَ ٰى ُك ْم ۚ ِإ َّن ٱللَّه‬ َ َ‫شعُوبًا َوقَبَآئِ َل ِلتَع‬

7 Creation/Equality 

 143

English Translation mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, that ye may know each other (not that ye may despise (each other). Verily the most honored of you in the sight of Allah is (he who is) the most righteous of you. And Allah has full knowledge and is well acquainted (with all things). Verse 3:195 ۟ ‫وا َوأ ُ ْخ ِر ُج‬ ۟ ‫ض ۖ فَٱلَّذِينَ هَا َج ُر‬ ٓ َ ‫اب لَ ُه ْم َربُّ ُه ْم أَنِّى‬ ‫وا مِ ن‬ ُ ‫عمِ ٍل ِ ّمن ُكم ِ ّمن ذَك ٍَر أ َ ْو أُنث َ ٰى ۖ بَ ْع‬ ٍ ‫ض ُكم ِ ّم ۢن بَ ْع‬ َ ٰ ‫ع َم َل‬ َ ‫ضي ُع‬ َ ‫فَٱ ْست َ َج‬ ِ ُ ‫ال أ‬ ٰ ٰ ُ ُ ُ ۟ ۟ ۟ َ ُ ُ ْ ُ ٍ َّ‫س ِيّـَٔاتِ ِه ْم َو َأل ْدخِ لَنَّ ُه ْم َجن‬ ‫ت تَجْ ِرى مِ ن تَحْ تِ َها ٱأل ْن ٰ َه ُر ث َ َوابًا ِ ّم ْن عِن ِد‬ َ ‫سبِيلِى َوقَتَلوا َوقُتِلوا َأل َكفّ َِر َّن‬ َ ‫ع ْن ُه ْم‬ َ ‫ِد ٰيَ ِر ِه ْم َوأوذوا فِى‬ .‫ب‬ ِ ‫ٱللَّ ِه ۗ َوٱللَّهُ عِندَ ۥهُ ُح ْسنُ ٱلث َّ َوا‬ English Translation And their Lord hath accepted of them, and answered them: “Never will I suffer to be lost the work of any of you, be he male or female: Ye are members, one of another: Those who have left their homes, or been driven out therefrom, or suffered harm in My Cause, or fought or been slain,-verily, I will blot out from them their iniquities, and admit them into Gardens with rivers flowing beneath;-A reward from the presence of Allah, and from His presence is the best of rewards.” Verse 33:36 ‫سولَ ۥهُ فَقَ ْد‬ ُ ‫ص ٱللَّهَ َو َر‬ ُ ‫ضى ٱللَّهُ َو َر‬ ِ ‫سولُ ٓۥهُ أ َ ْم ًرا أَن يَ ُكونَ لَ ُه ُم ْٱلخِ يَ َرة ُ مِ ْن أ َ ْم ِر ِه ْم ۗ َو َمن يَ ْع‬ َ َ‫َو َما َكانَ ِل ُمؤْ مِ ٍن َو َال ُمؤْ مِ نَ ٍة إِذَا ق‬ .‫ض ٰلَ ًال ُّمبِينًا‬ َ ‫ض َّل‬ َ English Translation It is not fitting for a Believer, man or woman, when a matter has been decided by Allah and His Messenger to have any option about their decision: if anyone disobeys Allah and His Messenger, he is indeed on a clearly wrong Path. Verse 74:38

English Translation Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds.

.ٌ‫سبَتْ َرهِينَة‬ َ ‫ُك ُّل نَ ْف ۭ ٍس بِ َما َك‬

References Abdel Baqi, M. (1952). Sunan Ibn Majah. Cairo: Dar ihya’ Al Kutub Al Arabiyah Publisher. Abdel-Fattah, R. (2013, April 29). Ending oppressing in the Middle East: A Muslim feminist call to arms. ABC Religion and Ethics. Retrieved from https://www.abc.net.au/religion/ending-oppression-in-themiddle-east-a-muslim- feminist-call-to-a/10099878. Abdul-Rauf, M. (1977). The Islamic view of women and the family. New York: Robert Speller and Sons. Abelman, R. (1989). A comparison of black and white families as portrayed on religious and secular television programs. Journal of Black Studies, 20(1), 60–79. Abou El Fadl, K. (2005). Islam and the Challenge of Democratic Commitment. In Elizabeth M. Bucar and Barbra Barnett (Eds.), Does Human Rights Need God? (pp. 58–103). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Abugideiri, H. (2004). The scientization of culture: Colonial medicine’s construction of Egyptian womanhood 1893–1929. Gender and History, 16(1), 83–98. Abu Saud, A. (1984). Qatari women, past and present. London; New York: Longman. Afshar, H. (2008). Can I see your hair? Choice, agency and attitudes: the dilemma of faith and feminism for Muslim women who cover. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2), 411–427. Ahmadi, F. (2006). Islamic feminism in Iran: Feminism in a new Islamic context. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 22(2), 33–53. Ahmed, L. (1981a). [Review of The Hidden Face of Eve: Women in the Arab World, by N. El Saadawi & S. Hetata]. Signs, 6(4), 749–751. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3173741. Ahmed, L. (1981b). What about ‘the rest of us. Women’s Studies Quarterly, 9(3), 16–17. Ahmed, L. (1993). Women and gender in Islam: Historical roots of a modern debate. New Haven, CN: Yale University Press. Ahmed, L. (1999). A Border passage: From Cairo to America -a women’s journey. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Ahmed, L. (2012). The veil’s resurgence, from the Middle East to America: A quiet revolution. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Kkawi, H. (2021, April 6). An Introduction to Nawal El Saadawi’s Controversial Views on Religion, Politics, Women, and Death. Watchdogs Gazette. https://watchdogsgazette.com/affairs/anintroduction-to-nawal-el-saadawis-controversial-views-on-religion-politics-women-and-death. Al-Albaani, N. (2010). Sahih Adab Al Mufrad. Riyadh: Dar Al Siddiq. Al-Bukhari, M. B. I. (2007). The correct traditions of Al’Bukhari. (2nd ed.). Beirut, Lebanon: Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah. Al-Dawlibi, M. (1983). Status of women in Islam. Journal of Law, 7(3):240–258. Alexander, A. & Welzel, C. (2011). Islam and patriarchy: How robust is Muslim support for patriarchal values? International Review of Sociology, 21(2), 249–276. Al-Ghazali, Z. (1986). Days from my life. Cairo: Dar Al Shuruq. Al-Hamidi, A. J. (1986). Woman in her writing: A bourgeois female in a man’s world. Damascus: Dar Ibn Harri. Al-Hibri, A. (1982a). A study of Islamic herstory: Or how did we ever get into this mess? Women’s Studies International Forum, 5(2), 207–219. Al-Hibri (1982b). Introduction. Women’s Studies International Forum, 5(2), v–viii. Al-Hibri, A. (1982c). Women and Islam. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Al-Hibri, A. (1994). Tear off your Western veil! In Joanna Kadi (Ed.), Food for our grandmothers: Writings by Arab American and Arab-Canadian feminists (pp. 160–164). Boston: South End Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-015

146 

 References

Al-Hibri, A. (1997). Islam, law and custom: Redefining Muslim women’s rights. American University International Law Review, 12(1), 1–44. Al-Hibri, A. (2000a). An introduction to Muslim women’s rights. In Gisela Webb (ed.), Windows of faith: Muslim women scholar- activists in north America (pp. 51–72). Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Al-Hibri, A. (2000b). Deconstructing patriarchal Jurisprudence in Islamic law: A faithful approach. In Adrien Katherine Wing (ed.), Global Critical Race Feminism: An International Reader, (pp. 221–233). New York: New York University Press. Al-Hibri, A. (2001). Muslim women’s rights in the global village: Challenges and opportunities. The Journal of Law and Religion, 15(1/2), 37–66. Al-Hibri, A. (2006). Divine justice and the human order: An Islamic perspective. In William Schweiker, Michael A. Johnson, and Kevin Jung (eds.), Humanity before God: contemporary faces of Jewish, Christian, and Islamic ethics, (pp. 238–255). Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Ali, J. (1970). Tarikh al Arab qabl Al Islam. Beirut: Al Majma Al llmi. Ali, S. (2005). Why here, why now? Young Muslim women wearing hijab. The Muslim World, 95, 515–530. Ali, S. R., Mahmood, A., Moel, J., Hudson, C., & Leathers, L. (2008). A qualitative investigation of Muslim and Christian women’s views of religion and feminism in their lives. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(1), 38–46. Ali, S. S. (2000). Gender and equal rights in Islam and international law. Equal before Allah, unequal before man? The Hague: Kluwer Law International. Al-Qurtubi, A. M. (2018). Al Jami ‘al Ahkam al Qur’an. Alexandria: Dar Al Amal Publisher. Al-Shahrani, B. (2016). A critical legal analysis of the impact of male guardianship system on women’s rights in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Islamic State Practices in International Law, 12(2), 31–72. Al-Tabari, A. J. (2001). Jami al Bayan fi T’awil al Qur’an. Dammam, Saudi Arabia: Dar al-Jawzi Library. Al-Zabaidi, M. M. (2011). Taj al Arus min Jawahir al Qamus. Beirut: Dar Sader. Amin, Q. (2000). The liberation of women and the new woman: Two documents in the history of Egyptian feminism. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. Amireh, A. (1996). Publishing in the West: Problems and prospects for Arab women writers. Al Jadid: A Review and Records of Arab Culture and Arts 2(10). Retrieved from http://www.aljadid.com/ content/publishing-west-problems-and-prospects-arab-womenwriters. Amireh, A. (2000). Framing Nawal El Saadawi: Arab feminism in a transnational world. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 26(1), 215–249. Anderson, M. L. (1997). Thinking about women: Sociological perspectives on sex and gender. Boston: Allyn and Bacon. An-Na’im, A. A. (1996). Toward an Islamic reformation: Civil liberties, human rights and international law. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press. Arkoun, M. (1994). Rethinking Islam: Common questions, uncommon answers. Boulder Co: Westview Press. Armstrong, K. (2007). Muhammad: A prophet for our time. San Francisco: Harper One. Asad, M. (1984). The message of the Qur’an. Gibraltar: Dar Al Andalus. Aslan, R. (2005). No god but god: The origins, evolutions and future of Islam. New York: Random House. As-Said, A. (1977). Al-Mar’a ‘l-’Arabiyya wa tahadi al-mujtama. In Elizabeth Fernea and Basima Bazirgan (eds.), Middle Eastern Muslim Women Speak, (pp. 365–385). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. Assilmi, A. (2011, July 19). My family wanted to kill me, now they’re Muslim! Retrieved from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=moaVChR_E5M&ab_channel=IslamOnDema nd. Atwood, M. (2017). She thought it. BBC Imagine.

References 

 147

Auslander, L. (2017). Jews and material culture. In Mitchell B. Hart and Tony Michels (Eds.), The Cambridge history of Judaism, (pp. 804–830). Cambridge: University of Cambridge Press. Badawi, J. (1995). Gender equity in Islam: Basic principles. New York: American Trust Publications. Badran, M. (1985). Islam, patriarchy, and feminism in the Middle East. Trends in History, 4(1), 49–71. Badran, B. (1986, April10–11). Independent Women: A century of Feminism in Egypt. [Paper presented at the eleventh annual symposium Women and Arab Society: Old Boundaries, New Frontiers, Georgetown University, Washington D.C.]. Badran, M. (1988). The Feminist Vision in the Writings of Three Turn-of-the-Century Egyptian Women. Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), 15(1/2), 11–20. Badran, M. (1995). Feminists, Islam and nation: Gender and the making of modern Egypt. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Badran, M. (2002). Islamic feminism: What’s in a name? Al Ahram Weekly Online, 17–23(569), pp. 1–8, http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2002/569/cu1.htm. Badran, M. (2005). Between Secular and Islamic Feminism/ s: Reflections on the Middle East and Beyond. Journal of Middle Eastern Women’s Studies, 1(1), 6–28. Badran, M. (2006). Feminism and the Qur’an. In Jane Dammen McAuliff (Ed.), Encyclopedia of the Qur’an. Brill Online. Badran, M. (2009). Feminism in Islam: Secular and religious convergences. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Badran, M. & Cooke, M. (1990). Opening the gates: A century of Arab feminist writing. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Baffoun, A. (1982). Women and social change in the Muslim Arab world. Women’s Studies International Forum, 5(2), 441–459. Balaa, L. (2018). El Saadawi does not orientalize the other in women at point zero. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 236–253. Barazangi, N, H. (2008). The Absence of Muslim women in shaping Islamic thought: foundations of Muslims’ peaceful and just co-existence. Journal of Law and Religion, 6(15), 101–130. Barlas, A. (2002). Believing women in Islam: Unreading patriarchal interpretations of the Qur’an. Austin: The University of Texas Press. Barlas, A. (2016). Secular and feminist critiques of the Qur’an. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 32(2), 111–121. Barlow, R. and Akbarzaden, S. (2006). Women’s rights in the Muslim world: Reform or reconstruction? Third World Quarterly, 27(8), 1481–1494. Barnett, H. (1998). Introduction to feminist jurisprudence. London: Cavendish Publishing Limited. Batha, E. (2018). I don’t fear death: pioneering Egyptian feminist defies threats. Reuters. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-women-rights/i-dont- fear-death-pioneeringegyptian-feminist-defies-threats-idUSKCN1IP2V9. Berelson, B. (1952). Content analysis in communications research. New York: Free Press. Berg, B. (1979). The remembered gate: origins of American feminism: The woman and the city, 1800–1860. New York: Oxford University Press. Berg, H. (2000). The development of exegesis in early Islam: The authenticity of Muslim literature from the formative period. RoutledgeCurzon. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203036969. Bindle, J. (2012). The Montreal massacre: Canada’s feminists remember. The Guardian on December 3rd. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/dec/03/montreal-massacrecanadas-feminists-remember. Bolt, C. (2014). The women’s movements, In the United States and Britain from the 1790s to the 1920s. Abingdon: Routledge.

148 

 References

Brittain, V. (2007). Islamic feminists on the move. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www. theguardian.com/commentisfree/2007/jan/29/islamicfeminismonthemove. Bronstein, C. (2005). Representing the third wave: Mainstream print media framing of a new feminist movement. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 84(4): 783–803. Brooks-Bertram, P., Nevergold, B. S., Nevergold, B. A. S. (2005). Uncrowned Queens, Volume 3: African American Women Community Builders of Western New York. United States: Uncrowned Queens Pub. Buehler, A. F. (2011). Islamophobia: A projection of the west’s ‘dark side’. Islam and Civilizational Renewal, 2(4), 639–653. Calixte, S. L, Johnson, J. L & Motapanyane, J. M. (1998). Liberal, socialist, and radical feminism: An introduction to three theories about women’s oppression and social change. In Nancy Mandell (ed.), Feminist issues: Race, class, and sexuality (pp. 1–37). Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice-Hall Allyn & Bacon Canada. Campbell, J. C., & Boyd, D. (2000). Violence against women: Synthesis of research for health care professionals (NCJ Document No. 199761). Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. Chafetz, J. & Dworkin, A. (1986). Female revolt: Women’s movements in world and historical perspective. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld. Chamberlain, P. (2017). The feminist fourth wave: Affective temporality. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. Cole, J. (1981). Feminism, Class and Islam in turn-of-the-century Egypt. International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 13(4), 387–407. Coleman, I. (2006). Women, Islam, and the new Iraq. Foreign Affairs, 85(1), 24–38. Cooke, M. (2000). Women claim Islam. London: Routledge Publishing. Cooke, M. (2001). Women claim Islam: Creating Islamic feminism through literature. New York: Routledge. Cooke, M. (2007). The Muslim women. Contemporary Islam, 1(2):139–154. Cooke, R. (2015). Nawal El Saadawi: Do you feel you are liberated? I feel I am not. The Observer. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/oct/11/nawal- el-saadawi-interviewdo-you-feel-you-areliberated-not. Cornell, V. J. (1999) Fruit of the tree of knowledge: The relationship between faith and practice in Islam. In John L. Esposito (ed.), The Oxford history of Islam, (pp. 63–105). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cowell, A. (2021, March 31). Nawal El Saadawi, Advocate for Women in the Arab World, Dies at 89. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/21/obituaries/nawal-el-saadawi-dead.html. Daly, M. (1975). The church and the second sex. New York: Harper & Row. Darlington, P. S., Mulvaney, B. M. (2003). Power: past, present, and future. In Darlington, P., Mulvaney, B. (Eds.), Women, power, and ethnicity: Working toward reciprocal empowerment (pp. 1–24). New York, NY: Haworth Press. Davidson, D. (2001). Decentering twentieth-century women’s movements. Contemporary European History, 10(3), 503–512. Davis, K. (2006). Feminist politics of location. In K. Davis, M. Evans, & J. Lorber (Eds.), Handbook of gender and women’s studies, (pp. 476–480). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. De Beauvoir, S. (1949). The second sex. London: Picador Classics. Debenham, C. (2013). Birth control and the rights of women: Post-suffrage feminism in the early twentieth century. London: I. B. Tauris & Co Ltd. Delmar, R. (1986). What Is feminism? In Juliet Mitchell and Ann Oakley (Eds.), What Is Feminism? A Re-examination (pp. 8–33). New York: Pantheon. Diani, H. (2020, February 20). Meet Amina Wadud, The Rock Star of Islamic Feminist. Magdalene. https://magdalene.co/story/meet-amina-wadud-the-rock-star-of-islamic-feminist.

References 

 149

Doernberg, E. (1961). Henry VIII and Luther: An account of their personal relations. Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press. Droogsma, R. A. (2007). Redefining hijab: American Muslim women’s standpoints on veiling. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 35(3), 294–319. Drosihn, N. (2014). Orientalizing the other today: Arab feminism in Western discourse. Alifa Rifaat’s distant view of a minaret and Nawal El Saadawi’s Woman at point zero in comparison (Master’s thesis). University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam. Retrieved from Faculty of Humanities UVA Scripties Online at http://scriptiesonline.uba.uva.nl/en/scriptie/498453. Dunn, S. & Kellison, R. B. (2010). At the intersection of scripture and law: Qur’an 4:34 and violence against women. Journal of feminist studies in religion, 26(2), 11–36. El Guindi, F. (1999). Veiling resistance. Fashion Theory the Journal of Dress, Body & Culture, 3(1), 51–80. El Guindi, F. (2003). Veil: Modesty, privacy, resistance. New York: Berg Publishers. El Guindi, F. (2016, September 16). Veil: Modesty, privacy and resistance. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct- muslim-women-discriminationhijab-20160916-story.html. El Mir, R. (2016, Sept 16). Muslim women experience thinly veiled discrimination. Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-muslim-womendiscrimination-hijab-20160916-story.html. El Saadawi, N. (1977). Qadiyvat al mar’a ‘l-Misrivya ‘l-siyasiyya wa ‘l-jinsiyya. Cairo: El Madbouli Books. El Saadawi, N. (1980). Creative women in changing societies: A personal reflection. Race & Class, 22, 159–173. El Saadawi, N. (1982a). The hidden face of Eve: Women in the Arab world. Boston: Beacon Press. El Saadawi, N. (1982b). Woman and Islam. In Azizah al-Hibri (Ed.), Women and Islam, (pp. 193–206). Oxford: Pergamon Press. El Saadawi, N. (1983). Woman at point zero. London & New York: Zed Press. El Saadawi, N. (1986a). Memoirs from the women’s prison. Los Angeles: University of California Press. El Saadawi, N. (1986b). The challenges of Arab women at the end of the 20th century. Cairo: AWSA. El Saadawi, N. (1986c). The status of Muslim women. CIE reading collection, Gender Issues & Education. El Saadawi, N. (1988). The fall of the imam. London: Methuen. El Saadawi, N. (1989). Memoirs of a woman doctor. London: Saqi Books. El Saadawi, N. (1990). Woman and sex. London: Zed Press. El Saadawi, N. (1997). The Nawal El Saadawi reader. London: Zed Books. El Saadawi, N. (1998). My life, part II, autobiography. Cairo: American University in Cairo Press. El Saadawi, N. (1999). A daughter of Isis. London: Zed Books. El Saadawi, N. (2002). Walking through fire a life of Nawal El Saadawi. London: Zed Books. El Saadawi, N. (2009). Zeina. London: Saqi Books. El Saadawi, N. (2017, December 5). Marriage and motherhood -sister-hood magazine. A Fuuse production by Deeyah Khan. Sister-hood Magazine. https://sister-hood.com/nawal-el-saadawi/ marriage-and-motherhood. El N.Saadawi, (2018b, April 25). ‫الحوار المتمدن بإبداع المرأة وسجن الالوعى‬. https://www.ahewar.org/debat/show.art.asp?aid=596848. El Saadawi, N. (2019). Cairo: The Anglo Egyptian Bookshop. El-Sohl, C. F., & Mabro, J. (2020). Muslim women’s choices: Religious belief and social reality. Oxford: Berg. Esposito, J. (1999). The Oxford history of Islam. Oxford University Press. Esposito, J. (2011). What everyone needs to know about Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. Esposito, J., & DeLong, N. J. (2001). Women in Muslim family law. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.

150 

 References

Fariborz, A. (2014, July 5). Interview with Nawal El Saadawi: “They do not want any really courageous people!” Qantara.de -Dialogue with the Islamic World, https://en.qantara.de/content/interviewwith-nawal-el-saadawi-they-dont-want-any-really-courageous-people. Farraj, A. (1985). Freedom in women’s literature. Beirut: Arab Research Institute. Ferré, J. P. (1980). Denominational biases in the American press. Review of Religious Research, 21(3), 276–283. Farry, M. (1990). In conversation with Nawal El Saadawi. Spare Rib, 217(1), 22–26. Fouad, N., Chang, W., Wan, M., & Singh, R. (2017). Women’s reasons for leaving the engineering field. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–11. Guru-Murthy, K. (2018a). Nawal El Saadawi on feminism, fiction and the illusion of democracy [Channel4 News]. ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=djMfFU7DIB8&ab_channel=Channel4News. Fisher. W. B., Frye, R. N., & Frye, R. N. (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fouad, N., Chang, W., Wan, M., & Singh, R. (2017). Women’s reasons for leaving the engineering field. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1–11. Franks, M. (2000). Crossing the borders of whiteness? White Muslim women who wear the hijab in Britain today. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(5), 917–929. Friedan, B. (1965). The feminine mystique. Harmondsworth; Penguin. Gamble, S. (2001). The Routledge companion to feminism and post feminism. New York: Routledge. Giddens, A. (2006). Sociology. Cambridge: Polity Press. Gornick, V. (1982, March 14). About the mutilated half. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes. com/1982/03/14/books/about-the-mutilated-half.html. Grami, A. (2013). Islamic Feminism: A new feminist movement or a strategy by women for acquiring rights? Contemporary Arab Affairs, 6(1), 102–113. Grayzel, S. R. (1999). Women’s identities at war: Gender, motherhood, and politics in Britain and France during the first world war. North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. Halper, L. (2005). Law and women’s agency in post-revolutionary Iran. Harvard Journal of Law and Gender, 28(1), 85–142. Hamadeh, N. (1996). Islamic family legislation: The authoritarian discourse of silence. In Mai Yamani (ed.), Feminism and Islam: Legal and literary perspectives (pp. 331–349). New York: New York University Press. Hartsock, N. C. (1983). Money, sex, and power: Toward a feminist historical materialism. New York & London: Longman. Hashim, I. (1999). Reconciling Islam and feminism. Gender and development, 7(1), 7–14. Hassan, M. (2021, March 29). “‫ نوال السعادوى وسقوط اإلمام‬.‫المصري اليوم ”ذاكرة الكتب‬. https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2299505. Hassan, R. (2004). Riffat Hassan. In A. Braude (ed.), Transforming the faiths of our fathers: Women who changed American religion, (pp. 173–197). New York: Palgrave MacMillan. Hidayatullah, A. (2014). Feminist edges of the Qur’an. New York: Oxford University Press. Hirshmann, N. J. (1997). Eastern veiling, western freedom? The Review of Politics, 59(3), 461–488. Hoard, W. B. (1973). Anthology: Quotations and sayings of people of color. Michigan: R and E Research Associates. Hoodfar, H. (2003). More than clothing: Veiling as an adaptive strategy. In S.S. Alvi, H. Hoodfar and S. McDonough (Eds.), The Muslim Veil in North America: Issues and Debates (pp. 3–39). Toronto: Women’s Press.

References 

 151

Hooks, B. (1984). Feminist theory from margin to center. Boston: South End Press. Hooks, B. & Jhally, S. (1997). Bell Hooks: Cultural criticism and transformation. Northampton, MA: Media Education Foundation. Hooks, B. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. Horowitz, C. M. (1976). Aristotle and women. Journal of the History of Biology, 9(2), 183–213. Howard, J., Allen, C., & Saliba, T. (2002). Gender, politics, and Islam. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Hughes, T. P. (1935). A dictionary of Islam. London: W. H. Allen and Co. Husain, M. Z. (2006). Islam and the Muslim world. McGraw-Hill. Hussein, S. (2007). The limits of force/choice discourses in discussing Muslim women’sdress codes. Transforming Cultures eJournal, 2(1), 1–15. Hwalla, N. (2006). Nutrition and dietary practices in Arab state. In Suad Joseph & Najmabodi Ahsaneh (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of women and Islamic cultures (V): Family, body, sexuality and health (pp. 283–284). Lieiden: Brill. Ibn al-Nadim, A. (1988). Rida Tajaddud. Tehran: Dar al-Masirah. Ibn Kathir. I. U. (2003). Tafsir Ibn Kathir: (abridged). Riyadh: Darussalam. Inglehart, R. & Norris, P. (2003). The true clash of civilizations. Foreign Policy, 135(1), 62–70. Ingrams, D. (1983). The awakened: Women in Iraq. London: Third World Centre. Ismael, J. M. (2007). Islam and women: The two foes reconciled in Monica Ali’s brick lane (Master’s Thesis). The University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway. Jacinto, L. (2006). Abandoning the wardrobe and reclaiming religion in the discourse on Afghan women’s Islamic rights. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 32(1), 9–14. Jones, L. (2005). Encyclopedia of religion. USA: Macmillan Reference. Jorgensen, M., & Phillips, L. (2002). Discourse analysis as theory and method. Sage Publications. Joseph, N. (2021). 9–11, From a different Perspective: Interview with Nawal El Saadawi and Sherif Hetata. Isiswomen.Org. Retrieved from http://www.isiswomen.org/index.php?option=com_ content&view=article&id=682 &Itemid=452. Joseph, S. (2001). Women and politics in the Middle East. In Suad Joseph and Susan Slyomovics, (Eds.) Women and power in the Middle East (pp. 34–40). Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Kandiyoti, D. (1991). Women, Islam and the state. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Karaian, L. & Mitchell, A. (1998). Third-wave feminisms. In Nancy Mandell (Ed.), Feminist issues: Race, class, and sexuality (pp. 63–86). Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice-Hall Allyn & Bacon Canada. Kazemzadeh, M. (2002). Islamic fundamentalism, feminism, and gender inequality in Iran under Khomeini. Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Keddie, N. R., & Baron, B. (1993). Women in Middle East history: Shifting boundaries in sex and gender. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Khaleeli, H. (2010). Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt’s radical feminist. The Guardian, Thursday 15 April 2010. Retrieved August 7, 2011, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/15/nawal-elsaadawi-egyptian-feminist. Khalil, R. (2016). Nawal El Saadawi: Polygamy is not part of Islam. and the law forbade me from marrying a Christian. Akhbar El Youm, Wednesday 23 March 2016. Retrieved from https://m.akhbarelyom.com/news/newdetails/10332/1. Khan, M. W. (2011). Woman between Islam and western society. India: Goodword Books. Kidwai, M. H. (1976). Woman Under Different Social and Religious Laws, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Delhi: Seema Publication.

152 

 References

Killian, C. (2003). The other side of the veil: North African women in France respond to the headscarf affair. Gender & Society, 17(4), 567–90. Kilpatrick, H. (1985). Women and literature in the Arab world. In Mineke Schipper (Ed.), Unheard Words: Women and Literature in Africa, the Arab World, Asia, the Caribbean, and Latin America (pp. 72–90). London & New York: Allison and Busby. Koltun, E. (1976). The Jewish woman: New perspectives. New York: Schocken Books. Krajeski, J. (2011). The books of Nawal El Saadawi. The New Yorker, Online in: https://www.newyorker. com/books/page-turner/the-books-of-nawal-el-saadawi. Krippendorff, K. H. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications. Krolokke, C., & Sorensen, A. (2006). Gender communication theories and analyses: From silence to performance. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications. Leedy, P. D. & Ormrod, J. E. (2005). Practical research: Planning and design. New Jersey: Pearson Education. Leeman, A. (2009). Interfaith marriage in Islam: An examination of the legal theory behind the traditional and reformist positions. Indiana law journal, 84(2), 743–771. Lemu, B. A., & Heeren, F. (1978). Woman in Islam. Leicester: Islamic Council of Europe Publication. Lennon, P. (1994). Out in a volatile climate. Guardian, May 28, 29. Lewis, R. & S. Mills. (2003). Introduction. In L. Reina & S. Mills (Eds.), Feminist postcolonial theory: A reader (pp. 1–24). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Hepburn, S. (2001, October 26). No compromise. BBC NEWS. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/ correspondent/1619902.stm. Keller, S. N. (1995, February 2). What is the meaning of qawwamuna as used in Surat al Nisa’, verse 34? Masud. Retrieved July 11, 2109, from http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/nuh/qawamuna.htm. Mahmood, S. (2012). Politics of piety: The Islamic revival and the feminist subject. Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press. Majeed, D, D. (2006). Womanism Encounters Islam. in Stacey Floyd-Thomas (ed.), Deeper shades of purple: Womanism in religion and society (pp. 38–57). New York: New York University Press. Malti-Douglas, F. (1995). Men, women, and god(s): Nawal El Saadawi and Arab feminist poetics. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mamdouh, A. (1996). Translating the life of the Arab woman. Al Hayat, May 20, 12. Mandell, N. (1998). Feminist issues: Race, class, and sexuality. Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice Hall Allyn & Bacon Canada. Mandell, N. & Elliot, P. (2001). Feminist theories. In Nancy Mandell (ed.), Feminist issues: Race, class, and sexuality. Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice Hall Allyn & Bacon Canada. Margolis, D. R. (1993). Women’s movements around the world–cross-cultural comparisons. Gender and Society, 7(3), 379–99. Marmorstein, E. (1954). The veil in Judaism and Islam. Journal of Jewish Studies, 5(1), 1–11. Mashhour, A. (2005). Islamic law and gender equality: Could there be a common ground? A study of divorce and polygamy in Shariah law and contemporary legislation in Tunisia and Egypt. Human Rights Quarterly, 27(2), 562–596. Mellouk, I. (2019). We are a hundred years behind. Qantara. https://en.qantara.de/content/interviewwith-egyptian-activist-nawal-el-saadawi- we-are-a-hundred-years-behind. Mernissi, F. (1991). The veil and the male elite: A feminist interpretation of women’s rights in Islam. Cambridge: Perseus Books. Mernissi, F. (1999). Women and Islam: A historical and theological enquiry. Birmingham: Blackwell Pub.

References 

 153

Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. (1996a). Stretching the limits: A feminist reading of the Sharia in post-Khomeini Iran. In Mai Yamani (ed.), Feminism and Islam: Legal and literary perspectives, (pp. 285–319). New York: New York University Press. Mir-Hosseini, Z. (1999). Islam and gender: The religious debate in contemporary Iran. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Mir-Hosseini, Z. (2004). The quest for gender justice: emerging feminist voices in Islam. Islam, 21(36), 1–5. Mir-Hosseini, Z. (2006) Muslim women’s quest for equality: Between Islamic law and feminism. Critical Inquiry, 32(4), 629–645. Mir-Hosseini, Z. (2019). The challenges of Islamic Feminism. Gender and Research, 20(2). 108–122. Mitchell, A. (2010). Nawal El Saadawi. The global dispatches. Retrieved from http://www.theglobaldispatches.com/articles/nawal-alsaadawi. Moghadam, V. M. (2002). Islamic feminisms and its discontents: Toward a resolution of the debate. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture, 27(4), 1135–1171. Moghadam, V. M. (2004). Women’s economic participation in the Middle East: What difference has the Neoliberal policy turn made? Journal of Middle East Women’s Studies, 1(1), 110–146. Moghissi, H. (1999). Feminism and Islamic fundamentalism: The limits of postmodern analysis. London: Zed Press. Moghissi, H. (2011). Islamic feminism revisited. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 31(1), 76–84. Mohanty, C. T. (1991a). Under Western eyes: Feminist scholarship and colonial discourses. In Chandra Talpade Mohanty (ed.) Third World Women and the politics of feminism (pp. 52–79). Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Mohanty, C. T. (1991b). Cartographies of struggle: Third world women and the politics of feminism. In Mohanty, C. T., Russo, A & Torres, L. (eds) Third World women and the politics of feminism. Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. Mojab, S. (1998). Muslim women and western feminists: The debate on particulars and universals. Monthly Review, 50(7), 19–30. Mojab, S. (2001). Theorizing the politics of ‘Islamic feminism’. Feminist Review, 69(1), 124–146. Mojab, M. (2005). Islamic feminism: Alternative or contradiction? In Haideh Moghissi (ed.), Women and Islam: Critical concepts in sociology, (pp. 320–325). London and New York: Routledge. Mojab, S. & McDonald, S. (2008). Women, violence and informal learning. In C. Kathryn, N. Bascia, & E. Shragge (Eds.), Learning through community: Exploring participatory practices (pp. 37–54). Dordrecht, NLD: Springer. Moore-Gilbert, Bart. (2009). Postcolonial life-writing: Culture, politics, and self- representation. London: Routledge. Moosa, N. (1998). Human rights in Islam. South African Journal on Human Rights, 14(4), 508–524. Naoot F. (2021, March 25). ‫ عيناها فى وهج الشمس | المصري اليوم‬.‫نوال السعداوى‬. Al Masry Al. Youm. https://www.almasryalyoum.com/news/details/2296178. Naseef, A. O. (1988). Today’s problems, tomorrow’s solutions. London: Mansell Publishing. Nasr, S. H. (2003). Islam: Religion, history and civilization. San Francisco: Harper One. Nassif, M. H. (2014). Al-Nisa’iyyat. Cairo: Hindawi Foundation for Education and Culture. Nelson, C., & Woods, R. H. (2014). Content analysis. In M. Stausberg & E, Engler (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of research methods in the study of religion. London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Netton, I. R. (2008). Encyclopedia of Islamic Civilization and Religion. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. Newson-Horst, A. S. (2008). Conversations with Nawal El Saadawi. World Literature Today, 82(1), 55–58.

154 

 References

Nicholls, J. (2017). She spoke the unspeakable, in the BBC One television series. Retrieved from http://jillnicholls.net/2017/06/15/she-spoke-the-unspeakable. Offen, K. (1988). Defining feminism: A comparative historical approach. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 14(1), 119–157. O’Keefe, J. (2008). A review of a woman at point zero. Democratiya, 15, 123–129. Othman, G. (2021, March 23). ‫ شفاعة نسوية وخذالن سياسي‬،‫ بين عقاب إلهي‬:‫وفاة نوال السعداوي‬. Vice.com. https://www.vice.com/ar/article/qjp7b5. Ouda, A. (2021, October 27). ‫ نوال السعداوي قائدة ثورة تحرر المرأة ومساواتها فيتو بالرجل‬.‫في ذكرى ميالدها‬. . https://www.vetogate.com/4451980. Payne, M. (2015, September 17). Iran women’s football captain to miss tournament after husband ‘refuses to let her go. Independent. Retrieved from http://www.independent.co.uk/news/ world/middle-east/iran-womens-football-captain- to-miss-tournament-after-husbandrefuses-to-let-her-go-10505533.html. Philipp, T. (1978). Feminism and Nationalist Politics in Egypt. In L. Beck and N. Kiddie (eds.), Women in the Muslim World, (pp. 277–294). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Powel, H. F. (2012, October 10). Interview with Nawal El Saadawi. Helena Frith Powel. http://helenafrithpowell.com/blog/interview-with-nawal-el-saadawi. Rahman, A. (1980). A survey of the modernization of Muslim family law. International Journal of Middle East Studies, 11(4), 451–465. Rahman, A. (1986). Role of Muslim women in society. London: St. Edmundsbury Press Limited. Ramadan, T. (2005). Muslims need creative pluralism. In the Globe and Mail. February 19, A23. Raphael, S. (2018, June 7). Women are pushed to be just bodies: Veiled under religion or veiled by makeup. Refinery29. https://www.refinery29.com/en-gb/2018/06/200895/nawal-el-saadawiinterview. Reuters, T. (2018). I don’t fear death: Egyptian feminist, novelist Nawal El Saadawi. 24May 2018. Retrieved from https://www.egypttoday.com/Article/4/50803/I-don- t-fear-death-Egyptianfeminist-novelist-Nawal-El. Rippin, A. (1988). Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Qur’an, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Rippin, A. & Knappert, J. (1987). Textual Sources for the Study of Islam. Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble. Rosenberg, L. & Duffy, A. (2010). Violence against women. In Nancy Mandell (ed.), Feminist issues: Race, Class and sexuality, (pp. 161–196). Pearson Canada. Rosenthal, F. (1989). The history of al-Tabari, Volume I: General introduction and from the creation to the flood. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press. Rostami-Povey, E. (2007). Afghan women: Identity and invasion. New York: Zed Books. Ruby, T. F. (2019). Muslim women’s rights: Contesting liberal-secular sensibilities in Canada. London: Routledge. Russell, M. (1997). Creating the new woman: Consumerism, education, and national identity in Egypt, 1863–1922. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. Said, A. (2021, March 27). Dr. Nawal El Saadawi. Almasry Alyoum. https://www.almasryalyoum.com/ news/details/2298127. Salama, Z. A. (2021). !‫ ظالمة أم مظلومة؟‬:‫ نوال السعداوي‬Thaqafat. https://thaqafat.com/2021/04/95086. Sanchez-Hucles, J. V. & Davis, D. D. (2010). Women and women of color in leadership: Complexity, identity, and intersectionality. The American Psychologist, 65(3), 171–181. Schuster, J. (2013). Invisible feminists? Social media and young women’s political participation. Political Science, 65(1): 8–24. Scott, J. W. (2007). The politics of the veil. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

References 

 155

Shah, N. (2000). Marriage and divorce: Law reform within Islamic framework. Kuala Lumpur: International Law Book Services, Golden Books Centre. Shah, N. (2006). Women, the Koran, and international human rights law: The experience of Pakistan. Boston: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. Shaarawi, H. (1981). Mudhakkirati. Cairo: Dar al-Hilal. Shaarawi. H. (1986). Harem years the memoirs of an Egyptian feminist. New York: The Feminist Press. Shahidian H. (2002). Women in Iran: gender politics in Islamic Republic. Connecticut: Greenwood Press Publisher. Shaikh, Sa’diyya, (2004). Knowledge, women, and gender in the Hadith: A feminist interpretation. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, 15(1), 99–108. Shanley, M. L. (1989). Feminism, marriage, and the law in Victorian England. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Shinawy, S. (2021, March 21). ‫نقابة كتاب مصر تنعي نوال السعداوي‬.‫ بوابة الشروق‬https://www.shorouknews.com/ news/view.aspx?cdate=21032021&id=25b03594-ae61-4a7a-8433-7e0d2ce6bacb. Siringi, S. (2010, July 10). Polygamous marriages exposing Kenyans to risk of HIV/Aids, warns new survey. Daily Nation. Retrieved from https://www.nation.co.ke/news/Polygamousmarriagesexposing-Kenyans-to-risk- of-HIV-Aids/1056-955610-sftyad/index.html. Slonim-Nevo, V., & Al Krenawi, A. (2006). Success and failure among polygamous families: The experience of wives, husbands, and children. Family process, 45(3), 311–330. https://doi.org/10. 1111/j.1545-5300.2006.00173. Smith, J. I. (1979). Women in Islam: Equity, equality, and the search for the natural order. Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 47(4), 517–537. Smith, S. (2007). Interview with Nawal El Saadawi (Cairo, 29th January 2006). Feminist Review, 85(85), 59–69. Sonbol, A. E. (2001). Rethinking women and Islam. In Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito (Eds.), Daughters of Abraham: Feminist thought in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (pp. 108–146). Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Soueif, A. (1996), Translating the life of the Arab woman. AI Hayat, May 20, 12. Stowasser, B. F. (1994). Women in the Qur’an, traditions, and interpretations. New York: Oxford: University Press. Stowasser, B. F. (1998). Gender issues and contemporary Qur’an interpretation. In Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad and John L. Esposito (Eds.), Islam, gender, and social change (pp. 30–44). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stuckey, J. (1998). Women and religion: Female spirituality, feminist theology, and feminist goddess worship. In Mandell, N (Ed.), Feminist issues: Race, class and sexuality. Scarborough, Ontario: Prentice-Hall Allyn & Bacon Canada. Syahrivar, J. (2020). Hijab no more: A phenomenological study. Journal of Religion and Health. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-01068-7. Tarabishi. G. (1988). Woman against her sex: A critique of Nawal El Saadawi with a replay by Nawal El Saadawi. London: Saqi Books. Tohidi, N. (2003). Women’s rights in the Muslim world: The universal-particular interplay. Hawwa: Journal of Women of the Middle East and the Islamic World, 1(2), 152–88. Valley, P. (2010, January 6). The big question: What’s the history of polygamy, and how serious a problem is it in Africa? Independent. Retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/ africa/big-question-what-s-history- polygamy-and-how-serious-problem-it-africa-1858858.html. Vatikiotis, P. J. (1980). The history of Egypt: From Muhammad Ali to As-Sadaat. West Hartford, Connecticut: Johns Hopkins University.

156 

 References

Wadud, A. (1999). Qur’an and women: Rereading the sacred text from a woman’s perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. Wadud, A. (2000). Alternative Qur’anic interpretation and the status of Muslim women. In Gisela Webb (Ed.), Windows of faith: Muslim Women scholar-activists in North America (pp. 3–21). Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. Wadud, A. (2006). Inside the gender jihad: Women’s reform in Islam. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. Wadud, A. (2008). Foreword: Engaging tawhid in Islam and feminisms. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 10(4), 435–438. Waines, D. (2003). An introduction to Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Wajid, S. (2008). Nawal El Saadawi in dialogue. Darkmatter. Retrieved from http://www.darkmatter101. org/site/2008/02/13/nawal-el-saadawi-in-conversation. Walsh, D. (October 12, 2012). Taliban reiterate vow to kill Pakistani girl. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/13/world/asia/malala-yousafzai-facesnew-taliban-threat. html?hp& r=0. Wollstonecraft, M. (1972). A vindication of the rights of woman. Toronto: Broadview Literary Texts. Witw, S. (2016, October 25). Women in Iceland protest country’s 14 percent pay gap by leaving work 14 percent early. New York Times. Retrieved from http://nytlive.nytimes.com/ womenintheworld/2016/10/25/women-in-iceland- protest-countrys-14-percent-pay-gap-byleaving-work-14-percent-early. Zahedi, A. (2011) Muslim American women in the post-11 September era. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 13(2), 183–203. Zidan, E. (2021, March 21). ‫األمين العام للمجلس األعلى للثقافة ينعى نوال السعداوى‬. ‫الوطن‬. https://www.elwatannews.com/news/details/5387540.

Index Abdel-Fattah, Randa 121 Abdel Hadi, Alaa 46 Abdul-Rauf, Muhammad 78 Ahmed, Leila 2, 8, 22, 26, 40, 83, 99, 101 Al-Albaani, Nasiruddin 78 Al-Baz, Muhammad 45 Al-Bukhari 75, 87, 91, 94, 106, 117 Al-Dawlibi, Ma’ruf 117 Al-Hibri, Azizah 5–6, 8–9, 11–12, 15, 68, 70, 73, 77–78, 83–85, 94, 107, 110–111, 116, 118, 120 Abdul-Rauf, Muhammad 78 Al-Ghazali, Zaynab 26 Al-Hamidi, Ahmed 44 Ali, Jawad 80 Ali, Syed 108 Ali, Kecia, Hammer, Julliane, & Silver, Laury 9 Al-Nadim, Ibn 10 Al-Shahrani, Bandar 2 Al-Tabari, Abu Ja’far Muhammad Ibn Jarir 5–7, 9–10, 14–15, 68–76, 83–84, 91–93, 104–106, 108–111, 114–115, 118, 120 Al-Tahtawi, Rifa’a Rafi 20 Al-Zabaidi, Murtada 100 Amin, Qasim 20–24, 26 Amireh, Amal 40, 42–44 Anderson, Margaret L. 1 Ardalan, Niloufar 2 Arkoun, Mohammed 4 Armstrong, Karen 86 As-Said, Amina 26–27 Atwood, Margaret 40 Auslander, Leora 101 Al-Wahsh, Nabih 38 Badawi, Zainab 47 Badran, Margot 8, 19–20, 23, 25 Badran, Margot, & Cooke, Miriam 52 Baffoun, Alya 3 Balaa, Luma 43 Barazangi, Nimat 4 Barlas, Asma 4, 112, 121 Batha, Emma 5, 39 Berelson, Bernard 14 https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111105314-016

Berg, Herbert 7 Bindle, Julie 1 Brittain, Victoria 4 Brooks-Bertram, Peggy et al. 1 Campbell, Jacquelyn & Boyd, David 1 Chisholm, Shirley, Chirsholm 1 Cole, Juan 19–20 Coleman, Isobel 8 Cooke, Miriam 4, 8, 26, 52, 99 Cooke, Rachel 28, 37 Cowell, Alan 49 Davis, Kathy 1 De Beauvoir, Simone 5, 39, 55, 57 Diani, Hera 107 Doernberg, Erwin 80 Droogsma, Rachel. A. 102 Drosihn, Nora 43 El Guindi, Fedwa 101–102 El Kilani, Wafaa 49 El Mir, Rana 2 El Sohl, Camilla Fawzi, & Mabro, Judy 112 Esposito, John & DeLong-Bas, Natana 95 Farraj, Afif 41 Farry, Marcel 118 Fariborz, Arian 28 Fawzy, Mufid 47 Fisher, Frye, & Frye 10 Fouad et al. 3 Franks, Myfanwy 108 Gornick, Vivian 55 Graham-Brown, Sarah Graham 29–30, 35–36 Grami, Amal 7 Guru-Murthy, Krishnan 29–30, 38 Halper, Louise 8 Hashim, Iman 3–4 Hassan, Maher 41 Hassan, Riffat 4

158 

 Index

Hepburn, Samira 28 Hidayatullah, Aysha 4–5 Hirshmann, Nancy. J 101–102 Hisham, Azmy 46 Hoodfar, Homa 99–101 Hughes, Thomas Patrick 80 Ibn Kathir, Abu l-Fida Ismail Ibn Umar 5–7, 10–11, 15, 68–69, 71, 76, 84, 91–92, 101, 106, 109–111, 115, 118, 120 Ingrams, Doreen 80 Jayawardena, Kumari 20 Jones, Lindsay 10 Jorgensen, Marianne & Phillips, Louise 14 Joseph, Nichole 30 Kandiyoti, Deniz 8 Keller, Sh. Nuh 77 Khaleeli, Homa 19, 103–104, 119 Khan, Maulana Wahiduddin 63, 70, 80 Kidwai, Mushir Hosain 86 Killian, Caitlin 102 Kilpatrick, Hillary 35 Koltun, Elizabeth 80 Krippendorff, Klaus 14 Leedy, Paul & Ormrod, Jeanne 13 Leeman, Alex 62 Lennon, Peter 41 Mahmood, Saba 4 Majeed, Debra Mubashshir 9 Malti-Douglas, Fedwa 36, 43–44 Mamdouh, Alia 41–42 Mandel, Nancy 1 Marmorstein, Emile 108 Mashhour, Amirah 86 McAuliffe, Jane Dammen 10–11 Mernissi, Fatima 83 Mir-Hosseini, Ziba 8 Mojab, Shahrzad 8 Moghadam, Valentine 8 Moghissi, Haideh 2–3 Mohanty, Chandra Talpade 99

Moore-Gilbert, Bart 114 Musa, Nabawiyya 24–25 Naoot, Fatima 40–41, 45 Nelson, Chad & Woods, Robert 14 Nassif, Malak Hifni 23–24 Naseef, Abdullah Omar 62 Netton, Ian 10 Newson-Horst, Adele 44 Nicholls, Jill 40, 45 O’Keefe, Juliet 43 Ouda, Ayah 33, 36–37, 49 Othman, Ghazal 45–46 Payne, Marissa 2 Philipp, Thomas 19–20 Powell, Helena Frith 35, 38, 104 Rahman, Fazlur 70, 93–95 Ramadan, Tarek 62 Raphael, Sarah 30, 56–57, 90, 104 Reuters, Thomson 39 Rippen, Andrew 6–7 Rippin, Andrew & Knappert, Jan 7 Rosenthal, Franz 9–10 Rostami-Povey, Elaheh 2 Ruby, Tabassum Fahim 5 Russell, Mona 22 Said, Abdekmonim 40–41 Salama, Zyad Ahmed 44 Samaan, Magdy 37, 88 Sanchez-Hucles & Davis 2 Sartre, Paul 57 Scott, Joan Wallach 99 Shaarawi, Huda 3–4, 22–26, 36, 45 Shafiq, Doria 25–26 Shah, Niaz 116 Shinawy, Shimaa 46 Siringi, Samuel 81 Slonim, Vered, & al- Krenawi, Alean 81 Smith, Sophie 27, 40, 102, 118 Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary 86 Soueif, Ahdaf 41

Index 

Stewart, Barbara 9 Stowasser, Barbara 3, 75 Syahrivar, Jhanghiz 108 Tohidi, Nayereh 8 Tarabishi, George 42 Valley, Paul 81 Vatikiotis, Panayiotis Jerasimof 35

Wadud, Amina 5–6, 8–9, 12–13, 15, 68, 70–73, 76–77, 85–86, 93, 107, 111, 116–118, 120 Wajid, Sarah 104 Wasel, Nasr Farid 39 Witw, AS 3 Zidan, Elham 46

 159