Women of Steel: Female Bodybuilders and the Struggle for Self-Definition 9780814765456

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W O M E N O F STEE L

Maria R. Lowe

WOMEN

OF

STEEL

Female Bodybuilder s and th e Struggl e fo r Self-Definition

New Yor k University Pres s New York and London

New Yor k University Pres s New Yor k and Londo n © 199 8 by New Yor k Universit y All rights reserve d Library o f Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Lowe, Maria R. , 1964 Women o f stee l : female bodybuilder s an d th e struggl e fo r self definition / Mari a R . Lowe, p. cm . Includes bibliographical reference s an d index . ISBN 0-8147-5094-X (pbk . : acid-free paper) . — ISBN 0-8147-5093- 1 (cloth : acid-free paper ) 1. Bodybuildin g fo r women—Socia l aspects—Unite d States . 2. Femininity—Unite d States . 3 . Self-perceptio n i n women—Unite d States. 4 . Wome n bodybuilders—United States . I . Title . GV546.6.W64L69 199 8 646. j's—dc2i 97-2121

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New Yor k University Press books ar e printed o n acid-fre e paper , and thei r bindin g material s ar e chosen fo r strengt h an d durability . Manufactured i n th e Unite d State s o f Americ a 10

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/ dedicate this book to my family, who have always believed in me and in my abilities even when I did not. With your emphasis on the importance of education, compassion, and laughter, you have provided me with a solid foundation in life, and I dedicate my book to you with love and appreciation.

CONTENTS

Acknowledgments i x Introduction: Growin g Pain s i i Muscl e Boun d 2 0 2 Th e Few , th e Powerful , th e Socia l Gatekeepers 5 5 3 Th e Dialecti c o f Femal e Bodybuilding : Steroids, Femininity , an d Muscularity 7 4 4 Conteste d Terrain : Corpora l Judgment 9 9 5 Profitabl e Physiques , Precariou s Hegemonies: Th e Maintenanc e o f the Feminin e Apologeti c 12 1 6 Counterin g Hegemony , Cooptin g th e Resistance, an d th e Futur e o f Femal e Bodybuilding 14 1 APPENDIX A Profile s o f th e Competitors , Judges , and Official s 16 3 APPENDIX B Data , Methodologies , Theor y 16 7 APPENDIX c Intervie w Schedules : Femal e Bodybuilders an d Judge s 17 5 APPENDIX D Glossar y o f Term s 17 9 APPENDIX E A

Muscularit y Continuu m 18

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Notes 18 3 Bibliography 19

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Index 20 1 About th e Autho r 20 6 All illustrations appear as an insert following p. no vii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

As i s th e cas e wit h almos t an y work , th e en d produc t i s a result o f th e assistance, guidance , an d suppor t o f a number o f people. Hence, I would like t o acknowledg e a myria d o f peopl e fo r thei r assistanc e a t variou s stages o f thi s project . First , I would lik e t o than k th e professor s a t th e University o f Texas at Austi n wh o wer e integra l i n helping m e wit h m y doctoral dissertation , o n whic h thi s manuscrip t i s based . I wan t t o warmly acknowledg e th e Chai r o f m y dissertatio n committee , Harle y Browning, fo r hi s unwaverin g guidanc e an d patienc e throughou t th e writing o f m y dissertation . In addition , I would lik e t o than k th e mem bers o f my dissertatio n committee : Teres a Sullivan , Christin e Williams , Christopher Ellison , an d Terr y Todd . Christine , thank s fo r sparkin g m y sociological imaginatio n wit h you r feminis t mind , you r enthusias m fo r the disciplin e o f sociology , an d you r researc h o n gende r construction . Terry an d Ja n Tod d deserv e a specia l than k yo u becaus e the y provide d me wit h acces s t o thei r library , th e Todd-McLea n Collection , whic h provided m e wit h valuabl e historica l information . Thei r extraordinar y knowledge o f th e histor y o f weigh t resistanc e exercis e an d steroi d us e proved invaluable . I would als o lik e t o acknowledg e th e support , assis tance, an d insight s o f Lis a Holewyne durin g th e variou s stage s o f disser tation writing . Susa n Marshall , whos e guidance durin g my master' s the sis a s well a s th e incipien t stage s o f m y doctora l researc h wa s essential , has m y gratitude . Finally , I wan t t o than k Susa n Gonzalez-Bake r an d Audrey Singer , whos e guidance , support , an d friendshi p throug h th e years have meant th e world t o me . Next, I would lik e t o acknowledg e th e numerou s individual s i n th e bodybuilding arena , includin g th e judges , journalists , officials , an d par ticularly th e bodybuilder s wh o too k th e tim e t o participate i n th e inter views an d discus s thei r attitude s toward , experience s in , an d insight s about th e worl d o f femal e bodybuildin g wit h me . Thank s g o t o Earlin e Beasley, Caro l An n Weber , an d Stev e Wennerstro m fo r thei r indispens able assistance . Thank s t o Stev e fo r th e fantasti c picture s o f femal e bodybuilders he allowed me to use from hi s collection an d for his dedica IX

x Acknowledgment s tion t o th e spor t o f femal e bodybuilding . I n addition , I woul d lik e t o thank Caro l An n Webe r fo r he r unfalterin g commitmen t t o fairnes s in bodybuilding . He r feminis t voic e i s muc h neede d i n thi s muscula r terrain. Next, I woul d lik e t o acknowledg e m y family—m y mother , father , grandmother, an d m y sister , brother-in-law , an d nephew—fo r thei r un dying emotiona l suppor t an d love , no t simpl y durin g thi s projec t bu t throughout m y life . The y hav e provide d m e wit h a n extremel y soli d educational, emotional , an d spiritua l foundation . Also , thank s t o m y friends an d colleague s a t Southwester n Universit y an d thos e scattere d around th e world wh o hav e been continuousl y supportiv e an d nurturin g of m e an d m y work . A specia l thank s goe s t o Trac i Giulian o fo r he r unwavering friendshi p (Go , Horns! ) an d he r incredibl e knac k t o mak e me laug h ou t loud . Thank s t o th e man y student s a t Southwester n ove r the pas t fe w year s wh o hav e bee n s o supportiv e of , an d show n grea t interest in , my research . I woul d als o lik e t o acknowledg e m y reader s fo r thei r invaluable , insightful, an d kin d comment s o n m y manuscript : T . Walte r Herbert , Dan C . Hilliard , Edwar d L . Kain , an d Juli e Dowling . A specia l thank s goes to Dan Hilliard , wh o no t onl y provided m e with sagaciou s editoria l suggestions, bu t wh o als o gav e m e invaluabl e substantiv e comment s i n his are a o f expertise—th e sociolog y o f sport . I n addition , thank s t o Da n Yoxall for the pictures i n the weight room , an d to Rebecca Moore for he r help wit h th e note s an d bibliography. I would lik e t o acknowledge thos e at Ne w Yor k Universit y Pres s wh o hav e assiste d m e wit h thi s project , especially m y editor , Timoth y Bartlett , wh o ha s bee n remarkabl y sup portive, understanding, an d encouraging durin g the revision process, an d Niko Pfund , wh o wa s th e firs t t o expres s interes t i n m y research . Man y thanks g o t o Despin a Papazoglo u Gimbe l fo r he r wonderfu l editoria l suggestions. Finally , I woul d simpl y lik e t o acknowledg e m y nephew , Sean Benjami n Solis , whos e brigh t eyes , gentl e soul , an d inquisitiv e mind giv e me hope for th e future .

Introduction Growing Pains

An Excursion into the Muscular Terrain of Female Bodybuilding Gazing before the Gaze: The Afternoon Show T H E TIM E I S early afternoo n o n Saturday , Octobe r 17 , 1992 , in cold , sunny, bluster y Chicag o durin g th e midst o f its first winte r storm . The site o f th e even t fo r whic h I hav e com e i s th e Ari e Crow n Theater , located o n the bottom floor o f th e McCormick Center . Thi s enormou s facility i s right of f windy Lak e Michigan an d within walkin g distanc e of Soldier Field , wher e th e Chicag o Bear s play . Th e McCormic k Center , only abou t 10 0 yards fro m th e hotel wher e th e judges, competitors , and a sizable number o f fans ar e staying, is an immense multileve l structur e with concret e floors an d enoug h spac e fo r a t leas t tw o footbal l fields . The escalator s tak e m e t o th e botto m leve l o f th e Cente r where , i n the distance , I see a crow d millin g around . Th e size o f th e place i s so overwhelming tha t thes e activitie s a t firs t appea r inconspicuou s an d somewhat insignificant . A s I continu e walkin g towar d th e bustlin g throng, however , I sens e th e burgeonin g electricit y an d excitemen t i n the air . I realize quickl y tha t thi s gatherin g i s no ordinar y assembl y of people—and b y no means i s this even t mundane . The people are female bodybuilding enthusiasts , and the event is the twelfth annua l Ms. Olym pia, the superbowl o f female bodybuilding . Entering the crowd, I see people strolling around various booths wher e vendors sel l a plethor a o f bodybuildin g product s aime d a t enhancin g both th e bodybuilders' appearanc e an d their performance . Thes e booth s are strategicall y positione d i n front o f the entrance t o the auditorium s o that everyon e must walk by them, facilitating th e purchase of the sundry display items . Althoug h th e mai n even t wil l begi n a t 2 o'clock , mos t 1

2 Introduction : Growing Pains people arriv e a t th e scen e aroun d 1:0 0 t o chec k ou t th e twenty-thre e booths. Often staffe d b y current or former femal e an d male bodybuilders, these displa y booth s carr y good s rangin g fro m 100 % sturd y cotto n T-shirts an d sexy lycra body suits , to protein powders , vitamins, tannin g liquids, workou t equipment , nutritiona l supplements , workou t shoes , weight-lifting belts , and many othe r suc h products. 1 A casual inspectio n of th e items an d their price s reveal s tha t th e clothes, man y emblazone d with logos—"IFBB," "Mr. Olympia," "Ms . Olympia," "Bod y Under Con struction," an d th e like—rang e i n pric e fro m twent y t o sixt y dollars , while the actual bodybuilding equipmen t price s soa r into the thousands. With ticket prices to the day's events extending past $250, the bodybuilding fa n need s t o hav e acces s t o a n impressiv e amoun t o f disposabl e income. Th e salespeopl e fo r th e nutritiona l supplement s answe r ques tions, han d ou t fre e sample s o f thei r powe r bars , sublingua l vitami n B-12S, energ y drinks , protei n powders , an d amin o aci d powders . Som e are well-know n bodybuilder s themselve s an d sign autograph s an d pose for rolls of photographs with thei r adorin g fans . I notice tha t whil e o n the surface thes e fans ar e poring ove r the latest in bodybuildin g equipmen t an d apparel, anothe r mor e subtl e inspectio n is occurrin g simultaneously—on e focuse d o n the physique o f other s i n the crowd . Whe n a "buff" bodybuilde r saunter s by , people unabashedl y examine ever y nuanc e o f hi s o r he r bulgin g musculature . I f yo u don' t happen t o be a person whos e body look s sculpted , the n people' s interes t in you r bod y and in you quickly wanes , an d their attentio n turn s t o the people walkin g behin d you . You do not pas s thei r anatom y test—yo u know i t an d the y kno w it—an d th e physiqu e examinatio n o f other s quickly resumes . The message is clear: skinny , nonmuscular , an d generally out-of-shape bod y types need not apply! Exactly wha t doe s i t tak e t o inspire env y i n this crowd ? "Th e Ideal" consists of two parts: the body and the presentation o f self. For men, the body-type i s a V-shaped torso , startin g of f a t the neck wit h wid e shoul ders an d taperin g dow n t o a smal l waist . Arm s ar e huge , perhap s th e circumference o f an averag e person' s thigh . Hai r i s short , cre w cut s ar e popular. Leg s are either hidde n behin d loose-fitting , blowz y pant s o r are flaunted b y skin-tigh t jeans . Eve n bagg y pant s ca n revea l immensel y muscular legs . The femal e bodybuilder s i n the crowd prominentl y displa y th e arms, legs, chest , an d for some , th e abdominals . Th e clothin g styl e fo r thes e bodybuilders is revealing: the norm is a short, low-cut, tigh t fitting dress ,

Introduction: Growing Pains 3 or lycr a pant s wit h a snu g top , accompanie d b y hig h heels , big , lon g bouncy hair , lot s o f makeup , an d jewelry . Thi s "look " serve s a dua l purpose: it display s both thei r musculatur e an d their femininity . The presentatio n o f sel f i s a n importan t face t o f th e bodybuildin g look, whether you are male or female. The "look, " at least on the surface , exudes confidence , self-assurance , purpose , and perhaps eve n a contemp t for thos e wh o lac k suc h musculatur e an d discipline. 2 Th e confidenc e o f bodybuilders is most noticeable in their gait. Male and female bodybuild ers i n th e crow d hav e a particularl y slow , purposefu l walk . I t i s a n imperious wal k wit h shoulder s back , ches t out , arm s hel d ou t fro m th e sides, and head cocke d back . Many o f th e femal e bodybuilder s i n th e thron g ar e no t competin g i n this year' s Ms . Olympi a bu t ar e here t o be see n by thos e "i n th e know " and t o se e thei r futur e competition . Mos t o f thes e wome n ar e dresse d explicitly t o displa y thei r musculatur e t o thei r futur e competitor s a s well a s t o th e promoters , sponsors , an d journalist s i n th e crowd . Mos t also apparentl y hav e boyfriend s o r husbands, becaus e th e majorit y hav e a ma n a t thei r side . Amazingly , give n th e larg e musculatur e o f thes e women, thei r mal e companion s ar e eve n bigge r tha n the y ar e (mos t appear t o b e forme r o r curren t bodybuilder s o r powerlifters) . Th e enor mity o f these men's muscles sometime s hav e the initial effec t o f makin g their girlfriends 7 muscle s appea r smalle r tha n the y reall y are . This reac tion, however , i s quickl y assuage d upo n close r inspection . Th e doubl e peak o f th e women' s bicep s o r thei r ripplin g washboar d ab s ca n dra w attention awa y fro m eve n thei r large r mal e companions . I n fact , quit e a few femal e competitor s hav e tol d m e tha t mal e bodybuilder s hat e t o date female bodybuilder s becaus e th e women detrac t fro m th e perceive d largeness o f their ow n muscles . The crow d i s gettin g restless , bu t eventuall y th e usher s ope n th e auditorium door s aroun d 2:0 0 an d peopl e begi n walkin g throug h th e foyer t o their seat s in the darkened auditorium . The only lights are thos e that illuminat e th e fron t stage . Mos t o f th e audienc e i s alread y seate d and eagerl y awaiting th e hea d judge' s voice ove r the intercom . Hi s voic e will signa l the stag e entrance o f th e twent y femal e bodybuilder s an d th e commencement o f th e competition . W e tak e ou r seat s an d I begi n t o look aroun d m e t o acclimat e mysel f t o m y ne w surroundings . A fe w things catc h my ey e immediately . The stag e i s compose d o f a four-tiered , light-gray-carpete d platfor m where th e contestant s wil l eventuall y stan d i n tw o rows, ten bodybuild -

4 Introduction : Growing Pains ers per row . The backdrop o f th e stag e contain s a prominently displaye d white triangle . In the triangl e is an idealized drawin g o f Joe Weider, wh o is th e co-founde r o f th e IFB B and th e owne r o f numerou s bodybuildin g and fitness magazines , as well as the words "Jo e Weider's Ms. Olympia. " Behind th e whit e triangl e i s a dar k backdro p wit h littl e splattering s o f white, which I can onl y surmis e t o be a representation o f th e galaxy. O n the whit e triangl e ther e ar e th e logo s o f thre e companies—Weider , Cy bex, an d ICOPRO—signifyin g thei r importanc e a s sponsor s o f th e Ms . Olympia event . At th e botto m tie r o f th e stag e ar e three mor e sign s advertisin g som e other majo r sponsor s o f th e event : Grea t Earth , IFBB , and VALEO , wh o also have booths outsid e with informatio n abou t thei r products. On bot h sides o f th e stag e stan d dar k screen s illuminate d wit h th e ubiquitou s "Joe Weider's Ms. Olympia." Joe Weider's pictures are everywhere at thi s event, mor e commo n eve n tha n thos e o f th e bodybuilders . Hi s imag e even appear s o n th e larg e medal s give n t o th e winner s a t th e en d o f contest. The auditoriu m itsel f ha s tw o levels . Durin g th e preliminaries , th e top floo r i s empt y whil e approximatel y three-quarter s o f th e botto m level i s filled . Ther e ar e abou t 1,50 0 observer s i n th e audience , thei r average ag e th e earl y thirties . Mos t o f th e peopl e ar e white , abou t one quarter ar e black . Ther e ar e slightl y mor e me n tha n women , an d mos t men ar e heavil y muscled . Mos t peopl e ar e i n group s o f thre e o r more , and most o f the couples are male-female . The are a closes t t o th e stag e i s rope d of f fro m th e remainde r o f th e audience an d contain s th e judges , th e VIPs , an d th e photographers ; her e most o f th e pre-sho w commotio n occurs . Th e judges , five wome n an d six men , ar e seate d a t a lon g tabl e i n th e fron t o f th e stage , conferrin g with on e another . Al l eleve n judge s wea r th e officia l IFB B nav y blu e jacket wit h a n officia l IFB B sea l o n th e pocket . Th e mal e judge s wea r matching nav y blu e tie s an d ligh t pants . Th e femal e judge s wea r skirt s with thei r IFBB jackets, in complianc e with IFB B regulations. Music playing i n th e background include s som e recen t popula r danc e tunes such as Bobby Brown's "M y Prerogative" and "Ain' t Nobod y Hum pin7 Around, " Jane t Jackson' s "Escapade, " Madonna' s "Vogue, " an d a n old song by Frankie Goe s to Hollywood calle d "Relax , Don't D o it." Th e hum o f th e crow d i s risin g slowl y ove r th e musi c a s mor e peopl e ente r the auditorium an d show time approaches .

Introduction: Growing Pains 5 The entranc e o f th e bodybuilders i s inconspicuous an d unannounced . The IFB B Chief o f Protoco l simpl y lead s th e competitor s t o th e foo t o f the platfor m fro m wher e the y ascend , onl y the n receivin g cheer s an d whistles fro m th e audience . Myria d camer a light s simultaneousl y flash. Many audienc e member s hav e com e t o thi s even t t o se e a favorit e bodybuilder, an d they cal l out th e names o f those they support . The bodybuilder s wal k ont o th e stag e fro m th e right , thei r dar k an d hardened bodies glistening with oi l and sweat. Peopl e in the crow d begin to cran e thei r neck s t o se e if thei r favorit e i s in to p form. Doe s sh e loo k hard, cut , an d ripped ? Ho w doe s sh e compar e t o th e others , o r ho w has sh e change d sinc e he r las t competition ? Judgin g from conversation s around me , man y o f th e bodybuilder s ar e abou t te n t o fiftee n pound s smaller tha n the y wer e a t las t year' s Ms . Olympia becaus e IFB B official s have sai d the female bodybuilder s wer e just to o big last year . Even so , these wome n ar e stil l massivel y muscle d compare d t o mos t women an d me n yo u woul d fin d o n th e street s or , fo r tha t matter , i n gyms. Laur a Creavall e an d Lend a Murray , tw o o f th e mos t muscula r women o n stage , hav e th e mos t voca l suppor t fro m th e crowd . I n fact , Lenda Murray's family member s ar e easily discernibl e i n th e crowd wit h their matchin g whit e sweatshirt s emblazone d wit h "Lend a Murray , Ms . Olympia 1990-1991. " Sharon Bruneau an d Anja Schreiner , both of who m have goo d symmetr y bu t ar e no t a s muscula r a s Lend a o r Laura , ar e favorites amon g som e o f th e me n i n th e crowd . A sizabl e percentag e o f the crow d appreciate hard, cut , an d ripped muscles o n women, an d thes e women ge t the most voca l support . The bodybuilder s lin e u p i n tw o row s facin g th e crowd , th e pane l o f eleven judges , an d th e cameras . Whe n the y reac h thei r place s o n stage , they assum e th e semi-relaxe d stance , whic h mean s tha t al l muscle s ar e tense, bu t non e o f th e fiv e mandator y pose s ar e assumed . The y ar e wearing very smal l bikinis tha t "mus t confor m t o accepte d standard s of taste an d decency/' 3 Ye t thes e bikini s mus t als o "revea l th e abdomina l muscles a s wel l a s th e lowe r bac k muscles." 4 Th e tw o piece s o f th e bikini are fastened togethe r with tw o strings , and the fasteners a s well a s the bikin i mus t no t consis t o f metalli c materia l o r padding. 5 Th e Ms . Olympia competitors ' bathing suit s com e in a variety o f colors includin g blue, green, black, white, yellow, orange, red, and last but not least, pink . Most o f th e twent y competitor s ar e fro m th e Unite d States . O f th e American women , fou r ar e o f Africa n descen t an d eigh t o f Europea n

6 Introduction : Growing Pains origin. O f th e eigh t competitor s fro m othe r countries , on e i s black. Th e countries represente d i n th e Ms . Olympi a competitio n ar e th e Unite d States, Guyana, Canada , Czechoslovakia , Hungary , Italy, and Germany . At first look , an unsuspecting person might thin k tha t thi s is a beauty contest o f sorts , an d i n a way, perhaps i t is . The competitor s hav e som e physical characteristic s tha t closel y resembl e th e traditiona l norm s o f femininity exemplifie d i n beaut y contest s aroun d th e world . Fo r in stance, a n unusuall y hig h numbe r o f th e Angl o femal e competitor s ar e blond: ou t o f th e eigh t fro m th e Unite d States , si x ar e blondes . O f th e seven fro m outsid e th e Unite d States , fou r ar e blond . I n addition , onl y one of all the competitors o n stage has short hair,- the rest have shoulder length hai r tha t i s tie d i n a ponytail , a bun , o r a Frenc h braid . Th e bodybuilders wh o hav e hai r tha t i s shoulde r lengt h o r longer wea r thei r hair thi s way because it is stipulated unde r IFBB regulation t o do so. The IFBB Guidebook state s tha t "durin g th e prejudgin g fo r women , th e hai r must b e worn of f th e shoulder s s o as not t o hide th e musculatur e o f th e shoulders an d uppe r back . Th e hai r mus t b e style d fo r finals presenta tion." 6 Furthermore , th e femal e competitor s wea r plent y o f makeu p o n their faces , an d many hav e painted nails . However, th e competitor s ma y not wea r "footwear , watches , rings , bangles , pendants , earrings , wigs , distracting ornamentatio n o r artificia l aid s t o th e figure. The y mus t no t chew gum o r candy or smoke." 7 Each contestan t smile s whil e sh e waits fo r th e competitio n t o begin . The wome n see m strangely , supremel y confident , especiall y s o i n th e face o f ove r on e thousan d people , mos t o f the m men , wh o ar e closel y scrutinizing thei r bodies. 8 Th e parallel s betwee n thi s competitio n an d beauty pagean t contest s ar e obvious—th e smiles , th e coi f fed hair , th e makeup an d painte d nails , th e judges , an d th e ever-presen t gaz e o f th e audience. In additio n t o th e numerou s feminin e elements , however , ther e ar e characteristics tha t mak e thi s even t differen t fro m a beauty contest . W e see image s tha t ou r eye s hav e no t see n before , tha t ou r mind s hav e no t thought possibl e . . . until now . Thes e wome n ar e muscular , incredibl y muscular whe n compare d t o th e averag e perso n o n th e street , mal e o r female. Yet , a t th e sam e time , the y ar e adorned wit h traditionall y femi nine element s suc h a s coif fed hair an d makeup. This combinatio n o f th e feminine an d th e muscula r i s almos t surreal . I t i s a compellin g imag e regardless o f whethe r on e finds th e loo k appealin g o r repulsive . Toda y these wome n stan d prou d t o displa y th e muscle s fo r whic h the y hav e

Introduction: Growing Pains 7 worked s o hard; ye t the y presen t themselve s throug h som e o f th e mos t traditional signifier s o f femininity . Ho w ca n thi s be ? Ho w ca n thes e seeming contradiction s coexis t i n a single body? The wome n athlete s loo k ou t t o th e crowd , anxiou s fo r th e competi tion t o begin.

A Ten-Minute Elimination: The Afternoon Prejudgin g Rounds Professional bodybuildin g competition s consis t o f fou r judge d rounds . The first tw o rounds a t th e Ms. Olympia occu r i n th e afternoo n prejudg ing sho w an d th e las t tw o round s durin g th e evenin g show . Th e first round is the symmetry round in which the judges " compare th e competi tors i n group s o f tw o o r thre e i n th e semi-relaxe d stat e fro m th e front , back an d bot h sides/' 9 Her e judge s loo k fo r symmetr y an d balanc e be tween muscula r group s an d musculature proportiona l t o bone structure . To begin, th e first five contestant s com e dow n t o th e fron t o f th e stage , then th e secon d five, an d s o o n unti l al l twent y competitor s hav e bee n called. Next , th e hea d judg e call s thre e wome n a t a tim e who m th e judges wan t t o evaluat e togethe r s o tha t the y ca n compar e thei r semi relaxed physique s mor e precisely . Th e contestant s fac e th e fron t i n a semi-relaxed stance . Whe n th e hea d judg e say s "quarte r tur n t o th e right," th e competitor s tur n t o face th e right stag e so that th e judges ca n see their sid e symmetry an d proportion. The y continu e thes e right quar ter-turns unti l the y ar e facing th e audience again . The head judge thank s them an d they assum e thei r place back i n on e of the two lines. Then th e next grou p of three comes dow n an d the ritual is repeated . At this show , the same ten female athlete s ar e called repeatedly i n th e course o f th e forty-fiv e minut e period , bu t i n differen t combination s o f three. Thes e te n wome n wil l mos t likel y b e th e to p te n contender s a t this year' s Ms . Olympia . Thos e familia r wit h bodybuildin g custom s know tha t th e hea d judge' s call-out s i n th e first te n minute s o f th e first round revea l thos e bodybuilder s wh o ar e goin g t o finish well . Althoug h the manifes t purpos e o f th e first an d secon d round s i s t o evaluat e body builders' symmetr y an d muscularity , th e laten t purpos e i s t o infor m th e bodybuilders an d audienc e who m th e judge s conside r t o be the contend ers fo r th e title . A t thi s poin t i n th e contest , thos e a t th e competitio n can begi n t o se e tha t ther e ma y b e other , les s tangible , factor s tha t influence whic h bodybuilder s ar e chose n fo r th e call-outs . Sometime s those wh o ar e th e rea l crow d pleaser s ar e th e one s wh o ar e mos t ofte n

8 Introduction : Growing Pains called, ye t a t othe r time s thos e wh o ar e perceived t o hav e alread y "pai d their due s t o th e sport " ar e calle d o n t o ste p forward . Member s o f th e latter grou p hav e bee n i n th e spor t fo r a while , followe d th e rule s dili gently, an d not openl y criticize d thos e in the upper echelon . For thos e lef t i n th e backgroun d durin g th e round , th e psychologica l effects ca n b e devastating . The y tal k abou t becomin g discourage d an d losing thei r spiri t withi n th e firs t te n minute s o f a mee t becaus e th e judges hav e calle d the m ou t onl y once : they hav e been aroun d th e spor t long enough t o know what thi s signifies . Th e women wh o ar e not calle d forward ar e lef t standin g semi-relaxe d i n th e bac k tw o lines , watchin g their competitor s pos e t o th e cadenc e o f th e hea d judge' s call : "O.K. , quarter tur n t o th e right. " Afte r forty-fiv e minutes , th e firs t roun d i s over an d th e competitor s exi t th e stage . Ther e i s abou t a five-minut e intermission. Round tw o i s th e muscularit y roun d i n whic h th e contestant s d o a serie s o f fiv e compulsor y poses . Th e pose s fo r professiona l femal e bodybuilders competin g i n th e IFB B contests suc h a s th e Ms . Olympi a include (i ) fron t doubl e biceps , (2 ) sid e chest , (3 ) rear doubl e biceps , (4 ) side triceps, and (5 ) two-arm overhea d abdominal s an d quadriceps. Whe n the twent y contestant s retur n t o th e stage , th e IFB B Chief o f Protoco l takes thei r han d an d guide s the m u p th e stair s t o th e to p o f th e stage . With al l bodybuilder s o n stage , thre e bodybuilder s a t a tim e ar e calle d out t o th e fron t an d aske d t o d o th e fiv e compulsor y poses . The middl e position i s considere d t o b e th e bes t positio n o f th e thre e becaus e th e judges wan t t o compar e tha t person' s physiqu e t o th e tw o competitor s on eithe r side . It i s a n ominou s sig n fo r an y competito r wh o line s u p i n the cente r o f th e thre e poser s t o b e aske d t o mov e t o on e o f th e tw o peripheral position s i n orde r t o le t anothe r competito r stan d i n th e middle. Again, i n thi s round , th e judge s continu e t o cal l th e sam e wome n fo r the muscularity poses as they had for the first round . For instance, Lend a Murray, Laur a Creavalle , Anj a Schreiner , Sand y Riddell , Shell y Beattie , and Dian a Denni s ar e continuall y aske d t o com e t o th e fron t o f th e platform t o perfor m th e five compulsor y poses . Som e o f th e othe r women ar e calle d onl y onc e o r twic e an d hav e t o stan d patientl y i n th e rows behin d th e thre e wome n wh o ar e posin g fo r th e judges , al l th e while knowin g tha t the y probabl y wil l no t plac e i n th e to p te n a t thi s contest. It i s interesting t o not e th e posin g styl e o f th e reignin g Ms . Olympia .

Introduction: Growing Pains 9 She i s b y fa r th e mos t melodramati c "performer " o n stage . Sh e take s elaborate measure s t o emphasiz e th e importanc e o f he r ever y move . A friend wh o i s witnessin g thi s displa y wit h m e term s he r performanc e "the Princes s Syndrome. " Whe n I discuss thi s phenomeno n wit h other s who ar e familiar wit h th e sport , the y sa y that thi s melodramati c displa y comes with th e titl e o f Ms. Olympia . The final tw o competitors who are called to the center of the platfor m are Lenda Murray an d Laur a Creavalle . They ar e the tw o mos t muscula r female bodybuilder s an d the y hav e bee n calle d ou t numerou s time s throughout th e cours e o f thes e tw o rounds , but ther e ha s alway s bee n a third contestan t wit h them . Now , th e hea d judg e simpl y says , "An d finally, Lend a Murra y an d Laur a Creavalle. " Th e auditoriu m goe s into a frenzy. Ther e i s thunderou s yelling , whistling , an d clapping . Peopl e yel l wildly fo r thei r favorit e o f th e tw o a s the y "g o pose fo r pose " wit h on e another. W e al l kno w tha t th e outcom e o f thi s meet , i f th e judges 7 decisions ar e solel y base d o n musculatur e an d symmetry , wil l com e down to these tw o competitors .

Interlude No othe r sport 10 s o embodie s th e tension s an d contradiction s betwee n femininity, strength , an d muscularit y tha n femal e bodybuilding . Body building i s organized , governed , an d operate d mostl y b y mal e socia l gatekeepers—officials, judges , and sponsors—who hav e the power to se t and maintai n th e judgin g standard s b y whic h femal e bodybuilder s ar e evaluated. Withi n thi s context , m y stud y pose s a serie s o f questions : How i s th e dilemm a o f havin g suc h strong , powerful , an d possibl y radi calizing images o f women withi n a largely male-dominated organizatio n resolved? Is the image of female bodybuilders actually radicalizing, or has the image been reappropriated i n orde r t o fit within dominan t notion s of femininity? Ho w doe s th e issu e o f marketabilit y affec t th e image s o f female bodybuilders ? Wha t ar e th e role s o f judge s a s socia l gatekeepers ? What ar e th e femal e bodybuilders ' response s t o th e hegemoni c defini tions an d images se t by the predominantly mal e gatekeepers ? To she d ligh t o n th e constructio n an d negotiatio n o f femal e body builders7 femininity, I incorporate a cultural-studies perspective in whic h I tak e a s a startin g poin t th e notio n tha t gende r i s no t biologicall y determined bu t i s rathe r sociall y constructe d (se e appendix B for a brief discussion o f thi s theoretica l perspective) . Althoug h bot h wome n an d

io Introduction

: Growing Pains

men hav e resource s tha t allo w the m t o eithe r cooperat e wit h o r resis t existing social arrangements t o varying degrees, men have resources tha t are no t availabl e t o women . Thi s inequalit y o f economic , social , an d political resource s give s me n mor e powe r i n th e negotiatio n process . Because o f this power disparity , men' s abilit y t o formulate an d maintai n gender definition s i s enhanced , servin g t o regulat e an d constrai n wom en's behavior an d thu s supportin g gende r inequality. 11 Historically , me n have ha d th e powe r t o defin e an d se t th e boundarie s o f appropriat e an d acceptable behaviors an d appearances for women, a point t o be discusse d in greate r detai l throughou t thi s study . Althoug h wome n brin g fewe r resources int o th e negotiatio n process , the y d o hav e som e powe r i n which t o negotiat e an d thu s influenc e th e outcome s o f thi s process . I n other words , wome n ma y partiall y accep t th e hegemoni c o r dominan t culture, ye t the y ma y als o attemp t t o redefine , negotiate , o r resis t it. 12 Hence, history illustrates women's sometimes consciou s and other time s unwitting attempt s t o resis t th e limite d an d narro w definition s place d on them . One o f th e mos t effectiv e way s t o dea l wit h wome n wh o attemp t t o resist th e gende r statu s qu o b y dismissin g th e dominan t male-define d norms i s t o labe l thes e wome n deviant. 13 Mos t often , th e devian t label s connote som e query about thes e women's femininit y an d attractiveness , which ma y also serve to question thei r sexuality . For example, the term s "unattractive," "butch, " "dyke, " "masculine, " an d "aggressive " ar e of ten use d t o describ e wome n wh o ar e perceive d t o hav e crosse d gende r boundaries. On e o f th e arena s i n whic h socia l gatekeeper s hav e use d deviant label s to keep women fro m crossin g over gender boundaries i s i n the aren a o f sport . Yet , paradoxically , spor t i s als o a n aren a i n whic h women hav e attempte d t o resis t narro w definition s o f femininit y an d womanhood—some wit h mor e succes s tha n others . Athletic women , especiall y wome n i n sport s wher e a sho w o f strength, muscle , an d swea t ar e prominent , hav e ofte n bee n considere d outside the boundaries of appropriate femininity sinc e traditionally thes e displays have been associate d wit h masculinity . Tw o ways these athleti c women hav e historically been treated include (i ) being labeled deviant — unfeminine, manlike , o r lesbian, t o name a few; o r (2 ) being recast t o fit within th e dominan t patriarcha l view s o f femininity . A n illustratio n o f the latter occurre d i n 1943 , when Chicag o Cubs owne r Phili p K. Wrigley and hi s publicit y director , Arthu r Meyerhoff , bega n th e All-America n Girls Baseball Leagu e (AAGBL) and arrive d a t a strategy t o dea l with th e

Introduction: Growing Pains 1 1 dilemma o f th e associatio n betwee n basebal l an d masculinity . I t wa s called "th e femininity principle/ ' an d it "a t onc e denied th e masculinit y of femal e ballplayer s ye t emphasize d th e masculinit y o f thei r athleti c skill. Paste l skirte d uniforms , makeup , lon g hair , an d stringen t control s on athletes 7 public appearanc e an d persona l live s aime d t o highligh t th e attractive femininit y o f th e ballplayers/ 714 Becaus e thes e wome n ha d crossed th e boundarie s int o a "mal e domain/ 7 Meyerhof f an d Wrigle y took great pains to show tha t thes e ballplayers were still unquestionabl y "normal77 feminin e wome n wh o happene d t o pla y baseball . Th e "femi ninity principle/ 7 alon g wit h othe r strategies , ha s bee n ver y successfu l in eithe r recastin g femal e athlete s bac k int o th e norm s o f appropriat e femininity o r further marginalizin g those athletes who do not eventuall y conform t o the dominan t norms. 15 The succes s o f socia l gatekeepers i n recastin g potentiall y threatenin g definitions o f femininit y shoul d no t b e surprisin g given , amon g othe r resources, thei r powe r t o defin e behavior s an d appearance s a s normal o r deviant. However , thei r successe s shoul d no t detrac t fro m th e man y female athlete s wh o hav e attempte d t o forg e darin g ne w definition s o f femininity b y participating i n sport s originall y though t t o be outside th e realm o f appropriat e femininity : Iv y Russell, a British weightlifter i n th e 1930s;16 Abbye "Pudgy 77 Stockto n o f th e 1940 s and 1950s , considered t o be th e mothe r o f femal e bodybuilding; 17 an d Bab e Didrickson , who m many conside r t o be th e bes t femal e athlet e o f al l time. 18 Al l defie d th e constricting feminine norm s o f their times . Recently, scholars , particularly thos e i n cultura l studies , hav e argue d that th e institution s o f sport s an d sportslik e activitie s ar e importan t arenas i n whic h t o examin e th e constructio n an d maintenanc e of—a s well a s th e resistanc e to—th e hegemoni c gendere d powe r relation s found i n th e Unite d States. 19 Fo r instance , i t wa s maintaine d tha t "i n relatively stabl e liberal capitalist democracies , power is reproduced effec tively throug h a variety o f means ; spor t clearl y is one o f thes e means , i n many o f it s form s an d manifestations . Bu t i t ca n als o b e a means , whereby alternative values are protected, o r developed and nurtured, an d at time s mobilize d agains t a dominan t culture. 7720 Other s hav e als o examined spor t an d it s rol e i n th e continuatio n an d contestatio n o f power, i n particula r gendere d power , i n patriarcha l capitalis t societies. 21 It wa s argue d tha t althoug h th e curren t wav e o f women' s athleticis m expresses a sincere attemp t b y women fo r equality , contro l o f thei r ow n bodies, an d self-definition , ther e ar e "historica l limit s an d constraint s

12 Introduction : Growing Pains imposed by a consumption-oriented corporat e capitalis m an d men's con tinued attempt s t o retai n powe r an d privileg e ove r women/ 7 2 2 Thus , organized sport , a s a cultural spher e define d largel y by patriarchal priori ties, wil l continu e t o be "a n importan t aren a i n whic h emergin g image s of active, fit, and muscular women ar e forged, interpreted , contested , an d incorporated. //23 In th e lat e 1970s , a sport tha t coul d potentially challeng e th e curren t hegemonic notion s o f femininity emerge d o n the sporting horizon i n th e form o f female bodybuilding. 24 Her e is a sport in which image s o f fit an d muscular wome n ar e seemingly accepte d an d promoted . Ye t how d o th e patriarchal an d capitalis t interest s an d priorities o f the spor t shap e thes e muscular images ? Furthermore , ho w wil l women's attempt s a t equality , corporal control , an d self-definitio n pla y out i n thi s muscula r economic political terrain ?

The Women of Steel and the Gatekeeper s My sampl e include s competitiv e bodybuilders , Internationa l Federatio n of Bodybuilders (IFBB ) and National Physiqu e Committe e (NPC ) official s and judges , an d journalist s wh o cove r th e sport . Throughou t th e book , I use pseudonyms t o protect th e identity o f those who participated i n thi s study. Overall , th e vas t majorit y o f m y sampl e ar e Americans ; o f th e thirty-seven respondents , onl y on e i s a citize n o f anothe r country . Th e sample o f bodybuilder s i s represente d mostl y b y Anglo s (70% ) wit h African American s an d Latina s comprisin g th e rest . Asia n American s were no t represented . Th e fourtee n bodybuilder s i n thi s stud y represen t women alon g th e continuu m o f competitio n levels : slightl y mor e tha n 40 percen t compet e a t th e professiona l level , approximatel y 3 0 percen t compete a t th e nationa l amateu r level , an d almos t 3 0 percent compet e at the state amateur level. On average these women have been competin g for si x years. Although non e o f th e wome n gre w up hopin g t o become a bodybuilder, som e showe d a fascination wit h muscle s an d musculatur e development a t an early age. Most got involved in bodybuilding uninten tionally—by workin g ou t a t a gym , no t wit h purpos e o f becomin g a competitive bodybuilder , bu t t o ge t bac k i n shap e o r t o recove r fro m a n injury. Thei r age s ranged from twenty-fou r t o forty-six, wit h th e averag e age being thirty-three. Forty-three percent have received a college degree, 14 percen t hav e a hig h schoo l diplom a wit h som e colleg e experience , and 4 3 percen t hav e a hig h schoo l degre e wit h n o colleg e experience .

Introduction: Growing Pains 1 3 More demographi c informatio n abou t th e interviewee s ca n b e foun d i n appendix A. Because official s ar e als o likel y t o b e contes t judges , I combine thes e two categorie s fo r th e demographi c information . I n th e text , I separat e these tw o position s dependin g o n wha t rol e th e perso n i s assuming . O f the twent y officials/judges , 5 5 percen t ar e me n an d 4 5 percen t ar e women. Seventy-fiv e percen t o f thi s grou p ar e Anglo , 5 percen t ar e African American , 5 percen t ar e Asia n American , an d 1 5 percen t ar e Hispanic. Judges an d official s ar e olde r tha n bodybuilders , an d mos t ha d competed a s bodybuilder s befor e becomin g judge s and/o r officials . Th e average age of th e mal e judges/officials i s forty-seven, wit h a range fro m thirty-eight t o sixty-nine, - fo r femal e officials/judges , th e averag e ag e i s thirty-four, wit h a range fro m thirt y t o forty-five . O f th e femal e judges , eight ou t o f nine , o r approximatel y 9 0 percent, hav e participate d o r ar e currently participatin g a s competitive bodybuilders . O f th e mal e judges , six out o f eleven, o r 5 5 percent, ar e either currentl y participating o r have participated a s competitive bodybuilders . In addition , I hav e interviewe d thre e bodybuildin g journalists—tw o women an d one man .

Methodological Issue s In order to examine the substantive question s an d to elucidate the mech anisms involve d i n th e constructio n an d negotiatio n o f femininity , a s well as the reproduction an d contestatio n o f gendered power in th e spor t of femal e bodybuilding , I use d a combinatio n o f ethnographi c observa tion an d in-dept h semi-structure d interviews . Fro m th e fal l o f 199 1 t o the sprin g o f 1993 , I conducte d a tota l o f thirty-seve n interview s wit h female bodybuilders, NPC an d IFBB female an d male judges and officials , and journalists. I met man y a t bodybuilding competition s eithe r throug h others I ha d interviewed , throug h ke y informants , o r b y recognizin g them fro m thei r magazin e photos , an d I interviewe d mos t o f the m o n the phon e afte r the y ha d returne d hom e fro m a competition . Th e inter view fo r th e femal e bodybuilder s consiste d o f numerou s open-ende d questions in five general areas: sports socialization, th e process of gettin g ready fo r a mee t an d th e mee t experience , attitude s abou t judging , atti tudes abou t th e importanc e o f attractivenes s fo r femal e bodybuilder s and abou t wha t loo k constitute s th e idea l i n femal e bodybuilding , an d attitudes abou t thei r ow n experience s i n th e spor t an d th e futur e o f th e

14 Introduction : Growing Pains sport. Th e intervie w fo r th e femal e an d mal e judges , whic h i s include d in appendi x C , als o consiste d o f open-ende d question s i n fou r genera l areas: sport s socialization , judgin g experiences , attitude s abou t th e im portance o f attractiveness o f female bodybuilders , an d their vision o f th e future o f femal e bodybuilding . Thes e interviews , whic h wer e tape d an d transcribed, laste d fro m thirt y minute s t o tw o hour s an d wer e filled with persona l stories—som e o f determinatio n an d triumph , other s o f frustration an d despair . Th e femal e bodybuilder s wit h who m I spok e embodied man y o f the apparent contradiction s an d tensions o f the sport : they appeare d t o be confident an d too k charg e at som e points durin g th e interviews, while at othe r time s the y seeme d more timi d an d meek . For the participant observations , I took extensiv e note s whil e observ ing how bodybuilding meet s ar e run an d organized. In all, I observed five different bodybuildin g shows : thre e regiona l shows , includin g th e 199 1 Texas Cup, the 199 2 Texas Championships, an d the 199 2 Lackland Clas sic,- tw o professiona l shows , includin g th e 199 2 Ms . Olympi a an d th e 1993 Ms . International . Th e observation s tha t I conducte d allowe d m e to se e what th e protocol i s for bodybuilding shows , what type s o f peopl e go to thes e events , wha t bodybuilder s loo k lik e whe n the y ar e o n stage , what type s o f poses the y ar e asked to do, the role the audience plays, th e role of vendors who sel l bodybuilding products a t shows . I could also se e for mysel f wha t type s o f bodybuilder s wi n a t thes e differen t level s o f competition. In additio n t o observin g bodybuildin g contest s an d conductin g in depth interviews , I ha d th e opportunit y t o watc h individual s workin g out wit h fre e weight s sinc e som e o f m y interview s wer e conducte d i n regional gyms . Thi s aspec t o f th e researc h i s importan t because , a s th e participants i n thi s stud y asserted , th e gy m environmen t i s a n integra l part o f a bodybuilder' s life . Thus , b y watchin g peopl e wor k ou t an d interact wit h on e anothe r an d b y lookin g a t th e gy m environment , I became more cognizan t o f the role of the gym, its ambiance, th e interac tion o f it s members , an d th e rol e i t play s i n th e live s o f bodybuilders , especially whe n the y ar e gettin g read y fo r a bodybuildin g competition . Furthermore, I ha d acces s t o a fe w bodybuilder s i n th e loca l are a an d watched the m train, - I also ha d th e chanc e t o as k the m numerou s ques tions abou t th e whys , whens , an d how s o f trainin g fo r bodybuildin g shows, which gav e me an appreciation o f what is entailed in a bodybuilder's workout routine . In fact, o n a couple of occasions, I worked ou t wit h a bodybuilde r t o se e wha t i t wa s lik e t o trai n fo r a meet . I regrette d

Introduction: Growing Pains 1 5 this endeavor , however , becaus e fo r day s afterward s I experienced mor e muscle sorenes s tha n I eve r imagine d possible . Fo r mor e informatio n about m y methodological procedures , please refer t o appendix B. The Languag e o f Bodybuildin g Also, a s I spok e t o peopl e involve d i n bodybuilding , I realized tha t th e sport had its ow n unique jargon—word s tha t describ e degree s of muscu larity, wate r retention , workou t strategies , an d th e like . Becaus e thes e terms ar e include d i n quotation s fro m thos e I interviewed , I hav e in cluded a glossary o f term s (se e appendix D) to assis t th e reader i n under standing this terminology . What i s fascinatin g abou t th e languag e o f bodybuildin g i s tha t muc h of this sport's jargon is filled wit h hidden meanings abou t gender. If thes e terms were used elsewhere, they would have very different connotations . For instance , th e word , "ripped " amon g colleg e student s probabl y con notes a level o f intoxication. However , i n bodybuilding, th e word mean s that th e muscle s ar e well-defined an d prominent . Th e bodybuildin g jar gon communicates idea s about what th e physique shoul d an d should no t look like . I n doin g so , i t als o construe s connotation s abou t femininit y and masculinity an d their relationshi p t o bodybuilding an d muscles . For instance, i n bodybuilding , word s suc h a s "hard, " lean, " "cut, " "shred ded," "ripped, " an d "striated " ar e terms towar d whic h on e strives . The y represent th e idea l "look " tha t bodybuilder s wan t o n th e da y o f th e meet. They indicat e that ther e is little subcutaneou s fa t an d water unde r the skin , tha t th e muscl e i s a s clos e t o th e ski n a s possibl e withou t any extraneou s substance s i n betwee n th e tw o s o tha t al l muscle s ar e prominent. Thi s i s evidenc e tha t th e bodybuilde r ha s don e a n effectiv e job of working out , dieting , an d dehydrating themselve s fo r th e meet . On th e othe r hand , th e look s tha t a bodybuilde r doe s no t wan t ar e "soft" an d "smooth. " Thes e term s connot e to o muc h wate r retentio n and imprope r dieting , o r tha t th e muscle s hav e "alread y peaked. " Som e of thi s jargon , whil e communicatin g wha t i s goo d an d wha t i s bad , may als o serv e t o reproduc e differen t idea s abou t gender , i.e. , "hard " i s oftentimes associate d wit h masculinit y whil e "soft " an d "smooth " ar e associated with femininity . Finally, t o illustrat e furthe r th e gendere d languag e o f bodybuilding , I include th e ter m use d t o describ e gynecomastia , a conditio n tha t me n get when the y tak e steroid s that enlarg e their breast tissue . According t o

16 Introduction : Growing Pains Weber, th e mos t commo n reaso n tha t mal e bodybuilder s hav e plasti c surgery is to reduce gynecomastia, 25 a condition the y cal l "bitc h tits. " Appendix E list s a tabl e o f variou s bodybuilder s mentione d i n th e book, describe d o n a continuum base d on degree s of size and femininity .

Back to the Finals of the 199 2 Ms. Olympia Contest . The Pose-Down: The Evening Events There ar e approximatel y tw o thousan d peopl e i n th e audienc e fo r th e evening show. 26 Man y o f th e peopl e wh o wer e a t th e afternoo n perfor mance are at the evening competition a s well. However, ther e are numerous new faces i n th e crowd . The people ar e dressed a s if the y were goin g out o n th e tow n o n a Saturday night—i n fact , tha t i s exactl y wha t the y are doing. Most o f th e wome n ar e wearing short , tigh t leathe r dresse s o r skirts. Th e me n ar e dresse d i n jean s o r leathe r pants , ties , an d leathe r jackets. Th e mos t commo n fabri c fo r bot h wome n an d me n appear s t o be leather i n man y differen t color s and textures. No doub t thi s choic e of fabrics i s du e t o th e natur e o f leather : i t i s extremel y body-huggin g an d reveals ever y muscula r rippl e an d nuanc e th e wearer' s bod y ha s t o offe r the voyeurs in th e crowd . The crow d i s abuz z wit h excitement . Th e door s t o th e auditoriu m have no t ye t opened , s o peopl e ar e stil l millin g aroun d th e booths. 27 There ar e a fe w addition s t o th e afternoo n display , th e mos t notabl e being th e arriva l o f a numbe r o f well-know n professiona l an d amateu r bodybuilders wh o ar e her e t o promot e an d sel l variou s bodybuildin g products. People swarm aroun d th e booths the y occupy to get a view an d autographs. As I wai t fo r th e sho w t o start , I wal k aroun d th e boot h are a an d notice tha t Bi g Mik e Matarazzo , on e o f th e bodybuilder s behin d th e booths, ha s agree d t o hav e hi s pictur e take n wit h som e o f hi s fans . I observe ho w h e talk s t o th e horde s o f peopl e aroun d him , an d ho w h e graciously accept s thei r request s t o hav e photo s take n wit h him . I tur n to go, only to hear shrieks: Mike has taken of f his shirt an d is doing som e poses fo r th e impresse d crowd . A s Mik e flexes, camera s flash, peopl e gawk. I walk ove r t o a booth wher e a long lin e o f peopl e ar e waitin g t o se e Cory Everson , six-tim e winne r o f Ms . Olympia . Sh e ha s th e bigges t gathering o f people o f an y bodybuilder a t th e booths . Fo r about a n hour , there i s a stead y lin e o f thirt y t o fort y peopl e t o mee t Cor y an d ge t a

Introduction: Growing Pains picture an d autograp h fro m her . Sh e i s promotin g a certai n bran d o f workout clothe s an d sign s picture s o f hersel f fo r te n dollar s each . I n addition t o the famous bodybuilder s behind th e various booths, there ar e also som e i n th e crowd . Carl a Dunlap , Be v Francis, an d Sergi o Oliv a ar e in attendance—all o f whom attrac t a n impressive gatherin g o f admirers . A little after 8 o'clock, th e ushers ope n the doors and people find thei r assigned seats . ESP N camera s hav e bee n se t u p t o telecas t th e sho w live aroun d th e world . Be n Weider , th e presiden t o f th e Internationa l Federation o f Bodybuilders , come s o n stag e t o welcome th e competitor s and th e audienc e member s t o th e twelft h annua l Ms . Olympi a Contest . He the n introduce s th e announcer , a n Australian , wh o i n tur n present s Weider wit h a stuffe d koal a bear . Th e announcer , wh o ha s a n almos t incomprehensible accent , introduce s th e twent y contestant s wh o ar e brought o n stag e by th e IFB B Chief o f Protocol . Th e contestant s lin e u p precisely wher e the y stoo d durin g th e preliminarie s and , a s the y ar e introduced, th e audienc e members , wh o ar e a bi t mor e subdue d no w than durin g the afternoon show , applaud and cheer. In turn, th e competi tors smil e an d strik e a pose. After everyon e i s introduced , th e competi tors file of f stag e to get ready for th e thir d round o f judging. According t o th e IFB B Guidebook, roun d thre e i s th e "fre e posing " round. 28 Here the bodybuilders d o "individual free posing to the music of each competitor' s choice." 29 Eac h free-posing routin e last s abou t ninet y seconds t o thre e minutes , an d i t consist s o f a combinatio n o f danc e movements an d posin g t o displa y one' s muscles . Thi s par t o f th e sho w is considere d t o b e th e mos t aestheti c an d memorabl e aspec t o f th e competition. I n fact , man y bodybuilder s hir e choreographer s t o hel p them organiz e thei r musica l presentation s i n orde r t o se t themselve s apart from thei r competitors . For thi s par t o f th e show , th e bodybuilder s ca n choos e an y piec e o f music the y wish . Mos t pic k curren t danc e hits , althoug h som e choos e less-popular persona l favorites . Th e poin t o f thi s roun d i s t o dazzl e th e audience an d judge s wit h creativit y an d style . Th e bodybuilder s mus t work ou t "a n intelligen t presentatio n o f th e muscle s choreographe d together with music." 3 0 No props may be used. Certain poses are prohibited becaus e the y ar e considere d to o lewd . Fo r instance , on e forbidde n pose i s th e hamstrin g pose , whereb y th e athlet e turn s he r bac k t o th e audience an d leans forward a s if stretchin g he r legs. At th e en d o f th e free-posin g round , ther e i s a n intermission , whic h allows th e audienc e member s a n opportunit y t o stretc h an d ge t som e

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18 Introduction: Growing Pains refreshments. Whe n the show restarts, a personal touch o f community i s expressed when the announcer ask s the audience for a moment o f silenc e in hono r o f Mohamme d Benaziza , a professional mal e bodybuilder , wh o died o f hear t arrhythmi a a t th e las t sho w i n th e Europea n Gran d Pri x series. Benaziza's deat h wa s rumored t o have been cause d b y overdosin g on diuretics . The "pos e down " i s th e fourth an d las t roun d o f th e contest . Th e to p six candidate s simultaneousl y g o throug h th e compulsor y poses , whic h are calle d ou t b y th e hea d judge . Thes e ar e followe d b y a serie s o f fre e poses whic h the y believ e bes t highligh t thei r musculatur e an d symme try, al l don e t o musi c chose n b y th e promote r o f th e show . Th e contes tants pos e i n fron t o f th e judges , vyin g fo r th e bes t position . T o d o so , they continuall y ste p in fron t o f on e anothe r t o block th e judges 7 vision, and sometime s th e bes t bodybuilder s wil l g o pose fo r pos e nex t t o eac h other t o compar e muscles . Som e bodybuilders nudg e other s ou t o f thei r way. Thi s par t o f th e contes t coul d easil y lea d t o a shovin g matc h between contestants , bu t th e brawler s woul d b e disqualifie d fro m th e contest an d perhaps be suspended from th e IFBB. The announce r inform s u s o f th e star t o f th e pos e down . Th e musi c begins an d th e wome n star t posin g t o th e musi c an d inchin g close r t o one anothe r an d th e judges . Lend a Murra y wind s u p i n th e middle , an d Laura Creavall e scoot s i n nex t t o her , an d the y g o pose fo r pose . Othe r contestants tr y t o get clos e to Lenda t o compar e thei r muscle s wit h her s because the y kno w tha t sh e i s th e on e t o beat . Wheneve r sh e doe s a particular pose , other s follo w suit , doin g th e exac t sam e pos e righ t nex t to her . Shout s an d whistle s reac h a feverish pitc h a s audienc e member s yell for their favorite contestant . Othe r contenders tr y to step in betwee n Lenda an d Laura, an d eventuall y on e does, but everyon e know s betwee n whom th e real contest is . An equal number o f fans ar e cheering for Laur a and Lenda. The music stop s and th e si x women ge t back i n line to awai t the judges 7 decision . The IFB B Chief o f Protoco l get s th e officia l final scor e shee t fro m th e judges. H e take s i t t o th e announce r wh o wil l infor m th e crow d o f the placings , beginnin g wit h tent h plac e an d continuin g unti l h e ha s announced th e 199 2 Ms . Olympia . Eac h o f thes e athlete s get s priz e money an d a troph y o r medal. 31 Tw o o f th e sponsor s o f Ms . Olympi a hand ou t th e prize s fo r place s te n throug h four , an d Be n Weider award s the first thre e places . Shelle y Beatti e place s third . Laur a Creavall e i s announced a s second-plac e winner , leavin g Lend a Murra y a s Ms. Olym -

Introduction: Growing Pains 1 9 pia.32 Th e majorit y o f th e crow d respond s wit h deafenin g whistle s an d claps, while thos e who have been rooting for Laur a react wit h th e requi site boos and hisses. Laura first responds by pretending to strangle Lenda , and the n th e tw o well-respecte d competitor s embrace . Camer a light s flash. Fo r her har d work , Lend a win s $35,000.0 0 an d a gold meda l wit h Joe Weider's image. Perhaps most important fo r her, the victory enhance s her marketability . As a sociologist, I sit in the audience looking at the activities on stage, wondering what mus t b e running throug h th e mind s o f th e contestants , judges, an d fan s I se e befor e me . Femal e bodybuildin g i s indee d filled with interestin g paradoxes tha t hav e create d considerabl e controversy — particularly thi s pas t season . To date, no on e seem s t o be able t o answe r the questio n o f ho w femal e bodybuilder s shoul d b e judged . Shoul d the y be evaluated by the sam e judging standards a s male bodybuilders, i.e., by their muscle s an d symmetry ? O r i s ther e a n additiona l issue , tha t o f femininity, whic h female bodybuilders must someho w put into the equa tion? I wonder wha t th e bodybuilder s o n stag e an d th e fan s sittin g nex t to me think abou t next year's female bodybuilding season—wha t typ e of physique th e official s an d judge s wil l reward . Th e futur e i s uncertain , but fo r no w th e Ms . Olympi a contenders , wh o represen t th e bes t o f female bodybuilders , ar e congratulatin g th e winner , an d photographer s are hurriedly snappin g pictures o f the curren t three-tim e reignin g queen .

ONE

Muscle Boun d Well, I was always a track athlete, some kind of athlete. Since I was five years old I was a gymnast and I was a competitive gymnast.. . . Then I went to college and ran track for one year and I was too skinny and too small and they wanted me to get stronger and build my body up so they put me on a weight program three days a week. I started seeing phenomenal growth. Especially in college you gain that fifteen pounds. I gained a little bit of weight an d what happened after tha t is my muscularit y grew because my body was ready for that. I quit track and I wanted to keep doing something physical so I joined a gym and just kept working out. —Diane, a professional femal e bodybuilder x I was a runner, and a gymnast, and a dancer. And at one point in my life I was just sort of an obsessive-compulsive. I guess what the y now call an exercise addict. —Ellen, a national-level amateur femal e body-builder

D I A N E A N D E L L E N ' S W O R D S ech o th e formativ e athleti c experience s

of many women i n my study . All were active in competitiv e sport s a t a n early age , an d man y continue d i n thei r athleti c endeavor s throughou t high schoo l an d eve n int o college . Al l bu t on e o f thes e wome n ha d competed i n multipl e sports , includin g trac k an d field, soccer , softball , and basketball. Whatever their sports backgrounds, these women eventu -

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Muscle Bound ally found themselve s i n th e gym lifting weight s and ultimately compet ing in thei r firs t sanctione d bodybuildin g competitions . Ho w di d they go from participatin g i n organize d sport s suc h a s basketbal l an d trac k a s children an d youn g adult s t o competin g i n th e spor t o f bodybuilding ? And, onc e the y ha d discovere d thi s ne w athleti c passion , ho w di d thes e athletes7 family an d friends respon d t o thei r ne w participatio n i n suc h a nontraditional sport ? I wil l discus s th e ke y event s i n th e athleti c an d personal backgrounds o f these women tha t have led them t o competitiv e bodybuilding. I will als o addres s som e o f th e socia l consequence s the y have experienced a s a result o f their participation i n thi s sport . In almos t ever y intervie w I had wit h femal e bodybuilders , th e word s 'Tve bee n involve d i n sport s al l m y life 77 wer e uttered . " I wa s ver y athletic, I playe d a lo t o f differen t sport s whe n I wa s growin g up/ 7 recalled on e woman. The level o f their athleti c competitio n range d fro m participation i n cit y leagu e teams , t o hig h schoo l an d intercollegiat e athletics. I n fact , tw o curren t bodybuilder s had , a t on e time , traine d fo r the Olympics , on e i n synchronize d swimming , th e othe r i n equestria n events. One o f thes e athletes , Mary , a regional competitor , declare d tha t 'Tve bee n a n athlet e al l m y life . Sinc e I was te n year s old , Fv e bee n i n team sport s an d I trained fo r th e Olympic s i n th e earl y 1970 s i n eques trian events . Then whe n I was in Florida, I was on the rowing team. 77 Like mos t o f th e femal e bodybuilder s i n thi s study , Mar y found grea t enjoyment i n athleti c involvemen t an d avidl y participate d i n numerou s sports sinc e childhood . A thir d bodybuilder , Susan , a regiona l amateu r competitor, ha d participate d i n th e Junio r Olympic s i n trac k an d fiel d and eventuall y becam e a membe r o f th e trac k tea m a t he r university . Approximately one-thir d o f th e femal e bodybuilder s ha d compete d i n intercollegiate varsit y sports . Regardles s o f thei r leve l o f sport s involve ment, th e majorit y state d tha t sport s ha d alway s bee n a major sourc e of enjoyment fo r them. They also noted that when the y were out of athleti c competition fo r whateve r reason , the y fel t a noticeabl e voi d i n thei r lives. Man y spok e o f thei r athleti c experience s wit h fondnes s becaus e competitive spor t wa s th e aren a i n whic h the y no t onl y coul d compet e but ofte n als o excel . Their athleti c success , born e fro m practice , experi ence, an d goo d geneti c makeup , gav e the m th e tool s an d confidenc e t o try their muscle s a t bodybuilding . None o f thes e wome n gre w u p wit h th e caree r goa l o f becomin g a competitive femal e bodybuilder . Thi s i s highl y understandable , give n that bodybuildin g wa s no t a spor t fo r wome n unti l th e lat e 1970 s an d

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22 Muscl

e Bound

that th e gender norms tha t existe d when thes e women wer e younger di d not encourag e women t o aspir e t o grea t physical strength . However , th e seeds for thei r eventua l entranc e int o th e spor t were planted lon g befor e they considere d participatin g i n competitiv e bodybuilding . Thes e ath letes, having been genetically endowe d wit h muscula r physiques , talke d candidly abou t havin g receive d continua l attentio n throughou t thei r lives fo r thei r noticeabl e muscularity . Christy , a national-level amateu r competitor tol d o f alway s bein g mor e muscula r tha n he r peers—bot h female an d male: " I was always muscular. Peopl e always aske d m e wha t I did for m y physiqu e an d what I would d o when I went t o the gym , an d I alway s use d t o say , ' I don' t g o t o th e gym." 7 Similarly , Patty , a profes sional bodybuilder , remarke d tha t before sh e eve n kne w tha t femal e bodybuilding existed , sh e woul d incessantl y "hav e peopl e com e u p t o me an d say , 'Are you a bodybuilder?"7 This typ e o f attentio n mad e thes e women realiz e a t a youn g ag e tha t thei r bodie s wer e different . I t als o piqued thei r curiosit y a s t o ho w thei r bodie s woul d respon d t o workin g out wit h weights . Som e ha d actuall y though t o f bodybuildin g earl y on , but th e optio n di d not exis t for the m a t the time . Besides having become motivated a s a result o f comments abou t thei r impressive physiques , man y bodybuilder s remembere d bein g intrigue d by othe r people' s muscularity . Pam , a professional bodybuilder , recalle d that whe n sh e was a child sh e was mesmerize d b y muscular peopl e an d wanted t o loo k lik e the m bu t di d not kno w ho w t o explor e he r interes t properly: Okay, I was chubby, and being strong always fascinated m e ever since I was a kid. I picked u p a comic book an d i n th e back yo u coul d ge t all th e muscle s i n th e worl d fo r te n cents . Charle s Atlas , I alway s wanted t o sen d fo r that . . . . When I was i n fourt h grade , I asked m y dad and mom fo r te n cent s t o buy it, an d they sai d it wa s a waste of money. But it always fascinated m e to see muscles on people. Ellen, a national-leve l amateur , als o remembere d bein g intrigue d b y a classmate's muscula r fram e durin g a college dance class: My only exposure to bodybuilding had been another woman who was in the danc e department a t my university whe n I was, and she had a very, what I thought, very peculiar, but intriguing body. And I, at on e point, aske d her what sh e did and she said "I'm a bodybuilder." And I used to stan d next t o her i n clas s and think, "God , I could be a good one o f those. " Becaus e I had alway s bee n reall y muscula r an d the n

Muscle Bound 2 3 with m y athletic background, I had a pretty built physiqu e an d I was real lean. Having received attention sinc e her youth for her own athletic, muscula r frame, Elle n found he r classmate' s mor e muscula r physiqu e compelling . She was unaware tha t a sport existe d for women i n which th e goals were to enhanc e an d displa y one' s muscularity . Whe n sh e discovere d tha t such a sport existed , sh e realize d sh e migh t exce l i n it . Thi s realizatio n came lat e t o thes e women , an d man y ha d alread y gotte n ou t o f shape . And, unbeknownst t o them, ther e was still a missing piece of the puzzle. Many o f th e women , b y th e tim e the y wer e i n thei r earl y t o mid twenties, had reached a point a t which the y were no longer participatin g in athleti c competitio n a t an y level . They ha d become sedentary , whic h left the m wit h bodie s that , i n thei r eyes , wer e painfull y ou t o f shape — bodies tha t wer e now someho w foreig n t o them . A t thi s juncture , man y women wen t t o th e gym , a s Denis e remembers , "jus t t o ge t bac k i n shape/ 7 However , other s foun d th e proces s o f gettin g bac k i n shap e a more formidabl e tas k an d expresse d feelin g paralyze d b y thei r ne w leth argy and ensuin g physical deterioration . Fo r instance, Christ y recalled : Finally, whe n I turned twenty-five , I wasn't doin g anything physica l at all , I was like a total couc h potato an d I decided t o join a gym s o I joined an d ha d n o ide a wha t I wa s doing , jus t wen t kin d o f infre quently. I ended u p not doin g much o f anythin g whe n I went t o th e gym an d then I went awa y for a year an d cam e back reall y heavy fo r me, an d I was sor t o f sic k o f not knowin g ho w t o contro l m y body. I didn't kno w anything abou t nutrition. I knew tha t I had good muscl e mass but just didn't kno w anything about it . Christy, i n her desire to get back in shape, spoke of her body as an object , as something tha t neede d t o be controlled fro m it s insatiabl e gluttonou s desires. A s w e wil l discove r late r i n th e chapter , Christy' s sentiment s about he r body ar e not uncommo n amon g female bodybuilders . Further more, a s wa s tru e fo r others , gettin g bac k int o shap e wa s no t eas y fo r Christy: i t too k he r a yea r an d multipl e attempt s t o ge t goin g o n a healthy regimen . Tracy, a n officia l an d a forme r competitor , candidl y reveale d tha t i t was he r fight wit h anorexi a nervos a tha t compelle d he r mothe r t o ge t her t o wor k ou t a t a local gym . Sh e stated , "Afte r hig h schoo l I got rea l skinny. I was basically anorexic . My mother wa s working out a t a health spa and she thought tha t workin g ou t woul d be a good way for m e t o ge t

24 Muscl e Bound over th e diseas e an d get som e weight o n m e /' Whil e her mothe r di d no t get he r involve d i n th e spor t o f bodybuilding , sh e di d ope n th e doo r fo r her b y gettin g he r i n th e gy m an d workin g ou t wit h weights . Thi s eventually le d Trac y t o becom e a competitiv e bodybuilder . Althoug h other bodybuilders 7 mother s becam e supportiv e o f thei r daughters 7 involvement i n bodybuilding, sh e is the only one whose mother gave her the impetu s t o wor k ou t wit h weights . Sh e is als o th e onl y bodybuilde r who worked ou t t o gain weight instea d o f lose it . Patty, wh o wa s als o unhappy wit h he r bod y but fo r differen t reasons , took a more circuitous path to the gym. After gettin g married and having children, Patt y becam e displease d wit h he r overweigh t an d out-of-shap e body. After tryin g othe r activities , sh e eventuall y sough t advic e abou t weight trainin g fro m he r ex-husband , wh o a t th e tim e wa s a colleg e strength coach : I gained a lot o f weight, go t very large and just decide d tha t I wasn't going t o spen d th e secon d hal f o f m y lif e tha t way . I los t a bunc h of weight , starte d long-distanc e running , starte d teachin g aerobics , eventually go t a stress fracture fro m doin g so much. . . . S o I stopped doing that bu t I had al l this exces s energ y and I didn't kno w what t o do with it . Plu s I wasn't happ y wit h th e shap e o f m y body , I wasn' t happy wit h th e wa y i t looked . S o my ex-husban d ha d taugh t weigh t lifting i n colleg e an d we just wen t int o th e gy m on e day and I said I want t o try this . . . that was it, I never left . Wanting t o continu e bein g physicall y active , sh e aske d he r ex-husban d to teac h he r ho w t o lif t weight s properl y and , shortl y thereafter , sa w significant improvement s i n he r physique . Sh e eventuall y entere d he r first bodybuildin g sho w an d consequentl y compete d a s a professiona l bodybuilder an d powerlifter fo r a number o f years. Patty's virtua l obses sion wit h stayin g physicall y activ e resemble s Ellen's : " I wa s a runner , and a gymnast, an d a dancer. An d a t on e point i n m y lif e I was jus t sor t of a n obsessive-compulsive . I gues s wha t the y no w cal l a n exercis e addict." Bot h of these women expresse d a loathing for thei r bodies whe n they wer e ou t o f shape . Furthermore , the y appea r t o hav e a dril l ser geant's callousnes s abou t punishing thei r corpor a when gettin g into poo r condition. Again , thei r bodie s ar e somethin g no t t o b e truste d an d i n need o f continua l vigilanc e les t the y fal l pre y t o an y complacency , lazi ness, and eating excesses . Recall Pam wh o went fro m bein g a n active , chubb y ki d bewitched b y

Muscle Bound 2

muscles an d strengt h t o a woma n wh o stil l wante d t o b e active , bu t was unhapp y wit h ho w sh e looked . Althoug h sh e wa s dissatisfie d wit h her body at the time, she knew she had the potential t o compete in bodybuilding. She recalled: I got a job teaching i n m y hometown, an d afte r si x months o f teach ing ther e wa s n o place t o reall y wor k ou t an d hav e fun , jus t g o to a gym an d run an d shoo t hoop s an d stuff . I was teachin g an d facilitie s were really limite d i n m y town . They opene d up a gym abou t thirt y miles awa y an d a t th e tim e I wa s coaching , th e weight s kin d o f always fascinate d me . Bodybuildin g jus t starte d comin g aroun d lik e in the early '8os. Brenda's fascination wit h weight s turne d int o a resolve to try bodybuild ing after seein g a magazine with picture s o f women bodybuilders : This wa s th e first par t o f 198 1 an d I walke d int o thi s Rea d Mor e magazine place an d the y ha d a Muscle and Fitness issue . I looked a t it and I saw girls in there like Carla Dunlap, Claudia Wilbourn, Laur a Combes, an d I sa w the m i n hig h heel s an d I though t t o myself , "Shoot, I could look just as good as they look/ 7 1 went home and took my clothe s of f i n fron t o f th e mirro r an d I started t o cry . I had littl e cellulite lumps all the way down to my knees,- cellulite is just a fancy word for stored fat basically, and I thought, "O h God , how I look." So I started drivin g thirty miles to the gym. Within about twelv e weeks, I entered my first show and ended up second . Here, we learn that Pa m finally foun d a suitable, albeit difficul t outle t i n which t o pursue her childhoo d interes t i n being muscular. Thi s interest , coupled wit h he r unhappines s abou t th e curren t conditio n o f he r body , motivated her to drive thirty miles several times a week to begin trainin g to becom e a competitiv e bodybuilder . However , onc e i n th e gym , Pa m faced th e additiona l structura l barrier s tha t preclude d he r fro m workin g out i n th e wa y sh e wanted . No t onl y wer e ther e "women' s days, " bu t there wer e "his " an d "her " side s o f th e gym . Late r i n th e intervie w sh e disclosed th e difficultie s sh e experience d a s a woma n i n th e sex-segre gated gym : I walked int o th e gy m an d the y ha d a fe w wome n o n th e women' s side. It was mostl y al l a n aerobi c area , an d th e machine s wer e thos e chrome ones you see, and I mean there was nothing there. So I talked to th e gy m owne r an d said , "Listen , Steve , ca n I com e ove r t o th e

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i6 Muscl

e Bound other side ? Ca n I train ove r there ? I' m serious . I'm no t goin g t o bu g anybody." They made a special arrangemen t fo r me to go over to th e men's side of the gym.

However, no t everyon e was pleased with thi s new arrangement . The firs t tw o week s nobod y talke d t o me . The y jus t looke d a t me . My knowledg e abou t ho w t o ge t read y fo r bodybuildin g show s wa s what I would se e in Muscle and Fitness. I slept with i t a few night s under m y pillow; I mean it was like my bible. Anyway, in the gym, I kind o f ha d a n ey e o n everybod y becaus e the y wer e watchin g me . Finally, afte r bein g i n ther e fo r tw o weeks , on e nerdis h gu y starte d talking t o me , an d I gues s I ha d earne d m y kee p a littl e bit . The n pretty soon som e othe r peopl e starte d talkin g t o m e to o an d the n everybody did. The gym' s se x segregatio n ha d bee n du e t o th e belie f tha t wome n wer e incapable of , o r unintereste d in , usin g fre e weights . Hampere d i n he r quest t o compet e i n bodybuildin g b y th e unavailabilit y o f suc h weigh t equipment, Pa m approache d th e gym' s owne r who , afte r som e prodding , allowed her to use the men's equipment. Having broken the gym's gender norms, sh e now had to face the gym's clients who at first treate d her lik e a social pariah. Sh e had encroached on their territory an d they responde d by sociall y isolatin g an d castigatin g her—effectiv e tool s i n keepin g th e gender orde r unaltered an d untainted. Undaunted , Pa m continue d work ing out an d not onl y accomplishe d he r goal , but als o succeede d i n modi fying th e perception tha t wome n ar e frail being s interested onl y i n "ton ing up, not pumping up. " Bodybuilders lik e Susa n foun d themselve s i n th e gy m liftin g weight s in orde r t o recuperat e fro m injurie s the y ha d sustaine d whil e participat ing i n othe r sportin g events : " I walke d int o thi s loca l gym . I was goin g to tr y t o wor k ou t an d ge t a littl e bi t stronge r becaus e I ha d bee n incapacitated fo r a bit— I tor e m y AC L [anterio r cruciat e ligament ] a couple o f month s prio r whil e competin g i n track. " Th e gy m owne r convinced he r tha t sh e woul d d o wel l i n bodybuilding , s o sh e bega n lifting weight s wit h th e ide a o f eventuall y competin g i n a bodybuildin g meet. Stil l othe r wome n ha d bee n physicall y activ e i n othe r endeavor s when the y foun d themselve s i n th e gy m for les s "ordinary " reasons . For instance, Stephanie , a professional bodybuilder , divulge d he r unconven tional route to working ou t a t the gym and competing in bodybuilding :

Muscle Bound 2

I had this thing that I was going to be a dancer and all through colleg e I thought th e same thing. I remember toward s the end of my last year at college , I went an d trie d ou t fo r a dancing position tha t laste d fo r two years . Wha t happene d wa s th e firs t coupl e o f time s I mad e i t and th e lad y said , "Well , you'r e a grea t dance r an d you'r e grea t a t entertaining th e crowd, but w e just want you to lose a little bit mor e weight because your thighs are a little bit too muscular." At the time, I alway s kne w I ha d ver y shapel y quad s fro m bein g a sprinter . I decided okay , s o I came bac k home— I ha d alread y mad e on e o f th e cuts—I cam e back home an d I would run an d run an d run, ru n thre e miles, four miles to get muscle off m y thighs. I came back and by this time I had been throug h fou r tr y outs, an d I made the forty-fiv e girls . She said , "Wow , yo u los t som e weight! " an d I had los t te n pounds . She said she wanted me to lose some more. So . .. I looked at her an d I thought t o myself, "Oh , well." So I got on the plane going home and they stil l had another cu t t o go, nine other girls would have been cu t from th e team . It wa s a t thi s poin t tha t Stephani e realize d tha t sh e wa s askin g th e impossible from he r body and this was confirmed b y a friend o f hers wh o was a bodybuilder an d who eventuall y go t her into th e gym . I knew ho w miserabl e I felt a t th e weigh t I was at , an d tha t I didn' t think i t wa s possibl e t o maintai n it . S o I cam e hom e an d I jus t decided no t t o go back. I decided t o tak e u p th e offe r tha t wa s give n to me by one of th e professional bodybuilders , who was, at th e time , ranked i n th e to p ten i n th e world; he would se e me throughou t thi s whole yea r . . . trying t o b e thi s skinn y person , an d h e jus t laughed . He watche d m e fo r a whol e year . An d h e jus t said , "Wh y ar e yo u doing it, becaus e yo u wer e destine d t o have thes e muscula r thighs. " Some wome n don' t hav e thi n thighs , an d s o tha t Monday , I starte d weight training. And I never went back [t o make the final cut ] again. Although th e majority o f bodybuilders di d not follow thi s particular pat h toward bodybuilding , Stephanie' s experience s illustrat e th e theme s als o expressed b y othe r bodybuilders . First , Stephanie' s significan t muscula ture preclude d he r fro m pursuin g dancin g an y furthe r because , althoug h dancers ar e healthy-lookin g an d fit, the y ar e suppose d t o b e slim , no t muscular. Thus , Stephani e inadvertentl y transgresse d th e boundarie s o f appropriate muscula r display s for dancers—he r muscularit y wa s consid -

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28 Muscl e Bound ered excessiv e an d unsuitable . Sh e wa s outsid e th e hegemoni c bound aries o f femininit y withi n dancing . A s a result , sh e ha d tw o choices : conform o r depart. Sh e chose th e latter . Second , we note th e importanc e of havin g a practicing bodybuilde r serv e a s mento r fo r wome n enterin g the sport . Throughou t th e year , Stephanie' s frien d nudge d he r i n th e direction o f bodybuilding . Afte r month s o f tryin g t o tri m down , sh e finally realize d that sh e was asking her body to change beyond its abilit y to do so. As w e hav e seen , som e wome n initiall y wen t t o th e gy m t o eithe r stay o r ge t bac k i n shape , other s wen t t o recuperat e fro m a n injury . Only a handful wen t wit h th e intentio n o f gettin g read y t o compet e i n bodybuilding. However , regardles s o f thei r reason s fo r takin g tha t firs t step, onc e the y ha d worke d ou t fo r a while, the y bega n t o se e improve ments i n thei r physiques . Peopl e als o starte d complimentin g the m o n how goo d the y looked . Th e combinatio n o f resistanc e trainin g an d thei r predispositions towar d muscularit y allowe d the m an d other s t o se e dra matic improvement s i n thei r bodies . Motivated b y these improvements , they continue d working out with mor e confidence an d drive than before . They bega n t o feel thei r bodie s again . Workin g ou t merel y t o sta y i n shape wa s n o longe r enoug h t o satisf y them . A t thi s poin t man y o f th e women bega n t o se e a flicker o f ligh t fro m thei r past : the y hungere d fo r athletic competition . Denis e remembered : I didn't eve n know women compete d i n bodybuilding when I walked into th e gym. When I found ou t tha t wome n coul d compet e in bodybuilding—I'm s o competitive an d I really don't lik e working out jus t to sta y i n shape—tha t I though t bodybuildin g woul d b e a n outle t for me. Denise's comment s reflec t man y o f th e women' s sentiment s a t thi s juncture i n thei r lives . Now tha t the y wer e physically activ e again , the y desired an athletic outlet for all their labor. They needed a spark to ignit e them—that spark , for most, wa s a mentor . The timin g o f th e mentor' s entranc e i n th e women' s live s a s wel l a s the role s the y playe d i n thei r bodybuildin g career s varie d fro m woma n to woman. Fo r some, the mento r entere d thei r lives eve n before the y go t to th e gym . Recal l tha t Stephanie , wh o ha d bee n tryin g t o mak e th e dance squad , ha d a male bodybuilder frien d wh o tol d her ther e i s a spor t that's ideall y suite d fo r her . Sh e wen t t o th e gy m wit h th e inten t o f competing i n th e sport . Others ' mentors , however , cam e int o thei r live s

Muscle Bound 2 w h e n the y entere d th e gym , bu t befor e the y starte d lifting . Throughou t their lives , thei r u n i q u e m u s c u l a t u r e ha d attracte d t h e attentio n no t only o f thos e outsid e th e sport , bu t als o fro m insid e th e sport . Fo r others , mentors di d no t ente r thei r live s u n t i l the y ha d bee n workin g ou t fo r a while. Regardless , th e m e n t o r provide d th e final impetu s fo r thes e w o m e n t o ge t intereste d i n an d excite d abou t becomin g competitiv e bodybuilders. T h e role s o f th e mentor s als o differed . Som e w o m e n de scribed t h e m a s guide s an d informant s abou t th e informa l rule s o f th e sport. Other s characterize d thei r m e n t o r s a s fathe r figures, brothers , friends, o r coaches . In fact , on e thin g th e mentor s ha d i n c o m m o n i s tha t m o s t o f t h e m were m e n . Thi s patter n i s consisten t w i t h previou s literatur e o n wom en's socializatio n int o sport. 2 On e reaso n w h y thi s i s tru e i n bodybuild ing i s tha t i t ha s alway s bee n a n overwhelmingl y mal e sport . T h e gende r ratio i n gym s an d i n th e spor t o f bodybuildin g bot h a t th e competito r and judg e level s sho w tha t mentor s ar e mor e likel y t o b e m e n . A secon d reason i s tha t bodybuildin g i s a nontraditiona l pursui t fo r w o m e n . A s i s sometimes th e cas e w h e n peopl e ar e involve d i n nontraditiona l activi ties, other s ma y questio n thei r sexua l orientation . I n orde r t o shiel d themselves fro m suc h claims , w o m e n m a y choos e a mal e instea d o f a female mentor . Onc e th e w o m e n becam e mor e involve d i n bodybuildin g and wer e "hooked, " perhap s the y coul d " c o m p e n s a t e " fo r thei r involve m e n t i n a nontraditiona l endeavo r i n othe r ways . Nevertheless , ever y bodybuilder mentione d on e perso n i n particula r a s having ha d a dramati c influence i n he r bodybuildin g career . Take th e cas e o f Susan . Susan' s eventua l m e n t o r approache d he r abou t competing i n bodybuildin g a s soo n a s sh e se t foo t i n hi s gym : David, th e gu y wh o own s th e gy m an d wh o i s a n NP C official , walked u p t o m e whe n I cam e i n th e gy m an d starte d talkin g t o me . He tol d m e I would b e good a t bodybuildin g becaus e I had th e geneti c potential an d th e athleti c backgroun d t o d o wel l i n th e sport . Well , he struc k th e righ t chor d i n m e becaus e I wanted t o star t competin g again, whateve r th e sport . S o wha t h e sai d gav e m e somethin g t o work for . Irrespective o f thei r athleti c backgrounds , th e " h o o k " t h a t pull s thes e w o m e n int o bodybuilding , tha t make s t h e m t h i n k the y ca n d o i t well , i s this initia l encouragemen t b y someon e alread y involve d i n th e sport . Susan, w h o sorel y misse d t h e tast e o f lifelon g athleti c competition , wa s

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30 Muscl e Bound intrigued by David's descriptio n o f competitive femal e bodybuilding . H e had bee n integrall y involve d i n bodybuildin g fo r decades , wa s knowl edgeable abou t th e sport , an d thu s provided th e initial spar k sh e needed . He sai d the right words, he awakene d he r competitiv e side , and now sh e had "somethin g t o wor k for"—th e possibilit y o f athleti c competition . David becam e Susan' s coac h an d late r i n th e intervie w Susa n describe d his role in her life : My coach, David, would probably kill me if he heard this, but he sort of cam e int o m y lif e lik e a fathe r figure an d helpe d me . H e guide d me. H e wa s alway s . . . well, th e bes t wa y I ca n describ e hi m i s h e pushes m e harde r tha n I'v e eve r been pushed i n m y lif e t o th e poin t where I'll be two weeks from a contest thinking , "Wh y the hell am I even doin g this? " An d h e alway s someho w know s whe n t o switc h gears because the n he'l l com e up an d say , "Yo u look th e best you'v e ever looked in your life." And I guess that's what I'v e always needed , maybe.. . . Bodybuilding has given me someone to respect an d someone to try and gain respect from . A combination o f father figure an d drill sergeant, David became a central figure i n Susan' s life . Sh e sa w hi s rol e a s positiv e becaus e h e provide d her wit h th e encouragemen t an d disciplin e sh e fel t wer e lackin g i n he r life. A numbe r o f othe r femal e bodybuilder s reveale d tha t thei r initia l interest i n bodybuildin g wa s greatl y influence d b y thei r interaction s with thos e alread y involve d wit h th e sport . Fo r instance , Denise , a professional bodybuilder , explained : " I ha d a frien d wh o wa s a mal e competitor an d h e said , 'Let' s compet e together , yo u loo k good. ' S o I started competing. " Similarly , Patt y tol d o f th e impetu s tha t se t he r bodybuilding caree r i n motion : " I joine d [ a gym ] an d I me t a gu y wh o told m e tha t I ha d ver y goo d genetic s an d tha t I shoul d thin k abou t competing, whic h I had alway s been curiou s t o d o anyway. I just starte d from ther e an d I basically starte d trainin g consistentl y a t th e sam e tim e I decided to get ready for th e shows. " Having a similar initia l experienc e i n he r gym , Mary , a national-leve l competitor, remarke d that sh e had had a rather extensive athletic histor y but ha d never before eve n been in a gym. The onl y reason sh e had joine d one wa s becaus e sh e wa s invite d b y a femal e friend . The n les s tha n a week afte r sh e had joined , he r frien d cancele d he r membership . Sh e wa s left t o fend fo r herself .

Muscle Bound 3 1 A week late r th e gir l tha t invite s m e t o g o cancels he r membershi p and quits, never t o appea r agai n afte r I had paid for a year's member ship. So , I'm thinking , well , now wha t d o I do? I have a year's mem bership t o a gy m an d I reall y don' t kno w wha t I' m doing . So , I continue t o wor k out , mad e u p m y ow n routines , watche d othe r people wor k out , incorporate d i t int o wha t I was doing , an d staye d with i t . . . . I still a t thi s poin t a m jus t walkin g aroun d no t knowin g much of a structure to my workout. [Th e gym owner] approached m e and said , "You'v e go t terrifi c genetics , there' s a lot o f potentia l her e for yo u t o become a competitive bodybuilder , bu t yo u hav e no sens e of direction . Wh y don' t yo u le t m e hel p yo u pu t a combinatio n together o f diet , training . I wil l trai n yo u an d d o thi s contes t nex t year." Originally resistan t t o the idea, Denise eventuall y capitulated . I immediatel y say , "N o way . I don' t wan t t o b e a bodybuilder. " I didn't care for the look, I didn't car e for the lifestyle, I certainly didn' t care fo r th e dieting . I had hear d abou t al l th e horro r storie s o n tun a and ric e cakes . I' m Cuban , I like frie d banana s an d black bean s an d rice. S o I thought abou t i t fo r a month o r two, I thought, well , wha t else hav e I go t t o lose , I' m no t competitivel y involve d i n anythin g else. So , Fourt h o f July , I said , "Okay , we'l l d o it. " Th e reaso n I remember tha t i s becaus e I was suppose d t o g o t o a party a t a lak e house an d though t " I can't get int o a bathing sui t lookin g like this. " So I said, to [the gym owner], "My body is yours. Be kind to it. " Again, w e se e th e importanc e o f havin g someon e com e u p t o yo u an d say, "Yo u shoul d tr y thi s becaus e you woul d b e good a t it. " I n this case , Denise simpl y neede d som e guidanc e abou t way s t o wor k ou t properly . However, th e gy m owner , havin g a n ey e fo r a bodybuilder' s physique , realized tha t sh e ha d th e "genetics " t o d o wel l i n th e spor t an d traine d her fo r her first competition . Sh e tried her hand a t her first bodybuildin g meet becaus e sh e had no other competitiv e sportin g outlets , an d she fel t so uncomfortable wit h he r body tha t sh e di d not wan t t o wear a bathing suit a t a Fourt h o f Jul y party . Sh e conclude d he r explanatio n b y tellin g her trainer : "M y body is yours. Be kind t o it," suggestin g tha t he r prepa ration fo r he r first contes t occurre d unde r a man' s watchfu l eye . Thi s statement, alon g wit h simila r one s mad e b y othe r bodybuilders , ar e revealing becaus e the y sugges t tha t me n guid e wome n i n thei r prepara -

32 Muscl e Bound tion for bodybuilding contests , where women ar e evaluated, fo r the mos t part, by other men . Although th e athleti c background s o f th e wome n varied , the y hav e striking similarities . Fo r instance, al l were involve d i n a t leas t on e typ e of organize d sport ; mos t ha d bee n involve d i n tw o o r mor e competitiv e organized sports , an d mos t wer e involve d i n hig h schoo l and/o r colleg e sports. Bodybuildin g offere d thes e athlete s a ne w avenu e fo r thei r ath letic skill s an d competitiv e spirit . I n addition , mos t o f th e wome n re membered gettin g attentio n fo r thei r unusua l muscularity—eve n a s children. Thi s attention , regardles s o f whethe r i t wa s negativ e o r posi tive, made them awar e that the y were different fro m others . Many o f th e women entere d th e gy m wit h th e hop e o f gettin g bac k i n shape ; other s wanted t o rehabilitate a n injury. Onl y a few began working ou t wit h th e intention o f entering their firs t bodybuildin g competition . Finally, th e mos t importan t facto r i n gettin g fro m th e workou t stag e to th e competitiv e bodybuildin g stag e wa s t o hav e someone , usuall y a man wh o wa s alread y involve d i n bodybuildin g i n som e way , approac h them abou t competin g i n bodybuilding . I n thes e cases , th e me n ofte n became mor e tha n bodybuildin g mentors, - the y becam e lovers , surrogat e fathers o r brothers, coaches , or friends . The significanc e o f mostl y me n socializin g wome n int o th e spor t o f bodybuilding is multifaceted. First , it suggests that women's initial train ing routines, their preparation for competition , an d their entir e introduc tion into competitive bodybuilding are likely to take place under a male's watchful eyes . Thi s ma y b e goo d preparatio n fo r th e scrutin y o f th e judges, promoters , sponsors , an d officials—th e vas t majorit y o f who m are men . Thi s proces s help s t o ensur e tha t women , t o som e extent , remain male-identifie d i n their interactions i n the sport. It also position s women t o se e othe r wome n a s competitors , no t a s allies , whic h ma y help t o stultif y an y sens e o f sisterhoo d tha t migh t develop . This separa tion ma y i n tur n serv e a s a barrie r fo r femal e bodybuilder s t o organiz e together t o protec t thei r interests—economic , political , an d ideologi cal—which ma y b e perceive d a s threatenin g t o th e statu s qu o o f th e sport.

Reactions: Parents, Partners, and Peers After th e wome n receive d thei r initia l word s o f encouragemen t an d decided t o trai n fo r thei r firs t competitiv e bodybuildin g event , the y

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received variou s response s fro m thos e aroun d them—rangin g fro m sur prise an d concer n t o amusemen t an d reassurance . Man y parent s wer e initially shocke d b y th e new s tha t thei r daughter s wer e trainin g t o be come competitiv e bodybuilders . Whe n the y continue d t o train , buil d muscles, an d compet e i n meets , th e bodybuilders bega n t o receiv e mor e intense responses , whic h range d fro m complet e suppor t t o absolut e out rage an d oppositio n an d finall y t o resignation . Fo r instance , Patt y con fessed, "Whe n yo u tal k abou t m y immediat e family , m y mo m an d da d don't understan d m y lifestyle , s o w e don' t eve n tal k abou t it. " Others , like Diane, discusse d th e unwaverin g suppor t the y received : "The y lov e it. They're very supportive. They thin k it' s great. My parents ar e thrille d to death. " Brook e explaine d tha t he r mothe r an d grandmothe r wer e not onl y supportiv e o f he r participatio n i n bodybuilding , bu t o f he r involvement i n al l th e sport s i n whic h sh e has participated: 3 "M y mo m has always been a big supporter o f sports, particularly for women. S o was my grandmother . S o it' s kin d o f natural . I t wasn' t like , 'Wha t ar e yo u doing?' o r 'That' s no t fo r girls. ' No, i t wa s suppor t righ t fro m th e begin ning." To varyin g degrees , mos t parent s eventuall y supporte d thei r daugh ters' bodybuilding endeavors , though som e parents were more supportiv e than others . The following illustrate s Denise' s parents reaction : My mo m love s it . She' s m y numbe r on e fan , she' s neve r misse d a show, she'l l trave l acros s th e countr y t o b e there . M y dad , o n th e other hand , i s very oppose d t o it ; he' s ver y ol d fashioned. I probably should b e barefoot an d pregnant. H e went t o th e firs t sho w an d he' s never reall y gotte n involve d o r asked anythin g furthe r abou t it . He' s got picture s an d whe n h e run s int o someon e younge r an d a littl e more openminded an d they hit upo n the subject o r something from a picture then he'll pull them out . But after that , "No. " Her parents ' gendere d reaction s ar e typica l o f man y o f th e women' s parents. Mother s wer e mor e likel y t o suppor t thei r daughters ' nontradi tional endeavor . Fathers were more likely tha n mother s t o disapprove of , or support onl y passively, thei r daughters ' choice of an athletic career . Pam acknowledged tha t her mother ha d always been supportive of her athletic aspiration s until sh e became involved i n bodybuilding : Well . . . my mother , she' s alway s bee n supportive . She' s bee n t o al l of my affairs an d functions, everythin g that I did when I was younger.

3

34 Muscl e Bound But it was like her thing was at first, "Gosh , why do you want t o be a bodybuilder?" . . . When I was i n track , sh e never sai d anything, sh e just kind of supported me and she would go. But then she was like, "I don't kno w abou t this. " An d m y father , h e wa s supportiv e i n th e same way, he just really didn't g o to the competition , h e just kin d of thought i t was really different. I think th e thing is that m y mom an d dad ar e old-fashioned , fro m th e ol d school , an d a woman wit h mus cles i s jus t unusual . [It ] didn't see m norma l o r right . Bu t the y cam e around. Describing he r parents ' suppor t no w a s relativel y uniform , Pa m recog nized tha t he r mother's initia l response was unexpected becaus e sh e ha d never questione d Pam' s motivatio n fo r participatin g i n sport s before . Both parents appeared skeptical at first becaus e this sport, more than an y other in which Pa m had participated, challenge d th e gendered norms: " A woman wit h muscle s i s just unusual. " Two o f th e bodybuilders reveale d tha t thei r mother s initiall y worrie d about the m gettin g to o muscula r an d to o big . Diane confide d tha t "ini tially m y mo m wa s worrie d abou t m e gettin g to o big . And m y da d wa s kind of , yo u know , h e didn' t reall y thin k anythin g abou t it . H e was jus t kind o f complacen t abou t it. " An d interestingly, althoug h Pam' s parent s had a simila r reaction , eac h parent' s reason s wer e different . Pam' s mother was worried that her daughter would become too big and unfemi nine fro m liftin g weights , wherea s he r fathe r wa s mor e concerne d tha t she woul d ge t hurt : "M y mo m sai d a t first , yo u know , 'Don' t b e liftin g weights, you're tiny, you're petite, stay that way, you look cute, now you can't wea r your cut e clothes anymore.' My dad, you know, 'Don' t lif t to o much, you'r e going to get hurt.' " These quotation s illustrat e parents' different level s of support o f thei r daughters' bodybuildin g endeavors . I n general , father s g o t o show s bu t are not a s encouragin g a s mothers, suc h a s Diane's: "M y mo m i s on e of my biggest fans." This differentia l gendere d response reflects th e patter n found i n som e researc h o n earl y childhoo d socializatio n indicatin g tha t fathers ar e likel y t o b e mor e stric t enforcer s o f traditiona l gende r role s for both daughter s an d sons. 4 In additio n t o parents , th e wome n ha d partners , friends , an d othe r family member s wit h who m t o contend . Th e response s o f boyfriends o r husbands, muc h lik e tha t o f parents , varied , rangin g fro m extremel y supportive t o inordinatel y unsupportive . Thre e bodybuilder s wh o wer e

Muscle Bound 3 5 currently marrie d t o me n i n th e bodybuilding , powerlifting , an d fitnes s industries sai d tha t thei r partner s wer e ver y supportiv e o f thei r body building endeavors . Mary , a professiona l bodybuilde r wh o wil l soo n marry relate d tha t he r fiance " thinks m y participatio n i n bodybuildin g is grea t an d h e reall y like s muscula r women . H e think s it' s reall y goo d and h e help s m e wit h m y die t an d tha t stuff . W e haven't bee n togethe r that long , but he's really encouraging , he really encourage s me a lot. He' s very supportive. " However , sh e mad e i t clea r tha t sh e ha d no t gotte n this typ e o f enthusiasti c suppor t fro m he r previou s husband , wh o wa s also a bodybuilder: I wa s marrie d onc e before , an d h e wa s a bodybuilder , bu t I thin k because I was more successful tha n he was, he got envious, it create d jealousy wit h hi m an d stuff . An d I think a coupl e o f times , mothe r called hi m b y my las t name , Mr . "Smith. " I t create d rea l env y an d jealousy. Mos t o f th e tim e I'v e bee n bodybuilding , I'v e usuall y don e by myself , th e training , th e discipline , an d stuff , an d I'v e ha d a fe w boyfriends tha t wer e alway s tryin g t o deman d m y tim e whe n I was getting read y for a show an d tha t brok e up on e o r two relationships . They wanted m e to give them m y tim e an d I was trying t o get read y for a show. Mary introduced a central component o f the bodybuilding training and lifestyle tha t make s maintainin g intimat e relationship s challengin g an d difficult. Man y people in the sport discussed frankly th e toll that the long, arduous trainin g an d dietin g prio r t o contest s take s o n relationships . While training for a bodybuilding show , one must hav e tunnel vision an d exclude an y distraction s fro m one' s life . Furthermore , bodybuilder s ar e taking thei r bodie s t o thei r physica l limit s b y drasticall y limitin g thei r carbohydrate an d wate r intak e an d continuin g t o lif t weights , basicall y starving an d dehydratin g themselves . This ofte n lead s t o moodiness an d irritability, whic h ma y caus e interpersona l conflict . Thus , man y body builders talke d about th e difficultie s i n maintaining committe d relation ships. This situatio n i s exacerbate d whe n tw o competitiv e bodybuilder s decide to date each other. One bodybuilder revealed : I think mos t o f the tim e when the y se e a big huge male bodybuilder , he's with a small petite girl, you know? I don't know why, but I don't think tha t tw o competitor s ca n be together because I tried it . I dated competitive bodybuilder s an d he' s gettin g read y fo r [ a show ] an d you're not , an d you'r e gettin g read y fo r a sho w an d he' s not . An d

36 Muscl e Bound you're both tryin g to be successful an d it's a me, me, me sport. Like I said, yo u forge t everybody , you r family , you r friends , it' s tunne l vi sion, it' s jus t you . T o find somebod y wh o ca n accep t tha t an d hel p you with it, that take s a very special person. Add t o th e equatio n th e "healthy " ego s o f man y bodybuilder s an d on e begins t o se e th e enormit y o f th e potentia l fo r problems . Th e foregoin g bodybuilder als o mentione d a phenomeno n tha t man y other s ha d dis cussed a s well : th e issu e o f mal e bodybuilder s datin g petit e women , which seem s to conflict wit h th e fact tha t mos t o f the female bodybuild ers in this stud y date d curren t o r former bodybuilder s o r powerlifters . Both me n an d wome n i n th e spor t recogniz e th e phenomeno n tha t male bodybuilder s dat e petit e women . Fo r instance , Mark , a regiona l judge, commented: "Yo u see all of the male bodybuilders wit h toothpic k thin, skinn y string y girls." Tod, a national judge , explained : And here is somethin g els e that yo u find, tha t mos t me n bodybuild ers don' t lik e t o dat e o r g o out wit h wome n bodybuilder s becaus e i t kind o f take s som e o f th e prestig e o r som e o f th e look s awa y fro m them. Mos t peopl e who get into bodybuilding anyho w d o so because of lack o f self-confidence . An d there ar e always underlying problem s even afte r yo u ge t t o b e big , tha t you'r e alway s worrie d abou t you r image and everything . In his comments , Tod , echoe d th e conclusion s o f Alan Klei n in his wor k on male bodybuilders. 5 Tracy, who used to be a bodybuilder an d is now a judge, als o talke d abou t th e smal l siz e o f th e wome n who m mal e body builders date . Sh e confide d tha t mal e bodybuilder s "appreciat e wome n bodybuilders. The y don' t wan t t o dat e them , o r marr y them , o r hav e a relationship wit h them. " Whe n I aske d wh y sh e though t thi s wa s th e case, sh e responded : "Thei r egos . A lo t o f the m ar e afrai d tha t i f the y date somebod y tha t coul d b e bette r tha n them , coul d b e stronge r tha n them, that' s goin g t o b e a blow t o th e ego . So that's al l i t i s righ t there , just a n ego game." Some o f thos e wh o addresse d thi s issu e though t tha t femal e an d male bodybuilder s don' t ofte n dat e o r get marrie d t o eac h othe r becaus e bodybuilding requires constan t car e and attention t o oneself. Having tw o competing bodybuilding ego s and schedule s i n th e sam e house woul d b e difficult, especiall y i f they were getting ready for the sam e show , suc h a s the Arnol d Schwarzenegge r Classi c an d th e Ms . Internationa l Contest .

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There i s als o th e proble m o f jealous y i f on e membe r o f th e coupl e doe s better tha n th e other , o r i f th e femal e detract s fro m th e male' s siz e an d strength. Shelley, a journalist, recentl y explaine d tha t th e pattern o f male bodybuilders wit h small , petite , young , blond e wome n o n thei r arm s i s an other exampl e o f " trophy-ism": th e bodybuilder s ca n bette r contras t their masculin e prowes s wit h a smal l blond e femal e "trophy " nex t t o them. Sh e conclude d tha t "everythin g i s a troph y t o som e o f the m . . . even the women the y date. " Denise agreed : I thin k mos t o f you r mal e egos , especiall y i n bodybuilding , wan t something smaller , t o kin d o f han g o n them . I thin k that' s fine , I don't hav e anythin g agains t th e smalle r women , I'v e go t lot s o f girl friends tha t ar e what I call normal. Bu t I think a man want s to , he' s probably go t somethin g wrong , tha t sound s awful , bu t I thin k he' s trying to prove something at his stage in his life. Maybe male-wise i t makes hi m fee l bi g an d stron g t o b e s o big an d hav e a little gir l h e can protect. Denise implies a distinction here : men lik e athletic women, bu t the y ge t turned of f by large women. In her eyes, when women cros s a certain line, it wil l tur n me n off . Sh e also made i t clea r tha t sh e had no t crosse d tha t line. Thus, whil e mal e bodybuilder s tr y t o exaggerat e th e differenc e i n physical siz e between the m an d the women the y date, female bodybuild ers ar e mor e lik e thei r partners . Perhap s mal e bodybuilder s nee d t o increase thei r sens e o f control , bot h physicall y an d psychologically , i n their relationship s wit h women . Fo r women, th e patter n o f datin g me n who are physically larger than they are is not so entrenched in psychological needs , althoug h i t stil l exists . Perhap s thi s mor e accommodatin g pattern i s du e t o th e fac t tha t femininity , unlik e masculinity , i s no t s o directly tie d t o one's physical size , and female bodybuilders , unlik e thei r male counterparts , hav e alread y transgresse d gende r norm s b y buildin g their musculatur e an d competing . Man y mal e bodybuilders , wit h thei r massive musculatur e an d thei r interes t i n petit e women , see m t o b e taking some of the norms associate d with masculinit y t o the extreme . What kin d o f suppor t d o femal e bodybuilder s ge t fro m thei r friends ? Almost al l th e women claime d tha t fo r th e mos t part , thei r friend s wer e supportive; a t worst, the y were onl y curious . Their comments : "Mos t of them suppor t it, " an d "Mos t o f my friend s lov e it." Non e acknowledge d

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having experience d negativ e reaction s fro m friend s i n respons e t o thei r bodybuilding careers . "Fv e neve r ha d an y rea l negativ e response s fro m anybody tha t I know/ 7 Other s suc h a s Denis e sai d tha t thei r friend s ar e supportive becaus e the y to o ar e involved i n bodybuilding : "Sinc e thi s i s what I do o r have i n th e pas t don e quit e a bit, a lot o f m y friend s ar e i n the sam e industr y o r sam e sport. " Accordin g t o Ellen , he r hom e i s a bodybuilding have n s o mos t o f th e peopl e thin k th e wa y sh e look s i s normal, an d sh e get s fe w negativ e reactions . Indeed , mos t bodybuilder s appear t o surroun d themselve s wit h peopl e in th e sport , thu s preventin g serious negativ e response s t o thei r physiques , dieting , an d training . Bu t those who maintained friendship s wit h people outside the sport sai d tha t these friend s als o supporte d thei r bodybuildin g goals . Their mos t likel y response wa s on e o f supportiv e curiosit y an d fascination wit h th e body building "look " an d lifestyle. Fo r instance, Denise discusse d th e reactio n of her athleti c friends outsid e o f bodybuilding : I hav e a lo t o f outsid e interest s tha t pul l differen t peopl e i n an d whether the y lik e i t o r not , they'r e i n aw e o f it . The y ar e ver y interested i n it , the y don' t kno w a lot abou t it , bu t the y thin k the y know a lot abou t i t fro m th e media . Fo r instance , I went t o a part y last nigh t tha t wa s basically a group o f female tri-athlete s an d mara thoners an d I was th e onl y bodybuilde r there . S o I was ver y curiou s in wha t the y did , I mean F m prett y impresse d b y th e fac t tha t yo u could actually go out an d run 3 0 miles all in on e day. And they wer e real impresse d wit h th e fac t tha t I leg press 110 0 pounds . It' s a big difference i n th e weight issue , too . You're lookin g a t someon e that' s the sam e heigh t a s the m that' s almos t fift y pound s heavie r bu t ha s less body fat . Susan disclose d tha t "fo r mos t o f m y friends , it' s alway s a sourc e o f amusement. It' s always , 'Yo u hav e t o b e showin g m e something. ' On e friend alway s wants t o feel m y muscles. " Perhap s thi s kin d o f support i s due in part t o amusement o r curiosity abou t why on e might wan t t o legpress 110 0 pound s o r cur l forty-fiv e pound s o r d o th e amoun t o f disci plined wor k involve d i n bein g abl e t o lif t suc h heav y weights . Denis e later reveale d tha t sh e liked t o lift suc h massiv e weights because i t gav e her a sense o f master y an d contro l ove r her body tha t mos t othe r peopl e did not have . Bodybuilders overwhelmingl y agree d tha t overal l th e gy m environ ment wa s supportiv e becaus e gy m member s kne w abou t th e pai n an d

Muscle Bound 3

dedication i t too k t o b e a competitiv e bodybuilder . Furthermore , mos t patrons kne w when t o interact wit h bodybuilder s gettin g ready for com petitions an d whe n t o leav e the m alone . Usuall y th e "regulars " i n th e gym ar e intereste d t o kno w ho w wel l th e competitiv e bodybuilder s d o in thei r meets . Som e eve n g o t o competition s t o suppor t them . Th e bodybuilders are often approache d by people in the gym who want advic e on how best t o work ou t thei r calves , for instance . In addition, som e fel t they may intimidate som e of the people in the gym with thei r physiques, strength, an d musculature—especiall y th e males . Fo r instance, on e professional bodybuilder , Vicky , wh o use s th e gy m a t he r plac e o f employ ment, sai d tha t "th e guy s ar e alway s askin g m e fo r advice/ 7 However , she als o state d tha t "th e guys " have tol d he r tha t othe r me n a t th e gy m have been intimidated b y her strength : I have hear d tha t a few o f them , the y haven' t eve r sai d anythin g t o me, bu t I'v e hear d it , I'v e ha d a fe w guys , lik e i f I ever trai n i n th e gym a t work . Fv e had a few guy s tha t leav e th e gym , an d late r o n I had othe r guy s com e u p an d tel l m e tha t thes e guy s said , "Man , I can't trai n wit h he r i n there , sh e make s m e fee l bad . Man , I wa s curling thes e forty-poun d dumbbell s an d I was lik e grunte d ou t an d then sh e comes in an d grabs the forty-five poun d an d just goes 1-2-3 4-5.I had to leave." Those old stories have gotten back to me . . . you would thin k tha t they' d say , "Hey , i f sh e ca n d o it, I can d o it," bu t they get intimidated, an d then they just kind of leave. When bodybuilder s ge t read y fo r a competition , i t i s extremel y im portant t o have a supportive gym environment. As competitors get close r to the date of the competition, the y begin what th e majority o f them fee l to be the mos t tortuou s par t o f bodybuilding: dieting . A few week s fro m the competitio n the y ar e still working out , ye t the y ar e starting t o wee d out th e carbohydrates , whic h make s the m tire d an d irritable . Havin g sympathetic people around you during this time who know what you ar e going through i s essential. For instance, Patty believed that , fo r th e mos t part, peopl e i n th e gy m "ar e supportive , bu t w e ar e i n a n atmospher e where everyon e knows , no t everyone , bu t peopl e kno w wha t it' s lik e t o get read y fo r a contes t becaus e whethe r [you ] compet e o r not , you'r e around th e peopl e wh o do . Yo u kno w whe n t o leav e the m alone . Yo u know whe n the y starte d dieting . Yo u know whe n they'r e goin g t o b e i n a bad mood. And it's not tha t anybod y cares , it's just that the y know tha t person doesn' t wan t t o be bothered. "

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As th e mee t approaches , suc h courtesie s becom e increasingl y mor e important. When yo u ge t dow n t o abou t eight s week s awa y fro m a contest , you're not allowe d to have . . . I mean all of the junk food out of your diet an d you'r e dow n t o eg g whites an d green beans , you're no t i n a real goo d mood . Whe n yo u ge t dow n t o fou r week s o r tw o weeks , your energ y leve l i s wa y dow n becaus e you'r e dietin g s o har d an d you're doing two hours of aerobics a day and it's all you can do to get through you r workout , everybod y i s rea l supportive , bu t the y leav e you alone when they know you need to be left alone . That's why thi s atmosphere i s so good, nobody bugs you. Nobody come s up and trie s to talk, an d the employees kno w not t o put an y pressures o n me, not to make undue appointments fo r me. It's a good atmosphere. One bodybuilder contende d tha t i t i s thi s knowledg e o f what i t take s t o get into contes t shap e that make s the others in the gym supportive, eve n if it is from a distance. For example, Denise confirme d tha t th e people i n her gym "lov e it. They're standoffish [whe n I'm gettin g ready for a meet]. They kno w tha t wha t I have t o d o to get ready for a show require s quit e a bi t o f disciplin e an d bein g int o mysel f an d s o the y jus t si t bac k an d watch i n awe . They kno w what I' m goin g through, the y kno w how I feel and the y kno w wha t it' s goin g t o tak e s o the y suppor t m e ioo% , eve n doctors an d lawyers. " Noticeable i n th e abov e an d i n th e followin g remark s i s th e health y ego exhibite d b y most bodybuilders . In thei r discussion s o f others ' reac tions t o th e difficul t day s o f trainin g an d dietin g befor e contests , bot h Denise an d Elle n explaine d tha t th e "regulars " i n th e gy m reacte d t o them wit h "awe. " Conceivabl y i t i s thi s perceptio n o f gy m "regulars " that allow s th e bodybuilder s t o ge t throug h thi s demandin g period . I n fact, i t i s th e distan t respec t o f thos e i n th e gy m tha t th e athlete s appreciated th e most, a s is illustrated by Ellen's remarks : They lef t m e alon e an d wer e ver y respectful . . . . Because I was th e only person competing a t that level , people really just sta y out o f m y way. I'm sor t o f i n a shell o f concentration , o r whatever, an d I don't really notic e a whole lo t o f what' s goin g o n aroun d m e s o mayb e I wasn't noticing things, but I got reactions. Over the years, I've gotte n reactions like , "O h God , she' s really moody" o r things like that . Bu t that's, I thin k i n general , that' s mostl y envy . An d the n peopl e als o

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react wit h . .. the y ar e jus t mor e . . . it's mor e awe . Tha t someon e can get into something that deepl y and concentrate on it that deeply . Mary, i n he r discussio n o f th e suppor t sh e ha s receive d a t he r gym , described the regulars as a big family : They're very complimenting, mayb e a little bit overboard. They tease me tha t I' m gettin g bigge r tha n them , stronge r tha n them . I reall y enjoy it . O f course , you have to realize I've been around thes e people for fiv e years . Thi s i s m y stompin g ground , thi s is , I consider , m y gym. We'r e lik e a bi g famil y here . That' s on e o f th e nices t thing s about working here . . . i s everybody seem s to know everybody . They all attend m y contests . I had people coming up to the contest s tha t I didn't eve n kno w wer e tha t interested . . . . I can' t g o anywher e i n [this city] without runnin g int o somebod y fro m th e gym . An d the y will always , alway s wal k up , inspec t m y plate , mak e sur e I' m no t eating anythin g I' m no t suppose d to , snif f m y drink , mak e sur e there's no alcohol in it. And walk up and tell me the time, you know, "Isn't i t late ? Yo u should be getting som e sleep , you got a heavy da y of training." S o I have a lot of mothers an d daddies out in the gym as well as in [the city] and that's been a great incentive . Another bodybuilde r explaine d tha t th e peopl e i n th e gy m "ar e ver y supportive. They alway s com e an d as k how's th e die t going . You're like, 'How d o you thin k it' s going? ' Bu t they'r e reall y goo d abou t it . They'r e real supportiv e an d they'r e like , 'Yo u loo k great, ' yo u know ? The y tr y and push m e on. " The gym environment, therefore , seem s t o be quite supportiv e in tw o ways. First , th e peopl e i n th e gy m kno w tha t th e bodybuilde r i s gettin g ready fo r a show , s o the y kno w the y shoul d leav e he r alon e an d le t he r do he r workouts . Second , the y voic e thei r suppor t an d concer n fo r th e bodybuilder's progress . Tha t i s no t t o sa y tha t al l bodybuilders fel t tha t the gy m environmen t wa s alway s supportive . Recal l Pam , wh o i n th e early 1980 s entere d a gy m i n th e Southwest , wantin g t o compet e i n bodybuilding. T o wor k ou t o n th e men' s sid e o f th e gym , sh e ha d t o endure tw o week s o f silen t treatmen t fro m th e othe r gy m client s unti l she had "proven " herself . When aske d whethe r the y fel t tha t othe r competitiv e femal e body builders ar e supportiv e o f them , the y wer e no t i n consensus . Som e argued that competitiv e female bodybuilders are supportive, in fact mor e

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42 Muscl e Bound supportive tha n mal e bodybuilders. For instance, Brooke , a professional level competitor, commente d a s follows : You know , th e wome n ar e a littl e differen t tha n th e men , I think . And this has been th e case right from th e beginning, i n tha t ther e i s more supportiveness and camaraderie among the women. And I don't know whethe r that' s becaus e it' s th e natur e o f wome n o r if it' s jus t because ther e reall y i s a bi g differenc e betwee n ou r priz e package s and men's prize packages. They're worlds apart . Others fel t tha t femal e bodybuilder s ar e too critica l an d self-absorbe d t o be supportive . Man y bodybuilder s claime d tha t du e t o th e natur e o f bodybuilding, a spor t tha t i s decidedl y individualisti c i n nature , ther e was n o chanc e o f sustaine d camaraderi e amon g it s disperse d athletes. 6 Those wh o believe d tha t bodybuilder s wer e no t supportiv e o f on e an other gave different opinion s o n the pervasiveness o f the lack o f support . One insisted tha t "no , female bodybuilder s ar e not supportive . The y ar e a bit catty , they'r e s o centered o n themselves. Jealousy, maybe, althoug h I can sa y tha t I am no t jealous. " Denise , lik e others , attribute d th e lac k of suppor t t o th e competitivenes s o f th e sport . On e possibl e reaso n fo r friction o r jealousy was best explaine d by Pam: "I t seem s like there is a n uneasiness because with th e judging there's really . . . one minute they'r e looking fo r this , th e nex t minut e the y sa y they're lookin g fo r that. " Sh e continued: With the uneasiness and the uncertainty of the sport, I think it makes the women uneasy. When you go to a pro show, you see very few pro women hangin g aroun d togethe r befor e th e show . Usuall y yo u g o with somebody , eithe r a training partner o r a friend that' s supportiv e of you tha t yo u wal k aroun d wit h o r hang aroun d with . Pr o wome n don't reall y mingle and hang around with eac h othe r because I guess the sport i s so uncertain, tha t everybod y is so uncertain abou t them selves that it produces an edginess. The unpredictabilit y an d uncertaint y o f a n alread y subjectiv e an d individualistic spor t ma y contribut e t o th e lac k o f cohesivenes s amon g bodybuilders. Partiall y attributin g th e lac k o f camaraderi e amon g body builders t o thi s typ e o f errati c situation , Pa m argue d tha t maintainin g bonds wit h one' s competitor s i s virtually impossible . Late r i n th e inter view, sh e contraste d th e wa y bodybuilder s interac t wit h on e anothe r t o the way powerlifters interact :

Muscle Bound 4 3 It i s mor e clea r i n powerlifting , mor e cu t an d drie d an d als o th e uneasiness o f th e lifter s amon g eac h other , i t jus t isn' t there . You go out t o ea t wit h th e competitors , th e girl s you'r e competin g against . You kno w yo u han g aroun d wit h eac h other , becaus e yo u eithe r d o the lif t o r yo u don't . You r strengt h i s ther e o r it' s no t there . Th e uneasiness isn't near as bad as bodybuilding. This bodybuilde r thu s believe d tha t th e majo r reaso n fo r th e edgines s among bodybuilder s i s tha t th e judgin g i s subjectiv e an d th e criteri a o n how to judge female bodybuilder s ar e in a state of flux ( I will discuss thi s in detai l i n chapte r 6) . Even thoug h mal e bodybuildin g i s no t a s subjec tive a s female , ther e i s a lac k o f camaraderi e o r sens e o f "brotherhood " among th e males . Thi s ma y b e becaus e th e monetar y stake s ar e decid edly higher tha n i n female bodybuilding . Now tha t th e stake s i n femal e bodybuildin g hav e increase d dramati cally ove r th e years , man y involve d i n th e spor t fee l tha t femal e body builders ar e les s unifie d tha n the y wer e whe n th e spor t firs t started . Addressing thi s phenomenon , Michelle , a nationa l judg e an d forme r bodybuilder, recalle d tha t when I firs t started , ther e wa s a lo t mor e camaraderi e amon g th e competitors. Whe n yo u wen t backstage , i n th e pum p u p room , w e talked t o eac h other , w e at e eac h other' s food , we' d hel p eac h othe r oil up , w e generall y . . . fo r lac k o f a bette r wor d ther e wa s thi s sisterhood. And now excep t at th e very novice levels of female body building, you g o backstage a t a national even t an d it i s deadly silent . There i s s o muc h tensio n i n th e air , yo u coul d cu t i t wit h a knife . Nobody talks to anybody. [Interviewer: What's the reason for that , d o you think? ] Becaus e wome n hav e becom e s o competitive , I thin k it's becaus e th e stake s hav e becom e higher . Th e standard s a s fa r a s muscularity hav e become higher. Women hav e to get to the nationa l level, have had to do so much to change their bodies, so much mone y has been put ou t by these women t o be ready for that event . It costs a lot o f mone y an d a lo t o f you r ow n persona l risk s t o ge t th e drug s that yo u need , t o d o the cycles , t o gai n th e mass , t o compet e a t th e national level. It i s thu s possibl e tha t th e combinatio n o f th e capriciousnes s i n judgin g and th e higher monetar y stake s an d standard s o f muscularit y hav e mag nified th e tension amon g bodybuilders.

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The Responses o f Outsider s Most bodybuilders , however , talke d wit h grea t disdai n abou t th e nega tive reaction s the y ha d receive d fro m peopl e outsid e th e bodybuildin g subculture. Whe n the y ar e surrounde d b y friends , family , competitors , and gym clients , th e bodybuilders shar e a common interest—enhancin g their muscularity . However , suc h suppor t i s no t ofte n mirrore d b y strangers wit h who m the y interac t i n public . When walkin g th e street s or going t o museum s o r grocer y stores , femal e bodybuilders , becaus e of their unusual physiques, are subject t o the scrutiny o f others. Sometime s their muscula r physique s ma y evok e a sens e o f awe , bu t mos t o f th e time stranger s reac t wit h shoc k an d disgust . Ellen , a nationa l amateu r competitor, remarke d tha t me n tende d t o b e shocke d b y he r buil d an d responded b y comparin g thei r ow n musculatur e t o hers . Thi s invidiou s comparison ofte n di d not bod e well fo r thes e men . Thu s perhap s fo r th e first tim e the y wer e face d wit h th e fac t tha t som e wome n ca n b e mor e muscular tha n men . Man y responde d i n shock , other s becam e angered . She exclaimed , "Th e commo n mal e reactio n i s 'God , you r arm s ar e bigger tha n mine! 7 M y reactio n t o tha t i s 'Well , duh ! I'v e bee n liftin g weights for th e past te n years, what di d you think ?//; Most bodybuilder s gav e example s o f stranger s makin g unsolicite d negative remark s abou t thei r physiques , som e o f whic h wer e imbue d with threats of physical violence. In fact, ever y bodybuilder I interviewed has had to contend with negativ e reactions fro m stranger s at one time o r another durin g he r career . Fo r instance , Brooke , a professiona l wh o started competin g i n th e earl y 1980s , declare d tha t "i n th e beginnin g i t was lik e th e nor m t o ge t yelle d at . Peopl e woul d sa y th e mos t obscen e things t o you. " Mos t o f thos e wh o fel t compelle d t o mak e negativ e comments abou t th e women' s muscula r physique s wer e me n i n group s while th e femal e bodybuilde r wa s b y herself . Suc h remark s ar e perfor mances by men , for men, affirmin g conventiona l standard s o f masculin ity an d femininity. Som e bodybuilders reveale d tha t the y were not both ered a t al l b y th e negativ e comments ; i n fact , the y ha d com e t o expec t and tolerate suc h remarks. For example, on e athlete dismisse d strangers ' negative reaction s a s simpl y "par t o f bein g a femal e bodybuilder . Bu t that's part o f being noticeable i n an y respect." However , i t i s not alway s simply "bein g noticeabl e i n an y respect, " a s i s suggeste d b y Denise' s comment: "I'v e hear d guy s sa y t o thei r friends , 'It' s a mal e thin g sh e

Muscle Bound h a s / " Thi s remar k suggest s tha t wome n coul d no t possibl y wan t t o enlarge thei r musculatur e i f the y wer e "normal " wome n an d therefor e must wan t t o be a man. Suc h comments ar e not innocuous . Rather , the y serve t o war n wome n tha t the y hav e inappropriatel y crosse d gende r boundaries—and som e o f thes e warning s ar e mor e threatenin g tha n others. Vicky recalle d a run-i n wit h a fe w mal e strangers . The y firs t talke d about he r a s i f sh e wer e no t there ; the n the y questione d he r biologica l sex. Finally, the y questione d he r sexua l orientation . Sh e explained: "I'v e had a coupl e o f guy s wal k u p t o m e a s i f I were a mannequi n o r some thing that was just standin g there. One guy was, 'Hey you guys, that girl , I think I saw he r i n a magazine/ On e gu y [said] , 'O h that' s a guy, com e on, let's go / Well , a m I not standin g her e or something? 'No , no, that's a girl, she's a bodybuilder,' an d then he says, 'Leave that fag alone.'" In thi s interaction, th e me n refe r t o Vick y a s a "girl, " a "guy, " an d a "fag. " Although scholar s o f gende r an d sexualit y conten d tha t th e concept s o f "gender" an d "sexuality " ar e distinc t an d separat e term s tha t d o no t describe th e sam e phenomenon , the y ar e frequentl y use d interchange ably i n everyda y life . I n othe r words , peopl e ten d t o conflat e thes e con cepts a s referrin g t o th e sam e o r simila r phenomena . Thi s confusio n occurred whe n thes e me n sa w a woman wit h larg e muscles, which the y perceived t o b e inappropriat e fo r a woman . The y consequentl y referre d to her a s a "guy" an d then a s a "fag"—a derisiv e word usually employe d to refe r t o perceive d "effeminate " males , no t allege d "masculinized " females. B y thei r comments , the y wer e remindin g on e anothe r o f thei r commitment t o traditional definition s o f masculinity an d femininity. A s is usuall y th e cas e whe n hegemoni c gende r norm s ar e transgressed , th e self-appointed sanctioner s di d no t infor m Vick y i n a pleasan t o r sedat e way, rather the y were aggressive and used pejorative term s t o attempt t o humiliate he r an d realig n he r withi n appropriat e gende r boundaries . Calling a woma n " a man " o r questionin g he r sexualit y i s a n effectiv e way t o notif y a woman sh e ha s crosse d int o unacceptabl e behavio r an d appearance. Th e venomou s disgus t a s well a s th e threatenin g overtone s that thes e me n displaye d ar e a disturbingl y commo n experienc e fo r women bodybuilders . The bodybuilders had their ow n way of making sense of these people' s reactions t o them . Fo r instance , Mar y surmise d tha t thos e wh o wer e most likel y to give them negativ e comment s wer e out-of-shape men :

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46 Muscl e Bound The men tha t aren' t used to exercising, the y find it a little bit intim idating to talk t o a woman wh o is so attuned t o her body, to pushin g outside tha t envelop e more s o than mos t me n will eve n attempt. . . . I have run int o a n occasiona l on e that hi s insecuritie s com e out an d they say , "Wh y d o yo u wan t t o loo k lik e that ? What' s wron g wit h being sof t an d fluffy an d skinn y o r a littl e overweight ? Yo u kno w that's the way women ar e supposed to be/ 7 They have this stereotyp e of how women should look . By claiming tha t th e peopl e who ar e likely t o mak e negativ e comment s to the m ar e out-of-shap e men , th e bodybuilder s couc h th e discours e i n less gendered ways; it i s not jus t tha t th e bodybuilders ar e attempting t o expand th e gender boundaries, it i s also about th e tension between bein g fit an d bein g ou t o f shape . Regardless , th e wome n interpre t thes e com ments a s stemmin g fro m insecurities : insecuritie s abou t a woman bein g stronger tha n a ma n an d insecuritie s abou t th e men' s ow n unfi t phy siques. Thi s i s no t t o sa y tha t th e negativ e reaction s ar e no t relate d t o gender. The idea that thi s muscular woman ha s supposedly intentionall y disturbed th e gende r statu s qu o i s eviden t b y th e accusator y wa y i n which th e insecur e ma n first question s her : "What' s wron g wit h bein g soft?" an d the n remind s her , "That' s th e wa y wome n ar e suppose d t o be." Patty disclosed that sh e had received negative reactions from stranger s as well: Oh yes, "Yo u want t o look lik e a man," yo u know . Back when I was competing, I was fairly large , I mean I had a fifteen inc h bicep. Since I've stoppe d competing , I don' t car e anythin g abou t bein g tha t bi g anymore. I just wan t t o sta y athleticall y i n shape . O h yeah , an d it' s always fro m overweight , ou t o f shap e peopl e tha t ar e very negative . But that doesn' t bothe r me . . .. I mean I laugh, they'r e jus t s o ridiculous. . . . People are mean. This bodybuilder mentione d th e tw o major point s tha t wer e continuall y alluded t o b y othe r bodybuilders . First , peopl e thin k tha t wome n wh o are i n nontraditiona l role s wan t t o loo k lik e o r b e a man . Second , on e way tha t Patt y attempte d t o mak e sens e o f thi s typ e o f reactio n fro m others is to attribute thei r negative comment s t o their insecurities abou t being overweigh t an d ou t o f shape . Althoug h som e wome n explaine d that suc h comment s d o not bother them , i t appears that, i n fact, the y do.

Muscle Bound 4

They remembe r th e incident s wit h clarit y an d whe n the y recal l them , they d o so with a lot o f emotion . In public , wome n wer e no t a s likel y a s me n t o haras s femal e body builders. Fo r instance , on e bodybuilder , Diane , recalle d he r experience s at the grocery store a week before sh e was to do a show: If I go t o th e grocer y stor e afte r I work ou t I'l l b e i n m y tights , an d people jus t loo k a t m e an d they'r e like , o h yo u know , yo u ca n jus t tell tha t they'r e talkin g abou t you , an d ho w d o you tel l whethe r it' s good or bad? On e tim e a t th e cas h register , I was a week ou t fro m a show, and the lady at th e cas h register I was handing her m y money , she sa w al l m y veins , sh e goe s "Gee , yo u loo k s o muscular. " An d I thought, I said t o her, "Well , than k you. " Sh e goes "Well , I've neve r seen women like this." I said, "Well , I'm a competitor, I don't alway s look lik e this . I n th e off-seaso n yo u ge t a little softer. " S o that wa s her response, but a lot of people do like it. This woman' s respons e i s mor e inquisitiv e tha n accusator y o r threaten ing, whic h i s qualitativel y differen t fro m th e example s give n o f th e women's encounter s wit h group s o f men . Perhap s thi s woman' s softe r response is due to the location o f th e encounte r o r maybe because it wa s a one-on-on e situation . Eithe r way , i t appear s tha t th e woma n di d no t feel tha t he r femininit y wa s threatene d b y a mor e muscula r woman . I f she was disguste d b y Diane's physique , sh e was sensitiv e enoug h no t t o say so. Since man y me n appea r t o fee l uneas y aroun d muscula r wome n an d male bodybuilder s ar e unlikely t o dat e them , I asked th e wome n i f the y thought tha t me n i n genera l found thei r physiques attractive . Response s to thi s questio n varied . Fo r instance , on e femal e bodybuilde r said , " I think there' s mixe d emotions . I hav e ha d bot h fo r an d against, " an d another agreed : "I t reall y doe s differ . Wher e I live, I get al l th e compli ments i n th e world . However , som e guy s mak e som e reall y crud e an d shitty comments. " Thes e observation s sugges t tha t som e bodybuilder s feel i t necessar y t o surroun d themselve s wit h other s i n thei r sport : i t i s a wa y t o shiel d themselve s fro m potentiall y brusqu e encounter s wit h those not familia r wit h th e spor t o r the bodybuilding look . Othe r femal e competitors confide d tha t the y though t me n di d no t find th e physique s of femal e bodybuilder s attractive , bu t the y wer e stil l fascinate d b y thei r unusual bodies. For instance, Elle n felt a s follows: " I think tha t ther e [is ]

7

48 Muscl e Bound a group of men wh o ar e sort o f groupies, but beyond tha t I think tha t it' s more intrigu e tha n attractiveness . I mean , i f yo u pu t a Playbo y bunn y and a bodybuilde r nex t t o eac h other , th e man , mos t men , woul d b e curious abou t th e bodybuilde r bu t reall y actuall y wan t t o g o wit h th e Playboy bunny." Mar y als o felt tha t me n ar e attracted t o a female body builder's physique yet ar e intimidated b y it: Yeah, me n d o fin d ou r bodie s sexy . A lo t o f the m ar e intimidated . The first lure is this girl is really different tha n the rest. Let's find ou t more about her . So they'll approac h me , they'll tal k t o me, how I got involved.. . . They wan t t o kno w mor e abou t wha t i t take s t o b e a bodybuilder. Wha t make s a person lik e tha t tick . That' s alway s th e ice breake r an d w e ge t int o talkin g an d the y find tha t I hav e a professional caree r as well as this being a hobby and I'm well-rounde d in othe r areas , no t jus t a gym rat . S o guys lik e i t an d the n the y find out that there is every bit as much femininity involve d as there is the strength an d th e masculin e driv e tha t i t take s t o lif t weight s an d pump iron and be competitive and train in an environment wher e it's predominantly men . She felt tha t me n foun d suc h women enticing : " I was pleased t o find ou t that th e majorit y o f me n reall y find i t interestin g t o hav e a woman tha t is so dedicated an d discipline d t o takin g car e of her bod y . . . they find i t kind o f sexy , an d no t reall y erotic , bu t i n a way , yes . The y find i t s o interesting like , 'wha t woul d i t b e lik e t o b e wit h a woma n tha t reall y has tha t muc h self-estee m an d confidenc e i n herself?" ' Her e w e ge t a sense o f th e ambivalenc e me n fee l towar d femal e bodybuilders , a s wel l as th e ambivalenc e femal e bodybuilder s fee l abou t themselves . The y realize the y ar e differen t fro m mos t women, - thi s i s part o f th e appea l of being a bodybuilder—because the y stan d ou t i n a crowd. However , the y also understan d tha t i t i s als o wha t simultaneousl y attract s ye t repel s men. Christy argue d tha t eve n fo r me n wh o lik e an d appreciat e muscula r women, ther e stil l i s a line beyond whic h th e femal e bodybuilde r i s jus t too muscular fo r them : I think whe n a man i s around femal e bodybuilders , h e appreciate s i t and som e o f the m lik e it , a woman who' s i n shape . Fo r example , a man tha t I date d fo r awhile , h e sai d there' s a fine lin e fo r femal e

Muscle Bound 4

bodybuilders, there's a fine line where if you cross it, you've gone too far, you'r e no t attractiv e anymore . An d h e wa s tellin g m e I' m righ t on that line . "You're not too big but you're getting there." Her boyfriend' s sentimen t abou t a femal e bodybuilde r crossin g a "fin e line" illustrate s th e externa l constraint s thes e woma n fac e abou t lim iting thei r size . His commen t i s a warning t o he r no t t o ge t an y bigger : he tolerate s he r physiqu e fo r now , bu t sh e risk s losin g hi m i f sh e get s any bigger. H e i s in essenc e attemptin g t o limi t Christy' s choice s abou t her ow n bod y imag e b y implyin g tha t h e wil l find he r unattractiv e an d undatable i f sh e becomes mor e muscular . Mary, who i s awar e o f th e possibilit y o f suc h negativ e reaction s fro m men, claim s tha t sh e doe s no t min d i f me n ar e intimidate d b y her . Sh e knows tha t sh e i s mor e confiden t an d mor e independen t tha n sh e use d to be, and she likes and respects herself mor e now than when sh e was a n out-of-shape housewife : " I think m e being a business owne r an d being a bodybuilder . . . I don' t dat e much , I ca n tel l yo u that . Yea h I d o [thin k men ge t intimidate d b y m y physique] , bu t I don' t car e becaus e I hav e much mor e confidenc e tha n I did when I was a size sixtee n housewife . I wouldn't dea l wit h me n bac k then . No w I ca n hol d m y ow n wit h any body, i n busines s o r ou t o n tha t [gym ] floor." Sh e know s tha t he r phy sique an d busines s sens e hav e impede d he r datin g possibilities , bu t sh e is more tha n willin g t o pay tha t price . Sh e likes wh o sh e is an d will no t change i n orde r t o dat e men ; the y wil l hav e t o accep t he r o n he r ow n terms. Afte r I aske d i f sh e though t i t wa s a combinatio n o f confidenc e and muscle s tha t intimidate d men , sh e responded : "Yes , I d o becaus e most o f th e me n wh o kno w m e respec t me . When I meet a man fo r th e first time , I don't hav e thi s littl e wimp y finger handshake , I shake thei r hand lik e ' I know wh o I am,' you know ? 'I' m gla d you go t t o meet me.' " She i s no t afrai d t o exud e confidenc e an d strengt h eve n i f i t risk s of fending som e men. However , a s we have seen , no t al l female bodybuild ers are willing to do this. Clearly, ther e i s tensio n betwee n femal e bodybuilder s an d th e me n they meet . Fo r man y o f th e wome n i t i s importan t tha t me n find thei r physiques attractive , an d whe n the y d o not, the y dismis s thes e me n a s insecure abou t thei r ow n masculinit y an d physiques . Others , however , are no t s o concerne d abou t wha t me n ma y think . The y sa y the y ar e happy with ho w the y look . Som e bodybuilders' defensivenes s abou t oth -

9

50 Muscl e Bound ers' reactions , however , indicate s th e dept h o f thei r ambivalenc e abou t their appearance .

Paying the Price: The Sacrifice s Mad e In any sport, athlete s mus t mak e tremendous sacrifices . The y mus t hav e extraordinary commitmen t an d disciplin e i n orde r t o succeed . Thi s i s also tru e fo r bodybuilders . I n fact , I woul d argu e tha t thei r diet s an d workouts ar e amon g th e mos t demandin g an d gruelin g o f an y sport . Getting read y fo r bodybuildin g competition s pervade s ever y aspec t o f the person' s life . Accordin g t o Christy , a nationa l amateu r competitor , "As fa r a s femal e bodybuildin g a s a way o f life , it' s rea l har d becaus e o f the stric t discipline d lif e tha t yo u lea d for s o many months , tha t al l of a sudden whe n you'r e gettin g read y for a show it' s reall y hard t o maintai n any kind o f composure afte r that . Most people fall way of f fro m that. " To wi n a t th e nationa l amateu r o r professiona l levels , bodybuilder s must hav e extrem e tunne l vision—th e spor t demand s it . Fo r example , Ellen, a nationa l competitor , talke d abou t th e consequence s o f bein g involved i n suc h a demandin g spor t whe n on e i s predispose d t o obses sive-compulsive behavior . Sh e state d tha t he r famil y wa s "concerne d with m y compulsivenes s abou t bodybuilding . I wa s alway s s o uptigh t about m y diet . I had to . I couldn't g o on vacations becaus e I didn't wan t to mis s m y training . I t wa s jus t sor t of , wha t the y considered , slightl y antisocial behavior. " When th e sport' s demand s ar e combined wit h suc h unhealth y predis positions a s Ellen's, on e ca n se e how bodybuilder s coul d b e swep t awa y by th e demand s an d rigor s o f preparin g fo r a contest . Thos e outsid e th e sport wh o se e a love d on e goin g throug h suc h a gruelin g routin e fo r months becom e worried . Thos e competin g i n th e spor t fee l tha t suc h control ove r one' s bod y an d one' s lif e i s a sig n o f strengt h an d power . This contro l doe s not com e without incredibl e pain . Most bodybuilder s wil l tel l yo u tha t th e hardes t par t abou t gettin g ready for a bodybuilding mee t i s the dieting . Although man y bodybuild ers ea t a s ofte n a s eigh t time s a day , i t i s th e combinatio n o f food s the y must consum e an d th e carbohydrat e intak e the y mus t reduc e befor e a contest tha t i s hardest . Wh y i s dietin g s o important ? O n th e on e hand , the competitor s ar e trying to lose body fat, bu t a t the sam e time they ar e also trying to retain muscl e densit y and size. In order to do this, they ea t lots of protein ( a lot of chicken, turkey , and tgg whites), which facilitate s

Muscle Bound 5 1 muscle growth . But , the y hav e t o limi t thei r intak e o f carbohydrate s severely when the y ar e getting ready for a meet, t o reduce bodyfat levels . For th e las t tw o week s befor e a show , the y eliminat e carbohydrate s from th e die t altogether , whic h make s the m ver y light-headed . Som e bodybuilders confesse d tha t the y tak e of f fro m wor k th e wee k befor e a meet becaus e withou t carbohydrate s i n thei r diet , the y canno t carr y o n conversations fo r mor e tha n a coupl e o f minute s withou t losin g thei r train o f thought . Thei r die t regime n ca n b e th e differenc e betwee n plac ing first o r last i n a contest—that i s how important die t is to the succes s of competitive bodybuilders . To ad d t o thei r miser y befor e a contest , bodybuilder s wil l severel y limit thei r intak e o f water a couple o f day s before th e show . To expedit e this process , man y tak e diuretics . Ad d steroi d us e t o thi s regime n an d one gets a picture o f how unhealthy competitiv e bodybuildin g ca n be. In fact, Ala n Klei n ha s claime d tha t bodybuilder s ar e close r t o deat h tha n to life when the y ar e on stage. 7 Two recen t event s illustrat e th e poignanc y o f thi s sentiment . Durin g the 199 2 European Gran d Prix Tour, on e male bodybuilder die d after on e of th e show s du e t o excessiv e us e o f diuretics , whic h cause d sever e dehydration an d eventuall y hear t arrhythmia . Also , a t th e 199 3 Arnol d Schwarzenegger Classic , one male bodybuilder was hospitalized i n inten sive car e fo r sever e dehydratio n (h e ha d onl y consume d te n ounce s o f water eac h da y fo r thre e day s an d h e ha d take n diuretics) . H e ha d als o severely cu t hi s calori c intake , dow n t o 1,40 0 calorie s pe r day , fo r a number o f weeks. Three-quarters o f th e bodybuilder s i n thi s stud y confide d tha t th e hardest par t abou t gettin g read y fo r a competitio n i s dieting . Pa m ex plained tha t th e difficulty lie s not onl y in eliminatin g certai n foods fro m one's diet , bu t als o i n th e lengt h o f tim e on e ha s t o diet : "Yo u star t getting read y actuall y abou t thre e month s out . Th e first month , I don' t eat muc h jun k food , bu t whateve r littl e jun k foo d I ha d i n m y die t completely goes . S o that first mont h isn' t to o bad . Bu t b y th e tim e yo u get t o th e secon d mont h you'r e dow n t o salad s an d mostl y vegetable s and jus t ver y littl e chicke n an d fish." Mar y reveale d th e tediou s natur e of having to watch one' s diet for competition : I thin k I ha d a goo d foundatio n o n ho w t o prepar e food-wis e fo r a contest, bu t I was not methodica l enough . I mean yo u reall y have t o be so detailed an d write i t dow n fo r si x weeks prior, everythin g tha t

52 Muscl

e Bound

goes in your mouth . Calculat e it , no t onl y calories , but gram s o f fat , protein. You have to stay consistent wit h it , tha t wa y if it works you know what yo u di d right, wrong, you ca n use it agai n an d if you ca n look i n th e mirro r thre e week s ou t an d sa y I' m stil l carryin g to o much fat , let' s dro p th e calorie s down . Let' s pick u p th e gram s here . If I' m weak , I tak e u p mor e carbohydrates . Bu t i f yo u don' t kno w what you're doing, you don' t kno w where to make th e changes . It al l depends o n ho w ba d you reall y wan t t o win . Tha t i s on e o f th e ke y issues to winning a bodybuilding contest , you've got to give it 100% . You've got to be detailed with it . you have to stick with it , you can' t go a day and say "O h well , you didn' t writ e it down , I'll mak e up fo r it in the next day." You don't have a margin for that . Patty agreed that dietin g is the hardest part o f the sport and because it is, "you absolutel y hav e t o hav e tunne l vision . Whe n I star t gettin g read y for a contest , nothin g wil l mak e m e cheat , nothing . No t everybod y ca n do that . Bu t that' s me . It' s th e differenc e betwee n bein g a winne r an d being a loser." I n fact, dietin g i s so important i n competitiv e bodybuild ing tha t som e bodybuilder s hav e hire d professiona l dietitian s t o assis t them. Fo r instance , Mary , a n amateu r femal e bodybuilder , revealed : "Now thi s yea r i s th e firs t tim e I'v e ha d a professiona l pu t m y die t together.... S o he did a really good job four month s out . He put m e on a strict detaile d die t tha t I have neve r eve r ha d t o d o anythin g clos e t o i t in m y life . I though t I wa s goin g t o die . I' d cal l hi m u p tw o week s i n advance, I said, 'You're killing me, right? somebod y told you to kill me.'" The die t regimen i s arduous an d seemingl y masochistic . However, Mar y thinks th e rigorou s regime n i s wel l wort h i t becaus e sh e believes i t ha s made all the differenc e i n the world in how sh e looks, and because of her new diet , sh e has consistentl y place d higher a t subsequen t meets . Denise als o confesse d tha t dietin g is , by far, th e mos t difficul t aspec t of th e sport , bu t fo r differen t reasons . Sh e remarke d tha t dietin g i s difficult becaus e a lot o f people socializ e ove r dinner , lunch , an d drinks , and sinc e her die t i s s o limited, i t make s goin g out t o ea t quit e difficult . She exclaimed tha t the die t i s bad , it' s reall y bad! ! I mea n ou r whol e socia l syste m i s really around social drinking or you go for dinne r or "let' s do lunch," or w e g o ou t o n th e boat , you'r e obviousl y goin g t o hav e chip s an d beer. You're not goin g to go out an d want t o spen d good money fo r a dish o f broccol i an d a hal f cu p o f ric e an d a chicke n breast . You'r e

Muscle Bound 5

definitely no t goin g t o ge t u p i n th e mornin g an d go , "O h boy , I' m going t o hav e broccol i agai n today , yo u kno w I'v e ha d i t fo r eigh t weeks and I just can' t ge t enough o f that stuff/ 7 S o yeah, I'd sa y diet , that's the hardest part . Their dietin g regime n furthe r isolate s som e bodybuilder s fro m thos e outside th e sport . T o avoid awkwar d socia l moments ove r a meal, man y choose t o surroun d themselve s wit h other s wh o hav e simila r dietar y needs an d workout routines . Although th e die t i s importan t fo r succes s i n meets , whe n peopl e limit thei r carbohydrat e an d calori c intak e s o severely, ther e ar e notice able repercussions. As Patty revealed , The las t thre e day s befor e a contest , th e wee k befor e th e contes t i s the hardest becaus e you have to, just for example , like Sunday , Monday, Tuesday , an d par t o f Wednesday , yo u ea t n o carbohydrates . Al l protein. Well , carbohydrate s ar e you r brai n foo d an d b y Tuesday , I cannot carr y o n a conversation wit h anyone . I mean yo u ca n si t an d talk to me and I hear you but nothin g that you say registers with me . I can be training my clients and forget wha t body part we're working. So that's th e mos t critica l thre e days . Most people , i f the y can , sav e their vacation for that wee k because that's the hardest week, becaus e if your job depends on you thinking a lot, you can' t d o it. I can't rea d a book becaus e I have t o rea d th e sam e paragraph fifteen times , an d people think , why , thi s i s stupid , yo u know . Bu t it' s tru e unles s you've got some carbohydrates, you can't think . She confirme d ho w difficul t th e actua l die t i s for bodybuilders , an d tha t having a supportive an d understanding environment , i n her case the gy m environment, wa s very important especiall y th e las t fe w day s before th e show. Dieting i s no t a bodybuilder' s onl y painfu l experienc e whil e gettin g ready fo r a competition. I n addition , the y mus t als o severel y limi t thei r intake o f wate r a coupl e o f day s befor e th e show . Bodybuilder s wan t t o rid their body of as much wate r as possible in order to achieve the "hard " look fo r whic h the y strive . Therefore , man y tak e diuretics , som e d o aerobics i n swea t suits , an d other s simpl y limi t thei r wate r intak e t o a very minima l level . This combinatio n make s th e wee k befor e th e sho w the mos t excruciating : bodybuilder s ar e i n th e las t stage s o f thei r diet , they hav e severel y limite d thei r wate r intake , an d the y ar e still workin g out, which consist s o f weight work plus a couple o f hours o f aerobics per

3

54 Muscl e Bound day. Some bodybuilders maintaine d tha t limitin g thei r wate r intak e wa s not a s challengin g a s th e die t because , a s on e bodybuilde r explained , "Bodybuilders limi t thei r wate r intake , bu t that' s onl y thre e days . Yo u drink ver y littl e . . . sip s her e an d there. " Thus , becaus e o f it s shor t duration, limitin g one' s wate r intak e i s no t s o difficul t fo r som e body builders. The journe y fro m merel y liftin g weight s t o becomin g a competitiv e national o r professiona l leve l bodybuilde r i s a lon g an d arduou s one . I t takes most bodybuilders many years to break into the professional ranks . Even when the y have successfully don e so, they are by no means guaran teed success at the professional level . When they have reached this smal l elite circle , the y hav e t o compet e a t stil l highe r level s becaus e th e competition keep s gettin g better . Femal e bodybuilder s pu t enormou s amounts o f time, effort , money , an d sweat int o preparing for a meet, an d because bodybuilding is not onl y a subjective sport , but a political one as well, the social gatekeepers—officials, judges , promoters, and sponsors— have enormou s influenc e i n ho w successfu l th e bodybuilder s ar e i n th e sport. I f a bodybuilder i s considere d a troublemaker, i s to o muscular , o r has to o big an ego , the gatekeeper s ma y place her dow n a t meet s o r ma y not giv e her sponsorship s o r other type s o f publicity. Le t us no w loo k i n greater detai l a t th e formatio n o f th e politica l an d economi c milieu s o f the spor t o f female bodybuilding .

TWO

The Few , th e Powerful , the Socia l Gatekeeper s

multimillio n dolla r industry . Th e group s tha t effectively packag e an d sel l th e spor t no t onl y mak e tremendou s mone tary profits , bu t als o pla y a prominen t rol e i n determinin g th e idea l images o f it s bodybuilder s o n stag e an d i n magazines . Therefore , t o comprehend bette r th e variou s political , economic , an d ideologica l fac tors that influenc e whic h image s of female bodybuilder s are presented i n both o f thes e arenas , on e mus t firs t understan d th e historica l develop ment o f th e sport' s politica l an d organizationa l structures . I will there fore begi n b y examinin g th e formatio n o f variou s bodybuildin g federa tions, concentratin g o n th e to p two : th e Internationa l Federatio n o f Bodybuilders (IFBB) , and th e Nationa l Physiqu e Committe e (NPC) . Because o f thei r significan t rol e in th e sport , I will als o discus s th e roles of the thre e majo r monetar y supporter s o f bodybuilding : athlet e sponsors , promoters, an d even t sponsors . M y ai m her e i s t o illuminat e th e eco nomic an d politica l dynamic s that , i n larg e part, determin e ho w femal e bodybuilders ar e instructe d t o look . Muc h o f m y focu s i s o n th e co founders o f the IFBB, Ben and Joe Weider, because, i n bodybuilding, the y and th e IFB B wield mor e influenc e tha n an y othe r peopl e o r organiza tions. Finally , I wil l explor e ho w bodybuilder s an d judge s perceiv e th e Weiders' powe r i n term s o f it s influenc e i n thei r lives , thei r physica l goals, and their succes s in the sport . BODYBUILDING I S A

The Ris e o f "Th e Onl y Gam e i n Town " The majo r bodybuildin g organization s wer e th e firs t organize d entitie s to offer amateur-leve l bodybuilding contest s in the mid-1900s. Beginning 55

56 Th e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers in th e 1930s , ther e wa s th e Amateu r Athleti c Unio n (AAU) , which wa s the first amateu r bodybuilding organization, an d the World Bodybuildin g Guild (WBBG) . Ben an d Jo e Weider starte d th e Internationa l Federatio n of Bodybuilder s (IFBB ) in Canad a i n 1946 . I n 1950 , Da n Lurie' s privat e bodybuilding organization , th e Nationa l Amateu r Britis h Bodybuildin g Association (NABBA) , was forme d i n England . Fro m thi s tim e unti l th e 1960s, th e dominan t organizatio n wa s th e AAU , followe d b y NABBA . Not unti l th e mid-1960s , whe n th e IFB B brough t bodybuildin g t o a professional leve l b y offerin g priz e mone y t o th e winner s o f it s mal e bodybuilding contests , di d th e IFB B become a legitimat e threa t t o th e power o f th e the n dominan t amateu r bodybuildin g organization , th e AAU. In 1991 , Vince McMahon, president o f the World Wrestling Federation an d TitanSport s Inc. , starte d th e Worl d Bodybuildin g Federatio n (WBF); however, thi s organizatio n laste d onl y a fe w months , endin g i n July 1992. 1 When Be n an d Jo e Weider conceive d o f th e IFBB , its officia l purpos e was to ensure that bodybuilding was developed as "a respected, organize d sport o n the amateu r level " because, a t the time , it was viewed by man y as takin g a bac k sea t t o th e spor t o f Olympi c weightlifting. 2 Whe n bodybuilding emerge d a s a form o f athleti c competition , i t wa s usuall y staged onl y afte r th e weightlifting portio n o f th e sho w wa s finished. 3 T o promote bodybuildin g a s a spor t i n it s ow n right , Jo e Weider bega n hi s own publication , Muscle Builder: The Magazine of the Champions, which wa s on e o f th e firs t publication s t o focu s solel y o n bodybuildin g and was also the first " official journal " of the IFBB.4 The firs t mal e bodybuildin g contes t wit h priz e mone y wa s hel d o n September 18 , 1965 , at th e Brookly n Academ y o f Musi c an d wa s calle d the Mr . Olympi a contest. 5 Th e firs t ma n t o wi n th e contes t wa s Larr y Scott. This contest was a watershed for the sport of bodybuilding becaus e until tha t tim e "th e spor t wa s losin g man y o f it s to p competitors , wh o were force d t o tak e job s a s bouncers, bodyguard s an d professiona l wres tlers because the y couldn' t mak e a living in th e spor t o f their choice . By increasing contest incomes, the Weiders hoped to keep both veterans an d rising champion s i n th e sport . "6 Th e Weider s wer e abl e t o se e thei r hopes com e t o fruition no t onl y in mal e bodybuilding, bu t eventuall y i n female bodybuilding as well. In female bodybuilding , however, th e Weiders were not th e first t o offer priz e money . In 197 7 began the actual emergence of organized female bodybuilding . It develope d a s a n outgrowt h no t onl y o f th e lat e nineteenth-centur y

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 5 7 European vaudevill e an d circu s strongwome n acts, 7 Bernarr Macfadden' s turn o f the centur y women's physique competitions, 8 and the weightlift ing o f Abby e "Pudgy " Stockton, 9 bu t als o a s a n outgrowt h o f th e men' s sport. Th e contes t format s o f men' s event s durin g th e 1950s , 1960s , an d mid-1970s ha d ofte n bee n supplemente d wit h eithe r a women' s beaut y contest o r bikini show. 10 These bikini sho w "ha d littl e t o d o with wom en's bodybuilding a s we know i t today , but the y di d serve as a beginning or, perhap s mor e properly , a s a doorma t fo r th e developmen t o f futur e bodybuilding shows. " n The IFB B sponsored th e first Mis s American a contest , whic h wasn' t much mor e tha n a beaut y contest , durin g th e intermissio n o f th e Mr . America contest , whic h wa s preside d ove r b y Bu d Parke r o n Septembe r 14, 1963. 12 Unti l th e lat e 1970s , thes e fitness/beauty contest s wer e th e only plac e i n whic h wome n coul d participate , sinc e ther e wer e n o for mally organize d competitiv e bodybuildin g meets . I n thes e shows , th e female contestant s wor e high heels, makeup, an d jewelry, an d they wer e judged fo r bot h beaut y an d fitness. Th e winner s earne d title s suc h a s Miss Bod y Beautiful , Mis s Physica l Fitness, 13 an d Mis s Americana. 14 Here "th e bikini contes t winner s dutifull y performe d thei r assignments , presenting trophie s t o th e winner s o f th e men' s contest , smilin g widel y as the y posed , ornament-like , wit h th e recipients." 15 I t wa s no t unti l the lat e 1970s , afte r th e adven t o f th e feminis t movemen t an d femal e powerlifting event s tha t wome n wer e see n a s capabl e o f competin g i n their ow n bodybuilding meets. 16 The first officia l femal e bodybuildin g contes t wa s hel d i n Canton , Ohio, i n Novembe r 197 7 an d wa s calle d th e Ohi o Regiona l Women' s Physique Championship . It was judged strictl y a s a bodybuilding contes t and wa s th e first even t o f it s kin d fo r women. 17 Gin a LaSpina , th e champion, i s considere d th e first recognize d winne r o f a woman's body building contest. 18 Th e organize r o f th e event , Henr y McGhee , tol d th e competitors tha t the y woul d b e judge d "lik e th e men, " wit h emphasi s on muscula r development , symmetry , an d physiqu e presentation. 19 I n 1978, McGhe e organize d th e first Nationa l Women' s Physiqu e Champi onship. "Thes e earl y contest s se t th e stag e fo r bigge r thing s t o come . I t was clear that ther e was sufficient interes t amon g the women bodybuild ers an d tha t the y wer e willin g t o trave l grea t distance s fo r th e chanc e to compete." 20 I n additio n t o organizin g thes e bodybuildin g contests , McGhee als o starte d th e short-live d Unite d State s Women' s Physiqu e Association (USWPA) , whic h h e forme d t o hel p organiz e wome n inter -

58 Th

e Few, the Powerful, th e Social Gatekeeper s

ested i n competin g i n bodybuilding. 2 1 M c G h e e argue d tha t th e purpos e of th e organization , w h i c h becam e defunc t i n 1980 , "wa s t o overcom e the limited , beaut y quee n stereotyp e o f w h a t th e America n w o m a n should loo k l i k e . " 2 2 T h e rallyin g sentimen t o f th e USWP A was : " C h a m pions styl e thei r bodie s w i t h thei r m u s c l e s . " 2 3 O n Augus t 18 , 1978 , promote r Georg e Snyde r organize d a "femal e bodybuilding" contes t k n o w n a s T h e Bes t i n t h e Worl d Contest , w h i c h was th e firs t IFBB-sanctione d even t fo r w o m e n t h a t awarde d priz e m o n e y to th e to p finishers , w i t h th e winne r receivin g $2,soo. 2 4 Thi s contes t i s considered t o b e th e forerunne r o f th e Mis s Olympi a competition s h e would late r develo p an d promot e fo r a fe w year s u n t i l Jo e Weide r too k over th e right s t o th e title. 2 5 "Hi s wa s bille d a s a bodybuildin g contest , but everyon e k n e w i t wa s a beaut y contest." 2 6 I n fact , " w h a t wa s m o s t impressive abou t thi s contes t wa s th e fiel d tha t faile d t o place , includin g Kay Baxter , Debora h Diana , Lyne e Pirie , an d . . . Sheil a H e r m a n . Al l o f these w o m e n wer e mor e muscula r tha n m a n y o f th e judge s wer e willin g to accept . I t wa s sanctione d a s a bodybuildin g show , b u t th e w o m e n were require d t o appea r on-stag e i n hig h h e e l s . " 2 7 In a lette r t o Dori s Barrilleaux , Georg e Snyde r describe d th e criteri a for th e show . H e explained : With th e informatio n w e hav e sen t yo u s o far , yo u shoul d realiz e what typ e o f contes t w e ar e holdin g o n Augus t 18th . However , i t i s definitely no t a "physique " typ e contest , wher e wome n d o men' s muscular posing . A s yo u ca n se e b y th e enclose d informatio n o n rules an d judging , th e contes t i s base d o n overal l appearance , figure , proportion, tone , etc . If you woul d lik e t o cal l i t a beauty contest , yo u could, howeve r i t i s a beaut y contes t fo r wome n bodybuilders . I n looking a t th e newslette r yo u sent , whic h i s ver y nice , som e o f th e girls tha t ar e pictured woul d d o very wel l i n ou r contes t an d i t woul d be wort h thei r time . Whereas , a coupl e see m t o b e completel y int o muscularity and , fo r them , i t ma y no t b e worthwhile . However , wit h proper presentatio n an d th e eliminatio n o f pose s tha t highligh t mus cularity, the y coul d d o very well , too . According t o Barrilleaux , There wer e onl y tw o o f u s wh o di d bodybuildin g pose s an d tha t wa s a thirty-eigh t yea r ol d woma n an d myself . Th e res t wer e model s tha t twirled an d di d th e modelin g poses , an d th e hoochy-kooch y bur -

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 5 9 lesque type s wh o di d thei r shakin g a t th e audience... . A t tha t con test Fran k Zan e too k m e asid e an d h e says , "Doris , th e world' s no t ready for wome n bodybuilding. " And tha t di d it. I had to sho w the m that it was. . .. S o I went home and there was a contest the next week or so , a men's contest . I said, "Woul d yo u lik e a guest poser? " The y said, "Oh , yeah, yeah." No on e had eve r seen a lady guest poser. So I did i t a t th e Southeastern , o r whateve r i t was , ther e i n Tampa , an d after tha t th e girl s cam e u p t o m e an d said , "Wh y can' t w e hav e something fo r women ? Wh y don' t w e star t somethin g fo r women? " And so then the Superior Physique Association was formed. 28 Barrilleaux founde d th e Superio r Physiqu e Associatio n i n 1978 , the first women's bodybuilding organization ru n for women an d by women.29 Sh e also began publishing th e SPA News, a newsletter dedicate d exclusivel y to femal e bodybuilding. 30 SP A disseminate d informatio n t o wome n about contest s an d prope r trainin g an d dieting . O n Apri l 29 , 1979 , SP A held Florida' s firs t officia l women' s contes t i n whic h thirtee n wome n competed. Loca l televisio n statio n crew s an d journalist s fo r nationa l magazines an d newspaper s wer e o n han d t o recor d th e event. 31 Als o i n 1979, th e IFB B formed th e IFB B Women' s Committee, - Christin e Zan e was appointed th e first chairperso n t o serv e as head o f the newly forme d committee. 32 On e of the significant difference s betwee n th e SP A and th e IFBB was tha t whil e th e IFB B was organize d an d ru n b y men , th e SP A was run b y women an d for women .

The Building of the Hegemonic Elite The IFB B an d NP C i n genera l an d thos e wh o ru n the m represen t th e power, th e hegemoni c elit e i n bodybuilding . T o date , th e succes s o f th e IFBB in bot h women' s an d men' s competition s ha s bee n unparallele d b y any othe r bodybuildin g organization . Th e IFB B literature claim s tha t i t is one of the largest sportin g federations i n th e world. In fact, "Althoug h it i s no t th e onl y sanctionin g bod y i n th e sport , thereb y avoidin g direc t charges o f monopolizin g th e sport , th e IFB B i s fa r an d awa y th e mos t compelling.. . . Unti l recentl y i t [th e IFBB ] wa s th e onl y organizatio n that coul d subsidize bodybuilders o r make them champions," 33 which i s one o f th e mai n reason s wh y th e IFB B quickl y burgeoned , leavin g it s rivals i n th e dust . I n man y ways , fro m th e numbe r o f contest s hel d t o the amoun t o f priz e mone y awarded , th e IFB B i s untouchabl e b y an y

60 The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers other bodybuildin g organization. 34 "Dwarfin g th e competition , th e IFBB sanctions a rang e o f contest s an d represent s th e mos t prestigiou s Mr. / Ms. Olympia , thereb y functionin g a s the mai n pat h alon g which almos t all upwardl y mobil e competitor s move." 35 I f yo u wan t t o mak e mone y as a professional bodybuilder , th e IFB B is th e organizatio n t o join . Eve n when riva l organization s existed , man y judge s an d bodybuilders insiste d that "th e IFBB is the only game in town. " Because the IFBB is a closed federation, everyon e within th e organiza tion mus t accep t an d abid e b y it s rule s an d regulation s o r fac e bein g barred. Thus , consen t t o th e hegemoni c standard s b y al l member s i s written int o th e bylaw s o f th e organization . Th e Internationa l Congres s and Executiv e Counci l ar e IFBB's governing bodies. The IFB B has a 160 nation congress , wit h a delegat e fro m eac h countr y allowe d t o vot e o n issues a t th e annua l IFB B Internationa l Congres s Meeting . Th e IFBB' s Executive Council , whic h amount s t o th e IFB B Boar d o f Directors , i s comprised o f th e president , th e genera l secretary , numerou s vice-presi dents, an d variou s head s o f committees . Th e structur e o f th e organiza tion give s ultimat e powe r t o thes e official s t o resolv e altercation s an d issues. I refer t o thi s grou p a s th e upper-leve l socia l gatekeepers ; thes e members ar e th e hegemoni c powerhouses : the y enac t an d pas s body building rule s an d regulations , an d the y als o vot e o n wha t t o d o wit h athletes an d judge s wh o hav e violate d th e rules . Althoug h ther e i s a democratically electe d congres s t o guid e th e organization , i t usuall y bows t o the wishes o f th e Executiv e Council . The president als o has th e power t o overrid e congressiona l concerns . Thus , Be n Weide r ca n wield , and a t time s ha s exercised , ultimat e powe r i n determinin g hegemoni c norms tha t ar e to be followed b y al l bodybuilders withi n th e federation . This occurre d i n th e mid-1980 s whe n th e delegate s wante d t o furthe r enforce th e IFBB's drug-testing standards for female bodybuilders at inter national competition s an d the president chos e not t o do so. 36 One troublin g featur e o f th e organizatio n i s th e tremendou s conflic t of interes t o n th e par t o f som e member s o f it s Executiv e Council . A number o f the m no t onl y hol d hig h position s i n th e Executiv e Council , but the y ar e als o promoters an d vendor s o f bodybuildin g products . Thi s direct personal interest i n the sport ;s financial succes s may conflic t wit h the principle s presume d t o guid e th e sport . On e high-rankin g IFB B offi cial i s th e promote r o f eleve n ou t o f th e eightee n mal e pr o show s an d one ou t o f th e thre e femal e pr o shows . Thi s arrangemen t leave s a n

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 6 1 inordinate amoun t o f political , ideological , an d economi c powe r i n th e hands o f onl y a fe w men , makin g the m seemingl y omnipoten t i n thi s muscular arena . Not onl y doe s ther e appea r t o b e a conflic t amon g busines s an d sports interests , ther e als o seem s t o b e a vertica l powe r vacuum : a n interlocking grou p o f official s wh o hol d high-rankin g position s i n bot h the IFB B an d th e NPC . Fo r instance , th e NP C chairwoma n i s als o th e IFBB secretar y o f th e Judge s Committee . Som e judge s als o si t o n bot h the IFBB and the NPC panels. The best example, however, is Jim Manion, who i s th e presiden t o f th e NP C an d th e IFB B Nort h America n vice president. Furthermore, he is frequently a n IFBB judge at the most presti gious mal e an d femal e bodybuildin g events. 37 I n thes e roles , Manio n plays importan t socia l gatekeepin g function s fo r femal e an d mal e body builders a t both th e amateu r an d professional levels . However, hi s influ ence does not sto p at thi s point . H e is also edito r o f the officia l monthl y NPC magazine, NPC News, whic h prints results from previou s contests , information abou t futur e competitions , an d profile s o f up-and-comin g bodybuilders. I n addition , h e inform s reader s abou t bodybuilder s who m he think s promoter s shoul d conside r invitin g t o thei r competition s a s guest posers . Hi s son , J . M . Manion , i s th e officia l photographe r an d senior writer for th e NPC News. In additio n t o hi s NP C an d IFB B duties, Ji m Manio n als o own s J . M. Productions, hi s photograph y compan y tha t specialize s i n bodybuildin g and fitnes s photographs , an d hi s so n own s a n offshoo t o f tha t compan y called JMP Management. Accordin g to the JMP Management Homepage , "When th e NPC an d IFBB decided to make its foray int o women's fitnes s competitions, J.M . launche d th e managemen t fir m t o hel p manag e an d promote th e NP C an d IFB B most Allurin g Fitnes s Women . A s thi s i s a personal managemen t company , th e goa l i s t o wor k closel y wit h eac h fitness competito r t o guid e an d develo p he r career/ 738 Th e competitor s that JM P manage s mus t agre e t o compet e i n a t leas t tw o NP C o r IFBB fitness competition s eac h year . Thes e fitness wome n "ar e availabl e fo r appearances, modeling , gues t posing , poste r o r photo signing s an d prod uct endorsements." 39 Today, th e mos t direc t rout e a bodybuilde r ca n tak e t o ge t t o th e ranks o f a professional bodybuilde r i n th e IFB B is throug h it s America n amateur affiliate, th e National Physique Committee o f the U.S.A. (NPC), was create d b y th e IFB B i n 1981. 40 A s Ji m Manion , NP C president ,

6i Th

e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers recently boasted: "Fo r amateur bodybuilding in th e USA, the NPC i s th e big kahuna . I f yo u wan t t o mak e i t a s a pr o an d tak e advantag e o f th e publicity an d mone y makin g opportunities , yo u mus t com e u p throug h the NPC." 4 1 I n fact , Manio n contende d tha t nin e ou t o f te n successfu l bodybuilders com e from th e NPC an d work thei r way to the IFBB: The NP C ha s alway s ha d th e suppor t an d recognitio n o f th e IFBB, which oversee s internationa l competitio n an d th e professiona l sid e of th e sport , an d thi s ha s bee n crucia l t o ou r success . Th e IFB B recognizes onl y one amateur physiqu e federation pe r country , an d i n the Unite d States , th e NP C i s th e amateu r ar m o f th e IFBB . Al l bodybuilders . . . must wi n a qualifyin g NP C sho w befor e the y ca n become IFBB professionals.42 According t o a recen t article , th e IFB B "see s th e NP C a s th e stronges t amateur physique organization i n the world. That's no small feat consid ering tha t mor e tha n 16 0 nation s belon g t o th e IFBB." 43 The NP C ha s approximately sixt y NP C distric t chairperson s throughou t th e Unite d States, the vast majorit y o f whom ar e men. In fact, accordin g to the NP C Worldwide Web homepage, only one of fifty-eight distric t chairperson s i s a woman , les s tha n 2 percent . Amon g th e eigh t zon e supervisor s (re gional supervisor s tha t incorporat e numerou s district s each) , ther e ar e no women . Th e NP C an d it s professiona l affiliate , th e IFBB , ar e bot h dominated by men . Currently, th e NP C ha s ove r 20,00 0 member s an d hosts betwee n 80 0 to 100 0 competition s annually, 44 includin g a numbe r o f state , regional , and national amateu r bodybuildin g competition s ever y year. For a bodybuilder t o mov e fro m th e loca l amateu r leve l t o th e nationa l amateu r level competitio n i n th e NPC, sh e must wi n a qualifying contest . A t th e national level , th e NP C sponsor s suc h bodybuildin g contest s a s Junio r USA, USA , US A Teen , US A Collegiate , US A Master s (ove r ag e 3 5 fo r women an d ove r ag e 4 0 fo r men) , Junio r Nationa l Championship , Na tional Championship , an d th e U.S . Championships . Th e National s ar e the culminatio n o f al l o f th e local , state , an d regiona l competition s that occu r throughou t th e year. 45 Th e overal l winne r o f th e NP C US A championships an d the three weight clas s winners o f the national cham pionship ar e eligible for professional statu s in th e IFBB.46

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 6 3

Sponsors and Promoters: Bodybuilding's Economi c and Ideological "Power s That Be" Whether a t th e amateu r o r professional level , i t take s mone y t o ru n th e sport o f bodybuilding . Th e bi g mone y i n th e spor t rest s wit h thre e distinct bu t interrelate d entities : athlete sponsors , promoters, an d even t sponsors. Wit h thei r financia l clout , thes e group s als o pla y prominen t roles i n shapin g th e directio n o f th e sport , th e leve l o f succes s o f body builders7 careers , an d th e image s tha t ar e conveye d abou t th e spor t an d individual bodybuilders . Promoter s an d sponsor s ar e th e mone y behin d the bodybuilders , th e federations , th e magazines , an d th e products . I f i t were no t fo r them , th e spor t o f bodybuildin g migh t ver y wel l decline . These group s ar e the lifelin e o f th e spor t becaus e the y ar e the one s wh o offer priz e money , produc t endorsements , an d magazin e coverag e t o th e elite athletes. Promoters put o n the bodybuilding shows . People promot e bodybuilding contest s becaus e the y ar e supporter s o f th e spor t an d hav e access t o th e mone y an d connection s i t take s t o hol d a competition . Furthermore, ther e ar e financia l reason s fo r promotin g a bodybuildin g show because, if don e correctly, i t ca n be a lucrative venture . It i s th e promoters 7 jo b t o find sponsor s fo r a competitor's even t tha t will help t o defra y th e cost s o f putting o n th e shows . They ar e responsi ble for contactin g th e NP C o r IFBB, who wil l the n sanctio n th e show s if the rules ar e followed, an d finally the y ar e also responsible fo r financing for dru g testing. However, dru g testing is not alway s a rational choic e fo r a promoter , fo r tw o mai n reasons , bot h o f whic h ar e relate d t o a reduction i n profits . First , i t i s expensiv e t o perfor m th e dru g tests,- 47 an d second, i f i t i s know n b y th e athlete s ahea d o f tim e tha t a particula r show wil l b e testin g fo r drugs , som e o f th e biggest , mos t muscula r bodybuilders ma y no t compet e becaus e the y ma y tes t positive . Thus , i t is not i n th e promoter's bes t monetar y interes t t o test athlete s i f ther e i s a chanc e tha t th e bes t an d mos t well-know n athlete s wil l no t compete . If thes e athlete s d o no t compete , i t wil l hur t ticke t sale s becaus e fan s will not pay fifty to two hundred dollar s for tickets to see other muscula r people whom the y ca n well se e in th e gym! If the number o f ticket s sol d for an even t plummets, s o do the profits . Event sponsor s usuall y consis t o f a n arra y o f health foo d an d vitami n companies, sportswea r companies , gyms , workou t equipmen t compa nies, an d bodybuilding magazines , whic h ca n sponso r bot h contest s an d individual bodybuilders . I n th e forme r situation , i n retur n fo r sponsor -

64 Th e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers ship o f th e event , th e promote r wil l allo w th e sponso r t o exhibi t an d vend its product before, during , and after th e bodybuilding sho w (usuall y in a n are a jus t outsid e th e auditoriu m wher e th e competitio n i s bein g held), a s wel l a s hav e a sig n i n th e contes t are a tha t display s th e com pany's name for publicity. In addition, sponsor s may d o the following : Get to use their corporat e name in all advertisements [fo r the event]; give sample s o f thei r produc t t o th e athlete s competing ; distribut e literature t o everybody in the audience; be invited t o present som e of the medal s an d trophie s therefor e obtainin g exposur e o n televisio n and i n photos, - an d unde r specia l condition s a sponso r ma y us e th e symbol and logo of the IFBB to advertise their products. 48 Thus, i n retur n fo r th e mone y a sponsor spend s o n a bodybuilding show , it receives publicity an d an opportunity t o display its products . Athlete sponsor s usually includ e vitami n an d health foo d companies , bodybuilding magazines , an d bodybuildin g sportswea r companies . Th e difference betwee n th e tw o type s o f sponsor s i s show n i n th e rol e the y play i n bodybuilding . Sponsor s o f contests , a s w e hav e seen , hel p t o defray th e promoter' s cost s fo r puttin g o n th e bodybuildin g show , an d sponsors o f athlete s pa y bodybuilder s t o endors e an d represen t thei r products. For male bodybuilders, it is the big-name, muscular, attractive , and popula r athlete s wh o ar e mos t likel y t o ge t sponsorship s becaus e they are the ones who are seen as most marketable,- for female bodybuild ers, th e one s mos t likel y t o be sponsore d ar e feminine, bi g name, some what muscular , attractive , an d well-like d bodybuilders . A s wit h an y sponsorship o f thi s kind , sponsor s benefi t financially fro m havin g big name bodybuilders unde r contract . Sponsorship i s extremel y importan t fo r bot h femal e an d mal e body builders because i t give s them financial security . However, sponsorship s are probabl y mor e importan t fo r femal e bodybuilder s becaus e ther e ar e significantly fewe r opportunitie s fo r the m t o mak e money ; ther e ar e fewer professiona l contest s fo r women , an d th e contest s tha t d o exis t give les s priz e money. 49 I n fact , on e professiona l femal e bodybuilder , Brooke, angered by this income differential , complained : "Ther e really is a bi g differenc e betwee n ou r priz e package s an d men' s priz e packages . They ar e world s apart . Nobod y ha s reall y take n th e bul l b y th e horn s and said , 'Look , w e d o the sam e amoun t o f work an d w e want th e sam e amount o f pay." '

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 6 5 Financial securit y enable s bodybuilders , bot h femal e an d male , t o concentrate mor e fully o n perfecting thei r bodies for upcoming competi tions becaus e the y ar e les s likel y t o hav e t o ge t a job outsid e th e sport . For instance , Dian e argue d tha t th e mos t difficul t aspec t o f bein g a bodybuilder wa s finding tim e to work out : Well, I work a full-time job , so the hardest thin g about gettin g read y for a show t o me is time. The diet s are not a problem, th e training is not a problem, it' s actuall y . . . I teach al l day . I leave schoo l by 4:3 0 or 5:00.1 go to the gym at 6:00.1 go home and eat a meal, go train, get home. Everything els e is put o n the side and that's what's hard . I put my family , m y friends—fo r twent y weeks , yo u forge t abou t thes e people, an d that' s what' s sad . That' s wha t I hat e abou t thi s sport . Now, if I didn't teach , it would be much better. I would have time t o train twice a day. Diane allude d t o th e "tunne l vision " sh e must hav e i n orde r t o d o well, which ofte n leave s friends , lovers , an d famil y member s ou t i n th e col d until th e competition i s over . If bodybuilder s d o no t hav e sponsors , th e expense s o f competing — paying fo r choreographers , dietitians , hairdressers , supplements , entr y fees, an d transportatio n t o an d fro m th e event—ca n b e limiting . There fore, i t i s ofte n essentia l tha t bodybuilder s mee t th e "right " peopl e s o they ca n defra y suc h costs . O f th e bodybuilder s wh o discusse d finances, approximately one-hal f wer e a t leas t partiall y sponsore d an d th e othe r half wer e not. The sponsors included gyms, magazines, and other compa nies involve d wit h bodybuilding . Thos e no t sponsore d sai d i t wa s ver y costly t o sta y i n th e sport . Often , i n additio n t o payin g fo r expenses , a sponsor wil l allo w bodybuilder s th e tim e t o mingl e wit h th e "right " people. The importanc e o f a sponsorship fo r a bodybuilding canno t b e under estimated. In fact, man y professional bodybuilder s ge t more money fro m their sponsorship s an d endorsement s tha n the y d o fro m thei r contes t earnings. Fo r instance , a s Wayn e Demilia , vice-presiden t o f th e IFBB , stated i n a recen t New York Times article , "Th e rea l mone y come s with endorsement s an d appearances." 50 As an example, the reigning Ms. Olympia, Lend a Murray , mad e $35,00 0 by winning th e 199 2 Ms . Olym pia, bu t wa s expecte d t o brin g hom e a n additiona l $300,00 0 i n produc t endorsements, persona l appearances , an d posin g fo r bodybuildin g maga -

66 Th e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers zines. 51 Althoug h mos t professiona l femal e bodybuilder s d o not ear n a s much a s Lend a Murray , the y ar e stil l likel y t o ear n mor e mone y fro m endorsements tha n fro m contes t earnings . In additio n t o financia l benefits , sponsore d bodybuilder s ar e als o likely t o receiv e mor e publicit y tha n thei r nonsponsore d colleagues . Sponsors7 influences allo w the m t o receive mor e publicity throug h suc h venues a s magazine advertisement s an d articles, particularly i f the spon sor own s on e o f th e magazines . The y wil l als o ge t publicit y whe n the y appear at bodybuilding competitions t o guest-pose or to endorse product s at thei r sponsor' s booth . Sponsor s als o giv e thei r contrac t bodybuilder s free products suc h as clothes, shoes, workout equipment , an d nutritiona l supplements. Finally , becaus e man y o f th e sponsorin g companie s ar e continually conductin g researc h o n ho w t o enhanc e th e huma n body' s performance levels , sponsore d bodybuilder s ar e likel y t o hav e acces s to th e bes t trainer s a s wel l a s th e lates t informatio n o n bodybuildin g equipment, techniques , an d nutritional supplements . The material benefits tha t sponsor s provide to their bodybuilders giv e the sponsor s tremendous powe r i n creatin g an d maintainin g hegemoni c appearance standard s fo r femal e bodybuilders . Becaus e o f thei r power , sponsors are the ideological and economic liaisons between female body building an d th e public . I n othe r words , the y determin e th e femal e bodybuilding "look " tha t i s presented t o th e public . It i s not difficul t t o see why the y promot e th e mos t marketabl e imag e o f femal e bodybuild ing—it entice s th e publi c t o bu y thei r product s an d i n tur n increase s their profits . Finally, the image that sponsor s portray, a s we have seen, come s fro m the perspective o f a male gaze because a n inordinate numbe r o f sponsor s are men . O f al l th e bodybuilde r an d contes t sponsors , Jo e Weide r i s b y far th e mos t powerful . Hi s younge r brother , Ben , i s th e presiden t o f th e IFBB. Together, the y ar e the powerhouses o f bodybuilding .

The Weider Empire Joe an d Be n Weide r ar e no t onl y synonymou s wit h bodybuilding , bu t they ar e th e undispute d patriarch s o f th e sport . Whe n th e Weider s talk , the sport o f bodybuilding drop s its collectiv e dumbbel l an d listens atten tively. Representing th e political an d economi c muscle o f the spor t fro m its incipien t stage s t o th e present , th e Weider s currentl y wiel d s o muc h power that wit h a simple flex of their muscles , they ca n make o r break a

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 6 7 bodybuilder's, promoter's , o r judge' s career ; and , accordin g t o man y o f those with whom I spoke, the Weiders have done both in all three group s on man y occasions . Thei r economi c an d politica l clou t als o translate s into extraordinar y ideologica l o r definitiona l power—th e Weider s hav e an almos t monopolisti c influenc e o n th e type s o f image s presente d o f female bodybuilder s both i n magazines an d at contests . Their power in any one position would be enough t o rank the m a s th e most commandin g presenc e i n th e sport . Th e fac t tha t the y hol d multi ple an d mutuall y reinforcin g position s catapult s the m int o almos t un fathomable dimension s i n moder n organize d sport . Indeed , i t woul d b e virtually impossibl e t o discove r anothe r spor t i n whic h a singl e famil y so completely an d utterl y control s an d dominate s th e past , present , an d future o f th e spor t an d it s members . Fo r instance , Be n Weide r ha s bee n president o f the IFBB since he and his olde r brother Jo e founded th e spor t in 1946 . In fact, h e is "presiden t fo r life" o f the IFBB, and in this capacit y is th e highes t rankin g officia l i n th e IFB B and th e principa l socia l gate keeper t o th e professiona l rank s fo r al l bodybuilders . Jo e Weider , wh o holds the financial reins , has tremendous power in his role as a multimillion-dollar-a-year busines s patriarch . H e i s th e chai r an d CE O o f th e Board for the Weider Health an d Fitness Corporation, whic h is the larges t sponsor o f bodybuilders, 52 bodybuildin g product s an d events, 53 an d th e owner o f man y o f th e mos t popula r fitness an d bodybuildin g magazine s in circulation . Together , Jo e an d Be n Weide r hav e th e greates t financial and politica l powe r i n th e sport . Speculatin g o n wha t woul d hav e t o occur i n th e spor t o f basebal l t o se e a comparabl e powe r vacuum , on e journalist exclaime d tha t "Jo e Weide r an d hi s brothe r Ben , presiden t o f the International Federatio n o f Bodybuilders, th e worldwide professiona l bodybuilding organization , almos t completel y contro l th e bodybuildin g game. It' s a s i f Walte r O'Malle y owne d no t onl y th e Dodgers , bu t als o Chavez Ravine , NB C Sports , Sports Illustrated —and mos t o f th e play ers." 54 Usin g a simila r analog y bu t applyin g th e Weide r powe r t o th e NFL, Alan Klei n has argued : In bodybuilding the relationship between sport , politics, and business is paramount an d overt . S o much s o that a t time s it' s difficul t t o b e sure whether th e spor t precede d it s commerc e o r vice versa. Joe and Ben Weider, th e acknowledge d leader s o f thi s sport , are , in organiza tional terms , comparabl e t o NF L Commissione r Pete r Rozell e if h e were to own 80 % of the franchises, alon g with Sports Illustrated an d

68 Th e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers Sporting News. Thi s institutiona l concentratio n o f powe r include s economic, political, an d ideological realism . The fusing thes e office s into on e o r a few figures recall s th e paramoun t chieftaincie s o f cer tain pre-stat e societies . In contemporar y societ y suc h powe r i s di vided amon g institutions or , if concentrated , i t i s within classes , no t persons.55 A new generatio n o f Weiders i s already amassin g power withi n th e IFBB empire. Eri c Weide r i s th e genera l secretar y o f th e IFBB , an d i n thi s capacity, h e supervise s th e organizatio n o f mos t majo r internationa l bodybuilding competitions . Much lik e Jo e an d Be n ar e brothers , on e ca n easil y argu e tha t thei r siblingship extend s t o the relationshi p betwee n th e IFBB (the bodybuild ing organization) an d Weider Health an d Fitnes s (th e Weider's ow n busi ness). Relying on their brotherhood t o help eac h other i n their respectiv e positions, Jo e an d Be n a t time s obfuscat e th e demarcatio n betwee n th e two bodybuilding entities . On e need onl y look a s far a s Flex magazine — published b y Joe , th e chai r o f Weide r Healt h an d Fitness—th e officia l journal o f th e IFBB , to se e th e overla p i n th e relationshi p betwee n Be n Weider and the IFBB and Joe Weider and Weider Health an d Fitness. Thi s relationship ha s prove n t o b e highl y lucrative . B y th e lat e 1980s , th e Weider empire was estimated t o be worth $25 0 million. 56 Although i t ha s no t alway s bee n th e case , currentl y almos t ever y bodybuilding endeavo r wit h whic h th e Weider s ar e involve d ha s th e potential o f a money-makin g venture . Durin g thei r half-centur y o f involvement i n organized bodybuilding, the Weiders have deftly amasse d their fortun e b y hawkin g thei r products. 57 Whe n fan s wan t t o fin d ou t who i s currentl y ho t i n th e sport , wh o ha s wo n th e recen t bodybuildin g contests, an d what th e new weightliftin g technique s o r dieting regimen s are, the y bu y a bodybuildin g magazine . Tw o o f th e mos t highl y circu lated ar e owne d b y th e Weiders : Muscle and Fitness an d Flex. No t onl y do th e Weider s profi t fro m th e sal e o f th e magazines , bu t the y als o us e them t o advertise thei r product s an d t o sprea d thei r ow n ideolog y o f th e sport: 58 "Bot h Muscle and Fitness an d Flex are clearinghouses for Weider products, . . . over 20 0 Weide r item s ar e sol d b y mai l orde r throug h hi s magazines; thes e ar e roughl y groupe d a s nutritiona l supplements , exer cise equipment , videos , books , an d magazines/ 759 Furthermore , Ti m Hoxha reveals that, mor e recently, th e Weider Health an d Fitness Corpo ration, whos e subsidiarie s publis h Muscle and Fitness, Shape, Men's

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 6 9 Fitness, an d Flex an d produc e vitamin s an d foo d supplements , "create s products availabl e i n som e 6 0 countrie s an d grosse s nearl y on e billio n dollars a year." 60 A regiona l judg e als o recognize d th e relationshi p be tween th e Weiders' money an d their power when he concluded tha t "th e Weider brothers ar e powerful becaus e o f the mone y tha t the y have back ing the m plu s th e mone y tha t the y hav e personally . It' s har d t o realiz e their power. . . . B y having a magazine establishe d and , you know , every thing the y d o t o pus h Weider' s name , it' s reall y cause d th e recognitio n factor t o be way up." The Weider s ar e th e larges t an d mos t influentia l sponsor s o f body builders. The y endors e o r sponso r man y o f th e mos t successfu l an d marketable athletes , includin g Be v Francis , Cor y Everson , an d Lend a Murray. According t o Hoxha, "Jo e Weider himself contracts , o n average , twenty athlete s wh o perform a variety o f jobs within th e company , fro m generating article s t o endorsin g product s an d representin g th e Weide r name. Th e overal l expenditur e o n thes e contract s exceed s wel l ove r one millio n dollars." 61 Thes e bodybuilder s ar e commonl y referre d t o i n bodybuilding circle s as "Weider athletes," an d are often premiere d i n th e Weider magazines , both i n article s an d advertisements . The y ar e paid t o promote th e Weide r products an d t o gues t pos e a t contests . A n exampl e of th e eas e wit h whic h a sho w promote r ca n obtai n a Weider athlet e t o guest pose is given by the regional judge: The fact tha t Jo e Weider now has his ow n group of bodybuilders tha t if yo u pu t o n a bodybuilding contes t al l you hav e t o d o as promote r of th e sho w t o ge t a well-known an d popula r gues t pos e is cal l you r NPC nationa l offic e an d they'l l cal l Weide r t o get a gues t pose r fo r you and all you have to do is list Weider as a sponsor. . . . He's gettin g involved more and more all the time. Again, w e se e th e meldin g o f th e Weiders ' differen t area s o f influence . We also se e a close connectio n betwee n th e NPC , th e nationa l amateu r affiliate o f the IFBB, and Joe Weider's Weider Health and Fitness Corpora tion. According to the judge, the NPC national office contact s Joe Weider when ther e i s a promoter wh o want s t o find a bodybuilder t o gues t pos e at a n NPC competition , whic h the n unfairl y exclude s bodybuilders wh o do not hav e a contract wit h th e Weiders. The Weiders , a s i s th e cas e wit h al l sponsors , choos e t o sponso r athletes the y conside r t o be most marketable . Man y o f thes e bodybuild ers wer e successfu l befor e the y receive d a Weide r contract , an d gettin g

70 Th e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers the contrac t onl y serve s t o catapul t thei r bodybuildin g career s eve n further. Th e bes t illustratio n o f wha t becomin g a Weider athlet e ca n d o to one' s bodybuildin g caree r i s Arnol d Schwarzenegger , wh o firs t cam e to th e Unite d State s t o compet e i n th e 196 8 Mr . Univers e competitio n held i n Miam i Beach ; hi s tri p wa s pai d i n ful l b y Jo e Weider. After th e event, Arnold staye d in the U.S. for a year, again paid for by Joe Weider. 62 Tim Hoxh a recalled : The Weider s move d Schwarzenegge r t o Californi a i n 1969 , wher e they pai d hi m $10 0 a wee k t o writ e abou t hi s trainin g an d die t i n Muscle Builder. Jo e also too k th e youn g bodybuilder unde r hi s win g by managin g hi s dail y trainin g schedul e an d tutorin g hi m i n rea l estate investments , medi a relation s an d th e arts . Jo e eve n loane d Schwarzenegger hi s favorit e thre e paintings t o decorat e a new apart ment. "Fiv e years later, I tried t o give them back , but Jo e said, 'Kee p them; they're yours." 163 Serving a s trainer, mentor , an d financia l sponsor , Jo e Weider tutore d th e young Schwarzenegge r int o bein g a champio n bot h onstag e an d off . Schwarzenegger receive d plenty o f perk s in retur n fo r endorsin g Weider' s vitamins , equipment , an d trainin g courses, he would receive a car, a furnished Sant a Monica apartment , and a weekl y allowance . Arrangement s woul d b e mad e fo r hi m t o work ou t a t Gold' s nea r Venic e Beach , acknowledge d a s th e world' s best gym . There he would have a s his trainin g partners Dav e Drape r and the famous stallion s of Weider's West Coast stable. 64 Probably n o othe r bodybuilde r ha s achieve d thi s typ e o f relationshi p with Jo e Weider , bu t th e fac t remains : havin g a Weide r contrac t ha s a positive effect o n one's bodybuilding caree r in terms o f publicity, money , and placement a t contests . Patty, a former competito r an d curren t judge , further illustrate s thi s point : "Jo e Weider invest s s o much mone y i n hi s athletes, he' s no t goin g t o le t the m los e afte r a yea r o r tw o becaus e h e [has] just to o muc h mone y investe d i n them . The y hav e t o kee p going. " This statement , i f i n fac t true , implie s tha t Jo e Weide r ma y us e hi s money an d powe r t o influenc e ho w "his " bodybuilder s ar e judge d a t contests. Moreover, othe r bodybuilder s an d judge s conten d tha t th e Weider s also use their influenc e i n th e spor t t o affect ho w judge s evaluate femal e bodybuilders in general. Kathryn, a journalist fo r a bodybuilding publica -

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 7 1 tion, recount s a conversatio n sh e overhear d b y Be n Weider . Her e w e begin t o se e ho w th e Weider s ma y us e thei r powe r t o influenc e th e direction o f the spor t a t th e institutional level—b y informin g th e judge s that femal e bodybuilder s shoul d not appea r "overl y muscular" : Well, it's a monopoly . . . it's Weider's idea, he's the one that's handing down ho w th e wome n shoul d look , ho w the y shoul d act . An d w e were having lunch or dinner and he was in the cafeteria, s o he doesn't know wh o w e are , an d he' s complainin g abou t th e wome n lookin g like men . He' s lik e a n ol d ma n wit h hi s ideas . Well , the y hav e a judges' meetin g an d the y tel l th e judge s wha t the y ar e looking [for] , they want , Weide r woul d say , "Soft , n o overl y muscula r women , n o striations, no excessive musculature. " It i s understandabl e tha t th e presiden t o f th e IFB B would wan t t o ech o the IFBB's criteria fo r evaluatin g femal e bodybuilders . However , becaus e of th e powe r the y wield , th e Weide r brother s ca n mor e successfull y enforce thei r vision o f "th e ideal female bodybuilder" i n th e larger bodybuilding communit y tha n anyon e else . Nonetheless , thei r influenc e sometimes fails , an d whe n i t di d a t th e 199 1 Ms . Olympi a contest , Jo e Weider is alleged to have intervened mor e directly . The 199 1 Ms. Olympia Contes t too k plac e i n Lo s Angeles. It was th e first Ms . Olympi a contes t t o be televise d live . Mark, on e o f th e regiona l judges who was at the contest , recall s the following : I was at th e Ms. Olympia i n Lo s Angeles an d I don't kno w i f yo u ar e aware o f it , bu t Be v Francis (on e o f th e mos t muscula r women ) wa s leading the contes t afte r th e first tw o rounds in the morning and sh e was ahea d b y seve n points . The y flashed i t u p o n th e scree n a t th e night sho w an d on e of my friend s wa s sittin g behind Jo e Weider an d he sai d tha t whe n Jo e Weider sa w tha t h e immediately go t a scratc h pad and wrote on that scratch piece of paper and called the head judge over there an d the piece of paper say s "unde r n o circumstance s shal l Bev Francis win thi s contest. " So , for Weider, of course to him it' s all marketability an d money . He doesn' t fee l tha t a muscular woma n i s as marketable a s somebody like Cory Everson or Lenda Murray. Lenda Murray , th e winne r o f th e 199 0 Ms . Olympi a an d a muscula r but mor e feminin e an d symmetrica l bodybuilder , wo n th e contest . Be v Francis placed second. To lose a contest afte r leadin g the first tw o round s by seve n point s i s a relatively unusua l occurrenc e i n professiona l body -

72 Th e Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers building, especiall y give n th e fac t tha t i n th e latte r tw o rounds , th e two competitor s wer e sai d t o b e closel y matched . A numbe r o f peopl e acknowledged tha t Francis' s physiqu e wa s noticeabl y les s symmetrica l than Murray's , bu t th e symmetr y roun d ha d alread y bee n judge d withi n the first tw o rounds . Mar k correlate d Jo e Weider's behavio r a t th e 199 1 contest wit h hi s financial concer n abou t th e marketabilit y o f th e sport , which rest s o n th e shoulder s o f marketabl e bodybuilder s suc h a s Lend a Murray. Th e Weiders ' economi c an d politica l powe r withi n th e spor t thus provide d Jo e Weider wit h th e opportunit y t o enforc e hi s ow n idea s of wha t femal e bodybuilder s shoul d loo k lik e o n stage—thu s usurpin g the usua l ideologica l powe r o f th e judge s wh o had , unti l h e allegedl y intervened, determine d tha t indee d Be v Francis had th e best physiqu e of the competitors , howeve r questionabl e thei r decision . Perhap s a t th e judges' meetin g befor e th e contest , th e messag e abou t whic h typ e o f physique woul d b e considere d th e idea l wa s a bi t obfuscated , thu s allowing fo r th e eventua l outcom e afte r th e first tw o rounds . Maybe th e judges simpl y misjudge d th e contes t an d th e hea d judg e steppe d i n (which is within hi s power) and overruled th e other judges . Conceivably, th e judge s a t th e 199 1 Ms . Olympi a contes t trul y be lieved tha t Be v Francis cam e th e closes t t o thei r ow n imag e o f th e idea l female bodybuilder; possibly they had honestly come to the decision tha t Bev Francis was the best bodybuilder on stage. However, a s this situatio n suggests, not onl y doe s Joe Weider have inordinate power; the head judg e also wield s powe r i n affectin g th e "objectiv e decisions " o f th e judge s evaluating bodybuilders . Others hav e als o observe d th e effect s th e Weiders ' powe r o n contes t outcomes: Some have argued that the Weiders virtually admitted fixing the 197 0 Mr. Olympi a contest . Sergi o Oliva , a blac k Cuban , ha d been , b y popular reckoning , th e larges t an d mos t muscula r o f th e pack , ye t Schwarzenegger ha d won . Whe n querie d abou t thi s selectio n o f a winner, Jo e Weider quipped, " I put Sergi o on the cover , I sell x magazines. I put Arnold on the cover, I sell 3X magazines."65 Weider make s n o pretens e abou t th e fac t tha t marketabilit y an d profit ability affec t judges ' decisions. Ironically, bodybuilding , wit h it s almos t monopolisti c powe r hierar chy, create s a n opportunit y fo r a new physicall y stron g look fo r women , yet a t th e sam e tim e i t i s ru n b y a handful o f me n wh o hav e th e powe r

The Few, the Powerful, the Social Gatekeepers 7 3 to determin e th e "appropriate " image s o f women' s bodies . According t o the athlete s an d judge s i n thi s study , th e Weiders , wh o hav e th e mos t power an d statu s i n th e sport , ar e bette r economicall y an d politicall y poised tha n anyon e els e t o promot e thei r ow n idea s o f bodybuildin g t o the general public. If they want t o portray a particular imag e of the spor t or it s athletes , the y ca n an d hav e ha d i t promote d a t contest s an d i n magazines b y rewardin g thos e wit h th e "ideal " look . Th e Weiders 7 "ideal" normativ e imag e fo r femal e bodybuilder s change s periodically . These fluctuations ar e not a matter o f whim, but rather see m t o reflect a type of ideological "planne d obsolescence " strategy—creatin g an d recreating different "looks " to bring in a wider audience—in orde r to increas e profit. For bodybuilders , th e mos t covete d reward s ar e contes t win s an d Weider sponsorships . Thus , th e Weiders ; idea l image s ar e mor e likel y than anyon e else's to become the ideal images for which al l bodybuilder s strive. Man y fan s o f bodybuildin g woul d lik e t o se e certai n image s be come th e idea l withi n th e sport , bu t no t everyon e ha s th e powe r t o ensure that thei r wishes be followed b y judges. The Weiders do. In thi s chapter , I hav e explore d th e macro-leve l historical , political , and economi c aspect s o f th e sport . Th e bodybuildin g establishmen t i s a tightly organize d grou p controlle d b y a fe w powerfu l people , th e vas t majority o f whom ar e men. The International Federatio n o f Bodybuilder s (IFBB) an d th e U.S . Nationa l Physiqu e Committe e (NPC ) ar e th e tw o largest, mos t successful , an d mos t lucrativ e bodybuildin g organization s in the world. Within bodybuildin g generally an d these two organization s specifically, ther e i s a n amazin g interlockin g powe r structur e tha t i s unparalleled i n an y othe r sport . Alon g with economi c power , th e powe r elite in this spor t ar e also likely t o wield political an d ideological power . Because o f thi s arrangement , ther e ar e a handfu l o f me n wh o virtuall y dominate th e spor t an d it s future . Le t u s no w tur n ou r attentio n t o how thes e macro-leve l powe r dynamic s trickl e dow n int o th e live s an d perceptions o f thos e i n th e trenche s o f th e sport : th e bodybuilder s an d judges themselves .

THREE

The Dialecti c o f Female Bodybuildin g Steroids, Femininity, and Muscularity

T O D A Y , athlete s an d coache s o f organize d sport s ar e unde r enormou s pressure t o win . Ove r th e pas t thre e decades , a growin g numbe r o f athletes hav e resorted t o using anaboli c steroid s an d othe r performance enhancing drug s t o increas e thei r competitiv e edge . Som e sports , lik e football an d weightlifting , tes t thei r athlete s fo r suc h drugs . Steroi d us e is thought t o be particularly widesprea d amon g athletes i n bodybuildin g because thei r mai n goa l i s t o buil d a larg e an d massiv e musculature . Helping to build muscles i s one of the main reason s for takin g steroids :

The dynamic s o f anaboli c steroid s have been pretty wel l understoo d for years . Syntheti c variation s o f th e mal e hormon e testosterone , they enter the bloodstream a s chemical messengers and attach them selves to muscle cells. Once attached to these cells, they deliver their twofold message : gro w [muscles ] an d increas e endurance . Steroid s accomplish th e firs t tas k b y increasin g th e synthesi s o f protein . I n sufficient quantities , they turn th e body into a kind of fusion engine , converting everything, including fat, int o mass and energy. Such a drug can have an enormous effec t o n a bodybuilder, A chemica l bodybuilde r ca n pu t o n fift y pound s o f muscl e i n si x months becaus e mos t o f th e 6000-1000 0 calorie s h e eat s a da y ar e incorporated, not excreted. The second task—increasing endurance — is achieved by stimulating the synthesis of a molecule called creatin e phosphate, o r CP . C P i s essentiall y hydrauli c fluid fo r muscles , 74

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 7 5 allowing the m t o d o more tha n jus t a few seconds 7 work . Th e mor e CP yo u hav e i n you r tank , th e mor e powe r yo u generate . Olympi c weightlifters an d defensive linemen have huge stockpiles of CP, some portion of which is undoubtedly genetic. The better part of it, though, probably come s ou t o f a bottl e o f Anadrol , a popula r ora l steroi d that make s yo u big , strong , an d savage—an d no t necessaril y i n tha t order.1 Whereas th e physical dynamics o f consuming anaboli c steroids might b e fairly wel l understood , th e socia l aspect s remai n unclear—particularl y for women . Thi s i s certainl y tru e fo r femal e bodybuilder s wh o mus t negotiate th e norm s o f a spor t wher e buildin g muscl e i s require d bu t taking steroid s i s frowne d upon . Wher e doe s thi s leav e th e issu e o f steroid us e amon g femal e bodybuilders ? I wil l begi n t o answe r thi s question b y explorin g th e histor y o f steroi d us e amon g competitiv e female bodybuilder s a s well a s th e institutiona l policie s governin g dru g use in th e sport . We will see that steroi d use among female bodybuilder s is integrally relate d t o the sport' s hegemoni c notion s abou t th e relation ship between femininity an d muscularity. Many in the sport, particularl y officials an d judges , conside r i t extremel y inappropriat e fo r wome n t o take steroid s because they becom e to o muscular an d thus les s feminine , whereas i n mal e bodybuilder s muscularit y an d masculinit y ar e see n a s compatible. I have divide d peopl e i n thi s stud y int o thre e group s base d on their views towar d femininity, muscularity , an d sign s of steroid use .

The History of Doping IFBB officials ar e aware of the stigm a o f steroid use associate d with thei r sport 2 an d hav e publicl y denounce d th e us e o f an y Internationa l Olym pic Committe e (IOC ) banne d substance. 3 Th e IFB B follow s th e IO C guidelines 4 wit h regar d t o dopin g controls . It s "official " positio n o n doping i s show n i n th e followin g passag e fro m Dr . Bo b Goldman' s IFB B position pape r o n doping : "Th e IFB B is totall y oppose d t o th e unhealth y and unethica l us e o f banned substance s an d techniques , bu t realize s th e drug abuse problem i n sport s is not a new one . It will tak e a comprehen sive program t o contro l an d alleviat e sport s dru g use." 5 Th e sam e pape r defines "doping " a s "th e us e by , o r distributio n t o a n athlet e o f certai n substances whic h coul d hav e th e effec t o f improvin g artificiall y th e athlete's physical , and/o r menta l condition , an d s o augmenting th e ath -

j6 Th

e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding lete's performanc e a s wel l a s bein g hazardou s t o th e athlete' s health/ 7 6 In orde r t o comba t steroi d use , th e IFB B has establishe d a dopin g com mission tha t ha s implemente d a program o f dru g testin g t o b e followe d by the nationa l federation s affiliate d wit h th e IFBB on both amateu r an d professional levels . The IFBB requires tha t competitor s mus t eithe r be randomly teste d o r that al l competitor s b e teste d befor e competition s t o ensur e tha t th e athletes hav e abide d by dopin g contro l regulations. 7 Those athlete s wh o test positiv e fo r th e first tim e ar e disqualifie d fro m th e competition . Those testin g positiv e fo r a secon d tim e ar e declare d ineligibl e fro m al l competitions an d ar e suspende d fro m th e federatio n fo r a perio d o f a year. A third positiv e tes t warrant s a lifetime suspensio n fro m th e IFBB. According t o officia l IFB B publications, thes e control s hav e reduce d th e amount o f steroid use in bodybuilding . Although th e IFB B literature claim s tha t th e organizatio n ha s take n drastic measure s t o reduce steroi d us e i n thei r sport , Ric k Wayne , in hi s book Muscle Wars (1985) , saw things differently : Not on e o f th e muscleme n participatin g i n th e 198 4 IFBB Mr. Uni verse was tested for steroid use. Otherwise it's a safe bet there woul d have been no contest. In my opinion, ther e will be no testing at IFBB events fo r a lon g time . Steroi d test s woul d affec t no t onl y thos e disqualified, bu t als o th e businessme n makin g fortune s fro m th e sport o f bodybuilding . N o shado w wil l b e allowe d t o fal l ove r thi s increasingly popular pursuit les t the host of new recruits turn disillu sioned to other interests. 8 According t o Wayne, neithe r bodybuilder s no r competitor s ar e regularl y tested, because doing so would significantl y hinde r the ability of promoters to make substantia l profit s fro m sponsorin g bodybuilding contests . Wayne als o maintained tha t th e controvers y o f regulatin g steroi d us e among bodybuilders has been a problem sinc e at least th e mid-1980s. He recalled a meetin g i n 198 4 a t whic h IFB B presiden t Be n Weide r an d national member s o f th e IFB B were i n disagreemen t abou t ho w t o tes t for steroi d use among IFBB athletes:9 In 1984 , severa l membe r nation s complaine d tha t they' d ha d a bellyful o f th e blatan t steroi d us e amon g bodybuilder s an d presse d th e IFBB to take a stand against drug use among its members. The head of the Norwegian delegation reminded Ben Weider that a t the Singapor e congress a year earlie r i t ha d bee n decide d tha t IFB B athletes woul d

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding JJ be teste d fo r steroi d us e befor e subsequen t internationa l events . "Would th e contender s underg o suc h test s before th e '8 4 Universe?" "No/ 7 replie d Ben. Tests were costly and inconclusive besides. Moreover, with al l the confusion surroundin g th e issue, there was nothin g to stop a penalized athlete from takin g the IFBB to court—and mayb e winning his case . 'Til be happy to sanction steroi d tests," offered th e IFBB president, "i f thos e conductin g i t wil l plac e enoug h mone y a t the IFBB's disposal to be used in the event o f an athlete's takin g us t o court." . . . The IFBB was already doin g its utmost t o discourage dru g abuse amon g it s members , Be n insisted . I n particular , precaution s were being taken to preclude "overmuscula r women" from th e feder ation's competitions—wome n whos e physiques , accordin g t o IFB B determination, coul d hav e bee n achieve d onl y via steroi d use . However, h e didn' t sa y exactl y wha t h e mean t b y "overmuscular. " . . . One delegat e asked , "Wh y no t disqualif y [male ] contenders wit h ob vious sign s o f gynecomastia 10 . . . directl y relate d t o steroi d use? " The IFBB president le t that on e pass without a comment. 11 Even i n th e mid-1980s , IFB B polic y wa s t o tes t fo r steroi d us e befor e international events . However , i n th e scenari o constructe d b y Wayne , there wa s a discrepanc y betwee n polic y an d actua l practice . Thus , no t only woul d promoter s hav e t o pic k u p th e dru g testin g ta b fo r thei r athletes, but the y woul d als o be liable fo r fundin g th e cos t o f an y poten tial la w suit s tha t occurre d a s a result o f dru g testing—a n amoun t tha t would b e prohibitively hig h fo r mos t promoters , includin g thos e a t thi s meeting. Furthermore, Ben Weider's gender-specific comment s abou t th e organization's attemp t t o limi t "overmuscular " wome n wer e telling. 12 The IFBB's more stringent testin g of female bodybuilders appears to serve two purposes . First , i t counter s th e delegates ' charge s tha t th e IFB B i s not testin g it s athlete s a s previousl y stated . Second , i t keep s femal e bodybuilders fro m gettin g to o muscula r o r "overmuscular " i n th e eye s of key official s i n th e IFBB, which ma y serv e t o kee p th e gender orde r i n this nontraditional avocatio n intact . Doing so also ensures that revenue s will remai n high . Th e scathin g diatribe s o f a numbe r o f official s an d judges abou t th e danger s o f steroid s indicat e tha t a stronge r stanc e against steroi d us e i s in order . However , on e is left wit h th e feelin g tha t the concer n is not fo r th e health o f the athletes, but rathe r for th e abilit y to dra w th e bigges t crowds . Thi s i s bes t achieve d b y gettin g th e larges t and "freakiest " mal e bodybuilders an d the most attractiv e yet not overl y muscular femal e bodybuilders .

78 Th

e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding

The Curren t Scen e Although judge s canno t definitivel y sa y tha t a bodybuilde r i s takin g steroids unles s h e o r sh e test s positiv e fo r steroids , som e judges loo k fo r tell-tale sign s o f steroi d us e suc h as , fo r femal e bodybuilders , th e exis tence of facial hair, big joints, 13 a blocky waist, body acne, and a lowered voice. If the bodybuilder ha s not teste d positive, judge s ar e not suppose d to mar k hi m o r he r dow n eve n thoug h ther e ma y b e tell-tal e sign s o f steroid use. What judges can do, however, i s to say that th e bodybuilder' s symmetry i s throw n of f b y he r block y wais t o r tha t th e bod y acn e detracts fro m he r "overal l package/ 7 Th e overal l packag e include s suc h features a s muscularity , symmetry , presentation , and , i n th e eye s o f some judge s an d officials , characteristic s suc h a s attractivenes s an d se x appeal (se e appendix D for a more detaile d definition) . Currently, steroi d us e amon g femal e bodybuilders , althoug h esti mated t o be not quit e a s high a s among males , i s stil l prevalent . I n fact , a forme r competito r claim s tha t steroi d us e ma y b e a s hig h a s 7 0 per cent. 14 Whil e mal e official s particularl y ar e likel y t o disapprov e o f ste roid us e amon g females , th e IFB B did no t tes t it s mos t prestigiou s 199 2 female bodybuildin g sho w i n Chicago . Vicky , a femal e bodybuilder , re vealed tha t althoug h th e Ms . Olympia competitor s wer e warned tha t al l contestants woul d be tested, the y i n fact wer e not . Neither th e IFB B no r th e NP C actuall y test s it s athletes . Steroi d testing, i f done , i s th e sol e responsibilit y o f th e promoto r o f th e show , who decide s t o have eithe r a drug-tested o r a non-drug-tested meet . Th e reasons fo r th e forme r includ e a concern wit h th e healt h o f th e athlete s and a sense o f fairness t o al l athletes involve d i n a contest. Thi s option , however, i s expensive . Michelle, a national judge , addressed th e issu e of the prohibitive cos t o f dru g testing an d why promoter s d o not thin k i t i s always in thei r best interes t t o drug test : From a busines s poin t o f vie w . . . the publi c i n genera l ha s a har d time dealin g wit h th e muscularit y o f femal e bodybuilders , an d th e "powers that be, " want t o keep people in the sport . They say , "Well , we've got to do something and so they tried drug-tested show s and so on," bu t th e proble m wit h i t is , numbe r one , wha t drug s ar e yo u going t o tes t for ; numbe r two , wha t kin d o f test s ar e yo u goin g t o have? A s promoters, o n a national qualifie r level , i t cost s to o muc h money t o d o th e kin d o f stringen t dru g testin g ove r th e wid e spec -

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 7 9 trum o f steroids and growth hormones an d all these other things tha t people ar e takin g t o mak e i t feasibl e fo r th e promoter s t o mak e an y money. Besides dislikin g th e hig h cos t o f testing , man y promoter s ar e afrai d that th e big-name , ver y muscula r bodybuilder s wh o attrac t th e larges t audiences ma y no t wan t t o atten d a drug-testing bodybuildin g competi tion. Promoters thu s hav e a t leas t tw o majo r reason s no t t o dru g tes t th e bodybuilders a t thei r competitions : (1 ) i t save s th e promote r a lo t o f money, an d (2 ) the to p bodybuilder s ar e mor e likel y t o compete , whic h will increase the promoter's abilit y t o enhance profits becaus e more fan s will atten d th e competition . Currently, th e statu s o f dru g testin g i s unclear . Th e officia l lin e o n drug use is still disseminate d b y th e organization' s leaders , but i n fac t i t is not carrie d out . For example, on e high-ranking official , Ralph , claime d that steroid us e ha d actuall y decrease d amon g bodybuilders , th e reaso n being because of our very strong controls and the suspensions and the penalties tha t the y hav e t o take . S o it's bee n reduce d substantially . It's stil l to o prevalent, bu t ha s reduce d substantially . I n other words , we'd be happy whe n it' s dow n t o zero . It's not a realistic goa l in life , but that' s wh y I sa y I' m no t happ y wher e i t is , I a m happ y b y th e amount o f reduction o f steroid usage. However, a s previousl y w e hav e seen , som e o f th e bodybuilder s an d judges participatin g i n th e 199 2 Ms . Olympi a sai d tha t th e IFBB' s "ver y strong controls" were practically nonexisten t a t tha t contest . Another official , Heather , discusse d th e exten t o f dru g testin g o n a n amateur an d professional level : Yes, we dru g tes t ever y show , bu t no t everyon e i s teste d becaus e of the cost . Wha t w e d o i s a t ou r nationa l leve l whe n ou r girl s g o overseas to compete for the States, they are all drug tested. When you get to the pro level they have random testing throughout th e year. . . . We have almos t 20,00 0 athlete s i n th e NPC . We're not abl e t o d o i t on the same basis as the pro level. So the thing is most o f the girls at the national s ar e trying fo r th e pro s o r tryin g t o g o to th e Universe . So for the m t o d o eithe r o f thos e levels , they'r e goin g t o ge t tested . We contract th e IOC to do the testing for us.

8o Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding Though th e cos t o f testing athlete s fo r illega l substances i s prohibitivel y high, thos e who make i t t o the international amateu r o r the professiona l ranks will apparently eventuall y be tested . Countering the official rhetori c in the official bodybuildin g guideboo k is Denise, who contends that steroid s are used by competitive bodybuild ers and that th e practice is quite prevalent : Oh, yeah . The n yo u g o to th e nationa l leve l an d yo u hav e al l thes e physiques tha t ar e phenomenal , bu t there' s a line , yo u ca n se e th e line between the drug user and a non-drug user, and I'm telling you if you g o to a national meet , an d you're no t o n drugs , it' s lik e sendin g Miss America to the Miss America Pageant without mascar a and eye shadow. Forget it, it ain't going to happen. This observatio n hardl y parallels th e officia l policie s state d i n th e guidebooks an d explaine d b y man y o f th e high-rankin g officials . Similarly , Tod, an NPC stat e chairperson an d national judge, in discussing a professional femal e bodybuilder , revealed : "Sh e droppe d som e siz e thi s year , because sh e kne w that' s wha t the y wer e after . Bu t th e yea r before , the y didn't d o an y dru g testin g an d sh e kne w sh e ha d t o bea t 'Sue. ' S o yo u gotta go with the flow and go against your competitors." Thus, accordin g to Tod , th e IFB B did no t dru g tes t th e professiona l femal e bodybuilder s for a t least thi s on e contest . The unevennes s i n th e enforcemen t o f dru g testin g fo r femal e an d male bodybuilder s appear s t o b e a n institutiona l attemp t t o maintai n gender distinction s i n th e sport . Althoug h steroi d us e ha s a n earlie r history an d i s mor e prevalen t amon g mal e bodybuilder s tha n amon g females, th e IFB B bega n testin g femal e bodybuilder s befor e male s an d has bee n stricte r abou t dru g testin g them. 15 Official s an d judge s ar e much mor e critica l o f wome n takin g steroid s tha n o f me n becaus e a s Denise said , "It' s okay for a man t o be big and masculine an d freaky. Fo r a female, yo u star t lookin g lik e a drag queen." Thus , th e "usual " gende r and sexualit y line s become blurred an d creat e unease amon g man y peo ple. If official s wer e really concerne d abou t curtailin g dru g abuse amon g their athletes , the y shoul d b e tacklin g th e proble m o f mal e dru g abuse : men ar e th e one s wh o ar e dyin g from, an d bein g hospitalize d for , suc h drugs as steroids, diuretics, thyroi d medication, an d amphetamines. 16 The apparen t discrepancie s betwee n polic y an d allege d practic e ar e both compelling and disconcerting. Perhaps this incongruity has contributed to the confusion o f many female bodybuilders abou t the "look " tha t

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 8 1 is expecte d o f the m fro m judge s an d official s a t contests . I asked judge s and official s abou t steroi d us e an d it s physica l manifestation s amon g female bodybuilders , an d man y sai d tha t thei r evaluation s o f femal e bodybuilders wer e directl y affecte d b y suppose d sign s o f steroi d use . I n the following section , I divide officials, judges , and contestants into thre e separate camp s base d o n thei r opinion s an d interpretation s o f physica l manifestations o f steroid use .

The Positioning o f the Three Major Camps The relationshi p betwee n muscularity , steroi d use , an d femininit y ha s created considerabl e controvers y withi n th e sport . Som e believ e tha t female bodybuilder s shoul d b e judge d lik e mal e bodybuilders—o n th e size o f thei r muscles, - other s conten d tha t femal e bodybuilder s ar e women first an d shoul d therefor e emphasiz e thei r femininit y an d deem phasize "extreme" muscularity; and still others 7 position falls in between the two . Th e powe r t o determin e whic h "look " i s appropriat e i s un equally distribute d betwee n thes e groups . Bodybuilder s an d midleve l judges usually fal l int o th e first o r middl e groups . High-level judge s an d officials ar e mor e likel y t o b e a t th e "conservative " en d o f th e contin uum. Regardles s of their position, however, th e majority o f people in thi s study foun d i t les s acceptabl e fo r femal e bodybuilder s t o tak e steroid s than mal e bodybuilders . As discussed i n th e last chapter , th e arrangemen t o f power in bodybu ilding gives officials, wh o creat e an d maintain th e law s o f the governin g bodies, th e mos t contro l i n th e negotiatio n proces s o f th e appropriat e relationship betwee n muscularit y an d femininit y fo r femal e bodybuild ers. The y ar e th e upper-leve l socia l gatekeeper s o f th e sport . Judges , o n the othe r hand , becaus e the y enforc e th e rule s an d regulation s se t b y officials, ar e relegated t o a lower-level socia l gatekeeping position. How ever, because judges determine the winners and losers of meets, they stil l have mor e powe r tha n th e bodybuilder s themselve s i n th e negotiatio n process. Bodybuilder s mus t follo w th e rule s se t fort h b y official s an d enforced b y judge s an d therefor e hav e th e leas t amoun t o f powe r an d leverage i n decidin g an d determinin g ho w the y shoul d b e evaluate d an d how thei r spor t shoul d progress . Yet , a s w e wil l se e agai n i n chapte r 6 , these women ar e not completel y powerles s in thi s negotiation process . Members o f th e mos t conservativ e group , whic h I label "Disruptin g the Gende r Order, " represen t th e hegemoni c vie w i n femal e bodybuild -

82 The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding ing an d assum e tha t muscularit y an d femininit y ar e antithetica l con structs, an d the y approac h th e issu e o f steroid s fro m thi s position . Thi s group would argu e tha t femal e bodybuilder s hav e become to o muscular , and tha t th e onl y way women ca n ge t s o muscular i s throug h th e use of steroids. They believ e tha t femal e bodybuilder s wh o tak e steroid s inter fere o r tampe r wit h th e "natural " gende r order 17 whe n the y tak e syn thetic male hormones i n order to increase their musculature. The peopl e in this camp are less critical of male bodybuilders taking steroids because men's bodie s naturall y produc e mor e testosteron e (approximatel y nin e times more ) an d thu s testosteron e i s "natural " t o thei r bodies . Further more, those in thi s cam p believe that mal e bodybuilders ar e not tamper ing wit h th e "gende r order " whe n the y tak e steroid s becaus e steroids , which ar e syntheti c testosterone , mak e the m bigge r an d stronge r an d give the m mor e muscl e mass—whic h ar e see n a s inherently masculin e characteristics. It i s a n altogethe r differen t stor y fo r women . Th e mos t vehementl y anti-steroid group of the three camps wants female bodybuilders to maintain a s muc h o f a traditionall y feminin e imag e a s possible—meanin g that thei r musculatur e shoul d no t b e excessive . I n othe r words , femal e bodybuilders shoul d loo k lik e health y an d athleti c wome n wh o ar e stil l "traditionally" aestheticall y feminine , an d thei r muscle s should , i n n o way, rival those of their mal e bodybuilding counterparts . The middl e categor y i s comprise d o f judge s an d femal e bodybuilder s who als o believe that som e female (an d male) bodybuilders hav e becom e excessively muscula r du e t o steroi d use . I label thi s grou p "Developin g the Pinhea d Effect. " Thi s vie w als o tend s t o len d support , fo r th e mos t part, t o th e hegemoni c vie w concernin g th e "appropriate " relationshi p between femininity an d muscularity. However, thi s group also has differ ent, nongendere d reason s fo r opposin g steroi d use . The y believ e tha t steroids put to o much muscle on bodies, detracting from thei r symmetry . Many peopl e i n thi s grou p ar e concerne d abou t steroi d use , but mor e s o because o f it s effect s o n health, 18 fearin g tha t bodybuilder s ar e irrepara bly damagin g thei r bodie s b y takin g steroids . I n th e eye s o f thi s group , the idea l femal e bodybuilde r i s stil l athletic-looking , wit h mor e muscu lature tha n othe r femal e athletes—femal e bodybuilder s shoul d hav e a distinctive loo k that separate s the m fro m othe r female athletes . The las t group , whic h I labe l "Buildin g Muscl e I s th e Nam e o f th e Game," i s represente d mostl y b y bodybuilder s an d a fe w judges , an d

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 8 3 believe that th e sport is bodybuilding an d shoul d be judged as such. Thi s group support s th e counterhegemoni c vie w concernin g th e relationshi p between muscularit y an d femininity . Therefore , the y wan t th e mos t muscular female bodybuilders who also have good symmetry an d proportion t o wi n bodybuildin g contests . The y conten d tha t a female bodybu ilder canno t b e to o muscula r i f sh e ha s goo d symmetry . Althoug h the y are not a s likel y t o b e a s strongl y oppose d t o steroi d us e a s member s o f the othe r tw o groups , the y ar e awar e tha t steroid s an d othe r drug s ar e abused an d lea d t o healt h problem s (an d non e i n thi s grou p espouse d pro-steroid sentiments) . Thei r idea l femal e bodybuilde r i s on e wh o i s exceptionally muscula r bu t whos e symmetr y i s no t compromised . T o limit th e muscularit y o f femal e bodybuilder s woul d b e t o compromis e the purpos e o f bodybuilding , whic h i s t o buil d muscle . Th e lin e tha t demarcates " excessive muscularity " i s pushed bac k a s long as the body builders' muscles have good symmetry an d do not exhibi t sign s of excessive steroi d use . Th e issu e o f femininit y i s stil l a concer n fo r peopl e i n this group . However , the y d o no t believ e tha t a muscula r woma n i s b y definition no t feminine . I f dramati c sign s o f steroi d use , suc h a s bod y acne o r a hair y face , ar e evident , judge s i n thi s categor y wil l mar k bodybuilders dow n becaus e bodybuilding i s suppose d t o be a healthy, o r at least a healthy-looking, sport .

Issues of Muscularity an d Femininit y When aske d th e question , "Ca n femal e bodybuilder s b e to o muscular , given tha t the y have goo d symmetry?" thos e involved i n th e spor t ofte n discussed th e interrelate d issue s o f muscularity , femininity , an d steroi d use. A s alread y mentioned , ther e wer e thre e majo r grouping s o f re sponses. I begin wit h th e firs t group , represented b y official s an d judges,no bodybuilders were included . Group 1: Disrupting the Gender Order Members o f this grou p conten d tha t curren t femal e bodybuilder s ar e to o big, muscular , an d masculine-lookin g becaus e o f steroi d use . Steroid s have cause d som e femal e bodybuilder s t o loo k an d ac t i n masculin e ways tha t ar e alarming t o official s an d sponsors , wh o believ e thi s imag e keeps away potential consumer s o f bodybuilding products .

84 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding Heather, a nationa l an d professiona l judge , a t first discusse d healt h issues whe n sh e bega n talkin g abou t steroi d us e amon g femal e body builders. You know, if female bodybuilder s com e in with 4-5 % body fat, that' s not wha t I want judge s to reward. . . . Women shoul d be healthy, an d that lo w leve l o f bod y fa t i s no t healthy . An d reall y you'r e goin g t o have a har d tim e convincin g m e tha t yo u naturall y go t tha t wa y anyway. I mean there is going to be some drug use and our societ y i s never goin g t o ge t ri d o f it , bu t we'r e goin g t o tr y to , a t leas t i n th e females, kee p drug use to a minimum i f we can. I then aske d he r i f sh e though t i t wa s mor e problemati c i f femal e rathe r than mal e bodybuilders too k steroids . Her response : Oh, m y goodness , yes , I thin k i t i s mor e problemati c fo r femal e bodybuilders t o take drugs than male bodybuilders. First of all you're taking substance s tha t ar e reall y no t natura l to , I mea n al l wome n have a little testosteron e bu t mos t wome n hav e minut e levels . An d the sid e effect s yo u ar e goin g t o see ar e goin g t o mak e yo u mor e masculine. But if you are male, you don't really care if you look mor e masculine. Bu t th e women , yo u do. And th e thin g i s th e longe r yo u take the m th e mor e sid e effect s yo u get . Whe n yo u d o eventuall y come off th e drugs, those side effects onl y subside so much. She argue d tha t bodybuildin g shoul d no t perpetuat e th e negativ e an d unnatural outcome s o f competitiv e sport : steroi d us e an d eatin g disor ders, th e latte r o f which sh e discusse d i n detai l late r i n th e interview . If her concern s wer e purely healt h related , sh e would conside r i t similarl y unhealthy for male bodybuilders to take steroids, as men als o suffer fro m the deleteriou s effect s o f steroi d use—suc h a s liver , kidney , an d hear t problems. Ralph, a high-rankin g officia l wh o i s als o oppose d t o steroi d us e among femal e bodybuilders , fel t "the y [femal e bodybuilders ] woul d no t get tha t bi g without th e us e o f steroids . Wome n ar e no t suppose d t o b e men." Ralp h appear s t o believ e tha t wome n ca n actuall y "lose " thei r gender an d becom e me n b y takin g steroids . Whe n I aske d hi m i f h e thought tha t wome n coul d exhibi t suc h muscularit y withou t th e us e of steroids, he responded : No. Fo r example, yo u tak e a look a t a ballerina, she' s on her toe s al l day long , practicin g i n th e evenin g an d s o forth . That' s a heav y

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 8 5 exercise t o b e o n you r toes , an d yo u tak e a look, he r calve s ar e no t excessively developed , he r thigh s ar e not excessivel y developed , s o I think throug h regula r exercis e an d prope r nutritio n yo u ca n buil d muscle. You can reduce the fat bu t no t become excessively muscula r as you would if you added steroids to a program. Yet this bodybuildin g officia l di d not specificall y advocat e weigh t train ing t o buil d muscle , either . H e recommende d onl y regula r exercis e an d proper nutrition—a peculia r stanc e from a leading bodybuilding official . David, a regiona l judg e an d competitor , discusse d hi s concer n tha t excessive muscularit y ca n mak e femal e bodybuilder s to o masculin e looking: Yes, you ca n be too muscular an d lose your proportions . I think tha t some o f th e wome n nowadays , " Joanna/7 ha s that . She' s becom e very masculin e i n he r appearance . She' s ver y muscular , bu t it' s to o distracting fro m he r feminin e appearance . I mean it' s proportional , I would rathe r us e th e wor d proportio n tha n feminine. . . . "Joanna " obviously, fro m m y poin t o f view , sh e looke d lik e a man. . .. I f yo u took of f he r hea d you'd hav e a man's physiqu e wit h a bikini to p on . It i s s o scary tha t sh e cam e a s clos e t o winnin g a s sh e did . Sh e onl y lost b y a point o r tw o bu t it' s incredible . Ther e ar e th e wome n wh o can becom e to o muscula r an d los e their proportio n o r femininity o r whatever. Yes , [i t applie s t o me n too] . I thin k ther e ar e som e me n that ar e way out o f proportion. Mohamme d Benaziz a is like five foo t two an d weigh s 20 0 pounds. 19 That' s no t proportiona l a t all . That' s grotesque. I mea n that' s just , fo r tha t physiqu e . . . that i s wa y to o much muscle . However, "excessiv e muscularity " i n a ma n i s no t grotesqu e fo r th e same reaso n a s in a woman: overl y muscula r mal e bodybuilder s neithe r lose thei r masculinit y no r loo k "to o masculine. " Muscularit y fo r me n simply seem s t o mak e the m loo k to o bi g fo r thei r frames . Thus , th e arguments fo r excessiv e muscularit y fo r wome n an d me n ar e qualita tively an d quantitativel y differen t fro m on e another . I n hi s response , David sai d on e femal e bodybuilde r looke d "masculin e i n he r appear ance" while anothe r on e "looke d lik e a man." Femal e bodybuilders wh o take steroids not onl y lose symmetry by becoming excessively muscular , but als o lose characteristics associate d with femininity . Kyle, a judg e an d high-leve l IFB B official, i s vehementl y oppose d t o having extremel y muscula r femal e bodybuilder s represen t th e spor t be -

86 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding cause the y kee p people awa y fro m bodybuildin g contests . H e explained , "Well, quit e honestl y there' s n o wa y a woma n ca n ge t tha t muscula r without steroid s i s th e whol e thin g an d whe n the y tak e th e steroids , that's when the y get the secondar y [male ] characteristics/ 7 Finally , Rich ard, a regiona l judge , believe d tha t th e issu e i s no t wome n bein g to o muscular, whic h h e coul d understand , bu t tha t steroid s actuall y mak e women loo k "lik e men with wigs on." He explained : It's no t s o muc h to o muscular , I ca n understan d tha t an d i t di d ge t involved becaus e th e steroid s cam e int o pla y s o wha t happene d i s women go t involve d wit h tha t an d othe r drug s an d actuall y looke d like me n wit h wig s on . S o you've go t tha t fin e lin e tha t yo u wan t a woman tha t has muscle, or do you want a person that you're not sur e whether it' s a man or a woman. Yes [a woman ca n be too muscular if she's got good symmetry] because there's a difference. A s an example, somebody lik e Carl a Dunla p wh o ha s a very muscula r buil d bu t i s still abl e t o kee p a ver y feminin e look . The n th e opposit e end , a woman wit h probabl y th e mos t muscl e would be Bev Francis. If you haven't see n her in person, an d she's a super nice person and about as dedicated t o bodybuilding and giving it her all, but yet she looks a lot like a male with a wig on and a female suit . For som e member s o f thi s group , i t i s th e excessiv e muscularit y cause d by steroi d us e tha t make s th e wome n loo k masculine . Fo r other s i t i s not th e muscularit y pe r se , bu t th e secondar y masculinizin g effect s o f steroids, such as excess facial hair, that the y find problematic. This grou p argued vehementl y agains t steroi d us e amon g femal e bodybuilder s fo r these tw o reasons : (i ) wome n ge t excessivel y muscular , an d (2 ) wome n become too masculine-looking . Group 2: Developing the "Pinhead Effect" The secon d grou p i s represente d b y mal e an d femal e judge s an d femal e bodybuilders. These individuals, like those in Group 1 , believe that som e female bodybuilder s ar e too big and muscular an d that steroi d use is th e reason. However , thi s grou p i s differen t fro m th e firs t on e i n tha t the y give nongendered argument s agains t bodybuilder s takin g steroids . The y argue no t tha t steroid s masculiniz e femal e bodybuilders , bu t tha t the y (1) allo w the m t o buil d to o muc h muscl e fo r thei r frame , an d (2 ) ar e

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 8 7 deleterious t o thei r health . Thi s grou p consist s o f on e mal e judge , fou r female judges , and three female bodybuilders . Lynn, a regional judge, discussed her concer n with bodybuilders' over muscularity: Yes [femal e bodybuilder s ca n b e to o muscular] . I thin k a woma n should alway s sta y withi n he r bod y fram e size . Lik e mysel f an d a friend o f min e wh o I'v e compete d against . [We ] are onl y abou t fiv e feet, fiv e feet tw o on a good day, maybe. And if we were to get to tw o hundred pounds , i t woul d b e soli d muscle . I t woul d loo k stupid . I think yo u need to stay within you r body's frame. An d that goe s with men, becaus e a lot o f time s whe n I' m judgin g me n it' s lik e yo u se e this itty , bitt y hea d o n thi s hug e bod y an d the y loo k funny . An d I think you can honestly pick that out . You really can. The differenc e betwee n he r commen t an d thos e expresse d b y member s of th e previou s grou p i s that sh e believes both femal e an d mal e bodybu ilders ca n ge t to o muscular fo r thei r frame s an d thi s effec t i s not uniqu e to one gender . Denise, a regiona l judg e an d bodybuilder , als o discusse d thi s non gender-specific "pinhead " look : They ca n tak e th e drug s an d mor e tha n likel y i f yo u hav e a goo d structure, smal l waist-to-shoulde r ratio , you'r e goin g t o kee p tha t structure but you're just going to be bigger and bigger and bigger, an d pretty soo n thos e muscle s ar e goin g t o overpowe r you r structure . Meaning you'r e goin g t o hav e wha t I cal l th e pinhea d look . You'r e going t o hav e thi s littl e bitt y hea d o n thi s structur e tha t shoul d no t have the thirty pounds of extra muscle o n it tha t it' s carrying . That' s kind of ugly. This bodybuilder i s most concerne d tha t bodybuilders develo p too muc h musculature fo r thei r structur e du e t o steroi d use . S o i s Tod , a n NP C official an d judge: Oh yeah , i t i s possibl e fo r a woman t o b e to o muscular . Becaus e i t can be too much for her frame. A perfect exampl e of that is "Sandra. " At the sho w last year, sh e weighed a t 14 4 pounds, I think. Whe n sh e competed previousl y sh e weighe d 133 . When sh e get s u p t o a 144 , she gets ripped t o shreds , her hea d is way to o smal l for he r body. It's just obviou s tha t he r fram e i s not mean t t o hol d tha t muc h muscle .

88 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding Her symmetr y i s a little bit off , he r legs were a little bit behind. Th e main thing was it was just too much for her frame . Brooke, a professional bodybuilder , als o argue d tha t i t i s a bodybuilder' s symmetry tha t i s affecte d b y being overl y muscular : "Yes . Yes, she can . Yes. Usually the symmetry i n many case s will temper th e overmuscular ity. Bu t I think tha t yo u ca n cros s tha t line , an d tha t i s when yo u begi n to thro w eve n good symmetr y ou t o f proportion b y being overl y muscu lar for your frame. " Frame, proportion , esthetics , steroids , an d healt h concern s ar e ke y issues fo r member s o f thi s group . When member s o f Grou p i discusse d female bodybuilder s "crossin g th e line, " the y mean t th e lin e tha t differ entiated betwee n femal e bodybuilder s wh o loo k lik e wome n (th e wa y they ar e suppose d t o look) , an d thos e wh o loo k lik e me n o r wer e to o masculine (no t a n acceptabl e look) . Although no t al l members o f Grou p 2 directl y discus s steroids , mos t o f the m a t leas t implicat e steroid s a s contributing factor s i n enablin g bot h femal e an d mal e bodybuilder s t o cross th e invisibl e lin e o f havin g to o muc h muscularit y fo r thei r fram e size. Group 3: Building Muscle Is the Name of the Game This group is at the other en d of the spectrum fro m Grou p 1 and overlap s in som e way s wit h Grou p 2 . These member s conten d tha t femal e body builders, a s lon g a s the y hav e goo d symmetry , canno t b e to o muscular . Many argue d tha t th e federations ar e limiting th e muscularit y o f femal e bodybuilders, whic h som e believ e i s du e t o th e officials 7 desir e t o in crease thei r profit s b y appealin g t o fans. On e o f th e unusua l characteris tics o f thi s particula r grou p is that i t consist s mostl y o f women—all ar e women excep t fo r on e regiona l judge ; thi s grou p thu s consist s o f on e male judge , two femal e judges , no officials , an d si x female bodybuilders . It i s noteworthy tha t thi s grou p no t onl y i s the mos t supportiv e o f larg e musculature fo r femal e bodybuilders , but i t als o has th e mos t wome n of all thre e groups . I t i s als o significan t tha t ther e ar e a number o f femal e bodybuilders i n this group . Female bodybuilders ar e more likely t o view the ideal female bodybu ilder a s one who i s well defined , wit h larg e muscles an d good symmetry , while officials a s well as a number o f judges are likely to view a symmet rical femal e athlet e wit h les s muscl e a s th e ideal . Indicativ e o f thi s

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 8 disparity ar e th e view s o f Sam , a nationa l judge : " I wil l tel l yo u tha t th e w o m e n wil l giv e yo u extrem e perspectives , I ca n guarante e yo u t h a t / 7 To illustrat e thi s " e x t r e m e " perspective , I includ e a quot e fro m Debbie , a professiona l bodybuilder , w h o state d tha t sh e di d no t t h i n k a femal e bodybuilder ca n b e to o muscula r i f sh e ha s a symmetrica l body : I don' t thin k so . If sh e ha s perfec t symmetr y an d muscles , lik e Paul a Bircumshaw, I though t sh e wa s awesome . An d proportionatel y sh e looked, t o m e sh e looke d great . . . . We don' t figh t backstag e becaus e I stil l wan t a physiqu e lik e that , eve n thoug h I' m i n th e show , I' m trying t o wi n too . Al l I ca n sa y t o he r is , "Man , yo u loo k great! " I thought sh e looke d awesome . An d I didn' t fee l lik e sh e wa s lik e Bev . Because Be v i s to o block y i n th e waist . Yo u know , sh e [Paula ] ha s a lot o f muscl e wit h th e symmetry . . . . But I didn' t thin k tha t wa s to o much. Stephanie, a professional bodybuilder , als o mentione d Paul a Bircumsha w as a n exampl e o f a femal e bodybuilde r w h o ha s bot h larg e muscl e mas s and goo d symmetry : That's reall y a hard on e t o cal l becaus e par t o f th e whol e reaso n tha t some don' t loo k s o goo d i s because whe n the y ar e rea l muscula r the y don't hav e thi s shape . The y hav e thic k waist s an d nec k an d thic k joints. Bu t I thin k usuall y whe n a woma n ha s goo d symmetry , tha t it's okay . Bu t i t jus t depend s o n ho w sh e put s i t together . Yo u hav e t o have a certai n typ e o f woma n tha t ca n . . . have tha t symmetr y an d be ver y muscula r becaus e I'v e see n a lo t o f the m tha t loo k great . I think Paul a Bircumsha w ha s grea t symmetry . Lookin g a t he r face , she wa s diete d down , bu t he r fac e looke d jus t th e sam e a s Anj a Schreiner's. Pam, a professional bodybuilder , als o sai d tha t sh e di d no t believ e femal e bodybuilders w h o hav e goo d s y m m e t r y coul d als o b e considere d to o muscular, bu t sh e though t tha t steroi d us e coul d m a k e a bodybuilde r look unhealthy : In m y opinion , no . I f she' s go t th e line s there , th e waist , th e shoul ders, no . Bu t the n again , yo u don' t wan t t o se e a fiv e o'cloc k shado w on thi s gir l an d zit s al l over , yo u kno w wha t I' m saying ? I mean , t o me, yo u hav e go t t o pla y th e game , yo u know ? You'r e bodybuildin g for reasons , fo r healt h reasons , an d onc e yo u star t takin g i t lik e that ,

9

90 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding I mea n com e on , I mea n yo u go t acn e o n you r bac k th e siz e o f quarters, then somethin g is wrong. She doe s expres s a concer n abou t steroid s whe n bodybuilder s abus e i t to th e exten t o f manifestin g noticeabl y masculin e characteristics . He r concern, however , doe s no t revolv e aroun d femal e bodybuilder s gettin g too muscular , rathe r tha t the y wil l begi n t o develo p secondar y sexua l characteristics, whic h wil l contribut e t o th e sport' s alread y tarnishe d image when i t come s to steroid use . Susan, a regional competitor , state d ther e wa s a discrepancy betwee n her ow n beliefs an d the "part y line" : No, a lot o f times steroid s will knock your symmetr y an d proportio n off, bu t i f sh e has goo d symmetr y . . . she can' t b e to o muscular . T o some extent, ol d bodybuilding was a very heavy play on stereotypica l femininity. Pumping Iron an d tha t nonsens e i s sort o f like, what ar e you saying ? "Ar e you a bodybuilder o r are y o u . . . ." Lik e they had t o make tha t distinctio n alon g th e wa y . . . either you'r e a bodybuilde r or you're a woman. And I think tha t a s with anythin g you run across, whether . . . i n your workplac e ther e i s sexism, o r in sport , i t make s you questio n whethe r o r no t thos e ar e your belief s o r whether the y are somebody else's. Many o f thos e i n thi s grou p expresse d shee r frustratio n a t th e directio n the spor t ha s take n i n th e recen t past . Patty , a former nationa l competi tor, emphasize d tha t th e spor t i s calle d "bodybuilding " fo r a reason, an d should be judged accordingly : It's suppose d t o be bodybuilding! Ho w can , an d thi s i s where I have problems, how ca n somebody lik e . . . like Bev Francis not b e first i n muscularity rounds , I mea n I'v e see n tha t happen . Peopl e wh o ar e obviously th e most muscula r d o not com e in first i n the muscularit y round. If it' s a muscularity roun d they'r e no t suppose d t o be judgin g you o n symmetry , they'r e no t suppose d t o b e judgin g yo u o n you r posing, they're suppose d to be judging you on how much muscl e yo u have! But they don't . Another femal e judg e discusse d simila r situation s wher e fello w judge s marked dow n th e mos t muscula r femal e bodybuildin g i n th e muscular ity round . Christy, a national competitor , explaine d tha t i n th e past , bodybuild -

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 9 1 ing wa s represente d b y th e convictio n tha t "th e mor e muscle , th e bet ter," but thi s is no longer the case : I reall y hardl y hear d anybod y say , "Wow , she' s to o big," lik e to o muscular, to o muc h muscl e mass . That' s alway s bee n th e thrus t o f bodybuilding a t leas t i n th e past was , th e mor e muscle , th e better . I think tha t i f yo u hav e th e righ t bod y t o carr y th e muscle , the n i t looks the way it's supposed to look. There are a lot of people who just don't have the whole package, then it looks awkward. You see, that' s what they'r e doin g wit h th e judgin g standard s righ t now—they'r e saying that people are too muscular . She later conveye d ho w frustrate d sh e get s when tol d tha t femal e body builders ca n be overly muscular : The hea d judg e sai d tha t abou t th e gir l wh o too k fift h i n th e light weight. I mean sh e was the clear-cu t winner , sh e was incredible, bu t she was very, very lean, an d when [she ] extended he r leg all the wa y out, sh e had cros s striation s o n her quads , an d when sh e had he r le g slightly bent , sh e didn't . So , the hea d judg e said , "I f yo u jus t woul d have kept your leg bent you might have won." "Cross-striations" occu r whe n a bodybuilde r ha s qualit y muscl e an d minimal fat an d water retention t o the extent tha t th e ridges or "shreds " in a muscle group are easily visible. Such extraordinary muscularity wit h low fat an d water level s is regarded a s rare among women an d is consid ered t o b e a sig n o f steroi d an d diureti c use . Exasperated , Christ y ex claimed: What kind of fucking garbag e is that?! Come on, this is bodybuilding, this i s abou t muscles , thi s i s abou t displayin g th e bes t you'v e got ! We're being told to tone i t down . This i s the onl y spor t in th e worl d where som e girl s didn' t eve n trai n a s har d a s the y use d t o train . We go into th e gym going, "Well , hmm, shoul d we lift heav y toda y o r is that goin g to . . ." In ever y othe r spor t i n th e world , yo u d o the bes t you ca n do , an d no w wome n ar e bein g tol d t o ton e i t dow n an d I think it's such a hard thing to do. Some judges grade female bodybuilders dow n for cross-striation s becaus e they assum e i t i s a sig n o f steroi d use , eve n though , a s Christ y stated , bodybuilding "wa s abou t displayin g th e bes t you'v e got. " Me n ar e al -

92 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding lowed t o have cross-striation s bu t wome n aren' t becaus e i t i s considere d to be an indication o f steroid and diuretic use and thus excessiv e muscu larity, at least in the eyes of some judges. Therefore, femal e bodybuilder s are told , i n essence , no t t o displa y thei r bes t becaus e i t wil l no t wi n contests. Finally , sh e discusse d th e confusio n cause d b y th e lac k o f consistency in judging: she goes into the gym and does not know whethe r she should have a heavy lift da y or a light one . Mark, a regional judge, argued : It's almost lik e they want you to put a standard up there on the stag e and sa y you can' t b e more muscula r tha n thi s perso n here . Well, it' s difficult t o d o tha t an d thi s i s women's bodybuilding , it' s no t wom en's figur e presentation , I mean it' s bodybuilding . An d the y hav e t o remember what tha t is . If it's not going to be judged on the muscular ity, i t need s t o b e called , yo u know , hav e a fitnes s competitio n in stead of the bodybuilding. His argumen t mirror s th e belie f o f man y i n thi s group—tha t th e nam e of th e spor t i s bodybuildin g an d i f bodybuilder s hav e symmetrica l phy siques, the n the y shoul d b e allowe d t o displa y a s muc h musculatur e a s they ca n build, wit h n o double standard . The peopl e i n thi s grou p hav e argue d tha t bodybuildin g toda y i s no t what i t i s suppose d t o b e becaus e o f th e limit s place d o n women' s muscularity. Som e bodybuilder s woul d settl e fo r definit e state d guide lines tha t judge s woul d hav e t o follo w consistentl y i n orde r t o mak e i t easier t o kno w wha t i s expecte d o f them . Bodybuilder s i n thi s grou p believe tha t i f a female bodybuilde r ha s good symmetr y (se e appendix D for definition) , sh e wil l no t b e to o muscular . A fe w proclaime d tha t judges choos e femal e bodybuilder s wit h smalle r muscl e mas s t o attrac t more people and money int o th e sport . Overall, male judges and officials wer e likely t o be in Group s i an d 2. They wer e likel y t o expres s th e opinio n tha t femal e bodybuilder s ar e often s o muscular an d big that the y ca n eithe r begin t o look lik e men o r tax thei r frame s wit h to o muc h muscle . Femal e judge s wer e likel y t o have differin g opinions : som e concurre d wit h th e mal e official s an d judges, whil e other s fel t tha t femal e bodybuilder s wh o hav e goo d sym metry canno t b e to o muscular . On e nationa l an d professiona l femal e judge discusse d th e healt h concern s relate d t o steroids . Sh e believe d i t was a judge' s dut y t o ensur e tha t th e curren t unhealth y stat e o f body building is not perpetuated. N o current female bodybuilder believed that ,

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 9 3 given goo d symmetry , a femal e bodybuilde r coul d b e s o muscula r tha t she would loo k lik e a man. I n fact, n o bodybuilder labele d herself, usin g Harry Crews' s words, as " a monster t o behold. "

The Ideal Another wa y t o ge t people's view s o n th e issue s o f femininit y an d mus cularity i s t o as k the m th e nam e o f thei r idea l femal e bodybuilde r an d their reason s fo r choosin g her . Thei r idea l i s likel y t o reflec t thei r atti tudes abou t th e appropriat e relationshi p betwee n muscularit y an d femi ninity. Fo r instance , i f someon e chos e a muscula r femal e bodybuilde r like Paul a Bircumsha w a s a n idea l versu s a mor e fi t an d les s muscula r type lik e Rache l McLis h o r Anj a Schreiner , tha t perso n woul d mos t likely b e place d i n Grou p 3 , sinc e Paul a i s on e o f th e mos t muscula r bodybuilders in the history o f the sport. Those whose ideal is Rachel an d Anja woul d probabl y agre e wit h th e argumen t tha t muscularit y i s to o extreme amon g femal e bodybuilder s today , an d tha t th e spor t shoul d return t o rewarding th e look o f yesteryear. The female bodybuilder s wh o were mos t ofte n mentione d a s a n idea l b y thos e i n th e stud y wer e two six-tim e forme r Ms . Olympi a champions : Cor y Everso n an d Lend a Murray. However , th e reason s fo r choosin g a particular bodybuilde r de pended o n th e person' s view s o n th e issue s o f muscularit y an d feminin ity. Highlighte d belo w ar e som e o f th e representativ e quote s fro m eac h group abou t thei r ideals . Kee p i n min d tha t th e view s o f eac h grou p support thei r ideas about the appropriate relationship between muscular ity an d femininity . Thus , a group's view s abou t th e idea l i s eithe r likel y to support o r refute th e hegemonic norms relate d to the appropriate loo k for female bodybuilders . Group 1: Disrupting the Gender Order This grou p wa s th e mos t likel y o f th e thre e t o vie w muscularit y an d femininity a s antithetica l entities . Individual s mentione d Rache l McLish, Anj a Schreiner , Lend a Murray , Cor y Everson , o r Carl a Dunla p as the embodimen t o f thei r idea l femal e bodybuilder . Th e reason s give n for thei r choic e wer e ofte n relate d t o th e fac t tha t thei r idea l femal e bodybuilder wa s no t onl y feminin e an d pretty , bu t sh e wa s als o no t excessively muscular . Fo r instance, Trac y argue d tha t Cor y Everso n an d Sharon Bruneau cam e the closes t t o her ideal because they , unlike Lend a

94 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding Murray, wer e no t to o muscular : "Cor y Everso n come s th e closes t be cause Lend a Murra y i s a littl e bi t to o big . I woul d g o wit h Sharo n Bruneau too . I reall y lik e th e wa y sh e looks . She' s go t a reall y nic e shape." Similarly , Jan , a regiona l judge , mentione d Anj a Schreine r be cause " I think sh e looks very feminine. She' s very pretty. " Illustrating ho w hi s opinion s o f a n idea l femal e bodybuilde r hav e changed across time, Richard, a regional judge, revealed : I thought Rache l McLish at the beginning was ideal. She was a pretty girl who ha d a very feminin e figur e an d enoug h muscl e a t tha t tim e to be very impressive . I guess you woul d have t o sa y that Cor y no w fits ideall y . . . she was very feminine ye t ha d plenty o f muscle . An d Lenda Murra y woul d fi t int o tha t categor y probabl y fo r a hard-cor e person, but for the average person, they would probably think sh e has way too much muscle . He allude d t o th e fac t tha t acros s time , h e ha s learne d t o accep t mor e muscularity o n female bodybuilders . One male official stil l believed tha t th e limited muscularit y o f Rache l McLish wa s th e idea l fo r whic h femal e bodybuilder s currentl y shoul d strive: " I gues s Rache l McLish . Lend a Murra y woul d b e i n th e typ e o f physique righ t no w tha t w e want , nothin g bigge r tha n that . Bu t I thin k that Rache l McLis h i s th e epitom e o f wha t we'r e lookin g for , feminine , graceful, ye t stil l muscula r an d athleti c looking. " B y arguing fo r a "Ra chel McLis h look, " h e woul d lik e t o se e professional femal e bodybuild ing g o bac k t o th e earl y 1980 s ideal—on e wit h littl e muscl e mass . I f female bodybuilder s embrace d tha t look , the y woul d b e les s muscula r than man y curren t trac k athlete s suc h a s Jacki e Joyner-Kerse e o r Gai l Devers. Group 2: Developing the "Pinhead Effect" Members o f Grou p 2 were mor e likel y t o mentio n eithe r Cor y Everso n or Lend a Murra y a s comin g th e closes t t o embodyin g thei r ideal . I n addition, the y were more acceptin g o f more muscular femal e bodybuild ers than thei r colleague s in Group 1 . Moreover, people in this group were more likely to give varied reasons for thei r choice . Heather, a national an d professiona l judge , argue d tha t Cor y Everso n was her ideal bodybuilder no t onl y because of her "symmetr y an d genet ics," bu t als o fo r he r abilit y t o b e a goo d spokesperso n fo r th e sport .

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 9 5 Staying feminin e i s stil l a n importan t qualit y fo r femal e bodybuilders , according to this judge: Probably th e to p o f m y min d righ t now , I mean th e on e who come s the closest would be Cory Everson. You know Rachel... I mean she' s a rea l athleti c gir l bu t sh e doesn' t hav e nea r th e muscl e siz e tha t Cory does . Yet Cor y retained he r femininity , an d sh e has grea t sym metry an d genetics. Again, an d I always thin k par t o f it i s also being a spokesperson for the sport, and Cory always was very good with th e general public . Alway s carrie d hersel f ver y well . S o I would hav e t o say to this day she is probably still the ideal that most girls are trying to attain . An d nex t t o he r i t woul d hav e t o be Lenda . Sh e has reall y good genetic s excep t mayb e no t quit e compare d t o Cory's . Sh e stil l has t o wor k a littl e bi t harde r t o com e i n a s lea n a s sh e does . Sh e doesn't ge t super hard like som e of the girls. But Lenda als o is a very good role model . Sh e is very personable an d sh e i s a very intelligen t person. Sh e is very goo d with th e public . S o probably Cor y firs t an d Lenda righ t clos e behin d he r woul d b e probably th e tw o mos t idea l that mos t girls are striving to achieve. I think no matter who looks at them, it' s like looking at Jackie Joyner. You don't eve r think o f the m as men. Differentiating hersel f fro m member s o f Grou p 1 , Heather di d no t con sider Rachel her ideal: although sh e is athletic, she does not have enoug h muscle. In Grou p 2 , increase d muscularit y i s considere d a positiv e attribute , as is also the cas e in Grou p 3 . However, ther e is still a perceived tensio n between muscularit y an d femininity . Furthermore , a limit i s continue d to b e place d o n muscularit y becaus e o f thi s perceive d tension . To d re vealed this tension in his discussion o f a professional femal e bodybuilde r as hi s ideal : "A s fa r a s personificatio n o f i t . . . i n som e way s Lend a Murray is , Lend a Murra y ha s a mor e strikin g shape , bu t she' s bordere d on being to o muscula r an d when yo u loo k a t her , fo r example , yo u loo k at he r whe n yo u se e Lend a i n person , sh e look s lik e a thoroughbre d horse, he r leg s ar e just s o big. But i t al l fits togethe r beautifully. " Thus , increased muscularit y i s acceptabl e t o him , ye t ther e i s stil l som e ten sion betwee n muscula r siz e an d proportiona l esthetics . Similarly , Stan , another nationa l judge , explained : I thin k o f al l th e bodybuilder s wh o hav e eve r competed , th e bes t combination o f wha t w e wer e lookin g fo r i n a woma n bodybuilde r

96 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding was Cory Everson at her peak. Just a few years there, and I think tha t was th e typ e o f loo k tha t w e wer e after . Th e athleti c look , th e no t too muscular loo k but a t the same time having a degree of muscular ity, havin g a degre e o f athleticism , bein g ver y agile , being ver y mo bile, and entertaining . A femal e bodybuilde r wh o i s athletic-lookin g wit h som e musculature , but no t to o much, i s most favore d b y this group. Two member s o f thi s grou p mentione d tha t th e typ e o f bodybuilde r exemplified b y Anja Schreine r an d Rachel McLish doe s not hav e enoug h muscle mass to be considered the ideal look in the sport today. Muscular ity i s acceptabl e i f th e femal e bodybuilder s carr y i t i n a n estheticall y pleasing way , meanin g tha t thei r muscl e mas s doe s not overpowe r thei r bone structure . Finally, member s o f thi s grou p distinguishe d themselve s from th e first grou p by being likely to mention additiona l qualities , suc h as being a nice person , a good spokesperson , an d a n ambassado r fo r th e sport. Group 3: Building Muscle Is the Name of the Game There ar e a few noteworth y similaritie s betwee n thi s grou p an d Grou p 2. For instance, man y member s o f Group 3 mentioned th e sam e bodybu ilders a s thei r ideal . Moreover , man y discusse d th e importanc e o f bot h muscularity an d femininity . However , wha t set s thi s grou p apar t fro m the res t i s that althoug h the y conten d tha t femininit y i s still important , muscularity canno t b e compromise d becaus e o f it . Linda , a regiona l judge, argued that th e key ingredients for an ideal female bodybuilde r ar e muscularity an d professionalism: " I think th e present 199 2 Ms. Olympi a [Lenda Murray] represents th e ideal. I think tha t sh e has the muscularit y and she's very, very presentable. What I mean by that i s she comes acros s very feminine . She' s ver y professional . An d t o m e sh e i s a bodybuilde r because he r muscularity , everythin g i s a total package. " Both muscular ity an d femininit y ar e importan t t o Lind a i n he r assessmen t o f Lend a Murray a s he r idea l femal e bodybuilder . Muscularit y i s th e firs t charac teristic sh e mentione d an d a t n o poin t doe s sh e impl y tha t Lend a i s to o muscular. Susan, a regiona l competitor , als o mentione d th e importanc e o f th e combination o f muscularit y an d femininity . However , instea d o f men tioning a previou s o r curren t Ms . Olympia , sh e discusse d Anj a Langer ,

The Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding 9 7 who compete d i n th e mid - an d lat e 1980s , becaus e sh e i s "on e o f th e tallest femal e bodybuilder s wh o competed . Sh e ha s a lo t o f muscl e an d she i s tal l an d tha t take s s o muc h mor e wor k tha n a shor t bodybuilder . It is easy to put muscl e o n a small fram e an d loo k symmetrical , bu t i t i s hard t o d o it o n a tall frame. Sh e is feminine, sh e is beautiful, sh e is big! She doesn' t giv e u p anything/ 7 Thus , i n th e eye s o f thi s bodybuilder , Anja Langer' s muscularity an d femininity coexis t peacefully becaus e sh e has successfully combine d th e tw o ingredients . This grou p i s th e onl y on e tha t mentione d Be v Franci s a s a n idea l female bodybuilder . According to Patty, a former nationa l competitor : I mean I'd have to say that I really admire somebody like Bev Francis because I sa w Pumping Iron II. An d I sa w wha t sh e looke d lik e i n Pumping Iron II fro m bein g a powerlifte r t o completel y changing . That's wha t bodybuildin g is , it' s sculpting . Sh e ha s completel y changed her overall shape and I don't thin k there' s anybody in all th e years, I mean there' s a few ne w one s bu t I mean sh e ha s suc h goo d muscularity an d I thin k sh e ha s don e mor e wit h he r bod y tha n anybody else . Bu t the n yo u tal k about , I mean , Cor y Everso n ha s absolutely the most symmetrica l body of anybody I've ever seen. Plus her marketin g o f herself i s wonderful. Th e woman i s not a n idiot b y any means. Here, Patt y admire d Be v Franci s becaus e o f wha t sh e coul d d o with he r body—Bev's abilit y t o chang e he r bod y fro m tha t o f a powerlifte r t o a bodybuilder. There is no mention o f femininity o r excessive muscularity ; rather, i t i s on e forme r competito r respectin g anothe r athlet e fo r th e work an d dedicatio n i t mus t hav e take n t o creat e the physical metamor phosis tha t Be v Francis underwent. Patt y di d mention Cor y Everson , no t because of her attractiveness o r femininity, bu t because of her symmetri cal physique an d her shrew d marketing abilities . Those i n Grou p 3 were th e mos t likel y o f an y o f th e thre e group s t o mention th e importanc e o f muscularity , althoug h man y qualifie d thei r comments wit h a referenc e t o femininity . Again , wha t make s Grou p 3 members uniqu e i s thei r belie f tha t muscularit y an d femininit y ar e no t inherently conflictual ; i n fact , som e eve n believe d tha t the y comple mented eac h other . Regardles s o f grou p placement , femininit y i s stil l important. Thus, th e issues o f femininity, muscularity , an d steroi d use ar e at th e heart o f ho w official s an d judge s evaluat e femal e bodybuilders ; thes e

98 Th e Dialectic of Female Bodybuilding issues als o play a n enormou s rol e in ho w thes e people a s well a s femal e bodybuilders themselve s vie w th e purpos e o f thei r spor t an d th e direc tion it' s taking . Sinc e it s incipien t days , ther e ha s bee n littl e t o n o consensus amon g thos e involve d i n th e spor t a s t o th e appropriat e rela tionship between thes e cor e elements, indicating a fundamental ideolog ical conflic t abou t gende r norm s betwee n th e variou s player s i n femal e bodybuilding. Thi s perennia l disagreemen t ha s le d t o confusio n i n judg ing standards an d fluctuations i n what idea l physical typ e is supposed t o be rewarded. I will turn t o these topics in detai l in the following chapter .

FOUR

Contested Terrai n Corporal Judgment

As W E HAV E SEEN , femal e bodybuildin g has been rife wit h controvers y surrounding th e "appropriate " relationshi p betwee n muscularit y an d femininity sinc e it s earlies t contests. 1 Shoul d femal e bodybuilder s b e judged like male bodybuilders, with th e most muscula r an d symmetrica l bodybuilder prevailing , o r should issue s o f femininity an d attractivenes s be include d i n judgin g criteria ? Thi s controvers y continue s t o pla y ou t in th e evaluatio n o f femal e bodybuilders . Harr y Crews' s 199 0 novel , Body, accuratel y depict s th e vascillations surroundin g judgin g standard s for female bodybuilders : Nobody kne w o r coul d agre e o n wha t wome n wante d o r neede d t o be. Not eve n women themselves . With men i t was easy. Men neede d to b e a s big , a s thick , an d a s defined—thei r musculatur e cut , eac h muscle standin g separat e an d distinc t fro m ever y othe r muscle—a s could possibly be accomplished. . . . But where did that leav e wome n bodybuilders? Again , nobod y knew . Everybod y though t the y kne w when Rache l McLis h wo n th e world . Sh e wa s muscular , an d als o perfectly symmetrica l an d coordinated , bu t mos t o f al l sh e coul d b e Note: Michae l Messne r (1988 : 197) first use d th e phras e "conteste d terrain " i n relation t o the femal e athlet e i n th e traditiona l "mal e domain " o f sport . H e argue d tha t "th e femal e athlete—and he r body—ha s becom e a conteste d ideologica l terrain " becaus e athleti c women pose a threat t o traditional mal e dominance. He discussed this "conteste d terrain " specifically i n relation t o female bodybuilder s whe n h e stated , "I t i s obvious tha t th e ne w image o f wome n bein g forge d b y femal e bodybuilder s i s itsel f fraugh t wit h contradictio n and ambiguity a s women contestant s an d judges constantly discus s and argue emotionall y over th e meanin g o f femininity . Shoul d contestant s b e judge d simpl y accordin g t o ho w well-muscled the y ar e (a s male bodybuilder s ar e judged) , o r als o b y a separat e an d tradi tionally feminine aesthetic? " (Messner , 1988 : 203).

99

ioo Conteste d Terrain put i n a dres s an d take n hom e t o mother . Bu t i n a shor t perio d o f time followin g Rache l McLish' s reig n a s world champion , i f you pu t a world-clas s femal e bodybuilde r i n a dress , sh e coul d no t b e take n home t o mother o r many othe r places because the y looke d lik e me n tricked ou t i n women' s clothing . Ou t o f posin g brief s an d of f th e stage, the y wer e monster s t o behold . Th e judge s an d th e fan s tha t followed th e spor t a s wel l a s th e competitor s themselve s coul d no t decide wha t th e idea l woma n ough t t o loo k like . I t wa s a dogfight . One yea r a woma n i n on e o f th e lighte r division s woul d tak e th e overall; the next year a woman bigger than most men could ever hope to be , on e tha t onl y looke d huma n a s lon g a s sh e was unde r posin g lights, woul d tak e it . U p clos e an d dresse d i n anythin g feminine , female bodybuilder s starte d lookin g lik e somethin g Go d ha d mad e suffering fro m a divin e hangove r an d caugh t i n delusiona l terror s beyond human imagination. 2 Although judge s and official s i n this stud y never uttered thes e particula r descriptive references abou t female bodybuilders—that the y were "mon sters t o behold " o r tha t the y coul d no t "b e take n hom e t o mothe r o r many othe r places"—some di d refer t o muscular femal e bodybuilder s a s looking "lik e guy s wit h bikin i tops " an d resemblin g "me n wit h wig s on." All of these references t o the distastefu l loo k o f excessiv e muscula ture coul d easil y b e directe d a t mal e bodybuilder s a s well . However , n o judges calle d mal e bodybuilder s "monsters " o r sai d "the y couldn' t b e taken hom e t o mother. " Thes e ar e clearl y gender-specifi c criticisms . I n fact, thes e type s o f sentiment s d o not see m t o ente r int o th e evaluatio n of mal e bodybuilder s a t all . The y do , nevertheless , prominentl y affec t the wa y femal e bodybuilder s ar e evaluated . Thes e comment s no t onl y reflect som e judges 7 persona l attitudes , the y als o influenc e ho w thes e judges evaluate female bodybuilders a t competitions. However, thi s view does no t represen t a consensu s amon g judges . No t al l o f th e judge s i n this stud y expresse d hars h view s towar d extrem e muscularit y i n femal e bodybuilders: som e voice d quit e favorabl e opinions . Suc h disparitie s i n judges' opinion s an d evaluation s o f muscularit y fo r femal e bodybuilder s have led to fluctuations in , and confusion about , judgin g decisions . I will no w explor e th e muc h conteste d terrai n o f th e judgin g proces s in femal e bodybuildin g an d ho w judges 7 opinion s abou t th e appropriat e relationship betwee n femininit y an d muscularit y clou d thi s alread y murky an d highl y subjectiv e process . I wil l als o delv e int o th e effect s

Contested Terrain 10 such fluctuation s i n opinio n have on thos e who ar e trying to compete a s well as those who are attempting to evaluate these bodybuilders. Because the standard s ar e se t an d enforce d mostl y b y mal e socia l gatekeepers , judging appear s t o b e th e backbon e o f mal e dominanc e i n femal e body building. Subjectivity: Th e Trum p Car d The dut y o f a bodybuildin g judg e i s t o determin e whic h competitor s onstage hav e th e bes t muscula r an d symmetrica l femal e physiques . However, determinin g th e winner s an d loser s i n thes e competition s i s often a difficult an d confusin g task . I n fact, on e can easil y argu e that th e only clear-cu t component s o f thi s proces s ar e th e muscles . Lik e othe r subjective sport s suc h a s figure skatin g o r gymnastics , bodybuildin g relies o n a panel o f judge s tha t evaluate s th e contestant s o n a serie s o f predetermined criteria . However , i n contras t t o othe r subjectiv e sports , bodybuilders ar e no t judge d o n ho w closel y thei r athleti c performanc e comes t o th e ideal ; rather , the y ar e evaluate d o n ho w closel y thei r appearance approximate s th e perfect muscula r physique . Furthermore, unlik e othe r subjectiv e sports , ther e ar e n o degree s o f difficulty i n bodybuilding ; no r ar e ther e an y trul y impartia l measure ments a s ar e foun d i n objectiv e sportin g endeavor s suc h a s swimmin g and trac k events . Sam , a nationa l judge , explaine d th e difference s be tween suc h sport s an d bodybuilding: "Bodybuildin g i s not a sport wher e you hav e a person runnin g fro m poin t A t o point B and goin g throug h a tape wit h a n electroni c stopwatc h catchin g th e time . I n tha t situation , you know exactl y where competito r i , 2 , 3 placed. Judging bodybuilders, on th e othe r hand , i s a very subjectiv e issue/ 7 Fo r instance, ther e ar e n o specific points credite d t o a bodybuilder who has a single- versus double peaked bicep, or cut versus ripped muscle groups. Moreover, a seventeeninch bice p i s no t inherentl y bette r tha n a ten-inc h bicep . Thus , th e decision a s t o whic h i s bette r i s lef t u p t o eac h o f th e seve n t o nin e judges. Thi s hig h degre e o f subjectivit y bring s wit h i t th e potentia l fo r inconsistencies whe n evaluatin g bodybuilder s a t competitions . Ad d th e issue o f femininit y t o thi s alread y precariou s judgin g situatio n an d on e can begin to see the type of subjective quagmir e in which female bodybu ilding resides. Let's examine th e actual judging process before embarkin g on a further discussio n o f judging .

1

102 Conteste d Terrain

Nuts and Bolts of Judging There ar e five mai n level s o f bodybuildin g judges : level s A an d B stat e amateur judges , nationa l an d internationa l amateu r judges , an d judge s who evaluat e professiona l bodybuilders . On e mus t usuall y first exhibi t competence a t th e stat e o r local levels before being asked t o judge at th e higher ones. For every bodybuilding meet, a panel of seven to nine judges, the majorit y o f who m ar e male , usuall y decide s whic h bodybuilde r ha s come th e closes t t o achievin g a perfectl y symmetrica l an d muscula r body. In the IFBB, each judge gives a score to the bodybuilders for eac h of the round s o f competition , "one " fo r th e bes t competitor , "two " fo r th e second bes t bodybuilder , an d s o on . Th e highes t an d lowes t score s ar e thrown ou t fo r eac h round . After fou r rounds , th e bodybuilde r wit h th e lowest scor e wins. In the NPC , there ar e no round-by-round scores, - only a single score is given to each bodybuilder a t the end of the competition . Judging i n bot h femal e an d mal e contest s i s usuall y don e unde r th e auspices o f eithe r th e Internationa l Federatio n o f Bodybuilder s (IFBB ) or the National Physiqu e Committee (NPC). 3 Judges use three main criteri a to evaluat e th e physiques o f female an d male bodybuilders a t both NP C and IFB B competitions : overal l muscularit y i n a serie s o f compulsor y poses,4 symmetr y an d proportion, 5 an d presentation o f th e muscle s cho reographed togethe r wit h music. 6 Al l thre e ar e allege d t o b e o f equa l importance. There ar e sligh t variation s i n th e wa y NP C amateu r an d IFB B professional bodybuildin g competition s ar e organized . Fo r amateu r meets , there ar e fou r judge d rounds—thre e i n th e mornin g (muscularity , sym metry, presentation ) an d on e i n th e evenin g (muscularit y again) . Ther e is als o a nonjudge d musical-presentatio n roun d i n th e evening . Th e bodybuilder in each of the three weight classe s with the lowest combine d score wins her weight class . The posedown, which is an additional round , takes place with th e winners o f eac h weight clas s competing against on e another t o se e who i s th e overal l champion . Thi s roun d last s abou t on e minute an d is done to music chosen by the event's promoter. The overal l winner i n bot h mal e an d femal e amateu r bodybuildin g contest s i s usu ally, bu t no t always , th e heavyweigh t winner . A t th e professiona l level , however, ther e ar e n o separat e weigh t classes ; everyon e compete s to gether. A s i n th e amateu r ranks , th e symmetr y an d muscularit y round s are held in the morning. However, unlike amateur contests, the presentation round , whic h occur s i n th e evenin g an d entail s individua l ninety -

Contested Terrain 10 3 second choreographed presentations by each of the competitors, is judged at professiona l shows . Th e purpos e o f thi s roun d i s t o displa y one' s muscle wit h musi c i n "a n intelligen t way. //7 Th e fourt h round , th e "posedown," consist s o f th e to p si x bodybuilder s vyin g fo r positio n i n front o f th e judge s t o sho w of f thei r musculature . Th e bodybuilde r wh o has the lowest scor e wins. Although male and female bodybuilding meets have these characteris tics i n common , th e similaritie s en d here . Fo r mal e bodybuilders , ex treme muscularit y (muscl e mas s an d muscl e definition ) i s highl y re warded (i f the y als o have symmetrica l an d proportiona l muscularity) . I n fact, recal l th e quot e fro m Harr y Crews' s nove l o n th e first pag e o f thi s chapter: " With me n i t wa s easy . Me n neede d t o be a s big, a s thick , an d as defined—thei r musculatur e cut , eac h muscl e standin g separat e an d distinct fro m ever y othe r muscle—a s coul d possibl y b e accomplished/ 7 However, th e sam e canno t b e sai d fo r femal e bodybuilding—thes e women hav e t o conten d wit h a n arbitrar y "invisibl e line " that , whe n crossed, connote s excessiv e muscularity . And , i n additio n t o limitin g their musculature , wome n hav e t o enhanc e thei r feminin e feature s a s well.

The Midlevel Gatekeepers : The Road to Judgment Day The judging process in the United State s is conducted under the auspice s of either the IFBB or NPC, depending on the level of competition. In both organizations, judge s "mus t b e qualifie d b y passin g examination s an d [then being] dul y certified." 8 Althoug h on e judge confide d tha t th e onl y real criterio n fo r becoming a judge is the desir e t o become one , there ar e actually thre e officia l step s one must tak e t o become a judge at th e stat e or loca l level . Th e intereste d applican t mus t contac t hi s o r he r NP C district chairperson , tak e a judgin g seminar , practic e judgin g a t loca l shows (no t a s a n officia l judge) , an d prov e hi s o r he r competenc e b y scoring within 8 5 percent o f th e score s o f judge s who ar e on th e judgin g panel. According to a recent articl e in Muscle and Fitness, "Fo r example , let's sa y yo u tes t judge d somebod y i n thir d plac e whe n the y actuall y came i n second . Thi s woul d b e considere d on e deviation . A percentag e system i s the n use d t o develo p a final score." 9 T o qualif y t o becom e a n NPC judge , yo u mus t scor e 8 5 o r better . Thus , thes e trainee s mus t conform t o th e norm s se t b y th e othe r judges . Thi s procedur e ma y i n fact wor k t o preven t chang e i n th e interpretation s o f th e criteri a b y

104 Conteste d Terrain judges, particularly if they are in the minority concernin g the appropriat e degree o f muscularit y tha t bodybuilder s shoul d exhibit . Onc e th e train ees successfull y complet e thes e stages , thei r name s ar e place d o n a lis t of traine d judge s fo r th e particula r leve l o f competitio n fo r whic h the y qualified. T o be asked t o judge at the national amateu r level , one needs a recommendation fro m th e distric t chairperso n withi n th e distric t wher e she or he lives. 10 What motivate s peopl e t o becom e bodybuildin g judges ? Mos t judge s are forme r competitiv e bodybuilders . O f th e nin e femal e judge s i n thi s study, eigh t ar e former o r curren t competitiv e bodybuilder s an d on e is a former competitiv e powerlifter . Comparably , si x of th e nine mal e judge s in thi s stud y ar e forme r competitiv e bodybuilders , on e i s currentl y a noncompetitive bodybuilder , anothe r i s a forme r competitiv e pow erlifter, an d the last judge became involved in bodybuilding as a promoter with n o experienc e a s a competito r i n th e sport . I n fact , par t o f wha t i s compelling abou t judgin g fo r bot h wome n an d me n i s tha t i t allow s those wh o hav e previousl y compete d a s bodybuilder s t o b e activel y involved i n th e spor t still , albei t i n a differen t capacity . A s Michelle , a judge explained , "Onc e yo u ge t bitten b y th e iro n bug , it's reall y har d t o get rid of it. " Because monetary benefits ar e minimal, none of the judges mentione d financial gai n a s th e reaso n fo r enterin g thi s are a o f bodybuilding . NP C judges receiv e onl y a nomina l fifty dollar s i n trave l mone y plu s hote l accommodations fo r tw o nights, paid for by the promoter o r organizer of the show . IFB B judges receiv e tw o hundre d dollar s eac h fo r judgin g th e Ms. Olympia contes t an d one hundred dollar s each for judging other IFBB contests, plus hotel and travel accommodations. Foo d expenses o f thirty five dollars a day are paid for by the organize r o f the contes t a s well. 11 Some wome n wer e motivate d t o joi n th e rank s o f th e judge s specifi cally fo r politica l reasons . A fe w wome n becam e judge s becaus e o f th e limited number o f female judge s throughout th e various levels of competition. A s Heather , on e suc h judge , explained , " I starte d t o compet e i n the earl y '8os and I just starte d judgin g because I competed a t a lot o f th e local show s and there were not tha t man y women judge s on the panels. " She an d other s fel t tha t ther e wer e notabl e difference s i n th e way s tha t female an d mal e judge s evaluat e femal e bodybuilders, - on e o f th e mos t significant i s th e purporte d importanc e place d o n th e physica l attrac tiveness o f femal e bodybuilder s b y som e mal e judges , whic h I will dis -

Contested Terrain 10 5 cuss late r i n th e chapter . Ther e wer e othe r politica l motivation s fo r becoming a judge, as Michelle revealed : I became a judge because it' s anothe r wa y fo r m e t o use som e o f m y artistic perspectiv e an d mak e a difference i n th e spor t an d hopefull y point i t i n a directio n i n whic h I woul d lik e t o se e i t go . A lo t o f people complain abou t why s o and so won or didn't win an d I always say if you got a problem with that , yo u want t o make a change, the n you should become a judge, because you have the power to direct th e sport. In her response , Michell e articulate d a n argumen t ofte n give n abou t th e relationship betwee n votin g i n publi c election s an d havin g a sa y abou t political issues : i f a person doe s no t lik e curren t governmenta l policie s or publi c officials , the n the y shoul d vote . I f the y d o no t exercis e thi s liberty, the y also , i n essence , los e thei r righ t t o complai n abou t th e way th e governmen t i s organize d an d operated . Michell e ca n positivel y influence th e spor t an d perhap s eve n chang e it s directio n b y bein g a judge because, a s she said, "Yo u have the power to direct th e sport. " Other reason s fo r enterin g th e field als o emerge d i n th e interviews . For instance , muc h lik e socia l scientist s Nanc y Chodoro w an d Lillia n Rubin, 12 who examine d gende r difference s i n emotiona l intimacy , migh t have predicted , som e wome n hav e enjoye d judgin g becaus e i t ha s al lowed the m th e opportunit y t o maintai n clos e connection s wit h other s involved i n th e sport . Heathe r illustrate d thi s point : "Th e thin g I lik e most abou t judgin g i s stil l bein g involve d i n th e spor t an d basicall y th e friends Fv e made , yo u know , wit h th e competitor s themselves , wit h other administrator s i n ou r sport , th e worldwid e travelin g Fv e gotten t o do. Bu t basicall y it' s th e friendship s tha t Fv e mad e wit h th e girl s tha t I really enjoy." Althoug h th e ability to maintain friendship s wit h other s is not th e onl y reaso n sh e ha s enjoye d judging , i t is , t o her , on e o f th e most importan t reasons . Furthermore , sh e specificall y single d ou t he r friendships wit h "th e girls " i n th e spor t a s bein g th e mos t enjoyabl e aspect o f judgin g becaus e o f th e camaraderie . Non e o f th e mal e judge s gave friendship, companionship , o r camaraderi e wit h other s a s the mos t enjoyable aspec t o f judging. So what wer e they likely t o mention ? On average , male judges tende d t o voice more instrumenta l an d emo tionally detache d reason s fo r thei r involvemen t i n judgin g tha n thei r female counterparts . Mos t mal e judge s becam e judge s an d continu e t o

io6 Conteste d Terrain judge because the y fee l lik e the y hav e somethin g o f valu e t o contribut e to th e spor t o f femal e bodybuildin g a s i t develops . Fo r instance , Sam , a national an d professional judge , confessed tha t he enjoys judgin g because he likes "t o be able to contribut e t o the evolutio n o f the activity/ 7 Man y of th e mal e judge s also disclosed tha t the y hav e enjoye d judgin g becaus e it has given them a n opportunity t o help others who are just learning th e ropes i n th e sport . Mark , a regiona l judge , explaine d tha t th e par t h e enjoyed mos t abou t bein g a judg e wa s bein g a mento r t o bodybuildin g novices. Judgin g gav e hi m th e opportunit y t o len d advice , support , an d encouragement t o young bodybuilders wh o were beginning thei r careers .

The Politics of Judging As previousl y stated , th e tas k o f judge s i s t o evaluat e bodybuilder s ac cording t o th e guideline s se t fort h b y th e IFB B o r NP C fo r particula r competition levels . Ther e ar e institutiona l mechanism s i n plac e whic h ensure tha t judge s follo w th e organizationa l judgin g guidelines . On e o f the most effectiv e i s the process by which judges are chosen for competi tions. For instance, at the amateur level, every state has at least one NP C chairperson wh o i s in charg e o f the judges, bodybuilders, an d bodybuild ing event s i n hi s o r he r state . Thes e chair s hav e a lis t o f al l judge s i n their distric t an d ar e th e one s wh o determin e whic h judge s o n th e lis t they wil l as k t o evaluat e particula r contests . At th e professional level , a similar proces s occurs , excep t tha t th e NP C chairperso n i s replace d b y the IFB B professiona l committe e an d th e poo l o f qualifie d candidate s increases t o includ e a n internationa l field . I f a registere d judg e doe s not consistentl y follo w prope r judgin g protocol , o r i f ther e ar e persona l conflicts betwee n hi m o r he r an d th e organizationa l chairperso n o r th e show promoter , h e o r sh e ma y no t b e aske d b y th e chairperso n t o judg e future shows . Fo r instance , on e mal e officia l explaine d th e proces s a s follows: The onl y proble m wit h judgin g i s tha t althoug h w e ca n appl y th e rules, it' s u p t o th e individua l t o implemen t them . It' s very , ver y difficult t o ge t te n o r eleve n judge s fro m seve n o r eigh t differen t countries t o thin k alike . That' s wh y w e scrutiniz e al l th e point s to mak e sur e tha t th e judge s ar e judgin g objectively , honestly , an d correctly. When we find that ther e is somebody who is not objective , or somebod y wh o i s not reall y capable , the n w e remov e thei r mem bership card . You'll find tha t i n Olympi c sport s an d gymnastic s an d

Contested Terrain 10 7 diving and so forth. We have good judges, we're controlling them, and we're satisfied wher e we are. Having official s chec k th e judges 7 scorecard s t o ensur e thei r judgin g ability is understandable i n any subjective spor t where a judge can make or break a n athlete's chance s o f doin g wel l a t a contest. However , eve n given the "objective" criteri a used by bodybuilding federations—muscu larity in a series o f poses, symmetr y an d proportion, an d presentation of muscles t o music—there ar e still variou s possibl e interpretation s o f the relative placemen t o f bodybuilders. In fact, assessin g whethe r judge s are judging "correctly " is , i n an d o f itself , a subjectiv e evaluatio n b y th e head judges and other bodybuilding officials . Furthermore, thinkin g tha t people , regardles s o f their training , coul d be "objective " o r that on e could ge t nine judge s who hail fro m a s man y countries t o "thin k alike " i s an improbable an d perhaps eve n question able goal. In fact, thi s doe s not reflect "objectivity " bu t rather appear s to be mor e indicativ e o f "conformit y t o grou p pressures." 13 Th e goa l i n judging i s ostensibly t o choos e th e most qualifie d bodybuilder s onstag e as the top finishers. Becaus e subjectivit y play s a large part in the judging process, ther e i s likel y t o b e disagreemen t amon g judge s a s t o wha t constitutes th e best physique . Besides no t followin g judgin g protocol , ther e ar e othe r reason s on e might no t b e aske d t o judg e again . I n fact , on e chairperso n candidl y revealed tha t usually I'll talk t o the promoters an d see if they want certai n judges. Certain promoters and certain judges have conflicts . . . such as somebody that use d to work out at their gym, no longer works out at their gym and they are working at a competitor's gym and is bad mouthing the gym. You know, petty stuff , bu t conflict stil l goes on and it's real petty stuff . So , I ge t togethe r wit h th e promote r t o see i f ther e i s somebody they just don't want because it is their contest . Therefore, judge s wh o have passe d al l o f th e requirement s ma y not be asked t o evaluat e bodybuilder s a t a particular contes t no t because the y are poor judges, but because the promoter of the contest or the governingbody chairperso n ma y have a personal grievanc e wit h them . Ironically , judges ar e suppose d t o adher e t o "objectivity " whe n evaluatin g body builders, but when promoter s an d chairpersons selec t judge s fo r shows , they do not hold themselve s t o similarly "objective " guidelines .

io8 Conteste d Terrain Yet, even when the y are asked to evaluate a contest, judge s need t o be able to dodge other political landmines that potentially lur k in the nook s and crannies . Fo r instance, i n exposin g th e type s o f political cue s judge s must rea d at contests , Michelle, a judge at the national level , disclosed : I tel l you , honestl y speaking , especiall y whe n yo u ge t u p t o th e national level , oka y a s a national judge , you hav e t o work harde r t o make sur e that yo u appeas e the right people to stay a national judge . What I' m sayin g is that th e way the judging process works an d especially when it' s a t th e nationa l level , you kno w by the way the y cal l out th e compariso n abou t wha t placin g people belong in , yo u know , top five, middle five, bottom five, top fifteen, etc . And sometimes t o be quite honest , I haven't agree d with som e o f the callouts , thinkin g for instance, tha t mayb e somebody who wound up in the middle five that shoul d definitely hav e belonged in the top five. Although sh e ma y disagre e wit h th e callouts , Michell e realize s tha t i n order t o continu e judgin g a t th e nationa l level , sh e mus t b e politicall y astute an d accuratel y rea d th e hea d judge' s taci t message s embedde d i n his o r her callouts . Her words conve y her feelings o f powerlessness : But th e judge s don' t hav e an y contro l ove r tha t . . . the hea d judg e basically kin d o f set s th e ton e fo r th e wa y thing s ar e judge d i n tha t sense. The y wil l brin g ou t thes e group s an d i f you'r e smar t an d perceptive enoug h yo u ca n tel l tha t i f yo u don' t a t leas t follo w tha t grouping, no t necessaril y tha t specifi c placing , bu t tha t grouping , you're no t goin g t o hi t i t right . An d s o ther e i s a compromis e ther e which sometime s tend s t o grat e o n m e especiall y whe n I think tha t the cal l is not right . Somebod y tha t I really wanted i n th e to p five, I know i s goin g t o win d u p i n tent h plac e o r somethin g lik e tha t an d I've got to go along with it . I then asked , "O r perhaps you wouldn't be asked to judge on the nationa l level anymore? " Sh e responded , "Well , yeah , m y score s woul d reflec t that I' m jus t no t o n th e ball." "Bein g on th e ball" i n thi s contex t mean s a judge must b e abl e to read, accept , an d reflect th e head judge' s opinio n as t o whic h bodybuilder s onstag e ar e t o b e chose n a s th e bes t a t th e contest. I f judge s ca n d o thi s effectively , the y wil l probabl y b e aske d t o evaluate bodybuilders again . If judges do not conform , the y probably wil l not be asked again . Similarly, Gre g Ptacek foun d suppor t fo r suc h tactic s when h e interviewe d a n IFB B judge: "Stev e Wennerstrom , a n assistan t

Contested Terrain 10 9 track coac h a t UCL A (i n th e earl y 1980s ) an d a privat e instructo r o f women's bodybuilding, recently judged his first IFBB contest afte r severa l years of trying. Judging, he says, 'can be manipulated t o fit a standard th e Weiders want b y selectin g judge s who agre e with th e Weider philosoph y of bodybuilding/" 14 Thus , " conformity" t o a particular ideologica l stan dard rathe r tha n "objectivity " appear s t o b e a central issu e i n th e selec tion process of judges. In additio n t o th e paradoxe s involve d i n th e selectio n proces s o f judges, we als o see a clash between "ideal " an d "real " cultures i n tw o of Michelle's comments . Recal l tha t sh e i s th e sam e judg e wh o declared , "If you want t o make a change, the n yo u shoul d become a judge becaus e you hav e th e powe r t o direc t th e sport. " However , he r comment s abou t the politic s o f judgin g beli e th e sentimen t tha t judge s ca n trul y effec t change in thi s sport . In fact, i t appears tha t th e change or reform on e ca n elicit as a judge, given the political nature of the sport, is at best minimal ; if a judg e i s see n a s a troublemake r o r a s no t "bein g o n th e ball, " the n she i s not likel y t o be aske d t o judg e again . Therefore, judge s nee d t o b e able t o follo w th e lea d se t b y th e hea d judg e i f the y wan t t o continu e judging at a particular leve l or be asked t o judge at a higher level . Because of the way the organization i s run, th e top officials ar e able t o fill th e uppe r echelon s o f judgin g wit h peopl e wh o suppor t thei r ow n vision o f bodybuilding . Thus , th e higher-leve l judge s ar e th e one s mos t likely t o endorse th e officia l stanc e o n what constitute s th e idea l femal e bodybuilder. Loca l o r regiona l judge s ar e th e mos t likel y t o voic e dis senting opinions . Thes e judge s ma y b e bette r judge s tha n thos e a t th e higher levels , bu t i f the y d o no t agre e wit h th e officials , the y hav e a difficult tim e reaching the national an d professional levels . The hea d judge , who i s usually a high-ranking mal e officia l i n on e of the governin g bodies , i s th e perso n wh o call s ou t group s o f tw o t o five bodybuilders a t a time from th e line of all competitors. They will pose at center stag e s o that th e judge s ca n mor e easil y compar e thei r symmetry , proportion, an d muscularity . Recal l fro m th e ethnographi c accoun t tha t when a head judge calls out certain bodybuilders several times and other s only once, judges and bodybuilders alik e can tell which bodybuilder s th e head judg e think s shoul d b e place d a t th e to p o f th e lis t an d whic h should b e placed towar d th e bottom. I f Michelle's statemen t i s accurate , bodybuilding official s ma y b e les s concerne d wit h judges ' "objective " and accurat e evaluation s o f bodybuilders onstag e tha n wit h thei r abilit y to rea d th e implici t an d explici t message s give n b y th e hea d judge .

11 o Conteste d Terrain Finally, th e presumption tha t th e head judge is the most "objective " an d accurate judg e o n th e panel , an d tha t othe r judge s mus t simpl y tak e hi s or he r lea d t o "se e th e light, " ma y b e contradicte d b y thei r tie s t o sponsors an d organizers .

The Rumblings of Inconsistency Begin In th e 199 1 an d 199 2 seasons , th e dua l issue s o f judgin g inconsistenc y and perceive d excessiv e muscularit y amon g femal e bodybuilder s cam e to a cacophonous head when at back-to-back professional femal e bodybu ilding meets (th e 199 1 Ms. Olympia an d th e 199 2 Ms. International) th e judges rewarde d opposit e looks ; a t on e meet , the y rewarde d th e ripped , hard look; at the other, the smooth, sof t look . The event that precipitate d the IFBB' s decisio n t o limi t femal e bodybuilders ' muscularit y wa s th e 1991 Ms. Olympia contes t whic h wa s held i n Lo s Angeles an d televise d live o n ESPN . This wa s th e firs t professiona l femal e bodybuildin g mee t aired o n liv e TV . Many o f th e femal e bodybuilder s a t thi s contes t wer e big, ripped, and cut. Apparently this muscular look was not well receive d by ESP N viewers , becaus e th e channe l an d th e IFB B allegedly receive d letters an d call s fro m peopl e wh o foun d th e muscularit y o f th e femal e bodybuilders disconcerting , o r worse . I n respons e t o th e negativ e reac tions receive d b y th e station , official s apparentl y wer e prompte d t o se t limits o n femal e bodybuilders ' muscularity . Diane , a professional body builder, describe d th e even t an d its aftermath : When th e Ms . Olympi a wa s live , i t wa s like , thos e wome n wer e huge—just monstrou s wome n an d th e IFB B got s o man y negativ e comments abou t thi s fro m th e genera l public . Th e peopl e wh o bu y the magazines are like, "What is your sport? What are you becoming? What ar e these women doing ? The y ar e looking like men. " S o that's when th e IFB B said , "Well , wai t a minute , ladies . W e wan t yo u smaller, we want you more feminine. " Thus, th e issu e o f possibl y alienatin g it s commercia l constituenc y ap pears t o hav e bee n th e impetu s fo r th e mov e bac k t o smaller-muscled , more "feminine-looking " femal e bodybuilders . At th e next women' s professional competition , th e officials' desir e fo r less muscula r an d mor e feminin e bodybuilder s coul d b e seen . A t th e 1992 Ms . Internationa l show , th e mos t muscula r woma n di d no t eve n place i n th e to p six . On e extremel y muscula r femal e bodybuilder , Laur a

i. Th e guns of Juliette Bergmann. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

2. Posin g in the weight room: Tanya Herman. (Phot o courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

3- Th e feminine apologeti c revealed: Bernie Price. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

4- Th e elusive V shape: Anja Langer . (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

5. Th e semi-relaxe d stance : Barbar a Kafkora , Czec h Republic . (Phot o courtesy o f Women's Physique World Magazine.)

6. Sea-sid e flexing: Roser Hernandez. (Phot o courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

j . Muscula r lines, in the muscularity round, sid e chest with bicep: Cathy LeFrancois. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

8. Posin g during the presentation round: Frederique Auchart, France . (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

9. Posin g and flexing durin g the presentation round : Caron Hospedales, USA. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

10. Back-to-bac k competition: Tami Imbriale {left) an d Cathy Palyo. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

i i . Buf f an d hard: Zdenka Razymova, Czec h Republic. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

12. Cu t and ripped during the muscularity round, sid e chest with bicep: Judy Moshkosky. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

13- Strik e a pose, presentation round : Caron Hospedales, USA. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

14- Som e of bodybuilding's heavyweights, in th e symmetry round an d the semi-relaxe d stance: Lenda Murray [left), Sandy Riddell (center), and Bev Francis [right). (Photo courtesy of Women Physique World Magazine.)

15. Holdin g up more than half o f the sky: Andrea Izard, Australia. (Phot o courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

16. Spreadin g her wings: Rita Dytuco, Canada. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

17- A shredded deltoid and the Horseshoe tricep: Amelia Hernandez , Spain. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

18. Bac k in black: th e muscular moguls of Paula Suzuki, USA. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

19. A six-gun salute, the muscularity round : Jan Tana Pro Classic. (Photo courtesy of Women's Physique World Magazine.)

Contested Terrain i Creavalle, di d plac e third . However , th e winne r o f th e contes t wa s on e of th e leas t muscula r an d mos t "traditionally " attractiv e femal e body builders (blon d hair, blu e eyes , and a former fitness competitor ) compet ing o n th e professiona l circuit . Confusio n reigned . Heather , a nationa l and professional judge , reflected : I think whe n Anj a Schreine r an d Debbi e Muggli [tw o softe r women ] were picked in the higher classes at the Ms. International, i t was way out i n lef t field . The y trie d t o se t a n exampl e tha t wa s fa r to o hars h because ther e wer e girl s ther e wh o wer e jus t a s feminine o n a littl e bit mor e muscula r basis , bu t a t leas t thei r muscularit y fi t thei r frames. Th e tw o the y picke d reall y ar e no t predispose d t o b e grea t bodybuilders. Similarly, David, a state judge, explained : At the Ms. Olympia, they put Bev Francis second, and then you go up to th e Ms . Internationa l a t Columbu s an d the y pu t Debbi e Muggl i second an d Laur a Creavall e thir d i n bot h contests . Yo u kno w it' s really confusin g wha t they'v e done . An d Paul a Bircumsha w woul d have probabl y bee n u p ther e somewher e bu t the y change d thei r whole judgin g criteri a fro m on e extrem e t o th e other , becaus e Anj a Schreiner wh o wo n th e Ms . International, i n m y opinion , shouldn' t have even been in the top six. She's a pretty girl and has good symmetry, but sh e doesn't have much muscle . Thus, inconsistencie s occurre d no t jus t betwee n show s bu t withi n th e same sho w a s well. Davi d share d a commen t b y anothe r judge : "I f the y are going t o b e critica l o f women' s muscularity , the y nee d t o eithe r pu t Bev Francis first o r last. Sh e doesn't nee d t o be secon d o r third; tha t jus t confuses th e audienc e an d everything. " Man y judges , regardless o f thei r stance o n th e relationshi p betwee n muscularit y an d femininity , di d no t understand ho w th e judge s coul d hav e chose n who m the y di d as th e to p two contestant s a t th e sho w becaus e the y represente d tw o extreme s o n the continuu m o f muscularity . Wher e di d thi s serie s o f decision s leav e the sport ?

The Aftershock s I interviewed mos t judge s an d femal e bodybuilder s i n thi s stud y withi n a yea r o f th e Ms . Internationa l contes t whe n th e spor t wa s stil l reelin g

n

ii2 Conteste d Terrain from th e fallou t ove r tha t show' s decision . Mos t judge s believe d tha t judging inconsistency—a s indicate d b y th e tw o differen t type s o f phy siques tha t wer e rewarded a t th e Ms . Olympia an d the Ms. Internationa l contests, a s well a s the interna l inconsistencie s a t th e Ms. Internationa l contest—was a problem endemi c t o the sport , but thei r explanation s fo r these fluctuations varied . Man y judge s gav e multipl e reason s fo r suc h discrepancies. Fo r instance , Heathe r explaine d tha t jus t a s ther e ar e fluctuations i n society' s fashions , ther e ar e als o change s i n wha t i s con sidered the ideal physique in female bodybuilding : Any sport goes through its growing process. I mean, women's bodybuilding, the first contes t was only judged in 1978 . So it's not really tha t old o f a sport an d you se e trends . Just lik e i n society , longe r dresse s come i n fashio n fo r a couple o f years , the n shor t dresse s . . . we see ups an d downs . You know , wome n didn' t hav e a lot o f muscl e bac k in th e earl y '80 s because the y had not bee n trainin g tha t long , so it's a very dieted down , ripped look. Then a s some of the girls got bigger, it wa s th e mor e muscula r look . The n i t wa s back t o being th e mor e feminine look . So it has gone through the ups and downs. However, th e growin g proces s fo r mal e bodybuildin g wa s muc h differ ent—there ha s been a trend towar d a n increase i n musculature . Oscilla tions from mor e to less musculature di d not occu r in the early history of male bodybuildin g a s i t ha s i n femal e bodybuilding . Moreover , Heathe r attributed th e first fluctuations i n female bodybuildin g t o women's brie f experience wit h weigh t training . However , sh e faile d t o explai n th e reasons fo r th e tren d bac k towar d les s muscula r femal e bodybuilders . Her quot e als o reveal s he r underlyin g premis e tha t "mor e muscular " indicates "les s feminine. " Heather late r attribute d som e o f th e fluctuations i n th e judgin g deci sions to the inconsistency i n the quality o f athletes : I think part of the problem with ou r sport is that we're very inconsistent i n judging because we can only judge what leve l or what typ e of athlete i s o n stag e tha t day . . . . You kno w mos t o f th e judges , espe cially a t th e nationa l level , the y kno w wha t th e idea l i s an d the y know wha t th e organizatio n like s t o see . Bu t lot s o f times , it' s no t there s o you hav e to tr y t o find th e degre e of physique that' s closes t to it. . . . You see more of the inconsistency, o r what i s termed incon sistency a t th e loca l leve l because ther e is s o much inconsistenc y i n the athletes themselves .

Contested Terrain 11 3 First, i t i s he r contentio n tha t judge s kno w wha t th e organizatio n like s to see . Therefore, th e problem stem s no t fro m th e nationa l offic e failin g to disseminat e informatio n t o it s athlete s o r fro m judges 7 biases , bu t rather from th e qualit y o f the athletes 7 physiques. Others provided less individual-level explanation s for the inconsisten cies. Man y judge s blame d official s fo r waverin g o n wha t the y wante d female bodybuilder s t o look like on stage. For instance, Tracy revealed : Well, it' s ver y confusin g becaus e the y switc h fro m on e yea r t o th e next. One year they pick someone who is big, the next year they pick another woma n wh o i s no t s o bi g lik e Anj a Schreiner , yo u know . They switc h s o much an d this i s the complain t fro m a lot o f contes tants. Th e bodybuilder s don' t kno w wha t th e judge s want , bu t w e don't kno w either . Becaus e the nationa l offic e switche s o n us al l th e time so it's still confusing fo r all of us. The majo r caus e o f suc h inconsistencies , accordin g t o Trac y an d other s who share d her views, was that judge s were not gettin g consisten t infor mation fro m officials . Trac y also concluded tha t sinc e the national offic e did no t clearl y an d concisel y disseminat e informatio n abou t th e pre ferred loo k fo r femal e bodybuilders , confusio n i s t o b e expecte d amon g both contestant s an d judges. Patty, a forme r nationa l competitor , gav e comparabl e structura l rea sons for suc h fluctuations : They don' t kno w what the y want i n female bodybuilder s an d I think that i t reall y stems from th e national leve l because we went throug h cycles wit h femal e bodybuilding . Whe n i t first cam e i n yo u ha d th e little Rache l McLishe s the n the y wen t fro m th e Rache l McLishe s t o the Be v Francis typ e woman an d the n the y decide d the y didn' t wan t that, now they want t o go back toward the Rachel McLishes. Without hesitation , sh e placed th e blam e fo r judgin g inconsistencie s o n the national office . Fro m her vantage point, th e officials annuall y chang e their mind s abou t th e preferre d physique s fo r femal e bodybuilders . Again, thes e fluctuation s ma y b e a n attemp t b y socia l gatekeeper s t o keep th e spor t marketabl e t o a wider audienc e i n a n attemp t t o increas e profits, i.e. , it is planned obsolescence .

ii4 Conteste d Terrain

In Your Eyes: The Variability i n Salienc e of Muscularit y and Femininity It i s th e responsibilit y o f th e to p official s t o disseminat e informatio n about rule s an d regulations t o their judge s and contestants . They d o thi s at judges ' meeting s befor e contests , a t meeting s wit h stat e chairs , through informa l communicatio n channels , b y meetin g peopl e a t con tests, an d finally throug h IFB B and NP C literature . Official s infor m th e judges, and it is up to the judges to enforce th e new regulations an d rules. However, th e informatio n i s no t alway s receive d b y bodybuilder s i n time fo r thei r contests . Thus , bodybuilder s ofte n expres s confusio n an d frustration abou t th e fluctuation s o r inconsistencie s i n judgin g stan dards. In fact, on e of th e issue s heatedly debate d throughou t th e spor t of female bodybuildin g i s that o f judging inconsistencies, a s was illustrate d in the last section . Inconsistency eve n invade s th e "set " criteri a fo r evaluation—judge s disagree a s t o whic h o f th e thre e "equall y important " factor s i s mos t salient. Thus , whil e som e judge s reveale d tha t symmetr y i s th e mos t important criterio n b y whic h the y judg e femal e bodybuilders , other s emphasized th e importanc e o f muscularity . Fo r instance , Tracy , a stat e judge, revealed : Well, o f course , femal e bodybuilder s hav e go t t o hav e muscl e an d I look a t th e shap e o f th e muscl e i n eac h muscl e group . And th e on e with th e best overal l shape , muscular shape , really i s who I go for. If she's big, and she's got really good shape, and she still looks feminine , and I'v e go t somebod y els e who i s not s o big and ha s equa l shape , I will go for the bigger one as long as she looks feminine . Overall, fo r Tracy , muscularit y i s th e mos t importan t criterio n whe n she evaluate s a femal e bodybuilder . However , sh e als o qualifie d thi s statement b y sayin g tha t th e femal e bodybuilde r mus t als o stil l loo k feminine. Perplexe d b y thi s qualifier , I aske d he r wha t sh e meant , an d she replied : "Well , you ca n tel l he r hip s fro m he r waist . I n othe r words , that sh e ha s a waistline . N o facia l hair , makeu p i s on , he r hai r i s i n a flattering style . The way she carries herself o n stage, her posing routine." Thus th e manifestation s o f femininit y ar e multifaceted . No t onl y ca n a bodybuilder no t exhibi t sign s o f steroi d us e (a s i s illustrate d b y th e comments abou t hip-to-wais t rati o an d facia l hair) , sh e mus t als o mak e sure tha t al l signifier s o f femininit y ar e enhanced , includin g us e o f

Contested Terrain 11 5 makeup, hairstyle, walking style, and posing routine. While female body builders engag e i n a n activit y wit h stereotypicall y masculin e qualitie s (extreme muscularity , fo r instance) , the y mus t compensat e wit h en hanced femininity . The y mus t se t themselve s apar t fro m thei r mal e counterparts. Tracy's comment s ar e suggestive o f th e feminin e apologeti c i n whic h female athlete s are , in essence , compensating fo r enterin g a traditionall y masculine domai n (sport s in general) by amplifying aspect s of their femi ninity. 15 Th e feminin e apologeti c function s t o legitimat e women' s involvement i n spor t an d t o reduce rol e conflic t tha t the y migh t experi enced i n sport. 16 Th e apologeti c ma y tak e a number o f forms. 17 Th e on e most applicabl e t o femal e bodybuilder s i s th e exaggerate d us e o f femi nine accouterment s suc h a s makeup , jewelry , breas t implants , an d th e like. The apologeti c implies tha t femal e athlete s ca n stil l look feminine , are feminine , an d wan t t o b e feminine, 18 thu s helpin g t o encourag e th e participants an d other s tha t athleti c involvemen t doe s no t invalidat e their clai m t o bein g "real " women. 19 I n othe r words , i n femal e bodybu ilding, suc h exaggerate d display s o f femininit y b y femal e bodybuilder s may b e use d t o counte r th e display s o f ostensibl e muscularit y (an d thus i n som e people' s minds , masculinit y a s well). This tacti c serve s t o reinforce th e femininity o f the athletes . Similarly, Michelle , a nationa l judge , unequivocall y declare d tha t muscularity i s th e mos t importan t criterio n fo r he r whe n sh e evaluate s female bodybuilders : "Well , I stil l lik e muscle . I stil l hav e n o proble m with a woman wh o is up ther e an d she' s really separate d an d she' s reall y got excellent definitio n an d then she' s still got a lot of mass on her, that' s fine wit h m e a s long as the muscl e i s balanced an d rounded, sh e doesn' t look drawn. " He r commen t abou t th e muscle s no t "lookin g drawn " refers t o the effec t tha t diuretic s have o n muscles. However, i n addition , Michelle als o qualifie d he r acceptanc e o f muscularit y wit h statement s about th e importance o f feminine enhancer s muc h lik e Tracy had done : But I wan t t o se e a femal e bod y there . I wan t t o se e th e broade r shoulders, smal l taperin g waist . I don' t wan t t o se e a blocky waist , and for women bodybuilders, I like a slimmer hip. I want he r to walk on stage , he r carriag e ha s t o b e tha t o f a woman , sh e can' t com e lumbering on the stage. When she does her posing, I want to see some fluidity, I don' t wan t t o se e a lo t o f wha t ar e generall y considere d male power poses like a crab or just very masculine wa y of standing , carrying herself.

116 Conteste d Terrai n In additio n t o enhancin g femininit y o n th e body , Trac y emphasize s th e importance o f th e fac e an d hai r a s site s fo r th e enhancemen t o f femi ninity: From th e nec k u p I wan t t o se e a s m u c h attentio n pu t i n t o he r appearance i n he r fac e a s sh e ha s o n th e res t o f he r body . I want t o se e a groome d woma n u p there . I want he r t o mak e a n attemp t t o pu t o n some makeup , fi x he r hair , an d I' m no t sayin g tha t she' s go t t o loo k like a beaut y quee n whe n she' s u p ther e an d tha t I' d tak e a beaut y queen ove r someon e wh o doesn' t hav e thos e looks . Becaus e it' s stil l what I see from th e nec k dow n tha t i s important . N o t h i n g o n th e bod y o r fac e ca n b e lef t unfeminized . Femal e bodybuild ers m u s t enhanc e thei r femininit y t o compensat e fo r th e fac t tha t the y have entere d int o w h a t Trac y an d other s defin e a s dangerou s somati c territory—the muscula r domai n o f masculinity . Thus , t o ensur e tha t they ar e no t mistake n fo r a male , the y wea r makeup , hav e feminin e hairstyles, an d walk , pose , an d stan d onstag e i n conspicuousl y feminin e ways. Judge s w h o hav e th e powe r t o rewar d o r penaliz e a physiqu e m a k e certai n tha t thei r view s o f th e appropriat e relationshi p betwee n femininity an d muscularit y ar e reinforced . T h e parallel s betwee n Michelle' s an d Tracy' s c o m m e n t s ar e notewor thy. Whil e bot h t h i n k tha t muscularit y i s th e m o s t importan t criterion , they qualif y thi s w i t h a n animate d discussio n o f th e importanc e o f female bodybuilder s presentin g a n unequivoca l feminin e self . I n thei r opinion, femal e bodybuilder s shoul d no t onl y ador n themselve s w i t h feminine accouterments , the y shoul d als o obfuscat e an y indicator s o f steroid use . The y fea r tha t femal e bodybuilders , w h e n to o muscular , m a y lose thei r femininity . However, no t al l judge s share d Michelle' s an d Tracy' s opinion s abou t the positionin g o f th e thre e m a i n criteria . Whil e Michell e an d Trac y placed muscularit y hig h o n thei r lis t o f criteri a a s lon g a s thei r feminin ity i s als o enhance d o r exaggerated , other s believe d tha t symmetry , no t muscularity, wa s th e m o s t importan t criterion . Heather , a nationa l judge, explaine d tha t th e first criterio n sh e look s fo r i s symmetry , be cause sh e finds i t th e m o s t estheticall y pleasin g o f th e criteria : Okay, firs t o f all , we loo k for—an d thi s i s i n an y competito r whethe r it's mal e o r female—yo u first loo k fo r th e esthetics , th e symmetry . First o f all , ar e th e genetic s there ? I s th e bon e structur e equal ? Doe s

Contested Terrain 11 7 the bodybuilde r hav e a smal l waist , smal l joints ? Tha t play s a bi g part i n ho w you r muscl e i s goin g t o develo p o n you r frame . Hav e they develope d al l o f thei r muscl e groups ? I s th e uppe r an d lowe r body proportional a s well a s th e righ t t o lef t sides ? Ther e i s a lot of asymmetry whe n yo u loo k a t som e physique s becaus e som e peopl e being a dominant right-hande d person , yo u wil l se e the righ t sid e of the body a lot more developed than th e left. S o you really look for th e esthetics. I s the symmetr y there ? An d I think tha t play s th e bigges t part to go on to win a national contest . She then describe d what sh e wants t o se e in term s o f muscular develop ment: To do it on a consistent basi s you really have to have nice genetics as far a s bon e structur e an d you r proportions . S o I look t o se e tha t al l my muscle groups are developed. I will place somebody higher whe n they ar e totall y develope d i n th e package , eve n thoug h th e packag e might b e a littl e bi t smalle r tha n somebod y who' s go t a coupl e o f outstanding bod y parts but ar e real, rea l lackin g i n others . And the n after yo u get don e with symmetry , an d the developmen t o f th e mus cle, the n yo u loo k t o se e what thei r nutritio n i s like . Are the y ver y . . . d o thei r muscle s loo k drawn , d o the y loo k nic e an d full , yo u know, wher e th e insertio n sight s are, - ar e the y doin g thei r weigh t lifting? Like , are the motions, th e full rang e of motion? Yo u see a lot of peopl e d o th e movement s improperly . S o thei r muscle s develop not in the symmetrica l way . So you really look at each of the muscl e groups to see that everythin g is developed. After examinin g th e symmetr y an d muscularity , Heathe r look s a t th e final, ye t important , component s o f the tota l package: And also how they present themselve s . . . especially when you get t o the nationa l leve l becaus e i t come s dow n t o littl e thing s lik e ho w well the y presen t themselves , ho w wel l thei r routin e i s choreo graphed. How much pois e they hav e o n stage . What ar e their overal l features a s far a s how thei r colorin g is put on . How their sui t is , you know, doe s i t fi t thei r physique ? Th e hair , th e makeup , th e whole , everything comes down to it when you get to the higher levels. Heather's quote , when compare d t o Michelle's an d Tracy's quotes , high lights th e disparit y i n th e judges ' criteria . Symmetr y i s mos t importan t to Tracy . Furthermore , wherea s Trac y an d Michell e candidl y reveale d

118 Conteste d Terrain that the y had "n o problem with" cut , ripped, an d muscular femal e body builders, Heathe r mentione d tha t i n he r min d i t wa s importan t fo r fe male bodybuilder s t o hav e "muscl e group s tha t ar e developed. " Thus , even th e way s i n whic h Heathe r define d an d discusse d muscularit y varied fro m Tracy' s an d Michelle's ; fo r thes e tw o judges , a female body builder ca n stil l b e bi g i f sh e ha s no t diminishe d he r femininit y i n th e process. Heathe r wa s mor e intereste d i n th e overal l muscula r develop ment fro m a symmetrical an d nutritional perspective . In addition , whil e Tracy an d Michell e indicate d tha t the y woul d choos e a muscular, sym metrical, an d feminine bodybuilde r ove r a smaller-sized athlete , Heathe r declared tha t sh e would vot e fo r a smaller-packaged femal e bodybuilde r over a large r one , i f th e smalle r on e ha d a bette r overal l symmetrica l package. Once again, these three judges emphasized the importance that femal e bodybuilders mus t loo k lik e wome n an d the y shoul d posses s feminin e attributes i n th e wa y the y carr y themselve s onstag e (n o lumberin g t o and fr o lik e a mal e bodybuilder ) an d ho w the y wea r thei r makeu p an d style thei r hair . Furthermore , b y discussin g th e importanc e o f small , tapered, an d nonblocky waist s i n female bodybuilders , the y implie d tha t steroid use should be limited .

The Effects: Confusion, Frustration, Departure The fluctuations i n judging have led to confusion amon g both bodybuild ers an d judge s a s t o wha t i s expecte d o f them . Diane , a professiona l bodybuilder sighed , "Sometime s I don' t understan d wha t the y ar e do ing," an d Mark , a judge, explaine d tha t "th e wome n wh o wan t t o com pete don' t eve n kno w wha t t o d o anymore. " Th e one s wh o ultimatel y pay the price for such inconsistencies i n judging protocol are the bodybuilders themselves . The y prepar e fo r competition s no t knowin g whic h criteria th e judges will be told to emphasize for a particular competition . This typ e o f confusio n quickl y lead s t o frustration , a s Heather revealed , "What femal e bodybuilder s ar e expressin g t o m e i s basicall y tha t the y still wan t t o compete , bu t the y hav e t o kno w wha t the y nee d t o do . They're very confused s o they're als o very frustrated." Michell e stated : I think tha t you're going to find a lot of women at the higher levels of competition wh o have used steroids or I should say have that kin d of

Contested Terrain 11 9 muscularity tha t the y ar e now frownin g upon , they'r e th e one s tha t are really i n th e Catch-22 . They hav e spen t th e last , what , five , six , or whatever years developing their body with th e thought that' s wha t the judge s wanted t o see . They wanted t o see that kin d o f muscular ity. An d sometimes , yes , the y hav e use d steroid s an d endangere d their healt h t o ge t t o tha t poin t an d I hav e t o quit e honestl y sa y that i f they'r e a t tha t leve l o f competition , the y hav e tha t kin d o f muscularity, the y probabl y hav e been . So , they'r e i n a reall y ba d situation becaus e the y hav e don e al l thi s t o ge t wher e the y are , an d now th e judge s ar e turnin g aroun d an d tellin g them , "I' m sorry , bu t that's no t wha t w e wan t afte r all. " Yea h [th e rule s hav e basicall y changed o n them] , and they're kin d o f stuc k going , "Oh , yo u mean I just spen t the last some odd years and some odd thousand dollar s and all o f this—I'v e lowere d m y voice , I'v e grow n hai r o n m y chin , an d all this stuff—for nothing. " I think it' s very unfair . Later i n th e interview , Michell e tie d th e recen t change s i n judgin g t o the sponsors ' desir e t o attrac t mor e peopl e t o competitions . Femal e bodybuilders ar e thu s lef t i n a quandar y a s t o wha t i s expecte d o f the m from judges . This i s not a harmless situatio n becaus e femal e bodybuild ers' livelihood depend s o n being able to read accuratel y what i s expecte d of the m fo r competitions . However , whe n th e criteri a chang e fro m on e contest t o anothe r an d fro m on e yea r t o another , thi s tas k become s virtually impossible . Changing one's physique canno t be done overnight , and i f femal e bodybuilder s misrea d th e evaluativ e cues , the y ma y b e out o f contentio n fo r th e to p placement s i n contest s an d an y produc t endorsements fo r well over a year. Patty, a forme r nationa l competitor , echoe d th e sentiment s o f man y of the bodybuilders : I have see n contest s wher e a woman . . . I mean sh e almos t looke d like a man , bu t sh e wa s stil l th e bes t on e o n tha t stage . Eve n i f I didn't agre e with wha t sh e had don e to herself, sh e was stil l th e bes t bodybuilder o n that stag e an d th e judge s purposely di d not giv e it t o her. Well, where's th e fairness i n that? I f you're going to have a drugtested show or say "we don't want you looking like men," then writ e down som e rule s tha t w e hav e t o g o by . Don' t wai t unti l yo u ge t onstage after you've busted your butt all these years training and then decide t o giv e i t t o somebod y else . So , I just thin k the y nee d t o get their ac t togethe r an d decid e wha t the y wan t t o d o wit h women' s

120 Conteste d Terrain bodybuilding. There's only two national contests now because I think women ar e tired of not knowing what th e powers-that-be want . Patty thu s believe s tha t th e centra l issu e i s fairness t o thos e wh o "bus t their butts" da y in an d da y out t o compete effectivel y a t competitions . If women d o not receiv e fai r an d consisten t treatmen t b y judge s an d offi cials, regardles s o f thei r passio n fo r an d dedicatio n t o th e sport , som e will choos e no t t o compete . A s Trac y said , "That' s wh y w e ar e seein g the leve l o f wome n goin g down , becaus e the y don' t kno w wha t th e judges want, bu t w e don' t either. " I n th e eye s o f som e bodybuilders an d judges, th e sport , b y sendin g inconsisten t message s t o it s athletes , i s weeding out som e of its best competitors. Therefore, th e sport as a whole must agre e o n th e criteri a b y whic h femal e bodybuilder s wil l b e judge d and must strictl y adher e to them . Why ar e man y o f thos e associate d wit h women' s bodybuildin g s o concerned wit h increasin g femininit y an d limitin g muscularity ? I s thi s concern limite d t o judge s an d officials , o r d o female bodybuilder s them selves shar e som e o f thes e opinions ? I n th e followin g chapter , I addres s the interrelated issue s o f femininity, muscularity , an d marketability .

FIVE

Profitable Physiques , Precarious Hegemonie s The Maintenance of the Feminine Apologetic There's a lot of people in the general public who really think "Femal e bodybuilding is gross and freaky. That' s not what a woman is supposed to look like." . .. I would say that they think that the whole thing, the whole sport of bodybuilding is a freak, wit h women being the biggest freaks i n the show. —Michelle, a national judge

I discussed Ja n Felshin's feminin e apolo getic, wherei n femal e athlete s ma y compensat e fo r thei r participatio n in th e traditionall y masculin e domai n o f sport s b y emphasizin g thei r femininity.1 A s w e hav e seen , thi s phenomeno n i s irrefutabl y operativ e in th e spor t o f femal e bodybuilding . Judge s an d official s serv e a s gate keepers to ensure that femal e bodybuilders actualiz e the feminine apolo getic. I n th e mind s o f som e gatekeepers , however , femal e bodybuilder s do not full y understan d th e importance o f embodying the feminine apol ogetic an d th e exten t t o whic h the y ar e expecte d t o comply . Angere d b y what h e consider s incorrigibl e femal e bodybuilders , wit h overl y devel oped musculature, Kyle , a highly ranked official , asserted : I N TH E P R E V I O U S C H A P T E R ,

The wome n ar e to o extreme . An d b y the m bein g to o muscula r w e don't attrac t mainstrea m fan s t o come see the contest. They' d rathe r go see a fitness sho w o r bikini sho w o r somethin g lik e tha t becaus e when th e wome n bodybuilder s ar e s o muscular the y loo k lik e guys . . . . [I n the beginning of female bodybuilding] these women were very

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122 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies attractive an d othe r wome n wante d t o loo k lik e the m an d th e guy s wanted t o look a t them . That' s wh y i t dre w a large crowd . Bu t now , with th e women bein g so extreme, you don' t fin d man y women tha t want t o go to the gym and train to look like that . Kyle wants female bodybuilders to embody the feminine apologeti c mor e fully chiefl y becaus e feminin e femal e bodybuilder s attrac t mor e specta tors an d thu s mor e mone y enter s th e sport . In thi s chapter , I rely o n th e work o f Da n C . Hilliard who , i n hi s analysi s o f th e portrayal s o f femal e and mal e tenni s player s i n magazin e articles , argue d tha t th e apologeti c is particularly importan t whe n women' s sport s becom e commercia l en terprises tha t mus t attrac t sponsor s an d payin g spectators. 2 H e main tained, "I t i s o f grea t economi c interes t [t o sponsors ] tha t th e athlete s participating i n th e event s the y sponso r be perceived a s feminine b y th e potential buyer s o f thei r products." 3 Femal e bodybuilder s ar e economi cally motivate d t o pay homag e t o th e feminin e apologeti c becaus e thei r personal-endorsement income s wil l b e cu t i f the y ar e no t perceive d a s feminine. Thi s interrelationshi p betwee n th e economi c interest s o f th e social gatekeepers an d female bodybuilder s create s a system wher e both , "as participant s i n a n ongoin g commercia l athleti c system , ma y ente r into an unspoken complicit y t o present a n image that emphasize s under lying femininity. 4 B y excluding overl y "masculine " femal e bodybuilder s from th e monetary rewar d syste m unde r th e guise that the y repel payin g spectators, socia l gatekeeper s ar e abl e t o promot e thei r ow n visio n o f what femal e bodybuilder s shoul d look like .

Onstage Gendere d Creation s Bodybuilders enhanc e an d displa y thei r gende r i n a variet y o f way s i n bodybuilding competitions . On e wa y i s by thei r musica l selection s an d posing routine s durin g th e presentatio n roun d o f a competition. Durin g this ninety-secon d round , bot h femal e an d mal e bodybuilder s displa y their musculatur e t o th e musi c o f thei r choice . However , ther e ar e sig nificant difference s i n th e musical selection s an d posing styles o f femal e and male bodybuilders. Females are more likely to perform fluid, balleti c movements an d poses onstage; they are also more likely to select popula r dance tunes o r sentimental lov e songs from suc h artists as Janet Jackson , Mariah Carey , o r SNAP! . Som e wome n incorporat e seductiv e poses ,

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 12 3 glances, and lyrics in their routines a s well. For example, at one competi tion, a professional femal e bodybuilde r performe d he r musica l presenta tion to a song with th e following lyrics , " I know what boys want, I know what guy s like . . . na . . . na . . . na . . . na . . . na. I know what boys want , boys want , boy s want/ 7 Reminiscen t o f Marily n Monroe' s infamou s "happy birthday " performanc e fo r Joh n F . Kennedy , thi s bodybuilde r mouthed th e word s t o th e song , a s sh e move d an d dance d i n suggestiv e poses wit h intermitten t coquettis h glance s towar d th e audienc e mem bers an d judges . Thi s danc e routine , i n combinatio n wit h th e musica l selection, serve d t o reaffir m he r femininit y an d heterosexualit y t o th e audience members an d judges, particularly th e males. 5 Male bodybuilders ar e more likel y t o strik e thei r muscula r pose s i n a hard, distinct , an d fast manner , an d they ar e also more likely t o incorpo rate pose s know n a s "powe r poses " suc h a s th e crab. 6 Althoug h the y smile at the audience and judges during the presentation round of competition, the y d o no t appea r t o d o s o wit h th e sam e frequenc y a s femal e bodybuilders. Also, they ar e more likel y t o grimace, growl , an d at times , even yel l durin g th e presentatio n round . Moreover , thei r musica l selec tions diffe r markedl y fro m thos e o f femal e bodybuilder s i n tha t the y ar e more likel y t o pos e t o lou d an d thunderou s roc k musi c suc h a s tha t o f Guns N ' Roses , Nine Inch Nails, or Metallica . Another wa y bodybuilder s construc t thei r gende r onstag e i s b y thei r hairstyles. According to regulations, female bodybuilder s must no t allo w their hai r t o cove r an y o f thei r musculatur e durin g competitions . How ever, thi s rul e doe s no t translat e int o allowin g the m t o cu t of f mos t o f their hair for competition—in fac t short-croppe d hair for female bodybu ilders is a rarity. In th e 199 2 Ms. Olympia line-up , onl y on e bodybuilde r out o f nineteen ha d shor t hair . Rather , the y simpl y pul l thei r hai r u p of f their shoulder s an d still present i t i n a feminine way . Male bodybuilders, on the other hand, are likely to sport very short haircuts, often eve n cre w cuts, on the day of the competition. Susan , a regional bodybuilder, talke d about th e differences betwee n female an d male bodybuilders in preparing to present thei r gendere d selve s on the da y of the competition : Women pu t o n makeu p an d car e a whole lo t mor e abou t thei r hai r before a show than guy s do. I mean guys, in getting ready for a show, get thei r hai r cu t a s short a s they can . I haven't see n on e yet puttin g on mascara . Fo r women , it s lik e they'r e gettin g marrie d th e da y

124 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies of th e bodybuildin g contest . The y pa y thei r hairdresser s god-awfu l amounts o f mone y t o com e i n o n Saturda y mornin g t o d o their hai r and do their makeup . Furthermore, wherea s onl y 5 percen t o f adul t America n wome n ar e blond,7 the vast majorit y o f white professional femal e bodybuilder s hav e bleached-blond hair . A t th e 199 2 Ms. Olympia, fo r instance , eigh t o f th e ten whit e America n femal e bodybuilder s wer e blondes—perhap s be cause o f it s associatio n wit h yout h an d fun, 8 an d with a n All-American , California beach , healthy , fit , an d playfu l look—a n imag e wit h whic h bodybuilding activel y attempt s t o associat e itsel f becaus e o f it s market ability. In thei r ques t t o construc t a feminin e presentatio n o f self, 9 man y female bodybuilders , especiall y thos e wh o compet e a t th e nationa l an d professional levels , go even further tha n the above. Many go to unhealth y extremes t o appea r feminin e whil e simultaneousl y sportin g immens e musculature. Fo r instance , becaus e femal e bodybuilder s underg o exten sive trainin g an d dietin g regimens , the y hav e ver y lo w level s o f bod y fat whe n the y ar e i n competitio n shape ; high-leve l competitiv e femal e bodybuilders hav e body-fa t level s o f onl y abou t 3 to 1 0 percent o n th e day o f competition , compare d wit h body-fa t level s o f approximatel y 2 3 percent fo r th e averag e American woman . A t suc h lo w level s of bodyfat , female bodybuilder s los e the majorit y o f thei r breast tissue, - and becaus e breasts epitomiz e femininity , man y ge t breas t implant s t o compensat e for thi s loss . I n a recen t articl e addressin g th e prevalenc e o f cosmeti c surgery amon g bodybuilders , i t wa s suggeste d tha t perhap s a s man y a s 80 percent o f professional a s well a s a substantial percentage o f national level femal e bodybuilder s hav e undergon e breas t augmentatio n despit e the well-publicize d potentia l healt h risk s fo r doin g so. 10 While bot h th e IFBB and th e NP C hav e outlawe d muscl e implant s fo r mal e an d femal e bodybuilders, breast implant s ar e legal. And not onl y are they legal, the y appear t o b e widel y condone d an d eve n encourage d b y individual s a t every level in the sport . Female bodybuilders 7 reason s fo r goin g t o suc h length s includ e thei r perception tha t i t improve s thei r appearanc e an d thu s enhance s thei r self-image.11 I n fact , Stephanie , a professional femal e bodybuilder , con fessed tha t par t o f th e reaso n sh e go t breas t implant s an d ha d facia l reconstructive surger y was because it mad e her feel better abou t herself :

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 12 5 Female bodybuilders dye their hair, get breast implants, get nose jobs, because I'v e bee n throug h m y shar e o f that . Par t o f m e doin g wha t I've don e didn' t totall y hav e t o d o with wha t th e judge s wanted. It' s just th e fact tha t I' m o n stage in front o f all these people and I'm th e one tha t ha s t o constantl y loo k i n magazine s an d se e picture s o f myself. An d whe n yo u se e picture s o f yoursel f ove r an d ove r again , you start to look at the things that ar e wrong and you go, "Wow, look at m y sid e view . God , tha t ca n b e correcte d a littl e bit. " I mean , I look a t mysel f i n th e mirro r ever y day , but I don't hav e t o loo k a t a still sho t an d jus t kee p lookin g a t it . Tha t cause d m e t o say , "Well , you need a little work on your nose or something." Breasts are something I always wanted . . . because I never ever had any. . .. I think o n a femal e bodybuilder , though , par t o f th e reaso n a lo t o f u s d o i t i s because one of the question s w e are commonly aske d is, "Why don' t women bodybuilder s hav e breasts? " Really , it' s stupi d becaus e mos t female athlete s perio d don' t hav e a lo t o f breas t becaus e we'r e ath letes and we [have] low body fat [levels ] and breasts are just body fat . Notice, however , tha t ther e ar e othe r reason s Stephani e gav e for havin g reconstructive breas t an d facia l surgery . First , sh e wante d t o fee l bette r about ho w sh e looked onstag e an d in magazines . Second , sh e mentione d being partially influence d b y "wha t th e judge s wanted." Sh e was not th e only bodybuilde r t o mentio n bein g approache d o r influence d b y com ments mad e b y judge s abou t gettin g breas t implants . Other s als o re vealed that judge s approach the m an d talk abou t th e positive effect s tha t breast implant s woul d hav e o n thei r placement s i n shows . Fo r instance , Vicky, a professional bodybuilder , reporte d that a few o f her bodybuildin g peers ha d aske d judge s wha t the y woul d nee d t o d o t o improv e thei r placing. In one case, a judge responded, "Whe n are you going to get breast augmentation?" Late r i n th e interview , sh e said , " I thin k it' s wron g t o tell wome n 'you'r e no t feminin e unles s yo u hav e bi g breasts,' an d the y don't loo k goo d anywa y whe n yo u ge t lea n [fo r a competition]. " How ever, othe r judge s insiste d tha t femal e bodybuilder s shoul d hav e moder ate-sized breasts eve n when competing . Some judges masked thei r suggestion s in terminology relate d to bodybuilding. For instance, a regional bodybuilder, Susan , recalled: "I've heard comments fro m judge s tha t i f a woma n doesn' t hav e a larg e chest , i t really detract s fro m he r symmetr y score s becaus e wome n ar e suppose d to b e buil t lik e that. " I f judge s d o no t thin k a femal e bodybuilde r i s

126 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies "symmetrical," the y wil l mark he r dow n eve n if thi s i s not a fair assess ment fo r a judg e t o make . Femal e bodybuilder s kno w this . Thus , al though som e judges may not explicitl y tell women t o get breast enhance ments becaus e "wome n ar e suppose d t o have breasts/ 7 the y i n effec t d o so by implying that i t will improve a bodybuilder's chance s o f doing well in the symmetr y round s o f contests . Thus, in addition to personal reasons for enhancing one's femininity — feeling mor e attractiv e an d feelin g bette r abou t oneself—ther e ar e in strumental reason s a s well , whic h ar e institutionall y supporte d b y th e social gatekeepers . Femal e bodybuilder s hav e clearl y an d continuousl y received message s fro m th e gatekeeper s tha t i f the y wan t t o d o wel l i n the spor t competitivel y an d economically , the y nee d t o enhanc e thei r femininity i n certai n accepte d ways . Thes e individua l an d institutiona l reasons see m t o b e mutuall y reinforcing . Fo r instance , recal l Susan' s remark tha t femal e bodybuilder s pu t a lot o f energ y int o preparin g thei r faces an d hairstyle s i n feminin e way s o n th e da y o f th e competition , much lik e the y woul d o n thei r weddin g day s o r fo r a beaut y pageant . When I aske d he r wh y the y di d this , sh e responded : "Yo u worr y abou t that stuf f whe n yo u g o to a show. There's stil l som e o f that stuf f i n you . A prett y fac e i s mor e importan t o n a femal e bodybuilde r tha n a mal e bodybuilder. Yo u d o it becaus e yo u wan t t o win . I mean, it' s par t o f th e routine. Th e judge s notic e it. " Vick y an d Stephanie' s comment s sugges t that socia l gatekeeper s hav e a rol e i n affectin g th e way s femal e body builders construc t thei r femininity . Thes e individua l an d institutiona l reasons propel many female bodybuilders dow n the road to enhance thei r femininity i n man y ways—throug h makeup , hairstyle , posin g styl e an d musical selection , walkin g form , an d reconstructiv e facia l an d breas t surgeries. But d o judges and official s reall y emphasiz e th e importanc e of attractive an d feminine-lookin g femal e bodybuilder s a s muc h a s femal e bodybuilders think , o r i s ther e som e projectio n o n th e par t o f thes e women? T o answer thi s question , I asked bot h judge s an d official s wha t characteristics they felt were important when they evaluate female bodybuilders an d compared thei r statement s wit h thos e o f the women .

Judges and "The Overall Package" According to judges in this study , the "overall " or "complete package" is what i s importan t whe n evaluatin g bot h femal e an d mal e bodybuilders . When I asked Mary , a bodybuilder, t o explai n he r interpretatio n o f wha t

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 12 7 is mean t b y thi s term , sh e replied : "Whe n the y sa y they'r e lookin g fo r the 'complete package/ i t means tha t it' s easier for a nice-looking perso n to win than it is for an ugly person." However, "overal l package" is given more weight whe n judgin g female bodybuilder s tha n mal e bodybuilders . For example, Linda , a regional judge, explained : You hav e peopl e lik e "Sue. " I mea n I'v e neve r see n anybod y train , we've bee n i n California , we'v e bee n al l over . An d I'v e neve r see n anybody train a s hard, o r for anybody to look as hard as she does. But I don't thin k tha t sh e will eve r . . . [do well] . . . because . . . i f a man goes u p ther e an d he' s go t thi s big , I mean h e i s totall y cu t an d th e muscularity i s unreal , an d i f he' s no t handsome , I mean the y don' t care whether he' s handsome, whethe r hi s look s ar e appealing o r not. He can d o well. But a woman, i f sh e is not a complete tota l package, if she doesn't have the showmanshi p o r this sex y and being feminin e and bein g thi s an d bein g tha t . . . I mea n sh e won' t d o it . S o that' s where I sit. But it's very . . . women's bodybuilding is very controver sial. The "overal l package " fo r femal e bodybuilder s i s mor e multifacete d than fo r mal e bodybuilders . Male s mus t b e muscular , symmetrical , an d neat. Females , o n th e othe r hand , mus t b e symmetrical , muscula r bu t not to o muscular , neat , feminine , and , i n th e mind s o f som e judges , attractive. Thus , althoug h ther e i s overla p i n th e characteristic s o n which femal e an d mal e competitor s ar e evaluated , ther e ar e difference s as well. Mary, a regional competitor an d judge, discussed th e overlap : I mean i f you get right dow n t o it, mal e an d female bodybuilder s ar e judged alik e i n a lo t o f ways . W e want t o mak e sur e w e hav e go t a thin waist , ther e hasn' t bee n dru g abus e involve d wher e it' s notice able, an d we want th e women t o sta y lookin g lik e women. Men , w e want th e mass , th e thickness , th e vascularity , th e muscularity . An d we're lookin g a t th e sam e thing s fo r women . So , no there' s no t tha t much of a difference, no . Echoing many of Mary's sentiments but als o highlighting the differences , Michelle, a national judg e asserted : Both mal e an d female , w e loo k a t structure , w e loo k a t muscula r development, w e loo k a t genera l conditio n a s fa r a s vascularity an d tightness an d al l tha t goo d stuff . Wher e th e differenc e come s i n is , "Are al l thos e criteri a o n th e femal e physiqu e pleasin g o r not? " S o

n 8 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies what I' m sayin g is the on e aspec t tha t i s not involve d i n mal e bodybuilding tha t i s involved i n female bodybuildin g i s that bi g questio n of femininity . A woman' s physiqu e stil l ha s t o hav e muscularity , separation, balance , an d symmetry , bu t it' s go t t o b e o n a feminin e package . . . which is very, very subjective . Although bot h Mar y an d Michell e contende d tha t "mal e an d femal e bodybuilders ar e judge d alik e i n a lo t o f ways/ 7 the y acknowledge d th e existence o f gender-specifi c difference s i n th e criteri a b y which the y ar e judged. Judge s mus t ensur e tha t "th e wome n sta y lookin g lik e women " and tha t th e criteri a o f muscularity , separation , balance , an d symmetr y look pleasing on " a feminine package. " These judges thus institutionall y reinforce th e importanc e o f gender distinction s b y limiting femal e body builders' muscularity. The y are the institutional gatekeeper s o f the femi nine apologetic . Because , i n th e judges ' eyes , muscularity , vascularity , and thicknes s ar e perceive d a s bein g congruen t wit h masculinity , n o similar concer n exist s in judging male bodybuilders . Not surprisingly , femal e bodybuilder s an d judges mentioned th e sam e characteristics o f femininity . Fo r instance , judge s se e importanc e o f makeup us e amon g femal e bodybuilders . Tod , a national judge , claime d that "wearin g makeup is part o f the package, but I think it' s a small part . The mai n loo k i s a t th e body , bu t facia l qualitie s com e i n too. " Mar k placed more weight o n the importance o f makeup use: "Oh yes, it is very important tha t wome n d o thei r makeu p an d hai r fo r a sho w becaus e they wan t t o loo k presentable. " Thu s fo r a femal e bodybuilde r t o loo k "presentable" i n Tod' s eyes , sh e must wra p hersel f i n a feminine overal l package. Similarly , Tracy , a state judge , argued tha t "wearin g makeu p i s important fo r femal e competitors . I mean , actuall y no t onl y fo r body builders, bu t i t i s importan t fo r everyda y life . So , it's jus t reall y no t an y different fro m yo u going to compete i n something else . You want t o loo k as nice a s possible." Again, following th e feminine apologetic , Trac y fel t that i f wome n wan t t o loo k thei r best , the y mus t wea r makeu p t o accentuate thei r femininity . Fo r female bodybuilder s t o attain a n accept able overal l packag e an d thu s scor e wel l a t competitions , the y mus t b e concerned wit h "lookin g nice, " whic h Trac y define d a s lookin g femi nine. Heather, a nationa l judge , explaine d tha t i t i s importan t fo r femal e bodybuilders t o wea r makeu p an d b e feminin e becaus e i t i s par t o f American culture : "Sur e i t i s importan t tha t femal e bodybuilder s wea r

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 12 9 makeup. Jus t lik e i f yo u loo k a t th e Olympic s an d yo u loo k a t th e littl e thirteen-year-old gymnast . They'v e al l go t makeu p on . It' s par t o f ou r feminine culture . Whethe r it' s righ t o r wron g righ t now , tha t i s par t o f our society now. " There ar e tw o particularl y interestin g point s abou t Heather' s com ments. First , Heather' s choic e o f sport s metaphor s i s interesting . Al though i t i s tru e tha t femal e gymnast s wea r makeu p whil e competing , gymnasts are not a s fearful abou t transgressin g hegemonic gender boundaries. Rather , gymnast s probabl y wea r makeu p t o b e see n mor e a s women tha n a s th e youn g teenager s the y are . Drawin g agai n o n th e feminine apologetic , I maintai n tha t i t i s mor e importan t fo r femal e bodybuilders t o wea r makeu p tha n fo r femal e gymnast s becaus e th e former ar e involved in a more nontraditional sport . Second , it is interest ing that Heathe r argue d tha t femal e bodybuilder s wea r makeu p becaus e "it's a part of our feminine culture"—fe w peopl e would think o f building large muscle s a s par t o f thi s sam e culture . Thus , i t seem s mor e likel y that becaus e femal e bodybuilder s participat e i n a traditionall y unfemi nine sport , the y tak e i n othe r element s o f tha t cultur e t o reinforc e their femininity—whic h i s simpl y anothe r wa y o f statin g th e feminin e apologetic. Similarly, fo r Mary , i t i s importan t fo r femal e bodybuilder s t o wea r makeup, have their hair done, and look neat because female bodybuilder s still want t o look lik e women : I reall y thin k i t i s importan t fo r femal e bodybuilder s t o hav e thei r hair done, wear makeup, and look neat because we have to remembe r this i s women' s bodybuildin g s o w e wan t t o loo k lik e women . I f a woman ha s diete d properl y an d sh e look s terrifi c fro m th e nec k down, sh e look s horribl e i n th e face . Sh e look s haggard , tired , an d drawn—that's wh y she' s go t t o g o tha t extr a lengt h t o mak e u p fo r that. Puttin g o n extr a makeup , makin g sur e th e nail s loo k groome d and that sh e looks professional . The suggestio n i s tha t i n orde r t o "loo k lik e wome n again, " femal e bodybuilders ow e i t t o themselve s t o completel y disguis e thei r pain , exhaustion, hunge r an d thirs t wit h a veil o f mascara , makeup , nai l pol ish, and hair spray . Michelle, a national judge , als o felt tha t femal e bodybuilder s ca n an d should enhanc e thei r femininity . Sh e explained , "Fro m th e nec k up , I want se e a s muc h attentio n pu t int o he r appearanc e i n he r fac e a s sh e

130 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies has on the rest of her body/ 7 Late r in the interview sh e described her idea of the ultimate femal e bodybuilder : Fd like to see some cleavage, not a lot, because I think a t that leve l of low body fat it' s kin d o f sill y t o se e somebody wit h 3 6 C's u p there , but I would like to see some fullness there . I don't want t o see it flat , I don't wan t t o se e it wher e th e bikin i to p i s wrinkled, [that ] there' s nothing t o fil l i t [th e bikin i top] . I'd lik e t o se e a woma n wh o ha s taken th e tim e an d effor t t o put o n a good face, arrang e her hair i n a nice feminine way. I hate the butch haircuts on female bodybuilders. " I asked her what sh e meant b y "butch " an d she responded : Well, it look s lik e a male haircut.... T o me i t doesn' t matte r i f i t i s short hair or long hair, just as long as it is fixed nicely . . .. I just don' t like t o se e that kin d o f butch in-and-ou t o f th e showe r typ e hair. . . . The reaso n why I say that i s because we're i n suc h a sport tha t i s so atypical o f wha t peopl e ar e use d t o seein g a woma n bein g s o th e things that w e can do to offset that , we should tr y to do the best tha t we can , meanin g hair , face , carriage , tha t kin d o f thing . Fluidit y i n the way they pose. Such compensator y displays , accordin g t o Michelle, serv e to signal t o viewers tha t thes e women , althoug h participatin g i n a nontraditiona l endeavor, ar e no t gende r freaks—the y stil l adher e t o ke y element s o f traditional feminin e appearance . Closely relate d t o th e issu e o f femininit y an d th e presentatio n o f a feminine sel f i s tha t o f physica l attractivenes s which , i n th e state d opinions o f severa l judges , i s define d a s par t o f th e "tota l package " for femal e bodybuilders . Th e judge s wer e aske d th e importanc e o f th e attractiveness o f femal e bodybuilder s whe n the y wer e evaluatin g the m onstage. David , a regiona l judge , responde d tha t i n hi s opinion , attrac tiveness wa s importan t no t onl y fo r femal e bodybuilder s bu t fo r mal e bodybuilders a s well: It's sad to say, but attractivenes s doe s come into account sometimes . It does with women an d it doe s with me n also. I find mysel f noticin g the attractivenes s o f a femal e bodybuilde r an d whe n I find mysel f being aware that thi s woman i s what I consider t o be attractive . . . I stop righ t ther e an d loo k a t th e res t o f he r appearanc e an d judg e th e body instead o f just judgin g the face. Ther e is a tendency, I think, o n some people' s par t t o judg e attractivenes s mor e tha n others . In fact ,

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 13 1 Fve hear d tha t bein g th e cas e fro m wha t judge s woul d sa y t o eac h other. And yet , facia l attractivenes s stil l affect s hi s judgin g becaus e not e tha t he sai d "an d judg e th e bod y instea d o f jus t judgin g th e face/ 7 Thus , although facia l attractivenes s i s no t th e onl y characteristi c h e look s at , it i s par t o f th e packag e an d i t affect s th e wa y h e evaluate s femal e bodybuilders. I n addition , fro m hi s comment s i t appear s tha t i t i s com mon fo r judge s t o notic e an d evaluat e femal e bodybuilder s b y othe r criteria besides their physique . Sam, a nationa l judge , admitte d tha t becaus e h e wa s a heterosexua l man wh o enjoye d watchin g beautifu l women , hi s judgin g ha s probabl y been affecte d b y pretty femal e bodybuilders , althoug h h e ha s attempte d to rectify th e situation . H e confessed : Well, fro m a mal e perspective , I' m sur e subliminall y i t mus t affec t me. Since I'm a heterosexual, sinc e I find beautifu l women , beautifu l and attractive , I think subliminally , i t must . Althoug h I do my bes t not t o allo w i t t o affec t me . Bu t i f ther e ar e tw o wome n tha t loo k similar i n bod y structur e an d on e is facially mor e beautiful tha n th e other, I probably will be affected. Bu t I try not t o allow that becaus e I do kno w a lo t o f thes e wome n personally . I tr y t o g o beyon d wha t Mother Nature gave them, what their mom and dad gave them in the "above the neck" department . Indeed, femal e judge s hav e notice d tha t som e mal e judge s migh t b e prone t o evaluat e attractiv e femal e bodybuilder s mor e positivel y tha n less attractive ones . Tracy recalled: "Well , sometime s w e have problem s with mal e judges looking at the contestants 7 face an d thinking, 'Oh , wel l this gir l is real cut e an d she' s go t larg e boobs, an d sh e looks rea l goo d t o m e / O f course , I'm talkin g about a couple of male judges, not al l men d o that. I know a couple o f the m tha t do . So that's wher e i t kin d o f varies." Although breas t siz e and a "girl " who i s really cut e ar e not criteri a the y should b e judging , thi s femal e judg e contende d tha t a fe w mal e judge s can be less tha n "objective " an d ar e affected b y suc h esthetics . Michell e also noticed thi s phenomenon : I thin k Fv e see n som e situation s wher e som e mal e judges , no t al l male judges , . . . choose th e femal e bodybuilder s wh o they' d lik e t o sleep with. . . . That's not what the y say, that's just a feeling. It's kind of crude , bu t sometime s I get reall y pisse d of f abou t it . Goddam n it ,

132 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies what ar e they doing , this girl doesn't deserv e to be up there, she may have th e potentia l t o someda y be at tha t placing , bu t no t now . She' s just got a pretty face, they look at her and go, "Yeah, I'd like to screw her, yeah." Perhaps th e femal e judges , wh o wer e likel y t o hav e bee n competitor s themselves a t som e point , fel t empath y fo r th e curren t contestant s be cause they, too , felt tha t the y had been judged unfairly o n characteristic s such a s physica l attractivenes s an d breas t siz e b y th e eve n mor e male dominated judgin g panel s o f previou s generations . Onl y on e mal e judg e claimed a t first tha t h e di d no t le t contestants ' attractivenes s clou d hi s judgment. However , h e the n explained , "Well , I won' t sa y that , i n fe males probabl y i f ther e wer e tw o peopl e wh o wer e eve n an d on e ha d a looks advantage , I would probabl y lea n t o vot e tha t way , bu t overall , I try t o vot e wh o I thought wa s th e mos t symmetrica l an d ha d th e mos t amount o f muscle. " S o i n th e cas e o f a tie , attractivenes s woul d brea k the ti e for female bodybuilders . Accordingly, all judges, both female an d male, to some degree believed that wearin g makeu p an d bein g attractiv e wer e importan t fo r femal e bodybuilders. Whethe r the y agree d wit h "looks " bein g importan t i n determining th e winne r o f a contest wa s anothe r question, - som e agree d that i t shoul d b e important , whil e other s argue d tha t i t ma y contribut e to unfai r outcome s a t femal e bodybuildin g meets . Som e o f th e mal e judges admitte d tha t the y ha d allowe d th e look s o f attractiv e femal e bodybuilders t o affec t thei r judgin g momentarily . Man y o f th e judge s disclosed tha t i f ther e wer e a particularl y clos e competitiv e matc h be tween tw o femal e bodybuilders , an d th e onl y thin g tha t distinguishe d them fro m eac h othe r wa s thei r looks , the y woul d op t fo r th e mor e attractive one . Some of the feminine accouterment s mentione d by female bodybuild ers an d femal e an d mal e official s an d judge s a s importan t fo r femal e bodybuilders ar e institutionall y enforce d i n th e bylaw s o f bodybuildin g organizations. I now tur n t o these institutional mandates .

Institutional Attempt s to Create Gender Distinctions At th e institutiona l level , th e importanc e place d o n "feminine " appear ance extend s beyon d hairstyle , posin g routines , an d breas t siz e t o at tempts a t limitin g women' s muscularity . On e onl y ha s t o loo k a t th e

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 13 IFBB Official Guidebook t o understan d th e institutiona l ethos . Recal l from chapte r 4 that i n 199 1 th e IFB B and NP C official s fel t tha t femal e bodybuilders were getting too muscular an d too masculine looking. Fearing tha t th e spor t woul d n o longe r b e abl e t o attrac t mainstrea m fans , officials reinforce d th e judging guidelines for female bodybuilders , whic h stated: First and foremost, th e judge must bear in mind that he/she is judging a women's bodybuilding competition an d is looking for an ideal feminine physique. Therefore, th e most importan t aspec t is shape, a muscular feminine shape . The other aspects are similar to those describe d for assessin g men , bu t i n regar d t o muscula r development , i t mus t not b e carried t o exces s where i t resemble s th e massiv e muscularit y of the male physique. 12 In additio n t o excessiv e muscularity , th e IFB B Officials' Handbook stated that "judge s may find other faults no t see n in men, suc h as stretc h marks, operatio n scars , an d cellulite . Th e judge s shal l als o observ e whether th e wome n competitor s wal k t o an d fro m thei r position s i n a graceful manner/ 713 Wh y would operatio n scar s be more acceptabl e o n a male than a female physique? Wh y do officials fee l it necessary to infor m female bodybuilder s tha t the y must wal k gracefully onstag e but no t hav e a simila r statemen t fo r mal e bodybuilder s t o wal k i n a "masculine " way? In addition t o these guidelines, th e guidebook explicitl y state d tha t female bodybuilder s mus t limi t thei r muscularit y s o tha t the y hav e a "muscular feminin e shape " and their physique shoul d not resemble "th e massive muscularity o f the male physique." But how d o judges interpre t the meanin g o f suc h terms , an d i n turn , ho w d o the y accurately , hon estly, an d objectivel y measur e them ? Fo r instance , wh o i s t o sa y tha t a bodybuilder lik e Lend a Murray doe s not hav e a physique tha t resemble s "the massiv e muscularit y o f th e mal e physique, " bu t Be v Francis does ? Thus, instea d o f clarifyin g th e criteri a fo r judgin g femal e bodybuilders , the officials ma y have made the judges' decisions mor e difficult . Furthermore, b y enactin g an d enforcin g thes e rules , th e IFB B accomplished tw o goals: (1) they define d femininit y an d masculinity a s oppositional constructs , an d (2 ) the y attempte d t o institutionall y contro l fe male competitors 7 bodie s i n gender-specifi c ways—onl y femal e athlete s were t o b e concerne d wit h limitin g thei r muscularit y an d enhancin g their gender .

3

134 Profitabl e Physiques , Precarious Hegemonie s

Reasons for the Institutional Reproductio n of Gender Distinctions Throughout thi s chapter , I hav e suggeste d tha t ther e i s a multitud e o f individual a s wel l a s institutiona l force s a t wor k t o creat e feminine looking femal e bodybuilders . Th e questio n stil l remains , however , a s t o why it is so important a t the institutional leve l that femal e bodybuilder s appear "feminine" ? On e reaso n i s tha t gatekeeper s brin g wit h the m preconceived idea s o f acceptabl e comportmen t an d appearanc e fo r women. T o illustrate thei r influenc e o n th e evaluation s o f femal e body builders, I have include d excerpt s fro m a few judge s wh o fel t tha t sinc e the mi d 1980s , female bodybuilder s ha d gotte n to o muscula r an d "mas culine-looking." 14 For instance, Sam , a professional judge , stated tha t " a woman ca n brin g ou t th e bes t i n he r bod y withou t goin g ove r thi s imaginary limi t tha t take s awa y fro m he r femininity , fro m . . . lookin g like a male to me." Another mal e official reflected , "Som e of the wome n bodybuilders starte d t o us e steroid s an d becam e excessivel y develope d and grotesque." It is highly unlikely that he would use such a description in describin g a mal e bodybuilder . On e nationa l mal e judge , Clay , com mented tha t h e though t femal e bodybuildin g "mayb e make s the m [women] a littl e to o independent . Wome n ar e independen t enoug h I think withou t makin g the m mor e independent. " On e ca n se e ho w judges' opinion s abou t wha t i s appropriat e an d inappropriat e fo r wome n in general may influence thei r evaluation s o f female bodybuilders . Besides thi s concer n o f wome n transgressin g th e gende r boundarie s for appropriat e comportmen t an d appearanc e i s th e issu e o f th e market ability o f th e sport . Thes e tw o issue s ar e ofte n mutuall y reinforcin g o f the hegemoni c notion s o f femininit y withi n th e sport . Fo r instance , listen t o Kyle: Well, women' s bodybuildin g i s a n unnatura l sport . I t i s no t natura l for a woman t o have muscles , s o of cours e ther e i s confusio n i n th e judging. . . . It's no t lik e me n wher e you'r e jus t lookin g fo r th e mos t perfectly buil t guy . And we all have th e concep t o f what tha t shoul d look like . Before , yo u g o bac k 1 5 years , ther e wa s n o concep t o f muscular women . An d i f ther e wa s on e i n drawing s o r somethin g that yo u woul d see , i t woul d b e [a ] fit woman , bu t sh e woul d als o have, she' d als o loo k ver y feminine . An d som e o f thes e wome n on stage don' t loo k feminin e an d sexy , the y jus t loo k lik e guy s wit h bikini tops.

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 13 5 His belief s describ e som e o f th e man y gendere d ideologica l constraint s with whic h femal e bodybuilder s have t o contend. Kyle' s statement s tha t female bodybuildin g i s "a n unnatura l sport/ 7 an d tha t "i t i s no t natura l for a woma n t o hav e muscles " indicat e hi s bia s i n evaluatin g femal e bodybuilders. In fact, thi s quote is an excellent illustratio n o f ideology i n the Gramscia n sense—i n thi s case , i t reflect s patriarcha l ideology . Hi s assertion tha t "som e o f thes e wome n onstag e don' t loo k feminin e an d sexy, they just loo k like guys with bikin i tops" reveals his preference fo r less muscula r an d thu s mor e feminin e competitors . Thus , accordin g t o Kyle, femal e bodybuilder s shoul d no t onl y limi t thei r muscularit y bu t they shoul d enhanc e thei r femininit y an d sexines s a s well . Howeve r badly h e want s femal e bodybuilder s t o b e "sexy, " i t i s no t on e o f th e stated criteri a i n eithe r th e NP C o r IFB B and shoul d therefore , ideally , not ente r int o th e decisio n makin g o f judges , sinc e judge s an d official s are aske d t o evaluat e femal e bodybuilders ' physique s "objectively " an d by the stated criteria . However, a s we have seen, "sexiness " does become a criterion i n th e minds o f some judges. The emphasi s o n men' s definition s o f women' s "sexiness " serve s t o reinforce th e importanc e o f heterosexualit y (a t leas t i n appearance ) a s a criterion fo r femal e bodybuilder s i n achievin g succes s i n thei r sport. 15 Furthermore, i n Kyle' s assumptio n tha t i f a female bodybuilde r doe s no t meet hi s ow n standard s o f femininit y an d sexiness , the n sh e mus t loo k like a man, h e is simplifying th e range o f gender possibilities fo r wome n to the dichotom y o f "feminin e an d sexy" o r "me n wit h bikin i tops. " One rathe r perplexin g issu e arise s whe n on e stop s t o conside r wh y a man, wh o ha s state d tha t h e think s tha t i t i s unnatura l fo r wome n t o have muscles , i s involve d i n a sport wher e th e goa l i s for th e wome n t o build large , symmetrical , buffe d muscles . Her e i s wher e th e issu e o f marketing a sport tha t i s also a commercial enterpris e emerges . In Kyle' s opinion, muscula r femal e bodybuilder s tur n of f fan s an d thu s tak e awa y money fro m th e sport . Hi s ideologica l rational e tha t a muscular woma n is "no t natural " i s fueled b y an economi c concer n tha t ticke t an d maga zine sale s ar e dropping . I t appear s tha t h e i s attemptin g t o mol d th e market fo r female bodybuilding accordin g to his own vision of what typ e of female bodybuilder s people will pay money t o see. The people in this study had a lot to say about the connection betwee n feminine-looking femal e bodybuilder s an d th e commercia l aspec t o f th e sport. Some , a s w e hav e seen , simpl y acknowledge d thi s association . Tracy, a regiona l judge , explaine d th e lin k betwee n th e tw o concerns ,

136 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies "They usually pick th e people who will increase their money flow in th e magazines. The y wan t somebod y wh o i s good lookin g wher e peopl e ar e going to watch the m o n TV." Similarly, Linda , a regional judge , reveale d that female bodybuilding has become dictated by who can sell bodybuilding products mos t effectively : I thin k tha t mainl y it' s . . . selling th e product . I think tha t a lot of people fee l tha t peopl e woul d frea k ou t wit h a woman wit h a lot of muscularity lik e a Bev Francis. And a lot o f wome n woul d fee l tha t it's repulsiv e t o loo k lik e that . Yo u kno w talkin g t o a lo t o f peopl e in bodybuilding , yo u ge t th e opinio n tha t the y don' t wan t femal e bodybuilders a s hard , a s muscular . An d ye t som e are . I feel tha t it' s mainly the people trying to sell a product. What will be acceptable in public. Some migh t argu e tha t Be v Franci s pose s a counterpoin t t o thi s argu ment, an d in som e ways, she in fact does . She is extremely muscula r an d yet ha s receive d majo r endorsements , ha s bee n prominentl y feature d i n Weider magazines , an d i s currentl y a n IFB B judge. I believe ther e ar e a few factors tha t ma y have contributed t o this anomaly. First, Bev Francis literally underwent a metamorphosis fro m he r first bodybuildin g contes t at th e 198 3 Caesar' s Palac e contes t represente d i n Pumping Iron II: The Women t o th e earl y 1990s . Sh e change d he r imag e drastically ; althoug h still muscular , sh e altere d he r appearanc e (hairstyle , attire , makeup ) t o align hersel f mor e closel y t o hegemoni c feminin e standards . Second , after th e releas e o f th e Pumping Iron II movie , Be v has bee n on e o f th e best-known bodybuilder s o n th e circuit . Becaus e o f he r popularity , he r image is exceptionally profitable . He r persona an d history virtually guar antee medi a attention—somethin g i n whic h gatekeeper s ar e very inter ested. Third , b y givin g he r endorsements , th e IFB B coul d successfull y quiet thos e critic s wh o accuse d the m o f being oppose d t o large-muscle d female bodybuilders . Be v shoul d b e viewe d a s a n anomaly , an d no t a s a sign that th e bodybuilding establishmen t i s accepting big women. A few peopl e i n thi s stud y wer e critica l o f th e exten t t o which socia l gatekeepers allo w thei r hegemoni c view s o f femininit y an d attrac tiveness effec t th e outcom e o f competition s an d produc t endorsements . For example , Christ y ha d wo n he r weigh t clas s a t a ver y prestigiou s female bodybuildin g contes t an d foun d hersel f watchin g th e bodybuild ers wh o ha d place d behin d he r i n th e competitio n ge t interview s an d product endorsements :

Profitable Physiques , Precarious Hegemonies 13 This year , ESP N didn' t profil e me . The y sai d tha t I' m no t marketable . No I still haven' t foun d ou t why . I was rea l frustrate d th e firs t coupl e of week s afte r th e show . I wa s gettin g rejection s lik e al l ove r th e place fro m magazines . I was lik e "Jesus , I won th e show , ho w muc h better ca n I do?" I have n o idea , bu t the y profile d al l th e prett y blon d girls. Ever y singl e on e o f the m wa s profile d . . . the y didn' t eve n interview m e a t th e sho w an d I was favore d t o wi n an d I wen t u p t o the gu y an d I said , I mean , I walked upstair s wit h m y trophy , I said , "You guy s wan t t o d o somethin g now ? I' m i n shape , let' s se t some thing u p righ t away " an d the y didn' t wan t t o d o it. I don't kno w wha t that's al l about . I jus t fel t lik e th e realit y o f th e spor t i s tha t you'r e not goin g t o ge t ric h bein g a competitiv e bodybuilde r an d th e expo sure i s reall y th e onl y rewar d tha t yo u get , an d th e magazin e article s and whateve r the y migh t d o wit h yo u o n ESPN . I was like , "Fuc k it , if the y don' t wan t t o us e m e now , I' m no t goin g t o bea t anybody' s door down. " I' m no t tha t muc h int o th e promotiona l aspec t o f al l this t o reall y kee p o n goin g afte r peopl e an d phonin g the m an d writ ing the m an d doin g al l th e promotiona l stuf f tha t I need t o do . I d o a little bi t o f it , an d I'v e ha d some , a coupl e o f article s hav e com e out , but I don' t know , I reall y don' t kno w wh y the y don' t thin k I' m marketable. Some wer e critica l o f th e emphasi s place d o n th e attractivenes s o f female bodybuilder s simpl y i n orde r t o increas e socia l gatekeepers ' profits. I n fact , i n th e followin g quote , Michelle , a nationa l judge , explic itly state d tha t th e drivin g forc e behin d changin g women' s bodybuildin g is th e attemp t b y th e head s o f th e bodybuildin g industr y t o attrac t mor e fans t o th e sport : That's wher e I ten d t o disagre e wit h th e directio n the y sa y the y ar e going i n now , becaus e righ t no w the y ar e definitel y saying , "Yo u get t o a poin t wher e ther e i s to o muc h muscle , regardles s o f ho w symmetrical" an d I don' t thin k so . An d I thin k tha t i n tha t sense , they're tryin g t o pla y t o tha t audienc e tha t they'r e tryin g t o brin g into th e sport . Th e couc h potat o tha t the y thin k will , i f w e jus t ton e it dow n migh t becom e a ticke t buye r o r a supplemen t buye r o r . . . because th e vitami n companie s ar e sponsor s a t bodybuildin g shows . The whol e healt h industr y i s ther e i n som e for m o r another . S o if th e shows ar e successfu l the n tha t mean s tha t thei r produc t i s being see n and s o there' s a direc t ti e in . Righ t no w a lot o f the m ar e saying , "W e want t o ton e i t down , let' s ton e i t down , becaus e mayb e i f w e ton e i t

7

138 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies down enough well get that couc h potato off th e couch, hell go in th e gym, hel l bu y th e supplements , hel l bu y th e tickets , hel l com e t o the show/ 7 I don't agre e becaus e I think tha t whe n someon e i s tha t far remove d fro m bein g i n a workout fram e o f mind , tha t i t doesn' t matter how much we tone it down, they're not going to be interested because ther e i s to o muc h o f hi s ow n guil t an d ow n anxietie s goin g on in his own head is why he is not i n the gym. He will never relate. I thin k they'r e [th e har d core fans ] gettin g pissed . Bu t I don't thin k the hard core fans are going to stop coming to the sport . This i s particularly problemati c i f th e reaso n tha t a female athlet e "ca n only g o s o far " i s i n orde r t o sel l th e spor t an d th e relate d product s a s effectively a s possible. Many o f th e peopl e i n thi s study , includin g bodybuilders , judges , and officials , understoo d an d advocate d th e gatekeepers ' institutiona l practice o f rewardin g attractive , feminine-lookin g femal e bodybuilder s with lucrativ e produc t endorsement s becaus e i t helpe d t o sel l th e spor t to the general public. Richard, a regional judge , candidly reveale d tha t i t al l come s dow n t o a prett y fac e becaus e tha t i s th e loo k tha t make s mone y fo r thos e in volved in th e sport : A prett y fac e i s importan t [i n femal e bodybuilding ] becaus e i t sell s and yo u kno w th e whol e thin g i s tha t professiona l bodybuildin g i s making money . "Betty " ha s a tremendous amoun t o f muscl e fo r he r size i n th e uppe r bod y an d sh e i s not blesse d wit h reall y goo d look s so therefore sh e ca n g o to contest s an d b e in th e bes t shap e bu t sh e usually doe s not plac e in th e to p ten a t a professional meet . Sh e was able t o wi n al l th e amateu r level s al l th e wa y usually , bu t a t th e professional level , especially now, they are looking more for . . . well, you've got to have the looks as well as have the muscle. Others, however , mentioned , i n essence , th e importanc e o f a femal e bodybuilder's "overal l package, " t o b e abl e t o sel l th e spor t effectively . For instance, Becky, a regional bodybuilder, stated : Officials ar e looking for mor e marketable people . A woman wh o ha s a good look t o her, a healthy loo k t o her, an d is aesthetically appeal ing to othe r people . You want t o have a body tha t yo u ca n sho w off . Or tha t yo u ca n advertis e t o othe r people . I f yo u hav e thi s hug e monster woma n wh o advertise s fo r you, peopl e aren' t goin g to wan t

Profitable Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies 13 9 to be like that. They're not goin g to buy your equipmen t o r use your stuff becaus e they'r e not going to want t o look like that. It all come s down t o who' s promotin g who m an d ho w marketabl e yo u are . An d Cory Everso n (six-tim e Ms . Olympia ) i s ver y marketable . She' s go t that goo d looking , al l America n loo k t o her . She' s tone d he r bod y down t o wher e it s feminin e ye t stil l har d an d tone d an d sculpte d beautifully. She' s not trying to get bigger, she's just trying to define i t better—sculpt i t more—t o mak e i t mor e ideal—mor e aestheticall y appealing. Comparably, Diane , a professiona l bodybuilder , als o endorse d th e lin k between presentin g feminin e an d attractiv e femal e bodybuilder s an d increasing th e popularit y o f th e spor t t o others . Sh e personalize d thi s argument b y relayin g he r ow n experience s abou t gettin g involve d wit h the sport : They wan t somebod y wh o i s marketabl e wh o ca n b e a goo d rol e model becaus e i f I would hav e opene d th e magazin e fiv e year s ag o and sa w a n ugl y person , a rea l jocky-lookin g gross-lookin g girl , I would think " I don't want to look like that. Is that what I'm goin g to look lik e whe n I star t lifting? " Bu t I opene d i t an d sa w Rache l McLish, pretty model like and then you saw Cory and you know the y promote the women who are more attractive, more model type. She believe d tha t havin g attractiv e femal e bodybuilder s wh o ar e no t excessively muscula r i s importan t fo r th e spor t becaus e i t get s women , as it di d with her, t o want t o start liftin g an d begin to work out . Had sh e been confronted wit h a "jocky-looking, gross-lookin g girl" when she firs t flipped throug h a bodybuilding magazine , sh e would have trie d her han d at another activit y besides weight training . Attractive female bodybuild ers lik e Rache l McLis h an d Cor y Everso n go t he r intereste d i n liftin g weights because , echoin g th e word s o f Kyle , sh e wante d "t o loo k lik e them." Similarly, Richard , a regional judge, argued that women i n the genera l population d o not wan t t o loo k reall y muscula r an d therefor e ar e fearfu l to begin liftin g weight s becaus e the y ar e afrai d o f becomin g to o muscu lar: "Th e averag e wome n bein g ignoran t o f trainin g rule s an d idea s an d whatever thin k they'r e goin g t o loo k lik e tha t an d s o the y say , 'Wel l I don't want t o train. I don't want t o look like that.' S o if they ca n go back more int o th e Rache l McLis h loo k wel l the n the y figur e mor e wome n will get into it and be involved in the sport." He argued that th e popular -

140 Profitabl e Physiques, Precarious Hegemonies ity o f femal e bodybuildin g wil l neve r b e wha t i t onc e wa s becaus e th e sport will not be able to go back to the Rachel McLish look, and therefor e there wil l alway s b e controversy . Diane , a professiona l femal e body builder, contended : "W e can' t g o walkin g aroun d lookin g lik e freaks , looking lik e we'r e som e ape s o r somethin g becaus e I thin k it' s gros s myself." Thus, in attemptin g t o align herself wit h thos e outsid e of bodybuilding who may pick up a bodybuilding magazine for the first tim e an d either b e repulsed b y overly muscula r wome n o r attracted t o the loo k of feminine-looking, moderatel y muscula r ones , Dian e support s th e mar keting of more feminine bodybuilders . In the opinio n o f Kyle, the IFBB official, th e reason femal e bodybuild ing ha s decrease d i n popularit y i s becaus e femal e bodybuilder s hav e become s o muscula r tha t me n n o longe r wan t "t o loo k a t them " an d women n o longe r wan t "t o loo k lik e them. " W e se e th e lin k betwee n marketability an d attitude s abou t women' s "proper " appearance : i t i s important tha t femal e bodybuilder s loo k feminin e s o femal e fan s wil l want t o buy ticket s an d products s o that the y ca n look like them, an d s o male fan s wil l wan t t o bu y thos e sam e bodybuildin g item s i n orde r "t o look a t them. " Thus , w e hav e a situation i n femal e bodybuildin g wher e capitalism, manifeste d b y th e profi t motive , an d patriarchy , manifeste d by th e desir e t o kee p wome n withi n appropriat e gende r boundaries , ar e intertwined an d reinforcing entitie s tha t contribut e t o the officials ' pus h for smaller-muscled , feminine-lookin g femal e bodybuilders . The pric e o f treatin g bodybuildin g solel y a s a business detract s fro m its already questionable sportslike qualities. Choosing a bodybuilder wh o is th e mos t marketabl e rathe r tha n th e bes t i s antithetica l t o th e sport s creed, "Ma y th e bes t perso n win. " I n no othe r spor t ar e athletes limite d in their performances becaus e o f fear o f offending payin g spectators. On e would no t hea r a track coac h tel l Jacki e Joyner-Kersee o r Gai l Devers t o slow dow n becaus e th e publi c think s the y ar e runnin g to o fas t t o b e palatable o r t o b e feminine . Whe n th e importanc e o f sellin g product s taints th e wa y judge s evaluat e femal e bodybuilders , th e busines s aspec t of th e spor t ha s gon e to o fa r an d severel y jeopardize s th e fairnes s o n which ever y spor t i s premised . Femal e bodybuildin g i s differen t fro m most othe r sport s fo r a combinatio n o f tw o reasons : (i ) fe w sport s hav e their profit s relate d s o closel y t o wha t th e publi c think s ar e appropriat e displays o f femininity , an d (2 ) fe w sport s plac e suc h a premiu m o n making a profit tha t the y compromis e th e very integrity o f their goals.

SIX

Countering th e Hegemony, Cooptin g the Resistance , an d the Futur e o f Femal e Bodybuilding

I included an ethnographic account o f the 199 2 Ms. Olympia contes t i n Chicago . I would lik e t o revisit th e evenin g sho w of that contes t fo r a moment. Durin g th e ninety-secon d musica l presenta tion round , i n whic h bodybuilder s presen t thei r musculatur e t o th e music o f thei r choice , bodybuilde r afte r bodybuilde r opene d he r posin g routines t o th e firs t par t o f th e son g "I n Control " b y Janet Jackson . Thi s song begin s wit h Jane t Jackso n determinedl y stating : "Thi s i s a son g about control . Control o f what I say. Control o f what I do. This i s a song about control . An d I hav e lot s o f it. " A t th e en d o f th e presentatio n round, afte r al l twent y bodybuilder s ha d climbe d onstag e an d performe d their posin g routines , fou r o f the m ha d starte d thei r routine s wit h thi s song. These lyric s ar e both tellin g an d ironi c whe n applie d t o th e politica l positioning o f femal e bodybuilder s i n a spor t dominate d b y bot h eco nomic and patriarchal interests . These women ar e singing about control , but contro l o f what? Perhap s they are referring t o the astonishing contro l they hav e o f thei r bodies—create d an d maintaine d b y a typ e o f focu s and determinatio n tha t enable s the m t o compet e o r succee d i n suc h a physicall y demandin g activity. 1 Connecte d t o thei r disciplin e i s th e perception that thei r bodies are objects in need of control, that the corpu s is somethin g apar t fro m themselves—somethin g tha t i s untame d an d not t o b e trusted . Whe n mos t bodybuilder s spok e abou t control , the y I N TH E P R O L O G U E ,

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142 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance discussed being in control of their bodies, and in particular, thei r weight . Much a s a n anorecti c talk s abou t feelin g a sens e o f powe r becaus e sh e can contro l he r bod y throug h weigh t loss , som e bodybuilder s ar e ob sessed wit h thei r weight , an d t o the m powe r mean s abilit y t o contro l their bodies and their appetites . I will now turn t o the various forms an d nuances o f female bodybuild ers' resistanc e t o th e hegemoni c standard s se t b y th e powerfu l socia l gatekeepers o f th e sport . I n th e tw o year s I collected data , I noted som e instances i n whic h femal e bodybuilders , bot h individuall y an d collec tively, resiste d th e hegemoni c norm s o f thei r sport . Wha t precipitate d these acts of resistance? Ho w did the actors at the various levels interpre t and respon d t o th e resistance ? Di d thei r resistanc e lea d t o structura l change in th e sport ? By definition, member s o f a dominant grou p have more economic an d political powe r tha n individua l member s o f marginalize d groups . Wit h preponderant economi c an d politica l power , dominan t grou p member s also hav e mor e definitiona l powe r tha n others . Definitiona l powe r in volves th e dua l abilit y t o (i ) establis h successfull y one' s definition s o f reality as the hegemonic standard s t o which other s must consent , an d (2) set boundaries tha t distinguis h between acceptabl e and deviant behavior . Because hegemon y i s base d o n idea s an d beliefs , i t i s volatile . I t i s continuously negotiated , defended , an d modifie d b y member s o f th e dominant group . Thus , becaus e thi s realit y i s constructe d an d mus t b e continuously maintained , i t ca n b e challenge d a t an y momen t b y mem bers o f marginalize d an d subordinate d groups . Consequently , ther e i s always "roo m fo r antagonisti c cultura l expression s t o develop/ 72 These challenge s t o th e dominan t hegemonie s ar e referre d t o a s counter-hegemonies an d ca n tak e multipl e forms , rangin g fro m over t physical resistanc e t o mor e subtl e symboli c forms . Furthermore , al though Giroux 3 argue d tha t resistanc e shoul d b e reserve d fo r collectiv e action tha t seriousl y challenge s th e statu s quo , I believe tha t individua l resistance ca n als o serve suc h ends . Counter-hegemonies, i n th e for m o f overt resistanc e t o th e dominan t powers , ar e usually use d a s a means of last resor t b y member s o f subordinate d group s becaus e the y ar e ofte n harshly sanctione d b y authorities . Thus , i f resistanc e occurs , i t i s likel y to happe n a t th e symboli c leve l i n everyda y cultura l practices . Fo r in stance, member s o f subordinate d group s ma y coopt , redefine , an d us e symbols fro m th e dominan t cultur e t o attemp t t o challeng e th e domi -

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 14 3 nant groups ' powe r ove r the m an d a s a n effor t t o "fin d dignit y i n a n oppressive class society/ 74 As the previous chapter s hav e suggested , femal e bodybuilder s var y i n their opinions about the current an d future idea l physiques and standard s of judgin g i n thei r sport . Whe n the y hav e complaint s abou t ho w a mee t has been judged , o r if the y ar e concerned wit h th e directio n o f th e sport , they hav e fe w place s t o ai r thei r concern s withi n th e organizationa l structure. They may talk to a number o f different people , from th e judges on the judging panel, the head judge of a meet, th e state chai r (i f they ar e in th e NPC) , the NP C women' s chair , t o th e professional directo r o f th e IFBB (i f the y ar e professional-leve l athletes) . Th e informatio n tha t a female bodybuilder receives from member s of these groups center aroun d how the y coul d improv e themselve s i n th e eye s o f th e judges . Fo r in stance, female bodybuilders in the NPC may talk with th e NPC women' s chair, wh o act s a s th e mediato r betwee n variou s ke y mal e official s an d the femal e bodybuilders . Sh e informall y advise s femal e bodybuilder s o f the sport' s rule s an d regulations . Michelle , a national-leve l amateu r judge, discussed Sandy' s job at contests : Well Sandy Ranalli... i s the woman chairperso n fo r th e NPC an d as far a s a rankin g administrator , sh e i s th e highest-rankin g woma n in th e organization . Basically , it' s on e o f he r job s t o disseminat e information t o the women o n competition rules, regulations, and she has talke d t o wome n a t severa l show s tha t I have bee n at . Sh e ha s made hersel f availabl e t o discus s th e judgin g criteria , an d sh e ha s made herself availabl e at every show that I've ever been at for anyon e to ask her or seek information fro m her . The chairperson's job is to clarify an y confusion abou t judging criteria o n the part o f the bodybuilders. However, he r duties are limited t o distribut ing information fro m th e top down , not vice versa. It is not her job to ac t on behalf o f bodybuilders t o bring forth thei r concern s and complaints t o the officials . In keepin g wit h th e individualisti c natur e o f th e spor t o f bodybuild ing, al l o f thes e institutiona l avenues—rangin g fro m femal e bodybuild ers talkin g t o judges , th e hea d judge , th e stat e chair , th e NP C women' s chair, and the professional directo r of the IFBB—are set up for individua l bodybuilders t o mee t one-on-on e wit h specifi c gatekeepers . Ther e i s n o organized bod y tha t enable s bodybuilder s a s a group t o giv e thei r inpu t

144 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance about th e curren t an d future statu s o f bodybuilders o r to talk abou t thei r grievances. Hence , althoug h bodybuilder s d o hav e acces s t o judge s an d officials, thei r abilit y a s a group working withi n th e syste m t o influenc e policies, rules, and the direction o f the spor t i s limited . Consequently, th e onl y other recourse bodybuilders have is to expres s their dissatisfactio n i n extra-institutiona l way s tha t ma y potentiall y jeopardize thei r career s i n th e bodybuildin g organization . Som e hav e attempted individuall y t o resis t th e hegemon y b y publicl y challengin g those i n power . Ove r th e years , other s hav e intermittentl y attempte d t o organize femal e bodybuilder s s o tha t a s a group the y hav e th e powe r t o negotiate fo r thei r right s withi n th e extan t politica l structure s i n th e sport. Bot h type s o f attempts—thos e tha t hav e entaile d workin g withi n the syste m an d thos e outside—have , fo r th e mos t part , prove n ineffec tive. In fact , th e 199 5 IFB B Constitution states , ' T h e IFB B forbids an y and al l racially , politicall y o r religiousl y motivate d discussions , demon strations o r acts," making an y politica l protes t o r discussion b y bodybu ilders agains t th e organizationa l statu s qu o potentiall y career-endin g since the ter m "political " is so broad. Why hav e femal e bodybuilders , unlik e thei r counterpart s i n othe r sports, bee n unabl e t o organiz e successfull y t o protec t thei r interests ? First, th e individualistic etho s of the spor t combine d wit h th e dispersio n of female bodybuilders in gyms across the United State s make opportuni ties fo r collectiv e action , an d positiv e attitude s towar d them , unlikely . Second, ther e ar e fe w organizationa l alternative s t o th e IFB B and NPC , so femal e bodybuilder s aren' t abl e t o threate n t o g o elsewher e t o com pete. Recal l fro m chapte r 2 tha t i n man y ways , fro m th e numbe r o f contests hel d t o th e amoun t o f priz e mone y awarded , th e IFB B and it s national amateu r affiliat e ar e unsurpasse d b y an y othe r bodybuildin g organization. If a person wants t o make a living as a professional bodybu ilder, th e IFB B is th e organizatio n t o whic h h e o r sh e want s t o belong . Even whe n riva l organization s existed , man y judge s an d bodybuilder s have insisted tha t "th e IFBB is the only game in town. " Third, femal e bodybuilder s compet e agains t on e another for relativel y few rewards . Althoug h femal e bodybuildin g offer s mor e priz e mone y today tha n i n th e past , ther e i s stil l onl y a limite d amoun t o f mone y available an d i t goe s onl y t o th e to p fe w athletes . Thos e makin g th e money ar e unlikel y t o sacrific e thei r earning s t o equaliz e th e playin g field. Recal l fro m chapte r 2 that femal e bodybuilder s hav e fewe r profes sional bodybuilding competition s an d less prize money available to the m

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance than thei r mal e counterpart s whic h onl y ma y serv e t o exacerbat e th e feelings o f competitio n betwee n femal e bodybuilders . Combin e th e fac t that ther e ar e fe w organizationa l alternative s outsid e th e IFB B and th e NPC wit h th e fac t tha t onl y a fe w to p femal e bodybuilder s mak e sub stantial mone y i n th e sport , an d on e get s th e pictur e o f ho w muc h economic powe r th e Weider s an d othe r socia l gatekeeper s hol d ove r bodybuilders' heads . A s Ala n Klei n ha s contended : "Th e bodybuilders 7 inability t o merg e commo n interest s wa s compounde d b y the hierarchi cal relation s fostere d b y Weider , wh o know s tha t h e i s i n a position t o reward an d punish , i n th e cours e o f whic h h e ca n destro y an y nascen t organizing effort . I n tru e aristocrati c fashion , Jo e Weider keep s hi s min ions jus t hungr y enoug h t o le t the m kno w fro m wher e thei r nex t mea l is coming/ 75 Althoug h Klei n wa s referrin g t o mal e bodybuilders , thi s statement i s eve n mor e applicabl e t o femal e bodybuilder s wh o hav e fewer opportunitie s t o mak e mone y i n th e spor t o f bodybuildin g tha n their mal e counterparts . Fourth, femal e bodybuilder s lac k a n organizationa l structur e throug h which t o ai r thei r problem s an d concern s a s a group. They hav e littl e t o no voic e i n determinin g th e rules , regulations , an d thu s th e futur e o f their ow n sport . Thi s combinatio n doe s no t readil y foste r clos e tie s among bodybuilders. 6 As of thi s date , female bodybuilder s a s a group ar e isolated an d segmente d wit h fe w mean s t o protec t thei r interest s fro m those who direc t th e sport . Accordingly, althoug h bodybuilder s d o have acces s t o judges an d offi cials, thei r abilit y t o influenc e policies , rules , an d th e directio n o f th e sport i s limited . A s previousl y stated , a bodybuilde r ca n approac h th e head judg e an d eve n particula r judge s t o as k the m wh y the y place d he r where the y did . On e mal e judge , Sam , talke d abou t thi s process : "Sh e [a disgruntled femal e bodybuilder ] ca n as k t o spea k t o th e hea d judg e an d ask permissio n t o spea k t o th e individua l judge s an d the y ca n tel l he r exactly wh y the y place d he r wher e the y did . Yo u kno w sometime s i n a competition lik e th e Ms . Olympia , yo u ca n hav e on e judg e tha t wil l place someone five places higher o r lower than anothe r judge because it' s so subjective/ 7 A bodybuilder ca n onl y ask wh y the y wer e placed wher e they were. Though som e judges contend that female bodybuilders shoul d be mor e willin g t o discus s thei r placement s wit h th e judges , ther e ar e two factor s tha t hel p explai n wh y femal e bodybuilder s ma y b e hesitan t to take thi s route o f action. The firs t i s that fro m thei r perspective , suc h action i s probabl y futile . Onc e a decisio n ha s bee n made , nothin g ca n

145

146 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance change it, s o why protest a decision tha t i s not goin g to be overturned — and ge t labele d a s a troublemake r i n th e process ? N o decisio n ha s eve r been overturned . Fo r instance , on e femal e judge , Michelle , asserted : " I mean, yo u ge t wha t yo u get . Yo u ca n as k wh y an d yo u ca n tal k t o th e head judg e o r an y judg e tha t sa t o n tha t panel , bu t a s fa r a s an y kin d o f appeal proces s t o chang e th e decision , ther e isn' t any. " Second , judgin g is subjective ; th e answe r o f ho w t o improv e wil l depen d o n who m yo u ask, and their suggestion s ma y in the end not hel p you a t th e next meet . Female bodybuilder s wh o ar e proactive an d attemp t t o find ou t wha t "look" official s an d judges want hav e no guarantee tha t the y will get th e guidance the y seek . According to Tod: At the nationals, the judges don't tell the athletes what i s expected of them. They kind of expect it to get around by word of mouth. I think that's a bi g proble m fo r thes e girls . Fo r instance , fo r th e nationals , this girl, who was expected to win, had lost 1 0 pounds from las t year trying to get smaller. Sh e came in, I thought, a lot better-looking, bu t still looke d to o much . Sh e go t thir d an d afte r th e show , sh e wen t around t o ever y judg e that judge d her , an d aske d wha t sh e coul d do, because sh e didn' t know . Sittin g ther e saying , "I' m rippe d t o shreds , I'm big , wha t d o I do? " They'r e no t reall y makin g i t clea r t o th e competitors. Perhaps this confusion b y high-level socia l gatekeepers and the concomi tant fluctuation s i n idea l physiqu e i s a calculate d strateg y use d t o kee p the spor t ope n t o a wide r rang e o f phenotype s a s wel l a s t o mak e th e sport marketabl e t o a wide r audience . Maybe , a s i s argue d b y Kathryn , this "confusion " approac h als o ha s a mor e siniste r purpose : "There' s a backlash an d it' s covert . I f i t wer e tha t obvious , the n w e woul d hav e something to fight agains t an d we could deal with i t better. But when it' s kept i n mor e o f a cover t sense—cover t b y constantl y confusin g u s an d keeping us in no t onl y a state o f confusio n bu t a state o f being sor t o f a t odds wit h on e another. " "Confusion " ma y b e a tacti c tha t prevent s female bodybuilder s fro m effectivel y comin g togethe r t o fight collec tively for their right s against "th e powers that be. " Furthermore, bodybuilder s wh o approac h judge s an d challeng e thei r evaluations ar e likel y t o b e labele d a s troublemakers ; a label , onc e ap plied, i s difficul t t o change . Thi s represent s a n additiona l reaso n tha t may discourag e bodybuilder s fro m approachin g judges . Diane , a profes sional bodybuilder, state d tha t althoug h sh e has disagree d with th e judg-

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 14 7 ing o f meet s i n whic h sh e wa s a participant , sh e ha s neve r voice d he r displeasure t o th e judge s because sh e feared bein g calle d a troublemake r and thu s coul d neve r advanc e i n th e sport . Whe n I aske d he r wha t he r response was , sh e remarked , " I didn' t sa y a word . Becaus e [when ] th e judging score s ar e tallie d [that' s it]. . . . Th e mor e upse t yo u get , tha t gives you a bad name a s a 'bad attitud e competitor ' an d you'll neve r ge t anywhere." Similarly, Denise, a national-level amateu r bodybuilder fro m the Southwest , mentione d th e negativ e reaction s sh e ha s receive d fro m judges whe n sh e ha s voice d he r disagreemen t wit h them : "The y ge t pretty pisse d off . I went throug h a couple o f year s o f prett y har d thrash ings but whe n the y foun d ou t I was going to back u p m y feeling s totall y now . . . they respec t m y opinio n becaus e the y kno w I' m no t jus t ther e to bitc h abou t i t onc e o r twice . I'm goin g t o d o somethin g abou t it . I' m not goin g to go away." Sh e alluded t o th e fac t tha t judge s know tha t sh e means wha t sh e say s an d tha t sh e i s no t ther e simpl y t o complain . However, Denis e is also a state-level judge , and has recently participate d on th e judgin g pane l o f a national-leve l meet , thoug h no t a s a n officia l judge. Her "dua l role" may be one reason tha t sh e has gained the respec t of othe r judge s (becaus e they sa w her a s "on e o f thei r own") . Even if sh e were not a judge, the belief tha t bodybuilder s complai n becaus e the y di d not d o wel l a s oppose d t o havin g a "rea l complaint " i s quit e prevalen t among th e judges . A commo n attitud e amon g th e judge s i s tha t body builders behav e lik e spoile d children ; the y "bitc h an d moan " whe n things don' t go well. In fact, som e judges went s o far a s to sa y that the y believe bodybuild ers are not to be trusted because they have their own agenda. To illustrate this sentiment amon g the judges, I have included a n excerpt fro m Sam , a professional-level judge . Sa m seeme d ver y cautiou s abou t femal e body builders i n genera l becaus e the y "wil l giv e yo u extrem e perspectives, " yet a t th e sam e time, he was als o critical o f female bodybuilder s wh o d o not discus s their placings with judges : I can tel l yo u tha t th e wome n wil l giv e you extrem e perspectives . I can guarantee you that. Because the professional women , unless the y are the winner, th e one s that plac e second , third , fourth , fifth , sixth , down th e line , ar e all unhapp y becaus e the y hav e not wo n an d the y feel the y have been discriminate d against . Fo r example , "Adrienne, " if yo u spea k wit h he r I ca n almos t guarante e yo u tha t sh e wil l tel l you that sh e has been discriminated agains t in the past. . . because of

148 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance ultra-muscularity, becaus e o f poo r judging . Sh e ha s neve r spoke n t o me a s a judg e . . . ye t sh e criticize s al l th e judge s withou t askin g where she was placed and for what reason . Sam discounte d th e concern s an d question s o f femal e bodybuilders , an d distrusted thei r motives for complainin g i n the firs t place . This situatio n shed s ligh t o n th e unequa l distributio n o f definitiona l power. Judges have th e power t o label female bodybuilder s wh o attemp t to see k informatio n o r criticiz e th e judgin g o f meet s a s "bad-attitud e competitors" who ar e simply "bitchin g and moaning." In doing so, som e judges d o no t tak e bodybuilders ' complaint s seriously . Ye t thi s attitud e of som e judges , an d th e corollar y negativ e labelin g tha t i t entails , ma y be on e reaso n wh y femal e bodybuilder s d o not com e forward , a s Denis e illustrated i n he r statement . Consequently , femal e bodybuilder s appea r to b e in a Catch-22 situation : i f the y com e forwar d an d tr y t o ge t infor mation o n how to improve thei r placements, the y ma y be told the y nee d to ge t breas t implant s t o enhanc e thei r symmetry . I f the y questio n a ruling, the y ge t labele d a s "troublemakers. " If , o n th e othe r hand , the y do no t com e forward , judge s labe l the m a s being incessan t complainer s who onl y wan t t o criticiz e judge s fro m a distanc e an d find flims y an d inaccurate excuse s for not placing well. Despite th e limit s an d danger s o f dissent , ther e ar e instances o f suc h resistance b y femal e bodybuilders . On e inciden t tha t wa s mentione d repeatedly b y bot h bodybuilder s an d judge s occurre d a t th e 199 2 Ms . International Competition . Thi s sho w was supposed t o set the ton e for a more feminin e futur e i n femal e bodybuilding . I n s o doing , th e judge s chose on e o f th e leas t muscula r bu t mos t traditionall y attractiv e femal e bodybuilders a s th e winner : sh e ha d blu e eyes , lon g blon d hair , goo d symmetry—and sh e wa s no t ver y muscular . I n fact , sh e use d t o b e a fitness-show competitor , bu t switche d t o bodybuilding . Sh e was perfec t for supportin g th e officials ' belie f tha t femal e bodybuilder s wh o ar e attractive an d no t ver y muscula r shoul d wi n th e meet s an d appea r o n the cover s o f thei r magazines , s o tha t mor e wome n wil l wan t t o joi n gyms, go to contests, an d buy bodybuilding products an d magazines . Paula Bircumshaw, a bodybuilder who was not only extremely muscu lar bu t sporte d thi s muscularit y o n a trul y symmetrica l physique , di d not plac e i n th e to p si x at th e 199 2 Ms. International competition . Thi s meant tha t sh e would be unable to compete in the fourth an d final stage , the posedown. In response to getting "shu t out " o f the top six places, sh e

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 14 9 yelled obscenitie s a t th e judge s and Joe Weider. Mark, a state judge, wh o was at the competition , describe d what h e saw : I was a t thi s year' s Arnol d Classi c an d Ms . International contes t i n Columbus an d tha t wa s probabl y th e mos t unpopula r decisio n I'v e ever witnesse d becaus e thi s gir l fro m England , Paul a Bircumshaw , should have won th e contes t an d she wasn't eve n in the to p six. And she cam e ou t onstag e afte r th e to p si x wer e announced ; sh e ha d o n her warm-ups and she made obscene gestures to the judges and said a lot o f thing s t o them , the n sh e jumpe d of f th e stag e an d ra n u p an d down the aisles, and she stopped right next to Joe Weider and she was holding her arms up and she got a standing ovation from th e crowd of about fou r thousan d people . It' s jus t no t popula r t o pic k somebod y that doesn' t hav e muscl e t o wi n a bodybuilding contest , I don't car e what you think . Diane, a professional bodybuilder , explaine d tha t Paul a "go t a two-yea r suspension an d I' m sur e she'l l neve r d o an y goo d becaus e they'r e ma d at her. " Noteworth y abou t Diane' s respons e i s tha t eve n afte r Paula' s punishment ha s bee n completed , sh e wil l stil l no t d o wel l i n th e IFB B "because they'r e ma d a t her. " The implicatio n o f thi s inciden t i s tha t femal e bodybuilder s shoul d not overtl y resis t th e hegemoni c standard s se t b y th e official s i n th e sport—they mus t no t offen d o r upset IFB B judges an d officials , particu larly i n public—o r the y wil l pa y th e pric e o f endin g thei r bodybuildin g careers. Thus , femal e bodybuilders , wome n wh o ar e physicall y stron g and powerfu l people , hav e littl e voic e i n directin g thei r sport . No t onl y must the y look like they are playing the game by the officials' hegemoni c rules, bu t the y mus t als o loo k lik e the y ar e enjoyin g it . Thi s exampl e brings t o min d th e extraordinar y definitiona l powe r thes e socia l gate keepers wield—i f the y labe l a bodybuilde r a "troublemaker, " th e labe l for al l intents an d purposes will d o irreparable damag e to a bodybuilder's career. As Alan Klein has maintained, "bein g ostracized from thi s organization i s tantamoun t t o bein g drumme d ou t o f th e sport . Thos e wh o have experience d suspensio n fro m th e IFB B are quic k t o poin t ou t tha t continuing t o succeed—economicall y o r in competition—i s difficult." 7 Because "jus t a s on e need s t o attrac t th e beneficenc e o f th e Weide r machine, on e mus t stee r clea r o f thei r animosity , fo r bein g shunne d b y the Weiders can irreversibly damag e one's career. Ostracism ca n take th e form o f economi c retribution , a s i n pullin g ad s fro m hi s magazin e o r

150 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance political repudiatio n b y th e IFBB." 8 Fo r example , bodybuilder s wh o i n the earl y 1990 s wen t t o th e McMahon' s ill-fate d Worl d Bodybuildin g Federation, an d the n returne d t o th e IFB B after th e WB F folded, ha d t o pay a fin e o f 1 0 percent o f eac h individual' s annua l WB F salary , whic h was deducte d fro m thei r IFB B contest winning s an d gues t appearances . There were six former WB F bodybuilders who compete d in IFBB contests in May 1993 , and none of them qualifie d fo r the Mr. Olympia. 9 Similarly , since th e 199 2 Ms . Internationa l competitio n outburst , Paul a Bircum shaw ha s faile d t o compet e effectivel y i n th e Unite d States , eve n afte r her suspensio n wa s shortene d by IFBB officials . In their attempt s t o explain suc h power dynamics , som e female body builders pointe d t o th e patriarcha l structur e o f th e sport . The y fel t tha t the spor t woul d b e faire r an d woul d hav e a differen t imag e i f i t wer e run an d maintaine d b y women . Fo r instance , Patty , a forme r nationa l competitor, exclaimed : "Well , my proble m wit h tha t i s we have men u p there dictatin g wha t wome n bodybuildin g i s al l abou t an d need s t o b e put i n the hands o f women. Well, some women hav e tried t o do that an d once the y trie d yo u neve r hear d fro m the m again . Okay , th e Weider s of the worl d jus t ba n them. " Again , a s Klei n contended , "bein g ostracize d from thi s organizatio n i s tantamoun t t o bein g drumme d ou t o f th e sport." 10 Patt y allude d t o previous attempt s mad e b y femal e bodybuild ers t o tak e contro l o f thei r ow n sport . Sh e pointe d t o 1985 , whe n a successful femal e bodybuilde r attempte d t o for m a female bodybuildin g union, failed , an d wa s unofficiall y person a no n grat a i n bodybuildin g from tha t poin t onward . Patt y asserted : I think women shoul d set the criteria for what the y want an d I think it shoul d be all women judges. They should set down the rules. They tried t o for m a woman' s unio n an d th e woma n wh o heade d i t wa s "Sarah" an d sh e was absolutel y goin g for everything , sh e was takin g Ms. International , sh e wa s doin g everything . Sh e trie d t o star t thi s women's union , you have never heard her name since . She has neve r had her picture i n a magazine, sh e has never wo n a contest, sh e jus t disappeared fro m th e bodybuildin g scen e an d sh e wa s th e absolut e up-and-coming femal e bodybuilde r bu t sh e trie d t o for m a women' s union t o take over women's bodybuilding and that's it. Unless you'r e a Joe Weider cuti e pie, adhere t o everything . I think Cor y Everson i s an absolutel y beautifu l woman , I think sh e ha s a phenomenal phy sique, bu t there' s n o wa y sh e woul d los e becaus e sh e wa s i n Jo e Weider's right pocket .

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 15 1 In addition to these individual forms of resistance by female bodybuilders, there were two collective acts to gain power within th e organization . One occurred at the 1992 Ms. Olympia competitors' meeting (this was the next Ms. Olympia after th e 199 1 Ms. International contest) . Nineteen to p professional femal e bodybuilder s wer e togethe r i n th e sam e room , an d they wanted t o voice their opinion s and attitudes abou t th e current stat e of female bodybuilding. However, the officials sai d that the purpose of the meeting was to talk abou t th e upcoming Ms . Olympia show ; if the bodybuilders wanted t o talk abou t other issues, they had to do it on their ow n time. The female bodybuilders did not convene after the meeting, and had not yet met t o discuss any issues about their status in the organization a s of 1994 . A few female bodybuilders attempted t o get a female representa tive who is outside the reach of the Weiders and the IFBB to be their representative an d to take a more active role in voicing the bodybuilders' con cerns to those in power. This position was to be quite different fro m tha t of the current NP C women's spokesperson , wh o mainly disseminate s in formation fro m th e official s t o bodybuilders . Althoug h ther e wa s tal k among female bodybuilders in the early 1990 s to get someone to fill such a position, it has yet to materialize.

Looking Forwar d What doe s th e futur e hol d fo r femal e bodybuildin g accordin g t o thos e who currentl y participate in th e sport ? Mos t argue d that femal e bodybu ilding wil l continu e t o embrac e th e "middle-of-the-roa d look " betwee n the large , muscula r wome n o f th e lat e 1980 s an d th e smalle r femal e bodybuilders o f the late 1970 s and early 1980s . In addition, the y believe d that thi s pattern wil l continu e becaus e femal e bodybuildin g wil l stil l b e motivated b y th e sam e factor s tha t prope l i t today . Th e image s tha t the socia l gatekeeper s thin k wil l sel l th e mos t products , tickets , an d magazines wil l dominat e th e futur e o f th e sport . Thus , futur e competi tive femal e bodybuilder s wil l likel y stil l b e cloake d i n a vei l o f hege monic femininit y tha t include s feminin e hairstyles , makeu p use , an d moderate-sized breasts . Onstage, the y will need t o display their feminin ity b y th e wa y the y wal k an d pose . Althoug h the y wil l stil l b e mor e muscular tha n th e averag e femal e athlete , the y wil l continu e t o b e directed by gatekeepers t o temper thei r muscularity . Many judges and bodybuilders felt tha t th e rise of fitness show s woul d have a n impac t o n th e spor t o f femal e bodybuilding . Fitnes s competi -

152 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance tions ar e no w sponsore d b y variou s organizations , includin g th e NP C and IFBB . At fitness contests , whic h fal l betwee n a female bodybuildin g competition an d a beauty pageant , contestant s ar e judge d o n thei r ath letic fitnes s an d attractiveness . Ther e ar e usuall y swimsui t an d dance / aerobics round s i n whic h contestant s ar e evaluated by a panel o f judges . Some organization s tha t sponso r fitnes s contest s hav e evening-gow n rounds i n whic h contestant s giv e a 30-secon d brie f biograph y a s well a s share their philosophy o n fitness. On e fitness sho w sponso r pressures it s contestants no t t o flex their muscle s o r emphasize muscl e size . There wa s n o consensu s amon g th e participant s i n thi s stud y abou t the impac t o f thes e contest s o n female bodybuilding . Thos e wh o voice d an opinio n fel t tha t suc h competition s coul d hav e on e o f a coupl e o f possible effect s o n judgin g th e contests . O n th e on e hand , the y ma y lessen th e pressur e o n femal e bodybuilder s t o limi t thei r muscularit y since fitness contestant s will fill th e need to comply with th e hegemoni c displays of femininity. However , th e existence of these contests may als o serve t o plac e furthe r limit s o n femal e bodybuilders 7 muscula r display s because fitnes s sho w contestant s wil l b e considere d a s th e hegemoni c embodiment o f femininit y an d femal e bodybuilder s ma y b e judge d ac cording t o thi s standard . A numbe r o f judge s an d femal e bodybuilder s thought thes e newe r competition s woul d indee d pu t limit s o n th e mus cularity tha t femal e bodybuilder s ar e allowe d t o display . Fo r instance , Linda, a state-leve l femal e judge , explained , "Well , i f it' s calle d bodybu ilding, an d I thin k i t shoul d be , i t shoul d b e judge d accordingly . Bu t I think it' s goin g t o be more , lik e I say, like a Ms. Fitness contest . Wher e it's no t goin g t o b e a s muc h lookin g fo r th e muscularity. " Tracy , a regional judge , agree d with Linda' s forecas t an d include d he r reason s fo r her prediction : I don't kno w where it's headed. There ar e a lot o f people that wan t i t to stil l b e th e hardcor e spor t tha t they'v e know n al l thes e year s a s muscle. And ther e are some people who want t o switc h i t an d try t o get i t mor e fitness-oriented . Th e peopl e wh o benefi t fro m it , th e people who sell the magazines, the people who sell the sponsorships , want t o brin g i t int o mainstrea m America , whic h it' s neve r goin g to be. Because the people who want bodybuilding to be a hardcore sport are not those i n power , the y hav e littl e sa y abou t th e futur e directio n o f th e sport excep t perhaps in editorial s in bodybuilding magazines .

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 15 Others als o fel t tha t th e socia l gatekeeper s woul d advocat e limite d muscularity becaus e thi s loo k i s mor e profitable . However , the y wer e more adamantl y critica l o f th e gatekeepers 7 reason s fo r doin g so . Fo r instance, Michelle voiced her frustration thi s way : I think tha t you are still going to see a lot of indecision o n the part of the organizatio n an d th e power s tha t b e t o decid e whic h direction , the judgin g criteri a i s goin g t o go . I thin k sometime s the y totall y miss th e mar k i n tha t they'r e tryin g t o appeas e a portio n o f th e population wh o doesn't car e about bodybuilding , wil l never be inter ested in bodybuilding, wh o couldn' t giv e a shit les s about bodybuild ing. I think tha t everybod y want s t o ope n ne w markets , bu t I thin k they are just off th e mark. You're never going to get the couch potat o to a contest. Bu t you go t t o ge t him int o a gym an d then mayb e yo u can get him t o a contest. Even then, you either love this spor t or you don't. Yo u just lov e it an d go and it become s part o f your life , o r you just don' t eve n car e tha t i t exists . It' s no t a thin g lik e footbal l o r basketball o r any o f these sport s where you neve r hav e to have bee n a playe r an d stil l b e a fanati c abou t it . Mos t o f th e peopl e wh o ar e fanatics abou t bodybuildin g ar e peopl e tha t bodybuil d themselves , people that trai n o n a serious basis . Now the y ma y o r may no t hav e ever compete d bu t the y ca n relat e t o it , an d s o I just don' t thin k th e general publi c i s eve r goin g t o dea l with i t an d I get reall y resentfu l sometimes whe n I thin k tha t th e power s tha t b e ar e caterin g t o people who aren' t eve n involved wit h th e spor t tha t ar e compromis ing the spor t for th e sak e of the extr a buck fro m som e guy who's go t a tire around his midriff . It is clear that Michelle felt tha t th e future o f female bodybuilding woul d be greatl y influence d b y th e profi t motiv e o f thos e i n power . Socia l gatekeepers wil l alway s suppor t attractiv e femal e bodybuilder s becaus e they hav e th e loo k tha t the y thin k th e publi c want s t o see . Michell e sighed and explained : You're always going to have tha t kin d o f cove r girl look in th e sport . Somebody onc e explaine d i t t o me . He said , "A s far a s what yo u se e on the Olympi a line-up , there's a recipe there, the face s ma y change , but th e recipe or the makeup i s still there. And it's going to have th e people that actuall y really deserv e to be there, the real, real competi tors who have the muscle, have the symmetry, an d all that shoul d be there, then you're going to have one or two that ar e just really photo-

3

154 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance genie becaus e it' s a visua l even t an d i f the y stil l wan t t o ge t som e sponsors or get some television time, you're going to have your Tanya Knights, you'r e goin g t o hav e peopl e ther e wh o reall y ar e margina l pros but the y hav e a cute face . So , their recip e i s alway s going to b e there, the faces ma y change to sell it depending on where they belong in th e tota l schem e o f things/ ' I think tha t Olympi a wil l alway s b e won b y th e mos t deserving . W e ar e goin g t o g o throug h a lo t o f growing pains, because th e proble m i s you stil l hav e thes e competi tors wh o haven' t gotte n th e wor d o n wha t th e judge s wan t t o see . And the y hav e no t a t thi s poin t ha d a chanc e o r kno w bette r t o le t some o f tha t muscl e atroph y a little bit an d ton e i t down . Onc e you get t o tha t poin t wher e everybod y i s awar e o f it , the n I think you'l l see more and more feminine wome n up there because the harder, th e hard core big muscular, will fade out of the sport . Such an emphasis o n profitability, accordin g to Michelle, leads to indecision o n th e par t o f th e gatekeepers . Th e one s wh o suffe r th e mos t fro m such indecisivenes s ar e th e femal e bodybuilders . Michell e fel t tha t th e attempts t o increas e profit s are , ironically , i n vai n becaus e th e averag e American will never find the image of any female bodybuilders attractiv e enough t o spend money tryin g to emulate them . Mark, a stat e judge , als o argue d vehementl y agains t th e officials ' attempts t o impos e th e les s muscula r loo k o n femal e bodybuilders , bu t he emphasized slightl y differen t reason s for his disapproval : If the y don' t chang e back t o thei r origina l direction , becaus e I know what the y ar e tryin g t o do , they'r e tryin g t o ge t th e wome n t o qui t using th e drugs , but it' s no t goin g t o wor k becaus e it' s alread y hap pening. It's like the men; they tried to get them t o quit, and of cours e now, the y don' t tes t anymore . Onc e yo u ge t starte d competin g it' s kind o f lik e i n footbal l o r anythin g else , yo u wan t t o hav e th e edg e and yo u don' t wan t t o have anybod y els e win, s o you d o whatever i t takes t o win. 11 Be n Weide r i s tryin g t o ge t bodybuildin g int o th e Olympics, but it will never happen. It's just not that big of an interes t and ther e probabl y wil l neve r be . I don' t thin k it' s eve r goin g t o b e anything bigge r tha n a mino r sport , a smal l fis h i n a bi g pond . . . . And they are kind of going in the wrong direction trying to please th e wrong people and they ar e going to end up having fewer peopl e sho w up t o contest s an d the y wil l los e interes t i n women' s contests , an d it's alread y starte d t o happen. I think bodybuildin g i n genera l woul d be more popular i f the y would take the restraints of f th e women. It' s

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 15 5 caused th e women' s number s t o decreas e . . . this year' s expecte d t o be rea l low . And especiall y wit h th e wome n wh o wan t t o compete , they don't eve n know what to do. They don't know what directio n t o go in. Mark argue d tha t b y emphasizin g smaller-muscle d femal e bodybuilders , gatekeepers ar e turnin g awa y no t onl y fans , bu t bodybuilder s a s well . Again, muc h lik e Michelle , Mar k believe d tha t attemptin g t o marke t bodybuilding t o th e genera l publi c i s futile becaus e o f a lack o f interest . Thus marketin g th e spor t t o a large r audienc e i s no t onl y damagin g t o the integrity o f the sport, i t is also misguided . Not everyon e sa w th e mov e t o a les s muscula r an d mor e attractiv e female bodybuilding look in a negative light. Some judges and bodybuilders fel t tha t th e recen t tren d i s warranted , shoul d b e continued , an d i n fact, occurre d i n th e nic k o f tim e t o sav e th e sport . Fo r instance , on e state-level femal e judge , Jan , discusse d ho w th e proliferatio n o f steroi d use amon g femal e bodybuilder s ha s le d t o th e popularit y o f bodybuild ing's sister sport , th e fitness shows : The change s the y ar e tryin g t o make , a s far a s havin g th e muscula r female bodybuilders, but stil l heading toward a more feminine look . I think tha t woul d b e beautiful . Becaus e I thin k a muscula r bod y i s absolutely somethin g to admire. I think it' s going to take a long tim e to go back to the feminine muscular . Because sometimes people don't put thos e together . Eithe r you'r e muscula r o r you'r e feminine . An d that's wh y th e fitness show s ar e becomin g s o popular . A lo t o f th e women ar e getting s o frustrated wit h thinkin g the y hav e to take th e steroids or whatever t o compete with th e bigger women. They go for the fitness show s because the y ca n look fit. They ca n look muscula r without havin g t o b e overboard . I don' t wan t t o se e i t g o t o tha t either. I' d lik e t o see th e bodybuildin g show s continue . Bu t again , still look like a girl. If the steroids can get cleaned up, God that woul d be so wonderful . Jan acknowledge d th e frustratio n fel t b y femal e bodybuilders , bu t sh e attributed thi s disconten t no t t o the inconsistencies i n judging , as previous judge s an d bodybuilder s ha d argued , bu t t o th e pressur e o f feelin g they ha d t o us e steroid s t o compet e effectivel y i n th e sport ; therefor e many o f the m turne d t o fitness show s instead . Sh e hope d th e futur e would brin g th e feminine, athleti c nonsteroi d loo k t o female bodybuild ing, which would bring more women bac k t o the sport .

156 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance Most mal e judge s an d official s wer e als o positiv e abou t th e chang e toward les s muscula r femal e bodybuilders , becaus e the y fel t th e publi c is turne d of f b y larger-muscle d wome n an d smaller-muscle d wome n would attrac t mor e people to the sport . On e high-ranking officia l stated : I se e it , i t wil l continuousl y improve . I thin k th e popularit y wil l expand becaus e it' s expandin g righ t no w al l ove r th e world . I thin k when the women were a little too masculine, it turned a lot of people off. No t onl y th e wome n wh o wante d t o g o int o bodybuilding , bu t also the public because nobody thought tha t a real muscular massiv e looking woman wa s feminine. Se e a bodybuilder coul d stil l b e femi nine bu t no t whe n the y tur n int o male s almos t becaus e som e o f th e bodybuilders, i f yo u loo k a t them , loo k lik e men . Whe n the y fle x a bicep, it's a real bicep. We ca n infe r fro m hi s word s "whe n the y flex a bicep, it' s a rea l bicep " that h e believe s tha t wome n d o no t naturall y hav e "rea l biceps, " onl y men do . Thus , whe n wome n flex a "rea l bicep, " i t mus t no t onl y b e drug-enhanced, bu t i t als o is offensive t o the general public. Some fel t tha t th e publi c woul d b e mor e acceptin g o f femal e body building i f i t foun d a middl e are a betwee n th e tw o extremes . Fo r in stance, David, a state judge, stated : I thin k ther e i s goin g t o b e a middl e ground . There' s go t t o b e a middle groun d wher e th e genera l publi c i s goin g t o accep t i t a littl e bit more . There ar e stil l going to be those wome n lik e th e muscula r women . . . the Lenda Murrays, the Tanya Knights, the Laura Creavalles . . . Debbi e Muggli , Shelle y Beattie , Dian a Dennis . . .. I n fact , between Anj a Schreine r an d Laur a Creavalle , I thin k i s wher e it ;s going to end up somehow. So it went from "thi s is too masculine" t o "this i s a littl e bi t to o feminine. " W e need som e groun d tha t i s in between. Brooke, a professional bodybuilder , als o though t tha t femal e bodybuild ing would begin to embody a more moderate look. However, sh e was no t concerned, a s othe r bodybuilder s hav e been , tha t interes t i n th e spor t might fade : First o f all , I don't thin k tha t femal e bodybuilder s hav e anythin g t o worry about. There have been various people who have said they fee l it i s goin g bac k towar d Mis s Fitnes s typ e competition . An d I don' t

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 15 7 see that . A t leas t no t fro m th e contest s I'v e see n i n th e pas t year . I think femal e bodybuildin g wil l continu e i n it s ow n wa y t o advance . What that means, I don't know. I don't think, lik e I said, that the y are going to go really backwards. But I think it' s going to temper itself t o the poin t wher e i t wil l allo w th e genera l publi c t o catc h u p t o it . I t always seem s t o b e a littl e ahea d o f th e genera l opinio n o f wha t women shoul d look like. Seeing female bodybuilders as a type of vanguard of femininity—pushin g the boundarie s o f acceptabl e appearance s fo r women — Brook e believe d that i n th e immediat e futur e th e spor t woul d experienc e a moderatin g "cooling-off period " s o th e genera l publi c coul d "catc h up " wit h th e muscular image s o f femal e bodybuilders . Whe n th e genera l publi c find s the muscular look more palatable, the muscularity of female bodybuilder s could be increased. Here again we see that participant s must consciousl y limit their "athletic " displays in order not to risk offending th e fans . A sentimen t expresse d b y bodybuilder s an d judge s alik e wa s tha t bodybuilding shoul d a t leas t retur n t o portrayin g a health y imag e t o the public, 12 s o tha t femal e bodybuildin g woul d remai n a popula r an d economically viabl e sport. For instance, Clay , who is adamantly oppose d to wome n takin g steroids , stated , " I se e femal e bodybuildin g headin g more toward s no t s o muc h th e fitnes s look , bu t basically , th e athleti c attractive activ e female-look—with th e women bein g healthy, the y loo k better." A s we sa w in chapter 3 , some people are more critica l of wome n who tak e steroid s tha n men , an d Cla y fit s thi s camp . However , no t everyone applie d th e no-steroid s rul e i n a gender-specific way . Applyin g the importanc e o f portrayin g a healthy loo k mor e generall y t o al l body builders, Christy , a national amateu r competitor , explained : Fd like t o see it sta y intact . Thi s i s th e biggest thin g that' s unfortu nate about bodybuilding is that i t started out a s the key to be healthy and it turned into one of the most unhealthy sports that ther e is. One of th e guy s jus t die d an d I think tha t wome n tak e themselve s dow n to a prett y unhealth y stat e an d tak e th e drug s an d tak e die t aids , and d o whateve r i s necessar y t o maintai n that . I would lik e t o se e bodybuilding in general kind of be cleaned up a little bit and get back to being a symbol of health rather than freakiness. / The various opinion s expresse d by the participants i n thi s stud y sho w that th e future o f female bodybuildin g remain s unpredictable . On e thin g

158 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance is certain : th e ris e o f fitnes s show s wil l continu e t o hav e a significan t impact o n female bodybuilding . As of fall 1996 , not onl y do the NPC an d IFBB hol d fitnes s competitions , bu t s o d o othe r organization s suc h a s the Nationa l Amateu r Bodybuilder s Associatio n (NABBA) , the Nationa l Fitness Sanctionin g Bod y (NFSB) , an d th e Internationa l Fitnes s Sanc tioning Body (IFSB). Fitness competition s ar e receiving publicity fro m al l of th e majo r bodybuildin g magazine s an d a coupl e o f othe r magazines , Ms. Fitness Magazine an d Women's Fitness and Bodybuilding, devot e a substantial amoun t o f coverag e t o thes e competitions . Th e loo k tha t i s rewarded a t fitness contests—athletic , feminine , fit, an d trim—is close r to the appearance norm s associate d wit h hegemoni c femininity, 13 a look that is more marketable. For instance, recall Kyle's descriptions of femal e bodybuilders i n chapte r 6 (see p. xxx). Not onl y i s th e fitness loo k see n as a more " appropriate" look, it is also touted as a more profitable image , making an unbeatable combinatio n i n the eye s of the socia l gatekeepers . It appears that femal e bodybuildin g i s at a crossroads: the existence of fitness competition s ma y ac t t o fre e femal e bodybuilder s fro m th e mus cular restriction s place d o n the m b y socia l gatekeeper s becaus e fitness shows wil l fill a niche fo r th e les s muscula r bu t fit an d athleti c woma n who i s no t muscula r enoug h t o compet e i n bodybuilding . O n th e othe r hand, th e existenc e o f suc h competition s ma y operat e t o tighte n th e social gatekeepers 7 restraint s o n muscula r femal e bodybuilder s becaus e many o f the m believ e tha t th e fitness loo k i s th e mor e appropriat e an d marketable o f the two . Most o f th e participants i n thi s stud y sa w fitness shows a s workin g t o limi t femal e bodybuilders 7 muscularity . Som e judges an d bodybuilder s preferre d th e smaller-muscled , mor e feminin e look fo r femal e bodybuilder s toute d b y socia l gatekeepers , bu t other s disagreed, givin g a n economic-politica l rational e fo r thei r views . The y resented th e fac t tha t thei r spor t ha s t o chang e i n orde r t o appea l t o "couch potatoes " wh o wil l neve r car e abou t bodybuildin g anyway . Al though som e ar e annoye d wit h th e rol e tha t marketabilit y plays , the y have little power to stop it . Social gatekeeper s wil l probabl y continu e t o focu s mor e an d mor e attention t o wha t the y conside r th e mor e profitabl e endeavor : fitness competitions. Fitnes s contestant s ar e not perceive d a s crossin g th e gen der order , a s som e conten d femal e bodybuilder s do . I n fact , thei r look s put the m somewher e alon g th e continuu m betwee n a sexy , in-shape , toned, ail-America n Playboy centerfol d an d an athletic, feminine, toned , and sexy beauty pageant contestant wh o has abundant energy , can do the

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 15 9 splits onstage, wears a thong while competin g (a s long as a the contes t i s not bein g filmed fo r television) , an d smile s incessantly . I n othe r words , these wome n ar e no t "monster s t o behold " becaus e the y ca n stil l "b e taken hom e t o mother, " a s Harr y Crew s quippe d i n hi s novel , Body. 14 There i s n o confusin g thes e wome n wit h men . Consequently , socia l gatekeepers thin k ther e is enormous profi t t o be made. Female bodybuilder s wil l mor e tha n likel y b e lef t t o fight amon g themselves fo r increasingl y smalle r amount s o f mone y an d publicity . If this scenari o play s out , gatekeeper s ma y hav e foun d a n are a tha t effi ciently an d effectivel y solidifie s thei r dua l economi c an d patriarcha l interests. Eve n i f socia l gatekeeper s d o no t full y tur n thei r back s o n female bodybuilding , the y ca n alway s us e fitness competition s a s a kin d of trum p car d t o ge t femal e bodybuilder s t o continu e t o enhanc e thei r femininity an d limi t thei r muscularity . I n othe r words , socia l gatekeep ers wil l b e abl e t o us e th e threa t tha t i f femal e bodybuilder s d o no t cooperate, the y wil l withdra w thei r economi c resource s fro m th e sport . Hence, i t appear s tha t th e onc e potentiall y radicalizin g imag e o f th e strong, powerfu l femal e bodybuilde r ma y b e almos t completel y coopte d to fit back within th e dominan t hegemoni c norm s o f femininity . I began thi s researc h wit h a relatively simpl e question : Ho w doe s th e sport o f female bodybuildin g dea l with th e stron g and muscular imag e of female bodybuilders ? Throug h m y ethnographi c research , whic h in cludes bot h participan t observatio n an d in-dept h interviews , I conclud e that although , a t first glance , femal e bodybuilder s appea r t o embod y a n empowering imag e o f women—on e tha t exude s physica l strengt h an d emphasizes impressiv e musculature—whe n place d i n th e patriarcha l and capitalis t contex t o f th e IFB B and NP C bodybuildin g organizations , their strength an d power are tempered significantly . Albei t over the years female bodybuilder s hav e gotte n decidedl y mor e muscular , the y hav e also been institutionally constraine d b y social gatekeepers wh o continu ally reinforc e th e importanc e tha t femal e bodybuilder s mus t no t onl y enhance thei r femininity , the y mus t limi t thei r muscularit y t o a certai n extent a s well. For instance, recal l tha t th e judgin g guidelines for femal e bodybuilders, in th e IFBB Official Guidebook, clearl y states : The most important aspec t is shape, a muscular feminine shape . The other aspect s ar e similar t o those describe d for assessin g men, bu t i n regard t o muscula r development , i t mus t no t b e carrie d t o exces s where it resembles the massive muscularity o f the male physique. 15

160 Counterin g Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance In addition t o scoring down excessiv e muscularity , Judges may fin d othe r faults no t see n in men , suc h a s stretch marks , operation scars , an d cellulite . The judge s shal l als o observ e whethe r the women competitor s walk to and from thei r positions in a graceful manner.16 By havin g differen t standard s fo r femal e an d mal e bodybuilders , gate keepers institutionall y reinforc e th e importanc e o f gende r distinction s between women an d men in their sport. By doing so, they institutionall y reinforce th e feminine apologeti c for female bodybuilders . The feminine apologetic— a tacti c some female athletes take to "apol ogize" for thei r participation i n the male domai n o f athleti c competitio n by exaggeratin g thei r femininity—ha s a vibrant histor y i n th e aren a o f female bodybuilding . I f w e loo k bac k a t th e histor y o f thi s muscula r domain, w e se e tha t a s female bodybuilder s hav e develope d large r mus culature, thei r display s o f femininit y hav e als o becom e mor e enhance d and exaggerated . Currently , femal e bodybuilder s g o to unhealthy length s to "prove " their femininit y t o others both insid e an d outside their sport . For instance , i t i s estimate d tha t approximatel y 8 0 percen t o f profes sional femal e bodybuilder s ge t breas t implant s s o tha t the y ca n stil l show som e cleavag e whe n competing. 17 Th e feminin e apologeti c doe s not simpl y ste m fro m th e femal e bodybuilders ' individua l wishe s t o exaggerate their femininity, bu t thi s tactic is institutionally promulgate d and reinforced b y upper- an d lower-level gatekeepers . Gatekeepers pla y a significan t rol e i n th e emphasi s o n femininit y displayed b y femal e bodybuilders . No t onl y d o the y hav e tremendou s political an d economi c power , bu t the y als o wiel d a n enormou s defini tional powe r tha t allow s the m t o se t th e boundarie s i n th e appearanc e and comportmen t fo r femal e bodybuilders . I n thei r zealou s attempt s t o popularize bodybuilding , gatekeeper s leav e littl e roo m fo r dissentin g opinions. Thos e wh o disagre e wit h the m ar e no t give n th e opportunit y to rise in th e organization s t o positions o f power, an d the y ar e not give n a fai r chanc e t o ai r thei r opinion s an d concerns . I f femal e bodybuilder s voice thei r displeasur e wit h th e directio n o f th e sport , the y d o s o wit h the ris k o f bein g labele d " a troublemaker, " an d thu s ma y irreparabl y damage thei r careers . Wit h mor e fitnes s competition s no w o n th e hori zon, femal e bodybuilder s als o have t o watc h wha t the y d o so th e socia l gatekeepers will not withdra w thei r financial support , whic h woul d be a devastating blow t o female bodybuilding . Femal e bodybuilders hav e fe w

Countering Hegemony, Coopting the Resistance 16 options. They ca n (i ) agre e with th e curren t gendere d powe r structures, (2) comply while quietly disagreeing; (3 ) covertly organize into a cohesive group an d hop e ther e i s powe r i n numbers, - an d (4 ) overtly protest . Th e latter tw o option s coul d mee t wit h hars h an d swif t actio n fro m official s and would probably lead to suspensions fro m th e sport . As Michae l Messne r argued , organize d sport , a s a cultura l spher e defined largel y b y patriarcha l an d capitalis t interests , represent s "a n important aren a i n whic h emergin g image s o f active , fit an d muscula r women ar e forged , interpreted , contested , an d incorporated/ 718 W e se e these sam e dynamic s bein g playe d ou t i n th e domai n o f femal e body building. Femal e bodybuilder s hav e earnestl y trie d t o tak e contro l o f their own bodies, but th e social gatekeepers have diminished thi s contro l by enforcin g rule s an d regulation s tha t mak e the m enhanc e thei r femi ninity an d limi t thei r muscularity . Thes e femal e contestant s hav e als o tried t o hav e mor e politica l control , bu t thes e attempt s ar e constraine d by th e unequa l gendere d powe r arrangemen t an d th e profi t motive s o f officials an d sponsors within th e sport . Also playing against the m ar e th e historical an d cultura l force s outsid e th e spor t tha t continu e t o exclude , for th e mos t part , muscular , strong , an d powerful wome n fro m th e idea l of femininity. Kathryn , a journalist, lamented : Ironically, al l th e peopl e i n charg e o f th e spor t ar e ver y ol d worl d men. There' s no t on e powerfu l woma n i n th e spor t o f bodybuildin g today wh o ha s a hand i n makin g an y o f th e judgin g standards , wh o has a hand in controlling where the money goes. It's all controlled by men an d they're extremel y ol d world. They're extremel y patriarchal . At thi s point, th e best way t o describe it is , it's lik e th e fox guardin g the he n house . I thin k the y ar e holdin g wome n back . I t coul d b e much bigger. Thus, i n a n aren a tha t doe s no t giv e femal e bodybuilder s muc h voice , the goal s o f successfu l contestatio n an d contro l i s stil l elusiv e eve n fo r these incredibly stron g and muscular women . Although femal e bodybuilder s i n man y way s hav e enormou s contro l in shaping their bodies, they neither have institutional contro l over thei r own destinie s no r d o the y hav e muc h politica l voic e i n th e futur e o f their sport . I n fact , eve n thei r corpora l contro l i s mitigate d b y socia l gatekeepers. Hence , th e word s t o Jane t Jackson' s son g tha t opene d thi s chapter rin g painfully hollo w when place d i n th e political an d economi c milieu o f female bodybuilding .

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APPENDIXA Profiles of the Competitors, Judges, and Officials

Note: Som e o f th e demographi c informatio n ha s bee n change d slightl y and/o r omitted t o protect th e privacy o f the participants i n th e study .

Female Competitors Lois—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e is a high schoo l graduat e and is currently working in the fitness industry . Sh e is married an d competes a t the stat e amateu r level . Susan—mid-twenties a t the time o f the interview. Sh e has som e college experi ence an d i s currentl y workin g a t a jo b outsid e th e fitnes s industry . Sh e i s divorced an d has not remarried . Sh e competes a t th e stat e amateur level . Mary—mid-thirties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e has som e colleg e experi ence an d i s currentl y workin g tw o jobs : on e outsid e an d th e othe r insid e th e fitness industry . Sh e i s divorced . Sh e compete s a t th e state-level . Sh e i s als o a bodybuilding judge . Patty—mid-forties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s a high schoo l graduat e and i s currentl y involve d i n th e fitnes s industry . Sh e is divorce d an d compete s at th e national level . Ellen—mid-thirties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e is a college graduate . Sh e is singl e an d ha s neve r married . Sh e work s i n th e fitnes s industr y an d ha s competed a t th e national amateu r level . Vicky—late thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s a colleg e graduate , i s engaged t o be married, an d works outsid e th e fitnes s industry . Sh e competes a t the professional level . Denise—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e is a high schoo l gradu ate beginning college , i s currentl y married , an d works withi n th e fitnes s indus try. She competes a t th e stat e amateu r level . She is a state-level judge . Christy—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview. Sh e is a high schoo l gradu ate, i s single , an d work s i n th e fitnes s industry . Sh e compete s a t th e nationa l amateur level . 163

164 A . Profiles of the Competitors, Judges, and Officials Diane—late twentie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e is a college graduate , i s single, an d works outsid e th e fitness industry . Sh e competes a t th e professiona l level. Jill—mid-thirties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s a hig h schoo l graduat e and is married. Sh e competes a t th e professional level . Stephanie—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e is a college graduat e and engaged to be married. Sh e works outside the fitness industry . Sh e compete s at th e professional level . Pam—mid-thirties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e is a college graduate an d i s currently married . Sh e work s insid e th e fitnes s industr y an d compete s a t th e professional level . Brooke—late thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview. Sh e is a college graduate an d is currentl y married . Sh e works insid e th e fitnes s industr y an d compete s a t th e professional level . Kim—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s a high schoo l graduat e and i s currentl y single . Sh e works outsid e th e fitnes s industr y an d compete s a t the stat e amateu r level .

Female Judges and Official s Tracy—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s currentl y enrolle d i n college an d i s single . Sh e participated a s a female bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge . Sh e hold s job s bot h i n an d ou t o f th e fitnes s industr y an d i s als o a bodybuilding official . Rachel—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e ha s a graduate degree . She work s outsid e th e fitnes s industr y an d i s currentl y married . Sh e partici pated a s a female bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge. Heather—early fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s i n colleg e an d currently separated . Sh e participated a s a female bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge. She is also a bodybuilding official . Michelle—late thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e ha s a hig h schoo l degree an d i s currentl y married . Sh e work s outsid e th e fitnes s industr y an d participated a s a female bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge. Jan—late thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e ha s a hig h schoo l degree . She is currently married and works outside the fitness industry . She participated as a female bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge. Lynn—early thirtie s a t th e tim e o f the interview . Sh e works outsid e th e fitnes s industry an d i s attendin g college . Sh e participate d a s a femal e bodybuilde r before becomin g a judge.

A. Profiles of the Competitors, Judges, and Officials 16 Linda—mid-forties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e i s a high schoo l graduat e and works insid e th e fitness industry . Sh e is married an d has not compete d a s a female bodybuilder . Karen—early fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e has a college degre e an d works bot h insid e an d outsid e th e fitnes s industry . Sh e i s marrie d an d partici pated a s a female bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge. Renee—mid-forties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . Sh e work s insid e th e fitnes s industry an d is married. Sh e participated a s a female bodybuilde r befor e becom ing a judge. She is also a bodybuilding official .

Male Judges and Official s Mark—mid-forties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitness industry an d is currently separate d fro m hi s spouse . He has a college degree . He still participates a s a competitive bodybuilder . David—early fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e i s marrie d an d work s outside th e fitness industry . H e participate d a s a bodybuilde r an d powerlifte r before becomin g a judge. He attended colleg e but di d not graduate . Sam—mid-forties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s outsid e th e fitness industry an d i s married. H e has som e colleg e experience . He neve r participate d as a competitive bodybuilder . Kyle—mid-forties a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitness industry an d i s single . H e i s a high schoo l graduate . H e neve r participate d a s a competitive bodybuilder. H e is also a bodybuilding officia l an d he has promote d bodybuilding shows . Richard—late fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitness industry. H e i s marrie d an d i s a high schoo l graduate . H e compete d a s a pow erlifter bu t no t a s a bodybuilder befor e becomin g a judge. Tod—early fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s bot h insid e an d outside o f th e fitness industry . H e i s marrie d an d i s a colleg e graduate . H e participated a s a competitiv e bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judg e an d i s a bodybuilding official . Steve—late fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitness industry. H e i s marrie d an d i s a hig h schoo l graduate . H e participate d a s a competitive bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge an d ha s promote d bodybuild ing shows . Clay—late fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitness industry. H e i s marrie d an d ha s attende d graduat e school . H e participate d a s a competitive bodybuilde r befor e becomin g a judge. He ha s promote d bodybuild ing shows an d is a bodybuilding official .

5

166 A . Profiles of the Competitors, Judges, and Officials Stan—early fortie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitnes s industry. He has a graduate degre e and is married. H e participated a s a competitive bodybuilder before becoming a judge. He has promoted bodybuilding show s and is a bodybuilding official . Mike—late thirtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s bot h i n an d ou t o f the fitness industry . He has a college degree. He never participated a s a competitive bodybuilder. H e has promoted bodybuildin g contest s an d i s a bodybuildin g official. Ralph—late sixtie s a t th e tim e o f th e interview . H e work s insid e th e fitnes s industry. H e ha s a t leas t a hig h schoo l degree . H e neve r participate d a s a competitive bodybuilde r an d is a bodybuilding official .

Journalists

(To protect the confidentiality of demographic information) Shelley

Kathryn Bob

these journalists, I will not provide any

APPENDIXB Data, Methodologies, Theory

It i s up t o th e sociologis t t o confe r meanin g t o meaningles s data— a rewardin g responsibility indeed ! I t put s sociologists , an d sociolog y a s a whole , int o th e position o f conferrin g meanin g t o th e meaningles s chao s o f appearances— a task tha t historicall y ha s been tha t o f th e natural sciences. 1

Methodological Tool s and Theoretical Perspective s My methodologie s ar e participan t observatio n an d in-dept h semistructure d in terviews. These tw o method s ar e often use d i n tande m an d ar e integral compo nents o f ethnography . Historically , ethnographi c work , sometime s calle d fieldwork, wa s developed to undertake the problems o f studying other cultures, 2 and wa s thu s closel y associate d wit h anthropology . Sinc e th e 1920s , however , ethnographic researc h ha s bee n undertake n b y sociologists , an d mor e recentl y by scholar s i n Cultura l Studies , t o stud y group s withi n th e researcher' s ow n culture. 3 Regardless o f th e grou p bein g studied , ethnograph y offer s a n intimat e vie w of variou s type s o f cultura l forms . Joh n Va n Maane n contende d tha t ethnogra phy "rest s o n th e peculia r practic e o f representin g th e socia l realit y o f other s through th e analysi s o f one' s ow n experienc e i n th e worl d o f thes e others." 4 The compellin g nature o f ethnographic wor k rest s in its abilit y t o offer ric h an d detailed knowledg e o f a groups's distinctiv e way o f life . Participant observatio n emerge d a s a sociologica l metho d a s par t o f th e "Chicago school" in the 1920 s and 1930s. 5 The sociological qualitative traditio n continued i n th e 1940 s wit h W . F . Whyte' s work , an d endure d i n th e 1950 s and 1960 s wit h th e wor k o f Howar d Becke r an d othe r subcultura l theorists. 6 According t o Stuar t Hall , scholar s i n th e "Chicag o school " an d th e subcultura l theorists "wer e sensitiv e t o th e difference s i n 'lived 7 value s an d meaning s that differentiate d subculture s fro m th e dominan t culture. " The y "stresse d th e importance o f th e way s i n which socia l actor s defin e fo r themselve s th e condi tions i n whic h the y live—thei r 'definition s o f situation. ' An d the y deploye d a qualitative methodology." 7 Since th e 1970s , ethnograph y ha s experience d a reviva l tha t som e scholar s attribute t o th e emergenc e o f Cultura l Studie s an d th e prevalen t us e o f ethno graphic researc h b y scholar s i n tha t field. 8 Th e mai n purpose s o f ethnograph y 167

168 B . Data, Methodologies, Theory are t o documen t th e live d experience s o f th e actor s bein g studied , ascertai n their definition s o f th e situation , an d determin e ho w thes e definition s ar e affected b y cultural an d historical conditions . According t o Hall , Cultura l Studie s scholar s hav e "stresse d th e importanc e of th e way s i n whic h socia l actor s defin e fo r themselve s th e condition s i n which the y live—thei r definition s o f situation/ 79

The Researc h I combin e participan t observatio n a t regiona l an d professiona l bodybuildin g meets a s wel l a s interview s wit h femal e bodybuilders , NP C an d IFB B official s and judges, and journalists at bodybuilding magazines. For the participant obser vations, I took extensiv e notes while observin g how bodybuilding meet s ar e ru n and organized . I n all , I observe d five differen t bodybuildin g shows : thre e re gional shows—th e 199 1 Texa s Cup , th e 199 2 Texa s Championships , an d th e 1992 Lackland Classic,- two professional shows—th e 199 2 Ms. Olympia an d th e 1993 Ms . International . Th e observation s tha t I conducte d allowe d m e t o se e what th e protoco l i s fo r bodybuildin g shows , wha t type s o f peopl e g o t o thes e events, what bodybuilder s loo k lik e when the y ar e onstage, what type s o f pose s they ar e aske d t o do , th e rol e th e audienc e plays , th e rol e o f vendor s wh o sel l bodybuilding product s a t shows , an d t o se e for mysel f wha t type s o f bodybuild ers win a t thes e differen t level s o f competition . At th e bodybuildin g contests , I me t numerou s people , man y o f who m I formally interviewe d fo r thi s research . I als o casuall y talke d t o other s (no t recorded) abou t bot h femal e an d mal e bodybuilding , wh y the y wer e there , an d why the y enjo y bodybuilding . Mos t o f th e interview s I conducted wit h thos e I had me t a t th e bodybuildin g contest s wer e complete d withi n week s followin g the meet . Thi s wa s don e because the y wer e eithe r competin g an d neede d a fe w days to recover from th e meet experienc e o r were judging and di d not have tim e to talk with m e a t th e contest . In additio n t o observin g bodybuildin g contests , I ha d th e opportunit y t o watch individual s workin g ou t wit h fre e weights , sinc e som e o f m y interview s were conducte d i n regiona l gyms . Thi s aspec t o f th e researc h i s importan t because, a s the respondent s hav e said , th e gy m environmen t i s a n integra l par t of a bodybuilder' s life . Thus , b y watchin g peopl e wor k ou t an d interac t wit h one anothe r an d b y lookin g a t th e gy m environment , I became mor e cognizan t of th e rol e o f th e gym , it s ambiance , th e interactio n o f it s members , an d th e role it play s i n th e live s o f bodybuilders, especiall y whe n the y ar e getting read y for a bodybuilding competition . Furthermore , I had access to a few bodybuilder s in th e loca l are a an d watche d the m train ; I als o ha d th e chanc e t o as k the m various questions abou t th e whys, whens, and hows of training for bodybuildin g shows, whic h gav e m e a n appreciatio n o f wha t i s involve d i n a bodybuilder' s workout routine . The majorit y o f m y dat a com e fro m thirty-seve n in-depth , semistructure d interviews wit h competitiv e femal e bodybuilders , judges , officials, an d journal ists. There were a total of twenty-five wome n an d twelve men. They were aske d

B. Data, Methodologies, Theory 16 a lis t o f prese t question s (no t alway s aske d i n th e sam e order) , an d follow-u p questions wer e aske d t o prob e thei r answers . Th e follow-u p question s differe d for eac h responden t becaus e th e conten t depende d o n thei r initia l responses . However, fo r th e mos t part , ever y responden t answere d th e sam e serie s o f questions. Thi s stud y consist s o f a tota l o f eleve n face-to-fac e interview s an d twenty-six phon e interviews . Although phon e interview s ma y no t hav e elicite d response s a s thoroug h a s the mor e intimat e face-to-fac e interviews , the y prove d t o b e quit e usefu l i n researching th e subjec t matter . A number o f th e respondent s di d not hav e tim e to tal k wit h m e a t meets , an d other s I interviewe d live d outsid e o f Texas ; therefore, th e mos t efficien t wa y t o intervie w the m wa s b y telephone . Tele phone interview s followe d th e sam e forma t a s in-person interviews . I informe d all respondents tha t th e interview s wer e goin g to be taped , tha t thei r response s would remai n confidential , an d tha t the y coul d refuse t o answe r an y question . There were benefits an d drawbacks to using telephone interviews. One benefit wa s tha t I was abl e t o includ e peopl e outsid e th e stat e o f Texa s wh o woul d otherwise hav e bee n excluded . B y includin g a nationa l samplin g o f femal e bodybuilders an d judges , I hav e a mor e accurat e pictur e no t onl y o f Texa s bodybuilding, bu t o f nationa l an d professiona l bodybuildin g a s well . A secon d benefit ha d to d o with th e steroid controversy . Man y o f the national an d profes sional-level judge s an d official s wer e willin g t o discus s thei r feeling s abou t th e steroid issu e openl y becaus e th e onl y characteristi c abou t m e the y coul d ascer tain wa s tha t I had a relatively hig h voice ; thu s I probably di d not tak e steroid s and perhaps was anti-steroi d a s well. Drawbacks o f conductin g interview s b y phon e includ e no t bein g abl e t o connect a s wel l wit h th e responden t becaus e th e intervie w i s experience d a s more impersonal, an d the inability t o read facial expression s an d body language.

The Sample I relied o n nonprobability samplin g for thi s study . According t o Ear l Babbie an d Russell Bernard , th e disadvantag e o f usin g nonprobabilit y samplin g technique s is tha t one' s stud y ha s ver y lo w externa l validity , whic h make s generalizin g beyond th e sampl e quit e difficult. 10 However , th e advantag e i s tha t i t ofte n yields highl y credibl e an d reliabl e dat a abou t th e group . Th e nonprobabilit y sampling techniqu e tha t I used i s snowball sampling , whic h i s useful i n studie s of small , bounded , o r difficult-to-fin d populations 1 x suc h a s peopl e connecte d with competitiv e bodybuilding . Snowbal l samplin g refer s t o th e techniqu e i n which th e researche r locate s on e o r mor e ke y individual s an d ask s the m t o name other s wh o woul d b e likel y candidate s fo r th e research . Each , i n turn , gives the name o f one o r two people the y thin k wil l be a good interviewee . Most o f th e respondents I interviewed gav e me th e nam e an d phone numbe r of someon e the y kne w wh o wa s als o involve d i n femal e bodybuildin g a s a competitor o r a s a judge . I the n go t i n touc h wit h thes e people , interviewe d them, an d then asked them fo r the name of someone else involved in bodybuild ing. I had a total o f four ke y informant s wh o helpe d m e i n m y researc h endeav -

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170 B . Data, Methodologies, Theory ors b y puttin g m e i n touc h wit h som e o f m y respondents , an d b y givin g m e informal ye t integra l informatio n abou t th e spor t an d subcultur e o f femal e bodybuilding. Onc e I ha d acces s t o the m an d coul d us e thei r name s t o ge t i n contact wit h othe r respondents , th e bodybuildin g networ k opene d u p mor e easily for me . Face-to-face interview s wer e conducte d i n Austin , Sa n Antonio , Chicago , and Columbus . Th e tw o Texa s location s wer e chose n becaus e Texa s i s consid ered on e o f th e "hotbeds " o f femal e bodybuildin g an d als o becaus e the y wer e convenient; th e othe r tw o location s were chose n becaus e the y wer e th e site s of the professiona l femal e bodybuildin g shows . In-perso n interview s wer e con ducted mostl y i n gyms, but som e were conducte d i n people's homes, i n restau rants, o r in my office . Twenty-nin e interview s wer e tape d an d fully transcribed ; eight wer e eithe r tape d an d partially transcribed , o r I took copiou s notes durin g the interview . The intervie w fo r th e femal e bodybuilder s (se e appendi x C ) consiste d o f numerous open-ende d question s o n fiv e genera l areas : sports socialization , th e process o f gettin g read y fo r a mee t an d th e mee t experience , attitude s abou t judging, attitude s abou t th e importanc e o f attractivenes s fo r femal e bodybuild ers and what constitute s th e ideal female bodybuilder , an d attitudes abou t thei r own experience s i n th e spor t an d th e future o f th e sport . The intervie w fo r th e femal e an d mal e judge s (se e below) consiste d o f open ended question s o n four genera l areas: sports socialization , judgin g experiences , attitudes abou t th e importanc e o f attractivenes s o f femal e bodybuilders , an d their vision o f the future o f female bodybuilding . These grouping s o f questions represen t th e major categorie s tha t I was inter ested i n explorin g a t th e outse t o f th e project . Th e grouping s o f question s o n the respondents 7 previou s sport s experience s addres s th e leve l o f activit y i n sports befor e thei r involvemen t i n femal e bodybuildin g an d als o th e proces s of getting involved in suc h a nontraditional sport . To personalize their experience s and t o illustrat e th e rigo r o f th e sport , I asked a series o f question s abou t wha t it take s t o ge t read y fo r a meet an d wha t th e da y o f th e mee t i s lik e fo r them . The hear t o f th e researc h lie s i n th e middl e se t o f question s tha t relat e t o th e importance o f attractiveness , attitude s abou t judging , an d response s t o th e system by female bodybuilders . They serve d t o focus m y interes t o n th e impor tance o f th e constructio n an d negotiatio n o f femininity , a s wel l a s studyin g the feasibilit y o f femal e bodybuilder s havin g a voic e i n thei r sport . Sinc e th e journalists an d official s hav e medi a availabl e t o tel l thei r sid e o f th e story , i t i s important tha t femal e bodybuilders ' experience s ar e hear d an d acknowledge d as well. For the data analysis of my research, I was influenced b y John McPhee's styl e of organizin g dat a int o conceptua l categories. 12 Thus , I rea d eac h transcribe d interview severa l times . The n I made a hard cop y o f th e transcribe d intervie w and place d note s besid e response s t o indicat e int o whic h conceptua l categor y each excerp t fell . I the n cu t ou t eac h respons e an d place d i t int o a labele d folder. Eac h folder represente d a chapter, an d within eac h folder were numerou s subgroupings representing conceptua l categories . Clusters o f subgroupings wer e

B. Data, Methodologies, Theory 17 arranged i n order , fastene d togethe r b y pape r clips , an d kep t withi n th e appro priate file folder . Onc e th e transcribe d interview s wer e cut , organized , an d placed i n thei r groupings , I reexamine d eac h file folde r individuall y t o ensur e that th e dat a wer e i n thei r prope r place . I the n entere d eac h excerp t fro m th e first file folde r int o th e compute r an d the n I rearranged th e excerpts , analyze d their conten t i n greate r detail , an d attempte d t o commen t o n eac h one . Afte r all o f th e excerpt s tha t fit int o chapte r 1 were cu t out , arranged , type d up , an d analyzed, I moved t o chapte r 2 and th e process starte d again .

Limitations One o f th e majo r problem s wit h thi s researc h wa s tha t informatio n abou t th e highest-level socia l gatekeeper s i s ver y scant y an d som e dat a wer e obtaine d only secondhand . Sinc e most official s serv e as judges a s well, i t wa s difficul t t o find peopl e wh o wer e officials . I n fact , I thin k th e presiden t o f th e IFB B is th e only perso n wh o doe s no t hol d th e dua l position s o f judg e an d official . I f I were t o continu e thi s research , I woul d intervie w mor e socia l gatekeepers , concentrating o n promoter s an d endorser s t o bette r understan d thei r influenc e on th e curren t an d future directio n o f the sport . Some interrelated limitation s o f this research project deserv e mention. Som e are directly linke d t o my lack o f available funds t o do the research. Every aspec t of the research cos t money, including but not limited t o long-distance telephon e calls, al l o f whic h laste d a minimum o f fort y minutes ; fou r o f th e five trip s t o bodybuilding meet s tha t wer e hel d ou t o f Austin, - an d th e transcriptio n o f th e interviews. Becaus e o f thes e expenses , th e numbe r o f interview s I was abl e t o transcribe wa s limited . Therefore , th e question s arise : "Wha t mor e woul d hav e been gained with greate r access to funds? Woul d I really have learned tha t muc h more abou t th e worl d o f femal e bodybuildin g o r woul d I simpl y hav e ha d further confirmatio n o f th e experience s I had alread y recorded? " To answer these questions, I would like to draw attention t o Daniel Bertaux' s 1981 research o n the bakers' trade in France. In his study, Bertau x went throug h a process o f what h e calle d a "saturation o f knowledge." 13 He stated : In ou r stud y o f th e bakers ' trade , w e wer e confronte d wit h a populatio n of abou t 160,00 0 people (90,00 0 baker s an d bakers ' wives , 70,00 0 baker y workers). N o "representativ e sample " wa s eve r drawn . W e gathere d lif e stories followin g wha t i s pompousl y calle d " a snowbal l strategy. " Fo r instance, w e gathere d abou t thirty-fiv e storie s fro m baker y workers . Th e first lif e stor y taugh t u s a grea t deal ; s o di d th e secon d an d third . B y the fifteenth w e ha d begu n t o understan d th e patter n o f sociostructura l relations whic h make s u p the life o f a bakery worker. By the twenty-fifth , adding the knowledg e we had from lif e storie s o f bakers, we knew we ha d it: a clea r pictur e o f thi s structura l patter n an d o f it s recen t transforma tions. Ne w lif e storie s onl y confirme d wha t w e ha d understood , addin g slight individua l variations . W e stoppe d a t thirty : ther e wa s n o poin t going further. W e knew alread y what w e wanted t o know. 14

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172 B . Data, Methodologies, Theory When on e begin s t o hea r th e sam e storie s wit h sligh t variations , on e ha s hi t the "saturatio n o f knowledge " which , accordin g t o Bertaux , gav e th e ide a o f "representativity" a totall y differen t meaning. 15 Thi s i s th e poin t I reached i n my interview s wit h femal e bodybuilders , judges , an d officials . Th e back grounds, experiences , an d attitude s bega n t o overlap , an d th e inclusio n o f mor e interviews le d onl y t o sligh t variation s o n establishe d patterns . I thus though t it was acceptable , but no t necessaril y preferable , t o en d th e interviewing aspec t of th e researc h process . In hi s discussio n o f "representativity/ ' Berteaux 16 argue d tha t hi s sampl e o f workers i n th e bakers ' trad e i s representative , no t "a t th e morphologica l level " (at the leve l o f superficia l description) , but a t th e sociologica l level , a t th e leve l of sociostructura l relation s (rapports sociaux). I n m y case , th e collecte d dat a gave enoug h informatio n t o determin e th e characteristic s o f th e basi c pattern s involved i n th e spor t o f femal e bodybuilding . Althoug h thi s stud y canno t b e taken a s a representative surve y o f th e socio-demographi c characteristic s o f th e individuals involved, thei r experiences togethe r speak for a large group of people involved i n femal e bodybuilding , a s evidence d b y th e repetitio n o f th e storie s and experience s th e respondents share d with me . My researc h i s helpfu l t o thos e wh o wan t t o understan d th e spor t o f femal e bodybuilding, ho w i t is shaped by both interna l an d externa l factors , an d how i t is experienced b y those who participate i n it . Furthermore, thi s researc h shed s ligh t o n th e way s i n whic h gende r i s con structed an d negotiated , an d ho w patriarcha l an d capitalisti c influence s shap e these processes . I t suggest s tha t th e relationshi p betwee n gatekeepers , gender norm enforcement , th e labelin g process , an d gende r boundarie s ar e importan t in th e constructio n an d negotiatio n o f femininity , particularl y whe n norm s o f femininity ar e being contested . Issue s related t o the various form s o f resistanc e by wome n t o hegemoni c norm s o f femininit y ar e als o explored . Althoug h th e numbers ar e limited , I am confiden t tha t thi s sampl e o f individual s associate d with femal e bodybuildin g capture s a wide variet y o f experience s tha t ar e com mon t o th e judges, bodybuilders, an d officials .

Theoretical Lens: The Cultural Studies Paradigm To she d ligh t o n th e constructio n an d negotiatio n o f femal e bodybuilders ' femininity, I incorporat e a Cultura l Studie s perspective , i n whic h I tak e a s a starting poin t th e notio n tha t gende r i s not biologicall y determined , bu t rathe r is sociall y constructed. 17 I n this section , I briefly describ e ho w thes e tw o inter related perspective s infor m m y research . I t i s m y hop e tha t th e theoretica l framework I use serve s t o guide my analysis , not determin e it . Cultural Studie s i s a critical , interdisciplinar y approac h t o th e analysi s o f culture an d cultura l forms tha t provide s " a sophisticate d theor y of the relation s of dominanc e an d subordinatio n structure d alon g class lines." 18 Feminist Cultura l Studie s seeks t o expand orthodo x Cultura l Studie s furthe r by theorizin g abou t th e comple x connection s o f relation s o f dominanc e an d subordination structure d alon g gender , ethnic , an d clas s divisions. 19 Sinc e th e

B. Data, Methodologies, Theory 17 1970s, the scholars at the University of Birmingham Centr e for Cultural Studie s have been , an d continu e t o be , essentia l i n expandin g th e wor k o f Antoni o Gramsci, 20 wh o coine d an d use d th e term s cultura l hegemony , counter-hege mony, relation s o f dominanc e an d subordination , an d resistanc e t o provid e a more thoroug h analysi s o f th e powe r dynamic s foun d i n moder n capitalis t societies. Gramsc i an d Cultura l Studie s scholar s hav e attempte d t o sho w ho w relations o f dominanc e an d subordinatio n ar e maintaine d i n th e sphere s o f culture an d ideolog y by the dominan t groups , and how thes e sam e relations ar e often challenge d b y oppressed o r marginalized groups . In the aren a o f culture , oppressio n o f subordinate d group s in capitalis t socie ties is predominantly maintaine d b y consent t o dominant ideas . Gramsci calle d this " cultural hegemony, " whic h consist s o f th e values , norms , beliefs , preju dices, an d live d experience s tha t suppor t an d legitimiz e th e existin g powe r relations. 21 Hegemon y i s base d o n complianc e t o certai n dominan t idea s b y marginalized an d subordinate d group s whic h i n fac t expres s th e need s o f th e dominant group. 22 Inequalit y i s therefor e see n a s natura l an d legitimat e b y those who ar e oppressed . However, becaus e hegemon y i s base d o n idea s an d beliefs , i t ha s t o b e re created, defended , an d modifie d b y member s o f th e dominan t grou p a s tim e goes on. It ca n be challenged a t an y moment . I n fact, hegemon y i s " a process of continuous creation , which , give n it s massiv e scale , i s boun d t o b e uneve n i n the degre e of legitimacy i t commands , [however , w e must] leave som e room fo r antagonistic cultura l expression' s t o develop/' 2 3 Thus, society , o r wha t Gramsc i calle d "civi l society/' 24 i s i n constan t pro cess, wher e th e creatio n b y subordinat e group s o f alternative s t o hegemony , known a s counter-hegemonies, i s always a possibility, t o som e extent . Counter-hegemonies, attempt s t o resis t dominan t ideology , occu r whe n members o f subordinate group s overtl y resis t th e dominan t ideolog y tha t legiti mates thei r oppressio n throug h strikes , factor y takeovers , o r mas s move ments. 25 Th e civi l right s an d feminis t movement s o f th e 1960 s a s wel l a s th e Polish Solidarit y movemen t wer e counter-hegemonies . However , over t resis tance o f th e dominan t power s i s usuall y use d b y member s o f th e subordinat e group a s a las t resor t becaus e the y ar e ofte n harshl y sanctione d b y authoritie s through physica l coercion , o r what Gramsc i calle d domination. 26 I n addition t o the responses of those in power, people in the subordinated group s are not likel y to directl y challeng e th e hegemoni c relation s o f powe r because , a s Gramsc i argued, "normall y mos t peopl e fin d i t difficult , i f no t impossible , t o translat e the outloo k implici t i n their experienc e int o a conception o f the world tha t wil l directly challeng e th e hegemonic culture." 27 Therefore, resistance , i f i t doe s occur , ma y ofte n tak e plac e i n everyda y cultural practices, which, a s Doug Foley argued, members o f subordinate group s "invent t o find dignit y i n a n oppressiv e clas s society." 28 Often resistanc e occur s o n th e symboli c level . Peopl e ma y coopt , redefine , and us e symbol s fro m th e dominan t cultur e t o attemp t t o challeng e th e domi nant groups ' powe r ove r them . Fo r instance , whe n Africa n American s i n th e 1990s wore caps with a n "X " on the front representin g their suppor t o f Malcol m

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174 B . Data, Methodologies, Theory X and hi s teachings , the y wer e exhibitin g a symboli c ac t o f Africa n America n resistance t o white dominance . Postwa r Britis h youth , suc h a s "punks/ ' voice d their despondenc y ove r thei r perceive d hopeles s futur e i n Britis h societ y through th e us e an d cooptatio n o f clothin g an d hairstyle s tha t serve d t o offen d members o f th e dominan t group. 29 Thus , give n thei r lac k o f power , margin alized an d subordinate d group s hav e usuall y covertl y an d symbolicall y at tempted t o resist th e unequal powe r structure s tha t oppres s them . One o f th e centra l issue s i n Gramsci' s visio n o f societ y i s th e issu e o f power—not physica l power , bu t powe r t o determin e reality , powe r t o se t boundaries. Fo r tha t reason , Gramsci' s wor k i s extremel y importan t whe n ex amining th e relation s o f dominanc e i n America n societ y because , a s T . J. Jackson Lears argued , it point s u s towar d cultura l definition s o f race , ethnicity , an d gende r an d toward a n exploratio n o f th e way s thos e definition s justif y o r challeng e existing power relations. To resort t o th e concep t o f cultura l hegemony i s to tak e a bana l question—"wh o ha s power?"—an d deepe n i t a t bot h ends. The "who " include s parents , preachers , teachers , journalists , literati , "experts" o f al l sorts , a s wel l a s advertisin g executives , entertainmen t promoters, popula r musicians , sport s figures , an d "celebrities"—al l o f whom ar e involve d (albei t ofte n unwittingly ) i n shapin g th e value s an d attitudes o f a society. The "power " include s cultura l a s well a s economi c and politica l power—th e powe r t o hel p defin e th e boundarie s o f com mon-sense "reality " eithe r b y ignoring views outsid e thos e boundaries o r by labeling deviant opinion s "tasteless " o r "irresponsible." 30 The struggle , then , i s multifacete d o n a variety o f front s includin g cultural , economic, an d political . Thes e issue s ar e centra l t o thi s research . Particularl y critical ar e th e question s o f wh o ha s th e powe r t o se t an d maintai n th e norm s of gendere d behavio r an d appearance—th e boundarie s o f wha t i s acceptable , what i s unacceptable, wha t i s deviant, wha t i s normal . The abilit y t o defin e realit y i s integrall y intertwine d wit h th e economi c an d political powe r o f a group. Those i n powe r hav e th e uppe r hand i n th e negotia tion o f gendered norms .

APPENDIXC Interview Schedules: Female Bodybuilders and Judges

Bodybuilders Sports Socialization • Tel l m e a bi t abou t you r sport s background . Di d yo u pla y an y sport s whe n you were a kid? Hig h school ? College ? Professional ? • Ho w di d your family respon d t o your interes t i n sports ? • Tel l m e ho w yo u firs t go t intereste d i n bodybuilding . Wha t wa s goin g o n i n your lif e a t th e time ? • Whe n di d yo u firs t compete ? Wha t wa s i t like ? Wa s i t wha t yo u expected ? How ol d were you? • Ho w has your family responde d t o you being a bodybuilder ? • Wha t ha s been th e response o f your significan t other s an d friends ? • Doe s you r boyfrien d o r significan t othe r atten d th e meet ? Doe s you r family ? Do you like that ? • Hav e yo u ha d t o dea l wit h negativ e reaction s fro m people ? Ho w d o yo u respond? • I hav e hear d tha t bein g a competitiv e bodybuilde r ca n b e ver y expensive . How have you finance d you r bodybuilding ? Getting Ready

for the Meet and the Meet Experience

• Whe n you'r e gettin g read y fo r a meet , ho w d o th e peopl e i n th e gy m trea t you? • Ar e othe r competitiv e femal e bodybuilder s supportiv e whe n yo u ar e gettin g ready for a show? Wha t abou t mal e bodybuilders ? • What' s th e hardest thin g abou t gettin g ready for a meet? Why ? • Tel l me abou t th e da y of the competition . What' s it lik e for you ? i75

176 C . Interview Schedule s

Judging • Ar e you happy with th e judgin g at meets ? • I n your experience , i s there consistenc y i n th e judgin g from mee t t o meet ? • Ho w d o you fee l abou t mal e vs . female judges ? Doe s i t matte r t o yo u i f yo u have mor e mal e o r more femal e judges ? Why ? • I n your opinion , ca n any improvements b e made i n th e judgin g of meets ? • Hav e yo u eve r disagree d wit h th e judgin g a t a bodybuildin g mee t i n whic h you were competing ? Wha t di d you do ? • Wha t cours e o f actio n ca n femal e bodybuilder s tak e i f the y disagre e wit h their placing ? Importance of

Attractiveness/Ideal Female

Bodybuilders

• Ho w important i s smiling while posing? I s it important fo r male bodybuilder s as well? • D o you pu t o n makeu p an d styl e your hai r fo r th e meets ? Why ? Ho w d o yo u feel abou t that ? • D o yo u thin k prettines s an d sexines s ar e importan t attribute s fo r femal e bodybuilders? Ho w d o you fee l abou t that ? D o you thin k th e sam e i s true fo r male bodybuilders ? • D o yo u thin k me n find you r typ e o f physiqu e attractiv e an d sexy ? I s tha t important t o you ? • Describ e th e idea l femal e bodybuilder . Wh o ha s com e th e closes t t o tha t ideal? Wh y i s tha t th e idea l fo r you ? Wha t qualitie s doe s sh e have tha t mak e her th e ideal ? • Ca n a femal e bodybuilde r b e to o muscula r eve n i f sh e ha s goo d symmetry ? Why o r why not ? Attitudes about Their Own Experience in Future of Female Bodybuilding

Bodybuilding and

the

• I n you r ow n experience , what' s th e thin g yo u lik e th e mos t abou t femal e bodybuilding? Th e thin g you like th e least ? • Wha t have you learned about female bodybuilding that you didn't kno w whe n you first starte d competing ? • Ho w would yo u describ e your overal l experienc e i n bodybuilding ? • Ho w ha s bein g a competitive femal e bodybuilde r affecte d ho w yo u se e your self ? Ha s becoming muscula r affecte d you r self-image ?

C. Interview Schedules 17 • Wha t ar e your reflections o n how you se e female bodybuildin g changing ? • Wha t word s o f wisdo m woul d yo u tel l a woma n wh o wa s intereste d i n becoming a competitive bodybuilder ?

Background Age: Educational level : Marital status : Occupation: Length o f competing : national level : state level : As a bodybuilder: you r best placin g a t your mos t prestigiou s meet :

Judges/Officials • Wha t i s your previous sport s background ? • Wer e yo u eve r competitiv e i n bodybuilding ? I f so , wha t i s you r previou s bodybuilding background ? • Ho w lon g have you been a judge for female bodybuildin g meets ? • Wh y di d you decid e to become a judge? D o you lik e it ? • Wha t d o you lik e the most abou t bein g a judge? • Wha t d o you lik e the least ? • I n your experience , i s there a difference betwee n ho w femal e an d mal e judge s evaluate femal e bodybuilders ? • I n your opinion , i s there consistenc y i n judgin g from mee t t o meet ? • Wha t ar e the criteri a you loo k fo r i n a female bodybuilder ? • I s there a difference i n th e way you judg e male an d female bodybuilders ? • I s attractivenes s ( a prett y face ) importan t t o yo u whe n yo u judg e femal e bodybuilders? I s it importan t whe n yo u judg e male bodybuilders ? • D o you thin k i t i s important fo r femal e bodybuilder s t o wear makeu p an d d o their hair ? • Give n tha t a female bodybuilde r ha s goo d symmetry , ca n sh e be to o muscu lar? Why o r why not ? • I n you r experience , ar e th e femal e bodybuilder s happ y wit h th e judgin g o f meets?

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178 C . Interview Schedules • Let' s sa y ther e i s a femal e bodybuilde r wh o disagree s wit h th e wa y a mee t was calle d tha t sh e was in . Is there an y recourse sh e ca n tak e i f sh e disagree s with th e judging of a meet? • I n your experience , what hav e most bodybuilder s don e who disagre e with th e judging? • I n your own words, describe the ultimate female bodybuilder. Who comes th e closest t o that ideal ? • Sinc e yo u hav e bee n involve d i n femal e bodybuilding , hav e yo u see n an y changes in the way female bodybuilder s ar e judged? What d o you thin k abou t that? • What' s th e bigges t chang e i n femal e bodybuildin g tha t you'v e see n sinc e you've been associate d wit h th e sport ? • Wher e d o you se e the directio n o f femal e bodybuildin g heading ? Ho w d o yo u feel abou t that ? Background Age: Educational level : Marital status : Occupation: Length o f judging : national level : state level : As a bodybuilder, you r best placing a t your mos t prestigiou s meet :

APPENDIXD Glossary of Terms

Bitch Tits : A conditio n know n medicall y a s gynecomastia . I t occur s amon g male bodybuilder s wh o tak e steroids , makin g th e are a aroun d th e nipple s be come puffy . Thi s conditio n i s du e t o a n increas e i n th e productio n o f estroge n and a concomitant growt h o f mammary glands . Buffed: A ter m use d t o describ e a bodybuilder wit h big , lea n qualit y muscles . The bodybuilder als o has good muscle lines . E.g., "Sheil a i s really buffed. " Cross-striations: Muscle fibers ar e visible. One ca n see ridges or "shreds " in th e muscle groups . Occur s whe n th e bodybuilde r ha s qualit y muscl e an d minima l fat an d water retention . Cut: The bodybuilder ha s good separation betwee n muscl e groups . This ter m i s similar t o th e ter m "defined. " Th e bodybuilde r ha s reduce d bodyfa t level s an d maintained muscularity . E.g. , "Davi d i s cut. " Definition: Muscula r group s ar e separat e an d distinc t fro m on e another, - e.g. , the bicep s ar e clearl y distinc t fro m on e anothe r an d fro m th e triceps . E.g. , "Marc's muscle s ar e well defined . H e has good definition. " Flat: This conditio n occur s whe n th e bodybuilde r doe s no t achiev e th e health y maximum muscularit y displaye d whe n th e muscle s ar e har d an d cut . Perhap s the person peaked to o early or overtrained fo r th e competition. Th e muscles ar e not full . Grunt out: A term used by bodybuilders t o indicate what the y do to get throug h a particularl y arduou s workout . The y "grun t out " th e workou t o r "grin d i t out." Th e bodybuilder s kno w beforehan d tha t th e workou t i s goin g t o b e espe cially painful bu t the y jus t "suc k i t u p an d grunt out. " Hard: A term use d to describe a bodybuilder who has good quality muscles wit h little subcutaneou s wate r an d fat retention . E.g. , "Lis a looks hard. " Invisible line : A subjectiv e demarcatio n tha t connote s tha t a femal e body builder ha s gotte n to o muscular . A sig n o f unacceptabl e muscularity . Thi s lin e varies fo r differen t people . I f a judg e think s tha t a femal e bodybuilde r ha s crossed thi s line , h e o r sh e wil l mar k th e bodybuilde r down . Som e femal e bodybuilders wh o ar e said to have crosse d th e lin e ar e described a s "masculine looking." 179

180 D . Glossary of Terms IFBB: The Internationa l Federatio n o f Bodybuilders , th e premie r professiona l bodybuilding organizatio n founde d b y Ben an d Jo e Weider i n 1946 . The IFB B is also th e predominant internationa l amateu r organization . Lean: Use d t o describ e a bodybuilde r wh o ha s diete d properl y an d ha s littl e subcutaneous wate r an d fat betwee n th e muscle an d skin . NPC: The Nationa l Physiqu e Committee , th e America n amateu r bodybuildin g organization. It is the American nationa l affiliat e o f the IFBB. Overall package : A ter m use d b y bodybuildin g judge s an d official s t o describ e the overal l appearanc e o f bodybuilder s o n stage . Fo r a femal e bodybuilder , th e overall packag e revolve s aroun d th e enhancemen t o f femininity . Thus , i t in cludes suc h feminin e accouterment s a s makeup , hairstyle , fit an d colo r o f posing suit , posin g style , th e manne r i n which sh e carrie s hersel f o n stage , and , for som e judges , breast size . For a male bodybuilder, th e ter m mean s presentin g a neat appearance . Reps: The contractio n o f th e wor d "repetitions. " Th e numbe r o f time s i n a se t that a bodybuilde r lift s a particula r se t o f weights . Ther e i s n o res t perio d i n between reps . Reps are subsumed unde r th e broader term , "set. " Fo r instance, a bodybuilder ma y d o three set s o f dumbbell curls , and for eac h set he o r she ma y do twelve reps . Ripped: This ter m refer s t o a perso n wh o ha s mor e separatio n i n th e muscle s than someon e wh o i s merel y "cut. " Th e separatio n o f muscle s i s more define d in tha t som e cross-striation s ar e visible . Thi s conditio n occur s whe n a body builder ha s lo w level s o f bod y fa t an d excellen t muscl e separation . Sometime s referred t o as "sliced. " Roids: Short fo r steroids . Set: A grouping of reps with a rest period in between eac h grouping. Oftentimes , a bodybuilder wil l d o three or four set s of ten t o fifteen rep s for eac h typ e of lift . Shredded: Th e highes t leve l o f muscl e separation . Ther e i s n o subcutaneou s water o r fat betwee n th e ski n an d th e muscles , t o th e exten t tha t muscl e fibers (cross-striations) ca n b e see n easil y (ther e ar e ridge s i n th e muscles) . A mal e bodybuilder wh o i s shredde d i s th e ultimat e becaus e h e ha s qualit y muscl e and ha s effectivel y purge d hi s bod y o f exces s wate r an d fat . However , femal e bodybuilders ar e judged dow n for getting "shredded " because it is assumed the y can get thi s way onl y throug h th e use of illegal substances an d diuretics . Smooth: A ter m tha t describe s nice , full-bodie d muscles , thoug h th e bodybu ilder i s no t lea n enoug h fo r an y typ e o f muscula r definition . Ther e i s stil l to o much subcutaneou s wate r o r fa t betwee n th e muscle s an d th e skin . Ther e ar e no muscula r cut s o r definition . E.g. , "Ji m look s smooth. " No t a n optima l condition fo r bodybuilder s o n competitio n day , bu t bette r tha n bein g labele d "soft."

D. Glossary of Terms 18 Soft: This term s mean s tha t th e muscle s ar e not goo d quality , i.e. , the y ar e no t etched o r define d becaus e ther e i s to o muc h subcutaneou s wate r an d fat . Thi s condition i s worse tha n bein g smoot h becaus e no t onl y di d the bodybuilder no t diet an d dehydrat e hersel f properly , sh e als o di d not trai n well . Her muscles ar e not full , big , and healthy-looking . Symmetry: On e o f th e criteri a b y whic h bodybuilder s ar e evaluated . Fo r th e symmetry round , bodybuilder s stan d i n group s o f tw o o r thre e o n stag e i n the semi-relaxe d position , fudge s evaluat e ho w symmetrical/proportiona l thei r various muscular group s are to one another. For instance, are the size and shap e of a bodybuilder's quadricep s proportional t o tha t o f th e biceps o r cal f muscles ? Is the uppe r an d lowe r bod y proportional , a s well a s th e righ t an d lef t sides ? I n this round , judge s determin e i f bodybuilder s hav e ignore d an y par t o f thei r physique durin g training ; if the y have, judges will deduc t points . Vascularity: A condition i n which th e blood vessel s i n th e bod y ar e prominent . This conditio n i s considered t o be related t o low bodyfat levels .

1

APPENDIXE A Muscularity Continuum

Less Muscular Bodybuilders: Sharon Brunea u Rachel McLis h Anja Schreine r Muscular Bodybuilders: Shelley Beatti e Laura Creavall e Cory Everso n Tanya Knigh t Lenda Murra y More Muscular Bodybuilders: Paula Bircumsha w Bev Francis

182

NOTES

Notes to the Introduction i. Th e followin g ar e th e name s an d product s o f th e twenty-thre e vendors . Powerhouse Gym : clothes ; Platinu m Everywear : clothes ; Totall y Tanna : tan ning liquid ; Sampso n an d Delilah : clothes ; Grea t Earth : vitamin s an d nutri tional supplements ; Universa l Nutritiona l Supplements : vitamins ; ICOPR O Integrated Conditionin g Programs : vitamin s an d supplements ; Hotskins : clothes; OTOMIX : athleti c clothes ; Carbofire : carb o powde r an d othe r supple ments; artis t sellin g 199 2 Ms . Olympi a prints ; Megamass : vitamins ; Tedd y B . Sportswear: clothes ; Health Car e U.S.A.; IFBB Apparel; Mr. Olympia souvenirs : clothes; VALEO : workou t belts ; Powerhous e Bar : carb o sportsbar ; Ham merStrength: workou t equipment ; Weide r Gear : clothes ; Californi a Bod y Wear: clothes; Ironman : clothes ; Ms . Olympia : clothe s an d th e officia l 199 2 Ms . Olympia program . 2. Similarly , Hughe s an d Coakle y (1991 : 313 ) tal k abou t th e creatio n o f special bond s betwee n mal e athletes , particularl y i n th e sport s "wherei n ath letes ar e perceive d t o b e uniqu e becaus e the y endur e extrem e challenge s an d risks. Thes e specia l feelings separat e athlete s for m othe r peopl e whe n i t come s to wha t athlete s se e a s a tru e understandin g o f th e spor t experience. " Thos e within th e spor t ar e see n a s brother s an d superio r t o thos e outsid e th e group , who ar e usuall y viewe d wit h disdai n an d contempt . Hughe s an d Coakle y als o refer t o Tom Wolfe' s (1979 ) work, The Right Stuff, in which simila r in - and out group patterns exis t amon g tes t pilot s an d astronauts . 3. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 10. 4. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 10. 5. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 10. 6. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 10. 7. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 10. 8. Actually , Klei n (1993 ) argue d tha t on e o f femal e bodybuilders ' goal s i s t o be attractiv e t o men . On e wa y the y achiev e thi s i s throug h thei r posin g styles . He maintained , "Ther e i s n o repudiatio n o f wantin g t o b e desirabl e t o men : posing is a 'turn-on" 7 (p . 190). 9. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 7. 10. Fo r simplicity's sake , I will refer t o the activity o f bodybuilding a s a sport throughout thi s research , keepin g i n min d th e scholarl y controvers y sur rounding thi s issue . Fo r instance , Ala n Klei n (1986 : 116 ) applie d Coakley' s (1982) thre e criteri a necessar y fo r a n activit y t o b e calle d a sport : physica l exertion, competition , an d organization , an d conclude d tha t bodybuildin g lie s "precipitously betwee n spor t an d spectacle. " 183

184 Note s to the Introduction 11. Schur , 1984 ; Chafetz, 1990 . 12. Adamson , 1980 . 13. Schur , 1984 . 14. Cahn , 1990 : 196. 15. Fo r mor e strategies , se e Boutilie r an d SanGiovanni , 1983 ; Twin , 1979 ; Lenskyj, 1986 . 16. Ja n Todd, 1992b . 17. Ja n Todd, 1992a . 18. Twin , 1979 . 19. Se e Hilliard, 1984 ; Cahn, 1990 ; Birrell, 1990 ; Hargreaves an d Tomlinson , 1992; Messner, 1992 ; Crossett, 1995 . 20. Hargreave s an d Tomlinson, 1992 : 217. 21. Messner , 1988 . 22. Messner , 1988 : 197. 23. Messner , 1988 : 208. 24. Unti l th e mid-1980s , ther e wa s a paucit y o f scholarl y wor k o n eithe r female o r male bodybuilding. Sinc e that time , however, ther e has been a virtual plethora o f interes t i n mal e bodybuildin g (Ewal d an d Jiobu , 1985 ; Klein, 1985a , b, 1986 , 1989 , 1990 , 1992 , 1993 ; Page, 1989 ; Gillett an d White, 1992 ) and femal e bodybuilding (Duf f an d Hong , 1984 ; Schulze , 1990 ; Mille r an d Penz , 1991 ; Aycock, 1992, - Bolin, 1992 ; Daniels, 1992 ; Guthrie an d Castelnuovo , 1992) . The issues addresse d b y thes e scholar s includ e th e increase d feeling s o f attrac tiveness b y women participatin g i n competitiv e femal e bodybuildin g (Duf f an d Hong, 1984) ; efforts b y female bodybuilder s t o renegotiate th e dominant mascu line meaning s o f bodybuilding (Mille r an d Penz , 1991) ; the rol e o f th e medi a i n shaping th e image s o f femal e bodybuilder s (Schulze , 1990) ; issue s o f th e bod y and die t i n bodybuildin g (Bolin , 1992) ; th e practic e o f "femininit y control " o f female bodybuilder s (Daniels , 1992) ; an d th e complianc e an d resistanc e o f fe male bodybuilders to the dominant discourse s of feminine bod y beauty (Guthri e and Castelnuovo , 1992) . 25. Weber , 1993 . 26. Attendanc e fo r th e 199 2 Ms. Olympia wa s not nearl y as high a s it was fo r the 198 5 Ms . Olympia, whe n ther e were five thousand i n attendanc e (intervie w with bodybuildin g official) . Th e 198 5 Ms . Olympi a i s considere d b y som e offi cials to have represented th e peak o f interest i n femal e bodybuilding . 27. Le e Hane y (eight-tim e Mr . Olympia) , Mik e Matarazzo , Sea n Ray , Cor y Everson (six-tim e Ms . Olympia) , Jef f Everson , an d Fle x Wheele r ar e sellin g bodybuilding product s an d thei r ow n autographe d pictures , whic h g o fo r te n dollars each . Whe n bodybuilder s sel l product s a t a company' s booth , the y ar e usually sponsore d b y that company . Selling their ow n pictures i s a way for bodybuilders t o promote themselve s t o their fan s a s wel l a s hel p defra y costs . I n th e pictures , th e bodybuilder s ar e usually eithe r i n a bodybuilding pos e or in revealin g clothe s with a sexy pose. 28. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 8. 29. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 8. 30. IFB B material.

Notes to Chapter 2 18 31. Th e tota l prize money fo r th e 199 2 Ms. Olympia wa s $100,000 , with first place worth $35,000 , and a gold medal . 32. Tent h plac e wen t t o Debbi e Muggli ; nint h place : Nikk i Fuller ; eight h place: Yoland a Hughes ; sevent h place : Claudi a Montemaggi ; sixt h place : Anj a Schreiner,- fifth place : Dian a Dennis, - fourt h place : Sand y Riddell ; thir d place : Shelley Beattie,- second place : Laura Creavalle ; first place : Lenda Murray .

Notes to Chapter 1 1. Th e name s use d i n thi s boo k ar e no t th e rea l name s o f th e participants . I have used pseudonyms t o protect thei r identity . 2. Greendorfe r an d Lewko , 1978 ; Landers, 1979 ; Portz, 1973 ; Ziegler, 1973 . 3. Thi s findin g support s earlie r researc h conducte d b y Snyde r an d Spreitze r (1973), who found tha t same-se x parents had a greater influence o n female spor t involvement tha n opposite-se x parents . 4. Langlois e an d Down s (1980 ) discovere d tha t boy s an d girl s bot h receive d negative reaction s fro m thei r mother s an d father s whe n th e childre n playe d with "cross-se x toys/ ' However , fathers , mor e tha n mothers , dispens e mor e vigorous differentia l treatmen t o f thei r son s an d daughters . Thus , th e research ers suggest tha t "socializatio n pressur e for sex-type d behavior s ma y com e mos t consistently fro m fathers " (Langlois e an d Downs, 1980 : 1245). The findings o f Roopnarin e (1986 ) also suppor t th e conclusio n o f greate r sex typing b y fathers . I n thei r stud y o n parenta l interactio n wit h toddlers , the y found tha t whil e both parents were less likely to pay attention t o the block pla y of thei r daughter s tha n thei r sons , thi s behavio r wa s eve n mor e tru e fo r father s than mothers . 5. Ala n Klei n (1993 ) argue d tha t thos e wh o ge t involve d i n bodybuildin g d o so i n orde r t o compensat e fo r perceive d weaknesses , limitations , insecurities , or self-doubts. H e maintained , "I t become s apparen t tha t th e formidable bodie s are response s t o a shak y psyche , tha t th e powerfu l arm s an d chest s ar e a bodybuilder's wa y o f workin g ou t a range o f persona l issue s . . . because t o m e physique an d psyche were differen t word s for overdevelopmen t an d underdevel opment. Wha t boun d the m wa s compensation, - th e bodily fortress protecte d th e vulnerability inside " (Klein , 1993 : 3). 6. Tod d Crossett' s (1995 ) stud y o n th e women' s professiona l gol f tou r re vealed simila r dynamic s amon g professional golfers . 7. Klein , 1985 .

Notes to Chapter 2 1. McGough , 1993 . 2. Weider , 1983 : vii. 3. Wayne , 1985 . 4. Toda y th e officia l IFB B journal i s Flex magazine , whic h i s stil l publishe d by Joe Weider.

5

186 Note s to Chapter 2 5. Weider , 1983 ; Wayne, 1985. 6. Hoxha , 1995. 7. Thoma s an d Wennerstrom, 1983. 8. Gaine s an d Butler, 1981 ; Jan Todd, 1987. 9. Ja n Todd, 1992a . 10. Wennerstrom , 1984a . 11. Wennerstrom , 1984a : 76. 12. Wayne , 1985 : 30. 13. Wennerstrom , 1984a . 14. Wayne , 1985. 15. Wennerstrom , 1984b : 65. 16. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 17. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 18. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 19. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 20. Wennerstrom , 1984b : 66. 21. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 22. Wennerstrom , 1984a : 77. 23. Wennerstrom , 1984a : 77. 24. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 25. Gaine s and Butler, 1984. 26. Gaine s an d Butler, 1984 : 35 . 27. Wennerstrom , 1984c : 28. 28. Gaine s an d Butler, 1984 : 35 . 29. Thi s earl y histor y parallel s th e proces s Crosset t (1995 ) describe s i n hi s book o n th e histor y o f women' s professiona l golf , i n whic h h e discusse s th e development o f women' s professiona l golf . I n 1944 , the Women's Professiona l Golf Associatio n (WPGA ) wa s chartere d b y thre e professiona l wome n golfers . According t o Crossett (1995 : 40), "The primary goa l o f the organization wa s to organize an d promot e professiona l tournament s fo r women. " Promotin g gol f products wa s no t it s mai n goal . I n 1950 , th e organizatio n wa s revise d an d renamed th e LPGA . Th e LPG A wa s differen t fro m th e WPG A i n a few ways , one o f the most importan t bein g tha t i t "relie d heavil y o n outside, non-golfer , male managemen t professionals , whil e th e WPG A wa s playe r managed " (Crossett, 1995 : 45). The LPGA had player representative s tha t wer e backed by golf-equipment manufacturers . 30. Gaine s and Butler, 1984. 31. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 32. Wennerstrom , 1984b . 33. Klein , 1993 : 97 . 34. Ther e ar e som e parallel s betwee n th e ris e o f th e LPG A an d tha t o f th e IFBB. Se e Crosset t (1995 ) fo r a discussio n o n th e ris e o f th e LPGA . Ther e i s overlap particularl y i n th e rise o f corporat e sponsorship s an d how they serve d to influenc e th e nature o f the game an d the control athlete s i n both sport s ar e able to wield in relation t o the social gatekeepers . 35. Klein , 1993 : 97 .

Notes to Chapter 2 18 36. Wayne , 1985 . 37. Fo r instance, h e wa s a judge a t th e 199 2 Ms . Olympi a contes t a s well a s the 199 3 Ms. International contest . 38. JM P Management homepage : http://www.getbig.com/jmp/jmpwho.htm. 39. JM P Management homepage . 40. Klein , 1985a : 13. 41. Wolff , 1996 : 158. 42. Wolff , 1996 : 159. 43. Wolff , 1996 : 159. 44. Wolff , 1996 . 45. IFB B material. 46. IFB B material. 47. Terr y Todd, 1987 . 48. Jo e Weider has met th e criteri a o f " special conditions " because h e is abl e to use the IFBB symbol and logo to advertise his products a s well as Joe Weider's Mr. and Ms. Olympia contests . IFBB material. 49. Ther e i s a tremendou s discrepanc y betwee n th e men' s an d women' s bodybuilding mone y prizes . Fo r instance , th e first plac e winne r a t th e Mr . Olympia receive d $100,000 , but th e first plac e winner a t th e Ms . Olympia too k home onl y $35,000 . Anothe r exampl e i s th e Arnol d Schwarzenegge r Classi c and th e Ms . International Competition , whic h ar e hel d annuall y i n tande m a t Columbus, Ohio . The first plac e male winne r receive d $80,00 0 in 1993 , but hi s female counterpar t onl y receive d $20,000 . Fo r thes e tw o shows , th e to p mal e bodybuilders hav e th e potentia l t o mak e approximatel y thre e time s mor e tha n the to p females . Furthermore , i f on e consider s tha t mal e bodybuilder s hav e more opportunitie s i n whic h t o mak e mor e mone y becaus e ther e ar e mor e professional shows , th e differenc e i n earning s betwee n th e tw o i s eve n greater . If we tak e int o accoun t al l of th e prize money fo r th e mal e bodybuilding show s in th e 1992-9 3 seaso n ($808,00 0 tota l priz e mone y fo r eightee n shows ) an d compare i t t o tha t o f th e femal e bodybuildin g show s ($160,00 0 tota l priz e money fo r thre e shows) , the n mal e bodybuilder s wil l mak e mor e tha n fou r times tha t o f female bodybuilders . The followin g priz e mone y award s wer e give n t o th e to p femal e an d mal e bodybuilders a t th e 199 3 Ms. International Contest :

Women Men 1st plac e 2nd plac e 3rd plac e 4th plac e 5 th plac e 6th plac e

$20,000.00 9,000.00 4,500.00 3,000.00 2,000.00 1,500.00

$80,000.00 35,000.00 20,000.00 13,000.00 10,000.00 5,000.00

7

188 Note s to Chapter 3 50. Ravo, 1992: Bi. 51. Ravo, 1992.

52. Whe n promoter s fo r show s nee d a popular gues t poser , th e Weide r offic e can, for a fee, offe r th e to p bodybuilders t o guest pose at th e contest . 53. Jo e Weider i s th e sponso r fo r th e Mr . an d Ms . Olympi a Contests . I n fact , the contest s hav e bee n renamed , "Jo e Weider 7s Mr . an d Ms . Olympia/ 7 Hi s brother, Ben , is the president o f the organizatio n (IFBB ) that host s th e shows . 54. Stone , 1988 , as quoted i n Leigh , 1990 . 55. Klein , 1985a : 6. 56. Stone , 1988 , as quoted i n Leigh , 1990 . 57. Thi s ha s no t alway s bee n th e cas e fo r th e Weiders . I n th e 1950s , th e Weiders7 distributio n compan y wa s dismantle d i n a buy-out , whic h lef t Jo e Weider with n o distribution fo r his products a s well a s a $2.3 million debt . 58. Klein , 1993 . 59. Klein , 1993 : 87. 60. Hoxha , 1995 . 61. Hoxha , 1995 . 62. Wayne , 1985 . 63. Hoxha , 1995 . 64. Wayne , 1985 : 97. 65. Klein , 1993 : 99.

Notes to Chapter 3 1. Solotaroff , 1992 . 2. A s Terr y Tod d (1987 : 101 ) stated : "Professiona l bodybuilding , a spor t nearly synonymou s wit h steroi d use/ 7 3. Th e drug s includ e Dianabo l (th e firs t U.S . anaboli c steroid) , testosteron e (both Dianabo l an d testosteron e caus e extrem e aggressivenes s an d moo d swings), Anavar, Equipois e ( a veterinary steroid) , methandrostenalone, methan driol, aqueou s testosterone , an d huma n growt h hormon e (n o tes t no w exist s that ca n effectivel y discove r it s presenc e i n th e body) , t o nam e onl y a few . These drug s can physically, an d sometimes permanently , alte r a n athlete. Som e of th e sid e effect s fo r femal e athlete s ma y b e a dramati c increas e i n facia l and ches t hair , male-patter n baldness , clitora l enlargement , an d a significantl y lowered voice (Terr y Todd, 1987) . 4. Th e IO C establishe d a medica l commissio n i n 196 7 an d banne d certai n drugs. However, anaboli c steroid s an d testosteron e wer e no t amon g th e banne d substances. The IOC subsequentl y banne d anaboli c steroid s i n 197 5 an d testos terone in 1982 . 5. IFB B material, p . 5. 6. IFB B material, p . 15. 7. IFB B material. 8. Wayne , 1985 : 231 .

Notes to Chapter 4 18 9. Wayne , 1985 . 10. Thi s condition , du e t o steroi d use , enlarge s th e breast tissu e o f men. I t i s referred t o as "bitc h tits. " See glossary o f term s fo r definition . 11. Wayne , 1985 : 230. 12. I n fact , th e IFB B began testin g it s femal e bodybuilder s a coupl e o f year s before i t teste d it s mal e bodybuilders eve n thoug h i t ha s been know n tha t mal e bodybuilders hav e bee n takin g steroid s sinc e th e 1960 s an d steroi d us e ha s always been more prevalent amon g male bodybuilders . 13. Som e drugs , suc h a s huma n growt h hormones , enlarg e th e sof t bon e tissue suc h a s the cartilag e i n th e nose, feet, hands , joints , and ears . 14. Nelson , 1991 . 15. Wayne , 1985 . 16. Fo r example , i n Novembe r 1992 , one professional mal e bodybuilde r die d of sever e dehydratio n du e to diureti c abus e after a European Gran d Pri x compe tition, an d i n Marc h 1993 , a professiona l mal e bodybuilde r wa s take n t o th e emergency roo m afte r a competition fo r th e sam e condition . 17. Davi s an d Delan o (1992 : 1 ) discuss th e gende r assumption s embedde d i n over fort y anti-dru g campaigns . The y argu e tha t thos e campaign s dealin g wit h steroids ar e particularl y troublin g "becaus e the y encourag e reader s t o assum e that. . . steroids ar e artificial substance s tha t disrup t thi s natural gende r dichot omization." 18. However , eve n member s o f thi s grou p acknowledg e tha t certai n steroid s and th e amount on e takes d o have th e potential o f having masculinizing effect s on women suc h a s a lowered voice, male-pattern baldness , and facial hair . Wha t separates thi s grou p fro m th e previou s grou p i s th e fac t tha t member s o f thi s group objec t onl y t o th e extremes . They d o not objec t t o muscular women . 19. Th e bodybuilde r t o who m thi s responden t i s referrin g die d o f hear t ar rhythmia approximatel y tw o month s afte r thi s intervie w du e t o overus e o f diuretics. H e die d a few hour s afte r on e o f th e las t 199 2 Europea n Gran d Pri x events.

Notes to Chapter 4 1. Wennerstrom , 1992 . 2. Crews , 1990 : 74-5. 3. Th e IFB B is th e premier e professiona l bodybuildin g organization , an d th e NPC i s th e nationa l amateu r associatio n officiall y recognize d b y th e IFBB . Because th e IFB B is a closed federation , everyon e withi n th e organizatio n mus t accept an d abid e by its rules an d regulations o r face being barred . 4. I n th e IFBB , the five mandator y pose s fo r wome n are : front doubl e bicep , back doubl e bicep , sid e ches t wit h bicep , sid e tricep , an d a n abdomina l pos e i n which th e bodybuilder als o displays her qua d muscles . 5. Ho w balance d ar e th e muscl e group s t o on e anothe r an d ho w balance d i s the upper tors o as compared t o th e lower torso ?

9

190 Note s to Chapter 5 6. I n th e IFBB , this roun d last s approximatel y 9 0 seconds , an d th e bodybu ilder display s her muscle s t o musi c i n a series o f poses an d movements sh e ha s choreographed. 7. IFB B material. 8. IFB B material. 9. "Ho w t o Become a Judge." 10. "Ho w t o Become a Judge/ 7 11. IFBB Guidebook, 1987 . 12. Chodorow , 1978 , and Rubin, 1983 . 13. Se e Asch 1952 . 14. Ptace k (1981 : 25) as quoted i n Klein , 1993 : 99. 15. Felshin , 1974 . 16. Felshin , 1974 , as discussed b y Greendorfer, 1983 . 17. Greendorfer , 1983 . 18. Felshin , 1974 : 204. 19. Greendorfer , 1983 .

Notes to Chapter 5 1. Felshin , 1974 , 1976 . 2. Hilliard , 1984 . 3. Hilliard , 1984 : 261. 4. Hilliard , 1984 : 261. 5. Se e Dunca n (1990 ) fo r analogou s photographi c representation s o f femal e athletes. 6. Mad e famous b y Hans an d Franz on the televisio n sitco m "Saturda y Nigh t Live," thi s pos e allow s bodybuilder s t o sho w of f thei r trapezius , pectorals , an d other muscl e group s i n thei r uppe r bodies . I t i s considere d on e o f th e mos t muscular an d vascula r pose s an d ma y b e performed eithe r wit h teet h clenche d or with a n accompanying growl . 7. Freedman , 1986 . 8. Freedman , 1986 . 9. Goffman , 1959 . 10. Weber , 1993 . 11. Lowe , 1993 ; Weber, 1993 . 12. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 20. 13. IFB B Guidebook, 1987 : 20. 14. Althoug h th e followin g excerpt s ar e exclusivel y fro m mal e judge s an d officials, femal e judge s and official s als o expressed simila r views . 15. Se e Rich, 1980 , for a discussion o f compulsor y heterosexuality . A s Klei n (1986) argued, male bodybuilders' sexuality , an d thus thei r masculinity , ar e als o regulated b y mal e gatekeepers . However , th e regulatio n o f women' s sexualit y and gende r i n th e contex t o f femal e bodybuildin g i s accomplishe d throug h a male gaze.

Notes to Chapter 6 19

Notes to Chapter 6 1. Thi s typ e o f determination , inne r strength , an d driv e based o n th e Protes tant wor k ethi c which female bodybuilder s tal k about i s related to the "prowes s ethic" tha t Crosset t (1995 ) found amon g wome n golfers . Accordin g t o Crosset t (1995: 106) , "th e prowes s ethi c i s th e wa y LPG A player s mak e sens e o f thi s world. I t inform s th e wa y the y administe r justic e an d besto w awards . I t i s a t the ideologica l roo t o f th e players ' understandin g o f succes s an d failure , an d their frustratio n wit h people' s over t concer n wit h thei r sexuality . It is an ideol ogy tha t arise s fro m th e individualistic , meritocratic , an d uncertai n worl d o f the tour. " Crosset t argue d tha t thi s preclude d the m fro m takin g a more critica l feminist perspectiv e o n thei r endeavor . 2. Adamson , 1980 : 174. 3. Giroux , 1983 . 4. Foley , 1990 : 166. 5. Klein , 1981 : 31 . 6. This , too , i s tru e o f wome n o n th e LPG A tour . Bein g intense competitor s in a n individua l sport , the y canno t affor d t o "ge t to o close, " whic h undercut s any sens e o f grou p solidarit y amon g th e players . Crosset t (1995 : 147 ) argued , "The player s shar e a n understandin g o f th e difficultie s o f tou r lif e an d thu s view eac h othe r a s risk y investment s fo r emotiona l energy . Becaus e the y lac k the necessary trust , player s ar e not likel y t o rely on fellow golfer s fo r emotiona l support. . . . Given th e uncertain , competitive , individualisti c structur e o f th e LPGA, th e subworld' s lac k o f communit y betwee n player s is understandable. " 7. Klein , 1993 : 97-98. 8. Klein , 1993 : 99. 9. McGough , 1993 . 10. Klein , 1993 : 97. 11. Thi s illustrate s Hughe s an d Coakley' s (1991 : 307 ) concep t o f "positiv e deviance," wherei n athlete s excessivel y overconfor m t o th e norm s an d value s embodied in sport, suc h as "sacrificin g fo r th e game, seeking distinction, takin g risks, an d challengin g limits. " 12. I n fact , Klei n (1986 ) argue d tha t competitiv e bodybuildin g i s extremel y unhealthy an d merely presents a facade o f good health . 13. On e ca n loo k a t th e criteri a b y whic h th e contestant s ar e judge d i n fitness contest s t o se e tha t judge s ar e emphasizin g qualitie s mor e i n lin e wit h hegemonic femininity . Kee p i n min d tha t thes e criteri a hol d acros s organiza tions. Fo r instance , a t NPC-sponsore d contests , ther e ar e thre e judge d rounds : two swimsui t round s i n whic h th e contestants 7 degre e o f firmness an d overal l appearance ar e evaluated , amon g othe r criteria ; an d a musical fitness roun d i n which contestant s perfor m thei r bes t danc e o r aerobic s routine . I n thi s round , judges loo k fo r style , personality , athleti c coordination , an d overal l perfor mance, whic h include s thei r apparel . If contest s ar e being filmed fo r television , contestants ma y no t wea r thon g o r T-bac k swimsuits ; otherwis e the y may . Another fitness organization , th e Nationa l Fitnes s Sanctionin g Bod y (NFSB) , sponsors th e Ms . National Fitnes s contest s i n whic h contestant s ar e informed ,

1

192 Note s to Appendix B "Please d o not flex o r tr y t o emphasiz e muscl e size . This i s not a bodybuildin g contest/ 7 Competitor s ar e evaluated o n beauty, poise, and projection durin g th e evening gow n round ; physica l beaut y an d muscl e ton e durin g th e swimsui t round; an d strength , flexibility, an d enduranc e durin g th e fitnes s outfi t round , in whic h contestant s "ar e encourage d t o perfor m a high energ y routin e whic h includes movement s t o sho w thei r strengt h an d flexibility" (Getbi g WW W homepage). 14. Crews, 1990: 75. 15. IFBB Guidebook, 1987 : 20. 16. IFBB Guidebook, 1987 : 20. 17. Weber, 1993. 18. Messner , 1988 : 208.

Notes to Appendix B 1. Bertaux , 1981 : 38. 2. Grimshaw , Hobson , an d Willis, 1980 . 3. Grimshaw , Hobson , an d Willis, 1980 ; Willis, 1980 ; Van Maanen, 1988 . 4. Va n Maanen, 1988 : ix. 5. Va n Maanen, 1988 . 6. Willis , 1980 . 7. Hall , 1980 : 24. 8. Fo r example , Willis' s (1981 ) stud y o f th e culture s o f schoo l an d wor k among working-clas s lads , McRobbi e an d Garber' s (1976 ) work o n girls 7 gende r and sexualit y negotiation s i n yout h subcultures , an d Hebdige 7s (1979 ) wor k with post-Worl d Wa r II British youth subcultures , t o name a few. 9. Hall , 1980 : 23-4. 10. Bernard , 1988 ; Babbie, 1992 . 11. Bernard , 1988 ; Babbie, 1992 . 12. McPhee , 1976 . 13. Bertaux , 1981 : 36. 14. Bertaux , 1981 : 37. 15. Bertaux , 1981 . 16. Bertaux , 1981 : 37. 17. Se e Kessle r an d McKenna , 1978 ; Gerson an d Peiss , 1985 ; Connell, 1987 ; West an d Zimmerman , 1987 ; Messner , 1988 , 1992 ; Williams , 1989 ; Ree d an d Whitehead, 1992 . 18. Birrell , 1990 : 295. 19. Birrell , 1990 . 20. Antoni o Gramsc i wa s a n Italia n communis t wh o wa s imprisone d b y Mussolini for his communis t sympathie s an d writings. He died in 1937 . During his ten-yea r priso n sentence , Gramsc i wrot e thirty-tw o notebook s tha t ar e today availabl e a s Selections from the Prison Notebooks, i n which h e discusse s the aforementioned concept s (Adamson , 1980) . Not unti l 197 2 was an extensiv e English translation o f Gramsci 7s Prison Notebooks availabl e (Boggs , 1976).

Notes to Appendix B 19 The work from th e Centre for Contemporar y Cultura l Studie s at Birmingha m University i n Englan d provides insigh t int o ho w peopl e interpre t th e dominan t culture an d appropriat e it s symbol s t o creat e culture s o f resistance . Accordin g to Cah n (1990 : 12-13) , i n particular , "th e work s o f Dic k Hebdidg e an d Pau l Willis on youth subcultures , an d Stuar t Hall' s ideas on the negotiated meaning s in popula r medi a suppl y clue s abou t ho w wome n us e spor t a s a resourc e t o expand th e parameter s o f womanhoo d beyon d prescriptiv e femininity . Femi nists hav e begu n t o us e poststructuralis t theorie s o f subjectivit y t o sugges t ways that women ca n call upon the multiple concept s and ideals of womanhoo d circulating withi n a societ y t o negotiat e th e contradiction s an d difficultie s inherent i n thei r subordinat e status . Wome n d o no t simpl y accep t a se t o f imposed definition s an d prescribe d roles . Instea d the y select , reject , an d cre atively combin e differen t conception s o f womanhood—pur e virgin , lustfu l whore, loving mother, stron g but overburdene d wag e worker, sensitiv e listener , tender spouse—t o nam e jus t a few/ 7 21. Lears , 1985 . 22. Lears , 1985 . 23. Adamson , 1980 : 174. 24. Civi l society , whic h consist s o f al l o f th e socia l relation s including , among othe r socia l institutions , sport s an d th e mas s media , i s th e spher e i n which a dominan t socia l grou p organize s hegemon y (Simon , 1991) . Civi l soci ety, however , i s als o "th e spher e wher e th e subordinat e socia l group s ma y organize thei r oppositio n an d construc t a n alternativ e hegemony " (Simon , 1991:87). 25. Lears , 1985 . 26. Lears , 1985 . 27. Lears , 1985 : 569. 28. Foley , 1990 : 166. 29. Hebdige , 1979 . 30. Lears , 1985 : 572.

3

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"How t o Become a NPC Judge. " 1996 . Muscle and Fitness. September . Hoxha, Tim . 1995 . "Ho w Jo e an d Be n Weide r Becam e th e Foundin g Father s o f Bodybuilding." Flex. September . Hughes, Robert , an d Ja y Coakley . 1991 . "Positiv e Devianc e amon g Athletes : The Implication s o f Overconformit y t o th e Spor t Ethic. " Sociology of Sport Journal 8 : 307-325. IFBB Official Guidebook. 1987 . JMP Management homepage : http://www.getbig.com/jmp/jmpwho.htm. Kessler, S . J. , an d W McKenna . 1978 . Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach. Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press . Klein, Alan M. 1981 . "The Maste r Blaster : Empire Building and Body Building." Arena Review: The Institute for Sport and Social Analysis. 5(3) : 29-32. . 1985a. "Muscl e Manor: The Use of Sport Metaphor an d History i n Spor t Sociology." Journal of Sport and Social Issues 9(1) : 4-19. . 1985b . "Pumpin g Iron. " Society 2 2 (6): 68-75. . 1986 . "Pumping Irony : Crisis and Contradictio n i n Bodybuilding." Sociology of Sport Journal 3 : 112-13 3. . 1989 . "Managing Deviance : Hustling, Homophobia , an d th e Bodybuild ing Subculture." Deviant Behavior 10 : 11-27. . 1990 . "Hustling , Gende r Narcissism , an d Bodybuildin g Subculture. " I n D. Sab o an d M . Messner , eds. , Sport, Men, and the Gender Order: Critical Feminist Perspectives. Champaign , IL : Human Kinetics . . 1992 . "Ma n Make s Himself : Alienatio n an d Self-Objectificatio n i n Bodybuilding." Play and Culture 5 : 326-337. . 1993 . Little Big Men: Bodybuilding Subculture and Gender Construction. Albany , NY : SUNY Press.

Bibliography 19 Landers, D . M . 1979 . "Birt h Orde r i n th e Famil y an d Spor t Participation. " I n M. L . Drotee , ed. , The Dimensions of Sport Sociology. Wes t Point , NY : Leisure Press . Langloise, Judit h H. , an d A . Chri s Downs . 1980 . "Mothers , Fathers , an d Peer s as Socializatio n Agent s o f Sex-type d Pla y Behavior s i n Youn g Children. " Child Development 51 : 1237-1247. Lears, T . J . Jackson . 1985 . "Th e Concep t o f Cultura l Hegemony/ 7 American Historical Review 9 0 (June 1985) : 567-593. Leigh, Wendy . 1990 . An Unauthorized Biography: Arnold. Chicago : Congdo n and Weed . Lenskyj, Helen . 1986 . Out of Bounds: Women, Sport, and Sexuality. Toronto : Women's Press . Lowe, Mari a R . 1993 . "Beauty, Strength , an d Grace : A Sociologica l Analysi s o f Female Bodybuilding." Ph.D . diss., University o f Texas, Austin . McGough, Peter . 1993 . "Ris e an d Fal l o f th e Worl d Bodybuildin g Federation. " Flex. October . McPhee, John A. 1976 . The John McPhee Reader. Ed . William L . Howarth. Ne w York: Farrar, Straus , and Giroux . McRobbie, Angela, and Jenny Garber. 1976 . "Girls and Subcultures: An Explora tion." I n Stuar t Hal l an d Ton y Jefferson , eds. , Resistance through Rituals: Youth Subcultures in Post-War Britain. London : Harper-Collins . Messner, Michae l A . 1988 . "Sport s an d Mal e Domination : Th e Femal e Athlet e as Contested Ideologica l Terrain. " Sociology of Sport Journal 5 : 197-211 . . 1992 . Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity. Boston : Beacon Press . Miller, Leslie , an d Ott o Penz . 1991 . "Talkin g Bodies : Wome n Bodybuilder s Colonize a Mal e Preserve. " Unpublishe d manuscrip t presente d a t th e 199 1 Popular Cultura l Associatio n Meetings , March , Sa n Antonio, Texas . Muchnick, Irvin . 1991 . "Pumping Iron. " Spy. June, pp. 54-56 . Nelson, Maria h Burton. 1991 . Are We Winning Yeti How Women Are Changing Sports and Sports Are Changing Women. Ne w York : Random House . Page, Pamela, J . 1989. "Bodybuilding: The Ultimate Presentatio n o f Self." Pape r presented a t Southwester n University , Brow n Symposium . Portz, E . 1973 . "Influence o f Birt h Order , Siblin g Se x o n Sport s Participation. " In D. Harris, ed. , Women and Sport: A National Research Conference. Pen n State HPER Serie s No. 2, Pennsylvania Stat e University . Ptacek, Greg . 1981 . "Th e Bi g Muscl e behin d Bod y Building. " Par t Two , City Sports 7 ( n ) (November) : 25 , a s quote d i n Ala n Klein , Little Big Men: Bodybuilding Subculture and Gender Construction (Albany , NY : SUN Y Press, 1993) , p. 99. Ravo, Nick. 1992 . "Ms. Olympia Pump s Up an Image of Fit Women." New York Times, Decembe r 2 , 1992 , p. Bi. Reed, Barbara, an d Ton y Whitehead. 1992 . "Introduction." I n T. Whitehead an d B. Reed , eds. , Gender Constructs and Social Issues. Urbana : Universit y o f Illinois Press .

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198 Bibliograph y Rich, Adrienne . 1980 . "Compulsor y Heterosexualit y an d Lesbia n Existence/ 7 Signs 5 (Summer): 631-660 . Roopnarine, Jaipua l L . 1986 . "Mothers 7 an d Fathers ' Behavior s towar d th e To y Play of Their Infant Son s and Daughters." Sex Roles 14 : 59-68. Rubin, Lillian . 1983 . Intimate Strangers: Men and Women Together. Ne w York : Harper an d Row . Schulze, Laurie . 1990 . "O n th e Muscle. " I n Fabrications, ed . Jan e Gaine s an d Charlotte Herzog . London: Routledge . Schur, Edwi n M . 1984 . Labeling Women Deviant: Gender, Stigma, and Social Control. Ne w York : McGraw-Hill . Simon, Roger . 1991 . Gramsci's Political Thought: An Introduction. London : Lawrence an d Wishart . Snyder, E . E. , an d E . Spreitzer . 1973 . "Famil y Influence s an d Involvemen t i n Sports." Research Quarterly. 44 : 249-255. Solotaroff, Paul . 1992 . "Th e Powe r an d th e Gory. " I n Thoma s McGuane , ed. , The Best American Sports Writing. Boston : Houghton Mifflin . Stone, Gene . 1988 . "Th e Mone y i n Muscle. " I n W . Leigh , An Unauthorized Biography: Arnold (Chicago : Congdon an d Weed, 1990) . Todd, Jan . 1987 . "Bernar r Macfadden : Reforme r o f Feminin e Form. " Journal of Sport History 1 4 (1). . 1992a . "Th e Legac y of Pudgy Stockton. " Iron Game History 2(1) : 4-7. . 1992b . "Th e Origin s o f Weigh t Trainin g fo r Femal e Athlete s i n Nort h America." Iron Game History 2 (2): 4-14. Todd, Terry. 1987 . "Anabolic Steroids : The Gremlin s o f Sport. " Journal of Sport History 1 4 (1). . 1992 . "Pear y Rade r (1909-1991) : Ou r Bes t Ma n Gone. " Iron Game History 2 (1): 1-4 . Thomas, Al , an d Stev e Wennerstrom . 1983 . The Female Physique Athlete: A History to Date —1977 through 1983. Midland Park , NJ : The Women' s Phy sique Publication . Twin, Stephanie , L . 1979 . Out of the Bleachers: Writings on Women and Sport. New York : McGraw-Hill . Van Maanen, John . 1988 . Tales of the Field: On Writing Ethnography. Chicago : University o f Chicag o Press . Wayne, Rick . 1985 . Muscle Wars: The Behind the Scenes Story of Competitive Bodybuilding. Ne w York : St. Martin's Press . Weber, Caro l Ann . 1993 . "Plastic Surger y an d Bodybuilding. " Muscular Development, March , pp. 98-102, 154 . Weider, Joe . 1983 . Mr. Olympia: The History of Bodybuilding's Greatest Contest. Ne w York : St. Martin's Press . Wennerstrom, Steve . 1984a . "Women' s Bodybuilding : Th e Beginning , Par t 1. " Flex 1 (10): 25-27, 74-77. . 1984b . "History o f Women's Bodybuilding : Par t 2 , The Earl y Contests. " Flex 1 (12): 64-66. . 1984c . "Histor y o f Women's Bodybuilding : Muscl e Mani a Begins. " Flex 2 (4): 26-28.

Bibliography 19 . 1992 . "Argument s agains t Femal e Muscularity/ 7 Women's Physique World. West, Candice , an d Do n Zimmerman . 1987 . "Doin g Gender. " Gender and Society 1 (2): 12 5-151. Williams, Christine . 1989 . Gender Differences at Work. Berkeley : University of California Press . Willis, Paul . 1980 . "Note s o n Method. " I n Stuar t Hall , Hobson , Lowe , an d Willis, eds. , Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-1979, pp . 88-95 . London : Hutchinson ; Centr e fo r Contemporar y Cul tural Studies , University o f Birmingham . . 1981 . Learning to Labor: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class fobs. Ne w York : Teachers Colleg e Press . Wolfe, Tom . 1979 . The Right Stuff. New York : Farrar, Straus , Giroux . Wolff, Bob . 1996. "History o f the NPC. " Muscle and Fitness, September . Ziegler S . 1973 . "Self-Perceptio n o f Athlete s an d Coaches. " I n D . Harris , ed. , Women and Sport: A National Research Conference. Pen n Stat e HPE R Se ries No. 2, Pennsylvania Stat e University .

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INDEX

All American Girls Baseball League (AAGBL), 10 Amateur Athletic Organization (AAU), history of, 5 6 Anorectic, need for control, 142 Anorexia nervosa, among bodybuilders, 23 Arnold Schwarzenegger Classic, 36, 51, 187 Athlete sponsors: role of, 63 ; role of, i n bodybuilding, 63-6 4 Attractiveness, role of, i n judging, 130 131

Babbie, Earl, 169 Barrilleaux, Doris, significance of , 5 8 Beauty pageant contests, 6 Benaziza, Mohammed, overmuscularit y of, 8 5 Bernard, Russell, 169 Bertaux, Daniel, Baker's trade, 171 Best in the World Contest, history of , 58 Bikini shows, history of, 5 7 Bircumshaw, Paula: as ideal femal e bodybuilder, 93 ; judging inconsistencies, i n ; a t 199 2 Ms. International, 148, 150; views on, 89 "Bitch tits," gynecomastia, 16 , 189 Bodybuilding: scholarly work on, 184; significance o f name, 90, 91; as a sport, 18 3 Body fat levels, female bodybuilder s compared with average adult female , 124

Boundaries, gender, 10 201

Breast implants: female apologetic , 160; prevalence of, 12 4 Breasts, as symbols of femininity, 12 4 Bruneau, Sharon , 5 ; as ideal, 94; as ideal bodybuilder, 93 Building muscle group, 82, 88 Cahn, Susan, resistance, 19 3 Callouts, 108 Camaraderie, among competitors, 4243; lack of, between males, 43 Carbohydrates, reduction of and elimination of, 5 1 Chicago School, 167 Chodorow, Nancy, gender differences i n emotional intimacy, 10 5 Civil society, Gramsci, 173 , 193 Compulsory heterosexuality, 19 0 Compulsory poses, 8 Contested terrain, female athlet e in male domain, 99 Counterhegemonies, 83 ; many forms of resistance, 142 ; Gramsci, 17 3 Crab pose, 190 Creavalle, Laura, 5 , 9; competing at 1992 Ms. Olympia, 18 ; 1992 Ms. International, IIO-II I Crews, Harry, 93; body and judging vacillations, 99; body quote, 159 ; judging quote, 10 3

Crossett, Todd, 185 , 186; prowess ethic, 191

Crossing the line, definition of , 8 8 Cross-striations: definition of , 91 ; as sign of drug use, 91; as sign of steroid use, 92

202 Inde

x

Cultural hegemony , 174 ; Gramsci, 17 3 Cultural studies , 168 ; feminist, 172 ; perspective, 9 ; sports, i i ; us e of , 16 7 Davis an d Delano , anti-dru g campaig n research, 18 9 Definitional power , 14 2 Developing th e "Pinhea d Effect " group : levels of , 86 ; midlevel group , 8 2 Devers, Gail , muscularit y poin t o f com parison, 9 4 Deviant labels , rol e of , 1 0 Didrickson, Babe , breaking gende r norms, 1 1 Dieting, a s part o f training , 31 ; hardest part o f training , 39 , 50-52 ; importanc e of, 50-51 ; isolate s bodybuilders , 53 ; most demandin g o f an y sport , 50 ; tedious nature , 51 ; toll i t take s o n rela tionship, 3 5 Disrupting th e gende r order : compara tive group , 81 ; views o n steroids , 8 3 86 Diuretics, effect s o n muscles , 51 , 115 Doping, definition , 7 5 Doping commission , dru g testin g pro gram implementation , 7 6 Drug testing , testin g positive , 7 6 Drug tests , paying for , 6 3 Dunlap, Carla , 86 ; in Muscle and Fitness, 2 5 ESPN, rol e o f gatekeeper , 13 7 Ethnography, 16 7 European Gran d Pri x Tou r (1992) , 51; death o f M . Benaziza , 18 9 Event sponsors , rol e i n bodybuilding , 63-64 Everson, Cory : a s ideal bodybuilder , 9 3 96; marketability of , 71 , 139; atten dance a t 199 2 Ms. Olympia , 16 ; Weider athlete , 69 , 15 0 Excessive muscularity , gendere d argu ments, 8 5 Expenses o f competing , 6 5 Felshin, Jan , th e feminin e apologetic , 121 Feminine apologetic , 121-122 , 129 ; judges a s institutional gatekeeper s of ,

128; judging standards , 115 ; reinforce d by socia l gatekeeper , 16 0 Femininity: emphasi s on , 160 ; enforce d by socia l gatekeepers , I 6 I ; enhance ment of , 133 ; hegemonic, 151 , 158; hegemonic boundaries , 28 ; ideal, 161 ; importance of , 83 ; new definition s of , 157 Femininity enhancement : bodybuilder s reasons for , 124 ; institutional reason s for, 12 6 Femininity principle , definitio n an d il lustration, 1 1 Fine line , between femininit y an d mas culinity, 4 9 Fitness competitions , growt h of , 158 , 160; profitable, 158 ; relation t o body building, 159 ; rise of , 151-1 5 2 Fitness contests , 158 ; components of , 152 Fitness shows , popularit y of , 15 5 Flex, IFB B official journal , 68 , 18 5 Francis, Bev, 86 , 133 , 136 ; as ideal , 97 ; judging inconsistencies , i i i ; 199 1 Ms. Olympi a controversy , 71-72 ; Weider athlete , 6 9 Gatekeepers, contro l agents , 5 4 Gender boundaries, transgression of, 13 4 Gender norms , transgressio n of , 26 , 3 7 Gender order , relationshi p t o steroids , 82 Giroux, resistance , 14 2 Goldman, Bob , IFBB position pape r o n doping, 7 5 Gramsci, Antonio , 173-174 , 19 2 Guest poser , 18 8 Gynecomastia, 77 ; the conditio n of , 1 5 16 Hairstyles, a s gendered displays , 12 3 Hall, Stuart , 16 7 Head judge , rol e of , 109 , 14 5 Hebdige, Dick , 19 2 Hegemonic: definition s an d images , 9 ; femininity, 191 ; gendered powe r rela tions, 1 1 Hilliard, Da n C , 12 2 Hughes, Robert , an d Ja y Coakley, posi tive deviance , 183 , 19 1

Index 20 H u m a n growt h hormones , physica l ef fects, 18 9 IFBB, 12 , 59 , 73, 144 , 189 ; constitution , 144; contests , 8 ; drug testin g policies , 76; Executiv e Council , 6o ; fitnes s competitions, 152 , 1 5 8; history of , 56 ; International Congress , 60 ; judges, 104; judging, 102 ; judging guidelines , 106; literature, 114 ; professional com mittee, 106 ; relationship t o NPC , 62 ; role of , 55 ; stance o n muscl e vs . breast implants , 124 ; steroid testin g controversy, 1984 , 77 ; on steroi d use , 75; suspensio n from , 14 9 IFBB Official's Guidebook: judgin g guidelines, 159 ; statement o n feminin ity an d muscularity , 13 3 International Olympi c Committe e (IOC), o n steroids , 18 8 Interviews, us e of , 16 7 Jackson, T . J., 17 4 J.M. Productions, functio n o f company , 61 JMP Management, rol e of , 6 1 Joyner-Kersee, Jackie , muscularit y poin t of comparison , 9 4 Judging, inconsistency , 9 2 Judging criteria : inconsistency , 143 ; three mai n criteria , 10 2 Judging guidelines , 15 9 Judging levels , five mai n levels , 10 2 Klein, Alan , 145 , 149 , 183 , 185 ; on body building an d health ; discussio n o f Weider's power , 6 7 Langer, Anja , a s ideal bodybuilder , 9 6 97 Langloise an d Downs , 18 5 LaSpina, Gina , significanc e of , 5 7 MacFadden, Bernarr , significanc e of , 5 7 Makeup use , importanc e of , 128-12 9 Male domain , traditional , 9 9 Male gaze , 19 0 Manion, Jim , rol e of , 6 1 Marketability, 9 , role i n judging , 140 ; of sport, 13 4

McGhee, Henry : rol e with USWPA , 58 ; significance of , 5 7 McLish, Rachel , 96 , 140 ; as ideal femal e bodybuilder, 93-94 , 99-100 ; judgin g inconsistencies, 113 ; marketability of , 139 McMahon, Vince , rol e of , 9 6 McPhee, John , styl e o f dat a organiza tion, 17 0 McRobbie an d Garber , 19 2 Mentor: judge s as , 106 ; m en as , 29 ; practicing bodybuilder s as , 28 ; roles of , 2 9 Messner, Michael : conteste d terrain , 99 ; organized sport , 16 1 Meyerhoff, Arthur , rol e of , 10,1 1 Midlevel gatekeepers , rol e of , 10 3 Miss American a Contest , histor y of , 5 7 Monetary stakes , i n me n an d women' s competitions, 4 3 Mr. Olympia , firs t contest , 5 6 Mr. Univers e 1984 , steroi d tests , 7 6 Ms. an d Mr . Olympi a contests , signifi cance of , 6 0 Ms. Fitness magazine , 15 8 Ms. International : 199 2 contest , rol e of , 148; 199 2 judgin g inconsistencies , 110; prize money , 18 7 Ms. Nationa l Fitnes s contests , 19 1 Ms. Olympia , 151 ; event, i ; 199 1 con test controversy , 71 ; drug testing , 79 ; 1985 contest , 184 ; 199 1 judging incon sistencies, 1 io; 199 2 contest , 124 , 184; prize money , 18 7 Muggli, Debbie , 11 1 Murray, Lenda , 5 , 9, 133 ; competing a t 1992 Ms . Olympia , 18 ; as ideal, 94 , 95; a s idea l bodybuilder , 93 , 96; Weider athlete , 69 ; winner o f 199 1 Ms. Olympi a contest , 71-7 2 Muscle and Fitness: IFB B and NP C stance on , 124 ; role of , 26 , 6 8 Muscularity round , 8 Musical selections , a s gendere d dis plays, 122 , 12 3 National Amateu r Bodybuilder s Associ ation (NABBA) , host fitnes s competi tions, 15 8 National Amateu r Britis h Bodybuildin g Association (NABBA) , history of , 5 6

3

204 Inde

x

National Fitnes s Sanctionin g Bod y (NFSB), hosts fitness competitions , 158, 19 1 National Physiqu e Committee , 73 , 144 , 189; bodybuilding contests , 62 ; chair person, 106 ; hosts fitness competi tions, 158 ; judging, 102 , 104 ; judgin g guidelines, 106 ; literature, 114 ; rela tionship t o IFBB , 62; role of , 55 ; spon sors fitness competitions , 152 ; stanc e on muscl e vs . breasts implants , 124 ; state chai r o r woman's chair , 14 3 National Women' s Physiqu e Champion ship, histor y of , 5 7 Negotiation, th e gendere d process , i o ; process, 8 1 Nonprobability sampling , 16 9 NPC News, monthl y NP C magazine , 61 Ohio Regiona l Women' s Physiqu e Championship, significanc e of , 5 7 "Overall package, " 96 ; characteristic s of, 78 ; components of , 128 ; dimen sions of , 127 ; importance of , 126-127 ; role of , 13 8 Overmuscularity, fo r frame , 8 7 "Overmuscular women, " IFBB' s stanc e on, 7 7 Participant observation , us e of , 16 7 Patriarchal capitalis t societies , rol e of sports in , 1 1 "Pinhead" look , characteristic s of , 8 7 Planned obsolescenc e strategy , 7 3 "Pose down" : definitio n of , 18 ; roun d for judging , 10 3 Posing o r presentation round , IFB B defi nition of , 17 , 19 0 Posing styles : as gendered displays , 123 ; IFBB mandatory poses , 18 9 Positive deviance , 19 1 Powerlifters, interaction s between , 4 2 43 Presentation o f self , 3 , 12 4 Princess Syndrome , 9 Product endorsement , importanc e of , 136, 13 8 Promoters, rol e i n bodybuilding , 63 , 77 Ptacek, Greg , interviewe d judge , 10 8

Pumping Iron, 9 0 Pumping Iron II, 97 , 13 6 Ranalli, Sandy , rol e of , 14 3 Rapports sociaux, Danie l Berteaux , 17 2 Reconstructive surgery , reason s for , 12 5 Representativity, 17 2 Resistance, 17 3 Respondents, demographi c information , 12, 1 3

Rubin, Lillian , gende r difference s i n emotional intimacy , 10 5 Russell, Ivy , significanc e of , 1 1 Schreiner, Anja , 5 ; as a n idea l body builder, 93 ; judges femininity , n i ; not enoug h muscularity , 9 6 Schwarzenegger, Arnold , Weide r spon sorship, 7 0 Sexiness, importanc e of , 13 5 Sexual orientation , question s about , 29 , 45 Snyder, George , significanc e of , 5 8 Social gatekeepers , 146 ; economic inter ests, 122 ; emphasis o n attractiveness , 137; emphasi s o n femininity , 160 ; em phasis o n fitness, 158 , 159 ; judging , 113; limi t contro l o f bodybuilders , 161; lowe r level , 8 i ; male , 9 ; reason s for emphasi s o n femininity , 134 ; rol e of, 145 , 151 , 153, 160 ; role i n feminin ity enhancement , 126 ; role i n main taining th e gendere d statu s quo , i i ; setting standards , 101 , 142; uppe r level, 81 ; use o f definitio n o f power , 10

Socialization, 34 ; into sports , 2 9 Socializing, mostl y b y men , o f wome n into th e sport , 3 2 SPA News, significanc e of , 5 9 Sponsors, rol e i n maintainin g th e femi nine apologetic , 12 2 Sponsorships, rol e of , 64-6 6 Steroids, 116 , 157 ; Anadrol, 79 ; IOC ba n on, 188 ; perceptions about , 88 ; as per formance-enhancing drugs , 74 ; physical effect s o n women , 86 , 114 , 189 ; pressure t o use , t o compete , 155 ; proliferation o f use , 155 ; reasons agains t use, 82 ; reasons fo r taking , 74 ; sign s

Index 20 of, 78 , 86, 90; social aspects, 75; use by bodybuilders, 51 , 74, 78, 119 Steroid testing, 189 ; reasons against, 79; role of promoter, 78 ; unevenness, 80 Steroid use: controversy of its regulation, 76; deleterious physical effects , 84; responses by those in the sport, 75; views about, 83 ; views from offi cials, 13 4 Stockton, Abbye "Pudgy": history of women's bodybuilding, 57 ; mother of bodybuilding breaking gender norms, 11

Superior Physique Association, histor y of, 5 9 Symmetry, as codeword, 125 ; importance of, 83 , 89 Symmetry round, 7 Testosterone, natural levels for wome n and men, 82 Todd, Terry, on steroid use in bodybuilding, 188 "Trophy," women as, 37 "Trophy-ism," definition of , 3 7 Tunnelvision: role in bodybuilding, 35, 50, 65; in dieting, 52 United State s Women's Physique Association (USWPA) , history of, 5 7

University of Birmingham Centr e for Cultural Studies , 173 , 193 Van Maanen, John, 167 Wayne, Rick, Muscle Wars, 76 Weider, Ben, 154; cofounder o f IFBB, 55; drug testing disagreement, 76 ; president of IFBB, 17, 60 Weider, Ben and Joe: cofounders o f IFBB, 56, 188; economic power, 145 ; power within the sport, 66-73 ; Weider machine, 149; Weider philosophy of bodybuilding, 10 9 Weider, Eric, secretary of IFBB, 68 Weider, Joe, 4, 149; cofounder o f IFBB, 5 5; power of, 14 5; publisher of Flex, 185 Weider Health and Fitness Corporation , role in bodybuilding, 67 , 68 Wennerstrom, Steve , judging, 108-10 9 Willis, Paul, 192 Wolfe, Tom [The Right Stuff), 18 3 Womanhood, 19 3 Women's Fitness and Bodybuilding, 15 8 World Bodybuilding Federation, repudia tion for joining, 15 0 Wrigley, Philip, significance of , 10 , 11 Zane, Christine, role as First Chairper son of the IFBB Women's Committee , 59

5

About the Author Maria R . Low e wa s bor n i n Sa n Antonio , Texas , wher e i n 198 5 sh e received he r BA . i n sociolog y fro m Trinit y University . I n 198 8 sh e completed he r master' s degre e a t th e Universit y o f Texa s a t Austin, an d in 199 3 sh e complete d he r Ph.D . i n sociolog y there . Sh e bega n he r professional academi c caree r i n 199 3 a t Southwester n Universit y i n Georgetown, Texas , wher e sh e i s currentl y a n assistan t professo r i n th e department o f sociology and anthropology . Her researc h continue s t o focu s o n women' s experience s i n sport s a s well a s o n th e constructio n o f gende r i n nontraditiona l arenas . Sh e i s currently workin g o n researc h concernin g th e socializatio n processe s of elite women athletes . She lives in the Austin are a with her thre e dogs.

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