Whitman's Presence: Body, Voice, and Writing in Leaves of Grass 9780814759240

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Whitman's Presenc e

WHITMAN'S PRESENC E Body, Voice, and Writing in Leaves of Grass Tenney Nathanson

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY PRESS New York and London

New Yor k University Pres s New Yor k an d Londo n Copyright © 199 2 b y New Yor k Universit y All rights reserved Library of Congres s Cataloging-in-Publicatio n Dat a Nathanson, Tenney. Whitman's presence : body, voice, and writing in Leaves of gras s / Tenney Nathanson . p. cm . Includes bibliographical reference s an d index. ISBN 0-8147-5770-7 (alk . paper ) 1. Whitman , Walt, 1819-1892 . Leave s of grass . I . Title . PS3238.N38 199 2 811'.3—dc20 92-130 New Yor k University Pres s books ar e printed on acid-free paper, and their binding materials are chosen fo r strength an d durability. Manufactured i n the United States of Americ a c1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

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For Quentin Anderson and in memory of my father Jerome Nathanson

. . . le t u s b e quit e clea r tha t th e expressio n "us e o f language " ca n cove r other matter s eve n mor e divers e tha n th e illocutionar y an d perlocution ary act s an d obviousl y quit e divers e fro m an y wit h whic h w e ar e her e concerned. . . . There ar e aetiolations , parasiti c uses , etc. , variou s "no t serious" an d "no t ful l normal " uses . The norma l condition s o f referenc e may b e suspended, o r n o attemp t mad e a t a standard perlocutionar y act , no attemp t t o mak e yo u d o anything , a s Wal t Whitma n doe s no t seri ously incit e the eagle of libert y t o soar . —J. L. Austin, How To Do Things with Words

Walt Whitman incitin g the Bird of Freedo m to Soar. Cartoon b y Max Beerbohm . Courtes y o f Mrs . Eva Reichman.

Whoever yo u are , now I place my hand upo n you , that you b e my poem , I whisper wit h my lips close to you r ear , I have loved man y wome n an d men , bu t I love none bette r tha n you . —"To You "

Contents

Acknowledgments x v Abbreviations xvi i i . Declaration s i 2. Th e World i n the Word 3 0 3. Indication s an d Crossings : Light an d Floo d 5 7 4. Th e Embodie d Voic e 8 5 The Poet of the Body 89 ; Th e Body of the Poet 10 9 5. Writin g an d Representatio n 16 2 Camden 162 ; A Living and Full-Blooded Man 168 ; Performative s and Constatives 174 ; Expressio n and Indication: Organic and Arbitrary Signs 183 ; Presenc e and Representation 24 5 6. Inscription s 27 9 Inventories 284 ; Prolepsi s 289 ; Wordsworth : "Tinter n Abbey" 292 ; Speec h Acts 306 ; "Non e Shall Escape Me" 323 ; Wordsworth : Epitaphs 329 ; Wordsworth : The Sublime 339 ; Powe r and Law 34 6 7. Legacie s 36 6 "Song of Myself" 367 ; Calamus 406 ; "A s I Ebb'd with the Ocean of Life" 44 4 8. Vista s 47 7 Works Cite d 50 1 Index 51 3

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Acknowledgments

Many friend s an d colleague s contribute d essentia l suggestion s an d en couragement t o thi s project . I wan t t o than k Davi d Greenlee , Annet a Greenlee, Floy d Byars , Julie Silverman , Stev e Berkowitz, an d John John ston fo r thei r support ; Herber t Schneidau , Jerrol d Hogle , an d Susa n White fo r thei r insightfu l comments ; an d Donal d Peas e fo r hi s readin g of a n earlie r versio n o f chapte r 4 , whic h prove d crucial . I am especiall y grateful t o Edgar Dryden , Patric k O'Donnell , Kennet h Gross , and Lynd a Zwinger fo r thei r advic e an d thei r astut e criticis m o f th e manuscript . I also wan t t o than k Jaso n Renke r an d Despin a Gimbe l o f Ne w Yor k University Pres s fo r thei r hel p i n seein g the boo k throug h t o publication . My greates t deb t i s t o Quenti n Anderson . H e ha s supporte d thi s project sinc e it s inceptio n wit h unfailin g enthusiasm , generosity , an d acumen. Portions o f th e manuscript , no w re-writte n an d re-distributed , firs t appeared i n ESQ (1985) , The Journal of Comparative Literature and Aesthetics (1986) , an d Mickle Street Review (1986) ; permissio n t o re print thi s materia l i s gratefully acknowledged . Th e author als o gratefull y acknowledges financial suppor t fro m th e Universit y o f Arizon a Founda tion an d th e Universit y o f Arizon a Facult y o f Humanities , an d releas e time awarde d b y th e Universit y o f Arizon a Departmen t o f English . Publication o f thi s boo k wa s mad e possibl e i n par t b y a gran t fro m th e University o f Arizon a Provost' s Autho r Suppor t Fund . Finally, I wish t o than k th e followin g fo r grantin g m e permissio n t o quote fro m copyrighte d material : Extracts fro m Of Grammatology b y Jacques Derrida , Englis h trans lation copyrigh t 197 6 b y Th e John s Hopkin s Universit y Press , ar e re printed b y permission o f Th e Johns Hopkin s Universit y Press . xv

xvi Acknowledgment

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Extracts fro m Feminine Sexuality b y Jacque s Laca n an d th e ecole freudienne, Englis h translatio n copyrigh t 198 2 by Jacqueline Rose , selection, editoria l matter , an d introduction s copyrigh t © 198 2 b y Julie t Mitchell an d Jacquelin e Rose , ar e reprinte d b y permissio n o f W . W . Norton & Company .

Abbreviations

1855 Leaves of Grass: The First (1855) Edition (ed . Cowley ) 1856 Leaves of Grass: Facsimile of 1856 Edition (introd . Allen ) i860 Leaves of Grass: Facsimile Edition of the i860 Text (introd . Pearce) CORR The Correspondence (ed . Miller ) CRE Leaves of Grass: Comprehensive Reader's Edition (ed . Blodgett an d Bradley ) CW The Complete Writings of Walt Whitman (ed . Buck e e t al. ) DBN Daybooks and Notebooks (ed . White ) NUPM Notebooks and Unpublished Prose Manuscripts (ed . Grier ) PW Prose Works 1892 (ed . Stovall ) UPP The Uncollected Poetry and Prose of Walt Whitman (ed . Holloway) V Leaves of Grass: A Textual Variorum of the Printed Poems (ed. Bradle y e t al. ) WWC With Walt Whitman in Camden (Traubel )

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i. Declaration s GLENDOWER: I can cal l spirit s fro m th e vast y deep . HOTSPUR: Wh y s o ca n I , o r s o ca n an y man , bu t wil l the y com e whe n yo u d o cal l fo r them? —Henry IV, Par t I , III , i

In "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " on e o f th e majo r ne w poem s Whitma n composed fo r th e 185 6 editio n o f Leaves of Grass, th e poe t interrupt s the excite d bu t trouble d accoun t h e has bee n offerin g hi s audience o f hi s daily life a s a denizen o f Manhattan an d a frequenter o f Brooklyn harbo r to tur n directl y t o us , makin g som e startlin g claim s an d posin g som e unnerving questions : Closer yet I approach you, What thought you have of me, I had a s much of you—I lai d in my stores in advance, I considered long and seriously of you before you were born. Who was to know what should come home to me? Who knows but I am enjoying this? Who knows but I am as good a s looking at you now , for al l you cannot see me? (185 6 218)

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Whitman's attentiv e concer n her e ma y strik e u s a s touching ; bu t thes e lines posses s a n uncann y qualit y tha t make s thei r ver y solicitud e unset tling. Thei r disconcertin g effec t turn s o n th e poet' s suggestio n tha t h e i s hovering nea r u s a s a n invisibl e bu t actua l presenc e a s we encounte r hi s poem. Such suggestion s aboun d i n the earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass, an d despite thei r ai r o f bein g affectionat e digression s fro m th e principa l business a t han d the y posses s a n imaginativ e urgenc y unsurpasse d i n Whitman's work. 2 In hi s earl y edition s Whitma n attribute s preternatur ally activ e power s bot h t o hi s poem s an d t o th e figure o f th e poe t wh o 1

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stands a t thei r center , an d a t it s bes t hi s wor k doe s bea r o n u s with a n immediacy no t ordinaril y associate d wit h poetry : th e figure who i s sai d to ris e up and appea r to u s in the poet's direc t addresse s t o hi s audienc e seems t o overflo w th e boundarie s o f th e ver y wor k tha t convey s hi m t o us, t o shuc k of f hi s statu s a s a fictive characte r existin g i n a literar y representation an d imping e o n u s personally an d directly . Thi s unlikel y sense o f immediacy exerte d b y th e poem s i s on e o f Whitman' s finest accomplishments. Earl y reader s o f Leaves of Grass wer e perhap s th e most extravagant , bu t b y n o mean s th e onl y member s o f Whitman' s audience t o experienc e th e transport s induce d b y th e poems ' suppose d active powers. Thei r fantasie s o f havin g undergon e intens e an d intimat e encounters wit h th e poet himself , encounter s tha t already initiate d the m into the pleasures supposedly afforde d b y his actual living presence, may strike us as naive. 3 Bu t this naivet e i s one th e poems themselve s encour age and indeed depend on; our reaction registers the presence and attests to th e power s o f th e figure Leaves of Grass claim s t o produce . Whit man's wor k thu s demand s a n ingenuous reading , fro m th e critic as well as th e casua l reader , thoug h ou r encounte r wit h Leaves of Grass ough t not t o b e wholl y shape d b y suc h innocen t suspensio n o f disbelief . The presence ou r credulity sustain s embodie s an d seems t o fulfil l th e "omni vorous" ambition s Whitma n announce d mor e tha n onc e a s motivatin g Leaves of Grass. The worl d tha t presenc e implie s migh t bes t b e calle d magical : th e figure Whitman's apostrophe s announc e seem s t o subdu e time , space , and the identitie s o f othe r persons t o hi s own extensibl e identity ; standing a t th e cente r o f th e univers e th e poem s brin g int o being , th e poe t diffuses himsel f unti l tha t cente r i s everywhere. 4 A n addres s t o u s earl y in "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " suggest s th e unlikel y rang e o f thi s pres ence, foregoing th e slightly teasing, flirtatious quality of Whitman's late r questions t o declar e explicitl y tha t th e poe t flows effortlessl y throug h time and space to impinge on us immediately an d directly: It avails not, neither time or space—distance avails not, I a m wit h you , yo u me n an d wome n o f a generation , o r eve r s o man y generations hence, I project myself, als o I return—I a m with you, an d know ho w i t is. (185 6 212-13)

The infinit e domai n o f thi s emanatin g figure is oddly compounde d wit h the persona l relatio n h e seem s t o enjo y wit h particula r member s o f hi s

Declarations 3 audience. Claimin g t o diffus e himsel f throug h spac e an d time , h e als o rests familiarl y i n particula r place s an d moments , an d incongruousl y approaches eac h o f hi s auditor s a s i f involve d wit h hi m o r he r alone . Thus th e panorami c outloo k o f th e i86 0 "Startin g fro m Paumanok " narrows t o th e dimensions o f a private communio n a s our poet suggest s he i s "comin g personall y t o yo u now " (i86 0 19) . An d a t it s close , th e poem modulate s int o a quiet declaration o f th e sort of tender , eroticize d encounter this presence so frequently promise s us: O my comrade! O you and me at last—and us two only, (i860 22) Despite Whitman' s gestur e o f electio n here , thi s sudde n focusin g o f the poet' s attention s ma y no t b e wholl y reassuring ; th e figure wh o singles us out for this communion i s himself rathe r hard to pin down. At once ubiquitous an d local, the poet's presence also compounds th e physical and the vaporous; repeatedly claiming to impinge on us as an actual, embodied presence , h e nonetheles s enjoy s a n elusivenes s tha t suggest s the immaterial. Whil e his physical presenc e is most often th e aspect tha t needs insistin g on , thi s figure's uncann y effec t typicall y depend s o n th e unlikely conjunction o f these two qualities : This is the press of a bashful hand . . .. thi s is the floatand odor of hair, This is th e touc h o f m y lips to your s . . . . thi s i s th e murmu r of yearning . ("Song of Myself," 1855 4 2) Though a n actua l physica l presenc e i s announce d here , th e irresistibl e intimacy thi s figure seem s t o enjo y depend s o n a n obvers e qualit y tha t remains unstated: we ar e caressed, a s it were, b y a phantom. Thi s labil e presence i s indeed , a s Whitman declare s i n "Son g o f Myself, " "around , tenacious, acquisitive , tireles s . . . . an d ca n neve r b e shake n away " (1855 31) . For al l hi s occasiona l wistfulness , th e figure implie d b y suc h an nouncements ca n thus also impinge on us in a manner more invasive and disturbing. I n "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " th e poe t i s sai d no t onl y t o approach bu t also to commingle with those he addresses, suffusing u s by means o f a n unname d forc e "whic h fuse s m e int o yo u now , an d pour s my meaning into you" (1856 219) . Flowing no t only aroun d u s but als o within us, he subdues our individual identitie s to his emanating form . The resonance o f suc h transactions depend s in part on their ability t o

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activate simultaneousl y normall y divergen t associations . Th e ver y strangeness o f thes e intensel y imagine d encounter s i s crucia l t o thei r effect: Whoever you are, now I place my hand upon you, that you be my poem, I whisper with my lips close to your ear, I have love d man y wome n an d men , bu t I love none bette r tha n you . ("T o You," 185 6 206-207 )

Difficult t o gauge , the poet's idio m her e migh t b e seductive o r sacramen tal, promisin g eithe r amorou s encounte r o r apotheosis . A ton e o f voic e that migh t initiat e bot h thes e prospect s a t onc e i s har d t o imagine— a sign tha t neithe r mystica l insigh t no r sexua l liberation , no r eve n som e happy resolutio n o f th e two , quit e encompasse s wha t thes e announce ments portend . Th e poet's adven t seem s to transfigure th e very possibili ties t o whic h i t alludes , redeemin g u s b y mean s o f a transactio n w e d o not quit e kno w ho w t o specify . Bot h tangibl e an d intangible , incarnat e and ideal , this figure impinge s o n u s as body an d utterance , presence an d word, foldin g u s into a unity fo r whic h w e have n o singl e nam e unles s i t be that o f th e poet himself . This foca l strangenes s typicall y disappear s fro m account s o f Leaves of Grass. Th e poet' s presenc e severel y strain s th e receive d vocabularie s commonly employe d t o accoun t fo r him ; effort s t o describ e Whitman' s work i n thes e familia r term s ten d t o sligh t o r subdu e th e poet' s unrul y effects rathe r tha n atten d t o them , deflectin g ou r attentio n fro m th e unsettling urgenc y wit h whic h th e poem s bea r o n us . S o Whitma n i s sometimes describe d a s the apostl e o f th e body , celebratin g sexua l liber ation—or els e as a visionary inten t o n expoundin g hi s mystica l sens e of the soul . In thes e narrative s th e poet' s presenc e i s characteristicall y regarded a s a slightl y quirk y trop e fo r som e suc h stabl e term . Edwi n Miller, fo r example , describe s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " a s " a hedon istic statement o f faith " (200 ) an d " a sustaine d hym n t o joy—th e jo y of the sensuous body"(i99) ; th e poet's diffusin g presenc e is regarded a s the emissary o f suc h goo d tidings , thoug h i t violate s th e ver y law s an d limitations t o whic h al l ordinar y bodie s (howeve r sensuous ) ar e subjec t (205). This descriptio n ca n b e instructively juxtapose d t o James Miller' s reading of "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " a s an early example o f Whitman' s mystical bent , a n accoun t tha t als o run s int o difficultie s ove r th e poet' s claim tha t h e project s himsel f directl y t o us . "Thi s suggestio n o f th e

Declarations 5 poet's physica l presence, " Mille r remark s wit h som e los s o f composure , "perhaps mean t t o shoc k wit h it s novelty, is surely intended t o imply th e immanence o f spiritua l union " (86) . Such wholl y oppose d reading s indicat e mor e tha n simpl e disagree ment: the y sugges t tha t th e ver y vocabularie s employe d canno t b e ap plied t o th e first thre e edition s o f Leaves of Grass withou t a certai n slippage. "Body " an d "soul, " fo r example , ca n n o longe r b e define d through mutua l opposition . To o vaporou s an d elusiv e t o b e though t o f as a n ordinar y body , ye t claimin g t o imping e o n u s i n th e here an d no w of ou r actua l worl d wit h to o muc h quirk y specificit y t o b e thought o f a s a soul , the poet's presenc e efface s th e very distinctio n betwee n th e mate rial an d th e spiritua l fro m whic h thos e term s ordinaril y tak e thei r mean ings. It als o elide s th e distinctio n betwee n th e transitor y an d th e eternal : speaking fro m it s ow n particula r tim e an d place , thi s presenc e seem s also to transcen d it , projecting itsel f throug h interval s o f time , as well a s space, it thereb y annuls. 5 I t ca n pronounc e itsel f t o b e "here " an d mea n everywhere; i t ca n sa y i t speak s "now " an d mea n forever . I t ca n als o suggest tha t i t come s "personall y t o yo u now " an d b e speakin g a t onc e to everyone ; inauguratin g a n encounte r supposedl y intimat e ye t als o universal, i t exert s a peculiar , centripeta l pressur e o n th e individual s i t reaches, disturbing th e very notion o f discret e identity . The opposition s thu s subverte d ar e no t o f cours e irrelevan t t o Leaves of Grass. W e ca n find Whitma n worryin g th e quandarie s the y sugges t i n some of hi s slacker stretches : the poems aboun d i n declarations concern ing th e bod y an d soul ; th e materia l an d th e spiritual ; th e man y an d th e one; surfac e appearanc e an d underlyin g reality ; spatia l dispersio n an d its transcendence ; tim e an d eternity. 6 Ye t elaborat e effort s t o rea d Leaves of Grass a s th e workin g throug h o f som e philosophica l insigh t ten d t o accord Whitman' s conceptua l labor s mor e intensit y tha n th e poem s authenticate—they indee d typicall y solemniz e th e ver y vocabular y wit h which Whitman' s earl y edition s pla y fas t an d loose . I n hi s announce ments o f th e poet' s presenc e Whitma n short-circuit s suc h polaritie s rathe r than reconcilin g the m systematically ; thi s peremptor y subversio n i s on e sign o f th e poet' s power . Despit e Whitman' s penchan t fo r th e sweeping , doctrinaire pronouncement , th e cosmi c goo d new s th e poe t o f th e earl y work i s inten t o n tellin g u s turn s ou t t o b e les s importan t tha n ho w h e claims to b e able to tell it: directl y an d personall y t o each o f us , whoeve r and whereve r w e ma y be , an d wheneve r w e ma y live. 7 Rathe r tha n

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celebrating multiplicit y o r subduin g th e world t o som e governin g princi ple o r value , whethe r physica l o r spiritual , Whitman' s wor k tame s dis persion an d differenc e b y mean s o f a mor e archai c transaction : i t sub sumes them withi n a n agglomeratin g spac e define d b y and indee d finally indistinguishable fro m th e poet's ow n effusin g presence. 8 We ca n begi n t o trac e th e archai c configuratio n Whitman' s declaration s of th e poet's presenc e evoke , and t o se e how thi s organization pre-empt s the ver y contrarie s I hav e bee n detailing , b y attendin g mor e closel y t o the linguisti c feature s o f thes e announcements . The y d o no t quit e see m to b e statements o f fact : It avails not, neither time or place—distance avails not, I am with you [....] (185 6 212) This hardl y strike s u s a s simply descriptive ; t o regar d thi s utteranc e a s a statement, the report o f a n already existen t condition, is to subdue rathe r than accoun t fo r th e eeri e feelin g i t provokes . Th e peculia r pressur e o f this announcemen t derive s instea d fro m th e implicatio n tha t a n invisibl e presence i s risin g u p t o hove r nea r u s precisel y as we hea r thes e words . Though i t might b e suggeste d tha t h e mus t hav e bee n her e already—w e simply didn' t realiz e i t til l h e tol d u s so—i t i s mor e likel y tha t th e declaration disconcert s u s b y makin g u s fee l tha t th e ver y word s whic h announce th e speaker' s presenc e als o produc e it . Th e proclamatio n seem s to b e conjurin g u p th e figure i t names , t o b e makin g tru e wha t i t declares. Rathe r tha n bein g a statemen t o f fact , i t operate s a s a perfor mative utterance . Performatives, a s J. L . Austi n define d them , mak e somethin g tru e b y virtue o f declarin g it : " I now, " fo r example , "pronounc e yo u ma n an d wife." A s thi s singl e instanc e shoul d suggest—yo u haven' t afte r al l jus t been marrie d a s yo u rea d this—th e locution s Austi n isolate d operat e only i n circumstance s sanctione d b y custom : th e performative s h e de scribed "mak e somethin g true " onl y withi n th e symboli c real m o f codi fied huma n institution s an d practices . Whitman' s performativ e aspira tions, i t shoul d b e clear , ar e mor e grand . Rathe r tha n simpl y alterin g somebody's socia l status , th e declaration s I have bee n considerin g clai m to produc e a n actua l presenc e b y speaking . Throughou t hi s earl y work , Whitman aspire s t o th e wor d magi c o f th e shaman : th e sens e o f word s the earl y poem s see k t o conve y ha s mor e i n commo n wit h th e archai c

Declarations 7 belief i n th e magica l powe r o f namin g tha n wit h a reflectiv e awarenes s of th e constitutiv e rol e languag e play s i n shapin g th e symboli c spac e a culture shares. 9 Thoug h Whitma n wa s unusuall y attentiv e t o th e forc e of thi s sor t o f symboli c authority , I shal l b e arguin g tha t hi s declara tions of the poet's presence are attempts to ward of f it s effects b y activat ing a powe r anterio r t o it s operatio n an d exemp t fro m it s interfer ence. 10 Performative declaration s tha t sugges t th e magica l efficac y o f th e word aboun d i n Whitman's earl y work. 11 A t their mos t dramatic , Whit man's performative s clai m t o produc e actua l presences , disposin g crea tures an d object s b y intonin g thei r name s a s easil y a s th e poe t conjure s up hi s ow n presenc e b y declarin g it . "See ! steamer s steamin g throug h my poems!" he proclaims i n "Startin g fro m Paumanok, " See, in my poems, old an d ne w cities, solid, vast, inland, with paved streets, with iron an d stone edifices, an d ceaseless vehicles, and commerce, (i86 0 21)

In suc h announcements , objec t an d nam e ar e radicall y conflated : th e word attest s t o th e presence o f wha t i t names, a s i f the nam e wer e fuse d with it s referent. 12 In th e magica l univers e o f Leaves of Grass th e poe t himself i s the ke y instanc e o f suc h fusion : th e wor d tha t announce s hi m to u s doe s no t simpl y stan d fo r th e poet' s presenc e bu t apparentl y produces an d i s indeed par t o f it . Consubstantia l wit h thi s presence , th e word infuse s i t wit h it s ow n qualities : supposedl y impingin g o n u s a s a physical being , th e poe t seem s t o b e a n idea l entit y capabl e o f innumer able manifestations o r embodiments . What w e migh t cal l Whitman's imag e of voic e is crucial t o thi s fusio n of bod y an d word th e poems strive to suggest. 13 In Leaves of Grass voic e is bot h th e irrefutabl e sig n o f th e poet' s presenc e an d it s crucia l synec doche. Whitman' s appea l t o voic e help s accoun t fo r th e fac t tha t th e poet's declaration s o f hi s ow n presenc e manag e t o attai n a n uncann y immediacy hi s othe r performativ e transaction s ofte n lack . Hi s claim s that rea l object s inhabi t hi s poem s ma y sometime s strik e u s a s unin tended instance s o f poetr y makin g th e visibl e a littl e har d t o see . Th e poet's projecte d presence , o f course , i s itsel f rathe r difficul t t o glimpse . Yet th e relatio n betwee n Whitman' s declaration s an d th e creatur e the y claim t o conjur e u p i s nonetheless oddl y indissoluble : I am with you. ("Crossing Brooklyn Ferry," 185 6 212)

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We ma y no t se e thi s presence , bu t w e d o see m t o hea r it . Indeed , i f w e direct ou r attentio n fo r a momen t t o th e voic e Whitman work s t o mak e us think w e hear , thi s announcemen t reduce s itsel f t o tautology : wha t i s declared i s th e speaker' s presence ; bu t ou r casua l sens e o f hearin g thi s announcement alread y implie s wha t i t proclaims—someon e mus t b e present t o mak e it . The ver y utteranc e tha t announce s th e poet' s perfor mative clai m seem s t o b e evidenc e o f it s fulfillment ; i n suc h announce ments, voice itself seem s to possess performative efficacy . In thes e declarations , moreover , voic e als o define s th e presenc e t o which i t attests . Th e presenc e projecte d b y th e poem s i s a s i t wer e a living bein g wh o possesse s al l th e power s voic e seem s t o exercise , whil e being compromise d b y none o f th e limitation s attendan t o n th e fac t tha t we ar e no t simpl y ou r voices . This presenc e project s itsel f a s easil y a s a voice can emanate an d project it s sound. Also sharing the voice's fluidity , no longe r containe d withi n th e boundin g surface s tha t restric t ordinar y bodies, th e poe t acquire s a magica l abilit y t o fus e himsel f int o us , com mingling hi s presenc e wit h ou r own . Thi s presenc e modele d o n voic e already implie s th e peculia r worl d i n which , a s Whitma n declare s i n "Song of Myself," "ever y ato m belongin g to me as good belong s to you " (185525).

Voice i s a crucia l mediatin g trop e i n Whitman' s work : definin g th e figure o f th e poet , i t meld s presenc e an d language , bod y an d name . Seeming sometime s lik e a disembodie d voic e seekin g wistfull y t o incar nate itself , th e poet' s presenc e ca n als o sugges t t o u s a numinous , stil l unfallen body . Produce d b y speec h an d modele d o n th e voice , tha t presence still shares the ideality of the words that name him—an idealit y which th e voic e wit h it s vaporou s qualit y bot h figures an d translate s toward a n incarnatio n th e poet' s performativ e announcement s clai m t o complete; voic e bot h attest s t o th e productive , incarnatin g powe r o f language an d suggest s tha t wha t th e wor d incarnate s stil l share s th e ideality o f it s origins . Th e productiv e forc e voic e thu s implie s i s crucia l to th e poet i n several respects : embodied b y and a s the word i n a n ac t of spontaneous self-creation , th e poe t seem s no t t o occup y th e sor t o f self divided bod y tha t ha s bee n shape d b y the history o f it s interactions wit h others o r it s encounter s wit h cultura l constraint s an d inscriptions ; in stead h e can regenerat e himself i n always identical form , a s the unchang ing, ideal figure languag e names . This visio n o f wor d magic , projecte d mos t powerfull y i n th e direc t

Declarations 9 addresses t o u s tha t engende r th e poet' s presence , i s a crucia l determi nant o f th e imaginativ e spac e o f Whitman' s work . In Leaves of Grass the productiv e powe r o f voic e whic h th e poet' s apostrophe s sugges t i s balanced b y the magical vocativ e pull seemingl y activate d b y Whitman' s notorious catalogues . Th e magi c word , producin g th e poe t himsel f a s a figure immun e t o mediation , als o recall s hi s object s fro m a n adversaria l space shaped b y distance and difference , collapsin g them int o the plenu m of th e poet's identity . But i n Leaves of Grass Whitman' s figure o f voic e als o recall s a fantasmatic spac e anterior t o that shape d b y word magic , a more archai c organization tha n tha t implie d b y th e apparen t powe r o f voic e t o incar nate o r retriev e th e thing s i t names . The presenc e evoke d b y Whitman' s apostrophes i s als o th e crucia l instanc e o f thi s prio r relatio n betwee n body an d voice . I t no t onl y suggest s tha t a bod y migh t shar e th e unde fined idealit y o f th e wor d tha t generate s it , a trai t implie d b y th e poet' s power o f punctual self-production . Th e presence evoked b y and modele d on voice , I suggeste d above , i s als o notabl e fo r it s lability : i t n o soone r incarnates itsel f tha n i t dissolves ; scudding, scooting , effusing , an d flow ing ar e al l processe s tha t characteriz e thi s presenc e eithe r directl y o r through metonymi c suggestion . I n Leaves of Grass th e voic e tha t con jures u p thi s elusiv e presence share s an d perhap s define s it s fluidity . Th e preferences concernin g voice declared i n section five of "Son g of Myself " —"Not words , no t musi c o r rhym e I want . . . . no t custo m o r lecture , not eve n th e bes t / Onl y th e lul l I like , th e hu m o f you r valve d voice " (1855 28)—tur n ou t t o b e characteristic ; i n Whitman' s wor k voic e i s repeatedly praise d fo r echolali c qualitie s tha t certainl y resembl e an d perhaps determin e th e kinestheti c trait s o f th e bod y the y announce . Ascribing suc h trait s t o primitiv e languages , Whitman evoke s a supersede d but supposedl y retrievabl e relatio n betwee n bod y an d voic e tha t ca n profitably b e associate d wit h psychi c a s wel l a s cultura l archaism : th e poet's bod y i n Leaves of Grass recall s a n organizatio n i n whic h voca l and kinestheti c rhythm s interac t t o shap e a labile , diffus e sens e o f bod y and self. Both transmuted an d extende d b y the word magi c that succeed s this formation , th e tie s among body , voice, and wor d i n Leaves of Grass work t o sustai n a sens e of agglomeratin g identit y tha t ward s of f threat s of divisio n an d differenc e a s immediat e a s th e impendin g wa r tha t shadowed Whitman' s boo k an d a s globa l a s ou r subjectio n t o cultura l encoding. 14

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As tangentia l t o lyri c traditio n a s thi s archai c univers e ma y seem , th e vision o f languag e an d voic e tha t shape s i t i s centra l t o poetry : lyri c apostrophe, bot h Pau l d e Ma n an d Jonathan Culle r hav e recentl y sug gested, ma y b e not a n embarrassing perio d aberratio n bu t a crucial sig n of power s t o whic h lyri c speec h characteristicall y aspires ; a s Culle r notes, apostroph e implie s a worl d wher e "presenc e an d absence " ar e "governed no t b y tim e bu t b y poeti c power " ("Apostrophe " 150). 15 Neither Culle r no r d e Man , however , evince s muc h interes t i n the rela tion betwee n suc h lyri c speec h act s an d th e linguisti c an d socia l spac e that surround s poetry , o r i n th e psychic terrai n lyri c apostroph e im plies.16 A n encounte r wit h Leaves of Grass obtrude s suc h issue s o n ou r attention forcibly, sinc e in Whitman's work th e power of a magic speech is explicitl y brough t t o bea r o n th e constrictin g linguistic , social , an d psychic structure s tha t inhibi t th e poet . Fo r al l th e extremit y o f it s claims, Leaves of Grass thu s turn s ou t t o b e oddl y exemplary : Whit man's work suggest s tha t lyri c apostrophe i s a culturally sanctione d sit e in whic h w e entertai n th e atavisti c belie f i n wha t Freu d calle d wor d magic o r th e omnipotenc e o f thought. 17 The apostrophe s i n Leaves of Grass tha t clai m t o produc e th e poet' s presenc e giv e thi s visio n o f mastery radica l embodiment . I f poeti c apostroph e typicall y work s t o subject the external worl d t o the power o f language , overcoming spatia l and tempora l interval s b y mean s o f th e invocator y powe r o f address , Whitman's announcement s see m t o annu l thes e manifold s altogether , re-shaping tim e an d spac e a s the place an d occasio n o f th e poet's utter ance, th e singula r "here " an d "now " hi s proclamation s announc e an d seem t o create . An d th e figur e wh o wield s suc h powers , w e hav e jus t seen, ha s himsel f bee n re-define d b y them : givin g th e poet' s speec h a body , thi s presenc e impinge s o n u s a s th e magica l incarnatio n o f the word . Th e satisfaction s afforde d b y thi s mythi c personag e and th e speec h whos e power s h e embodies compe l a fascination w e ca n rightly cal l uncanny. 18 T o fee l th e extrinsi c an d contingen t attribute s that shap e ordinar y selve s fal l awa y lik e s o man y accident s a s on e conjures up one's own self-generating presence ; to shape a magical spac e in whic h on e create s o r dispose s object s a s easil y a s on e intone s thei r names; t o b e onesel f th e bod y o f thi s speec h tha t weave s th e worl d b y naming it , t o flo w int o an d maste r othe r identitie s a s easily a s languag e weaves itsel f throug h names , a s voice s see m t o animat e th e word s the y

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speak: thes e ar e the archai c satisfaction s give n voic e fo r u s in Leaves of Grass, prospect s th e poem s nam e an d clai m t o mak e tru e b y virtu e o f that naming. Central t o Leaves of Grass an d it s imaginativ e appeal , suc h dream s ar e suggested b y unlikely means ; the poems finess e thei r crucial transaction s with u s an d thu s eventuall y provok e th e skeptica l respons e the y tr y t o preclude. Claimin g t o conjur e u p a body tha t i s les s lik e a body tha n a voice, Leaves of Grass seem s to accomplish this feat by means of a voice that i s lik e n o voic e w e hav e eve r heard. Whitman' s announcement s d o appeal t o ou r experienc e o f actua l voice s t o len d th e poet' s proclama tions credibility : whe n ordinar y voice s announc e tha t thei r owner s ar e present, the y mus t b e i n th e vicinit y o r w e wouldn' t hea r thei r words . Yet thes e appeal s ar e a s cann y a s the y ar e effective . Give n th e peculia r contexts i n which the y ar e made, th e poet's claim s tha t h e speak s t o u s "here" an d "now"—alread y implie d b y wha t w e kno w o f voices — trope suc h experienc e rathe r tha n simpl y reproducin g it , creatin g th e magical, virtuall y omnipoten t voic e tha t seem s t o spea k i n Whitman' s poems: the poet's announcements t o us seem to compress all space, fro m the landscape o f th e poe m t o "here, " and al l time , fro m a centur y ag o till "now, " int o th e modes t interval s ordinar y voice s ca n traverse . I t i s not voic e bu t Whitman' s tropin g o f voic e tha t achieve s th e crucia l re figuring of th e poet's presence. That presenc e maintain s it s magica l power s onl y s o lon g a s th e ma chinery whic h stage s Whitman' s imag e o f voic e i s no t permitte d t o obtrude o n an d disrup t th e scen e i t shapes . A disclaime r late r delete d from th e eighth sectio n o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " may thus manag e to strik e u s a s outrageou s withou t quit e bein g surprising . W e ca n ther e find Whitman carefull y circumscribin g th e sort o f encounte r w e ar e t o imagine a s takin g plac e betwee n ourselve s an d ou r poet . The crucial , later-deleted lin e is the final one, which a s it were wards off a misunderstanding that might have dangerous consequences : We understand, then, do we not? What I promised without mentioning it, have you not accepted? What the study could not teach—what th e preaching could not accomplish is accomplished, is it not? What th e pus h o f readin g could no t star t is started b y m e personally, i s it not? (185 6 219 )

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This i s audacious, sinc e i t patently flies in th e fac e o f simpl e fact : w e ar e reading thi s poem an d indee d thi s declaration . Fo r th e poet o f th e 1850 s this improbabl e disavowa l evidentl y seeme d wort h th e ris k o f absurdit y it ran; suc h announcement s recu r throughou t th e poems Whitma n com posed fo r hi s earl y editions . Th e fervo r wit h whic h Whitma n repeatedl y denies the role of th e very text we are reading, the sheer bluf f wit h whic h he sometime s declare s tha t Leaves of Grass i s no t a book , sugges t tha t writing and readin g possess an uncomfortable relatio n t o the imaginativ e universe th e poem s generate . Declarin g tha t th e tex t o f Leaves of Grass is either non-existen t o r incidental , Whitma n trie s t o consig n writin g t o a margina l plac e i n whic h i t woul d neithe r compromis e no r constitut e the poet's powers . The fac t tha t writin g frustrate s th e poet' s aspiration s ha s lon g bee n recognized. Edwi n Miller , fo r example , notes "Whitman' s desir e to tran scend 'col d types ' " an d explain s that , sinc e th e poe t long s fo r intimat e communication wit h hi s audience , writin g an d readin g an d th e distanc e they impl y mus t b e wishe d awa y (12) ; h e als o suggest s tha t th e poet' s amorous announcement s o f hi s presenc e ar e on e crucia l mean s o f evok ing th e immediac y th e poe t desire s ( n ) . Thi s notio n tha t Whitman' s apostrophes see m t o generat e a familiarit y betwee n poe t an d audienc e not usuall y attaine d b y th e writte n wor d ha s rightl y becom e a truis m o f Whitman criticism. 19 Ye t w e ma y profitabl y puzzl e ove r th e rol e o f writing an d readin g i n Whitman' s poem s a bi t longe r here , a s w e shal l do a t greate r lengt h furthe r on . Th e poet' s denial s o f thei r functio n possess a n urgenc y tha t doe s no t quit e seem adequatel y explaine d b y th e somewhat sentimenta l suggestio n tha t Whitma n wishe s t o wide n th e sphere o f hi s intimacie s t o includ e hi s reader s a s wel l a s hi s actua l associates. Suc h a n accoun t scant s th e uncann y qualitie s o f th e figure who rise s u p b y circumventin g hi s tex t an d declarin g hi s immediat e presence; an d i t fail s t o conside r th e strang e relatio n betwee n thi s pres ence an d th e boo k i t claim s t o by-pass . Whitman' s insistenc e tha t hi s poems ar e spoke n doe s no t simpl y exten d hi s affectiona l range ; i t re defines th e poe t himsel f b y endowin g hi s presenc e wit h th e apparen t traits an d power s o f th e voice . Ye t eve n thi s voic e i s no ordinar y one : i t traverses no t onl y space , bu t als o time ; i t convey s no t onl y sound , bu t a personal presence . I t i s jus t thes e aberran t trait s tha t mak e th e poet' s voice an d presenc e see m magical ; an d thes e aberrations hav e a close an d

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uncomfortable connectio n t o th e writin g whic h shoul d pla y n o par t i n the poet's announcements . Whitman's disavowal s o f hi s boo k ar e typicall y lodge d i n th e mids t of jus t suc h visionar y proclamation s o f th e poet's manifestation : Camerado! This is no book, Who touches this, touches a man. ("So Long!" V 1:4s 2-)20 This announcemen t ma y no t exactl y den y th e existenc e o f th e boo k w e are reading ; suspende d ambiguousl y betwee n th e mode s o f statemen t and performance , i t ma y instea d prophes y o r see k t o enac t a kin d o f transubstantiation, i n whic h th e tex t tha t preserve s th e poet' s wor d an d conveys it to u s would b e transformed int o a n actua l voice and presence . Such pronouncement s manag e a n unlikely , affectin g grandeur . Ye t th e prestidigitation o n whic h thei r visionar y possibilit y depend s implie s a n oddly indissolubl e ti e amon g th e ver y term s whos e relatio n th e poe t denies o r seek s t o transfigure : betwee n th e writin g w e ar e tol d w e ar e not readin g an d th e voic e tha t seem s t o spea k t o u s directly ; betwee n Whitman's tex t an d th e livin g perso n it s suppose d dissolutio n seem s t o conjure up . I t i s o f cours e writin g tha t make s th e poet' s voic e see m magical, enablin g i t t o travers e an d collaps e spac e an d time . An d i t i s only th e sort o f voice a text implies , a "voice " emanating fro m n o actua l physical source , that ma y see m to generat e th e diffuse , invisibl e presenc e the poem s s o unnervingl y evoke . The poet' s magica l adven t depend s o n a carefull y deploye d economy , o n th e simultaneou s employmen t an d effacing o f th e volum e i n whic h th e word s tha t announc e hi m appear . The declaratio n i n which Whitma n denie s his book i s no mer e sentimen tal gesture : i t i s th e origi n o f th e poe t wh o create s himsel f b y speaking , the birt h o f a go d an d th e creatio n o f a worl d suffuse d an d shape d b y his presence . Whitma n need s t o remin d u s t o forge t writing , i n orde r that th e poet ma y speak , an d ris e up an d b e revealed. 21 The suprem e fiction o f Leaves of Grass i s thu s perhap s th e myt h o f the poems ' ow n mode . Admitte d openl y int o th e univers e o f Leaves of Grass, th e writin g tha t stage s Whitman's imag e o f voice , an d lend s tha t voice th e resource s tha t mak e i t see m magical , woul d undermin e th e very powers it s surreptitious us e suggests. Whitman's countles s diatribe s against writin g indee d spel l ou t i n som e detai l th e limitation s o f thi s mechanism an d sugges t the liabilitie s o f admittin g th e rol e it plays i n th e

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poems: i f writin g perfect s th e power s o f th e poet' s voic e an d person , i t perfects the m onl y a s th e obvers e o f wha t the y ar e declare d t o be . Writing, Whitma n tell s u s himself , neithe r produce s no r implie s a n actual presence ; i t re-present s word s spoke n i n anothe r plac e an d tim e and offer s u s onl y th e representatio n o f th e actua l presenc e t o whic h speech attests . Writing thus comes to represent al l that separates the poe t from hi s divin e origins : dramaticall y detachin g hi s presenc e fro m hi s word, i t consign s hi m clearl y t o a n ordinar y bod y an d leave s hi s lan guage plainl y beref t o f th e productive , performativ e powe r t o whic h Whitman aspires. 22 All Whitman's mos t dramati c verba l gestures , I shall argue, finally situate themselves i n just this gap. The words of Whitman' s book recal l a magica l powe r the y canno t re-captur e o r re-activate : deriding th e merel y representationa l functio n o f ordinar y languag e an d seeking t o reclai m th e powe r o f th e wor d a s magica l act , Whitman' s poems occup y th e sometime s comic , ofte n melanchol y spac e i n whic h such archai c performativ e powe r i s itsel f represente d rathe r tha n en acted. 23 Whitman's recours e to writing mark s thi s gap in Leaves of Grass; bu t it does no t quit e caus e it . If writing palpably fail s t o conve y th e presenc e the poet' s voic e seem s t o generate , tha t i s becaus e i t manifest s starkl y limitations tha t lur k i n ora l languag e a s well : whil e voic e ma y attes t t o the presence of a speaker, i t does not o f cours e produce tha t presence; in Whitman's wor k i t i s no t voic e bu t th e carefull y orchestrate d econom y of voic e an d writing , a shell-gam e o f presenc e an d absence , tha t gener ates th e illusio n o f suc h productiv e power. 24 Detailin g repeatedl y i n hi s work defect s supposedl y confine d t o writing , Whitma n indee d inadver tently enumerate s th e linguisti c liabilitie s tha t troubl e al l th e gesture s a t word magi c centra l t o Leaves of Grass, whethe r w e thin k o f thes e a s spoken o r written . Foremos t amon g thes e fault s i s th e ga p betwee n th e sign an d it s referent , th e wor d an d th e thin g itself , a ga p whic h writin g emphasizes bu t doe s not , o f course , inaugurate. 25 Al l Whitman's perfor mative announcement s thu s tur n ou t t o b e liabl e t o th e sor t o f fadin g that haunt s th e poet' s proclamation s o f hi s ow n advent , thoug h the y d o not al l depen d s o dramaticall y o n th e ti e betwee n voic e an d presenc e these declarations manipulat e an d ar e thus not s o starkly undermine d b y the laps e fro m speec h t o writing ; whethe r writte n o r spoken , th e poet' s word canno t achiev e that fusio n betwee n th e self an d it s objects to whic h word magi c would attain .

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Devoid o f suc h archai c power , th e poe t i s lef t despit e himsel f i n a n exterior spac e subjec t t o externa l definitio n an d control . Th e diminishe d but stil l considerabl e powe r hi s wor d ca n exercis e i n thi s spac e i s als o epitomized b y writi n * —or b y th e supposedl y negativ e trait s Whitma n would lik e t o consi g 1 to it . Sig n o f th e sign , writin g clearl y dispose s symbolic object s rathe r tha n rea l things ; th e poet' s word , whethe r writ ten o r spoken , take s u p it s plac e i n th e contested , coerciv e spher e o f cultural action , enterin g th e ver y struggl e ove r symboli c form s fro m which Leaves of Grass ofte n claim s t o fre e us . As we shall see , Whitma n reserves som e o f hi s mos t vehemen t denunciation s fo r th e powe r whic h culture an d th e symboli c entitie s i t spawn s exer t ove r us ; thi s powe r provokes anxiet y a s shar p a s an y displaye d i n hi s work. 26 Ye t eve n Whitman's magisteria l declaration s o f th e poet' s ow n presenc e ar e sym bolic rathe r tha n magica l acts , producin g onl y wha t an y suc h ac t ca n produce. The y situat e th e poe t firml y i n th e mids t o f th e ver y aren a Whitman's mor e inflammator y pronouncement s mak e hi m responsibl e for abolishin g o r redeeming; bot h th e poet's performatives an d the figur e they evok e ar e consummat e instance s o f th e hegemon y the y supposedl y overthrow. The appearanc e o f th e poet' s wor d i n a book , o f hi s voic e i n a text , might therefore serv e to remin d u s of wha t amoun t t o truisms: the figur e of th e poe t i s not a magica l presenc e bu t a n ordinar y representation ; th e words whic h clai m t o conjur e hi m u p ca n nam e bu t no t produc e him ; Leaves of Grass shape s a symboli c spac e tha t i s part o f th e ver y cultura l system i t contests rathe r tha n a n alternativ e t o it . Ye t it is less importan t to recor d suc h truism s tha n t o acknowledg e an d len d adequat e weigh t to th e fac t o f ho w deepl y Whitma n i s committe d t o wardin g the m off . Not simpl y mystifie d o r demystified , Whitman' s poem s elaborat e th e never complete d movemen t o f a mystification; th e poems ar e a n anxiou s meditation o n th e ritua l possibilitie s the y see k t o suggest ; the y broo d over th e linguisti c an d psychi c liabilitie s the y clai m t o avert . Attendin g to suc h equivocations , w e ca n perhap s bes t recove r an d understan d th e unreconciled strain s of exuberanc e an d pathos , of grandeur an d poverty , whose uneas y conjunctio n define s Whitman' s earl y editions . Th e poet' s apostrophes an d th e figure the y impl y sustai n a visio n o f identit y a s fragile a s i t i s exuberant an d overbearing ; crucia l no t onl y t o th e imagi native universe of Leaves of Grass bu t t o its creator a s well, this imperia l self i s calle d int o questio n b y th e ver y scene s tha t cal l hi m int o being . I t

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is i n somethin g lik e thes e term s tha t w e ca n understan d th e peculia r urgency that always attends Whitman's declarations of voice and denials of writing: the person who rise s up in the poems, whom we have learned to cal l Wal t Whitman , depend s fo r hi s ver y existenc e o n a tenuous an d barely conceivable mod e of communication— a mod e which would convey th e poet' s actua l presenc e t o u s a s easil y a s representation s ar e disseminated by ordinary writing. The poet's presence, Whitman's grandest trope of power , i s also a figure of patho s an d desire, an elusive prospec t evoked bu t no t produce d b y gesture s a t wor d magic . W e nee d t o rea d Whitman not only as the grand and visionary bar d he typically claims to be, bu t als o a s the reluctan t comedia n o r elegist o f th e very progra m h e propounds. Whitman is often bot h poets—both vati c speaker and gnomic, troubled avatar , bot h voic e an d scribe—no t only i n the sam e poe m bu t in one an d the same pronouncement; therein , perhaps, lies the troubled, self-contradictory greatnes s of his best work. What follow s ha s th e rhyth m o f a doubl e movement . Beginnin g b y explicating a pattern of figures and claims central to the early editions of Leaves of Grass, I focu s increasingl y o n th e mechanism s Whitma n si multaneously commandeer s an d occults i n order to generate the magical space o f th e poems , an d o n th e wa y Whitman' s wor k thu s re-inscribe s the poet' s presenc e an d wor d a s function s o f th e ver y structure s the y supposedly resist . Fo r the vision Leaves of Grass foregrounds , th e poet's presence i s the crucia l synecdoche ; bu t I begin b y trying to establis h th e contours o f tha t imagine d whol e o f whic h h e woul d b e th e uncannil y incarnate part . Whitman' s visio n o f languag e a s th e master y an d transfiguration o f presenc e pervade s an d structure s hi s earl y editions : suc h diverse feature s o f Leaves of Grass a s Whitman' s idiosyncrati c cata logues, hi s sometime s quirk y cosmologica l musings , an d hi s depiction s of th e vigorously pneumati c figure of th e poet w e ofte n glimps e huffin g and puffing hi s way throug h the landscape o f th e poems, I argue, can all best b e understoo d a s effort s t o conve y thi s visio n o f speec h a s power . My discussio n o f Whitman' s catalogu e techniqu e i n chapte r z focuse s on th e archai c visio n o f space , time , an d identit y th e highl y stylize d syntax o f thes e litanie s projects. Eve n Whitman's list s hav e a performative dimension, and their sometimes unfortunate prolixity is thus a defect risked i n th e nam e o f th e linguisti c value s t o whic h Leaves of Grass i s committed: lik e ceremonia l utterance , Whitman' s distended , iterativ e

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sentences ma y b e inten t o n accumulatin g powe r ove r th e myria d crea tures an d object s the y nam e rathe r tha n renderin g an y particula r thin g in precis e detail . Whitman' s cosmi c myth-making , I tr y t o sho w i n chapter 3 , reifie s an d thereb y serve s t o naturaliz e th e linguisti c power s his verbal practic e implies, also giving the imaginative spac e that practic e suggests hypostatize d embodiment . Th e poet' s transfigure d bod y ca n b e understood i n part a s one suc h hypostatization . In chapte r 4 I tur n t o a n extende d accoun t o f th e poet' s presence . I am concerne d no t onl y wit h ho w th e poe t seem s t o incarnat e th e wor d magic tha t suffuse s Leaves of Grass bu t als o wit h th e wa y th e archai c identity thu s evoke d alleviate s anxietie s als o ampl y rendere d i n th e poems. Such anxietie s ar e conspicuously provoke d no t only by the poet' s vulnerability t o th e demand s o f som e particula r socia l organizatio n bu t also b y th e fac t o f socia l shapin g itself , b y hi s enforce d assumptio n o f a symbolically structure d an d culturall y grounded , n o longe r self-con tained identity . Thi s los s o f autonomy , I try t o show , ha s mor e tha n a n incidental connectio n t o th e linguisti c rif t i n whic h th e power s o f wor d magic are foreswor n an d th e mediate d an d mediatin g cultura l power s o f the symboli c sig n assumed . Fightin g of f thi s suppose d linguisti c debacle , the poet woul d thereb y fen d of f ou r psychi c subjection a s well. Central t o the poems, this attempt t o forestal l a linguistic an d psychi c disaster b y recovering the supposed power s o f a hypothesized primordia l language i s worked throug h i n mor e explici t an d intellectuall y exactin g terms i n Whitman' s theoretica l remark s o n language , t o whic h I turn i n chapter 5 . Attempts a t discursiv e rigor , however , en d u p entoilin g Whit man i n awkwar d effort s t o sustai n unlikel y distinctions . W e repeatedl y encounter moment s i n whic h hi s enablin g oppositions—betwee n state ment an d performance , indicatio n an d expression , arbitrar y an d organi c signs—threaten t o collapse. The language theory thu s verges on subvert ing th e ver y claim s i t trie s t o sustain . Th e crucia l instanc e o f Whitman' s polemical dichotomizin g labor s unde r jus t thi s sor t o f difficulty : wha t Whitman want s t o mean b y voice is already imbricate d i n what h e want s to mean b y writing; the defects epitomize d b y this rejected mod e manag e to contaminat e ora l languag e wit h uncann y recurrence . Th e redemptiv e powers voic e ough t t o exercis e thu s tur n ou t t o b e virtuall y indistin guishable fro m th e aggressive , illici t power s writin g i s sai d t o wield . Persuasively associatin g thes e dangerou s linguisti c power s wit h coerciv e cultural mechanisms , Whitma n als o make s writin g a crucia l metonym y

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for th e sor t o f psychi c self-divisio n suc h cultura l codin g enforces . Ye t just a s he finds it difficult t o isolate an unfalle n ora l languag e not alread y contaminated b y th e linguisti c defect s writin g i s mad e t o exemplify , s o too h e has troubl e imaginin g a credibl e versio n o f th e sor t o f bod y fro m which a n unfalle n voic e migh t emerge , a bod y no t ye t sullie d b y th e cultural inscriptio n writin g represents . Thes e complementar y task s in deed tur n ou t t o b e circular : th e unfalle n languag e an d unfalle n bod y o f which Leaves of Grass dream s eac h requir e th e prio r existenc e o f th e other i n orde r t o com e int o being . Whitman's languag e theor y thu s end s up tracin g th e close d circl e th e poem s tr y t o re-ente r bu t ofte n see m consigned t o musin g o n instead , a supersede d spac e i n which a n archai c body an d languag e defin e eac h other . A stud y o f Whitman' s languag e theor y ca n thu s hel p u s specif y no t only th e ambition s Whitman' s performativ e declaration s condens e bu t also th e linguisti c liabilitie s b y whic h thos e aspiration s ar e undermined . In chapte r 6 I accordingly retur n t o th e poem s t o atten d mor e closel y t o the dramati c bu t equivoca l transaction s tha t evok e a magical idio m the y cannot quit e activat e an d a n agglomerativ e identit y the y canno t sustain . Envisioning languag e a s power , th e poem s sometime s see m t o lamen t the poverty o f words; imagining a n imperial sel f generate d b y voice, they are haunted b y it s inevitable ruin . Bu t Whitman's poem s ar e troubled a s well b y a n obvers e recognition : lackin g th e magica l powe r o f whic h Whitman dreams , th e poet' s wor d sometime s reveal s itsel f no t a s impo tent, bu t a s a n instanc e o f th e coerciv e socia l forc e i t supposedl y over comes. Thi s ambivalen t sens e o f th e word , an d o f th e fiction o f sel f th e word shoul d enable , i s registere d i n th e mobile , divide d ton e o f Whit man's mos t moving proclamations. A close reading of Whitman's perfor matives reveal s a poe t wh o i s bot h grandios e an d vulnerable , an d wh o can b e visionary , poignant , comic , an d domineering—sometime s al l a t once. I think thi s is the Whitman tha t matter s most . Crucial t o Whitman's first thre e editions, such ambivalenc e i s perhaps most strikin g i n th e poem s i n whic h th e visio n o f wor d magi c first emerges an d finally dissolves . In chapte r 7 , I thu s tur n t o extende d readings o f th e 185 5 "Son g o f Myself " an d th e i86 0 Calamus sequenc e and Sea-Drift poe m "A s I Ebb' d wit h th e Ocea n o f Life. " Thes e piece s powerfully sugges t th e impediment s agains t whic h wor d magi c an d th e archaic identit y i t engender s ar e brough t t o bea r an d th e pressure s i t fends off , pressure s t o whic h th e poe t an d hi s wor d remai n vulnerabl e

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and t o which the y ultimately succumb . Whitman's fascinatio n wit h mag ical performativ e utteranc e i s alread y eviden t i n "Son g o f Myself" ; bu t the incorporativ e visio n suc h languag e sustain s struggle s overtl y i n thi s early poe m agains t contrar y recognition s ampl y registere d i n digressiv e energies an d comi c demurs . Th e univers e th e poe m celebrate s i s poise d explicitly betwee n unificatio n an d dispersion ; th e assimilativ e urg e tha t propels th e piec e bump s u p repeatedl y agains t th e rediscovere d densit y and opacit y o f individua l live s an d objects , a s wel l a s agains t th e struc tures, bot h natura l an d cultural , tha t hav e helpe d mak e thes e myria d creatures an d thing s wha t the y are . Thi s conflict , I tr y t o show , i s registered i n th e poem primaril y a s a tensio n betwee n bodie s an d voice s —between limite d incarnat e form s an d a for m o f presenc e tha t seem s t o annul al l such limitation . By i860 , th e projec t thu s ambiguousl y inaugurate d i n th e grand , ironic comed y o f "Son g o f Myself " ha s prett y muc h ru n it s course : th e great Calamus sequenc e o f Whitman's thir d editio n announce s a n en d t o the poet' s imperia l ambitions . Celebratin g particula r affection s rathe r than th e agglomerativ e power s exercise d b y th e generi c figure o f th e poet, th e Calamus poem s retur n Whitma n t o a spac e nearl y devoi d o f magic. Here relation s betwee n sel f an d othe r ar e no longe r susceptibl e t o incorporative mastery ; th e poet i s now a t the merc y o f contingen t event s and mus t us e som e delicac y i n negotiatin g amorou s encounter s tha t ar e no longe r brough t of f b y imperia l fiat. H e mus t als o communicat e wit h us b y mean s h e onc e spurned : th e poe t o f Calamus i s typicall y sai d t o write t o us . Addressin g u s fro m a particula r tim e an d plac e an d b y ordinary means , Whitma n relinquishe s th e performativ e power s o f tha t mythic speec h whic h ha d earlie r seeme d t o produc e hi s endless, emanat ing presence, entering instea d int o a circuit o f symbolic relations; assum ing hi s plac e i n a cultura l econom y o f persons , h e offer s u p a s th e pric e of initiatio n th e very claims to self-sufficienc y tha t ha d energize d th e first two edition s o f Leaves of Grass. I n Calamus th e poet' s ow n bod y becomes th e tex t o f thi s loss : th e poe t i s haunte d b y a kin d o f hermeti c writing inscribe d eithe r withi n hi s bod y o r o n it , a n inscriptio n whos e meaning—which i s himself—remains a s elusive to the poet a s to others . Entoiled i n the practice of writing, the poet o f Calamus i s himself subjec t to thos e self-dividin g structure s fo r whic h writin g come s t o stan d i n Whitman's work : n o longe r self-generatin g an d self-contained , h e i s a t the merc y no t onl y o f other s bu t als o o f th e force s tha t structur e bot h

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himself an d hi s relations t o them; figured sometime s a s natural, these ar e also th e cultura l code s an d prohibition s whos e weigh t th e Calamus poems conspicuousl y register . The accommodation s detaile d i n Calamus ar e thu s no t withou t thei r price: th e grea t Sea-Drift poe m "A s I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " i s an agonize d appraisa l o f wha t feel s t o Whitma n lik e a ruine d an d bankrupt selfhood . Ye t th e poem' s bitterness , whic h i s extreme , i s als o divided: her e Whitma n seem s t o rejec t th e animatin g myt h o f hi s first two editions , th e consolation s o f Calamus, an d th e merel y huma n sel f who, tor n betwee n thes e antipoda l visions , has faile d t o liv e up t o eithe r one. Thi s equivoca l leave-takin g register s bot h th e complexit y an d th e strength o f Whitman' s investmen t i n th e power s tha t ar e th e subjec t o f this study . Both th e gigantesqu e claim s t o performativ e powe r an d th e anxiet y which th e fragilit y o f thos e claim s occasions , however , ar e virtuall y absent fro m Whitman' s late r work ; the y ar e replace d b y tireles s exposi tion o f a cosmi c visio n w e migh t bes t regar d a s a sor t o f congealin g o f the still-elusiv e intimation s proffere d b y Whitman's imag e of voice in his earlier poems. 27 Th e poe t o f thes e late r piece s i s no t th e subjec t o f my study. The exuberan t visio n o f languag e tha t animate s th e earl y Leaves of Grass i s probably sharpes t i n the new poems Whitman compose d fo r th e 1856 edition ; hi s evocatio n o f th e mythi c poe t create d b y apostroph e i s nowhere mor e crucia l tha n i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry. " I n wha t fol lows, I therefor e mak e thi s piec e a kin d o f specime n text . Rathe r tha n organizing m y expositio n aroun d a serie s o f clos e reading s o f entir e poems—an approac h Whitman' s theor y an d practic e o f poetr y ten d t o vitiate—I trac e a crucia l imaginativ e patter n throug h Whitman' s work , recurring to "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " to recall the drama withi n whic h Whitman's centra l claim s characteristically function . Focusing o n th e attraction s o f archai c processe s an d th e vicissitude s that befal l them , a s wel l a s o n th e cultura l mechanism s the y supposedl y resist, m y accoun t o f Leaves of Grass take s u p a vie w o f Whitman' s work alread y suggeste d b y suc h sometime s divergen t critic s a s Mar k Van Doren , Richar d Chase , Joh n Kinnaird , Iva n Marki , an d Quenti n Anderson. Acknowledgin g th e socia l agend a o f Leaves of Grass, thes e critics nonetheles s locat e th e crucia l sustainin g impuls e fo r Whitman' s early editions i n the more private concerns with whic h publi c material i n

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the poem s persistentl y intertwines . In a simila r way , I hav e chose n t o attend t o the uncanny energie s activate d b y announcements o f th e poet' s presence an d t o ma p th e archai c spac e these scene s generate, rathe r tha n detail th e politica l implication s Whitma n sometime s trie s t o len d suc h encounters o r pursu e th e democrati c socia l visio n the y ca n b e take n t o imply. Despit e Whitman' s quit e genuin e an d passionat e politica l com mitments, the performative impuls e i n Leaves of Grass doe s no t see m t o me t o b e motivate d primaril y b y thes e concerns . Th e overtl y politica l passages i n Whitman's earl y edition s ten d t o b e melodramati c o r maud lin; mor e ofte n tha n not , the y fee l lik e awkwar d effort s t o displac e t o the domai n o f publi c polic y vision s o f dange r an d possibilit y tha t origi nate elsewhere. 28 The political claim s Whitman sometime s make s fo r th e poet's presenc e ma y serv e i n par t a s a protectiv e distancin g o f mor e intimate, less easily acknowledge d material . Having mad e m y cas e fo r th e archai c resonanc e o f th e crucia l trans actions i n Leaves of Grass, i n chapte r 8 I thu s argu e tha t th e poet' s presence ca n b e enliste d a s a figure fo r th e explicitl y politica l visio n sometimes expounde d i n Leaves of Grass onl y b y leaving out o f accoun t a considerabl e residue ; thi s remainder , I contend, i s crucial t o th e poet' s appeal. Recen t account s o f Whitman' s wor k tha t focu s o n th e poet' s addresses t o hi s audienc e hav e o n th e whol e bee n les s intereste d i n th e peculiar feature s th e poet himsel f assume s b y virtue of thes e apostrophe s than i n hi s possibl e didacti c effect s o n us ; studie s tha t regar d th e poet' s presence primaril y a s a trop e fo r som e politica l possibilit y whic h Whit man i s intent o n makin g availabl e to his audience have lately becom e th e most popula r versio n o f thi s enterprise. 29 Ye t th e appea l o f th e poet' s presence ma y depen d les s o n th e share d socia l prospec t h e supposedl y embodies tha n o n th e exceptiona l statu s h e himself enjoys . Th e workin g assumption o f m y ow n stud y i s that w e need t o tak e a sustaine d loo k a t the peculia r characteristic s o f thi s presence , an d a t th e benefit s tha t accrue t o th e poe t b y imaginativel y assumin g them , befor e w e ca n sa y what thi s figure migh t mea n t o democracy , o r t o us . Th e ideologica l work Whitman' s figure o f voic e performs , I argu e i n conclusion , i s hardly exhauste d b y the poet's advocac y o f strictl y politica l possibilities ; more crucially , i t depend s o n th e wa y hi s adven t manage s t o confoun d such prospect s wit h archai c satisfactions b y no mean s reducibl e to them . This enticin g confusio n i s boun d u p intimatel y wit h th e trick y relatio n between voic e an d writin g tha t organize s Leaves of Grass. I f th e poet' s

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voice wer e i n fac t capabl e o f th e magi c whic h writin g i s enliste d t o suggest, the n th e prospect s th e poet' s adven t seem s t o embod y migh t b e socially sustainable . Bu t voice , whic h shoul d inaugurat e a re-fashione d politics, i s instead a figur e i n Leaves of Grass fo r desire s politic s canno t fulfill. Articulated i n classi c accounts b y Jacques Derrida , th e economy o f voic e and writin g I track throug h Whitman' s wor k ha s mor e tha n a n inciden tal relatio n t o romanticism . Introducin g hi s extende d readin g o f th e Essay on the Origin of Languages, Derrid a argue s tha t Rousseau' s wed ding o f voic e no t simpl y t o presenc e bu t t o self-presence , t o conscious ness an d it s suppose d translucence , i s paradigmati c fo r th e extende d epoch Roussea u help s define (Grammatology 16-17) . Romantic rhetori c provides ampl e evidenc e o f thi s privilegin g o f interiorit y whic h voic e comes t o imply . Th e characteristi c romanti c figures o f invocatio n an d apostrophe d o no t merel y cal l t o object s ove r a distance , no r even , conversely, simpl y sugges t a collaps e o r contractio n o f th e spatia l an d temporal interval s voice seems to traverse. Flowing forth fro m th e body' s interior, th e voic e whic h i s it s crucia l synecdoch e become s it s agen t a s well: romantic invocation an d apostrophe , it might be argued, character istically ai m no t onl y t o dra w object s int o th e huma n communit y o f speech bu t als o t o internaliz e thei r power s b y shelterin g o r subsumin g them withi n th e interio r spac e fro m whic h voic e emanates , a spac e whose domai n voic e seem s ambiguousl y t o extend . Thi s visio n o f inter iorization i s abette d b y th e fusio n o f wor d an d thin g towar d whic h romantic rhetori c sometime s aspires , a fusio n tha t woul d collaps e th e external objec t int o the word apparentl y give n birt h i n the internal spac e of consciousnes s b y voice . Workin g t o transfigur e th e recalcitran t rela tion betwee n subjec t an d object , apostroph e an d invocatio n bespea k a desire t o dissolv e presenc e int o self-presence . Thi s associatio n wit h a n archaic topology i s of cours e not a n invarian t featur e o f romanti c figures of voice , an y mor e tha n writin g alway s trope s th e priorit y o f externa l agents o r structure s tha t frustrat e suc h dreamed-o f completeness . Bu t both incorporativ e metapho r an d th e relate d connectio n betwee n voic e and translucen t interiorit y appea r repeatedl y i n romanti c texts . A s th e seminal wor k o f Pau l d e Ma n o n th e romanti c topo s o f th e epitap h suggests, so too doe s the association o f writin g with a proleptic anterior ity tha t threaten s t o foreclos e th e presen t befor e th e sel f ca n inhabi t an d

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mold it. 30 Fo r reason s to o comple x t o speculat e o n here , image s o f incorporation ar e especiall y notabl e i n America n romanticism , jus t a s claims fo r th e powe r o f voic e an d wor d ar e particularl y extreme ; the y are marshale d agains t a writin g whos e attempt s t o stifl e origina l speec h are frequentl y give n luri d embodiment. 31 Claims fo r th e transumptiv e powe r o f th e word ar e nowhere stronge r than i n Leaves of Grass; th e relatio n betwee n voic e and th e writin g tha t undoes it s supposed effect s i s correspondingly volatile . Whitman's wor k is therefor e especiall y amenabl e t o th e mod e o f readin g Derrid a prac tices. Admittedl y a kin d o f bricolage , Derrida' s characteristi c approac h applies a broadl y Freudia n sens e o f overdeterminatio n t o th e multiple , frequently contradictor y strand s o f assertio n tha t mak e u p a text ; a single assertio n o r figure ma y advanc e claim s o r condens e suggestion s that procee d simultaneousl y despit e thei r ultimat e incompatibility. 32 Derrida typicall y situate s writer s i n relatio n t o suc h textua l system s o n an a d ho c basis , dividin g wha t migh t b e calle d manifes t fro m laten t strands, consequence s insiste d upo n fro m implication s ignore d o r repu diated (Grammatology 157-64) . Suc h a n approac h migh t b e criticize d as arbitrar y o r opportunistic ; bu t i t preserves a useful sens e that writers , too, negotiat e thei r wa y throug h texts , an d ar e sometime s situate d i n them awkwardly . Fro m th e rigorou s i f col d perspectiv e provide d b y d e Man's notio n o f rhetoricity , th e resultan t ago n ma y see m rathe r melo dramatic. 33 Bu t a toleranc e fo r melodram a an d a tast e fo r th e histrioni c are perhap s no t vestigia l equipmen t fo r th e reade r o f Leaves of Grass: much o f th e poetry' s energ y derive s fro m it s passionat e an d vehemen t claims to perform a transfiguration i t can neve r quit e brin g off . Harold Bloom , recallin g everythin g himsel f bu t situatin g poetr y i n a realm o f powe r wher e th e trope succeed s b y repressin g wha t i t knows — the memor y o f it s ow n belatedness , an d ours—take s u p a stanc e antip odal t o th e d e Mania n positio n tha t literatur e i s inherentl y demystified ; he ha s recentl y suggeste d tha t deconstructin g Whitma n i s possibl e bu t uninteresting (Wallace Stevens 12-13). 3 4 Thi s judgmen t follow s natu rally fro m Bloom' s visio n o f poetr y a s a struggl e i n whic h poet s grappl e with thei r precursors , an d victor y an d defea t lea d t o inclusio n i n th e canon or exclusion fro m it ; in this formula los s of power equals oblivion . But th e anxiet y o f influenc e tha t attend s thi s struggl e i s no t th e onl y anxiety t o whic h poetr y an d poet s ar e susceptible , jus t a s belatednes s i s not solel y a n intrapoeti c phenomenon : poetry , whos e magica l speec h

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supposedly cam e first, finds itsel f precede d an d preempte d b y othe r discourses whos e power s fa r excee d it s own , language s tha t co-op t th e very speaker s the y enfranchise . Aspirin g t o th e unmediate d powe r o f word magi c bu t no t attainin g it , poetr y name s bu t fail s t o perfor m it s own earliness , an d ours , suggest s bu t canno t recove r th e sacre d origi n from whic h al l secula r speec h an d th e alienatio n i t instigates woul d b e a fall, th e fall . W e migh t cal l th e anxiet y tha t attend s thi s impass e a rhetorical one ; i t woul d manifes t itsel f a s apprehensio n o r restlessnes s concerning poeti c language—it s resource s an d limitations , it s vexe d relation t o th e discourse s tha t surroun d it. 35 Broache d unwillingl y bu t not unwittingl y i n Leaves of Grass, th e topo s o f a mythi c speec h tha t i s not ou r own—and , muc h more , not ourselves—ha s bee n th e character istic sit e o f muc h America n poetry . Th e preoccupatio n wit h Whitma n among th e poet s wh o follo w hi m ma y thu s b e onl y i n par t anxiet y o f influence. A s Bloom suggests , we hear i n Whitman a n original , perennia l earliness. Bu t th e self-creatin g powe r Whitman' s trop e o f voic e implie s is stage d b y a scen e o f writing . Whitman' s latenes s i s hi s text : undoin g the very self-production i t enables, it consigns the poet's word onc e mor e to tim e an d entoil s hi m agai n i n a cultura l spac e i n whic h hi s utteranc e is neithe r magica l no r preternaturall y early . Thi s belatednes s ma y ad dress our own ; bu t i t is one the poems themselves inscribe . Whitman lef t us himself i n his book .

Notes i. I quote her e fro m th e text o f th e 185 6 edition, where this piece is entitled "Sun-Down Poem" ; i n th e Comprehensive Reader's Edition, th e las t o f these line s read s "Wh o knows , for all the distance, but I a m a s goo d a s looking at you now , fo r al l you canno t se e me?" (emphases added). In the early edition s o f Leaves of Grass one o f th e poet' s ke y attribute s i s th e ability t o eras e suc h distance ; b y 188 1 th e immediat e presenc e th e 185 6 lines declare is no longer crucial to the imaginative universe of the poems. Since the focus o f m y study i s the poet of the first thre e editions, unless otherwise noted I cite the text o f th e earliest edition o f Leaves of Grass i n which the poem from whic h I quote appears. For the 185 5 edition I use the widely accessibl e Vikin g reprin t edite d b y Malcolm Cowley ; fo r th e 185 6 edition, th e Norwood Edition s facsimile ; fo r th e i86 0 edition , the Cornel l UP facsimile . I n citin g fro m th e i86 0 tex t I omi t stanz a numbers , a n idiosyncracy of the i860 , 1867 , and 187 1 editions. Since I cite infrequentl y

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from edition s late r tha n i86 0 an d reprint s o f thes e volume s ar e har d t o come by , I us e th e Variorum (V ) fo r thes e passages ; a s thi s tex t i s difficul t to wor k with , wher e th e line s I cite ar e identica l t o th e tex t o f th e "death bed" edition , I als o giv e pag e number s fo r th e Comprehensive Reader's Edition (CRE) . Fo r eas e o f reference , unles s otherwis e note d I giv e poe m titles an d sectio n number s a s thes e appea r i n CRE . Fo r al l quotation s fro m Whitman's work , I enclos e m y ow n ellipse s i n brackets , i n orde r t o avoi d confusion wit h Whitman' s us e of a similar notatio n i n the 185 5 edition . 2. Th e poet' s addresse s t o hi s audienc e hav e elicite d commen t fro m virtuall y every generatio n o f Whitma n critics , bu t no t unti l recentl y hav e the y bee n accorded a central role . Analyses with whic h I disagree in important respect s but fro m whic h I hav e benefite d includ e C . Carrol l Hollis , Language and Style in Leaves of Grass; Donal d Pease , "Blake , Crane , Whitman , an d Modernism" an d Visionary Compacts 108-57 ; Calvi n Bedient , "Oralit y and Powe r (Whitman' s Song of Myself)"\ Mitchel l Breitwieser , "Wh o Speak s in Whitman' s Poems?" ; Josep h Kronick , American Poetics of History 9 0 123; Alle n Grossman , "Th e Poetic s o f Unio n i n Whitma n an d Lincoln : A n Inquiry towar d th e Relationshi p o f Ar t an d Policy" ; an d Kerr y C . Larson , Whitman's Drama of Consensus, especiall y 3-74 ; al l appeare d whil e th e present stud y wa s i n progress . I detai l briefl y below , a t opportun e spot s i n the note s tha t follow , som e o f th e principa l difference s betwee n thes e ac counts an d m y own . Tw o brie f article s b y Regi s Duran d whic h I cam e across som e tim e afte r the y appeared , "Th e Anxiet y o f Performance " an d "Whitman, l e rythme , l e suje t d e l'ecriture, " ar e close r t o th e spiri t o f m y argument; Durand' s analysi s o f Whitman , lik e m y own, make s us e of wor k by Laca n an d Kristeva . Se e also Thoma s B . Byers, What I Cannot Say: Self, Word, and World in Whitman, Stevens, and Merwin 15-4 2 an d 111-13 . Michael Moon' s valuabl e Disseminating Whitman appeare d a s th e presen t study wa s goin g to press . 3. Se e Kapla n 329-3 4 fo r a n accoun t o f som e o f th e mor e spectacularl y credulous earl y response s t o Leaves of Grass; I return t o thi s bizarr e recep tion histor y i n chapter 5 , below. 4. Joh n Kinnair d wa s on e o f th e first t o emphasiz e thi s notio n o f Whitman' s "magical universe" ; see "Leaves of Grass an d th e American Paradox " 29 . 5. A s man y critic s hav e noted , thi s confoundin g o f tim e an d eternit y i s espe cially strikin g i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry" ; se e fo r exampl e Anderson , Imperial Self 94. 6. Roge r Asselineau's i s probably th e most sustained an d sophisticate d accoun t of Whitman' s transaction s wit h thi s sort o f quasi-philosophica l vocabulary ; see 2:3-77 . 7. Larso n ( n - 1 2 ) make s a simila r assertio n abou t th e priorit y o f th e poems ' imagined mod e o f address , thoug h th e consequence s h e draw s ar e rathe r different. 8. A s reader s o f The Imperial Self wil l b e aware , thi s i s a versio n o f Quenti n Anderson's argument , t o whic h I am ver y muc h indebted ; I see voice a s th e

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crucial synecdoch e o f th e archai c bod y Anderso n describes . Edwi n Mille r (21-22 an d passim ) an d Stephe n Blac k (126-3 7 an d passim ) bot h discus s the importanc e o f regressiv e feature s i n Whitman' s work . I am indebte d a s well t o Doroth y Gregory' s discussio n o f pre-Oedipa l materia l i n Whitman' s first tw o editions : se e especially 19-49 . 9. Fo r Austin' s explanatio n o f performative s an d hi s emphasi s o n thei r neces sary embeddin g i n conventiona l procedure s an d institutionalize d context s see especiall y 1-66 . Thoug h the y ar e problematic , Austin' s brie f remark s about th e peculiaritie s o f writte n performative s (60-61) , a s wel l a s hi s marginalizing o f th e performativ e utterance s tha t appea r i n literar y work s (9, 22 , 104-105) , she d som e ligh t o n Whitman' s specia l predicaments , helping t o explai n th e repeate d denial s o f writing , an d o f th e Activ e statu s of Leaves of Grass, tha t travers e Whitman' s work . Mor e illuminating , sinc e they plac e thes e supposedl y margina l problem s a t th e cente r o f speec h ac t theory an d thu s sugges t tha t Whitman' s seemingl y peculia r difficultie s ar e peculiarly revelatory , ar e Jacques Derrida' s exploration s o f jus t thes e "etiol ations." Se e "Signatur e Even t Context" ; Searle , "Reiteratin g th e Differ ences: A Reply t o Derrida" ; an d Derrida , "Limite d Inc. " Also usefu l o n th e problem o f performative s i n literar y work s i s Stanle y Fish , "Wit h th e Compliments o f th e Author : Reflection s o n Austi n an d Derrida. " Fo r a firmly teleologica l accoun t o f th e gradual shif t betwee n magica l an d conven tional understanding s o f linguisti c power , se e Cassirer 4 4 - 6 2 an d 83-99 ; I take u p som e o f th e problem s wit h thi s teleologica l visio n i n chapte r 2 , below. 10. B y contrast, bot h Peas e ("Blake , Crane , Whitman, an d Modernism " 77-79 ) and Larso n (xiv-xv , 58 ) argue that Whitman's crucia l linguisti c transaction s aim a t a mod e o f authorit y tha t by-passe s existin g institution s bu t i s stil l explicitly symbolic . The y therefor e vie w Whitman' s declaration s o f th e poet's presenc e a s trope s fo r a re-fashione d politic s (Pease , "Blake , Crane , Whitman, an d Modernism " 78 , Larson 73-80) . I argue instea d that , i n th e early edition s o f Leaves of Grass, thi s politica l dimensio n i s a kin d o f secondary elaboration , an d tha t Whitman' s visionar y politic s i s itsel f re fashioned o n th e basi s o f a n imagine d encounte r tha t i s supposedly magica l rather tha n symbolic . 11. Th e mos t sustaine d analysi s o f Whitman' s poem s i n term s o f speec h ac t theory i s Hollis 6 5 - 1 2 3 . 12. O n thi s fusio n o f wor d an d thin g se e Cassire r 4 9 - 5 4 . O n it s relatio n t o psychic and somati c (rathe r tha n cultural ) archaism , se e chapter 4 , below . 13. I tak e th e notio n o f a n "imag e o f voice " fro m Geoffre y Hartma n an d Harold Bloom . Se e fo r exampl e Hartman , The Fate of Reading 28 9 an d Criticism in the Wilderness 30 ; and Bloom , "Whitman' s Imag e of Voice. " 14. O n th e ti e betwee n bod y an d voic e i n Whitman , se e Regi s Durand , "Whit man, l e rythme, l e sujet d e l'ecriture. " O n th e regressiv e implication s o f th e performative se e Durand , "Th e Anxiet y o f Performance, " especiall y 169-70 .

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15. Se e Culler , "Apostrophe " an d "Change s i n th e Stud y o f th e Lyric" ; an d d e Man, "Lyrica l Voic e i n Contemporar y Theory : Riffaterr e an d Jauss. " O n temporality i n the lyric see also Cameron, Lyric Time, especiall y 2 3 and 92 . 16. Pau l Fr y take s u p th e relatio n betwee n psychi c an d wha t migh t b e calle d rhetorical spac e i n The Poet's Calling in the English Ode; se e especially 2 3 and 12-14 . 17. O n th e relate d notion s o f wor d magi c an d th e omnipotenc e o f though t se e Freud, Totem and Taboo 7 9 - 9 0 , an d "O n Narcissism : A n Introduction, " Collected Tapers 4:32 . 18. I hav e i n min d Freud' s definitio n i n "Th e Uncanny" : th e sensatio n o f uncanniness ca n b e provoke d b y eithe r represse d infantil e materia l o r a n evocation o f th e supersede d belie f i n wha t Freu d call s th e omnipotenc e o f thought. Se e especially Collected Tapers 4:391-406 . Freud' s remark s abou t the specia l difficultie s presente d b y literar y attempt s t o evok e th e omnipo tence o f though t hel p illuminat e Whitman' s repeate d insistenc e tha t th e poet's presenc e i s not merel y fictive ; w e ca n understan d thi s insistenc e a s a n extreme version o f th e strateg y i n which "th e write r pretend s t o mov e in th e world o f commo n reality " (4:405) . Inasmuc h a s Whitman' s gesture s a t word magi c evoke a n infantil e bod y an d thus , indirectly, a n archai c relatio n to th e mother , th e rhetori c o f Leaves of Grass possesse s a connectio n t o repressed materia l a s wel l a s t o thi s supersede d belie f i n wor d magic ; se e chapter 4 , below . 19. Iva n Marki , fo r example , als o take s u p th e relatio n betwee n Whitman' s "vocal style " and ou r sens e of th e poet's presence ; see especially 26 . See also Bedient, especiall y 8 0 - 8 2 ; Bedien t mention s th e parado x tha t writin g con stitutes th e poet' s "voice, " bu t doe s no t detai l th e attendan t los s o f powe r that shadow s Leaves of Grass. 20. I quot e her e fro m th e 186 7 rathe r tha n th e i86 0 text . Whitman' s earlie r version lack s th e "Camerado!"— a perhap s bombasti c apostroph e whic h nonetheless ha s th e advantag e o f makin g mor e explici t th e relatio n betwee n voice an d presence . 21. Thi s sor t o f christologica l discours e wa s firs t attache d t o th e poet' s perso n by such earl y commentator s a s Burroughs, O'Connor , an d Bucke ; Anderso n resurrects i t ironically ("Whitman' s Ne w Man " 49) . See chapter 5 , below . 22. O n th e paradoxica l connection s betwee n voic e an d writin g i n Whitman' s poems se e especiall y Breitwieser . M y ow n accoun t differ s fro m hi s i n tha t Breitwieser see s Whitman a s revelling in the play betwee n voic e and writing , and th e differen t sense s o f identit y the y imply : accordin g t o Breitwiese r voice figure s a personal, individua l identity , writin g a n abstrac t o r represen tative sel f liberate d fro m suc h limitation ; th e ga p betwee n thes e tw o identi ties supposedl y figure s tension s endemi c t o America n democracy , i n whic h claims t o representativ e statu s ar e alway s mad e b y particula r interest s o r factions. I argu e instea d tha t Whitma n surreptitiousl y enlist s writin g t o constitute th e imag e o f voic e t o whic h h e i s committed , a relianc e hi s

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diatribes agains t writin g serv e i n par t t o disguise ; thi s imag e o f voic e i s determined les s b y politica l exigencie s tha n b y th e attractio n o f archai c processes. On voic e and writin g in Whitman's work , se e also Bauerlein . 23. B y contrast, Peas e ("Blake , Crane , Whitman , an d Modernism " 78 ) implie s and Kronic k (106-10 ) explicitl y argue s tha t th e sor t o f symboli c inter change writin g facilitate s i s precisel y wha t Whitma n wants . Se e als o Bov e (131—79), who argue s tha t Whitman' s wor k de-center s o r displace s jus t th e sorts of claim s I regard a s central t o it . 24. Duran d thu s suggest s tha t i n Whitman' s wor k "th e individua l voic e i s i n fact alread y caugh t u p i n . . . th e logi c o f writin g ("Th e Anxiet y o f Perfor mance" 168-69) . 25. Fro m th e vantag e o f post-Saussuria n linguistics , o r indee d fro m an y vie w inflected b y nominalism , th e "ga p betwee n th e sig n an d it s referent " an d that betwee n "th e wor d an d th e thin g itself " ar e no t o f cours e equivalent . But fro m th e vantag e o f th e wor d magi c I a m attemptin g t o paraphras e here, they ar e one an d th e same . 26. Grossma n argue s similarl y tha t th e poet's presenc e shoul d serv e to eliminat e the nee d fo r "al l representationa l mediations " (2o8n28) . I find i t significan t that Grossma n judge s the anti-institutiona l politica l visio n thi s presence an d the poet' s catalogue s supposedl y embod y t o b e necessaril y unrealizable ; h e indeed accuse s Whitmanian "ope n form " o f " 'ba d faith ' " (203) . 27. Whil e th e earl y edition s alread y projec t linguistic , vocal , an d somati c pow ers and peril s ont o cosmi c structures, i t is only i n the later wor k tha t cosmi c doctrine virtuall y obliterate s attentio n t o th e processes i t reifies . Se e chapte r 3, below . 28. Thus , fo r example , eve n Larson' s qualifie d linkin g o f eroti c an d politica l material i n "Th e Sleepers " i s mor e persuasiv e tha n Whitman' s ow n (59-72029. Lik e recen t account s o f th e politica l implication s o f th e poet' s apostrophes , Hollis's ground-breakin g stud y o f speec h act s i n Leaves of Grass focuse s o n their persuasiv e effects . 30. Se e d e Man , "Autobiograph y a s De-Facement, " The Rhetoric of Romanticism 6 7 - 8 2 . Fo r a les s sever e accoun t o f romanti c epitaph , se e Hartman , "Wordsworth, Inscriptions , an d Romanti c Nature Poetry, " Beyond Formalism 206-30 ; "Romanti c Poetr y an d th e Geniu s Loci, " Beyond Formalism 311-36, offer s a relate d discussio n o f invocation . O n prolepsis , se e Fr y 12—14.

31. Anderson' s semina l accoun t o f incorporativ e figures i n America n literatur e might b e calle d psycho-political ; se e Imperial Self especiall y 11—2 0 an d 88-165. Hi s analysi s take s u p som e o f Tocqueville's darke r insights : see fo r example Tocquevill e 2:82—83 . Sharo n Camero n relate s incorporativ e im agery t o geographica l o r phenomenologica l a s wel l a s politica l factor s (The Corporeal Self -${{.). So does Charles Olson, Call Me Ishmael 3-7 , 8 1 85.

Declarations 2 9 32. Thi s i s a rough paraphras e o f Barbar a Johnson's account ; se e her introduction to Derrick's Dissemination, especiall y xiv-xvi . 33. Se e d e Man , "Th e Rhetori c o f Blindness : Jacque s Derrida' s Readin g o f Rousseau," Blindness and Insight 102-41 ; and Allegories of Reading 3-19 . Kronick's reading of Whitman is explicitly d e Manian. 34. Fo r Bloom' s argumen t wit h deconstruction , se e Wallace Stevens 1-2 6 an d 375-406. Bedient' s reading of Whitman, with its praise of voice as presence and power, is broadly Bloomian; see especially 80 . 35. I am indebted here to Cynthi a Chase' s suggestion s concernin g the desirabil ity of "an intertextual readin g less eager to evoke persons and more attentive to recurrent rhetorical patterns " (" 'Viewless Wings' " 213).

2. Th e World in the Word I expect hi m t o mak e th e song s o f th e nation , bu t h e seem s t o b e contente d t o mak e th e inventories. —Emerson, quote d i n Schyber g 104 1

i . Wha t doe s i t mea n t o nam e something , t o besto w o r utte r a name ? Whitman's poetr y i s a sustaine d i f trouble d effor t t o conceiv e o f namin g as a n ac t o f master y an d transfiguration , an d t o inheri t th e power s thi s conception implies . W e wil l b e concerne d throughou t wit h ho w thi s notion o f namin g shape s Leaves of Grass; i n thi s chapter , I wan t t o attend t o th e wa y Whitman' s catalogue s enac t it . I n thes e litanie s th e word seem s t o assum e a magica l powe r ove r th e thing : th e poe t charac teristically claim s t o contro l th e object s whos e name s h e pronounces , indeed ofte n suggestin g tha t h e assimilate s them . Whitman' s hypnoti c lists thus complemen t th e direct addresse s t o u s that announc e th e poet' s advent. Diffusing hi s presence, the poet's apostrophe s sugges t the word' s productive, positiona l force ; hi s catalogue s typicall y mobiliz e th e voca tive powe r o f th e wor d instead , retrievin g thing s fro m th e disperse d exterior spac e i n whic h the y hav e hithert o bee n isolate d an d immersin g them i n the fluid , somaticize d real m thes e litanies suggest . "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " i s explicit abou t thi s transformatio n sup posedly worke d b y th e word . I t culminate s wit h a n apostroph e t o th e objects o f th e harbo r scen e tha t announce s th e redeeme d relatio n th e poem itsel f inaugurates , advertin g a s wel l t o th e blockag e th e poe t ha s supposedly annulled : You hav e waited, you alway s wait, you dum b beautifu l ministers ! you nov ices! We receive you with free sense at last, and are insatiate henceforward , Not you any more shall be able to foil us, or withhold yourselves from us, We use you, an d d o no t cas t you aside—w e plan t yo u permanentl y withi n us. (185 6 222 )

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While a purel y idea l powe r o f introjectio n ma y b e th e basi s o f th e assimilation th e poe t declare s here , th e avidit y o f thes e line s suggest s something more : here Whitman depict s th e interiorizing o f object s a s a n ingestion, a magica l incorporatio n o f th e worl d int o th e body. 2 I wil l take u p a t lengt h i n chapte r fou r th e connection s betwee n Whitman' s vision o f th e wor d an d th e sens e o f th e bod y thi s passag e records . Bu t I can indicat e quickl y th e scop e o f wha t thi s archai c minglin g o f linguisti c and somati c processe s seem s t o abrogate : i t migh t b e describe d a s th e realm o f the Kantian categories ; the world apprehende d accordin g to th e demands o f th e realit y principl e o r th e psychologica l orientatio n Freu d called th e secondar y processes ; o r th e symboli c spac e organize d b y cultural code s that gover n th e relations betwee n a subject an d it s objects . We ca n associat e th e archai c zon e whos e restoratio n i s thu s suggeste d with th e Freudia n primar y processe s o r pleasur e principle ; w e shoul d remember that , accordin g t o Freud , thi s supersede d organizatio n ha s a n intimate relatio n t o tha t reificatio n o f linguisti c power s h e calle d wor d magic. 3 The powe r ascribe d t o th e wor d i s thu s antithetical . An d a s th e concluding passag e fro m "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " advertin g t o th e resistance hithert o exerte d b y object s suggests , Leaves of Grass ampl y records th e competin g energie s agains t whic h i t is brought t o bear. 4 Th e more over t terror s o f a newspape r sketc h Whitma n compose d i n 184 7 for th e Brookly n Daily Eagle ca n nonetheles s serv e t o remin d u s tha t such poem s a s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " ar e more lik e a spell than lik e the ecstati c chronicl e o f th e poet' s perception s o r th e all-inclusiv e hym n to urba n lif e the y ar e often sai d t o be : Our Brooklyn ferrie s teac h som e sage lessons in philosophy, gentle reader [ . . . they move ] o n lik e iron-wille d destiny . Passionles s an d fixed, at th e six-strok e the boats come in; and at the three-stroke, succeeded by a single tap, they depart again, wit h th e steadines s o f natur e herself . Perhap s a man , prompte d b y th e hell-like deliriu m tremens , has jumpe d over-boar d an d bee n drowned : stil l th e trips go on a s before [ . . . . ] Ho w i t deadens one' s sympathies , this living in a city! [ . . . ] This rushin g an d ragin g i s no t inconsistent , however , wit h othe r items of the American character. (UPP 1:168-69) If such ominou s energie s are difficult t o discern i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry," tha t i s no t quit e owin g t o thei r absence . Whitman' s catalogue s simultaneously rende r an d subdu e thi s urban , industria l scene . The poem' s key peripeteia i s a t first har d t o se e fo r jus t thi s reason : Whitman' s

32 Th e Worl d i n th e Wor d litanies ar e a kin d o f apotropai c ritua l i n whic h th e ver y ac t o f namin g wards of f th e threat s lurkin g i n th e thin g named ; th e phrase s tha t obliquely registe r the daunting aspect s of th e harbor scen e also obliquel y dispel them . I n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " al l "rushin g an d raging " i s suspended, a s objects sli p into an intransitiv e domai n Whitma n identifie s with th e "floa t foreve r hel d i n solution"(i856 zi6). 5 Briefl y describe d i n the poem's elliptica l creatio n myt h a s a n untrouble d cosmi c sphere fro m which al l thing s ar e precipitate d int o separat e incarnat e forms , thi s enchanted real m i s als o bot h th e spac e o f th e poet' s ow n bod y an d a reified versio n o f Whitman' s syntax , a zone define d b y language . The lon g catalogu e tha t make s u p mos t o f poem' s thir d sectio n ren ders a universe teemin g with object s an d actions , and migh t see m simpl y to celebrate the world ful l o f bein g and doin g it depicts. But the anxietie s provoked b y suc h activit y ar e stil l discernibl e i n th e languag e tha t i s busy annullin g it s force . Despit e it s celebrator y air , thi s catalogu e regis ters Whitman' s misgiving s concernin g no t onl y th e hecti c energie s tha t traverse th e harbo r scen e bu t als o th e ver y powe r o f independen t actio n that finds concentrate d expressio n i n this urban setting: 6 I too saw the reflection o f the summer-sky in the water. [....]

Looked toward the lower bay to notice the arriving ships, Saw their approach, saw aboard those that were near me, Saw the white sails of schooners and sloops, saw the ships at anchor, The sailors at work in the rigging or out astride the spars, The roun d masts , th e swingin g motio n o f th e hulls , th e slende r serpentin e pennants, The large and small steamers in motion, the pilots in their pilot-houses, The white wake left b y the passage, the quick tremulous whirl of the wheels. (1856 2 1 3 - 1 4 )

This apparen t panegyri c i s less sanguine tha n w e tend t o assume . I quote here onl y a brie f portio n o f thi s typicall y distende d catalogue , virtuall y all o f whos e line s present additiona l object s fo r th e observe r t o register ; the poet's attentio n i s drawn int o a densely populate d spac e that recede s from hi m an d escape s hi s control . Th e sens e o f continuou s proliferatio n here i s rather vertiginous ; th e scen e i s an unsettlin g versio n o f wha t ca n be praise d a s plenitud e onl y whe n suc h burgeonin g ha s bee n safel y contained an d mastered . Her e object s "withhold " themselves , resistin g the poet' s attempt s t o "receive " the m "wit h fre e sense, " in par t throug h their ver y multiplicity .

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In contras t t o th e sor t o f spac e whic h ca n b e plante d "permanently " within th e poet , everythin g her e i s als o i n constan t flux: hull s swing , wheels whirl , steamer s mov e an d presumabl y disappea r fro m th e speak er's field of vision; a no-longer-visible boa t leave s a wake, the trace of it s own disappearance . While recorded i n the passage, such unrul y activitie s are alread y partiall y subdue d b y th e ver y tens e i n whic h the y ar e ren dered: recollectio n i s a sig n her e o f th e powe r t o dispose . Th e scene' s centrifugal energie s becom e mor e strikin g i f w e re-cas t th e passag e a s a present-tense description : [I see] the white sails of schooners and sloops, [see] the ships at anchor, The sailors at work in the rigging or out astride the spars, The roun d masts , th e swingin g motio n o f th e hulls , th e slende r serpentin e pennants. In thi s versio n multipl e energie s continuall y re-shap e wha t th e observe r sees. "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " accordingl y no t onl y attempt s t o col lapse th e disperse d objec t worl d int o th e sel f an d t o elid e autonomou s acts; it also effaces th e immediate present that i s the site of suc h indepen dence. 2. My contentio n tha t th e poet i s ill-at-ease no t onl y with th e turbulenc e of th e harbo r scen e bu t als o with th e present momen t tha t i s the domai n of suc h activit y ma y see m unlikely : i t appear s t o b e contradicte d b y th e end o f th e catalogu e I hav e bee n discussing , a s wel l a s b y som e over t declarations elsewher e i n the poem. "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " is indeed often regarde d a s a hym n t o th e splendor s o f th e immediat e an d th e given.7 The catalogu e i n sectio n thre e doe s see m increasingl y haunte d b y the evanescenc e o f th e spectacl e i t records , dwellin g o n i t with a kin d o f rapt intensity . As Whitman's litan y progresses , day slide s into night , an d the ligh t whic h endow s th e poet' s "sights " wit h "glorie s strun g lik e beads" disappears ; poise d agains t thi s failin g light , th e scen e take s o n something o f a n elegia c cast. Thi s qualit y ha s alread y bee n suggeste d b y the pas t tens e i n whic h th e entir e catalogu e proceeds. 8 W e shoul d note , however, tha t th e poe t ha s gon e ou t o f hi s wa y t o generat e thi s pas t tense: lik e the speake r a t the en d o f Wordsworth' s "Tinter n Abbey, " th e poet o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " ha s contrive d t o loo k bac k o n th e scene i n th e mids t o f whic h w e initiall y locate d him . W e ar e entitle d t o wonder whethe r thi s carefull y orchestrate d los s o f th e ver y presen t mo -

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merit whos e glorie s th e poe m praise s migh t no t offe r abundan t recom pense. In Wordsworth , th e elegia c mod e i s itsel f th e poet' s compensa tion: awarenes s o f mortalit y i s humanizing , an d "Tinter n Abbey " accordingly propound s wha t migh t b e calle d a n elegia c humanism . Bu t the elegia c aspec t o f th e line s I hav e bee n considerin g i s rathe r mor e muted tha n a reading of them ou t o f contex t migh t suggest . In the cours e of th e poem , Whitma n invoke s no t onl y th e capacit y o f recollectio n brought int o pla y here , bu t als o a magica l powe r o f repetitio n that , unlike Wordsworth' s mor e delicat e continuities , seem s abl e t o annu l time an d chang e an d rende r eleg y superfluous . Th e "present " scen e th e poem celebrate s i s not simpl y restore d bu t als o transformed throug h thi s ritual o f repetition : reappearin g a s a functio n o f th e poet' s word , i t i s purged o f th e distressing , disruptiv e energie s th e poem' s thir d sectio n records. This dialecti c i s adverted t o a t th e poem's opening . Whitman's agglu tinative synta x make s grammatica l relation s difficul t t o parse ; bu t i f th e "glories strun g lik e bead s o n m y smalles t sight s an d hearings " ar e no t simply appositiv e t o wha t precede s th e poet' s mentio n o f them , the y ar e at leas t conditione d b y it : The simple , compact , well-joine d scheme—mysel f disintegrated , ever y on e disintegrated, yet part of the scheme, The similitudes of the past and those of the future, The glorie s strun g lik e bead s o n m y smalles t sight s an d hearings—o n th e walk in the street, and the passage over the river. (1856 211—12) Here th e immediat e presen t i s sai d t o b e governe d b y a structur e o f repetition tha t appear s no t onl y t o insur e it s perduranc e bu t als o t o master it s heterogeneous energies . The poem' s succeedin g lin e temporaril y threaten s thi s recuperativ e scheme, offerin g a mor e recalcitran t instanc e o f mutabilit y i n a n imag e of th e poet's ow n impendin g death : The current rushing so swiftly, an d swimming with me far away. (1856 212) The first respons e t o this crisis is Wordsworthian : The others that are to follow me, the ties between me and them, The certainty of others—the life, love, sight, hearing of others. Others will enter the gates of the ferry, an d cross from shor e to shore. (1856 212)

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Here th e poet' s successors , wh o see m a t first lik e usurpers , ar e quickl y re-imagined a s ephebe s an d inheritor s instead ; th e poe t fold s the m int o a cycl e o f recurren t experienc e i n whic h mortalit y i s softene d b y th e muted an d metaphori c continuitie s characteristi c o f elegy . Bu t suc h at tenuations pla y a mino r rol e i n th e poem . The y ar e supersede d b y a scene o f repetitio n tha t depend s o n a visio n o f languag e mor e aki n t o shamanistic wor d magi c tha n t o th e avowedl y metaphorica l mod e o f Wordsworthian humanism : It avails not, neither time or place—distance avails not, I a m wit h you , yo u me n an d wome n o f a generation , o r eve r s o man y generations hence, I project myself , als o I return—I a m wit h you , an d kno w ho w i t is . (185 6 212-13)

These declaration s subdu e tim e an d chang e t o th e magica l ac t o f th e poet's repeate d manifestation , initiatin g " a pla y o f presenc e an d absenc e governed no t b y time bu t b y poetic power" (Culler , "Apostrophe " 150) . The protagonis t caugh t i n th e poem' s particular , contingen t presen t disappears; th e poe t i s rebor n a s a n eterna l presenc e generate d b y th e word an d embodyin g it s recuperative power . Insurin g the poet' s perdur ance, th e apostrophe s i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " als o see m t o quel l the unrul y energie s tha t initiall y bese t him : the y subdu e independen t actions t o th e repetitiv e temporalit y generate d b y his word an d subsum e the object s o f th e harbo r scen e withi n th e emanatin g presenc e hi s utter ance seems to produce . The lon g catalogu e i n sectio n thre e perform s simila r functions , lend ing th e presen t scen e th e contour s th e poe m will praise . Th e tens e i n which th e catalogue i s couched contribute s t o this transformation. Whit man's litan y i s cast no t jus t i n th e pas t tense , but i n th e imperfec t rathe r than th e preterite: a s its opening declares , it renders only repeate d event s ("I to o man y an d man y a tim e crosse d th e river , th e su n hal f a n hou r high" [185 6 213]). 9 Uniqu e act s attestin g t o independen t initiativ e ar e replaced b y a rhyth m o f recurrenc e alread y aki n t o th e iterativ e mecha nisms of language . In othe r respect s a s well, this catalogu e i s less a n eleg y fo r a n evanes cent presen t whos e vanishin g th e poe t lament s tha n a celebratio n o f linguistic mastery . Wha t w e "see " i s no t s o muc h a particular , value d scene, a s th e contour s implie d b y a peculia r grammar—contour s mad e visible, a s i t were , b y mean s o f th e represente d conten t Whitman' s

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syntax traverse s an d thereb y transforms . Whitman' s tru e subjec t her e is a powe r o f repetitio n throug h whic h wha t h e will mea n b y the present , and b y presence, come int o being . This i s no t quit e th e triump h o f cultur e ove r natur e i t migh t a t first seem to be. Like Whitman's catalogues , all language recuperates the real, subjecting i t to the power o f the category; but it does not always dissolv e the worl d int o it s ow n enunciator y rhythm s wit h th e mani c insistenc e that typifie s Whitman' s litanies . I n Whitman' s characteristi c tallies , the discrete categorie s designate d b y finite verb s an d clas s name s ar e them selves subjecte d t o iterativ e syntacti c mechanism s tha t blu r th e ver y boundaries suc h designation s establish : al l subjects becom e inflections of a singl e amorphou s entity , al l predicate s aspect s o f a singl e ongoin g process increasingl y har d t o distinguis h fro m th e energ y o f utteranc e itself.10 Whitman's catalogu e technique , that is , not only subjugate s tim e and space ; it also annul s th e mode o f experienc e structure d b y the finite verb an d th e polarized encounte r fo r whic h th e verb serve s a s fulcrum : the normativ e synta x tha t place s a subject ove r agains t a n object, articu lating th e particular shap e o f thei r relatio n i n the predicate, i s in severa l of Whitman' s catalogue s no t so much permute d a s subverted. Th e catalogues of Leaves of Grass thu s pit their performativ e energie s not simply against trait s inheren t i n th e natura l worl d o r agains t som e neutra l picture o f suc h a natura l stratum , bu t als o agains t a pervasiv e structur e of representatio n tha t itsel f alread y shape s and interprets wha t i t depicts. Whitman's verba l transaction s ar e thus a n implici t critiqu e o f th e shap ing powe r o f th e sig n an d o f th e cultura l field i t constructs. 11 Fore grounding th e vocativ e dimensio n o f languag e i n hi s catalogues , Whit man seem s no t onl y t o dissolv e th e worl d int o th e word , bu t als o t o collapse th e linguisti c cod e an d it s authorit y int o th e apparentl y self authorizing powe r o f th e enunciativ e positio n o r speaker. 12 I wil l tak e up thi s latte r reclamatio n projec t i n chapte r 4 ; but we should kee p i t in mind a s we attend t o the struggles with space , time, and multiplicity tha t in Leaves of Grass ofte n displac e thi s cultural agon . 3. Employin g th e syntacti c deformation s typica l o f Whitman' s lists , the catalogue i n section thre e of "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " has the effect o f producing samenes s ou t of difference: overcomin g opacit y an d distance , it function s t o appropriat e whateve r i t names. 13 A s i n man y o f Whit -

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man's litanies , th e theoretica l possibilit y o f repeatin g a give n syntacti c pattern ad infinitum seem s her e t o b e ver y nearl y realize d i n practice . I quote at greater length from the passage cited earlier: I too saw the reflection of the summer-sky in the water. [....]

Looked toward the lower bay to notice the arriving ships, Saw their approach, saw aboard those that were near me, Saw the white sails of schooners and sloops, saw the ships at anchor, The sailors at work in the rigging or out astride the spars, The roun d masts , th e swingin g motio n o f th e hulls , th e slende r serpentin e pennants, The large and small steamers in motion, the pilots in their pilot-houses, The white wake left by the passage, the quick tremulous whirl of the wheels, The flagsof all nations, the falling of them at sun-set, The scallop-edged waves in the twilight, the ladled cups, the frolicsome crests and glistening, The stretch afa r growing dimmer and dimmer, the gray walls of the granite store-houses by the docks, On the rive r the shadowy group , the big steam-tug closely flanked on each side by the barges—the hay-boat, the belated lighter, On the neighboring shore the fires from the foundry chimney s burning high and glaringly into the night, Casting their flickerof black, contrasted with wild red and yellow light, over the tops of houses, and down into the clefts of streets. (1856 213-15) 14 The ver y swee p o f Whitman' s utteranc e here , compounde d wit h a pervasive us e o f anaphora , induce s a slightl y daze d sor t o f attentio n tha t already make s particular s see m blurry. 15 Bu t th e attendan t sens e tha t objects ar e collapsing int o each other derive s a s well fro m th e particula r patterns of syntacti c suspension an d repetition Whitman employs . Diverse objects ar e blended i n these lines by being made to occupy a n identical grammatica l position . Thi s redispositio n i s begu n i n th e thir d and fourth o f the lines quoted above, through repetitio n of a single verb: the thing s presente d ar e al l mad e object s o f discret e bu t congruen t act s —they ar e all what th e speaker "saw." 16 Beyon d th e fourt h o f th e line s quoted, eve n th e verb "saw " is omitted: th e ensuing catalogu e o f objec t phrases, occupyin g te n lon g lines , thu s al l depend s fro m a singl e verb ; each object , locate d i n a phrase whos e grammatica l functio n i s entirel y apposite t o thos e whic h preced e an d follow , slide s int o a n identica l syntactic position . Ostensibl y describin g a recedin g visua l field , thi s

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catalogue catche s u p th e object s o f th e harbo r scen e int o th e fluid, centripetal spac e shape d b y its grammar. 17 Whitman's catalogu e no t onl y dissolve s th e spatia l manifol d i n whic h discrete object s stan d opposed ; i t als o efface s th e finite, transitiv e act s through whic h thei r relation s ar e commonl y structured . Whitman' s cat alogue ostensibl y describe s a worl d ful l o f motio n an d change ; bu t i t annuls th e forc e o f th e ver y doing s i t records , transformin g act s per formed b y independen t agent s int o varietie s o f a single , continuou s process. A s thi s phrasa l catalogu e depict s them , action s ar e denie d syn tactic force . The y ar e characteristicall y rendere d b y participle s o r ger unds: "Th e stretc h afa r growing dimme r an d dimmer" ; "th e fires fro m the foundry chimney s burning hig h an d glaringly" ; "Th e white wake left by th e passage" ; "th e ladled cups" ; "th e falling o f the m a t sun-set. " Described b y suc h verbals , th e motion s thi s passag e record s ar e n o longer quit e acts , an d th e entitie s t o whic h the y ar e ascribe d n o longe r quite see m t o b e thei r agents. 18 Motion s simpl y occur , tracin g thei r trajectories throug h passiv e objects, flowing throug h th e entire presente d scene. This sens e i s re-enforced b y the aura l effec t o f Whitman's verbals : variously "swinging, " "falling, " "glistening, " an d "burning, " thing s ar e drawn int o a graduall y accruin g harmon y throug h th e loos e rhymin g o f the words tha t describ e th e movement s sweepin g through them . Effacing th e independen t statu s o f actions , Whitman' s gerund s an d participles als o elid e their powe r t o effec t change : the y sugges t a strang e variety o f proces s tha t seem s t o continu e performin g itsel f i n identica l fashion o n a n alway s identical scene . Whitman's synta x shape s a zone of rhythmic, recurrent energie s that ten d towar d a n idea l limi t o f stasis. 19 This catalogue als o effaces th e difference betwee n th e things it render s and th e subject wh o name s them. I t does so by spinning out a n extende d sentence i n th e cours e o f whic h bot h subjec t an d predicat e reced e grad ually fro m ou r attention . Th e rendere d worl d thu s n o longe r stand s clearly oppose d t o a n observer ; th e amorphou s real m object s com e t o inhabit seem s t o b e on e int o whic h th e poem' s agent , n o longe r easil y locatable i n relatio n t o th e landscap e h e describes , i s himsel f bein g diffused.20 Whitman' s identificatio n o f th e poet' s physica l presenc e wit h voice reinforce s thi s confoundin g o f th e spac e Whitman' s catalogue s shape wit h th e somati c terrai n o f th e poet' s ow n body . Mobilizin g bot h the vocativ e pul l o f th e wor d an d th e projectiv e powe r o f voice , thi s characteristic catalogu e coordinate s it s centripeta l an d centrifuga l ener -

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gies, enactin g a ritua l o f incorporatio n i n whic h a contractin g objec t world i s subsumed withi n th e poet's agglomeratin g interior . The magica l powe r thu s ascribe d t o th e wor d i s perhaps conveye d mos t clearly b y on e o f th e syntacti c feature s w e alread y attende d to , th e catalogue's persisten t deletio n o f th e predicate . This grammatica l anom aly negotiate s a crossin g fro m th e worl d o f th e realit y principl e t o th e archaic spac e shape d b y wor d magic . The powe r o f actio n registere d b y the finit e predicat e i s draine d fro m th e harbo r scen e an d implicitl y relocated i n th e ritua l tha t name s it ; everythin g her e i s a functio n o f th e word, a n aspec t o f th e ongoing , undulan t proces s indistinguishabl e fro m the poet' s ac t o f enunciation . Whitman' s catalogu e thu s no t onl y sub dues th e exterio r scen e t o th e poet' s vocativ e powers ; i t seem s als o t o generate th e archai c space in which th e objects h e names no w subsist . It is a measure o f th e power Leaves of Grass ascribe s to languag e tha t this interna l spac e seem s t o b e re-projecte d outwar d towar d th e en d o f "Crossing Brookly n Ferry, " shapin g a no-longe r alie n externa l realm . (This reversa l i s also a n instanc e o f th e sometime s confusin g topologica l transformations tha t registe r an d reif y linguisti c power s i n Whitman' s work.) " I rejec t none , accep t all , reproduc e al l i n my ow n forms, " Whitman declare s i n "B y Blu e Ontario' s Shore " (185 6 180). 21 I f th e litany fro m sectio n thre e o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " seem s t o mobi lize th e vocativ e pul l implie d i n th e openin g o f thi s declaration , th e les s typical bu t b y n o mean s uncommo n catalogu e i n sectio n nin e suggest s the productive, positional powe r announce d a t it s close: Flow on, river! Flow with the flood-tide, and ebb with the ebb-tide! Frolic on, crested and scallop-edged waves! Gorgeous cloud s o f th e sun-set , drenc h wit h you r splendo r me , or th e me n and women generations after me ! (1856 219) Come on, ships from th e lower bay! pass up or down, white-sailed schooners, sloops, lighters! Flaunt away, flags of all nations! be duly lowered at sun-set! Burn high your fires, foundry chimneys ! cast black shadows at night-fall! cast red and yellow light over the tops of the houses! (1856 221) Nearly everythin g th e poe t name s i n sectio n thre e reappear s unchange d in thi s closin g cadenza . Commandin g thing s t o continu e performin g

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precisely thos e action s whic h th e earlier catalogu e ha d alread y presente d as continuous, Whitman's imperative s mak e clea r th e power o f languag e to generat e a s repetitio n wha t Whitma n wil l mea n b y immediat e pres ence. N o longe r withholdin g themselve s a s shiftin g object s assumin g contingent configurations , th e thing s th e poe t name s reappea r a s func tions o f hi s word , unchangin g presence s shape d b y an d subjec t t o it s recuperative powers : "Kee p you r places , objects tha n whic h non e els e is more lasting! " (185 6 221) . In the archaic , magical univers e of "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry, " th e idea l entitie s languag e name s hav e thu s becom e actual. An d i n th e sometime s shadow y topologica l dram a tha t organize s the poem' s imaginativ e rhythms , th e exterio r spac e thes e object s occup y has bee n somaticized : "Suspen d her e an d everywhere , eterna l floa t o f solution!" (185 6 220) . Th e thing s th e poe t name s hav e onc e mor e assumed discret e form ; bu t the y see m no w lik e entranced emanation s o f his voice, aspects o f th e labil e body voic e diffuses an d re-incarnates . Whitman's commitmen t t o thi s spac e shape d b y th e magi c wor d ca n b e usefully contraste d t o th e persisten t skepticism , i n Wittgenstein' s Philosophical Investigations, regardin g th e enticin g region s languag e ofte n seems t o generate . Ther e ou r tendenc y t o confus e wha t Wittgenstei n calls "surfac e grammar"—th e logica l spac e a particula r synta x o r expression implies—wit h a suppose d "dee p space"—a n actua l worl d conceived a s sharin g th e propertie s thu s suggested—i s repeatedl y chas tened. 22 I n Whitman' s poem s suc h dept h i s instea d characteristicall y affirmed: th e spac e th e poet' s stylize d languag e shape s i s calle d th e world. Whitman' s mos t explicit , dramati c declaration s concernin g wha t might b e calle d th e shamanisti c resource s o f speec h thu s simpl y affir m the power s hi s poems widel y display : "[I ] hav e distance d wha t i s behin d me for goo d reasons, " the poet declare s summaril y i n "Son g o f Myself, " "And cal l an y thin g clos e again whe n I desire it" (185 5 55) . Not al l Whitman' s catalogues , o f course , ar e single-minde d attempt s to projec t th e imperia l powe r o f th e wor d ont o th e world . I n "Son g o f Myself," especially , heterogeneou s element s ar e repeatedl y introduce d and allowe d t o deflec t th e poet' s assimilativ e procedures . I shall tak e u p in chapte r 7 th e wa y som e o f th e catalogue s i n Whitman' s firs t grea t poem oscillat e betwee n enactin g an d resistin g th e characteristi c claim s of Whitman' s earl y editions . But it will b e helpful t o tur n her e instead t o

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some catalogue s i n whic h effort s t o sugges t th e performativ e power s o f language tak e precedence, eve n mor e clearl y tha n i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry," ove r othe r concerns . 4. I f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " i s on e o f Whitman' s mor e successfu l pieces, thi s i s a t leas t i n par t becaus e th e power s ascribe d t o th e wor d are suggeste d ther e les s obtrusivel y tha n i n man y o f Whitman' s othe r poems. The poet's vocative an d performative power s ar e brought t o bea r on a singl e scen e an d see m t o b e describin g o r addressin g encountere d particulars eve n a s the y ar e bus y transformin g them . An d a s Richar d Chase point s out , th e harbo r scen e i s especiall y amenabl e t o th e sor t o f fluid visio n Whitman' s catalogue s characteristicall y evok e (107-109) . By contrast, som e o f Whitman' s mor e striden t catalogu e poem s hav e th e peculiar virtu e o f makin g th e linguisti c assumption s a t wor k i n Leaves of Grass mor e explici t b y flagrantl y detachin g the m fro m th e kin d o f representational support s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " provides . I n suc h poems a s th e 185 6 "Salu t a u Monde, " th e "scene " i s unnervingly ency clopedic: a staggering , seemingl y rando m assortmen t o f mountains , countries, continents, and peoples is pulled with gleeful insoucianc e fro m Whitman's grab-ba g o f names , t o b e processe d b y th e agglomeratin g syntax brough t t o bea r i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " o n a singl e locale . The poet' s palpabl e lac k o f first-hand acquaintanc e wit h th e thing s h e names ha s n o discernibl e effec t o n hi s seemin g abilit y t o maste r an d incorporate them ; i n "Salu t a u Monde " t o nam e somethin g i s ipso facto to posses s it , t o "plant " i t "permanentl y within. " Whitman' s catalogue s thus gravitate naturall y t o apostroph e an d th e vocative : You, inevitable where you are! You daughter or son of England! You free ma n of Australia! you of Tasmania! you of Papua! you free woman of the same! You of the mighty Slavic tribes and empires! you Russ in Russia! You dim-descended , black , divine-soule d African , large , fine headed, nobly formed, superbly destined, on equal terms with me! You Norwegian! Swede! Dane! Icelander! you Prussian! You Spaniard of Spain! you Portuguese! [••..]

You Sardinian ! you Bavarian ! you Swabian ! Saxon! Wallachian! Bulgarian ! (1856 1 1 6 - 1 7 )

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The frenetic pitc h reache d towar d th e end of this passage clearly involve s the poe t i n unintende d self-parody : th e initia l patient , i f rathe r clums y attempts t o establis h credibl e moment s o f individua l addres s ar e aban doned a s Whitma n franticall y maximize s th e centripeta l pul l o f thi s language game . Thi s bizarr e momen t nonetheles s offer s a distillatio n o f Whitman's characteristi c assumptions : in Leaves of Grass the name itself is inherentl y vocative , it s powe r t o produc e th e thin g bein g magica l rather tha n contextua l an d contingent . Wha t migh t b e calle d vocativ e etiquette thu s turn s ou t t o b e dispensable . Elidin g th e "you " a s thes e lines reac h thei r climax , Whitman' s locutio n o f cours e stil l implie s it ; this elisio n nonetheles s suggest s a shif t towar d tha t magica l visio n o f language i n whic h nam e an d thin g ar e conflated—th e poe t nee d n o longer spea k to th e worl d becaus e hi s wor d no w speaks it . Her e th e vocative blend s int o th e performative i t always implies . In Leaves of Grass eve n utterance s cas t i n th e indicativ e thu s posses s an implici t vocativ e pull . Thi s effec t i s o f cours e reinforce d b y th e syntactic patterns I have bee n callin g centripetal : I see the high-lands of Abyssinia, I see flocks of goats feeding, I see the fig-tree,tamarind, date, I see fieldsof teff-wheat, I see the places of verdure and gold. I see the Brazilian vaquero, I see the Bolivian ascending Mount Sorata, I see the Gauch o crossin g th e plains, I see the incomparabl e ride r o f horse s with his lasso on his arm, I see over the pampas the pursuit of wild cattle for their hides.

[....]

I see the regions of snow and ice, I see the sharp-eyed Samoiede and the Finn. (1856 112—14)

Despite th e animadversio n t o visio n here , observe d specificit y i s less th e subject o f thes e line s tha n th e objec t o f thei r enucleatin g energies . I f t o name, in Leaves of Grass, i s to "see, " it is also to summo n an d possess . This pervasiv e vocativ e pul l ha s a n inherentl y essentializin g effect : objects ar e lifte d fro m th e contingent , transitiv e relation s i n whic h the y would otherwis e b e mire d an d summone d t o th e ba r o f th e poet' s timeless vision . Suc h essentializin g powe r i s intrinsi c t o th e ac t o f nam ing; bu t a s the vocative dimensio n o f Whitman's list s suggests, in Leaves of Grass i t is characteristically conceive d a s a magical rathe r tha n merel y

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intellectual resource . I n th e line s jus t quoted , thi s magica l dimensio n i s registered i n a sligh t bu t repeate d semanti c disturbanc e commo n i n Whitman's work : Whitman' s "the " i s equivoca l i n it s representationa l import an d thereb y finall y performativ e i n it s effect . A readin g o f thes e lines whic h take s Whitman' s repeate d "the " t o b e simpl y a n ostensiv e gesture, the marker o f what John Searl e calls "singular definit e reference " (72), feel s increasingl y awkward . Th e catalogue' s panorami c outloo k seems t o enforc e a correspondin g generalit y i n eac h o f it s loca l move ments: w e aren' t firml y enoug h ensconce d i n an y singl e local e fo r i t t o be credible w e would understan d whic h particula r vaquero , o r Bolivian , or Gauch o i s bein g single d ou t simpl y b y "the. " Whitman' s definit e articles migh t thu s b e understoo d a s cuein g a serie s o f clas s names . Ye t the repeate d referenc e t o seein g demand s ostensiv e interpretation : th e poet gestures , i t seems , a t particulars . Thi s representationa l conundru m implies it s ow n performativ e solution . Thes e lines , i n effect , reif y th e paradox o f thei r surfac e grammar , implyin g a magica l spac e i n whic h the poet' s wor d ha s fuse d th e clas s an d th e individua l creature—i n which th e no-longe r contingen t individua l possesse s th e idea l generalit y of th e class , an d i n whic h th e clas s possesse s th e solidit y an d specificit y of th e incarnat e individual . Thi s possibility , i t shoul d b e stressed , n o longer obey s th e demand s o r constraint s o f eithe r o f th e familia r lan guage game s t o whic h thes e line s allude ; accordin g a n implici t bu t nonetheless radica l performativ e powe r t o words , thi s passag e enact s a series of "perceptions " that coul d exis t nowher e bu t i n language. 23 According t o Erns t Cassirer , jus t this surfac e gramma r an d th e anom alous prospec t i t suggest s characteriz e shamanisti c speech . I n Language and Myth, a monograp h i n whic h h e argue s tha t primitiv e religiou s categories ar e hypostatizations o f idea l linguisti c ones, Cassirer describe s pantheistic deitie s a s reifications o f th e clas s name : There are several deities among the Coras who represent certain kinds of flowers, but ar e addresse d a s individua l flowers . Th e sam e i s tru e o f al l th e Coras ' demoniac creatures : th e cicada , th e cricket , th e grasshopper , th e armadill o ar e simply treated as so many individual wholes. If, therefore, ancient rhetoric names as one of the principal types of metaphor the substitution of a part for the whole, or vice versa, i t is easy enough t o see how thi s sort o f metapho r arise s directl y out o f th e essentia l attitud e o f th e mythi c mind . But it is equally clea r tha t fo r mythic thinking ther e i s much mor e in metapho r tha n a bare "substitution, " a mere rhetorical figure of speech; that what seems to our subsequent reflection a s

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[sic] a sheer transcription i s mythically conceived as a genuine and direct identification. (94 ) Ideal abstraction s ar e supposedl y conjure d u p b y shamanisti c speec h a s actual, incarnat e presences , bringin g th e divers e particulars o f th e worl d to th e foca l poin t designate d an d commande d b y the name . Like th e enticin g "dee p space " Wittgenstei n describe s a s a kin d o f trompe Voeil effec t produce d b y accidenta l similaritie s o f surfac e gram mar an d th e conflation s o f distinc t languag e game s the y suggest , i n Leaves of Grass th e shamanisti c power s o f th e poet' s wor d ar e fre quently implie d b y th e sor t o f performativ e solutio n t o a referentia l paradox w e hav e jus t examined . Whitman' s peculia r achievemen t thu s slips awa y i f w e tr y t o resolv e th e representationa l ambiguitie s o f hi s syntax b y appea l t o most-likely-case scenarios . The otherwise exemplar y analyses o f Whitman' s catalogu e techniqu e recentl y offere d b y Jame s Perrin Warren , fo r example , g o astra y whe n Warre n invoke s suc h a literalized notio n o f poeti c representation . Thus , fo r instance , i n a n analysis o f sectio n fifteen o f "Son g o f Myself, " Warre n make s us e o f a sort o f taxonom y o f distinc t representationa l case s i n orde r t o "solve " both th e ambiguitie s o f Whitman' s us e o f th e definit e article—ambigui ties whic h paralle l thos e w e hav e jus t attende d t o i n "Salu t a u Monde " —and th e poet' s troublin g mi x o f present-tens e ver b forms . Warre n registers a possible readin g o f suc h a line as "The pur e contralt o sing s in the orga n loft, " notin g tha t "th e definit e articl e 'the ' coul d indicat e a generic nou n phrase , whil e th e simpl e presen t tens e coul d indicat e a stative ver b phrase " ("Fre e Growth " 3s). 24 Bu t thes e possibilitie s ar e then dismisse d becaus e the y contradic t th e representationa l procedure s of som e adjacen t material , whic h employ s th e presen t progressiv e tense : "The one-yea r wif e i s recoverin g an d happ y havin g a wee k ag o born e her first child. " "Becaus e th e presen t progressiv e indicate s th e dynami c aspect o f th e verb," Warren note s it would see m unlikely tha t th e other verb s of th e catalogue—all i n the simple present tense—ar e stative . An d sinc e th e generi c nou n canno t appea r wit h a verb phrase in the present progressiv e tense , the personal agent s must be taken as specific noun phrases. If Whitman' s us e o f th e presen t progressiv e tens e preclude s th e "timeles s present" associate d wit h th e simpl e presen t tense , wha t sens e o f tim e doe s i t allow? . . . A mixture o f presen t progressiv e an d simpl e present coul d occu r in the instantaneous present. . . becaus e both form s refe r to an event as it is in the process of occurring. ("Free Growth" 36)

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These deductions fee l altogethe r to o tidy . Her e Warren regards Whitman's syntax a s the transparent transcriptio n o f som e observabl e realit y which w e shoul d b e abl e t o delimi t an d recover . Bu t Whitma n ofte n achieves hi s mos t dramati c effect s precisel y b y breakin g dow n thi s sor t of contextua l neatness . The lon g catalogu e tha t open s sectio n thirty three of "Son g o f Myself " offers a more dramati c instanc e o f jus t thes e characteristic conflation s o f ordinaril y distinc t representationa l possibil ities. Whitman' s openin g proclamation s locat e wha t follow s i n a panoramic space: "My ties and ballasts leave me . . . . I t r a v e l . . .. I s a i l . . . . my elbow s res t i n th e sea-gaps , / [ . . . . ] / 1 a m afoo t wit h m y vision " (1855 57) . I n the passage' s succeedin g lines , individua l agent s an d act s are pressured toward generic status not only because they appear in such a context , bu t als o b y mean s o f Whitman' s productiv e representationa l confusions. The poet is "afoot " Where the panther walks to and fro on a limb overhead . . .. wher e the buck turns furiously at the hunter, Where the rattlesnake suns his flabbylength on a rock . . .. wher e the otter is feeding on fish, Where the alligator in his tough pimples sleeps by the bayou, Where the black bear is searching for roots or honey . . .. th e beaver pats the mud with his paddle-tail. (1855 57) In thi s oneiri c landscape eac h observe d particula r i s als o iconic ; eac h individual creatur e i s als o a n ideal , archetypa l form . Eac h particular , grammatically "dynamic " ac t likewis e repeat s itsel f wit h th e dreamlik e inevitability implie d b y a stative readin g of th e verb, assimilating particular, finite action s t o thos e iterativ e processe s w e ar e encourage d t o identify wit h the poet's own performative energies . This assimilation o f discret e subjects and predicates to a single, rhythmic process ultimately indistinguishabl e fro m the poet's own enunciativ e act finds characteristic expression i n the deverbal noun , another peculiar formation whos e importanc e t o Whitman' s work Warre n point s out . Warren notes that these noun formation s "fro m a verbal base " are more frequent i n Whitman' s poetr y tha n th e mor e commo n conversio n o f nouns t o "denomina l verbs " ("Rea l Grammar " 8) . Moreover , Whit man's deverba l noun s includ e a n unusuall y hig h proportio n o f "non lexical" coinage s ("Rea l Grammar " 9) . Warre n suggest s astutel y tha t these formations preserv e a dynamic aspect because of thei r strangeness, so tha t "a s a rule the form s balanc e precariousl y betwee n th e noun an d

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the ver b class " ("Rea l Grammar " 9) . Th e urba n scen e rendere d i n section eigh t o f "Son g o f Myself " suggest s th e agglomerativ e effec t o f such destabilize d forms : The blab of the pave . . .. th e tires of carts and sluff of bootsoles and talk of the promenaders, The heavy omnibus, the driver with his interrogating thumb, the clank of the shod horses on the granite floor, The carnival of sleighs, the clinking and shouted jokes and pelts of snowballs. The hurrahs for popular favorites . . . . th e fury o f roused mobs, The flap of the curtained litter. (1855 31-32; emphases added) Detaching action s fro m particula r agents , Whitman' s deverba l noun s here recas t finite , transitiv e act s a s aspect s o f a diffuse , metamorphi c process. Things, too, have bee n refashioned : discret e agent s ar e replace d by loosely grouped, nomina l accretion s o f thi s same omnipresent energy . The lon g catalogu e fro m "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " I examined earlie r also make s us e o f suc h coinages , employin g the m i n concer t wit h parti cipial modifier s tha t likewis e sugges t diffus e processe s ("th e whit e wak e left b y th e passage" ; "th e swinging motion") . Th e harbo r worl d i s thu s traversed b y "th e gradua l edging," "th e falling" an d "th e frolicsom e crests an d glistening." Lik e othe r ke y feature s o f Whitman' s catalogues , these deverba l noun s subdu e th e ver y contingencie s the y record , refash ioning bot h substance s an d predicate s int o instance s o f a singl e agglom erating process . 5. In Whitman' s earl y edition s thi s archai c spac e i s identifie d wit h th e poet's ow n presence . Whitman' s dialecti c o f th e bod y i s m y subjec t i n chapter 4 ; but I want a t least to suggest here how his catalogue techniqu e implies th e sort s o f somati c resource s wit h whic h th e poe t i s supposedl y endowed. Th e collaps e o f discret e agent s an d act s int o th e undulan t space shaped b y speech implie s correlative change s i n the poet's body . The imag e tha t conclude s sectio n thirty-on e o f "Son g o f Myself " alludes t o th e infantil e scenari o thi s meldin g o f object s alway s recalls . A brief catalogu e lead s u p t o thi s scene , b y mean s o f jus t th e sor t o f reification o f linguisti c function s w e have bee n examining : In vain objects stand leagues off an d assume manifold shapes , In vain the ocean settling in hollows and the great monsters lying low, In vain the buzzard houses herself with the sky, In vain the snake slides through the creepers and logs,

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In vain the elk takes to the inner passes of the woods, In vain the razorbilled auk sails far north to Labrador, I follow quickly . . .. I ascend to the nest in the fissure of the cliff. (1855 55) Whitman's final imag e her e i s vagina l an d uterine . Bu t th e projec t thu s suggested—of completin g th e child' s researche s b y tracin g existenc e back t o it s amnioti c source—depend s fo r it s progres s o n th e intertwin ing o f infantil e sexua l register s wit h archai c dimension s o f language . I f the poe t ascend s t o tha t fissure fro m whic h object s strea m t o "assume " the "manifold shapes " that populate th e space of the Freudian secondar y processes o r realit y principle , h e work s hi s wa y bac k t o thi s threshol d between divisio n an d agglomeratio n b y mean s o f on e o f Whitman' s characteristic representationa l riddles . "The buzzard, " "th e snake, " "th e elk," an d "th e razor-bille d auk " ar e all concrete universals , hypostatize d class names imagine d a s magically incarnat e particulars . Tracking mani fold shape s tha t ar e alread y iconic , alread y embodiment s o f th e idealiz ing wor d an d it s centripeta l force , th e poe t thereb y reascend s t o th e boundary betwee n th e agglomerating real m o f the primary processe s an d the spatial an d tempora l manifold s o f th e secondary ones , the borderlin e between a worl d o f discret e identitie s an d tha t undifferentiate d plenu m the catalogue' s final imag e associate s wit h a n archai c somati c condition . The wor d magi c o n whic h th e poet' s ascen t depends , w e shal l se e i n chapter 4 , shoul d b e situate d a t precisel y thi s threshold . It s crucia l function i s indee d t o blu r it , restorin g a n archai c mod e o f reception : through wor d magi c th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass seem s t o recove r th e agglomerating power s first experience d a s a fusio n wit h th e materna l body. Th e separatio n th e poe t track s bac k t o it s origi n i s bot h th e division between sel f and other and the split between words and things. 25 Leaves of Grass repeatedl y suggest s tha t thes e rupture s ar e on e an d the same . I t doe s s o i n par t b y seemin g t o overcom e the m simulta neously, mos t dramaticall y i n th e catalogue s tha t cente r o n th e poet' s own body . Thus , fo r example , th e beautifu l litan y tha t dominate s th e second sectio n o f "Son g o f Myself " no t onl y seem s t o enucleat e bod y boundaries, minglin g insid e an d outside , sel f an d other , i n a manne r closer t o th e primar y processe s tha n t o th e secondar y ones ; i t doe s s o i n part b y mean s o f a wor d magi c tha t fuse s th e thin g wit h th e wor d tha t names it , an d wit h th e poet' s voic e an d breath . N o catalogu e o f Whit man's offer s a stronge r sens e o f a n undifferentiated , undulant , intensel y somaticized space :

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The smoke of my own breath, Echoes, ripples , an d buzze d whisper s . . . . loveroot , silkthread , crotc h an d vine, My respiration an d inspiration . . . . th e beating of my h e a r t . . .. th e passing of blood and air through my lungs, The sniff o f green leaves and dry leaves, and of the shore and darkcolored sea rocks, and of hay in the barn, The sound of the belched words of my voice . . .. word s loosed to the eddies of the wind, A few light kisses . . .. a few embraces . . .. a reaching around of arms, The play of shine and shade on the trees as the supple boughs wag, The delight alone or in the rush of the streets, or along the fields and hillsides, The feeling of health . . . . th e full-noon tril l . . . . th e song of me rising fro m bed and meeting the sun. (1855 2.5—26) The sens e o f amorphou s unit y tha t pervade s thi s litan y depend s largel y on grammatica l anomalies . Her e Whitma n completel y suppresse s predi cation, elidin g th e contingencie s predicate s recor d a s well a s the opposi tions the y structure. 26 Th e constativ e functio n o f th e catalogu e i s thu s suspended; thi s absenc e o f statemen t serve s i n tur n t o foregroun d th e ritual, performativ e dimensio n o f Whitman' s tally . Thi s performativ e thrust i s itself enigmatic : perhap s th e catalogu e blend s togethe r hithert o discrete particulars, catching them u p int o the unity i t seems to generate ; or perhap s i t posit s them , on e b y one , a s aspect s o f it s ow n unfolding . These obvers e activities , w e shal l see , ca n b e though t o f a s complemen tary phase s o f a single ritual o f repossession . Here suc h performativ e resource s consistentl y intertwin e wit h so matic ones. Whitman's ritua l namin g alternates roughl y betwee n interio r and exterio r phenomena ; thi s unpredicated oscillatio n serve s to establis h a sens e o f amorphou s unit y rathe r tha n an y mor e firmly articulate d relation, dissolvin g th e differenc e betwee n sel f an d other , bod y an d environment. Whitman' s deverba l noun s ar e especiall y appropriat e i n this context , sinc e the y sugges t th e existenc e o f a pervasiv e kinestheti c patterning tha t underlie s al l apparen t particulars : th e catalogue' s soma ticized spac e i s shaped b y "th e beating, " "th e passing, " "th e snuff, " " a reaching," "th e play"—provisiona l accretion s o f a n alway s mobil e rhythmic activity . Definin g a fantasmati c bod y n o longe r firmly sepa rated fro m it s objects , thi s archaic , labil e real m exist s fo r u s i n th e idiosyncratic syntacti c an d semanti c procedures tha t nam e it . This fusio n o f linguisti c an d somati c register s i s suggeste d fro m th e

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very beginnin g o f th e catalogue . Th e poet' s bod y become s a kin d o f rhythmically movin g membrane ; it s crucial synecdoch e i s breath. Thi s i s the particula r wit h whic h th e catalogu e begins , an d t o whic h i t insis tently recurs : "Th e smok e o f my ow n breath" ; "m y respiratio n an d inspiration"; "th e snif f o f gree n leave s an d dr y leaves. " A rhyth m o f inhalation an d exhalatio n i s indee d th e implici t mode l fo r th e sor t o f pulsating space this passage suggests, in which object s see m ambiguousl y to attai n eithe r a detachmen t fro m o r a fusio n wit h th e poet' s bod y tha t are equall y provisional ; i t i s a s i f discret e particular s ar e caugh t u p int o the body, somaticize d o r desolidified , an d the n sen t forth agai n a s ductil e emanations. Fo r th e pneumati c bod y thi s rhythmi c relatio n t o object s implies, eroticis m i s a versio n o f auto-eroticism , objec t relation s a kin d of expansive , polymorphou s narcissism : " A fe w ligh t kisse s . . . . a fe w embraces . . . . a reachin g aroun d o f arms. " Everythin g become s a n instance o f wha t th e poet's bod y "inspires " an d "respires. " One o f th e item s subjecte d t o thi s rhythmi c somaticizin g i s the poet' s word, no w provocativel y physicalized : "Th e soun d o f the belched word s of my voic e . . . . word s loose d t o th e eddie s o f th e wind. " "Belched " and "loosed " int o the ductile space the catalogue renders , language take s up it s place amon g th e provisionall y separat e thing s th e poe t put s forth . Acquiring th e statu s o f physica l phenomena , word s migh t thu s b e capa ble o f exercisin g a powe r ove r object s tha t i s more tha n merel y concep tual. Conversely , thing s themselve s ar e transformed b y this proximity t o words: metonymi c suggestio n lend s th e poet' s breat h an d body , an d the object s h e incorporate s an d re-projects , th e ideal , abstrac t qualitie s of language . Thi s idealizatio n i s crucia l t o th e transformatio n th e cata logue seem s t o perform . Th e ingestio n an d re-projectio n thi s passag e implies can b e attributed t o bod y an d breat h onl y throug h a n exorbitan t troping o f kinestheti c an d respirator y powers . The rhythmic assimilatio n and expulsio n presente d her e figure th e vocativ e an d positiona l power s of language , suggestin g thei r magica l force . 6. Lik e th e bod y i t evokes , however , wor d magi c i n Leaves of Grass hovers betwee n visio n an d accomplishment ; Whitman' s projection s o f an archai c bod y an d wor d ar e propelle d b y a desir e t o overcom e th e very splits of whic h th e poet remain s aware . This attemp t t o straddle th e borders of tw o organizations, to resurrect lost satisfactions b y employin g

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symbolic language until it reveals or restores the very powers fro m whic h it no w separate s us , ca n lea d t o a divide d an d anxiou s practice , a poeti c idiom awar e o f it s ow n expulsio n fro m th e ver y conditio n o f whic h i t dreams. Suc h equivocations , whic h undermin e th e poet' s redemptiv e project ye t ar e crucia l t o th e greatnes s o f Whitman' s book , wil l b e my subject furthe r on . Whitman' s trouble d ambitions , however , sometime s find expressio n instea d i n a bellicos e insistence , whic h i s al l th e mor e irksome since , fro m ou r sid e o f th e breac h betwee n wor d an d thing , o r subject an d object , the y attemp t t o deny , th e linguisti c assumption s which underli e th e poet's claim s can see m simpl y outlandish . It i s perhap s fo r thi s reaso n tha t amon g Whitman' s mos t insightfu l critics hav e bee n thos e mos t flabbergaste d b y his procedures. Whitman' s frequently cavalie r attitud e towar d representationa l concern s ca n b e mind-boggling. Hi s catalogue s consistentl y omi t sustaine d an d sustain ing context ; fo r al l th e myria d thing s the y encompass , thes e list s ar e concerned relativel y littl e wit h depictin g particula r objects , evincin g a strange shif t o f focu s awa y fro m th e ver y thing s Whitman' s noun s ar e busy naming . Thi s lac k o f concentrate d attention , whic h ough t t o b e a defect, turn s ou t t o b e a n essentia l resourc e instead , give n Whitman' s peculiar goal s an d assumptions . Th e tallie s i n Leaves of Grass typicall y work t o break dow n th e integrity an d autonom y o f hitherto independen t objects, representin g thing s a s grist fo r th e poet's linguisti c mill; this en d is best accomplished b y naming object s a s expeditiously a s possible. Such a procedure ca n giv e us the troublin g sens e that th e poet i s bus y claiming identit y wit h thing s h e hasn' t eve n bothere d t o glanc e at . F . O . Matthiessen's contrar y assertion s see m mor e generou s tha n apt , describ ing onl y th e ver y bes t o f Whitman' s catalogue s rathe r tha n th e bul k o f them: Whitman's excitemen t carries weight because he realized that a man cannot use words s o unles s h e ha s experience d th e fact s tha t the y express , unles s h e ha s grasped them with his senses. (518) D. H . Lawrence' s respons e seem s mor e accurate , despit e it s racism , an d for al l its being a nasty jok e a t Whitman's expense : As soon as Walt knew a thing, he assumed One Identity with it. If he knew that an Eskimo sat in a kyak, immediately there was Walt being little and yellow and greasy, sitting in a kyak.

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Now will you tell me exactly what a kyak is? Who i s he that demand s pett y definition ? Le t him behol d m e sitting in a kyak. (166) Marked b y Lawrence' s irascibl e wonder , thes e line s driv e a wedg e be tween knowin g an d naming , exposin g th e outrageousnes s o f Whitman' s working assumptions . This emptines s o f th e knowledg e provide d b y th e nam e ca n mak e Whitman's practic e see m like a prolonged exercis e in tautology: claimin g to do somethin g substantia l b y naming objects, the poet is instead simpl y naming them . Knu t Hamse n suggest s thi s tautologica l qualit y o f Whit man's work : His tabulated poetry , those impossible reiterations of persons, states, household furniture, tools , article s o f dres s . . . reveal no t a spar k o f poeti c talent . Whe n Whitman celebrate s a thin g h e says righ t i n th e first line that h e i s celebrating that thing—in orde r to say in the next line that he celebrates a second thing, in the third line a third thing—without celebratin g it in any way except by naming it. H e doe s no t kno w mor e o f anythin g tha n it s name , bu t h e know s man y names. (Quoted in Schyberg 104) 27 Quentin Anderso n offer s a mor e explici t i f mor e paradoxica l formula tion: We may put it that nothing in the world offered an y resistance to his consciousness of it . Neither multiplicit y no r futurity no r the past nor physical remotenes s nor any kind of apparent dissonance daunted him. His consciousness prescribed no limits ; whatever h e had th e powe r t o b e conscious o f h e was consciou s of . This also sounds aberrant, bu t it is the very quality o f the Person's sense of th e world. ("Whitman's Ne w Man" 29) Whatever Whitma n ha d th e powe r t o nam e h e migh t name , an d h e ha d the power t o nam e anythin g whos e nam e h e knew . Whitman's catalogue s ca n thu s resembl e th e enticin g "dee p tautolo gies" from whic h Wittgenstein' s languag e philosopher retrieve s th e speculator i n word s (Pear s 87) . A demystifie d stanc e wil l registe r th e poet' s pronouncements a s self-referentia l grammatica l remark s masqueradin g as syntheti c judgments—" I se e the Brazilia n vaquero " amountin g t o n o more tha n th e metacommen t " I nam e th e Brazilia n vaquero. " Ye t thi s apparently tautologica l assertio n wil l strik e th e believe r i n wor d magi c as th e exercis e o f a substantia l power—" I nam e th e Brazilia n vaquero "

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meaning, i n it s turn , " I se e an d posses s th e vaquer o b y namin g him. " Despite thei r frequen t lac k o f credibilit y (or , sometimes , interest ) a s series o f empirica l assertions , Whitman' s catalogue s d o no t simpl y col lapse int o th e self-reflexiv e tracin g o f logica l grammar s s o lon g a s w e entertain th e hypothesi s o f wor d magic : w e wil l the n constru e th e for mulaic predication s i n whic h th e poe t indulge s a s act s o f ritua l perfor mance bearin g directl y o n th e world. 28 Whitma n i s willin g t o tak e u p a great dea l o f spac e writin g wha t amount s t o tautolog y i n th e registe r o f symbolic language , i n orde r graduall y t o evok e tha t other , archai c di mension shape d b y this magica l mod e o f conceivin g the word . Suggesting a relatio n betwee n th e bod y an d it s objects tha t differ s drast ically fro m th e sor t w e know , wor d magi c conjure s u p a fantasmati c space i n whic h th e interval s traverse d b y desir e have collapse d bac k int o punctual satisfaction . Th e transfigure d eroticis m suc h spac e implie s i s a crucial focu s o f Whitman' s earl y editions . Ye t archai c satisfaction s ar e not quit e mad e presen t i n Leaves of Grass; Whitman' s evocation s o f blissful mergin g typicall y see m t o waver , hoverin g betwee n instanta neous, hallucinator y gratificatio n an d th e sens e o f lac k the y shoul d dispel.29 I n the limina l spac e through whic h th e poet moves , touch neve r quite become s incorporation ; th e othe r i s no t quit e reducibl e t o a n aspect o f th e self ; an d desir e neve r quit e dissolve s int o continuou s gratification. Thi s spacing is also linguistic: the word remain s sig n rathe r than talismani c synecdoche ; th e poet' s speec h act , whic h shoul d b e th e magical productio n o f presence , threatens t o laps e into mer e designatio n instead. 30 Th e catalogue s o f Whitman' s first tw o edition s typicall y striv e to sugges t th e resource s o f th e ful l word . Bu t th e emptines s tha t haunt s them i s als o Whitman' s subject , a s i s th e desir e i n whic h thi s lac k entangles him . A s Paul Zwei g movingl y recounts , Whitman haunte d th e Crystal Palac e exhibitio n tha t cam e t o Manhatta n i n 1853 , soaking u p not onl y th e industria l wonder s o f th e ag e bu t als o th e ambienc e o f young men ; h e wen t hom e an d wrot e dow n thei r name s i n th e sam e notebooks i n whic h man y o f th e catalogu e poem s too k shap e (212) . Throughout th e 1850s , Whitma n periodicall y commemorate d simila r rambles i n such laconi c tallies: Johny (roun d faced—in Dunbar' s and engine house—full eyes ) and liquid Pete (smallish—looks a little like 5th av Billy Folk

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Wm Vanderbergh , (youn g fellow , sick , sand y complexio n Fulto n av . nea r City Hall Tom Riley (handsome Irish fighter John Kiernan (loafer young saucy looking pretty goodlooking. (NUPM i:25i) 31 Stretching o n fo r severa l pages , thi s lis t grow s increasingl y poignant. 32 Should w e rea d i t a s performanc e o r designation , possessio n o r indica tion, vehicl e o f fulfillmen t o r o f desire ? Wha t doe s i t mea n t o nam e something, t o besto w o r utte r a name ? Whitman' s catalogue s articulat e desire i n th e ver y founderin g o f performance , i n th e failur e o f th e wor d magic of whic h the y dream . Such haunte d doublin g wil l occup y u s furthe r on . I want t o tur n nex t to Whitman' s attempt s t o embe d th e wor d magi c w e hav e bee n consid ering i n a representationa l contex t tha t wil l mak e i t see m credible . Th e imaginative univers e o f Whitman' s earl y edition s ca n b e understood a s a reification o f th e visio n o f languag e I have bee n attendin g to , a buildin g out o f th e spac e Whitman' s notio n o f th e wor d implies . Whitman' s cosmological musing s serv e t o hypostatize , an d thereb y naturalize , th e verbal power s th e poems display ; Leaves of Grass is indeed, as Whitma n remarked t o Traubel , " a languag e experiment " (quote d i n DB N 3:72.9^439). Crucia l t o thi s cosmi c projectio n wil l b e th e notio n o f "indication" w e glanced a t a moment ago . Ordinarily applie d t o system s of representation , suc h a s language , thi s ter m come s i n Whitman' s poem s to characteriz e th e worl d itself : i n Leaves of Grass th e world become s a kind o f sig n system , an d th e realit y i t point s t o i s the word . W e nee d t o trace this governin g chiasmu s an d tak e not e o f it s consequences .

Notes 1. Schyber g has regularized the rather bizarre punctuation o f this passage as it appears in Barrus (64). 2. O n incorporation a s a crucial trope for an d goal of Whitman's procedures, see Anderson , Imperial Self especiall y 157-61 . I a m indebte d a s wel l t o Dorothy Gregory; see especially 33-49 . 3. O n th e primar y processes , se e Freud , "Formulation s Regardin g th e Tw o Principles in Mental Functioning," Collected Papers 4:13-21. 4. O n th e relatio n betwee n affirmatio n an d denia l i n Leaves of Grass, see Anderson, "Whitman's New Man" 37-41 .

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5. Se e Thoma s 107- 8 an d Erkkil a 3 8 fo r relate d discussion s o f th e connec tion betwee n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " an d Whitman' s earlie r newspape r piece. 6. M y slid e her e fro m th e hazard s o f urba n lif e t o th e mor e encompassin g difficulties o f objec t relation s approximate s Whitman' s own . Whil e suc h slippage sometime s blur s th e politica l acume n o f Leaves of Grass b y sug gesting tha t intractabl e socia l problem s ar e amenabl e t o regressive , fantas matic solutions, it also account s fo r muc h o f th e poetry's lure . 7. Se e for exampl e Edwi n Miller , Walt Whitman's Poetry 202 . 8. Jame s Mille r note s th e tim e shift ; h e draw s attentio n a s wel l t o th e "lurid " quality o f th e light which engulf s th e scene. See Critical Guide 83 . 9. O n thi s point se e Thomas 103 . 10. I her e follo w Anderson : "I t is , I believe , a centra l observatio n abou t Whitman tha t h e undermine d suc h structure s a s ar e sai d t o b e th e basi s of significatio n i n Levi-Strauss' s Savage Mind. Hi s us e o f specie s wa s not t o discriminate , hi s us e o f huma n function s an d relation s ha d th e en d of agglomeration , hi s us e o f plac e di d no t effec t distinctions " (Imperial Self 95)11. Th e forma l feature s o f any representationa l code , that is , are already perfor mative. Se e chapte r 4 , below , fo r a n extende d accoun t o f th e relatio n between suc h normativ e synta x an d th e cultural registe r Laca n an d Kristev a call the symbolic . 12. Henc e Pau l Fry' s evocation o f th e poet's "calling" : th e vocative function s a s a sig n o f th e poet' s acces s t o linguisti c power s mor e primordia l tha n thos e mobilized b y sociall y mediate d sign s (3 , 12). See also Culler , "Apostrophe " 139-4313. Anderso n fasten s hi s attentio n firmly o n thi s overridin g effec t o f Whitman' s catalogues: "I t i s mer e grammatica l pedantr y t o thin k o f hi s catalogue s a s having th e en d o f inclusion : a t thei r brillian t best , they ar e successful effort s to mel t thing s together , t o mak e th e su m o f thing s rin g wit h on e note " (Imperial Self 95) ; "Whitma n offere d th e sensatio n o f lapsin g int o every thing a s th e greates t o f gifts ; h e wa s th e prim e poe t o f uncreation . Lik e a shaman makin g a puppet t o represent th e enemy t o b e destroyed, h e dower s his worl d wit h onl y s o muc h quiddit y a s h e ca n dissolve , o r cant s eac h created thin g o n th e slop e o f proces s dow n whic h i t wil l slid e t o oblivion " (Imperial Self 94) . I n wha t follows , I spell ou t th e syntacti c aberration s tha t enact suc h effects . M y accoun t i s indebte d t o tw o essay s b y Jame s Perri n Warren: " T h e Fre e Growt h o f Metrica l Laws' : Syntacti c Parallelis m i n 'Song o f Myself, ' " an d "Th e 'Rea l Grammar' : Deverba l Styl e i n 'Son g o f Myself.' " I hav e benefited , a s well , fro m comment s Warre n provide d o n a draft o f m y "Whitman' s Trope s o f Ligh t an d Flood. " Basi l D e Selincourt' s sensitive earl y respons e t o th e catalogue s include s som e brie f bu t astut e remarks o n Whitman' s syntax ; se e Walt Whitman: A Critical Study 1 2 4 55, especiall y 1 4 9 - 5 1 . Othe r usefu l account s o f th e poet' s catalogu e tech -

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nique include Lewis , especially 51 ; Schyberg, especially 100-105 ; Coffman ; Marki, especiall y 195-99 ; an d Byer s 111-12 . 14. I hav e retaine d th e perio d whic h end s th e first o f thes e line s i n th e 185 6 text; bu t th e editor s o f th e Variorum constru e thi s a s a broke n comma ; se e V 1:219 . 15. Se e Mark i 19 5 fo r a relate d discussio n o f Whitman' s us e o f repeti tion. 16. A s Warre n suggests , suc h semanti c repetitio n help s creat e th e insisten t "rhythm o f syntacti c parallelism " tha t characterize s Whitman' s catalogue s ("Free Growth " 32) . 17. Warre n stresse s th e importanc e o f suc h "phrasal " catalogue s i n Whitman' s work an d astutel y suggest s that the y typically see m to absorb th e very thing s they render . Se e "Free Growth " 40 . 18. Warre n als o stresse s Whitman' s elisio n o f finite verbs , notin g th e tempora l blurring produce d b y th e resultin g "stative " grammar ; bu t h e suggest s tha t Whitman's us e o f deverba l noun s re-introduce s a sens e o f activit y int o th e catalogues; se e "Rea l Grammar " 11-16 . Suc h deverba l nouns , however , both transmut e finite action s int o continuou s processe s an d weake n th e sense o f specific , individua l agency ; i n contras t t o simpl e transitiv e declara tions, suc h construction s rende r a worl d n o longe r shape d b y competin g agents an d thei r acts . 19. Mark i (196 ) note s th e way Whitman's catalogue s see m t o dissolv e tempora l distinctions. 20. So , as Warren suggests , "th e poeti c sel f expands , absorbin g . . . . place s an d events" unti l "th e activit y o f expandin g become s mor e importan t tha n th e objects absorbed " ("Fre e Growth " 40) . 21. Th e " I " her e i s literall y America . Bu t Whitman' s identificatio n o f th e na tion's geographi c expans e wit h th e poet' s ow n bod y i s persistent : se e fo r example th e 185 5 Preface , especiall y 7 . 22. Se e Wittgenstein 47—51 ; also Pear s 115—27 . 23. Thi s figmentary "perception " generate d b y languag e i s memorialize d i n John Ashbery' s "Scheherazade, " a poem whic h migh t b e understood i n par t as a n ironicall y inflecte d homag e t o Whitman : "Bu t mos t o f al l sh e love d the particle s / That transfor m object s o f th e sam e categor y / Int o particula r ones, each distinc t / Within an d apar t fro m it s own class " {Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror 9) . 24. I quot e her e th e CR E tex t Warre n use s rathe r tha n th e 185 5 version ; th e differences ar e minimal : se e CR E 4 1 an d V 1:16 . O n th e stativ e an d th e dynamic se e Warren, "Rea l Grammar " 6 - 7 . 25. I tak e u p thes e assertion s i n chapte r 4 , below . Se e Kristeva , Desire in Language 174 , 187 , an d 217-18 ; Revolution in Poetic Language 43-4 8 and 5 4 - 5 5 ; and Powers of Horror 5 2 - 5 3 . 26. Se e Durand, "Whitman , l e rythme, le sujet d e Pecriture" 6 9 - 7 1 fo r a relate d discussion o f th e effects o f Whitman' s suppressio n o f predicatio n here .

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27. Schyber g quote s fro m Knu t Hamsen , Fra det moderne Amerikas Aandsliv (Copenhagen: n.p., 1889 ) 7928. Se e Wittgenstein 2 5 an d 90. 29. Freu d describe s hallucinate d gratification , whic h obviate s frustratio n an d delay, a s th e mod e o f satisfactio n prope r t o th e primar y processes ; se e "Formulations Regardin g th e Two Principle s i n Menta l Functioning, " Collected Papers 4:14 . 30. O n the talisman or kosmos see Fletcher 82-92 . 31. Th e lis t o f name s fro m whic h I hav e take n thi s brie f selectio n occupie s NUPM 1:247-62 . Grie r date s mos t o f th e noteboo k i n whic h thi s lis t appears t o 1857 . NUPM 1:227-2 8 contain s a similar lis t assigned b y Grier to 185 5 o r 1856 . NUP M 1:230—32 , fro m th e sam e notebook , contain s a draft of portions of "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry." 32. Shivel y (51-54 ) see s thes e list s of name s a s celebratory, construin g the m a s a tally o f consummate d assignations ; see also 55-62 . Fo r the contrary vie w see Zweig 188-97 .

3. Indication s an d Crossings: Light and Flood Flood-tide o f th e river , flow on ! I watch you , fac e t o face , Clouds o f th e west ! su n hal f a n hou r high ! I see yo u als o fac e t o face . —"Crossing Brookly n Ferry, " 185 6 21 1

Scattered throughou t Whitman' s earl y edition s ar e what migh t b e calle d the first rumbling s o f a cosmologizin g imagination . I t i s no t unti l th e 1870s, whe n Whitma n publishe d "Passag e t o India, " tha t thes e issu e i n the full-blow n cosmi c fantasizin g tha t increasingl y dominate s th e late r poetry. Ye t eve n i n suc h earl y poem s a s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " w e encounter image s tha t impl y th e presenc e o f a t leas t a roughl y trace d cosmology. Ful l o f suc h unfamilia r entitie s a s "th e float, " a "du e emis sion," an d " a necessar y film," thi s cosmi c syste m wil l nee d som e ex plaining. Bu t i t i s probably mor e importan t t o asses s it s significanc e fo r the early edition s o f Leaves of Grass. Approaching Whitman' s earl y poetr y throug h th e perspectiv e en forced b y th e late r work , on e traditio n o f Whitma n criticis m accord s such cosmi c doctrin e a centra l place . Notin g th e importanc e o f th e "imaginative fusio n o f th e poe t an d th e reader " i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry," James Mille r thu s goe s on t o sugges t that thi s mergin g figures a n insight o f a more essentia l order : "Th e reader' s feeling , a t th e en d o f th e poem, tha t h e an d th e poe t ar e interfuse d represent s hi s emotiona l insight int o th e worl d o f spiritua l unity " {Critical Guide 80) . "Th e chemical figure," Mille r goe s o n t o argu e concernin g Whitman' s "floa t forever hel d i n solution " (185 6 216) , "evoke s a vivi d pictur e o f th e abstract concep t tha t underlie s th e entir e poem " (85) . But i n "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " th e poet' s energie s ar e no t easil y subdue d t o suc h abstractions; th e fe w line s i n th e poe m tha t suppor t thi s readin g simpl y won't bea r suc h weight . Th e orde r o f prioritie s Mille r suggests—poet' s 57

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presence a s trop e fo r a n underlyin g religiou s o r cosmi c vision—migh t better b e reversed : rathe r tha n spellin g ou t a coherent , systemati c doc trine, Whitman's cosmologica l musing s amoun t t o a malleable repertoir e of trope s an d assertions , deploye d s o a s t o accor d languag e an d th e poet's voic e th e power s Whitman' s catalogue s an d evocation s o f th e poet's presenc e suggest . In Whitman' s late r work , cosmi c speculatio n serve s t o focu s ou r contemplation o n a remote spher e from whic h w e have supposedly com e and t o whic h w e wil l retur n afte r death ; hi s performativ e energie s flag ging, the poet posits a world beyon d thi s one in which hi s still unrealize d aspirations wil l b e fulfilled . I n th e earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass, Whitman's intermitten t cosmologizin g instea d function s heuristically , building ou t a sens e o f ou r presen t worl d th e poems ' ow n characteristi c transactions imply . In "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " Whitman's mos t dra matic announcemen t concernin g th e "float " focuse s directl y o n th e her e and no w o f th e harbo r scene : "Suspen d her e an d everywhere , eterna l float o f solution! " (185 6 220) . The cosmi c agent s calle d o n i n th e poe m are likewis e relate d intimatel y t o th e poe t wh o invoke s them , comin g t o figure his powers rathe r tha n makin g u p for thei r waning. As Whitman' s imperative i n th e lin e jus t quote d implies , the "eterna l float" i s made t o "suspend here " b y mean s o f th e poet' s word : th e "float " i s a nam e fo r the spac e generate d b y Whitman' s catalogues , an d th e cosmogonizin g powers tha t shap e th e harbo r scen e ar e th e poet' s emanatin g presenc e and th e voic e o n whic h i t i s modeled. I n th e earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass, Whitman's cosmologizin g function s a s part of a sublime econom y rather tha n a mystical vision : it helps structure a romantic transumption , a crisi s o f blockag e an d recover y i n whic h initiall y external , competin g forces ar e internalized a s types of th e poet's ow n power. 1 This sublim e econom y i s cue d t o depiction s o f ligh t an d flood; th e poet's sometime s quirk y cosmologizin g i s thus grounde d i n wha t almos t feels lik e empirica l fact . Bot h ligh t an d flood ar e ultimatel y regarde d a s deficient precursor s o f th e poet' s transfigurin g word . Bu t the y ar e als o set agains t on e another , lendin g cosmi c scop e t o th e conflicts i n whic h the poe t i s immersed . I f Whitman' s catalogue s subdu e recalcitran t ob jects t o th e inclusiv e powe r o f th e word , overcomin g th e multipl e an d the contingent , hi s ligh t imager y serve s t o consig n suc h separate , un stable form s t o th e statu s o f simulacra . Illuminatin g onl y th e surface s o f things, light also projects thei r outlines o r images, creating a baffling mi x

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of partiall y illumine d object s an d figmentary forms . I t become s Whit man's crucia l metonym y fo r natura naturata —the worl d o f seemingl y discrete entitie s apprehende d a s a n arra y o f surface s tha t concea l inte riors an d bloc k ou r acces s to them. Lik e the images cas t b y light amon g which the y appear , thes e surface s ar e themselves regarde d a s misleadin g signs: the y ar e said merel y t o "indicate " or poorly represen t th e force of natura naturans tha t ha s produced an d no w lurks withi n them . Associ ated wit h th e inside s suc h exterior s sequester , thi s animatin g forc e i s typically figured i n Whitman's wor k a s a flood tha t create s al l individua l forms fro m ou t o f it s ceaseles s flowing. Visionar y moment s i n Whit man's wor k ofte n begi n wit h a welling up of this cosmic liquid: it results in th e momentary dissolutio n o f blockin g surface s an d the ecstatic min gling of no-longer bounde d forms . The poe t migh t wel l b e assigned th e prophetic tas k o f recordin g suc h glimpses o f a n earthl y paradise . Bu t i n th e earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass w e repeatedl y discove r hi m lurkin g abou t t o assis t it s progress : caressing an d laving , hi s fluid bod y seem s t o b e a n essentia l catalys t i n these visionar y reactions . I t is in his pneumatic guise , however, tha t th e poet come s trul y int o hi s own: not only ar e breath an d voice associate d systematically wit h th e natura l powe r o f flood, appearin g a s aspect s o f or substitute s fo r it ; i n Whitman' s earl y edition s natura naturans i s ultimately a trope fo r the productive, performative forc e o f language . The worl d o f surface s ami d whic h th e poe t move s i s thu s finally conceived a s a series of signs pointing not simply to the sequestered flood of natura naturans bu t als o t o th e livin g word . I n a sublim e transump tion centra l t o th e imaginative econom y o f Leaves of Grass, worl d an d word ar e thus reconceived a s outside and inside, appearance and essence, respectively: th e worl d ha s becom e th e mer e sig n o f itself ; th e wor d produces th e worl d itself . Thi s chiasmu s o f word s an d thing s hyperbo lizes th e ritua l powe r o f utteranc e displaye d throughou t th e earl y edi tions o f Leaves of Grass; i t paradoxicall y naturalize s th e powe r o f th e poet's wor d b y makin g create d natur e a functio n o f language . Thi s naturalization i s one crucia l functio n o f Whitman' s sometime s baroqu e and improbabl e cosmi c musings . But Whitman' s preoccupatio n wit h th e suppose d deficiencie s o f th e natural world , an d wit h th e word' s powe r t o overcom e them , ca n als o be regarded a s a displacement o f mor e intimat e an d threatening difficul ties. Positin g a cosmologica l groun d fo r th e word, Whitma n occult s th e

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social provenance o f language , the symbolic status of it s powers, and th e socially mediate d meanin g an d valu e o f it s object s an d acts . Extricatin g the poe t fro m pressure s b y whic h h e ha s bee n conspicuousl y beset , thi s positioning o f th e wor d als o implie s tha t hi s speec h migh t redee m a social real m fro m whic h it s power s n o longe r derive. 2 Ye t th e cultura l threats th e poet woul d thereb y evad e ar e indirectly registere d i n the ver y image cluste r tha t shoul d serv e to la y the m t o rest . The characterizatio n of create d natur e a s a realm o f image s serve s onl y i n par t t o assuag e th e poet's apprehensions , b y implyin g bot h th e merel y illusor y statu s o f al l that oppose s hi s dominio n an d th e word' s priorit y t o it . Thi s prolifera tion o f image s simultaneousl y expresse s anxiety , provoke d b y a debacl e that i s cultural rathe r tha n natural : Whitma n imagine s a world engulfe d by simulacra , a symboli c orde r encroachin g wit h somethin g lik e inexor ability o n thing s themselves . Hi s positionin g o f th e poet' s wor d a s th e cure fo r nature' s od d fal l int o representatio n thu s allay s anxietie s abou t the word b y projecting the m ont o th e world—disquietudes th e vision of proliferating representation s come s clos e t o admitting . I wil l conclud e my loo k a t th e imaginativ e structur e centerin g o n ligh t an d flood b y noting ho w i t register s som e o f thes e doubts ; th e cultura l dilemm a t o which the y point will be my subject i n the following chapter * First I want to trace Whitman's imag e cluster in something like the terms it proposes. i . Associatin g th e worl d o f visibl e form s wit h th e actio n o f ligh t tha t reveals it , Whitma n hyperbolize s it s bewilderin g qualities . Bu t h e als o levers appearance s int o th e positio n o f phantasmagoria : th e boundin g surfaces tha t delimi t eac h objec t an d mar k it s othernes s ar e assimilate d to th e image s an d shadow s produce d b y th e pla y o f ligh t upo n them . Suggesting tha t suc h othernes s i s delusiv e o r a t an y rat e accidental , Whitman's ligh t imager y attribute s i t ambiguousl y t o eithe r a deficien t mode o f apprehensio n o r a flawe d sor t o f incarnation . Descendin g fro m outside an d illuminatin g surface s only , proliferatin g image s rathe r tha n penetrating t o th e animatin g presenc e suc h surface s conceal , ligh t epito mizes a n alienate d mod e o f knowledge . Ye t th e opaqu e surface s ligh t i s consigned t o displayin g o r duplicatin g ar e themselve s unnatura l impedi ments: Whitma n repeatedl y figures the m a s accretion s tha t perversel y trap th e lif e forc e lurkin g withi n them . Th e enigmati c creatio n myt h i n "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " seems to associate such confinemen t wit h th e action o f light , apparentl y attributin g th e creatio n o f bounde d bodie s t o

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an origina l instanc e o f cosmi c illumination : th e create d worl d o f opaqu e forms seem s to b e figured a s a collection o f image s projected fro m abov e by light . Thi s peculia r equivocation—betwee n fals e apprehensio n an d degraded incarnation—turn s ou t t o b e richl y evocative . A s we shal l se e in chapte r 4 , it s resonanc e depend s ultimatel y o n Whitman' s visio n o f socialization, whic h fasten s no t onl y o n th e separatio n o f th e bod y fro m its object s bu t als o o n th e spli t betwee n wor d an d thin g tha t inaugu rates symboli c languag e an d consciousness , debacle s Whitma n see s a s related. "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " ca n provid e u s onc e mor e wit h a distille d version o f Whitman' s characteristi c imaginativ e transactions . W e nee d to remember , though , tha t th e harbo r scen e i s presente d fro m th e per spective o f a sublim e reversa l supposedl y alread y accomplishe d a s th e poet addresse s us : hi s description s deriv e muc h o f thei r frequentl y san guine qualit y fro m thi s transfigure d relation . Ye t thi s transmute d scen e is stil l disturbe d b y th e mute d presenc e o f troublin g forces . Ther e ar e only a fe w reference s t o th e actio n o f ligh t i n th e poem , bu t thes e ar e disposed s o a s t o colo r ou r receptio n o f adjacen t material . Ligh t i s th e crucial sourc e o f th e splendo r tha t provoke s th e poet' s ecstacy , despit e a complementary referenc e t o sound: "Th e glories strung like beads o n m y smallest sight s an d hearing s [ . . . ] " (185 6 212 ; emphasi s added) . Bu t these brillian t auras—clustere d o n objects , perhaps , lik e dew—are con spicuously ephemeral . In th e recurren t scen e the poe t evokes , the declin ing su n i s "hal f a n hou r high " (185 6 213) , an d i n th e poem' s thir d section th e ligh t i t project s grow s "dimme r an d dimmer " (185 6 215) . This ligh t is also fitful i n it s operation: i n sectio n si x the poet recall s tha t "The dar k thre w patche s dow n upo n m e also , / Th e bes t I ha d don e seemed t o m e blan k an d suspicious " (185 6 216) . Th e metaphorica l status o f thi s "dark " whic h descend s o n th e poe t augment s th e impor tance o f image s o f ligh t an d shado w rathe r tha n diminishin g it : th e scene's shifting , evanescen t ligh t become s Whitman' s crucia l metonym y for th e mod e o f relatio n i t conditions . From th e vantag e o f th e poem' s conclusion , tha t relatio n i s an unnat ural one . In "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " ligh t illumine s a shifting , un stable scen e filled wit h a multitud e o f creature s an d object s apparentl y divorced fro m th e subjec t wh o survey s them; th e poet ha s been relegate d to transcribin g vicissitude s h e doe s no t control . This limitatio n ma y wel l

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strike u s a s inevitable . Ye t th e poe m enact s a reversa l i n whic h i t i s supposedly overcome : "planting " th e object s o f th e harbo r scen e "per manently within, " th e poe t annul s thei r othernes s an d thei r changeabil ity i n a singl e gesture . "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " thu s suggest s tha t th e instability visio n record s i s a functio n o f it s separatio n fro m th e object s it apprehend s an d o f th e transitiv e relation s i t i s therefore consigne d t o rendering: th e mod e o f apprehensio n conditione d b y ligh t see s onl y th e extrinsic, the merely contingent . The lon g catalogu e tha t dominate s th e poem' s thir d sectio n i s frame d by image s tha t len d th e entir e scen e somethin g o f th e qualit y o f Plato' s cave. It s openin g draw s ou r attentio n t o th e pla y o f ligh t tha t illumine s the harbor : I watched th e Decembe r sea-gulls , I saw the m hig h i n th e ai r floating with motionless wings oscillating their bodies, I saw how the glistening yellow lit up parts of their bodies, and left the rest in strong shadow. (1856 213) Light slide s over shiftin g surfaces , formin g unstabl e patterns an d provid ing glimpses of th e object tha t ar e partial an d virtuall y random . The poe t turn s nex t t o th e river' s surface , encounterin g no t actua l objects bu t figmentary form s produce d b y light : I too saw the reflection o f the summer-sky in the water, Had my eyes dazzled by the shimmering track of beams. (1856 213-14 ) The shape s which shimme r o n th e river ar e like outsides wit h n o insides . Here Whitman's pervasiv e sens e o f th e ga p betwee n surfac e an d interio r reaches a gidd y limit : th e interio r i s n o longe r simpl y inaccessibl e bu t has cease d t o exist . Heightening th e deficiencie s whic h alread y characteriz e th e poet' s apprehensions o f th e objec t world , thi s concentratio n o n projected shape s also implicitly attribute s his difficulties t o the operation o f representatio n light bring s int o play . I n th e scen e shape d b y light , ou r attentio n i s diverted fro m th e thin g itsel f t o a dazzlin g imag e tha t substitute s fo r it ; introducing a mediatin g ter m betwee n subjec t an d object , ligh t con founds thei r relation . A s th e poe m elsewher e make s clear , th e su n fro m which ligh t emanates is also conceived a s this alienating third: instigatin g a detou r throug h th e form s i t projects , th e su n i s th e sourc e o f media tions tha t deflec t o r displac e th e protagonist' s observation s rathe r tha n

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facilitating them. 3 Apparently , th e poe t i s alienate d fro m th e object s h e contemplates b y representation , o r b y th e distan t sourc e fro m whic h i t emanates. This detou r seem s no t onl y t o interven e i n th e poet' s relatio n t o objects, bu t als o t o structur e hi s contemplatio n o f himself . Ligh t ca n represent objects wher e they are not, usurpin g their power o f self-presen tation b y disseminating thei r images : Had my eyes dazzled by the shimmering track of beams, Looked at the fine centrifugal spoke s of light round the shape of my head in the sun-lit water. (1856 214) The poe t gaze s her e o n hi s ow n detache d image ; produce d b y th e sun , this visio n o f hi s prope r grandeu r appear s befor e hi m wit h a certai n alienated majesty . I f thi s haloed , seemingl y light-emittin g shap e trope s the generativ e forc e o f th e poet , bein g a n avata r o f tha t Apoll o figure whose romanti c lineag e goe s bac k a t leas t t o Collins , thi s visionar y power no w stand s ove r agains t hi m an d mus t someho w b e reclaimed. 4 If the poet's apprehensio n o f object s detour s throug h a n alienatin g third , so too doe s hi s visio n o f himself : appearin g a s an imag e cas t b y the sun , identity itsel f ha s bee n hollowe d out . Coming a t thes e line s fro m a differen t angl e an d associatin g the m with tw o phrase s fro m Whitman' s enigmati c creatio n myth—on e evok ing th e "float " an d on e assertin g tha t eac h perso n "came , o r comes , o r shall come , fro m it s du e emission " (185 6 218) 5 —Quentin Anderso n reads this scene of wha t migh t b e called natura l alienatio n i n terms o f a n occulted sexua l scenario : He has been "struck from the float forever held in solution"; that is, he is defined as an identity b y the power of the sun which image s his head in the water, or is the creation o f a particular see d of th e paternal "float " o r semen. ("Whitman' s New Man" 20) 6 The Oedipa l structur e Anderso n adduce s her e help s accoun t fo r th e psychic resonance o f th e whole imag e cluster centerin g on light , colorin g not onl y passage s lik e thi s on e bu t als o th e mythi c dram a i n whic h th e poet challenge s th e sun. 7 In thi s contex t th e invasiv e o r aggressiv e as pects o f th e poet' s determinatio n t o fus e al l creature s an d object s int o his fluid for m ar e offse t b y the liberatin g effect s o f thi s gesture: negatin g the distance betwee n subjec t an d object , th e poet thereb y als o annuls th e

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interior distanc e an d alienatio n t o whic h al l selve s ar e subjecte d i n th e realm rule d b y ligh t an d shape d b y th e detou r throug h representatio n i t inaugurates. The paternal metapho r t o which Anderso n appeal s alert s u s to th e symbolic forc e o f thi s myth o f natura l redemption . The line s tha t conclud e th e lon g stanz a o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " to whic h w e hav e bee n attending , however , figure no t ou r liberatio n from th e reig n o f ligh t bu t th e phantasmagori a b y which thos e unde r it s rule are haunted. Th e scen e turns demonic , as the poet observes : On the neighborin g shor e th e fires fro m th e foundr y chimney s burnin g high and glaringly into the night, Casting their flicker o f black, contrasted with wild red and yellow light, over the tops of houses, and down into the clefts of streets. (1856 215) Images o f nothin g tha t exists , thes e violentl y shiftin g shape s epitomiz e the delusiv e qualit y o f th e world shape d b y light. Representatio n ha s th e dangerous capacit y t o usur p th e prope r plac e o f thing s themselves , en snaring u s in a realm o f insubstantia l images . If representation intervene s i n our apprehensio n o f th e object world , an d of ourselves , a simila r doublin g ha s apparentl y befalle n th e physica l world, deformin g incarnat e object s themselves . Susceptible t o bein g rep resented i n image s cas t b y light , th e object s o f th e harbo r scen e ar e implicitly regarde d a s representations . I n Leaves of Grass a n explicitl y semiotic vocabulary establishe s thi s connection; i t calls attention t o itsel f since i t tends t o si t awkwardl y i n passage s o f physica l description . Cue d to the word "indicate, " this terminology suggest s that Whitman's cosmi c musings ar e cruciall y concerne d wit h th e wa y significatio n shape s th e world. Rathe r tha n bein g a nominalis t gesture , though , thi s habi t o f attention instea d serve s t o leve r th e poet' s speciall y empowere d word s into th e privilege d positio n o f things , b y first showin g tha t thing s them selves ar e alread y compromise d b y th e semioti c operatio n w e normall y attribute t o words . Like Whitman' s ligh t imagery , hi s semioti c vocabular y als o stresse s the opacit y o f visibl e surfaces . A shor t stanz a late r delete d fro m th e seventh sectio n o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " characterize s th e relatio n between suc h surface s an d th e depth s tha t lur k withi n the m i n term s o f the operation o f indication :

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Every thing indicates—the smallest does, and the largest does, A necessary film envelop s all, and envelops the soul for a proper time. (1856 218) 8

Whitman's juxtapositio n her e suggest s tha t i t i s b y mean s o f a "neces sary film" tha t "ever y thin g indicates. " Envelopin g "all, " thi s "film " seems t o b e a trop e fo r opaqu e surfaces . Sinc e i t mor e particularl y "envelops th e sou l fo r a proper time, " i t ca n als o b e associated wit h th e body, epitomize d b y it s surfaces ; incarnation , blockage , an d indicatio n are fo r Whitma n intimatel y connected . A lin e fro m th e poem' s nint h section suggest s th e self-divisio n t o whic h object s hav e thu s bee n sub jected: "Appearances , no w o r henceforth , indicat e what you are! " (185 6 221). Hidde n behin d thei r surfaces , thing s "indicate " themselve s rathe r than revealin g what the y ar e directly . Such passage s serv e t o relegat e visibl e object s t o th e statu s o f signs , opposing outside s t o inside s a s signifier s t o signifieds . Th e operatio n o f indication tha t perform s thi s signifyin g rela y offer s knowledg e tha t i s sketchy an d imperfect : Whither I walk I cannot define, but I know it is good, The whole universe indicates that it is good, The past and present indicate that it is good. ("To Think of Time," 1856 341) Indication provide s a sign of somethin g it cannot present directly , substi tuting for a thing which itsel f remain s absent or inaccessible. 9 Whitman' s semiotic vocabular y thu s displace s th e organicis t visio n wit h whic h Leaves of Grass i s commonly associated : rathe r the n bein g the expressiv e flow ering o f th e inside , the outsid e i s a signifie r veilin g a signifie d i t simulta neously indicate s an d sequesters . Th e visibl e worl d become s a n enig matic text tha t rebuff s deciphering : And I cannot put my toe anywhere to the ground, But it must touch numberless and curious books Each one scorning all that schools and science can do fully t o translate them. (UPP 2:70 )

The interpretive labo r thi s book o f natur e bot h require s an d frustrate s is one o f th e poet' s generi c tasks . Sometimes h e works patiently , puttin g up wit h th e distanc e imperfectl y bridge d b y indicatio n whil e awaitin g the visionar y breakthroug h tha t wil l mak e recours e t o thi s deficien t operation unneccesary :

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Spots or cracks at the windows do not disturb me, Tall and sufficient stan d behind and make signs to me; I read the promise and patiently wait. ("Faces," 1855 127) Sometimes h e urges u s to tolerat e thi s gap with simila r patience , offerin g a visio n o f eventua l reconciliatio n tha t h e ca n expres s fo r no w onl y i n the tantalizing mod e o f paradox : Will the whole come back then? Can eac h se e th e sign s o f th e bes t b y a loo k i n th e lookingglass ? I s ther e nothing greater or more? Does al l si t ther e wit h yo u an d her e wit h me ? (" A Son g for Occupations, " 185592) Yet more characteristically , th e poet resolutel y set s about overcomin g such divisions , burrowin g throug h indicativ e surfaces . "Son g o f th e Open Road " thu s invoke s a figur e who m th e poe t himsel f elsewher e incarnates: Only the kernel of every object nourishes; Where is he who tears off the husks for you and me? Where is he that undoes stratagems and envelopes for you and me? (1856 229) Persistently an d sometime s franticall y kinetic , suc h image s o f physica l penetration see m a t firs t t o b e a t odd s wit h thos e aspect s o f Whitman' s presentation tha t assimilat e th e physica l worl d t o th e problematic s o f the imag e o r sign . Ye t i n passage s suc h a s these , th e create d worl d i s oddly figured a s encrusted. I t i s characterize d b y dried-ou t surfaces , lifeless accretion s tha t bloc k al l flo w an d animation—excrescence s left , as i t were , b y a n incomplet e proces s o f molting , shell s tha t hav e no t quite droppe d awa y an d no w disguis e an d entra p wha t lurk s withi n them. Lik e Whitman' s explicitl y semioti c vocabulary , hi s topographi c mapping o f object s replace s expressivit y wit h a n oppositio n betwee n inside and outsid e tha t subvert s suc h organi c continuity . The resistant , congeale d physicalit y tha t characterize s object s i n thei r fallen mod e i s sometime s explicitl y associate d wit h th e productio n o f deceptive signs : opacit y amount s t o misrepresentation , an d ca n b e figured a s a n ironized , dissimulatin g discourse . Th e 185 5 poe m "Faces " opens wit h a prolonge d descriptio n o f a n urba n crow d tha t modulate s into remarkabl e grotesqueness :

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This now is too lamentable a face for a man; Some abject louse asking leave to be . . cringing for it, Some milknosed maggot blessing what lets it wrig to its hole. (1855 125) Yet suc h deformit y i s shortl y equate d wit h deceptio n an d thu s partl y relieved o f th e sens e of gruesom e quiddit y tha t mad e i t so troubling : Features of my equals, would you trick me with your creased and cadaverous march ? Well then you cannot trick me. I see your rounded never-erased flow , I see neath the rims of your haggard and mean disguises. (1855 125—26) The 185 5 Prefac e likewis e associate s surface s wit h stratage m an d deceit, thus equating the overcoming of othernes s with th e bringing fort h of unsullie d originar y force : The poet s o f th e kosmo s advanc e throug h al l interposition s an d covering s and turmoils and stratagems to first principles. (1855 17) The 185 6 "B y Blu e Ontario' s Shore " connect s suc h deceptiv e surface s with a n iron y tha t cover s the logos : I swear I will not be outfaced b y irrational things! I will penetrate what it is in them that is sarcastic upon me! (1856 200) In suc h passages , incarnat e creature s an d object s see m t o b e part s o f a blotted boo k o f nature , a natura naturata tha t ha s becom e a devious , hostile wilderness o f signs. 10 If the protagonist's concentratio n i n sectio n three o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " o n image s projecte d b y ligh t serve s both t o epitomiz e an d t o impug n ou r ordinar y mod e o f apprehension , these passage s sugges t tha t suc h image s an d th e awarenes s the y condi tion merel y reproduc e th e deficiencies o f incarnat e creature s an d objects ; representation ha s alread y befalle n th e thin g itself . Th e ligh t tha t pro duces delusiv e image s an d reflection s replicate s appearance s tha t ar e themselves mer e sign s of a n alread y sequestere d presence . This visio n o f incarnat e form s a s deficien t representation s o r deceptiv e signs i s admittedl y a t odd s wit h a n importan t stran d o f Whitman' s pronouncements abou t th e body . Fro m hi s earlies t notebook s on , Whit man frequentl y proclaim s th e inseparability , th e interdependence , o r

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even th e identit y o f "body " an d "soul. " In a n earl y noteboo k entr y h e declares tha t a health y o r "perfect " bod y no t onl y house s th e sou l bu t makes i t manifest : The effusio n o r corporatio n o f th e sou l i s alway s unde r th e beautifu l law s of physiology—I guess the soul itself can never be anything but great and pure and immortal; bu t i t make s itsel f visibl e only throug h matter— a perfec t head , an d bowels an d bone s t o matc h i s th e eas y gat e throug h whic h i t come s fro m it s embowered garden, and pleasantly appears to the sight of the world. (UPP 2:65) "Song o f Myself " ofte n imagine s th e bod y o f th e poe t i n jus t suc h terms. While the objects depicte d i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " can onl y indicate wha t the y are , bein g shroude d i n surface s tha t vei l th e ver y interiors the y signify , i n "Son g o f Myself " th e poet's bod y i s supposedl y innocent o f suc h divisio n betwee n insid e an d outside : If I worship an y particula r thin g i t shal l b e som e o f th e sprea d o f m y own body; Translucent mould of me it shall be you. (1855 49) This "translucent " bod y i s free o f th e doublin g tha t divide s othe r bodie s against themselves ; it shares an d embodie s th e divinity tha t characterize s the soul : "Divin e a m I inside an d out , an d I make hol y whateve r I touch or a m touche d from " ("Son g o f Myself " 185 5 49) This suppose d identit y o f bod y an d sou l persist s a s a n importan t element i n Whitman' s wor k a t leas t unti l i860 , thoug h a s w e shal l se e the bod y o f whic h suc h identit y migh t b e predicated i s by then n o longe r characteristically th e poet' s own . Thi s identit y i s forcefull y declare d i n the i86 0 tex t o f " I Sin g th e Bod y Electric. " Ther e th e poe t conclude s a long—and unintentionall y oppressive—listin g o f bod y part s wit h th e fervent declaration : O I say now thes e are not th e parts an d poems of th e body only, but of th e Soul, O I say these are the Soul! (i860 302) n This momen t o f particula r vehemence , however, i s also on e of hover ing doubt . Th e ver y insistenc e o f Whitman' s declaration s suggest s th e troubling prospec t the y ward off : th e parts o f th e bod y migh t not b e th e "parts" o f th e soul ; th e outsid e migh t fai l t o b e th e inside , becomin g instead th e alienate d for m i n whic h i t i s entrapped . Th e fac t tha t Whit -

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man's "now, " i n th e first o f thes e lines , ca n b e rea d a s performativ e heightens thi s sens e o f th e erranc y t o whic h th e bod y i s subject : th e poet's declaratio n vigorousl y re-align s bod y an d soul , correctin g th e slippage t o which thei r relation i s always liable . The body i s a contested site i n Whitman' s earl y editions , struggle d ove r b y natura l power s i n mythic narratives, and by the cultural force s suc h cosmic stories trope. 12 By th e tim e Whitma n wrot e th e transitiona l i86 0 edition , hi s atten tions ha d begu n t o shif t t o th e afterlif e abou t whic h hi s late r wor k ruminates; i n th e ne w poem s compose d fo r thi s volume , th e distinctio n between ba d an d goo d bod y accordingl y mos t ofte n correspond s t o a contrast betwee n her e an d hereafter. A s Harold Aspi z points out , Whit man draw s o n th e notio n o f "th e permanenc e o f th e immorta l 'rea l body' [which ] wa s a n articl e o f spiritualis t faith " durin g th e perio d (178), envisionin g th e extricatio n o f a n immorta l bod y fro m it s morta l coil. Th e fervo r o f thes e passage s derive s a t leas t i n par t fro m th e wa y this spiritualis t doctrin e helpe d Whitma n imagin e a body tha t migh t b e neatly detache d fro m th e sort of self-divisio n hi s descriptions i n the first two editions of Leaves of Grass sometime s register : I absolve you from all except yourself, spiritual , bodily—that is eternal, (The corpse you will leave will be but excrementitious.) ("T o One Shortly to Die," i860 398) 13 In th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass, Whitma n mor e ofte n thinks o f th e expendabl e bod y a s deforme d coverin g tha n a s interna l waste matter , an d thu s a s a kind o f misleadin g sign . An d hi s character istic effor t i s t o sp y ou t th e presenc e o f a goo d bod y lurkin g beneat h encrustations rathe r tha n t o teac h u s abou t it s emergenc e i n anothe r sphere.14 A numbe r o f passage s thu s enac t a kind o f stammerin g desyn onymization: i t highlights Whitman' s divide d visio n o f th e bod y b y awkwardly tryin g t o sor t ou t an d schematiz e it . Th e difficult y o f envi sioning th e physiolog y Whitma n propound s i n th e followin g passag e from th e 185 6 poe m "Assurances " is one indication o f th e overdetermi nation o f th e bod y i n hi s work , it s investmen t wit h multipl e an d ofte n diametrically oppose d meanings : I do not doubt that from under the feet, and beside the hands and face I a m cognizant of , ar e no w lookin g face s I am no t cognizan t of—cal m an d actual faces. (1856 265)

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If Whitman imagine s a good bod y whic h incarnate s th e soul, this templ e of flesh characteristicall y manifest s itsel f onl y b y shuckin g of f a ba d o r "excrementitious" bod y whic h deform s o r degrade s it . How migh t thi s debacl e happen ? Ther e ar e variou s answer s t o thi s question i n Whitman' s work . Whil e Whitman' s late r edition s reserv e possession o f a good bod y fo r othe r spheres , in the early Leaves of Grass entrapment i n a ba d bod y i s a pervasiv e bu t no t quit e necessar y conse quence o f earthl y incarnation . Aspi z ha s demonstrate d Whitman' s ofte n ambivalent interes t i n severa l o f th e medica l pseudo-science s o f hi s era , with thei r obsessivel y manichea n vision s (109-79) . Thes e discourse s advocated a variet y o f strenuou s regimen s t o guar d th e bodil y templ e from self-abuse ; the y characteristicall y linke d bodil y purit y wit h "natu ral" appetites , degeneratio n wit h th e deprave d taste s spawne d b y cul ture. While th e detailin g o f purgativ e regimen s i s a muc h mor e commo n feature o f Whitman' s journalis m an d noteboo k jotting s tha n o f Leaves of Grass, th e associatio n o f socializatio n wit h alienatio n fro m one' s ow n body pervade s hi s poetr y a s wel l a s prose . Bu t i n th e poem s i t assume s the statu s o f a debacl e fo r whic h mer e healt h fad s tur n ou t t o b e a grossly inadequat e remedy ; the task o f redeemin g the body fro m cultura l entanglements provoke s rathe r mor e drasti c measure s i n Leaves of Grass. This cultural scenari o is not rendered overtl y i n the cosmic drama center ing on light . But while th e fal l fro m goo d t o ba d bod y i s attributed ther e to natura l rathe r tha n socia l causes , i t i s associate d wit h th e aberran t category I have bee n callin g natura l representation , wit h th e eruptio n o f images an d thei r virtua l usurpatio n o f th e plac e o f thing s themselves . I n "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " thi s fal l int o th e real m o f simulacr a i s give n a sor t o f diagrammati c neatness , a definitiona l forc e i t i s temptin g t o read a s a cover t registratio n o f th e constitutiv e spli t betwee n natur e an d culture. Representation , a t an y rate , ca n b e sai d t o constitut e th e scen e ruled b y ligh t i n whic h th e protagonis t i s initially immersed ; i t i s implicitly th e origi n no t onl y o f hi s apprehensio n bu t o f al l tha t h e see s a s well. If Whitman' s concentratio n o n reflecte d shape s implie s th e pervasiv e role o f representation , tw o shor t passage s mor e firmly establis h it s con stitutive functio n b y ponderin g wha t migh t b e calle d th e boundar y be tween representatio n an d wha t precede s it . Tw o line s I too k not e o f earlier depic t thi s threshold a s unapproachable :

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I too saw the reflection o f the summer-sky in the water, Had my eyes dazzled by the shimmering track of beams. (1856 213—14) These line s insis t o n th e inaccessibilit y o f th e su n (i n par t b y no t men tioning it , instea d namin g th e sk y wher e i t resides) . Amon g th e thing s which canno t b e directl y apprehende d i s thu s th e ver y powe r tha t inau gurates representation ; lik e th e image s i t project s fo r ou r perusal , th e sun i s available t o u s onl y i n th e figmentar y for m o f a n imag e displaye d on water . Unabl e t o gras p presence s directl y an d consigne d t o observin g their images , shadows , o r indicativ e surfaces , w e ar e als o apparentl y incapable o f beholdin g th e sourc e o f suc h mediation . Wha t dazzle s her e is, a s i t were , representatio n itself : barre d fro m th e threshol d an d th e difference i t inaugurates , w e ar e inside representation . I n "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " onl y th e poe t i n hi s mythi c guis e wil l b e exemp t fro m this interdiction an d it s effects . Defining ou r apprehension , representatio n seem s als o t o constitut e the incarnat e worl d w e apprehend . Enforce d b y the semioti c vocabular y Whitman applie s t o surfaces , thi s visio n o f creature s an d object s a s themselves representation s ma y b e universalize d b y som e line s nea r th e end o f sectio n five o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " whic h adduc e a n enigmatic creation myth : I too had been struck from th e float forever held in solution, I too had received identity by my body. (1856 2.16) Whitman's trop e her e o f th e bod y a s "struck " int o existenc e surel y appeals i n part t o the notion o f a solid substanc e bein g precipitated fro m a flui d solution . Tha t i s a t leas t th e primar y sens e o f a passag e fro m Whitman's notebook s whic h thes e lines in the published versio n modify : I too was struck from th e float eternally [? ] held in solution. I too was cohered and received identity through my body. (NUPM 1:23c) 15 Whitman's subsequen t deletio n o f " I to o wa s cohered " migh t b e explained a s a useful compression ; bu t i t also ha s the effec t o f renderin g the sens e o f "struck " ambiguous . Keepin g i n min d th e poem's dominan t tropes, Quenti n Anderso n thu s argue s tha t thes e line s als o figure bodie s as the images or shadow s cas t when som e primordial substanc e is "struck " by a ligh t sourc e (Imperial Self 159) . I f thi s i s plausibl e eve n a s a secondary reading , the n i n th e poem' s cosmi c myt h th e ac t whic h give s us birth , whic h place s u s i n th e opaqu e bodie s tha t divid e u s fro m on e

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other, i s als o th e birt h o f representation ; t o b e "struc k fro m th e float" into particula r incarnatio n i s already t o hav e falle n int o th e conditio n o f the image , t o b e double d an d self-divided . Incarnat e selve s ar e thu s subject t o furthe r act s o f representatio n whic h ar e simpl y relate d falls , repetitions o f thi s origina l replication . Th e fal l fro m goo d t o ba d bod y i s on thi s accoun t no t simpl y a n acciden t tha t migh t befal l us ; in th e real m ruled b y ligh t i t ha s alway s alread y occurred. 16 A fabl e tha t make s subjection t o representatio n an d th e self-divisio n i t occasion s constitu tive, we shal l se e in chapter 4 , turns ou t t o b e very muc h i n keeping wit h Whitman's visio n o f th e body i n culture, though no t quit e of th e bod y a s such—as th e poet' s struggl e wit h th e su n i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " already make s clear , hi s tas k i s indee d t o brin g abou t anothe r sor t o f incarnation. Ye t th e globa l statu s o f th e fal l int o representatio n make s the repossessio n o f th e bod y a n apocalypti c projec t i n Leaves of Grass. While standin g a s synecdoch e fo r a supposedl y natura l force , flood carries this apocalypti c burde n i n Whitman's work . 2. In Leaves of Grass flood ultimatel y figures th e power s o f th e poet' s word; Whitman' s cosmolog y i s shaped b y th e ver y visio n o f languag e i t ostensibly serve s t o guarantee. 17 Thi s chiasmu s o f word s an d thing s motivates even those,mythic formulation s whic h giv e a naturalized nam e to th e power tha t wil l redeem th e surface worl d o f create d nature . In Whitman' s late r wor k th e dissolvin g o f separatenes s whic h flood brings abou t i s reserve d fo r th e afterlif e o n whic h poem s lik e "Passag e to India " expatiate . Bu t i n hi s earl y edition s flood i s a forc e tha t migh t transfigure ou r presen t world . In "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " w e hav e seen, th e poe t order s th e float, i n whic h al l thing s supposedl y subsis t before assumin g separate form , t o "suspen d here. " In the i86 0 "Startin g from Paumanok, " hi s speech doe s not simply command bu t instead give s voice t o th e immanen t powe r wit h whic h flood i s associated : " I permi t to spea k / Nature, withou t check , wit h origina l energy " (i86 0 8). 18 W e will tur n i n a momen t t o thi s crucia l relatio n betwee n natura naturans and th e poet' s voice . W e nee d t o atten d first t o th e topolog y thes e line s imply. Like th e voic e tha t i s len t t o i t here , flood i s imagine d a s subsistin g within individua l creature s an d objects ; thei r bounde d shape s offe r onl y deficient indication s o f th e single living presence tha t ha s produced the m and tha t animate s the m still . This topological fabl e i s not quit e compati -

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ble with th e creatio n myt h tha t seem s t o relegat e incarnat e form s t o th e status o f image s o r shadows . But Whitman i s not, afte r all , a cosmologi cal poet i n th e sens e i n whic h w e migh t speak , fo r example , o f Dant e a s being one . Thes e tw o divergen t topologie s hav e enoug h i n commo n fo r Whitman's purposes : imaginin g th e visibl e appearance s tha t se t on e sel f over agains t anothe r eithe r a s projecte d image s o r a s opaque , indicativ e surfaces, the y bot h constru e separate , bounde d form s a s deficien t sign s of a sequestered presenc e i t is the poet's tas k t o hel p liberate . Images o f floodin g thu s almos t alway s hav e chiliasti c implication s i n Whitman's work. 19 Lyrica l visions of a redeemed natura l worl d typicall y figure i t as pervaded b y a flood tha t dissolve s individual surfaces ; rightl y incarnate o r rightl y apprehended , th e object s create d b y th e floo d o f natura naturans woul d shar e it s qualities . Separate , soli d substance s ar e described, i n these moments, a s fluid an d unbounded : Earth of the slumbering and liquid trees! Earth of departed sunset! Earth of the mountains misty-topt! Earth o f th e vitreous pour o f th e full moo n just tinged with blue ! ("Song of Myself," 1855 45) Or the y blen d wit h th e surroundin g atmosphere , a mediu m tha t seem s to combin e the qualities o f flood an d breath : Hefts o f th e movin g worl d a t innocen t gambols , silentl y rising, freshl y exuding, Scooting obliquely high and low. ("Song of Myself," 1855 50) Such ecstatic moments, though, offe r n o more than visionar y glimpse s of a conditio n tha t ha s vanishe d o r ha s no t ye t com e t o pass . Lik e th e cosmology o f Emerson' s Nature, Whitman' s trop e o f emanatin g flood and the mythic narrative it implies give the entrapment o f presence insid e recalcitrant surface s th e for m o f a fall : th e animatin g liqui d tha t course s within discret e shape s ough t properl y t o hav e suffuse d the m completely , but ha s instea d receded , leavin g a worl d o f congeale d an d bounde d creatures i n it s wake. 20 Whitman' s image s o f dried-ou t o r calcifie d sur faces thu s no t onl y sugges t tha t appearance s ar e disguise s o r misrepre sentations. The y als o associat e th e formatio n o f suc h merel y indicativ e crusts with th e recessio n o f flood o r animatin g force : th e lapse into sign s is brough t abou t b y th e withdrawa l o f animating , livin g presence . W e might therefor e wan t t o rea d th e natura l cataclys m i n whic h flood

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recedes a s a mythopoei c accoun t o f th e fadin g o f th e natura l o r th e organic that attend s th e passag e int o the symboli c universe o f culture . The associatio n o f th e poet's voic e and presenc e wit h th e flood o f natura naturans thu s serve s to includ e hi m i n a peripeteia i n whic h th e peril s of culture ar e overcome. Yet the world hi s word produce s i s hardly natural . Whitman manage s t o hav e it both ways : associatin g flood , natura naturans, an d voice , his imag e cluste r bot h naturalize s th e wor d an d transfig ures th e natural b y means o f th e powers o f language . The link betwee n voic e and floo d i s crucial t o the equational structur e of Whitman' s work. 21 A loos e associatio n o f sound s an d voice s wit h varieties o f liquefactio n pervade s Whitman' s work . I n sectio n twenty one o f "Son g o f Myself, " th e poe t pause s t o atten d t o sound s whic h already enac t th e "merge " that i s the poem's project : I think I will do nothing for a long time but listen, To accrue what I hear into myself—to le t sounds contribute toward me. I hear bravura s o f birds , bustle of growing wheat, gossip of flames , clac k of sticks cooking my meals. I hear the sound I love, the sound of the human voice, I hear all sounds running together, combined, fused o r following, (i86 0 59) 22 This associatio n i s frequently give n cosmogoni c status : voice become s interchangeable wit h floo d a s a trop e fo r natura naturans i n Whitman' s work. Prio r t o articulat e language , thi s mythi c voic e assume s th e for m of a n eterna l lul l o r hum , a cosmi c musi c o r murmu r tha t weave s th e entire visible world fro m ou t o f it s regular, breath-lik e "pulsations. " Th e 1869 "Prou d Musi c o f th e Storm " present s thi s vision explicitly , thoug h the poe m i s marre d b y th e batho s an d unwieldy , involute d synta x o f Whitman's late r period . Her e th e "stron g base " i s both a foundatio n o r origin an d th e low , throbbin g tone s o n nature' s "grea t organ, " a soun d associated i n turn wit h flood : Now the great organ sounds, Tremulous—while underneath, (as the hid footholds of the earth, On which arising, rest, and leaping forth, depend, All shapes of beauty, grace and strength—all hues we know, Green blades of grass, and warbling birds—children tha t gambol and play— the clouds of heaven above,)

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The strong base stands, and its pulsations intermits not, Bathing, supporting, merging all the rest—maternity of all the rest. (V 3:576)23 Sound an d voic e ar e als o associate d wit h th e interio r space s wher e Whitman imagine s th e flood o f animatin g presenc e a s lurking. As I shall show i n detai l i n chapte r 5 , Whitman' s topologica l literalis m thu s pro vides th e unlikel y priorit y h e assign s t o languag e wit h a n imaginativel y compelling i f ultimatel y questionabl e basis : sinc e voice s emanat e fro m interior spaces , Whitma n declare s tha t th e essentia l animatin g energie s of individua l creature s ar e expresse d b y th e sound s tha t wel l u p ou t o f them. 24 Produce d b y an d modele d o n th e voice , th e poet' s presenc e incarnates thi s animatin g force , makin g i t manifest . Thi s ti e i s suggeste d by Whitman' s characteristi c image s fo r th e poe t an d hi s powers . Th e poet's abilit y t o redee m falle n creature s i s repeatedl y figured a s a n infu sion o f animatin g breath—"Yo u there , impotent , loos e i n th e knees , open you r scarfe d chop s till I blow gri t withi n you " ("Son g o f Myself, " 1855 70)—an d thu s assimilate d t o th e breath-lik e pulsation s o f th e "strong base. " Thi s breat h i s itsel f a kin d o f liquid—" I dilat e yo u wit h tremendous breat h . . . . I buo y yo u up " (185 5 71)—jus t a s th e pulsa tions o f nature' s "base " ar e als o a flood, ceaselessl y "bathing , support ing, merging al l the rest. " An d i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " th e powe r "which fuse s m e int o yo u now , an d pour s m y meanin g int o you " (185 6 219) mus t b e imagined bot h a s a voice that flows through tim e and spac e to addres s us , and a s a gigantesque, personal dispensatio n o f th e animat ing powers o f flood. 3. Thi s pourin g o f th e poet' s presenc e i s apocalyptic : natura naturans perfects itsel f a s language , an d i n th e figure o f th e poe t wh o incarnate s the word . Thi s apotheosi s o f living , animatin g presenc e make s represen tation dispensable , putting a n en d t o th e mediation s i t exacts. In "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " th e poet' s apotheosi s i s thus figured a s the reclamatio n o f bot h ligh t an d flood. Th e poem' s openin g foreshad ows thes e triumphs , stagin g a n imaginativ e confrontatio n betwee n th e poet an d th e apparentl y alie n power s tha t gover n th e harbor scene : Flood-tide of the river, flow on! I watch you, face to face, Clouds o f th e west ! su n hal f a n hou r high ! I se e yo u als o fac e t o face . (1856 211 )

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Others, it is true, will als o "watc h th e ru n o f th e flood-tide " (185 6 212) ; but the y wil l no t quit e b e sai d t o engag e i n th e squaring-of f implie d b y "face t o face." 25 An d th e scene' s ordinar y inhabitants , wit h thei r "downcast eyes"—th e protagonis t i n his merely finite guise among the m —will hardl y approac h th e presumptio n an d powe r o f thi s redeeme r who look s a t the su n directl y an d a s a rival . The poet's confrontatio n wit h th e powers o f ligh t is the mor e over t of these struggles . I n th e cours e o f th e poe m h e replace s th e su n an d assumes it s role : Whitman' s visionar y pronouncement s impl y th e poet' s assumption o f power s whic h resembl e bu t als o transfigure thos e of light . His ascen t t o th e sun' s positio n i s suggeste d b y a slightl y awkwar d locution i n whic h Whitma n proclaim s hi s presence . H e i s no t simpl y looking "at " us : Consider [ . . . ] whether I may not i n unknown way s be looking upon you! (1856 220; emphasis added) This invisibl e figure no w look s dow n upo n u s from a height; h e replace s the sun , whose les s innocent sequesterin g le d to thos e moment s i n whic h "the dar k thre w patche s dow n upon m e also " (185 6 216 ; emphasi s added). Thi s juxtapositio n neatl y suggest s th e reversa l o f positio n an d power th e poem negotiates . The announcement s i n whic h th e protagonis t declare s hi s presenc e also impl y hi s assumptio n o f power s o f emanatio n whic h riva l th e sun's projectio n o f light . An d th e capacitie s th e poe m goe s o n t o ascrib e to al l i n fac t depen d fo r thei r realizatio n o n thi s figure floatin g regall y above us : Keep your places, objects than which none else is more lasting! We descend upon you and all things, we arrest you all. (1856 221; emphasis added) These powers , i t shoul d b e clear , no t onl y resembl e bu t als o redee m those exercise d b y light . Th e poe t supposedl y "arrests " an d stabilize s things themselve s rathe r tha n traffickin g i n mere image s an d shadows . Implied throughou t "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " bot h th e reclamatio n of the sun's powers an d th e liberation fro m representatio n an d it s defect s thereby achieve d ar e mor e dramaticall y presente d i n section s twenty four an d twenty-fiv e o f "Son g of Myself." Here the sun's power, initiall y

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figured a s a threat , i s explicitl y internalized , bein g recognize d a s a typ e of th e poet' s ow n greate r force . Th e sublim e crossin g fro m blockag e t o introjection occur s i n the shift fro m on e sectio n t o th e next : The earth by the sky staid with . . .. th e daily close of their junction, The heaved challenge from th e east that moment over my head, The mocking taunt, See then whether you shall be master! [*5lM Dazzling and tremendous how quick the sunrise would kill me, If I could not now and always send sunrise out of me. We also ascend dazzling and tremendous as the sun, We found ou r own my soul in the calm and cool of the daybreak. My voice goes after what my eyes cannot reach, With th e twir l o f m y tongu e I encompas s world s an d volume s o f worlds . (1855 50 )

Whitman passe s swiftl y her e fro m image s o f th e sun' s dauntin g powe r to explici t confrontation , bu t the n t o a calm , assure d expansio n o f th e image of the poet a s sun-god whic h move s beyond conflic t int o a sublim e landscape i n whic h th e sun' s forc e ha s becom e a figure o f th e poet' s own. 27 Th e imag e o f th e poe t a s light-bringer , finally, i s subjecte d t o a shift tha t approache s catachresi s t o reveal voice as the ultimate sourc e of the sublime power ligh t can trope. 28 Two line s tha t appea r furthe r o n i n "Son g o f Myself " repea t thi s internalization. Ther e th e poe t no t onl y introject s th e sun' s powe r bu t also redeems it s deficiencies : Flaunt of the sunshine I need not your bask—lie over, You ligh t surface s onl y . . . . I forc e th e surface s an d th e depth s also . (185570)

Implicitly here , a s explicitly i n th e earlie r lines , voice is the sourc e o f th e poet's power ; an d wha t voic e can do , these line s make clear , is penetrat e to normall y inaccessibl e interiors . Th e poe t overcome s th e detour s o f representation—the illuminatio n o f mer e surface s an d th e replicatio n o f misleading images—inaugurate d b y the sun; his voice both fathom s an d forces livin g presence, making i t manifest o r givin g it expression .

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If th e poe t ca n overcom e th e detour s o f representation , liberatin g th e living presenc e hithert o locke d u p insid e th e thing s upo n whic h h e descends, that i s because h e himself supposedl y epitomize s o r incarnate s the animatin g powe r o f natura naturans. I n th e 185 5 "Son g o f th e Answerer," hi s adven t i s accordingl y figured a s a dramatic , catachreti c mingling o f ligh t and flood : Him all wait for . . . . him all yield up to . .. . his word is decisive and final, Him the y accep t . . . . i n hi m lav e . . . . i n hi m perceiv e themselve s a s ami d light, Him they immerse, and he immerses them. (1855 129 ) Here th e poe t wh o incarnate s ligh t als o transfigure s it , turnin g i t int o a living mediu m i n whic h other s ma y b e immersed ; i t ha s becom e a kin d of flood . Th e powe r o f ligh t t o produc e detache d image s disappears ; instead, thi s floodin g ligh t convey s th e poet' s animatin g presence. 29 Th e opacity an d distanc e epitomize d b y images , precipitate d b y th e rul e o f the sun , an d attribute d t o representatio n ar e apparently overcome . We migh t therefor e wis h t o understan d th e poe t a s a mythi c figure who reverse s ou r fal l int o cultur e an d heal s th e breache s tha t atten d it , returning us to natural immediacy . But if the poet's task ca n b e describe d as th e banishin g o f representatio n b y what Leaves of Grass invite s u s t o think o f a s livin g presence , w e nee d t o not e tha t presenc e an d th e floo d that figures i t have themselves bee n transformed . Th e presence produce d by apostrophe seem s to incarnat e th e visionary possibilit y towar d whic h Whitman's poem s repeatedl y point , a prospec t prefigure d b y al l thos e ecstatic glimpse s o f "slumberin g an d liqui d trees " an d "Heft s o f th e moving worl d a t innocen t gambols , silentl y rising , freshl y exuding. " Whitman's insistenc e on the poet's invisible but incongruously embodie d presence suggest s tha t thi s figure i s no t onl y a pourin g o f th e flood , bu t simultaneously a bod y rendere d flui d b y th e forc e h e als o is— a par t o f created natur e wholl y animate d an d dissolve d b y th e cosmi c liqui d tha t wells u p throug h it . Give n th e remarkabl e time-schem e thes e apos trophes inaugurate , thi s pourin g o f floo d mus t als o b e see n a s eternal ; filling al l person s an d objects , i t i s a flood-tid e tha t know s n o ebb , a n energy that ca n expen d itsel f ceaselessl y withou t diminution . This magica l figure i s what Leaves of Grass want s t o mea n b y livin g presence: al l othe r presence s tur n ou t t o b e partial , adulterate d avatar s of th e forc e thi s figure incarnate s an d conveys . I n "Crossin g Brookly n

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Ferry" i t i s thu s th e poe t himsel f wit h who m natur e i s sai d t o flood us : its fluid force, we recall, "fuses m e into you now , an d pour s m y meanin g into you. " In Whit r lan' s wor k presenc e i s th e presenc e o f voic e an d word. Th e poe t red t ems al l thos e h e addresse s an d al l th e thing s h e names b y catchin g t h m u p int o th e apocalypti c tim e an d spac e define d bv his magical utterance .

4. I t i s of cours e a majo r parado x o f Whitman' s wor k tha t th e deficien cies attribute d t o representatio n ar e supposedl y overcom e b y language , that th e poet' s wor d restore s wha t representatio n ruins . W e shal l b e concerned fro m her e on wit h thi s paradox an d it s implications . The slipper y relatio n betwee n th e poet' s wor d an d th e supposedl y natural disaste r i t reverses i s suggested i n the very pattern o f image s tha t articulates Whitman' s enablin g chiasmus o f word s an d things . We note d that, jus t a s th e poe t i s a ligh t beyon d light , s o to o h e i s a flood beyon d flood. I f he outdoes natura l ligh t by being a source of animating presenc e rather tha n mer e representation , h e outdoe s flood b y bein g a livin g presence tha t neve r wanes . Bu t i f th e poe t redeem s ligh t b y addin g t o it power s figured a s flood, h e likewis e transfigure s livin g presenc e b y deploying power s ver y muc h lik e those o f light . The poet's declarations , that is , create a seemingl y eterna l presenc e b y mean s o f a mechanis m o f iterability tha t i s quit e clos e t o th e capacit y fo r replicatio n tha t charac terizes th e image . The figure wh o supposedl y liberate s u s fro m represen tation possesse s a n uncomfortabl e affinit y t o th e figmentary shape s re fracted throug h th e harbo r scen e o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " b y th e action o f light , whic h ca n multipl y a singl e presenc e int o innumerabl e simulacra. This connection i s one Whitman's wor k resolutel y denies . Yet the ambiguou s rol e o f representatio n i n hi s imaginativ e univers e i s sug gested no t onl y b y thi s disturbin g resemblance , bu t als o b y th e ambiva lent statu s th e imag e itsel f i s accorde d i n suc h poem s a s "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry. " As w e saw , th e poe m depict s th e imag e i n it s negativ e aspec t a s a source of alienatio n an d confusion : detachin g appearanc e fro m object , i t can prolon g tha t appearanc e i n th e absenc e o f th e objec t tha t wa s it s source, captivatin g u s wit h a n illusor y form . Ye t a lin e w e alread y glanced a t strangel y invoke s th e imag e an d invite s i t t o pla y a benig n and reliabl e role :

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Receive the summer-sky , yo u water ! faithfull y hol d i t til l al l downcas t eye s have time to take it from you ! (1856 220) This comman d mark s a rathe r strikin g reversa l o f a n earlie r descriptio n of reflectio n w e als o took not e of : I too saw the reflection o f the summer-sky in the water, Had my eyes dazzled by the shimmering track of beams. (1856 213-14 ) The very reflection whic h dazzle d th e protagonist i s now said to facilitat e apprehension; representatio n become s a cur e fo r th e falle n mod e o f experience o f whic h Whitma n ha s mad e i t the paradigmati c cause . Con fronting a bewilderin g arra y o f image s an d shiftin g accidents , Whitma n surprisingly appeal s t o th e benig n o r faithfu l image . What i s th e statu s o f suc h a recuperativ e procedur e i n Whitman' s work? W e ca n answe r thi s questio n provisionall y b y notin g the real m o f experience in which th e image is commanded t o play its newly beneficen t role. I t doe s no t pla y suc h a rol e i n th e falle n worl d depicte d i n "Cross ing Brookly n Ferry, " th e worl d "looke d bac k on, " fo r example , i n section six . No r i s i t invoke d withi n th e visionar y spac e inaugurate d b y the poet's apostrophes , speech act s which ar e characterized a s the adven t of direc t an d unmediate d presence . Th e poet' s presenc e i s indee d s o immediate a s t o den y u s tha t minima l detachmen t require d fo r formin g a visua l imag e o r representation : th e protagonis t i n hi s mythi c guis e seems to und o th e distanc e an d differenc e tha t mak e representation bot h possible an d necessary . Yet th e alienatio n dramaticall y annulle d b y th e poet' s presenc e ca n evidently b e partiall y recuperate d b y th e ver y procedur e o f imagin g o r representing tha t i s said t o hav e cause d them . Th e protagonist' s invoca tion o f th e restaurativ e imag e characterize s th e ambiguou s real m o f th e poem's nint h section , i n whic h hi s comman d tha t th e wate r "receive " the summe r sk y occurs . Ther e th e poe t himsel f appear s neithe r a s th e tormented figure depicte d i n section s fiv e an d si x nor a s the omnipresen t form wh o fills u s b y addressin g us . H e ha s exercise d th e power s o f th e word whic h th e poem' s visionar y scene s enac t an d ha s occupie d th e labile for m modele d o n voice ; bu t h e has no w com e bac k t o hi s particu lar present momen t an d i s once more lodged i n his finite, bounded body . This retur n migh t bes t b e understoo d a s Whitman' s attemp t t o sugges t the compatibility , thoug h no t th e identity , o f th e prospect s suggeste d b y the poet's rebor n presenc e an d th e experience o f thos e who inhabi t mor e

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1

restricted bodies ; th e poem' s conclusio n bot h intimate s an d delay s th e apocalypse towar d whic h it s earlie r energie s move . Th e benig n image , that is , play s it s rol e i n th e oddl y provisiona l spac e an d tim e o f th e poem's nint h section— a spac e an d tim e o n th e poin t o f effacement , o n the verge of dissolvin g into the apocalyptic scen e implied b y the presenc e who i s "with yo u now. " Suffusin g u s with himself , the poe t wil l inaugu rate a mode of experience i n which th e image or reflection wil l be wholl y dispensable. Or a t leas t the y ough t t o be . But th e reversa l whic h allow s th e imag e to b e th e temporar y cur e fo r th e ver y ill s o f whic h i t ha s als o bee n sai d to b e th e caus e migh t lea d u s t o wonde r whethe r th e rang e o f thi s expedient migh t not extend furthe r tha n Whitman declares . The redemp tion of what i s called representatio n b y further imagin g or representatio n bespeaks, a t th e ver y least , th e divide d functio n o f thi s term , suggestin g in tur n tha t it s relatio n t o th e immediat e presenc e i t supposedl y occult s may no t b e one of simpl e opposition . I anticipat e her e entanglement s tha t wil l concer n u s furthe r on : the y trouble Whitman' s effort s t o detac h th e poet' s presenc e fro m al l tha t h e should redeem , compellin g th e grandiose , comic , an d anxiou s practic e that shape s th e mobil e texture s o f Leaves of Grass. I want t o tur n no w to th e cultura l scenari o fro m whic h thi s presenc e claim s t o rescu e us , attending t o th e anxietie s i t provoke s an d th e self-divide d identit y i t shapes. The trait s o f th e presence produced b y speech ca n b e best under stood a s a response t o thes e pressures .

Notes i. Se e Bloom, "Th e Internalizatio n o f Quest-Romance. " Weiskel , The Romantic Sublime, als o take s u p th e proble m o f th e relatio n betwee n externa l agents an d th e poet' s ow n powers , relatin g the m t o Oedipa l structures ; se e especially 167-204 . Se e also Hertz , "Th e Notio n o f Blockag e i n th e Litera ture of th e Sublime," The End of the Line 4 0 - 6 0 . 2. Accordin g t o Mikhai l Bakhtin , lyri c poetr y elide s th e socia l saturatio n o f language i n order t o subject resistan t minorit y culture s to centrist tendencie s (Dialogic Imagination 269-88) . Bu t in Leaves of Grass the vision of natura l language serve s primaril y t o undermin e th e claim s o f th e dominan t culture . For a discussio n o f Whitman' s critica l us e of th e concep t o f th e natural , se e Thomas 117—4 7 a n d Pease , Visionary Compacts 119—33 . Julia Kristev a

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associates th e disruptiv e aspec t o f th e poeti c functio n wit h th e archai c register she calls the semiotic; see chapter 4, below . 3. I draw here , o f course , o n Jacque s Lacan' s notio n o f th e Other ; se e espe cially "Th e Meaning of the Phallus," Feminine Sexuality 74-85 . 4. Se e Bloom' s discussio n o f Collins' s "Od e o n th e Poetica l Character, " Visionary Company 7-15 , especiall y n - 1 4 . 5. Th e secon d passage i s not presen t i n CRE; it disappeared fro m th e poem i n 1 8 8 1 . Se e V 1:222 .

6. Anderso n her e modifie s hi s ow n earlie r an d mor e sanguin e readin g o f th e corolla image: in Imperial Self he sees it as a figuration of the poet's imperial powers, "a n imag e i n th e wate r fro m whic h radiate s th e whol e o f being " (94). 7. I n Imperial Self Anderso n read s light , float , an d seme n a s par t o f a singl e image cluster; see 157-59 . 8. Thes e enigmati c line s were delete d i n 188 1 (se e V 1:222) ; the y hav e engendered a good bi t of confusio n an d disagreement, an d any readin g of the m is conjectural. Se e for example Anderson, Imperial Self iz8, an d James Miller, Critical Guide 88 . 9. Th e crucial distinctio n her e is between indicatio n an d expression, and it is a fairly commo n one . Se e fo r exampl e Derrida' s accoun t o f indicatio n i n Husserl, i n Speech and Phenomena: "Wheneve r th e immediat e an d ful l presence o f th e signifie d i s concealed , th e signifie r wil l b e o f a n indicativ e nature" (40). See chapter 5 , below, fo r an extended discussion of expressio n and indication i n Whitman's language theory. 10. O n th e importanc e o f th e notio n o f sign s i n Whitman's work , se e Kennet h Burke, "Polic y Mad e Personal : Whitman' s Vers e an d Prose—Salien t Traits" 90. 11. I here quot e th e i86 0 rathe r tha n th e origina l 185 5 text . Th e sectio n fro m which thes e line s ar e taken wa s adde d t o th e poem i n 1856 ; th e suggestio n of performativ e utteranc e cue d b y Whitman's "now " first appears i n i860 . See V 1:132 . 12. Discussion s o f th e imag e o f th e bod y i n Leaves of Grass hav e tende d t o emphasize Whitman' s radica l commitmen t t o sexuality , slightin g th e strug gles i n whic h thi s effor t t o validat e a visionar y sens e o f th e bod y involve s the poet . Matthiessen , fo r example , comment s a t lengt h o n th e celebrator y aspects o f Whitmania n sexuality , whil e mentionin g potentiall y disturbin g aspects onl y i n brie f asides . Asselinea u i s especiall y vehement : "H e feel s himself indisputabl y unite d wit h hi s fellow-me n b y the desire s o f hi s flesh " (2:6). Se e als o Kinnair d 26-27 . A notabl e exceptio n i s Anderson , wh o stresses the discomforts tha t help determine Whitman's compensatory visio n of th e body : se e especiall y Imperial Self 104 . Se e als o Aspiz , especiall y 3-3313. Se e also "A Song of Joys" i86 0 266 . 14. Thi s differenc e i n focu s betwee n th e i86 0 editio n an d the two tha t preced e

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it is strikingly illustrate d by the revisions Whitman made in the i86 0 tex t of "Assurances"; see V 1:248-49 . 15. Th e bracketed interpolation her e is the editor's. 16. M y readin g o f Whitman' s fragmentar y incarnatio n myt h i s supporte d b y other materia l i n th e publishe d versio n o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " tha t offers a similar visio n o f th e bod y a s entrappin g rathe r than expressin g th e soul. Much of this material is more harshly negative in the published version than in the notebook manuscrip t (NUP M 1:230-31) ; th e vision o f incarna tion-as-representation mad e possible b y the deletion o f "cohered " as a gloss for "struck " thu s seem s t o b e part of a systematic darkenin g o f th e poem' s account o f th e body . Despit e th e poet' s declare d intentio n t o offe r a panegyric t o th e lif e o f th e senses , th e publishe d versio n o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry" presents a vision of incarnatio n tha t is in many respects grim. 17. Th e imag e o f natura naturans a s a liqui d force , a s wel l a s th e notio n tha t the poe t ca n releas e it s flow , als o figures prominentl y i n Emerson' s "Th e Poet," a n earl y versio n o f whic h Whitma n hear d Emerso n delive r i n Ne w York in 184 2 (Kapla n 101) ; see for example Emerson 3:12—13 . My analysi s of thi s imag e cluste r i s indebte d t o Charle s Feidelson' s remark s o n th e relation between floo d an d voice in Whitman's work: se e especially 18-20 . 18. Thes e line s ar e par t o f a grou p tha t Whitman move d fro m "Startin g fro m Paumanok" t o th e openin g sectio n o f "Son g o f Myself " i n 1881 ; se e V 2:276. Th e assertio n o f th e intimat e ti e betwee n natura naturans an d th e poet's ow n speec h her e i s ver y muc h i n keepin g wit h tha t poem , thoug h atypical of the new work Whitman was composing by the 1880s . 19. Hartma n uncover s a simila r us e o f floo d imager y i n Wordsworth; se e Unmediated Vision 29-35 . 20. Se e Emerson 1:42 . 21. Th e ter m "equationa l structure " i s Kennet h Burke's ; se e Philosophy of Literary Form 77-102 . 22. I quote her e fro m th e i86 0 text , whic h make s mor e explici t th e blending that accompanie s th e introjectio n o f sound : "runnin g together , combined , fused or following" is not present in 185 5 o r 1856 ; see V 1:36 . While thi s cluste r o f image s linkin g flood , natura naturans, an d soun d functions programmaticall y i n Whitman's work , i t seems to b e based on a n intuitive enjoyment of the aural. This responsiveness is perhaps most evident in th e lat e pros e wor k Specimen Days, wher e i t i s als o leas t programmati c or mythologized ; passage s describin g Whitman' s deligh t i n sound s briefl y enliven a n otherwise ofte n lethargi c and diffuse memoir . Se e PW 1:118-54 , passim. 23. I quote th e 187 1 Leaves of Grass text ; th e poem originall y appeare d i n th e Atlantic Monthly, Februar y 1869 . "Base" is Whitman's habitual spellin g fo r a musical "bass" : line 84 of the same poem, for example, praises "The clear, electric bas e an d bariton e o f th e world " (CR E 406 ; V 3:578) . Whil e thi s cosmic "base " an d th e mergin g i t effect s ar e stil l importan t t o th e late r

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work, b y 187 1 Whitman i s n o longe r committe d t o imaginin g th e poet' s voice an d breat h a s forms o f thi s cosmic force , o r to insistin g tha t i t can be activated here and now. 24. Suc h mythic vocal effusion s d o not of course quite correspond to any actual, articulate language . Se e chapte r 5 , below , fo r a detaile d accoun t o f Whit man's efforts t o bridge this gap. 25. O n the biblical resonanc e of these lines see Strom. 26. Ther e are no section number s in the 185 5 tex t from which I quote. 27. Anderso n aptl y characterize s thi s reversal : "th e writer , a bod y define d b y light fro m th e sun , send s ou t a ligh t whic h itsel f define s othe r bodies , including the sun at day break" (Imperial Self 146). 28. Thi s passage concludes b y apparently dismissin g voice in favor of th e poet's silent presence . Bu t this elusiv e presenc e i s itsel f a hypostatization o f voice . See chapter 4, below . 29. A similar pattern i s a t work i n th e 185 5 preface . Whitma n advert s ther e t o the poe t a s a kin d o f ligh t beyon d light—"Hig h u p ou t o f reac h h e stand s turning a concentrate d light " (185 5 9)—th e unusua l power s o f whic h ar e again trope d a s flood : "A s th e attribute s o f th e poet s o f th e kosmo s con centre i n th e rea l bod y an d sou l an d i n th e pleasur e o f thing s the y posses s the superiorit y o f genuinenes s ove r al l fiction an d romance . A s the y emi t themselves fact s are showered over with light" (1855 17) .

4. Th e Embodied Voice [Emerson] mus t hav e know n a s wel l a s I knew tha t i t woul d hav e bee n decente r t o thro w the boo k awa y tha n t o mutilat e it . —Whitman, quote d i n WW C 3:44 0

Who i s the her o o f Leaves of Grass? Fro m wher e d o hi s power s derive , and i n whic h o f th e protagonist' s multipl e guise s ca n the y b e exercised ? Whitman's slidin g lexico n make s suc h question s har d t o answer . " I d o not doub t tha t fro m unde r th e feet , an d besid e th e hand s an d fac e I a m cognizant of , ar e no w lookin g face s I a m no t cognizan t of—cal m an d actual faces, " the poet declare s in a passage fro m th e 185 6 poem "Assur ances" w e looke d a t i n chapte r 3 ; " I d o no t doub t tha t interior s hav e their interiors , and exterior s hav e their exteriors—an d tha t th e eye-sigh t has anothe r eye-sight , an d th e hearin g anothe r hearing , an d th e voic e another voice " (185 6 266) . Whateve r w e mak e o f thes e rathe r mind boggling assertions , w e ough t a t leas t t o not e tha t the y invit e u s t o discriminate amon g variou s meaning s o f Whitman' s standin g terms . I f the Whitma n o f th e earl y wor k ca n rightl y b e called a poet o f th e body , he become s it s celebran t onl y b y detachin g a certai n bod y h e want s t o valorize fro m anothe r bod y h e does not a t al l mean t o value. 1 This effor t leads t o som e surprisin g cleavages : i n th e 185 5 a n d 185 6 editions , th e figure produce d b y voice , wh o possesse s onl y a tenuou s relatio n t o th e solidity o f flesh, i s the crucia l instanc e o f th e bod y Whitma n i s commit ted t o praising ; hi s power s stan d i n marke d contras t t o th e frequentl y displayed predicament s o f ordinar y incarnat e selves . This cleavag e orga nizes "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry. " Dian e Middlebroo k remind s u s tha t the poem' s protagonis t speaks , s o fa r a s we ca n observe , t o non e o f th e fellow passenger s amon g who m w e se e him , bu t onl y t o u s ( n o ) . Thi s rhetorical focu s i s ostensibly motivate d b y hi s desir e to conve y t o futur e auditors th e glories of th e harbor scen e and th e freely availabl e pleasure s 85

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of th e libidinize d bod y tha t receive s al l person s an d object s "wit h fre e sense." Ye t th e visionar y eroticis m th e protagonis t invite s u s t o shar e may paradoxicall y com e int o existenc e onl y b y virtu e o f th e announce ments tha t proclai m i t and th e scen e these addresse s define . The ton e o f Whitman' s apostrophe s typicall y implie s tha t thi s com munion proceed s fro m entirel y generou s motives. 2 Thes e declaration s sound self-confiden t an d forceful , a s th e poe t sweep s asid e al l possibl e demurs; o r the y teas e u s towar d acquiescenc e wit h a gentl y tauntin g quality. Bu t a brie f asid e tha t make s u p mos t o f th e fourt h sectio n o f "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " let s u s glimps e th e indispensabl e rol e thi s scene plays i n th e constitutio n o f th e ver y power s i t announces. Directl y preceded an d followe d b y th e poet' s buoyan t apostrophe s t o us , thi s passage is tentative an d wistful . I t too consists principally o f declaration s made fro m th e strang e "present " produce d b y such announcements . Bu t it is not addresse d t o us : I loved well those cities, I loved well the stately and rapid river, The men and women I saw were all near to me, Others the same—others who look back on me, because I looked forward t o them, The time will come, though I stop here today and tonight. (1856 215) This stanz a register s displacement s tha t tur n ou t t o b e crucia l t o th e poet's project . Th e first thre e line s posses s a n elegia c qualit y w e ma y well find peculiar: the y loo k "back " o n th e places "loved, " an d o n thos e the protagonis t "saw, " regardin g the m no w a s absent ; a t th e poem' s opening, th e protagonis t i s i n th e mids t o f th e ver y peopl e an d thing s whose disappearanc e h e here laments. Like the Wordsworth o f "Tinter n Abbey" i n thi s respect , h e take s pain s t o leve r himsel f int o thi s od d vantage, employin g elaborat e rhetorica l staging. 3 I t wil l thu s b e impor tant t o accoun t fo r th e vanishing s recorde d her e b y attendin g t o th e turbulent contact s betwee n th e ma n aboar d th e ferr y an d hi s cohorts , described i n sectio n six : th e poet' s lamen t her e turn s ou t t o b e les s anguished tha n th e scene it mourns. If the first three lines thus record th e loss o f a presen t momen t tha t i s perhap s wel l lost , th e fourt h declare s the poem' s ke y compensator y economy : i t replace s th e city , th e river , and th e passengers aboar d th e ferr y wit h th e poet's envisione d audience . Here, however , th e expansivenes s an d generosit y tha t typif y th e poet' s

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apostrophes, suggesting that his relations with us have a wholly altruisti c character, are not in evidence. Instead the poet acknowledges that he has made a carefu l investment : "Other s th e same—other s wh o loo k bac k on me , because I looked forwar d t o them. " The specificall y envisione d repayment o f attentio n her e briefl y foregrounde d lie s a t the hear t o f al l Whitman's transactions with his intensely imagine d futur e audience . That th e poe t i s strikin g a n imaginativ e bargai n wit h futurit y i s confirmed b y hi s late r resor t t o a n overtl y economi c metapho r t o char acterize his relation to us: "What thought you have of me , I had as much of you— I lai d i n m y store s i n advance " (185 6 218) . The econom y a t work i n such exchanges i s clearer in this line, since the poet here engages us directl y b y mean s o f apostrophe , performin g hi s crucia l transactio n rather than merely describing it. Whitman's folks y locutio n ough t not to distract us from wha t i s being declared: the poet here expresses satisfac tion concernin g a dispositio n o f emotiona l capita l tha t a t first seem s prodigal bu t turn s ou t t o b e parsimoniou s instead ; wha t look s lik e expenditure i s really investment an d savings. The poet seem s no t simpl y to imagin e ou r imaginin g o f him , bu t t o imping e o n u s directly—s o a t least th e peculia r presen t tens e an d th e intimat e ton e imply . Namin g a scene hi s focu s o n generi c futur e companion s rathe r tha n particula r present ones makes infinitely renewable , this bargain seems to insure the poet against mutability . It also offers a n extraordinary rate of return. The poet's payoff derive s from th e ambiguou s "you " wit h who m hi s bargai n ha s bee n struck , a "you" made to seem not only inclusive but also immediate and intimate. Aboard th e ferry , too , th e poet sa w other s wh o wer e "al l nea r me"; yet they wer e o f cours e al l nea r each othe r a s well. Th e intensit y an d rang e of thei r attachments, that is, must be thought of a s similar to the protagonist's own : eithe r intense bu t therefore limite d i n extent, o r diffuse bu t correspondingly mild . Bu t i n thi s othe r scene , Whitman' s ton e implies , the poe t i s nea r you , an d yo u ar e nea r him—ye t "you " are , o r is , everyone. I f "you " pay a s muc h attentio n t o hi m a s h e doe s t o "you, " then hi s store s hav e indee d bee n lai d i n wisely : hi s rat e o f retur n i s directly proportionate t o the size of his audience. 4 This peculiar economy depends o n Whitman' s figure o f voic e an d th e vaporou s presenc e i t implies. Th e sel f t o whic h thes e reward s accrue , tha t is , ha s itsel f bee n transfigured b y thi s visionar y self-capitalization . Bot h omnipresen t an d

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elusive, th e figure create d b y suc h announcement s escape s fro m th e torments an d limitation s b y whic h th e ma n wh o ride s th e ferr y i s con spicuously beset . Yet i f w e com e bac k fro m thi s apostrophi c scen e t o th e passag e w e had bee n considering , w e ca n not e no t onl y th e possibl e benefi t t o th e protagonist o f suc h a n imagine d bargain , bu t als o it s tenuous statu s an d the consequen t vulnerabilit y o f th e figure wh o envision s it . Th e poe t there hovers suspended , i n two differen t forms , betwee n wha t "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " invite s u s to cal l his past present an d hi s future present , and perhap s eithe r wa s o r wil l be , bu t i s not "now " quit e nea r anyone . He i s willing to giv e up th e present momen t aboar d th e ferry , wit h al l its deficiencies, i n orde r t o strik e tha t bargai n wit h futurit y b y mean s o f which h e has become, or will become , the omnipresent, omnipotent , an d confidently expansiv e figure wh o elsewher e addresse s us . Bu t w e liste n here t o someon e wh o sound s palpabl y displaced ; th e jugglin g o f scene s and tense s an d th e tentative , wistfu l ton e mak e u s awar e o f ho w depen dent thi s figure is , fo r al l hi s powers , o n th e concludin g o f hi s bargain , the participatio n o f hi s audienc e i n thi s eternal , reciproca l momen t o f "looking (bac k an d forward ) on. " Whitman's final line masterfully clinche s this sens e o f th e poet' s ow n momentar y hesitanc y an d lac k o f mastery . The passage , a n asid e i n it s entirety , close s wit h a furthe r aside , marke d off, i n i86 0 an d thereafter , b y Whitman' s alway s carefull y dispose d parentheses: (The time will come, though I stop here to-day and to-night.) (i86 0 382) Here a wrenchin g shif t o f attentio n land s th e protagonis t bac k i n th e moment aboar d th e ferry , an d i n hi s finite, particula r body . This "here " is a specific , limite d here , an d th e momen t i n whic h h e speak s thes e words, no t ye t eternal , i s "to-day " o r "to-night. " Th e poe t stop s here , briefly, muc h a s th e sou l i n St . Augustine's allegor y stop s fo r temporar y respite, i n lodging s no t it s own , o n it s journe y bac k hom e t o Go d (Augustine 9-10) . Ye t unlike Augustine' s pilgrim , who mus t endur e thi s condition unti l deat h bring s abou t hi s translation fro m her e to hereafter , the poe t o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " wil l acquir e "here " an d "now " the transfigure d bod y i n which h e can hove r everywher e forever . H e wil l assume thi s for m b y mean s o f th e direc t addresse s t o hi s audienc e thi s particular passag e eschews : "Th e time " whic h "wil l come, " her e briefl y

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regarded a s i n th e future , i s th e poem' s ow n oxymoroni c eterna l mo ment. Atypically, this passage lets us glimpse both the gap between the poet's antithetical guises— a ga p hi s apostrophe s efface—an d th e intensit y of hi s nee d t o cros s it . Befor e followin g th e poe t acros s thi s divide , w e need t o develop ou r sens e of jus t what h e is intent o n puttin g behin d him . The Poe t o f th e Bod y 1. Like the objects o f the harbor scen e in "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " an d the images cast on th e river that com e to epitomize them, the protagonis t we glimpse in their mids t i s defined b y representation. A phrase fro m th e poem's sixt h sectio n make s explici t th e cultura l resonanc e o f thi s osten sibly cosmi c dilemma . Ther e th e poe t wh o "look s back " o n th e social ized interactio n whic h th e sectio n describe s affirm s tha t h e to o Played the part that still looks back on the actor or actress, The same old role, the role that is what we make it, as great as we like, or as small as we like, or both great and small. (1856 217) The epithe t tha t begin s th e secon d o f thes e line s ha s a n od d prolepti c force: a s grea t o r a s smal l a s w e mak e it , w e stil l pla y "Th e sam e ol d role," a sweeping designatio n tha t ver y nearl y cancel s out th e variety th e line goe s o n t o adduce . Whil e th e sectio n a s a whol e exhibit s a simila r tension betwee n possibilit y an d foreclosure , i t i s th e latte r tha t increas ingly dominates thi s portrait o f socia l life . Throughout Whitman' s work , the particular rol e we happen t o play turn s ou t t o b e less important tha n the fact o f ou r havin g assume d a socially structure d identity. 5 Whitman's designatio n o f socia l lif e a s a scen e o f actin g o r rol e playing i s o f cours e i n on e sens e rathe r banal . Ye t i n Leaves of Grass this trop e i s invested wit h a n unusua l rang e o f meanin g throug h associ ation wit h bot h th e visio n o f representatio n tha t help s organiz e Whit man's wor k an d th e fantasmati c bod y topolog y wit h whic h i t inter twines. I n it s contex t i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " Whitman' s imag e indeed serve s t o characteriz e no t onl y ou r identitie s a s actor s o n th e social scen e bu t als o ou r sequesterin g i n th e finite an d bounde d bodie s we occupy onc e we have been "struc k fro m th e float." Th e separation o f subject fro m object , a s wel l a s th e divisio n o f th e bod y betwee n bound -

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ing surface s an d inaccessibl e interiors , ma y wel l strik e u s a s inevitable . But Whitma n associate s thes e wit h a n accessio n t o sociall y structure d identity tha t Leaves of Grass vigorousl y contests . I n th e imaginativ e universe o f th e poetry, th e attemp t t o fre e u s from subjectio n t o sociali zation an d th e psychic self-divisio n i t entails turn s out t o b e inseparabl e from th e tas k o f redeemin g ou r bodies , no t onl y fro m th e encoding tha t has divide d the m int o acceptabl e an d shamefu l zone s bu t als o fro m th e impermeable boundin g surface s tha t divide one bod y fro m another . Th e realm fro m whic h cultur e separate s u s thus assume s profoundl y archai c contours i n Whitman' s work . An d i t i s approache d b y mean s o f a n archaic logic of slidin g associations, in which ou r escape from any of th e mediations associate d wit h representatio n implie s ou r liberatio n fro m them all. The sam e sor t o f slippage , however , characterize s ou r subjection: th e psychic self-divisio n attendan t o n socializatio n i s persistentl y accompa nied b y a violatio n o f th e bod y tha t seem s t o follo w a s a nightmaris h consequence. The socialize d bod y indee d ha s it s ow n peculia r topolog y in Leaves of Grass. The protagonis t immerse d i n sociall y mediate d interactions inhabits a body that seems itself t o be traversed by representations; i t sometime s seem s t o b e nothin g mor e tha n a n unstable , frag mented spac e in which conflictin g image s collide . The socialize d bod y i s thus a more drastic version o f th e fallen bod y I described in chapter 3 , a body spli t betwee n pristin e animatin g essenc e an d indicativ e surface . I n those passage s i n which th e cultural sourc e o f ou r self-divisio n become s explicit, s o to o doe s th e constitutiv e statu s o f it s effects : i n socia l lif e a system o f representation s i s internalized , definin g a sel f rathe r tha n merely hinderin g it s manifestation . I n Leaves of Grass th e divisio n i n self-presence thereb y create d i s frequently registere d by , or projected as , a shadow y figure t o whos e omniscien t gaz e bod y an d sel f ar e subject . This unlocatabl e presenc e an d th e gaz e tha t emanate s fro m i t see m lik e ghostly embodiments of the alien codes that structure us; they precipitate the sens e o f lac k o r incompletio n thi s shapin g inaugurates . Bot h th e poet's falle n bod y an d hi s relation s wit h othe r peopl e ar e haunte d b y this lack, and by the elusive Othe r who exacts it. 6 Section si x o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " presents u s wit h a condense d depiction o f thes e inter-relate d difficulties . Bot h th e poet' s encounter s with other s an d hi s awarenes s o f hi s ow n bod y ar e marke d b y anxiety ;

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both ar e haunte d b y th e subjectio n o f selve s an d thei r act s t o cultura l encoding. Som e of thes e anxietie s ar e less directly displaye d tha n others ; like th e lon g catalogu e fro m sectio n thre e w e examine d i n a n earlie r chapter, muc h o f sectio n si x ha s bee n retrospectivel y revise d o r re colored. Sinc e th e figure generate d a s a n imag e o f voic e ough t t o epito mize our ow n prope r powers , Whitman i s faced wit h th e difficult tas k o f suggesting bot h th e difference s an d th e continuitie s betwee n th e poet' s magical an d ordinar y forms . Th e passages that depic t the life of the finite figure w e se e aboar d th e ferr y ar e therefor e oddl y divided : sometime s frankly condemnin g o r tormented , thei r mor e frequen t celebrator y ai r conceals anxiet y provoke d b y th e refractor y element s o f experienc e de picted, ye t als o expresse s th e poet' s deligh t i n a scen e alread y partl y transformed b y th e power s o f th e poe t i n hi s othe r guise . Thi s divide d attitude shape s th e section' s concludin g stanza . Ther e over t celebratio n very nearly mask s residua l distress : But I was a Manhattanese, free, friendly, an d proud! I was called b y my nighest nam e by clear loud voice s of youn g men a s they saw me approaching or passing, Felt their arms on m y neck a s a stood, or the negligent leaning of thei r flesh against me as I sat, Saw many I loved i n the street , or ferry-boat , o r publi c assembly , yet never told them a word, Lived the same life with the rest, the same old laughing, gnawing, sleeping, Played the part that still looks back on the actor or actress, The same old role, the role that is what we make it, as great as we like, or as small as we like, or both great and small. (1856 217) Erotic experienc e i s th e cente r o f thi s stanza . Ye t wha t begin s a s a n expansive hym n t o sensualit y dwindle s t o a much mor e reticent close . In this "sam e life " live d "wit h th e rest, " i t seems , th e protagonis t share s principally a n imagine d commo n isolatio n an d lac k o f fulfillment—"th e same ol d laughing , gnawing , sleeping." 7 Th e passag e i s marke d b y th e poet's desir e t o overcom e thi s reticenc e an d th e gul f betwee n sel f an d other i t confirms . Ye t wha t block s th e unconsummate d encounter s th e poet lament s i s not simpl y circumstantial . Th e stanza' s openin g line s ar e characterized b y jus t th e sor t o f divisio n I note d a momen t ago : a n overtly celebrator y ai r hover s ove r bot h surreptitiou s transformatio n and suppresse d edginess . Th e poet' s transformation s ca n serv e a s a ke y to his anxiety, sinc e they work t o efface it s sources.

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Like th e lon g catalogu e o f th e poem' s thir d section , th e gramma r o f this passag e i s dispose d s o a s t o elid e transitiv e acts . Other s ma y touc h the poet , bu t the y ar e no t sai d t o d o so : instead , h e notes , he "fel t thei r arms o n my neck. " Ye t whil e th e action s o f other s ar e rendere d a s a predicate ascribe d t o th e speaker , Whitman' s technicall y transitiv e ver b is hardly activ e in tenor. I f nobody quit e seems to d o anythin g to anyon e else here , tha t i s becaus e agent s a s wel l a s act s hav e bee n enucleated . Declining t o designat e person s a s i t reache s th e stanza' s eroti c center , Whitman's idio m instea d register s depersonalize d disjecta membra an d then a diffuse , eroticize d process , describe d b y on e o f th e poet' s typica l verbals: "the negligent leaning o f thei r flesh. " Suc h dissolvin g bodie s mingle i n nearl y al l Whitman' s mos t exuberan t eroti c scenes . "Hair , bosom, hips , ben d o f legs, " th e poe t intone s i n " I Sin g th e Bod y Elec tric," "negligen t fallin g hands—al l diffuse d . . . . min e to o diffused " (1855 119) . Thi s visionar y sens e o f th e bod y an d it s agglomerativ e powers reache s it s ecstati c limi t i n evocation s o f th e labil e presenc e projected b y apostrophe . Whitma n i s certainl y a grea t eroti c poet . Bu t the eroticis m celebrate d i n hi s wor k i s typically regressive , diffusin g th e threatening qualitie s o f sustained , individuate d encounter ; fe w suc h en counters ar e dramaticall y realize d i n hi s poetry. 8 Thes e characteristi c lines fro m "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " wor k t o effac e bot h transitiv e relations an d th e circumscribe d an d separat e selve s tha t mus t resor t t o them. Yet the stanz a record s no t onl y th e poet's attempte d transformations , but als o th e oppositiona l structur e tha t balk s them . Whitman associate s this impedimen t wit h representation . Explici t i n th e final tw o lines , thi s focus i s implied throughout . A s we sa w i n chapte r 3 , in Leaves of Grass concentration o n obtrusiv e surface s tha t bloc k o r vei l remot e interior s articulates a topolog y Whitma n systematicall y link s t o th e rul e o f im ages; here Whitman's idio m ver y nearly detache s suc h surface s fro m an y sustaining identit y o r interiority . I suggeste d a momen t ag o tha t thi s attention t o disjecta membra serve s i n par t t o elid e th e individualit y Leaves of Grass finds threatening . Bu t Whitman' s imager y possesse s a double valenc e an d obey s th e doubl e logi c o f over-determination . Thi s litany accord s anatomica l fragment s a n eeri e autonomy , suggestin g th e mysterious an d somewha t frightenin g aspec t encounter s assum e i n th e scene governe d b y "th e sam e ol d role. " I n thi s passage , tha t is , enuclea tion serve s a s sympto m a s wel l a s cure : th e poet' s dissolutio n o f other s

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wards of f relation s tha t ar e frightenin g partl y becaus e th e selve s wh o enter int o the m ar e no longer quit e whole, having been subjecte d alread y to a fragmentatio n whic h th e poet' s imager y simultaneousl y expresse s and seek s to transfigure . The section' s mor e overtl y negativ e middl e stanza , a t an y rate , de scribes th e poe t himself , i n hi s "past " incarnation , a s suffering fro m jus t such self-division . Rendere d a s a violen t psychomachi a an d thu s linke d to th e problem o f representation , it s sources ar e clearly social : It is not you alone who know what it is to be evil, I am he who knew what it was to be evil, I too knitted the old knot of contrariety, Blabbed, blushed, resented, lied, stole, grudged, Had guile, anger, lust, hot wishes I dared not speak, Was wayward, vain , greedy, shallow, sly , a solitary committer , a coward, a malignant person, The wolf, the snake, the hog, not wanting in me, The cheating look, the frivolous word , the adulterous wish, not wanting, Refusals, hates , postponements , meanness , laziness , non e o f thes e wanting . (1856 2 1 6 - 1 7 )

The figure w e glimps e i n thes e line s i s anxious , incomplete , an d inter nally fragmented ; h e i s rendere d a s a crow d o f cacophonou s desires , disorganized drive s subsume d i n n o discernibl e unity . The interio r spac e depicted her e i s a metonymi c collectio n o f impulses—"anger , lust , ho t wishes"—or o f th e grotesqu e incarnations , lik e figures fro m a n anti masque, int o whic h the y see m t o reify—"th e wolf , th e snake , the hog. " Body an d sel f ar e compose d o f a hord e o f competing , disturbin g repre sentations. Not onl y th e self-division , bu t als o th e sens e o f incompletenes s t o which thes e figurations o f conflicte d desir e attes t ar e condense d int o th e image o f th e "solitar y committer " permitte d t o appea r i n th e 185 6 version o f thi s passage— a figure whos e onanis m seem s i n contex t lik e anything bu t th e blissfu l narcissis m Whitma n elsewher e projects. 9 Thi s solitary committer—th e twenty-eight h sectio n o f "Son g o f Myself " wil l shortly hel p u s confir m it—traverse s o r trace s hi s ow n bod y whil e affecting himsel f wit h th e internalize d image s o f others , hi s desire s fo r whom thi s passag e represent s a s tormentin g an d self-fragmenting . Hi s body i s th e sit e o n whic h h e play s ou t unsatisfie d drives ; i t i s neithe r integral no r proper .

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The impulse s whic h her e see m t o inhabi t th e protagonis t lik e a ban d of usurper s migh t thu s perhap s b e understoo d a s internalize d represen tations o f s o man y externa l encounters , whethe r actua l o r fantasized , t o which h e i s stil l drawn . Ye t wha t divide s th e sel f depicte d i n thes e line s is not onl y suc h desires , bu t als o th e cultura l proscription s tha t regulat e them; 10 thes e stricture s see m t o re-shap e no t onl y th e protagonist' s awareness bu t als o hi s very body . Sprinkle d amon g Whitman' s litan y o f culturally receive d term s condemnin g recognizable , familia r sins—"lied , stole [ . . . ] had guile , anger"—ar e oddl y phrase d description s o f wha t seem t o b e physica l acts : " I to o knitte d th e ol d kno t o f contrariety" ; "Was [ . . . ] a solitar y committer. " Variou s sort s o f evidenc e sugges t that th e first o f thes e self-portrait s allude s t o sexua l intercourse , th e second, a s I already suggested , t o masturbation. 11 Bu t i t is probably les s important t o identif y th e particula r act s referre d t o tha n t o not e th e tortuous, periphrasti c idio m tha t describe s them : Whitman' s awkwar d phrases themselve s repea t th e uncomfortabl e proces s throug h whic h th e body is structured an d cathecte d b y means of the morally charge d vocab ulary mappe d ont o it. 12 Quenti n Anderso n ha s bes t describe d th e resul tant dialecti c of th e bod y i n Whitman's work : we are of course aware that the body is shaped b y cultural us e and expectation. The labor I have attributed to Whitman is therefore a labor of undoing, unmaking, not simply a stepping out of doors all naked. (Imperial Self 104) This markin g o f th e bod y b y cultur e exact s no t onl y self-divisio n bu t also a n eeri e los s o f autonomy . Th e 185 6 poe m "B y Blu e Ontario' s Shores" makes thi s fal l fro m completenes s th e hinge between natur e an d culture, though th e poe t protest s it : " I wil l se e if the fishes and bird s ar e to b e enoug h fo r themselves , an d I a m no t t o b e enoug h fo r myself! " (1856 201) . Th e openin g line s o f th e sectio n o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry" w e hav e bee n considerin g likewis e sugges t tha t thi s sens e o f lac k is constitutive o f th e sel f i n culture , linking i t to a surveillanc e presente d as global . I n thes e lines , which w e examine d i n chapte r 3 , an enigmatic , alien powe r intervene s i n th e poet's privat e communings . I t appears a s a kind o f shadow , a flicke r o r laps e o f ligh t tha t feel s lik e a negativ e judgment, emanatin g fro m th e source of representation : It is not upon you alone the dark patches fall, The dark threw patches down upon me also. (1856 216)

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These dar k patche s o f cours e hav e a principally psychi c import , an d ar e glossed accordingl y a s a kind o f self-interrogation : The best I had done seemed to me blank and suspicious, My grea t thoughts , a s I suppose d them , wer e the y no t i n realit y meagre ? [ . . . ] (185 6 216 )

This darknes s fallin g fro m o n hig h suggest s a self-examination tha t doe s not fee l wholl y internal ; i t structure s a n identit y tha t i s no t wholl y self contained. Th e poe t i s subjec t t o a kin d o f disembodie d gaz e o f whic h he i s conspicuousl y aware : th e gaze , w e migh t sa y i n Lacan' s terms , o f the Other , a fantasmati c embodimen t o f th e internalize d cultura l cod e that structure s him , an d b y mean s o f whic h h e name s an d define s him self, no w re-projecte d outward. 13 Thi s gaz e set s u p a kin d o f rela y through whic h self-presenc e mus t pass . Subjecte d t o it , th e poe t i s n o longer enoug h fo r himself , n o longe r complete .

2. Suc h incomplete , haunte d figures tur n u p repeatedl y i n th e earl y editions o f Leaves of Grass; th e poe t himsel f i s conspicuou s amon g them. Bot h th e tormentin g self-divisio n an d th e uneasines s concernin g others tha t characteriz e th e protagonis t i n sectio n si x o f "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " recu r i n thes e self-portraits . Bot h ar e conditione d b y the gaze and th e subjectio n t o encoding i t embodies . One o f Whitman' s mos t turbulen t rendition s o f th e poe t comprise s the "headlands " passag e tha t make s u p th e twenty-eight h sectio n o f "Song o f Myself. " Her e th e anxiet y tha t ofte n tinge s Whitman' s ebulli ent eroticis m emerge s a s outrigh t panic . Depiction s o f th e poet' s ow n body an d o f th e bodie s o f other s ar e densel y an d disturbingl y inter twined: auto-eroticis m an d eroticism "proper " becom e virtually indistin guishable; neither seem s integral o r self-contained. 14 Bot h ar e marked b y a lac k tha t neithe r ca n mak e good , a los s that structure s the m accordin g to anxietie s neithe r ca n resolve . The passag e tha t suggest s suc h unsettlin g notion s follow s on e o f th e poet's characteristic claim s to possess the sort of amorphou s an d absorp tive presence with whic h w e are alread y familiar : To be in any form, what is that? If nothing lay more developed the quahaug in its callous shell were enough

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Mine i s no callous shell , I have instant conductor s al l over m e whether I pass or stop , They seiz e every object an d lea d i t harmlessly throug h me . (1855 53 ) The archaic , polymorphou s bod y proclaime d her e seem s t o k n o w neithe r self-division no r th e divisio n betwee n sel f an d other . Bu t a sudde n admis sion follows : I merely stir , press, feel wit h m y fingers , an d a m happy , To touc h m y perso n t o som e on e else' s i s abou t a s muc h a s I ca n stand . (1855 53 ) Both anxiet y concernin g other s an d a w k w a r d awarenes s o f one' s o w n articulated bod y interven e here ; the y ar e registere d i n th e peculia r atten tion t o bod y boundarie s reveale d i n th e odd , fastidiou s locution , " T o touch my person to som e on e else's. " Th e poet' s admissio n i n thes e line s leads directl y int o sectio n twenty-eight , whos e openin g leave s i t ambigu ous whethe r h e doe s indee d subjec t himsel f t o th e touc h o f anothe r here : Is this then a touch? . . . . quiverin g m e to a new identity , Flames an d ethe r makin g a rush fo r m y veins, Treacherous ti p of m e reaching an d crowdin g t o help them , My fles h an d bloo d playin g ou t lik e lightning , t o strik e wha t i s hardl y different fro m myself , On al l side s prurient provoker s stiffenin g m y limbs, Straining th e udder o f m y heart fo r it s withheld drip , Behaving licentiou s toward me , taking n o denial , Depriving m e of m y bes t a s for a purpose , Unbuttoning m y clothes an d holdin g m e by the bare waist , Deluding m y confusion wit h th e calm o f th e sunlight an d pastur e fields, Immodestly slidin g the fellow-sense s away , They bribe d t o swa p of f wit h touch , an d g o and graz e at th e edges of me , No consideration , n o regar d fo r m y draining strengt h o r m y anger , Fetching the rest of th e herd aroun d t o enjo y the m a while, Then al l unitin g t o stan d o n a headland an d worr y me . The sentrie s deser t every other par t o f me , They hav e left m e helpless to a red marauder , They al l come t o th e headland t o witness an d assis t against me . I am give n u p b y traitors ; I talk wildl y . . . . I have los t m y wit s . . . . I and nobod y els e a m th e greates t traitor, I went mysel f first t o th e headland . . . . m y own hand s carrie d m e there.

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You villain touch! what are you doing?.... my breath is tight in its throat; Unclench your floodgates! you are too much for me. (1855 53-54 ) The thir d lin e fro m th e en d her e seem s t o mak e masturbatio n th e precursor o f eroticis m "proper, " implyin g thei r commo n structur e a s well. But eroticism an d auto-eroticis m ar e more confusingl y confounde d in th e stanza' s opening : i t i s har d t o tel l on e fro m th e othe r no t quit e because the y ar e homologous , bu t becaus e th e boundar y betwee n the m is weirdly permeable . Th e stanza' s first lin e leave s i t unclea r whic h sid e of thi s boundar y th e poe t begin s on : th e sourc e o f " a touch " i s lef t disturbingly ambiguou s b y on e o f Whitman' s typicall y mystifyin g deic tics ("I s this the n a touch?"). 15 Rathe r tha n solvin g thi s referentia l confusion, w e nee d t o not e ho w th e resultan t ambiguitie s shap e bot h eroticism an d auto-eroticism , renderin g the m anxiou s an d self-divided . In thi s passag e th e sel f i s alread y another , whil e th e othe r i s alread y a stand-in fo r th e otherness o f th e self. If we try to stabiliz e the passage b y reading it as a description o f auto eroticism, th e instabilit y o f auto-eroti c experienc e itsel f quickl y ob trudes. While the passage's openin g accords conspicuou s attentio n t o th e poet's ow n bod y sensations , thes e ar e soo n personifie d an d thu s en dowed wit h a n eeri e autonom y ("Flame s an d ethe r makin g a rus h fo r my veins, / Treacherous ti p of m e reaching and crowdin g to help them") . These personified sensation s (i f that i s what the y are ) the n modulat e int o what fee l lik e other persons—"prurient provokers " "behaving licentiou s toward me. " Thes e "provokers, " i n turn , exacerbat e th e body' s ow n self-division an d alienation . The y imping e o n th e personifie d "fellow senses" who , unde r th e influenc e o f thes e outsiders , tur n int o other s themselves, a kin d o f fifth-column withi n th e poet' s ow n body : "The y bribed t o swa p of f wit h touch , an d g o graz e a t th e edge s o f me" ; "The n all unitin g t o stan d o n a headlan d t o worr y me. " A t th e hear t o f auto erotic experienc e w e thu s discove r wha t see m t o b e a recollecte d other eroticism16 an d other , recollecte d presences . Past encounters hav e helpe d turn th e body int o a site of anxiou s desire, an agitated , no longer integra l terrain seemingl y belongin g t o other s rathe r tha n t o oneself ; her e auto eroticism i s a kind o f compulsiv e re-tracin g o f thi s alienated landscape . Yet erotic encounters wit h other s ar e n o mor e self-containe d tha n th e auto-eroticism tha t repeat s them—a t leas t i f w e rea d thi s passag e a s a rendition o f eroticis m "proper. " Th e presence s registere d i n thes e line s are themselve s rathe r shadowy ; th e perso n o r person s t o who m th e

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passage's elusiv e touc h migh t belon g indee d see m hardly t o matte r here. Both excitemen t an d the orgasm t o whic h i t points see m to promis e no t union wit h anothe r bu t recover y o f a psychic an d bodil y integrit y no w experienced a s lacking : other s ar e engaged her e i n "Strainin g th e udde r of m y hear t fo r it s withhel d drip, " an oddl y image d ac t whose peculia r pronominal distancin g ("its" ) implicitly figures these juices a s also withheld fro m th e poe t himself . I t i s a s i f thes e mysteriou s others , wh o d o everything "a s fo r a purpose," held th e key t o a missing wholeness tha t might b e recovere d throug h them : th e protagonist , s o t o speak , migh t come t o himsel f throug h thei r aid . Bu t suc h restoratio n prove s elusive : his "confusion " i s sai d t o b e "deluded " rathe r tha n resolve d b y "th e calm of th e sunlight an d pasture fields" offered u p to him as an image of his ow n impendin g tranquility . An d a s th e sectio n progresses , mor e dramatic confusion s ensue . Immediatel y followin g th e lines abou t "prurient provokers," which offe r th e passage's mos t forcefu l registratio n o f others, th e poet' s attentio n focuse s bac k inward , i n line s I discusse d above, t o describ e a somati c landscap e traverse d b y sensation s a t onc e autonomous an d unstable . Eroti c encounter s wit h other s thu s tur n int o hallucinatory replay s o f a tormente d auto-eroticism : re-tracin g a bod y terrain alread y traversed b y self-division, alread y anxiousl y eroticize d i n relation t o itself , thes e adventure s compoun d suc h estrangemen t rathe r than curin g it . Eroticis m "proper " seem s t o b e a doome d attemp t t o restore wha t auto-eroticis m ough t t o hav e been. 17 Havin g helpe d pro voke a loss of self-completion , other s may seem to be guardians of a lost object an d t o promis e it s restoration , becomin g object s o f desire ; bu t they cannot mak e good thi s lack. Wha t has been lost has apparently no t been lost in them. The bod y tha t is the site of suc h apparentl y unfulfillabl e desir e ha s bee n turned int o a complexly articulate d structure . Th e after-glo w o f sectio n twenty-nine i s accordingl y disturbe d b y a n imag e tha t present s bot h sexuality an d the body it shapes as economies: Parting tracke d b y arrivin g . . . . perpetua l paymen t o f th e perpetua l loan . (i855 54 ) It is possibl e t o rea d bot h halve s o f thi s lin e a s announcin g th e kin d o f positive cas h flow seemingl y appropriat e t o th e post-orgasmi c scenari o of thi s section : expenditure an d agitatio n ar e apparentl y followe d b y

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repayment an d renewe d self-possession . Th e res t o f th e passag e work s to establish jus t suc h a mood o f tranqui l restoration : Rich showering rain, and recompense richer afterward . Sprouts take and accumulate . . .. stan d by the curb prolific and vital, Landscapes projected masculin e full-sized an d golden. (1855 54) Whitman's final tw o line s her e imagin e ejaculatio n a s leading directl y t o the creatio n o f golde n progeny : thi s parthenogeneti c imag e denie s th e very alienation tha t characterize s th e turbulent sexualit y o f the precedin g section.18 Yet i f w e atten d mor e closel y t o th e lin e tha t precede s thes e buoyan t assertions o f self-recovery , w e ca n discove r a mor e recalcitran t econo mizing o f bod y an d self . Whil e th e first o f Whitman' s phrase s figures recompense a s followin g expenditure , self-recover y a s followin g los s o f self ("Partin g tracke d b y arriving") , th e secon d instea d depict s thes e a s simultaneous an d indee d a s constant: "perpetua l paymen t o f th e perpet ual loan. " Whitman' s placi d affirmation s ar e thu s disturbe d b y th e ver y structure thi s post-orgasmi c momen t a t first seem s t o efface : th e bod y does no t merel y mak e us e of , bu t i s itsel f structure d b y o r a s exchange ; not a n organi c unit y o r a harmoniou s self-presence , i t i s a n economy . Given th e perpetual , confusin g circulatio n o f resource s figured here , moreover, thi s econom y confound s debto r an d credito r rathe r tha n dis tinguishing betwee n them . An d whicheve r rol e th e protagonis t migh t play, hi s partne r i n thi s transactio n remain s unspecified . Th e bod y i s thus structure d a s a deb t tha t i s ambiguousl y eithe r unrecoverabl e o r unpayable; i n eithe r case , this deb t organize s eroticis m aroun d a lack , a continual los s of self-presenc e an d self-completion . Given th e contex t i n whic h Whitman' s figure appears , i t i s temptin g to cal l thi s deb t biological . Bu t th e cal m ye t ecstati c agricultura l image s that clos e th e sectio n associat e th e natura l wit h restore d self-presence ; the structur e tha t disturb s suc h self-possession , lurkin g a s i t wer e i n th e midst o f a purel y biologica l bliss , woul d thu s see m t o b e o f a differen t order. W e ca n discove r trace s o f thi s othe r registe r i n sectio n twenty eight. Th e portio n o f thi s passag e i n whic h Whitman' s descriptio n i s most charge d wit h desire , i n whic h th e poe t seem s mos t nearl y read y t o be seduce d int o willin g participation , i s als o marke d b y a n ambivalen t recitation o f condemnator y terms :

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On all sides prurient provokers stiffening m y limbs, Straining the udder of my heart for its withheld drip, Behaving licentious toward me, taking no denial. There i s a difficult-to-determin e rati o o f harshnes s an d humor , self castigation an d self-satisfactio n i n thes e lines , condense d i n th e word s "prurient" an d "licentious" ; i t register s th e mi x o f anxiet y an d excite ment tha t characterize s th e passag e a s a whole . Wha t provoke s thi s ambivalence her e ar e th e morall y charge d epithet s wit h whic h th e poe t names hi s seducers , mobilizin g cultura l sanction s tha t gover n an d struc ture th e body , it s desires , an d it s acts . No r ar e suc h stricture s wholl y external: no t onl y doe s th e poe t mout h the m himself ; th e ambiguousl y auto-erotic contex t suggest s tha t i t i s a t leas t i n par t th e poet' s ow n impulses tha t ar e thu s categorized . Th e self-satisfactio n lurkin g i n th e poet's repetitio n o f thes e terms , a s w e shal l se e i n a moment , i s on e response to the transgressive qualit y o f hi s acts. But the very phrases tha t declare th e protagonist's attractio n als o war d i t off o r war n hi m agains t it, i n a n effor t t o defen d agains t desire s tha t threate n th e carefu l regula tion o f th e bod y an d thu s fee l a s dangerou s a s the y ar e intense . Whit man's homosexua l orientatio n ma y hav e bearin g here : a n explicitl y transgressive sexualit y ma y sometime s see m mos t palpabl y t o threate n socially sanctione d image s o f th e bod y an d t o disorganiz e a sel f bot h drawn t o an d defende d agains t suc h a cataclysm . Bu t a s Freu d remind s us, th e universa l encodin g an d regulatin g o f sexua l activit y attest s t o a n inherent tensio n betwee n ero s an d civilization ; certai n carefull y code d sexual acts , h e suggests , ar e provisionall y an d partiall y enliste d unde r the cultura l order , keepin g socia l an d psychi c disturbanc e withi n tolera ble limit s bu t b y n o mean s eliminatin g them. 19 Th e tensio n provoke d i n this scen e migh t thu s b e understoo d a s a n extrem e bu t no t otherwis e aberrant dramatizatio n o f th e disruption s sexualit y precipitates. 20 These see m t o provok e rathe r mor e anxiet y tha n pleasure . Organize d by th e demand s o f a sourc e outsid e itself , th e bod y i s experience d her e as a sit e subjec t t o perpetua l surveillance : a kin d o f disembodie d gaz e broods ove r thi s scen e o f unspecifie d eroti c activity , jealousl y protectin g its threatene d terrain . Suc h observatio n i s implie d i n par t b y th e oddl y divided perspectiv e tha t characterize s th e sectio n a s a whole . Thi s re markable descriptio n i s bot h heavil y somaticize d an d disconcertingl y panoramic: i t suggest s a n unstable , shiftin g combinatio n o f tactil e an d visual awareness , th e first magnifyin g th e bod y an d seemin g t o experi -

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ence i t fro m within , th e second , a s i t were , miniaturizin g i t t o vie w i t from above . Th e passage' s highl y charge d materia l i s thu s als o weirdl y objectified: th e bod y i s both a locu s o f intense , disruptiv e sensatio n an d a prostrat e for m splaye d ou t an d displaye d t o a remote , disembodie d gaze. Like th e regulator y vocabular y th e poe t himsel f mouths , thi s objecti fying gaz e ha s bee n internalized ; i t i s afte r al l th e poet' s ow n fantas y t o which w e atten d here . His mountin g excitemen t i s thus experience d a s a threat t o th e self' s stability : The sentries desert every other part of me, They have left me helpless to a red marauder, They all come to the headland to witness and assist against me. These "sentries " ar e no t simpl y senses , though the y appea r i n proximit y to th e "fello w senses " mentione d earlier ; thei r functio n i s t o guar d a threatened structure , defendin g i t fro m impulse s an d act s tha t ar e mad e to see m invasiv e an d alien . An d despit e thei r momentar y dereliction , these sentrie s ar e plante d permanentl y within : th e ver y passag e tha t describes thei r laps e o f vigilanc e i s itself intentl y o n guard , bracin g itsel f against impendin g catastrophe . Played ou t beneat h thi s gaze , th e protagonist' s sexualit y i s tripl y anxious; i t i s culpable , dangerous , an d unavailing . I n thi s passag e th e body's convulsiv e excitemen t come s clos e t o provokin g terror . I t seem s to threate n a syste m o f cultura l sanction s mappe d ont o th e body , a structure defende d a s i f i t were th e body ; her e orgas m feel s no t simpl y like transgression , bu t lik e abjection. 21 I f thi s highl y charge d scen e i s nonetheless marke d b y intens e excitemen t a s well a s intens e discomfort , that ma y b e becaus e th e structur e eroticis m threaten s t o disrup t i s itsel f a sourc e o f anxiety . Th e bod y disturbe d b y desir e an d threatene d wit h what feel s lik e a los s o f propriet y i s a bod y alread y alienate d an d improper, alread y estrange d b y bein g organize d fo r th e gaze ; a s we sa w above, eroti c activit y dramaticall y heighten s thi s sens e o f a los t bodil y integrity o r a lost object. Th e simultaneous presenc e of terror an d attrac tion her e i s thu s a measur e o f th e lac k tha t mark s th e bod y i n culture ; disruption an d disorganizatio n see m t o promis e th e recover y o f a van ished wholeness . Ye t a s w e hav e seen , th e eroti c activit y ben t o n restor ing a missin g completio n instea d continuall y rediscover s th e lac k i t promises t o overcome . The poet o f Leaves of Grass is thus committe d t o

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searching ou t a n ero s prio r t o th e gaz e an d th e mediatio n i t install s i n the space of wha t shoul d hav e been simpl e self-presence . 3. In Whitman' s earl y edition s writin g i s a crucia l trop e fo r thi s proces s of eroti c encodin g registere d b y th e gaze . I will tak e u p th e implication s of thi s figure a t lengt h i n chapte r 5 ; i t help s lin k Whitman' s visio n o f culture t o hi s languag e theory , i n whic h writin g als o play s a ke y role . Since w e wil l b e turnin g shortl y t o th e cultura l redeeme r produce d b y and modele d o n voice , however , I want t o sugges t her e briefl y som e o f the association s th e opposin g mod e o f writin g possesse s i n Whitman' s work. The trouble d protagonis t o f Whitman' s 185 5 poe m "Th e Sleepers " is caught u p i n a n ofte n disturbin g eroti c economy ; hi s involvemen t i s associated wit h writin g an d reading , i n a difficul t passag e tha t seem s t o connect thes e activitie s wit h mediatio n an d self-division . Rathe r tha n offering a ful l explicatio n o f th e poem , I wan t t o focu s o n thi s eroti c network an d th e image that condense s it s psychic import. 22 The poem' s lon g openin g movemen t display s a protagonis t preoccu pied b y hi s troublin g relatio n t o others , an d t o th e dens e drea m spac e they occupy : I wander all night in my vision, Stepping with light feet.... swiftl y an d noiselessly stepping and stopping, Bending with open eyes over the shut eyes of sleepers; Wandering and confused . . . . los t to myself . . . . ill-assorte d . . . . contradic tory, Pausing and gazing and bending and stopping. (1855 105) Despite th e initia l contras t betwee n hi s open eye s an d th e close d eye s of the sleepers , th e poe t turn s ou t t o b e "los t t o himself, " "confused, " an d "ill-assorted" precisel y becaus e h e i s enmeshe d i n th e oneiri c we b o f which the y ar e part ; hi s conspicuou s consciousnes s turn s ou t t o b e consciousness o f thi s drea m worl d an d hi s involvemen t i n it . Hi s ope n eyes soon droop , a s if he has entered a hypnagogic trance : I stand with drooping eyes by the worstsuffering an d restless, I pass my hands soothingly to and fro a few inches from them ; The restless sink in their beds . . .. the y fitfullysleep. (1855 106 ) Whitman gesture s her e a t lendin g hi s protagonis t th e healin g power s that defin e th e poet-shama n o f Leaves of Grass. 23 I n "Th e Sleepers, "

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however, th e transfigurin g effect s o f th e poet' s touc h ar e prett y muc h absent unti l th e poem's salvifi c ending . For the most part, the poet seem s neither capabl e o f unifyin g th e poem' s disturbin g materia l no r unitar y himself; h e i s simpl y a sit e throug h whic h stil l unsubdue d drea m mate rial passes. 24 Lik e a dreamer , th e poe t indee d seem s no t onl y t o b e th e space i n whic h desire s ar e registered , bu t als o t o assum e th e variou s positions conjure d u p t o embod y thei r fulfillment . H e appear s fo r a moment i n a conspicuousl y masculin e role : "Onwar d w e move , a ga y gang o f blackguard s wit h mirthshoutin g musi c an d wildflappin g pen nants o f joy " (185 5 107) . But he occupies a feminine positio n a s well: I am she who adorned herself and folded her hair expectantly, My truant lover has come and it is dark. Double yourself an d receive me darkness, Receive m e an d m y love r to o . . . . h e wil l no t le t m e g o withou t him . (1855 107 )

The richl y imagine d scenari o tha t follow s thi s invocatio n offer s a con centrated instanc e o f suc h instabilit y rathe r tha n a resolutio n t o it . Materializing an d dissolving , th e shape s tha t appea r ther e ar e les s per sons than possibl e eroti c positions : He whom I call answers me and takes the place of my lover, He rises with me silently from th e bed. Darkness yo u ar e gentle r tha n m y love r . . . . hi s flesh wa s sweat y an d panting, I feel the hot moisture yet that he left me. My hands are spread forth . . I pass them in all directions, I would sound up the shadowy shore to which you are journeying. Be careful, darkness . . .. already , what was it touched me? I thought my lover had gone . . .. els e darkness and he are one, I hear the heart-beat.... I follow . . I fade away. (1855 107) Here person s appea r a s unstabl e incarnation s o f eroti c functions , tem porary embodiment s o f a n obscur e bu t seemingl y inexorabl e sexua l momentum; first th e love r an d the n th e poe t himsel f fad e int o th e ambience i n whic h thi s confusin g scen e unfolds , returnin g t o th e matri x of desir e that gav e them briefl y individuate d existence. 25

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Though i t appear s i n th e mids t o f th e increasingl y distance d portrai ture tha t work s t o subdu e suc h hauntin g material , th e enigmati c refer ence t o readin g function s a s a repris e o f th e disturbin g involvement s I have bee n tracing : I turn but do not extricate myself; Confused . . . . a pastreading . . .. another , but with darkness yet. (1855 109) Whitman's elliptica l gramma r make s th e phras e abou t readin g trick y t o gloss. But "pastreading " migh t b e most plausibl y interprete d a s a neologistic predicate-nominative : "[ I am ] a pastreading"— I a m mysel f a reading o f wha t i s past. 26 Thi s pas t woul d presumabl y consis t o f th e fragmented an d seemingl y foreig n drea m materia l th e poe m records , which seem s t o predat e it s individua l embodiments . Th e poe t himsel f would b e simpl y th e composit e o f al l th e eroti c inscription s h e reads , enigmatic desire s tha t ti e hi m t o other s a s function s o f th e sam e eroti c writing o r code ; he would b e a text, o r a fragment o f one . Another od d phrase , earlie r i n th e poem , similarl y associate s th e poet's participatio n i n a n eroti c econom y wit h signs : th e mysteriou s "journeymen divine " ar e sai d t o "lif t thei r cunnin g cover s an d signify me wit h stretche d arms " (185 5 106 ; emphasi s added) . Thi s peculia r locution seem s not simpl y to mak e acces s to erotic invitation a matter o f semiotic competence ; i f w e rea d "me " a s a direc t objec t rathe r tha n a s an indirec t objec t appearin g i n a n elide d construction , th e poet' s initia tion amount s t o hi s becomin g a sig n himself. 27 A lin e tha t appear s between thes e tw o passage s describe s th e poe t a s jus t suc h a mark , a trace shape d b y pattern s tha t travers e him : "Perfum e an d yout h cours e though me , and I am thei r wake " (185 5 108). 28 While th e final section s o f "Th e Sleepers " ward of f suc h intimations , a subsequentl y delete d passag e tha t lead s int o thes e closin g cadenza s i n the 185 5 editio n bot h offer s a bitte r protes t agains t suc h eroti c inscrip tion an d associate s i t wit h patriarcha l authority . Th e passag e follow s a number o f rathe r sentimentalize d anecdote s tha t pi t persona l feelin g against th e sometime s obscur e socia l pressure s tha t dispers e individual s and foreclos e possibilitie s fo r intimacy : Now Lucifer was not dead . . .. o r if he was I am his sorrowful terribl e heir; I have been wronged . . .. I am oppressed . . .. I hate him that oppresses me, I will either destroy him, or he shall release me.

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Damn him! how he does defile me, How he informs against my brother and sister and takes pay for their blood, How h e laughs when I look dow n th e bend afte r th e steamboat tha t carrie s away my woman. (1855 i n ) 2 9 This tormente d scenario , o f course , allude s t o th e sanctione d institu tional violenc e o f slavery . Ye t thi s politica l drama , evoke d wit h a senti mentality no t atypica l of Whitman's reference s t o public events in Leaves of Grass, function s als o a s a displace d versio n o f th e psychi c coercion s with whic h th e poe m ha s bee n mor e intensel y concerned . Thi s displace ment paradoxicall y allow s suc h intimat e pressure s t o b e registere d wit h unusual force : despit e th e awkwardnes s involve d i n Whitman' s attemp t to ventriloquiz e th e voic e o f a slave , th e passag e i s remarkabl e fo r it s agitated an d vehemen t rebelliousness , attitude s rarel y displaye d overtl y in Leaves of Grass. Bu t th e paterna l prohibitio n raile d agains t her e provokes anxiet y throughou t Whitman' s work ; th e codin g o f person s and position s Whitma n associate s wit h thi s paterna l functio n i s perhap s responsible fo r th e sens e o f obscur e forebodin g tha t haunt s th e intens e but bewilderin g eroti c scenario s tha t dominat e th e poem' s openin g sec tions. 30 A long passage from th e 185 5 Prefac e preoccupie d wit h sexua l transgres sion make s thi s anxiet y mor e overt ; ther e to o i t i s provoke d b y th e constitutive rol e playe d b y inscriptio n i n eroti c life . Th e emotiona l val ence o f th e passag e i s admittedl y difficul t t o determine : Whitma n i s ostensibly celebratin g a cosmi c mechanis m rathe r tha n lamentin g a so cial one , educatin g hi s audienc e i n th e virtue s o f Emersonia n compensa tion an d th e machiner y o f reincarnatio n tha t supposedl y effect s it . Bu t the loss of autonom y th e passage detail s provokes increasin g agitation : Only th e sou l i s of itsel f . . . . al l els e ha s referenc e t o wha t ensues . All tha t a person does or thinks is of consequence. Not a move can a man or woman make that affect s hi m or he r in a day or a month o r any part of the direct lifetime o r the hour of death but the same affects hi m or her onward afterward throug h the indirect lifetime. The indirect is always as great and real as the direct. The spirit receives fro m th e bod y jus t a s muc h a s i t give s to th e body . No t on e nam e of word or deed . . not of venereal sores or discolorations . . not the privacy of the onanist. . not of the putrid veins of gluttons or rumdrinkers . . not peculation or cunning o r betraya l o r murde r . . n o serpentin e poiso n o f thos e tha t seduc e women . . not th e foolis h yieldin g o f wome n . . not prostitutio n . . not o f an y

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depravity of young men . . not of the attainment of gain by discreditable means .. no t any nastiness of appetite . . not any harshness of officers to men or judges to prisoner s o r father s t o son s o r son s t o father s o r o f husband s t o wive s or bosses to their boys . . not of greed y looks or malignant wishes . .. no r any of the wiles practiced by people upon themselves . .. eve r is or ever can be stamped on th e programm e bu t i t i s dul y realize d an d returned , an d tha t returne d i n further performances . .. an d they returned again. (1855 19-20 ) As i t progresses , thi s jeremia d seem s nearl y t o escap e th e poet' s control. Enactin g the repetition i t describes, the passage become s less an explanation o f th e la w tha t governs suc h recurrenc e tha n a n instance o f its working . Action s initiate d voluntaril y ("No t a mov e ca n a ma n o r woman make" ) ar e sai d t o recu r with daemoni c inevitabilit y ("bu t i t i s duly realize d an d returned , an d tha t returne d i n furthe r performance s . . . an d the y returne d again") ; detailin g suc h repetition , Whitma n fall s into a hypnotic enumeratio n o f particular s that obscures the cosmic la w they supposedly instance . Approximating wha t we would no w cal l repetition compulsion, this litany seems to be under the spell of a mechanism it cannot properly name. Whitman's runaway catalogu e lists a series of demeaning and dangerous interaction s weighte d heavil y towar d sexua l infraction . Ye t it is no t precisely an incautious enterin g into sexual act s that is said to propel the uncanny recurrence s i n whic h th e wil l i s los t an d autonom y i s eroded . What initiate s suc h inexorabl e repetitio n i s no t th e ac t itsel f bu t th e word tha t attaches to it : "No t on e name of word o r deed [ . . . .] eve r is or eve r ca n b e stamped on th e programm e bu t i t i s dul y realize d an d returned." Here body an d self ar e envisioned a s a kind of tabula rasa on which a text i s imprinted; they ar e structured b y the condemnatory an d quasi-juridical vocabular y inscribe d upo n them . Paradoxically , suc h in scription lead s no t t o avoidanc e bu t to inexorabl e recurrence : eroticis m consists i n th e compulsiv e repetitio n o f culturall y proscribed , daemoni cally charge d scene s an d acts . The guil t tha t evidentl y attend s thi s process i s perhap s les s interestin g tha n th e uncann y los s o f autonom y i t suggests. Subjec t t o a cultural writin g tha t constitute s sexuality , th e sel f is structured as the endless re-reading and re-inscription of an introjected text. 4. I n Whitman's wor k castratio n i s anothe r nam e fo r thi s subjectio n t o encoding an d the fading of self-presenc e i t exacts. Castration turns up in

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the 185 5 poe m "Faces " as a seemingly inappropriat e an d highly charged image. The poe m a s a whole, w e shoul d recall , bot h offer s instance s o f physical degradation that Whitman associates with the fall into representation and prophesies the restoration of a natural body not thus compromised. A lis t earl y o n i n th e poem , whic h prophesie s suc h redemption , presents a disturbin g mi x o f grotesqu e physica l descriptio n an d wha t might b e calle d psycho-socia l allegory . I t suggest s tha t th e locu s o f deforming representation s i s cultural , an d tha t thei r distortin g power s extend to the body a s well a s the mind: Sauntering the pavement or crossing the ceaseless ferry, here then are faces; I see them and complain not and am content with all. Do you suppose I could be content with all if I thought them their own finale? This now is too lamentable a face for a man; Some abject louse asking leave to be .. cringin g for it, Some milknosed maggot blessing what lets it wrig to its hole. This face is a dog's snout sniffing for garbage; Snakes nest in that mouth .. I hear the sibilant threat. (1855 124-25 ) A subsequent image, which we examined in chapter 3, associates such lurid features with disguises, misrepresentations of a n original animatin g energy the poet claims to discern lurking beneath these grisly surfaces: Features of my equals, would you trick me with your creased and cadaverous march? Well then you cannot trick me. I see your rounded never-erased flow, I see neath the rims of your haggard and mean disguises. Splay and twist as you like . . .. pok e with the tangling fores of fishesor rats, You'll be unmuzzled . . .. yo u certainly will. (1855 125—26) The poet' s glimps e o f a "rounded never-erase d flow" beneat h appar ent monstrosit y i s a typicall y Whitmania n savin g grace . Furthe r o n i n the poem, though, this dialectic of surface s an d interiors acquires darker implications. A s i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " representation come s t o inhabit the inside: Spots or cracks at the windows do not disturb me, Tall and sufficient stand behind and make signs to me; I read the promise and patiently wait. (1855 127 )

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Detailing Whitman's interes t in the pseudo-sciences o f his day, Harol d Aspiz persuasivel y associate s th e "promise " th e poe t read s her e wit h a millennium t o b e inaugurate d b y eugenic s (139) . Ye t i n Leaves of Grass the notio n o f th e bod y a s sig n typicall y ha s bleake r connotations , sug gesting blockag e a s wel l a s promise . W e shoul d accordingl y not e tha t the "tal l an d sufficient " figures th e poe t claim s t o glimps e fai l t o mak e themselves entirel y visible : partiall y obscure d b y "spot s an d cracks, " they mus t mak e sign s t o th e poet—merel y "indicating, " w e ma y sa y i n Whitman's ow n terminology , wha t the y are . Th e poet , no t ye t i n pres ence o f suc h self-sufficien t forms , mus t rea d an d deciphe r th e sign s tha t represent them . Her e nothin g escape s th e mediatio n o f signs : that whic h is not itsel f a sign mus t mak e one . The socia l landscape , in its entirety, is a spac e define d b y representation. 31 Though i t i s dispelle d a t th e en d o f "Faces " b y on e o f Whitman' s typical closin g cadenzas , thi s i s the foca l visio n towar d whic h th e poe m converges. It s upbea t openin g portraits , o f "Face s o f friendship , preci sion, caution , suavity , ideality " (185 5 124) , thu s dela y a recognitio n toward whic h th e poem soo n gathers : The face of an amour . . .. th e face of veneration, The face as of a dream . . .. th e face of an immobile rock, The face withdrawn of its good and bad .. a castrated face, A wild hawk .. hi s wings clipped by the clipper, A stallion that yielded at last to the thongs and knife of the gelder. [••••]

This now is too lamentable a face for a man. (1855 124 ) Though h e ma y see m t o b e merel y on e citize n amon g many , on e empirical possibilit y amon g other s an d a n improbabl e on e a t that , th e figure wit h th e "castrate d face " towar d who m thi s catalogu e converge s can b e see n a s a synecdoch e fo r th e entir e poe m an d it s burden. 32 Lik e those trappe d behin d cracke d an d spotte d window s an d reduce d t o making signs , thi s figure "withdraw n o f it s goo d an d bad " ha s los t it s natural expressiveness . Th e poe t see s onl y a kin d o f blan k surface , a mute sign ; somethin g i s missing or a t least deepl y sequestered . Tha t lac k is trope d a s a violen t severing , a castration . Thi s imag e i s startling ; bu t it resonate s wit h th e comple x o f concern s I hav e bee n considering . Deprived o f bodil y integrit y an d propriety , deforme d b y a violence tha t is a mar k o f th e la w an d o f th e structurin g o f ero s b y tha t law , th e castrate i s the ver y figure of ou r subjection . Castration , organizin g Freud' s

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discourse a s a threa t th e anxiet y attendin g o n whic h generate s th e adul t male's psychic topography, i s read b y Jacques Laca n a s fact: a s symboli c fact, th e cultura l an d psychi c mar k o f ou r insertio n a s subject s i n th e symbolic order, an d o f th e loss of self-presenc e thi s origin o f subjectivit y entails. 33 "One par t o f himself," a s the Lacania n journa l Scilicit put s it , is thrown up as the residue of his entry into the field of the Other—part-objects , or detachabl e part s o f th e body , whos e structur e i s base d o n a featur e o f anatomical divisio n du e t o it s homolog y wit h signifyin g divisions . I t i s a t th e junction o f thes e two register s that th e subject, becaus e he is subject t o speech, pays the tribute o f hi s pound o f flesh to the Other . (Lacan , Feminine Sexuality 119-20)

Culture, Laca n argue s elsewhere , no t onl y give s u s ou r (alienated ) sub jectivity b y giving us the language we speak; i t also speaks through u s o r writes u s down : it is not onl y ma n who speaks , but tha t i n ma n an d throug h ma n it speaks (qa parle), that hi s nature i s woven b y effects i n which i s to be found th e structur e of language, of which he becomes the material. . . . (Ecrits 284 ) Culture write s wit h u s b y makin g u s lexeme s i n a combinatory : i n kinship systems , or in the Oedipa l structure s that remai n to us of them. 34 Castration, o f whic h circumcisio n woul d b e th e ritua l enactment , i s th e psychic an d symboli c mar k o f thi s constitutiv e expropriation , a t onc e sexual an d linguistic . The castrate' s appearanc e i n "Faces"—i n th e sam e poe m tha t late r focuses o n deformitie s characterize d a s disguise s o r deficien t representa tions, an d o n th e nearl y occlude d sign-maker s sai d t o lur k withi n suc h indicative surfaces—implie s simila r conjunctions , whic h Leaves of Grass will confirm . Th e castrat e i s one whos e bod y i s shaped b y signs ; our us e of signs , and ou r subjectio n t o them , i s itself castration. 35 What woul d a bod y b e tha t escape d suc h symboli c debt ? Th e figure produced b y th e poet' s apostrophe s i s Whitman' s crucia l attemp t t o conjure u p suc h a presence. It offers exemptio n fro m th e anxietie s I have been describin g an d embodie s th e crucia l desire s abou t whic h th e earl y editions o f Leaves of Grass cohere . The Bod y o f th e Poe t 1. I n th e visio n o f unfalle n incarnatio n w e examine d i n chapte r 3 , th e body i s a templ e o f self-presence , identica l t o th e soul . I n Whitman' s

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work thi s drea m o f a redeeme d bod y depend s fo r it s realizatio n o n th e figure o f th e poet generate d b y apostrophe . A grandiose pronouncemen t from th e i86 0 "Startin g fro m Paumanok " display s thi s relianc e o f a supposedly universa l possibilit y o n th e peculia r cas e mad e t o stan d a s surety fo r it . Ther e Whitma n declare s th e inseparabilit y o f bod y an d soul, giving this intertwining an d th e divinizing of the bod y i t implies th e form o f a general truth : Behold! th e bod y include s an d i s th e meaning , th e mai n concern—an d in cludes and is the Soul, (i860 17) Whitman's openin g imperative lends this line its torque, which derive s from th e ambiguous deicti c function o f "Behold! " I t is of cours e possibl e to constru e comman d an d accompanyin g gestur e a s a n especiall y strik ing thoug h b y n o mean s uniqu e instanc e o f Whitman' s sententiousness : the poe t migh t poin t a t a suppose d universa l trut h hanging , a s i t were , in fron t o f ou r noses . Bu t h e migh t instea d b e gesturin g a t himself . Hi s global assertio n woul d the n deriv e fro m an d exten d wha t seem s tru e o f his ow n remarkabl e body : th e proclaime d identit y o f bod y an d sou l would codif y a mod e o f incarnatio n th e poet' s barel y materia l presenc e suggests. Thi s mod e i s define d b y th e sam e "Behold! " tha t draw s ou r attention t o him : apostrophi c a s wel l a s deictic , Whitman' s comman d inaugurates a n encounte r i n whic h w e com e fac e t o fac e wit h a figure who i s perforce invisible . Such ambiguou s pointin g i s a typical featur e o f Whitman's evocation s of th e poet' s presence , an d i s crucia l t o thei r effect . I t i s no t simpl y general cas e an d particula r instanc e tha t thes e deictic s confound . Whit man's enigmati c ostensiv e gesture s confus e an d ultimatel y conflat e a number o f ordinaril y distinc t entities ; th e fusion s thu s suggeste d defin e the transfigure d bod y o n whic h Whitman' s redemptiv e visio n depends . In an apostroph e fro m "Son g of Myself" which w e glanced a t in chapte r 1, the poet direct s u s firmly towar d a physical presenc e tha t turn s ou t t o be elusive: This is the press of a bashful han d . . .. thi s is the float and odor of hair, This i s the touc h o f m y lip s t o your s . . . . thi s i s the murmu r o f yearning . (185542) The uncann y qualit y o f thes e proclamation s derive s i n par t fro m the parado x o f th e poe t forcibl y drawin g ou r attentio n t o a bod y w e

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cannot se e o r feel . Bu t i t depend s a s wel l o n a conflatio n bor n o f ou r resultant nee d t o tak e u p slack . Failin g t o locat e a body , w e faste n ou r attention o n th e word s tha t announc e it , i n whos e presenc e w e mor e palpably are ; Whitman's deictic s see m t o b e pointing a t themselves . Re ferring ambiguousl y t o eithe r bod y o r language , suc h announcement s effectively fus e them ; the y sugges t tha t th e poet' s bod y ha s bee n re duced t o th e barel y physica l presenc e o f hi s word ; conversely , the y im ply tha t languag e ha s becom e incarnate , tha t i n th e poet' s adven t th e word i s mad e flesh . Supposedl y touchin g u s here , th e transfigure d pre sence define d b y thi s fusio n i s remarkabl e fo r it s labilit y an d lightness . In suc h passage s ther e seem s t o b e n o distanc e o r differenc e amon g th e words themselves , th e sensuou s "murmur " tha t proclaim s them , and th e elusiv e an d barel y materia l "pres s o f a bashfu l hand " o r "touch o f my lips " int o whic h word s an d voic e see m alway s abl e t o condense. This conflatio n govern s Whitman' s redefinitio n o f th e body . Lendin g the poet extraordinary qualitie s an d powers , it also serves to exempt hi m from th e difficultie s b y whic h th e ma n aboar d th e ferr y an d othe r localized version s o f Whitman's protagonis t ar e conspicuously beset : th e body tha t incarnate s speec h ward s of f th e deb t I hav e bee n callin g castration. 36 Thi s savin g associatio n o f bod y wit h wor d an d voic e i s b y no mean s peculia r t o Leaves of Grass, thoug h Whitman' s versio n o f i t is certainly extreme . If , a s Freu d suggests , unconsciou s fantasie s o f castra tion ar e culturall y pervasive , s o i s a compensator y fantasy , centerin g o n an imag e of voice , that seem s to preserve th e body's integrity ; th e appea l of the poet's presence may derive largely from th e way this figure embod ies and dramaticall y intensifie s a shared fantasmati c structure. 37 We need both t o buil d ou t thi s visio n o f th e transfigure d bod y define d b y wor d and voice , trace d briefl y i n chapte r i , an d t o atten d t o it s cultura l resonance. Another passag e organized b y dramatic but ambiguou s pointing suggest s some o f th e ke y implication s o f th e identificatio n o f th e poet' s presenc e with hi s word . Simila r t o th e lin e fro m "Startin g fro m Paumanok " w e looked a t above , Whitman' s addres s her e i s mor e explicitl y epiphanic , directly announcin g th e poet' s self-manifestation . I t occur s i n "Son g o f Myself":

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Behold! I do not give lectures, or a little charity; When I give, I give myself. (V i:62) 38 Proudly unveilin g a presenc e w e canno t see , Whitman's openin g imper ative, whic h onc e mor e perform s a deicti c function , o f cours e contain s an elemen t o f burlesque . Th e lac k o f possibl e uptak e ca n mak e suc h supposed act s o f revelatio n see m eithe r comi c o r poignant , suggestin g the poet' s inabilit y t o produc e th e presenc e h e proclaims . Th e humo r and patho s o f thes e moment s i s m y topi c i n chapte r 6 ; the y ar e crucia l to Leaves of Grass. Bu t thes e qualitie s posses s a neve r quit e resolvabl e relation t o th e visionar y intensit y suc h announcement s als o generate , a dimension th e ver y lac k o f uptak e her e ca n b e rea d a s sustainin g rathe r than compromising . Wha t migh t b e conceive d o f a s missin g ca n als o b e thought o f a s superfluou s baggage : thi s invisibl e figure i s lik e a bod y reduced t o it s numinou s core , a presenc e n o longe r "excrementitious, " having shucke d of f th e detritu s th e bod y i s liable to become . Here again , ou r sens e o f th e poet' s presenc e a s a kin d o f zero-degre e incarnation depend s o n th e passage's abilit y t o identif y bod y wit h word , a conflatio n achieve d onc e mor e b y Whitman' s openin g deicti c an d it s characteristically elusiv e referent . Th e subsequen t dissociatio n o f "my self," the presence w e have bee n invite d t o behold , fro m mer e "lectures " is partl y humorous , sinc e i t seem s a t first t o und o th e identificatio n between bod y an d languag e o n whic h th e passage' s powe r depends . Ye t this distinctio n paradoxicall y end s u p sustainin g th e crucia l ti e betwee n body an d word , o r a certai n kin d o f word . Lecture s an d othe r suc h referential verba l activities , w e shal l se e i n chapte r 5 , ar e i n Leaves of Grass typicall y oppose d no t t o silen t presenc e bu t t o performativ e utter ance. Whitman' s openin g "Behold! " i s itsel f performative , seemin g t o guarantee th e fusio n betwee n bod y an d wor d th e passag e implies : pro duced b y language, the poet i s consubstantial wit h it . This apparen t capacit y fo r self-productio n throug h performativ e ut terance i s crucia l t o th e poe t i n severa l respects . A s we shal l se e furthe r on, i t seem s t o leav e hi m fre e fro m th e sexua l an d symboli c shapin g t o which h e woul d otherwis e b e vulnerable . Mor e broadly , i t apparentl y allows hi m t o initiate , sustain , an d repea t hi s advent , independen t o f external circumstance s o r contingen t events . He thus become s a creatur e of a differen t stripe : reproducin g himsel f a t will , h e i s a n idea l presenc e immune t o th e vicissitude s tha t affec t al l merel y materia l objects . Th e word wit h whic h thi s presenc e i s conflate d i s th e mode l fo r suc h repeti -

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tion: conveye d an d embodie d b y it, the poet seem s to sustai n hi s identit y unchanged throug h countles s manifestations . Whitman's cann y us e of performative locution s manage s t o imply thi s recurrence an d sugges t it s powe r t o generat e a n idea l presenc e exemp t from change ; th e invarian t scen e t o whic h hi s proclamatio n give s ris e i s no longe r exactl y contingent . "Whe n I give, I give myself" : i n context , this ha s les s of a n ai r o f coquetr y tha n o f definition , Whitman' s "when " implying a global "whenever " an d it s inevitable corollar y rathe r tha n a n infrequent occurrenc e tantalizingl y bot h proferre d an d postponed . Thi s "whenever," moreover , i s now: i f "Behold! " i s performative, i t initiate s the revelatio n th e succeedin g lin e goe s o n t o specify . Th e poe t thu s manifests himself , through a n alway s identica l transaction , wheneve r th e performative powe r tha t seem s t o inher e i n thes e phrase s i s activated b y a ne w encounte r wit h them . Throug h th e invarian t word s wit h whic h his presence has bee n conflated , h e incarnates himsel f i n always identica l form. Hovering betwee n epiphan y an d co n job , such performative s dramat ically intensify th e principle Jacques Derrid a call s iterability—the capac ity of (re-)generatin g th e same. 39 The ver y notio n o f a n idea l object , o f a form o f bein g immun e t o tim e an d change , i s accordin g t o Derrid a a product o f thi s power o f repetition : this ideality, which is but another name for the permanence of the same and the possibility o f it s repetition , does not exist i n th e world , an d i t doe s no t com e from anothe r world; it depends entirely on the possibility of acts of repetition. It is constituted b y thi s possibility . It s "being " i s proportionate t o th e powe r o f repetition; absolut e idealit y i s the correlat e o f a possibility o f indefinit e repeti tion. (Speech and Phenomena 52 ) This possibilit y i s inseparabl e fro m language : iterability , Derrid a re minds us , define s th e wor d (an d i s define d b y it) ; (only ) th e wor d o r name repeat s itsel f a s the same through it s successive embodiments. 40 This productio n o f idea l form s i s als o o f cours e a n ac t o f mastery : positing repeatabl e entities , w e generat e a worl d w e ca n control . Whit man's catalogue s ar e a massiv e celebratio n o f thi s power . Bu t hi s apos trophes giv e i t mor e strikin g embodiment . The y sugges t a bizarr e tem porality i n whic h interva l an d successio n hav e collapse d int o th e endles s repetition o f a singl e even t an d moment ; th e figure wh o manifest s him self b y mean s o f suc h addresse s ha s dissolve d th e ver y manifold s i n which contingen t event s unfold . Thes e carefull y calculate d declaration s

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thus encourag e u s t o constru e th e idealizin g powe r o f languag e i n a magical mode . Whitman' s apostrophe s we d th e inheren t iterabilit y o f the wor d t o th e suppose d powe r o f th e poet' s performativ e utteranc e magically t o repea t a singl e speec h ac t forever , encodin g thi s aberran t possibility int o suc h poem s a s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry. " A s a result , the purel y idea l conten t languag e generate s i s apparentl y transforme d into a n unchangin g an d idealize d presenc e literall y produce d fo r u s a s we atten d t o the utteranc e tha t name s him . Such reifyin g o f th e ideal content s generate d b y the word i s accordin g to Derrid a a pervasive tendency , thoug h Leaves of Grass certainl y take s it t o extremes . Languag e an d repetition , Derrid a suggests , giv e ris e t o the ver y notio n o f essence , o f th e thin g itsel f se t of f fro m wha t ca n no w be though t o f a s it s accidents. 41 Wha t is , wha t ha s being—rathe r tha n what merel y appears , subjec t t o th e vicissitude s o f circumstance—i s th e ideal, unchangin g conten t I ca n cal l u p befor e m e an d mak e presen t i n the word . Immun e t o change , thi s idea l for m neve r fail s t o presen t itsel f at m y behest . Thu s a s Derrid a suggests , "thi s determinatio n o f bein g a s ideality is paradoxically on e with the determination o f being as presence" [Speech and Phenomena 53) . Leaves of Grass subscribe s t o thi s doubl e determination. Whitman' s catalogues , w e saw , see m t o liberat e object s from thei r entrapmen t i n th e shiftin g guise s o f appearance , allowin g them t o presen t themselve s full y an d immediatel y t o th e poet , t o revea l "what [they ] are. " An d hi s apostrophe s conve y t o u s wha t w e ar e repeatedly invite d t o cal l a presence: the y presen t th e poe t himself , free d from th e contingencie s i n whic h h e wa s hithert o mired . Presenc e i n Whitman's wor k i s finally th e presenc e o f thi s idea l bein g shape d b y th e word an d supposedl y give n concret e physica l embodimen t throug h a magical dispositio n o f it . In Leaves of Grass voic e is both th e medium fo r thi s incarnation an d th e crucial synecdoch e fo r th e transfigured bod y thereb y created . I suggested in chapter 1 that Whitman's appea l t o voice helps authenticate th e poet' s claims o f immediat e presence , sinc e i t make s the m tautological : voic e already implie s th e proximit y o f th e figure whos e manifestatio n Whit man's declaration s clai m t o perform . Reducin g spac e t o th e modes t intervals actua l speec h ca n traverse , Whitman's figure o f voic e also play s a ke y rol e i n th e tempora l shel l gam e tha t simultaneousl y collapse s tim e and generate s th e immutabl e presenc e wh o master s it . Voic e seem s t o

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make immediat e a recurrenc e th e wor d make s possible , activatin g her e and no w the invariant even t the poet's phrase s name . An oral announce ment, Walte r On g remind s us , "exist s onl y whe n i t i s goin g ou t o f existence," onl y i n a particula r momen t [Interfaces 136). 42 Paradoxi cally, i t i s partl y b y playin g o n thi s evanescenc e o f ora l addres s tha t Whitman's apostrophe s manag e t o conver t th e general iterabilit y o f th e word int o wha t seem s t o b e th e magica l recurrenc e o f a n even t tha t cancels time . "Wh o knows bu t I am as good a s looking a t you now, for all yo u canno t se e me?" (1856 218) . Here wha t voic e authenticate s a s present even t define s a momen t impossibl e t o limi t o r pi n down : righ t now i s also forever . Voice als o define s th e presenc e i t seem s t o produce . A s we note d i n chapter 1 , one of it s crucial function s i s to bridg e th e distanc e betwee n body an d word , materia l an d idea l forms . I n the 185 6 poem "T o You" the poe t declares : "no w I plac e m y han d upo n you , tha t yo u b e m y poem, /1 whisper wit h m y lips close to your ear " (1856 206). The poet's whisper her e seem s to generate wha t I earlier calle d a zero-degree incar nation, a bod y brough t fort h a s accen t an d breath , a s th e scarcel y material fles h whic h th e ideal word , no w voiced, ha s apparently pu t on. Supposedly transmutin g al l those wh o come int o contac t wit h it , liftin g them u p t o th e statu s o f poe m o r wor d i t alread y enjoy s itself , thi s presence modele d o n voic e i s the magically activ e synecdoch e fo r a new mode of embodiment Leaves of Grass invite s us to imagine as potentially universal. In thi s respect , too , Whitman' s wor k offer s a n explicitl y magica l version o f a pervasive , typicall y unconsciou s fantasy . Voice , Derrid a suggests i n hi s critica l readin g o f Husserl , whos e wor k h e regard s a s a distilled versio n o f th e phonocentris m pervasiv e i n Wester n culture , implies an d come s t o defin e a sor t o f substantia l ideality , a ne w sort of being or body. It seems both t o idealize material object s an d to incarnat e ideal signifieds. 43 I nee d t o adumbrat e briefl y thi s twofol d operation , since the resonance Whitman' s figure o f voice possesses depend s i n large part o n it. According t o Derrida , th e crucia l mode l fo r idealizatio n withi n th e Western traditio n expounde d mos t explicitl y i n metaphysic s i s the way voice seem s t o transfor m th e materia l aspec t o f languag e itself , th e sensible signifier . In th e phenomenolog y o f Husserl , whic h fro m Derri da's vantage epitomizes the tradition rathe r tha n overturning it, the voice

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that accomplishe s thi s transformatio n i s no t quit e th e literal , physica l voice; i t i s rathe r th e fantasmati c voic e o f interio r monologue , whic h seems to shelte r th e word withi n th e speaker's ow n body : It is not in the sonorous substance or in the physical voice, in the body of speech in the world, tha t [Husserl ] wil l recognize an original affinit y wit h th e logos in general, but in the voice phenomenologically taken , speech in its transcendental flesh, in the breath. . . . (Speech and Phenomena 16) Given th e ofte n improbabl e imaginativ e configuration s tha t organiz e Leaves of Grass, thi s silen t voic e ma y hav e mor e i n commo n wit h th e poet's speec h tha n i s at first apparent. Th e association o f the poet's voic e with breat h i s pervasive. And i n section five of "Son g of Myself, " speec h reduced t o th e pneumati c perfectio n o f a "lul l o r hum " i s generate d b y the "valve d voice " o f th e poet' s ow n soul , a n agen t o f interna l colloqu y rather tha n publi c address . Linke d t o th e inne r precinct s o f th e poet' s body an d hi s inner monologue , hi s voice is also paradoxically associate d with ours . S o a t leas t th e peculia r topolog y suggeste d b y a ke y passag e in "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " implies : "wha t i s mor e subtl e tha n thi s [ . . . ] / Which fuse s m e int o yo u now , an d pour s my meanin g int o you " (1856 219) . Th e poet' s meanin g o r wor d supposedl y come s t o inhabi t us, a s if it constituted ou r ow n silen t speech . According t o Derrida , suc h inne r speec h seem s t o transfor m th e sig nifies tha t i t sequesters . Repeate d withi n th e sacrosanc t precinct s o f th e body, a s breath , th e signifie r seem s t o she d it s iner t physicality . An d i t no longe r appear s i n externa l tim e an d space , amon g contingent , mate rial supports . Wha t Derrid a call s th e "flesh " o f thi s voca l signifie r gen erated b y inner monologu e thu s possesses—and defines— a peculia r sor t of "materiality" : The phenomenological voice would be this spiritual flesh that continues to speak and b e present t o itself— to hear itself—in th e absenc e o f th e world . (Speech and Phenomena 16 ) It i s jus t suc h a mod e o f being—devoi d o f opacit y an d redeeme d fro m circumstance, caugh t u p int o th e bod y an d thu s n o longe r foreign—tha t the speec h o f Leaves of Grass i s devoted t o generating . This ne w mod e o f bein g turn s ou t t o b e wha t w e mea n b y ideality : the voca l signifie r constitute s th e possibilit y o f wha t w e think o f a s idea l objects. Ther e i s somethin g o f a parado x here : th e foundin g distinctio n

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of semiotic s place s the signified concep t ove r agains t th e signifier an d its materiality. 44 Ye t accordin g t o Derrid a i t i s onl y throug h th e apparen t sequestering o f th e vocal signifie r withi n th e body tha t w e get a kind o f fantasmatic imag e o f ideality—o f th e mode o f being , s o to speak , idea l objects migh t enjoy . A s it s materialit y seem s t o dissolve , th e signifie r appears t o becom e a perfec t transparency , throug h whic h th e signifie d itself appears ; ye t this ver y transparenc y come s to defin e th e signified a s well (Grammatology 20) . In the voice the signifie r phenomenologically reduce s itself, transforming th e worldly opacity of its body into pure diaphaneity. This effacement o f the sensible body and its exteriority is for consciousness the ver y for m o f th e immediat e presenc e o f th e signified . {Speech and Phenomena 77) The idealizin g operatio n performe d b y voic e i s thu s paradoxicall y als o an ac t o f embodiment ; th e wearin g awa y o f materia l dros s i s als o th e incarnation o f a n idea l form , a puttin g o n o f fles h b y the word . In thi s image o f voice , th e purel y menta l content s throug h whic h w e organiz e the worl d an d gai n indirec t master y ove r i t acquir e a kin d o f actuality , transforming ou r sense of what th e actual migh t be. As th e illogica l slid e fro m signifie r t o signifie d i n the quotatio n fro m Derrida seem s mean t t o suggest , thi s buildin g ou t o f th e apparen t phe nomenology o f voice is always a fantasmatic operation , a kind o f magi c thinking tha t inflect s ou r awarenes s o f object s an d bodies . I n Leaves of Grass thi s characteristicall y unconsciou s fantas y become s th e basi s fo r proclaimed fact . I f voic e alway s implie s th e sequesterin g o f th e wor d within th e bod y an d thu s th e generatio n o f a sor t o f idealize d inne r duplicate o f th e externa l world , Whitman' s catalogue s sugges t tha t th e latter ha s simpl y collapse d int o th e former ; th e takin g o f th e signifie r into th e bod y a s voic e i s construe d a s a magica l powe r t o incorporat e the object itself . The bod y i n which thing s thu s supposedl y tak e u p residence ha s als o been redefined . Her e to o Whitma n build s ou t a magica l versio n o f th e topology voic e suggests . According t o Derrida voic e is the source of and model fo r th e punctual unit y tha t characterize s ou r image o f the prope r body. It generates th e sense of immediacy o r transparency tha t produce s consciousness a s self-presenc e an d create s a fantasmati c bod y i n thei r image: As pure auto-affection, th e operation o f hearing onesel f spea k seem s to reduce even th e inward surfac e o f one' s ow n body; i n its phenomenal bein g i t seems

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capable o f dispensin g with thi s exteriority withi n interiority , this interior spac e in which our experience or image of our own body is spread forth. (Speech and Phenomena 79) The bod y imag e generated b y the silent voice of interio r monologu e thu s seems immun e t o th e articulatio n an d opacit y tha t characteriz e bot h th e literal, biologica l organis m an d th e bod y shape d b y culture. 45 In Leaves of Grass, w e sa w i n chapte r 3 , suc h transparenc y i s a conspicuou s attribute o f th e poet's presence . The rol e playe d b y voic e i n generatin g thi s transfigure d bod y ca n b e suggested b y juxtaposin g tw o o f Whitman' s noteboo k fragments . Th e first offers a prescription fo r successfu l "composition, " adjurin g th e poe t to attai n " A perfectl y transparent , plate-glass y style " (C W 9:34) . Thi s looks lik e a neoclassica l formula , an d i t seems to restric t th e functio n o f the wor d rathe r tha n celebrat e it s generativ e power : language , attainin g its prope r transparency , simpl y show s th e thin g itself . Bu t a secon d quotation use s strikingl y simila r term s t o discus s th e qualit y th e bod y might attai n i n poetry : " A poe m i n whic h i s minutel y describe d th e whole particular s an d ensembl e o f a first-rate healthy Human Body —it looked int o an d through , a s i f i t wer e transparen t an d o f pur e glass — and no w reporte d i n a poem" (NUP M i:304). 46 Th e bod y i s also prop erly transparent , an d show s itsel f onl y b y attainin g th e ver y "plate glassy" qualit y tha t let s the word sho w it. Ther e i s thus a mor e intimat e relation betwee n languag e an d body , signifie r an d signified , tha n a sim ple linea r passag e fro m represente r t o represente d woul d accoun t for : the prope r bod y i s reconceived accordin g t o th e transparenc y o r idealit y Whitman ascribe s t o th e proper signifier. 47 A s we have seen, this linguistic transparency i s itself generate d b y voice. In Leaves of Grass suc h transparenc y govern s no t jus t a fantasize d image o f th e body' s interior , bu t th e bod y o f th e poe t i n it s entirety , hi s "translucent mould " (185 5 49) . I t thu s characterize s hi s presenc e t o others a s well as his sense of self-presence : Divine am I inside and out, and I make holy whatever I touch or am touched from. (185 5 49 )

This magica l transparenc y depend s o n a magicall y empowere d voice . Projected b y and a s speech, the poet's presence assumes the qualities tha t seem t o defin e th e sacrosanc t interio r domai n fro m whic h speec h ema nates; identifie d wit h voice , th e poet' s bod y migh t b e sai d t o presen t it s

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interior directly , havin g sloughe d of f th e boundin g surface s tha t confin e the bod y withi n definit e limit s an d bloc k ou r acces s t o suc h inne r re gions. Thi s presence , s o t o speak , i s al l self-presence . I t ca n accordingl y penetrate t o an d confoun d itsel f wit h ours . Fre e o f th e opacit y tha t characterizes bot h th e appearanc e o f other s an d ou r experienc e o f ou r own unredeeme d bodies , th e poe t supposedl y meld s wit h an d transfig ures u s a s well . Impingin g o n u s a s voic e an d th e transparen t interiorit y voice defines , h e seem s to flo w effortlessl y int o an d throug h fles h appar ently n o longe r resistan t o r opaque ; recallin g u s t o ou r prope r bodies , this imag e o f voic e an d th e recovere d self-presenc e i t define s spea k t o and restor e our own . This bod y define d b y voic e seem s exemp t fro m th e ofte n cataclysmi c re shaping t o whic h othe r bodie s i n Leaves of Grass ar e conspicuousl y liable. The threat s th e poet' s presenc e keep s a t ba y ar e symboli c a s wel l as biological ; a s i s characteristi c o f Whitman' s work , th e feature s tha t define th e poet' s physica l presenc e impl y correlativ e change s i n wha t might b e calle d hi s psychi c terrain . I n Whitman' s portrait s o f sexuality , we hav e seen , th e anxietie s provoke d b y thes e register s intertwine . Th e poet's presenc e i s apparentl y exemp t fro m th e constraint s impose d b y both. Th e self-productio n o f whic h h e i s supposedl y capabl e shoul d b e understood a s a kin d o f parthenogeneti c power : i t lend s hi m a n auton omy an d completio n whic h th e ver y fac t o f ou r immersio n i n sexe d reproduction erodes . This latte r proces s receive s a divide d estimat e i n Whitman' s work : celebrated wit h a bravad o tha t ca n sometime s see m quit e force d (a s i n "Children o f Adam") , i t als o provoke s les s overt anxieties . I n "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry, " sexua l reproductio n implicate s th e sel f i n th e ceaseles s ebb an d flo w o f generation s figured b y th e river' s tides , a trop e tha t conveys the inexorable swee p of suc h energie s and th e individual's atten dant subjectio n t o massiv e rhythm s o f begettin g an d death . A mor e opaque imag e fro m th e poem' s tormente d sixt h section , which w e glance d at earlier, seems also to focu s o n thi s process: " I to o knitted th e old kno t of contrariety " (185 6 217) . T o kni t th e ol d kno t isn' t primaril y t o engage i n th e masturbator y ac t variou s critic s discer n here , though mas turbation play s ou t som e o f th e anxietie s th e phras e condenses. 48 I t i s rather t o tak e u p one' s plac e i n th e weavin g o f alway s unweavin g generations, th e sexua l kno t o f th e procreatio n o f mal e an d femal e

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selves. Th e lin e echoe s a haunting , oneiri c passag e fro m "Son g o f My self": Urge and urge and urge, Always the procreant urge of the world. Out o f th e dimnes s opposit e equal s advanc e . . . . Alway s substanc e an d increase, Always a knit of identity . . . . alway s distinction . . . . alway s a breed of life. (1855 2 6 - 2 7 )

These shadow y "opposit e equals " looming "ou t of the dimness" sugges t the archaic , impersona l energie s tha t prope l reproduction , ou t of whic h any sexe d identit y i s "knit. " Th e re-appearanc e o f thi s sam e trop e i n "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " in effect introject s thi s impersonal scene : less spontaneous agen t tha n conduit , th e poe t become s th e sit e throug h which thes e massiv e energie s trac e thei r continuation ; traverse d an d constituted b y them, he is neither unitar y no r self-contained. 49 The ambition s announce d i n a n od d entr y fro m on e o f Whitman' s early notebook s ca n b e understood a s an attemp t t o imagin e a way out of thi s involvement . Th e aspiratio n i s on e Whitma n foun d i t difficul t even to state: Could w e imagin e suc h a thing—le t u s sugges t tha t befor e a manchil d o r womanchild was born it should be suggested that a human being could be born [....] (UP P z: 76)50 Syntactic hitches le t us see that eve n Whitman i s having trouble thinkin g this thought . Bu t he is determined t o think it : sexual differenc e ough t t o be a mer e accident , a secondar y o r surfac e quality , an d th e primordial , undifferentiated identit y i t replace s shoul d b e recoverable . Neithe r "manchild" no r "womanchild, " thi s visionar y "huma n being " no t ye t marked b y sexua l differenc e i s apparently unaffecte d b y that proces s of generation ou t o f whic h i t presumabl y emerges : complet e i n itself , i t seems self-sufficien t an d virtuall y self-created . Th e poe t wh o achieve s rebirth b y announcing hi s presence i n the poems incarnate s suc h vision ary ambitions . Thoug h w e ar e likel y t o imagin e thi s figure a s a ma n rather tha n a woman , i t nonetheles s fulfill s muc h o f wha t Whitman' s notebook entr y seem s t o wan t t o mean . Generatin g himsel f throug h a magical exercis e of his own spontaneity, th e figure shaped b y apostroph e

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does no t ow e hi s existenc e t o force s outsid e himself ; hi s identit y i s neither constitute d no r compromise d b y power s tha t excee d hi s ow n self-presence. In Leaves of Grass thos e force s ar e cultural a s well a s physical, a s th e passages w e hav e bee n considerin g themselve s imply . Conflatin g infan t body an d adul t identity , th e sociall y resonan t term s "manchild " an d "womanchild" fus e biologica l differenc e wit h th e assumptio n o f gen dered roles . Th e kno t knitte r o f "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " i s likewis e associated wit h th e symboli c a s wel l a s th e biologica l constructio n o f selves. Thi s connectio n i s partl y a functio n o f context : i n sectio n six , contiguity link s th e poet' s anxiet y a t takin g u p hi s plac e i n th e proces s of reproductio n wit h th e shapin g o f sexua l identit y b y cultura l con straints. But the figure of knitting itself suggest s such cultural inscription : in th e contex t o f Leaves of Grass i t shoul d b e associate d wit h th e man y forms o f writin g engraved o n bod y o r psyche , tracings that mar k th e self with th e discours e o f th e Other . Th e poe t wh o ca n reproduc e himsel f i n invariant for m b y speaking apparently n o longer owes his identity t o thi s mechanism; h e no longe r knit s th e knot o f contrariety , an d th e gendere d writing o f th e symboli c cod e shoul d n o longe r re-writ e itsel f throug h him . The presenc e generate d b y apostroph e indee d seem s immun e t o suc h inscription i n ever y sense . If the bod y generate d b y voice seems to be , so to speak , al l interior , i t ha s dissolve d th e ver y surface s tha t woul d leav e it vulnerabl e no t onl y t o surveillanc e bu t t o mor e obviousl y violen t forms o f interferenc e a s well. I have i n min d th e circumcisio n o r tattoo ing ritual s tha t ar e th e symboli c equivalent s o f castration . Suc h over t aggression i s rathe r mor e crudel y literalize d tha n th e mode s o f cultura l inscription Leaves of Grass invite s u s t o ponder . Bu t t o poin t ou t th e poet's invulnerabilit y t o i t i s to remin d ourselve s tha t hi s bod y offer s u s an imag e o f profoun d privacy : a n insid e withou t a surface , i t incarnate s a sacrosanct , inviolat e self-presence . The poet' s relatio n t o th e wor d seem s t o b e similarl y private . I f voic e authorizes fantasmati c image s o f incorporation , providin g a mod e i n which th e outsid e worl d i s take n int o th e body , i t ca n als o sugges t inviolate self-communion. 51 I n inne r monologue , Derrid a notes , th e vo cal signifier seem s to b e generated i n an autonomou s act . Meaning seem s not t o depen d o n o r t o b e borrowed fro m sociall y generated structures : The logos can b e infinite an d self-present , i t can be produced as auto-affection, only through th e voice: a n order of the signifier b y which the subject takes fro m

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itself int o itself, does not borro w outsid e of itsel f th e signifier tha t i t emits and that affects i t at the same time. Such is at least the experience—or consciousnes s —of th e voice : o f hearin g (understanding)-oneself-spea k [s'entendre-parler]. (Grammatology 98)52 Effacing th e rol e o f th e Othe r i n constitutin g m y signs , voic e elide s th e breach i n self-presenc e whic h th e detou r throug h a n alie n wor d effects . We sa w tha t i n Leaves of Grass a n internalize d vocabular y i s mad e responsible no t onl y fo r th e alienatio n o f consciousnes s bu t als o fo r th e body's self-divisio n an d expropriation ; i n severa l ke y passage s i n Whit man's wor k a n introjecte d wor d seem s t o divid e inne r bod y spac e b y inhabiting it . Exemp t fro m surfac e engraving , th e presenc e identifie d with voic e als o seem s immun e t o suc h internalize d representation s an d the alie n structur e the y encode . I f voic e ca n sugges t a consciousnes s perfectly presen t t o itsel f becaus e wholl y self-contained , i n th e magica l universe o f Leaves of Grass th e bod y generate d b y voic e share s thi s sublime closure . The transaction s initiate d b y thi s presenc e als o see m exemp t fro m interference; impingin g o n us , th e poe t draw s u s int o a scen e an d mo ment seemingl y sheltere d withi n th e sor t o f sacrosanc t regio n hi s bod y defines. Descendin g upo n u s a s a n invisibl e presence , h e seem s no t onl y to escape from th e gaze but also to abrogate its function; hoverin g abov e us, th e poe t assume s th e plac e o f th e Other , seemin g t o transfigur e it s role from a judicial t o a gently seductiv e one : Closer yet I approach you [....]

Who was to know what should come home to me? Who knows but I am enjoying this? Who knows but I am as good a s looking at you now , for al l you cannot see me? (185 6 218 )

Here th e panorami c spac e o f sectio n si x ha s bee n replace d b y a hidden , protected scene ; th e remote , auster e vantag e tha t organize s Whitman' s tormented portrai t o f socia l lif e dissolve s int o th e intimat e visio n th e poet's approac h sustains . In "Son g o f Myself " th e magica l privac y o f this scen e exemp t fro m surveillanc e i s explicitl y i f paradoxicall y con trasted t o mor e public modes of relatio n th e poet supposedl y by-passes : This hour I tell things in confidence, I might not tell everybody but I will tell you. (1855 43)

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The charme d qualit y o f thi s encounte r i s define d b y th e presenc e tha t precipitates it . I t depend s i n par t o n th e reductio n o f public , objectifie d time an d spac e which th e poet' s apparen t abilit y t o projec t himsel f t o u s implies. Bu t i t derive s a s wel l fro m a n implici t identificatio n o f th e protected spac e hi s adven t produce s wit h interiority . Th e spac e int o which th e poe t seem s t o fol d u s i s lik e th e sequestered , inviolabl e inne r body spac e which voic e defines . 2. A s suc h passage s begi n t o mak e clear , th e transparenc y I hav e bee n associating wit h th e sig n i s no t th e onl y crucia l featur e o f th e presenc e generated b y voice . Importan t t o thi s figure's appeal , th e punctua l self production voic e seem s t o enabl e doe s no t wholl y defin e him ; i t i s no t only th e poet' s capacit y t o reproduc e himsel f a s th e sam e tha t make s him see m uncanny . Whitman' s evocation s o f th e poet' s presenc e ofte n stress wha t feel s lik e a n obvers e quality : n o soone r embodyin g himsel f than h e dissolves , th e poe t i s remarkable fo r hi s slipperines s an d fluidit y —"In m e the caresser o f lif e whereve r movin g . . . . backwar d a s well a s forward slueing, " he declares i n "Son g o f Myself " (185 5 35) . A passag e from th e 185 5 "Son g o f th e Answerer " w e looke d a t i n chapte r 3 offer s a mor e explici t panegyric to th e topologically gidd y spac e this dissolvin g body inaugurates : Him all wait for . . . . him all yield up to . .. . his word is decisive and final, Him the y accep t . . . . i n hi m lav e . . . . i n hi m perceiv e themselve s a s ami d light, Him they immerse, and he immerses them. (1855 129 ) Beginning a s a n accoun t o f th e poet' s imperia l power , thes e line s sli p gradually int o a n evocatio n o f a les s masterfu l identity . Th e lac k o f stability tha t characterize s th e topolog y o f Whitman' s final lin e ma y indeed strik e u s a s disconcerting : th e familia r transactio n i n whic h th e poet subsume s other s b y mean s o f hi s wor d modulate s int o a scenari o more difficult t o picture, in which subjec t an d objec t immers e or dissolv e one another . Her e neithe r th e poet' s bod y no r th e bodie s wit h whic h i t mingles see m lik e embodiment s o f th e idea l wor d o r instance s o f th e stabilization o f otherwis e fluid processe s th e sign' s iterabilit y make s possible. Thi s stabilizin g powe r appear s i n Leaves of Grass a s wor d magic; i t i s associate d i n Whitman' s wor k wit h th e sor t o f master y declared a t th e passage' s opening , i n whic h a punctual identit y internal izes it s objects . A s w e hav e seen , voic e i s bot h th e mode l o f suc h

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punctuality an d th e agen t o f th e apparentl y magica l incorporatio n b y means of which thing s ar e caught u p into the body an d len t the transpar ence voic e lend s it . Th e labil e somati c spac e rendere d a t th e en d o f th e passage turn s ou t als o t o depen d o n voice ; bu t i t evoke s a mor e archai c relation betwee n voca l productio n an d bod y image . In wor d magi c th e representational functio n o f languag e i s simultaneousl y employe d an d denied: a s th e catachresti c minglin g o f ligh t an d floo d her e implies , th e power t o depic t thing s i s conflated wit h th e power t o generate them; thi s productive powe r i s supposedl y matche d b y a n assimilativ e one . Th e vocal activit y tha t precede s wor d magic , we shall see , is not ye t involve d in representation , an d th e bod y i t define s i s no t ye t distinguishe d fro m its objects . Thi s anterio r organizatio n i s als o crucia l t o th e appea l ex erted b y Whitman's figure o f voice; it lends resonance to the word magi c that transmute s an d extend s it . Residues o f thi s archai c registe r persis t i n adul t language , accordin g to Juli a Kristeva ; linguisti c texture s tha t foregroun d thes e persisten t traces o f a n archai c oral mode , she also suggests, serve to evok e the no w superseded sens e o f th e bod y tha t onc e intertwine d wit h them. 53 Focus ing o n wha t migh t b e calle d th e fantasmati c implication s o f stylize d verbal practice , a s well a s on th e properly infantil e root s o f suc h interre lated linguisti c an d somati c structures , he r accoun t ca n hel p u s unpac k the range o f implicatio n Whitman' s figure o f voice possesses. As we shal l see in chapte r 5 , Whitman himsel f appeal s explicitl y t o the notio n o f th e archaic i n hi s expository writing s o n language : th e power s h e claim s fo r the word , whic h ar e absen t fro m th e language s aroun d him , h e ascribe s to primitiv e language s an d th e speec h o f America n "aborigines. " Th e recovery o f suc h vanishe d linguisti c powers , moreover , i s ambiguousl y said eithe r t o depen d o n o r t o mak e possibl e a restore d relatio n t o ou r bodies. Yet Whitman's remark s o n primitiv e culture s sa y littl e about th e bodies o f thei r members—no r coul d th e trait s o f th e poet' s ow n labile , pneumatized presenc e credibl y b e ascribe d t o th e bodie s o f triba l peo ples. 54 B y contrast , th e psychicall y archai c registe r Kristev a describe s i s characterized b y bod y image s tha t resembl e i n importan t respect s th e body generate d b y th e poet' s catalogue s an d apostrophes. 55 Moreover , the verba l behavio r t o whic h sh e attend s possesse s severa l o f th e sam e features Whitma n attribute s t o the language of primitive cultures—trait s contemporary linguist s ten d n o longe r t o discove r there . It will therefor e

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prove helpfu l t o ma p on e sor t o f archais m ont o another . I n intellectua l discourses durin g Whitman' s time , a s i n popula r mode s i n ou r own , th e categories o f th e primitiv e an d th e infantil e intertwin e wit h an d displac e each other : togethe r the y provid e a storehous e o f image s fo r a mod e o f identity prio r t o th e sort s o f anxiou s self-divisio n Leaves of Grass de tails. 56 I f th e labil e presenc e o f th e poe t produce d b y voic e sometime s bears les s resemblanc e t o actua l archai c organization s tha n t o wha t Kristeva describe s a s our share d evocatio n an d retrospectiv e recastin g of them i n fantasy , thi s distortio n ma y impl y no t onl y a n urgen t nee d t o imagine an d recove r a mod e o f identit y clearl y preferabl e t o tha t shape d by culture , bu t als o th e merel y figmentar y statu s o f suc h a suppose d alternative. In sectio n tw o o f "Son g o f Myself, " Whitma n evoke s jus t th e sor t o f fluid somati c spac e w e ca n profitabl y associat e wit h a n archai c psychi c register. I discusse d thi s passag e alread y i n chapte r 2 , an d nee d onl y recall a portion o f i t here: The smoke of my own breath, Echoes, ripples , an d buzze d whisper s . . . . loveroot , silkthread , crotc h an d vine, My respiration an d inspiration . . . . th e beating of my h e a r t . . .. th e passing of blood and air through my lungs, The snif f o f gree n leave s an d dr y leaves , and o f th e shor e an d darkcolore d sea-rocks, and of hay in the barn, The sound of the belched words of my voice . . .. word s loosed to the eddies of the wind, A few light kisses . . .. a few embraces . . .. a reaching around of arms. (1855 25-26)

Whitman's referenc e i n th e penultimat e lin e t o voic e an d words , bot h suggestively physicalized , alert s u s t o namin g a s th e agen t o f incorpora tion an d re-projectio n here , makin g th e passag e i n par t a n instanc e o f the wor d magi c tha t wa s my subjec t i n chapte r 2 . Ye t thi s somaticize d catalogue i s characterized b y th e sor t o f layerin g tha t typifie s Whitman' s renditions o f th e poet' s presence . Th e punctua l retrieva l an d reproduc tion o f clea r an d distinc t entitie s mad e possibl e b y a linguisti c represen tation conceive d a s magica l co-exist s wit h a blurrie r sens e o f th e bod y the passag e als o manage s t o evoke . Lik e th e self-contradictor y topolog y

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of "Son g o f th e Answerer, " whic h confound s containe r an d contained , this passag e als o suggest s a labil e spac e i n whic h bod y an d umwelt dissolve int o on e another . Th e incorporativ e master y mad e possibl e b y word magi c slide s ove r int o a messier , les s punctua l relatio n betwee n vocal an d somati c energies, and betwee n th e bod y an d it s objects . The ter m "object " indee d hardl y seem s applicabl e here , sinc e subjec t and objec t fad e int o a singl e circulatin g movemen t o f somaticize d frag ments. Kristeva' s nam e fo r thi s archai c spac e i s th e chora, a real m organized i n part b y the relation s (eventuall y representabl e a s topologica l spaces ) tha t connec t th e zones o f th e fragmente d bod y t o eac h othe r an d als o t o "external " "objects " and "subjects, " whic h ar e no t ye t constitute d a s such . {Revolution in Poetic Language 28) As i n Whitman' s catalogue , thes e "relations " prio r t o distinc t subjec t and objec t tak e th e for m o f th e somati c rhythm s tha t lin k thes e zones . Kristeva term s this organization th e semiotic : Rhythm, a sequenc e o f linke d instants , i s immanent t o th e chora prior t o an y signified spaciousness : henceforth , chora and rhythm , spac e an d tim e coexist . {Desire in Language 286) Registering onl y a s pattern s o f energi c movemen t wha t wil l late r com e to b e distinc t exterio r object s an d interio r bod y sensations , th e spac e shaped b y this activit y i s an essentiall y mobil e an d extremel y provisiona l articulatio n constitute d b y movements and their ephemeral stases. We differentiate thi s uncertain and indeterminate articulation from a disposition that already depends on representation. . . . {Revolution in Poetic Language 25) 57 It ma y b e somethin g o f a parado x t o sugges t tha t Whitman' s lan guage, whic h i s entoile d i n representation , evoke s a somati c stat e prio r to th e stabilizatio n representatio n effects , a stat e structure d instea d a s what Kristev a call s " a pulsatin g chora . . . a rhythmic bu t nonexpressiv e totality" {Revolution in Poetic Language 40) . Bu t Kristev a argue s tha t this archai c organizatio n i s recalle d b y th e trace s o f infantil e voca l behavior stil l presen t withi n adul t languag e deploye d fo r symboli c pur poses. Properl y semioti c ora l performance , no t ye t involve d i n th e pro duction o f sound s a s signs , i s organize d b y principle s independen t o f those imposed b y the demand fo r signification . Trace s of suc h patternin g

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persist i n adul t speech ; t o th e exten t tha t the y ar e foregrounded , the y disturb symboli c representatio n o r deflec t attentio n fro m it , engagin g our energie s elsewhere . We need therefore attribut e to Whitman neithe r a merely instrumenta l stance towar d for m no r th e sor t o f single-minde d willfulnes s suc h a n approach implies ; w e nee d no t sugges t tha t h e cogitate d a specia l lan guage to depict an archai c body whose traits he had alread y meticulousl y enumerated. Kristeva' s notio n o f th e semioti c instea d implie s tha t th e verbal practic e o f th e poem s i s constitutiv e an d no t merel y reflectiv e o f Whitman's visio n o f th e body . Voca l behavior , a t least , play s suc h a n active rol e i n th e origina l formatio n o f th e chora: i f th e semioti c i s organized b y rhythm , tha t rhyth m i s a s muc h ora l a s muscular : "th e chora precede s an d underlie s figuration . . . an d i s analogou s onl y t o vocal o r kineti c rhythm " (Revolution in Poetic Language 26) . Marke d heavily by vocal structures which resembl e those that organize the chora y the languag e o f Leaves of Grass doe s no t simpl y offe r u s a symboli c representation o f a n archai c body , bu t i s itsel f inflecte d b y archai c pro cesses; i t doe s no t merel y displa y bu t instea d generate s throug h it s ver y structure th e sens e of th e bod y th e poems imply . In order t o isolat e suc h archaic element s i n Whitman' s work , I nee d t o adduc e briefl y som e o f the characteristics o f a properly semioti c vocal activity . One of th e first vocal behaviors , Kristeva notes , is the child's laughter . Intimately intertwine d wit h bod y sensation s an d kinestheti c activities , the laugh help s shape th e rhythmically structure d spac e it also remarks : the semiotic disposition make s its start as riant spaciousness. During the period of indistinctio n betwee n "same" an d "other," infan t an d mother , a s wel l a s between "subject " an d "object, " whil e n o spac e ha s ye t bee n delineate d (thi s will happe n wit h an d afte r th e mirro r stage—birt h o f th e sign) , th e semioti c chora that arrest s an d absorb s th e motility o f th e anaclitic facilitation s relieve s and produces laughter. (Desire in Language 283-84) This laughte r modulate s int o proto-linguisti c activity , whic h thu s pos sesses a kinestheti c basis . Rhythmical , patterne d vocali c activit y a t first develops independen t o f th e functio n o f soun d a s sign . Kristev a note s the importance o f the firs t vocalization s an d echolalia s concomitan t t o th e constitutio n o f th e semiotic chora: glottal stops and stress (a play on intensity as well as on frequen cies of vowel sounds). (Desire in Language 287)

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While Whitman' s languag e o f cours e signifies , trace s o f suc h archai c vocal play ar e nonetheless quit e evident i n his poetry. They ar e of cours e discoverable i n al l language , providin g th e basi s fo r th e pleasur e i n ora l patterning activate d b y verse . Bu t Whitman' s catalogue s ten d t o fore ground suc h pre-symboli c structures : their lon g litanies of object phrase s eclipse predication , drawin g attentio n t o rhythmi c sequence s o f word s relatively unburdene d b y syntacti c obligation . Suc h vocali c patternin g i s even mor e notable , though , i n som e o f Whitman' s noteboo k fragments , where th e symboli c functio n o f languag e seem s t o hav e virtuall y disap peared. Th e bes t exampl e i s perhap s th e brie f on e isolate d an d com mented o n b y Matthiessen : "Cantaloupe . Muskmelon . Cantabile . Ca cique City " (C W 10:36) . Th e las t tw o item s i n thi s list , Matthiesse n suggests, ar e associate d wit h eac h othe r an d wit h wha t precede s solel y through phoni c variatio n (530). 58 Anothe r noteboo k lis t mingle s suc h vocal play wit h stronge r symboli c connections : Loveblows. Loveblossoms. Loveapples. Loveleaves. Loveclimbers. Loveverdure. Love Vines. Lovebranches . Loveroot . Climber-blossom . Verdure , branch , frui t and vine . Loveroot . Juic e Climber . Sil k crotch . Crotc h bul b an d vine . Juicy , climbering mine. Bulb, silkthread crotch and [....] (C W 10:10) The lac k o f concer n her e wit h gettin g somethin g sai d carrie s ove r int o the publishe d passag e towar d whic h thi s lis t o f echolali a modulates , th e catalogue fro m sectio n tw o o f "Son g o f Myself " w e attende d t o a moment ago : Echoes, ripples , an d buzze d whisper s . . . . loveroot , silkthread , crotc h an d vine. (1855 2 5) If th e agglomerating , porou s spac e thi s passag e evoke s resemble s th e chora, thi s archai c zon e i s shape d i n Whitman' s poem , a s i t i s i n a properly semioti c organization, b y vocalic play tha t tend s t o echolalia . The pre-symboli c activit y suc h passage s recall , Kristev a notes , help s energize an d organiz e th e emergin g symboli c functio n tha t graduall y re structures infantil e voca l behavior : beginning with th e "first poin t o f psychi c organization," light-givin g marker or mother's face , whic h produce d laughte r alon g wit h th e first vocalizations, th e future speake r i s le d t o separat e suc h point s int o objects (transitional a t first, then simpl y objects ) an d ad d t o the m no longer laughter but phonation — archetype of the morpheme, condensation of the sentence. As if the laughter that

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makes up space had become, with the help of maturation and repression, a "place name." (Desire in Language 287; emphases in original) Emerging fro m infantil e laughte r an d echolalia , suc h rudimentar y versions o f th e signifyin g functio n ar e stil l clearl y embedde d i n th e rhythmic somatic activities those first vocalization s helpe d structure . Th e holophrastic utterance s tha t characteriz e thi s phas e dramaticall y com bine symbolic an d semioti c resources : While it is true tha t pseudomorpheme s an d eve n pseudophrase s emerg e durin g this period , the y remai n holophrastic : the y ar e vocalizations , the y designat e the place or object of enunciation (th e "topic"), whereas the motor or vocal gesture (intonation ) serve s a s predicat e (th e "comment") . (Desire in Language 287) Whitman's phrasa l catalogue s oddl y resembl e thi s topic-commen t format, thoug h the y d o no t literall y confor m t o it . Characteristicall y leaving behin d th e predicat e tha t technicall y govern s th e ensuin g list , they effectivel y resolv e themselve s int o a serie s o f object s o r "plac e names" accompanie d b y rhythmicall y expressiv e bu t non-predicatin g "comments." The y thu s evok e th e archai c momen t i n whic h discret e objects ar e first bein g constituted o r separate d ou t fro m th e sor t o f labil e semiotic spac e Whitman' s rhythmi c utterance s als o recall . Fro m ou r own vantage , however, i t is the provisional statu s o f thi s separation tha t is mos t striking , a featur e suggeste d i n par t b y th e catalogues ' cumulat ive rhythm : effacin g th e kinestheti c specificit y o f th e "comment, " these litanie s presen t "topics " tha t ar e les s discret e entitie s tha n emer gent aspect s o f a pervasive , stil l largel y undifferentiate d rhythmi c con tinuum. Suggested b y Whitman's catalogu e technique , thi s archai c somati c spac e shaped b y vocal activit y i s more directl y rendere d i n numerou s passage s in Leaves of Grass. I t i s evoked , fo r example , no t onl y i n th e explicitl y somaticized litan y fro m sectio n tw o o f "Son g o f Myself, " bu t als o in th e crucial fifth sectio n o f th e sam e poem . Ther e th e poe t recall s th e adven t of hi s sou l a s a sexua l partner , a descriptio n tha t ha s shocke d som e critics whil e delightin g others , provokin g debate s abou t whethe r th e physical presenc e describe d i n th e ..passage reall y trope s a spiritua l one , or th e reverse . W e shoul d remember , though , tha t th e poet' s sou l i s invoked a s a voice:

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Loafe with me on the grass . . .. loos e the stop from your throat, Not words, not music or rhyme I w a n t . . .. no t custom or lecture, not even the best, Only the lull I like, the hum of your valved voice. (1855 28) Voice, I suggested earlier , define s i n Whitman's work a presence simul taneously idea l an d incarnate ; i t thu s implie s a paradoxica l reconcilia tion of the very scandal th e passage provokes. More importan t fo r ou r presen t purposes , th e figure o f voic e tha t presides ove r thi s sectio n als o effectivel y render s moo t debate s abou t whether th e eroti c scenari o int o whic h th e passag e modulate s i s auto erotic o r depict s th e poe t a s ravishe d b y a partner . Th e voic e invoke d here, w e ca n note , i s no t ye t involve d i n th e productio n o f "words " or articulate language : themselve s instance s o f echolalia , th e "lull " an d "hum" in which th e poet's "valve d voice" engages serv e as synecdoche s for an archaic oral activit y governed b y pleasure in vocal effusio n rathe r than b y th e representationa l exigencie s o f th e symboli c function ; th e rhythmic, labil e bod y associate d wit h suc h vocalizatio n influence s th e sexuality o f th e rest of th e section, in which adul t erotic activity emerge s from, overlays , an d the n dissolve s bac k int o th e diffus e somati c sensa tions tha t characteriz e th e agglomeratin g bod y spac e o f archai c experi ence. The spac e of th e chora itself , w e shoul d recall , is one i n which th e very distinction s betwee n sel f an d other , auto-eroticis m an d eroticis m "proper," are not yet operative. Though the y ar e evident here , th e anxietie s the y ten d t o provok e ar e annulled b y the image of voic e that governs this encounter. This scene is thus th e virtuall y perfec t obvers e o f th e terrifyin g sexua l scenari o dis played i n the poem's twenty-eight h section . Rathe r than rediscovering a lack tha t make s eac h th e unavailin g supplemen t o f th e other , auto eroticism an d eroticis m "proper " are here fantasize d a s complementar y facets o f a sexuality paradoxicall y stil l conditione d an d protected b y the archaic organizatio n fro m whic h i t emerges . Th e auto-eroticis m regis tered a s the somaticize d lul l an d hu m o f th e valved voice , an d thu s stil l organized b y th e diffus e rhythmi c processe s o f th e chora, seem s fre e from th e sens e o f self-divisio n s o eviden t i n section twenty-eight , a s if i t were no t ye t structure d b y symbolization o r the Other . While th e eroti c encounter with a partner that seems to follow depart s more clearly fro m such archai c indistinction , i t stil l benefit s fro m th e agglomeratin g sen suality associate d wit h primitiv e vocalization . Fro m th e section' s begin -

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ning, th e agen t wh o wil l becom e th e poet' s partne r ha s bee n distin guished provisionall y b y direc t address : " I believ e i n yo u m y soul. " Ye t this othe r initiall y seeme d par t o f a fluid, somaticize d spac e tha t encom passed th e poet's body , a space shaped b y its own lul l and hum . Splittin g off fro m th e labil e regio n i t thu s no t onl y belonge d t o bu t als o helpe d generate, th e figure calle d sou l initiate s a n encounte r reminiscen t o f th e pleasures of this apparently supersede d organizatio n fro m whic h i t emerges. The movemen t fro m auto-eroticis m t o eroticis m "proper " thu s manage s to b e simultaneousl y mor e definit e an d les s disturbin g tha n i n sectio n twenty-eight: I mind how we lay in June, such a transparent summer morning; You settled your head athwart my hips and gently turned over upon me, And parted th e shirt fro m m y bosom-bone, and plunge d you r tongu e to my barestript heart, And reached til l you fel t m y beard, and reache d til l you held my feet. (185 5 28-29)

Like th e auto-eroticis m tha t precede s it , thi s encounte r i s luxuriantl y expansive, unmarke d b y either th e sens e of self-divisio n o r th e defensiv e posture towar d other s tha t characteriz e th e late r section . Whitman's succeedin g stanz a recall s th e sourc e o f suc h assurance . There th e clarit y o f subject-objec t position s briefl y apparen t i n th e line s above i s abruptl y subverted , a s th e grammatica l subjec t i s ambiguousl y either displace d b y hyperbato n o r simpl y omitted . I t i s unclea r wh o i s where o r wh o doe s what t o whom : Swiftly aros e an d sprea d aroun d m e the peace an d jo y an d knowledg e tha t pass all the art and argument of the earth. (1855 29) Here a phras e tha t overtl y obey s th e boundar y betwee n sel f an d othe r covertly elide s it : blurrin g th e clarit y mad e possible b y the unambiguou s disposition o f th e symboli c function , Whitman' s lin e confuse s subjec t and objec t a s well a s transitive an d reflexiv e verbs , generating th e sort of labile spac e th e res t o f th e stanza' s mor e orderl y symboli c languag e goe s on t o characterize . In context , th e confoundin g o f subjec t an d objec t th e stanza's openin g lin e achieves thus suggest s a feeling o f fluid unit y rathe r than th e scar y confusio n o f sectio n twenty-eight . W e ca n rightl y regar d such tranquilit y a s marking anothe r o f Whitman' s effort s t o evok e post orgasmic bliss . Bu t w e shoul d not e a s wel l tha t th e shift , betwee n stan -

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zas, fro m clarit y t o a confusio n o f agenc y reminiscen t o f archai c pro cesses suggest s tha t tw o perspective s ar e overlai d i n th e entir e scene . Activated her e towar d th e section' s en d b y fuzz y gramma r an d evoke d at th e beginnin g throug h a n imag e o f archai c voice , th e agglomerativ e processes o f th e chora conditio n th e dream-lik e rendition s o f adul t sex uality sheltere d betwee n them . Distinct partner thoug h i t be, the difficult to-locate an d expansivel y stretchin g bod y tha t settle s o n to p o f th e poe t itself possesse s a protean qualit y aki n t o th e archai c fluidit y activate d b y voice. Th e elusiv e activit y initiate d b y thi s figure , w e shoul d als o note , assumes it s mos t definit e for m a s a displace d ac t o f fellatio . Her e suc h oral eroticis m recall s o r reactivate s th e "lull " an d "hum " o f th e "valve d voice": oralit y link s voca l an d sexua l activity , als o fusin g a n archai c somatic registe r an d a n adul t sexualit y fantasize d i n it s light. 59 Whit man's evocatio n o f th e semioti c organizatio n structure d b y voic e allay s the anxietie s provoke d b y th e otherwis e simila r configuration s depicte d in section twenty-eight . Most apparen t i n suc h overtl y eroti c scenes , whic h ar e regularl y linke d to explici t image s o f voice , thi s enchante d sens e o f a labil e bod y i s als o evoked b y th e linguisti c texture s i n Leaves of Grass tha t foregroun d th e modes o f voca l patternin g Kristev a details . Ye t Kristev a hersel f charac terizes thi s sor t o f blissfu l visio n o f archai c processe s a s compensator y fantasy; th e infantil e organizatio n sh e call s th e chora i s b y n o mean s equivalent t o th e idealize d self-completio n w e ten d t o projec t bac k ont o it. Lability i s not simpl y a source o f pleasure : the archai c relatio n t o th e mother , narcissisti c thoug h i t ma y be , i s fro m m y point of view of no solace to the protagonists. . . . For the subject will always be marked by the uncertainty of his borders and of his affective valenc y as well. . . . {Powers of Horror 63) While Leaves of Grass i s on rar e occasion s caugh t u p i n th e terro r suc h an unstabl e organizatio n ca n provoke , Whitman characteristicall y offer s just suc h a rapturou s imag e o f th e bod y experience d a s th e sit e o f agglomerating energies . Not simpl y fortuitou s errors , such reconstruction s perfor m th e crucia l task o f providin g u s wit h a n imag e o f identit y exemp t fro m th e sor t o f alienation Leaves of Grass records : "Th e edeni c imag e o f primar y nar cissism is perhaps a defensive negatio n elaborate d b y the neurotic subjec t

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when h e set s himsel f unde r th e aegi s o f th e father " (Powers of Horror 63). "Neurotic " i s mor e synony m tha n antony m fo r "normal " here ; Kristeva's crucia l contras t i s wit h th e psychotic , wh o ha s refuse d th e cultural compact , subjectio n t o the father's law , and th e alienated subjec tivity accorde d thos e unde r it s rule , instea d actuall y inhabitin g th e un stable realm other s recas t i n fantasy . Yet Leaves of Grass doe s no t simpl y elaborat e th e sor t o f compensa tory imag e Kristev a describes . I n Whitman' s imaginativ e univers e th e poet neithe r consistentl y retreat s t o a regio n sheltere d fro m th e patriar chal functio n no r accept s th e usua l term s o f th e bargai n tha t seal s ou r subjection t o it . If Whitman evoke s a n archai c bod y no t ye t regulated b y symbolic languag e o r th e law , h e als o claim s t o projec t a punctual bod y by mean s o f wor d magic : bot h thi s figure an d th e magi c languag e tha t produces i t see m t o usur p th e law' s powe r rathe r tha n merel y evad e it s purview. Thi s figure indee d seem s no t onl y t o preserv e crucia l attribute s of th e semioticize d bod y extolle d i n Whitman's mos t blissfu l evocations , but als o t o fus e the m wit h th e stabilizing master y o f a symbolic functio n that wor d magi c recast s an d reclaim s fo r th e self . Leaves of Grass thu s imagines a mod e o f identit y capabl e o f transfigurin g th e socia l relatio n rather tha n avoidin g it , a figure wh o migh t exercis e powe r i n th e cul tural spher e withou t sufferin g th e alienatio n whic h participatio n ther e exacts. Thi s i s Whitman' s explicitl y magica l embodimen t o f th e figure of voic e analyze d b y Derrida , a transparent , self-presen t identit y tha t punctually retrieves , internalizes , an d re-dispose s it s objects . W e ar e now i n a bette r positio n t o understan d thi s figure a s a limina l one . In wha t follows , I wan t t o situat e i t mor e precisel y i n relatio n t o bot h the organizatio n i t preserve s an d th e on e i t ward s off , b y lookin g i n detail a t anothe r crucia l contras t betwee n semioti c an d symboli c regis ters. Like th e archai c comple x tha t wor d magi c extends , th e debacl e i t avoids encompasse s bot h bod y an d language . The threats t o which thes e are subjec t ar e adumbrate d i n Whitman' s wor k b y a crucia l organizin g image w e looke d a t earlier , tha t o f castration . Castration , w e saw , explicitly figures th e disaste r t o whic h th e socialize d bod y succumbs . A brief passag e fro m "Son g o f Myself " thu s associate s subjugatio n wit h emasculation, phalli c self-possession wit h socia l revolt : [I] mak e shor t accoun t o f neuter s an d geldings , an d favo r me n an d wome n fully equipped ,

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And beat the gong of revolt , and sto p with fugitive s an d them tha t plot an d conspire. (1855 47) In "Faces, " we saw , contiguit y link s castratio n mor e specificall y wit h subjection t o signs . Thi s initiall y improbabl e associatio n i s comple mented b y Whitman's visio n o f a different sor t o f signifyin g activit y tha t might avoi d o r indee d protec t agains t emasculation , a vision reflecte d i n a series of pronouncements employin g castration imager y to characteriz e what migh t b e calle d threat s t o th e bod y o f Whitman' s book . "T o a cipher," Whitma n opine d t o Traube l i n Camden , "that' s all : what doe s a ma n com e t o wit h hi s virilit y gone? " (WW C 3:321) . Whitma n ha d Leaves of Grass i n min d here : th e los s o f virilit y h e praise s himsel f fo r having avoide d i s "either" metaphorica l "or " associated , throug h a kin d of contagiou s magic , wit h th e ac t o f writin g an d th e imag e o f th e bod y proffered b y th e book . Whitman' s pronouncement s abou t Leaves of Grass ten d towar d a vehemenc e tha t suggest s suc h magi c thinking . Recalling Emerson' s propose d excisio n fro m th e forthcomin g i86 0 edi tion o f Leaves of Grass o f th e mos t provocativ e passage s o f "Childre n of Adam, " whic h represen t wha t Whitma n ther e call s the phallic "wor k of fatherhood " (i86 0 290 ) wit h unusua l i f rathe r mechanica l explicit ness, h e declare d t o Traubel : "H e mus t hav e know n a s wel l a s I kne w that i t woul d hav e bee n decente r t o thro w th e boo k awa y tha n t o mutilate it " (WW C 3:440) . Give n suc h insistenc e on th e phallic integrit y of Leaves of Grass, on e o f Whitman' s remark s concernin g th e econom y between th e author' s bod y an d hi s boo k als o possesse s a resonanc e beyond it s immediat e medica l context ; discussin g th e cos t t o hi s healt h of the Civil War hospita l visits that resulted i n Drum-Taps an d Specimen Days, Whitma n averred : "M y body ? Yes—i t ha d t o b e given—it ha d t o be sacrificed " (WW C 3:582) . Thi s sacrific e o f th e poet' s bod y t o th e book i s balanced b y its resurrection i n the book : In th e bes t poem s re-appear s th e body , man' s o r woman's , well-shaped , natural, gay, Every part able, active, receptive, without shame or need of shame. ("A Song of the Rolling Earth," 185 6 322-23 ) This resurrecte d body , withou t sham e an d natura l i n ever y part , i s what w e might cal l a n uncastrate d body . Why shoul d th e birt h o f suc h a presence requir e th e sacrific e o f th e bod y Whitma n alread y possessed ? Why shoul d i t tak e plac e i n a book ? Why , i n th e crucia l cas e o f th e

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poet's apostrophes , shoul d thi s uncastrated bod y nee d to appear no t just in words , bu t a s a word ? Why , conversely , shoul d th e boo k b e th e crucial plac e i n whic h phalli c integrit y i s menaced? What—w e nee d t o ask i n orde r t o pursu e th e econom y I hav e bee n tracin g betwee n bod y and voca l production—migh t a castrate d wor d be , o r a n uncastrate d one? These last question s concer n th e relation o f the sign to what i t names. Like th e pronounced ora l patternin g characteristi c o f semioti c vocaliza tion, archai c version s o f thi s ti e hel p structur e th e chora, implyin g a primitive experienc e o f the body an d its objects. I n order t o suggest how word magi c recasts and extends suc h primordia l material , I need to offe r an account of both th e semiotic relation betwee n soun d image and objec t which wor d magi c modifie s an d the later, firmly symboli c on e it resists . This latter relatio n o f word t o thing entails a disjunction betwee n subjec t and objec t formalize d b y synta x itself ; thi s constellatio n i s what Whit man wil l come to mean b y castration . In properly semioti c vocalization, Kristev a suggests , there are no object s distinct fro m th e sound s themselves . Voca l activit y i n th e chora i s no t yet structured b y the representational functio n o f language; the utterance does no t ye t stan d fo r a thin g tha t differ s fro m it : "Th e chora i s a modality o f signifianc e i n which th e linguistic sig n i s not yet articulate d as th e absenc e o f a n objec t an d a s th e distinctio n betwee n rea l an d symbolic" (Revolution in Poetic Language 26). 60 Th e thin g fo r whic h the sig n migh t stand , indeed , doe s no t ye t exist a s such : paradoxically , the distinct object th e sound wil l com e to represent will be separated ou t from th e flu x o f th e chora onl y b y virtu e o f th e nascen t operatio n o f representation itself ; th e object i s firmly isolate d an d detache d fro m th e subject wh o apprehend s i t onl y a s th e soun d become s th e sig n o f a thing. 61 The shif t t o thi s representationa l mode , an d t o th e spli t betwee n signifier an d signified, soun d imag e an d intentional object , tha t make s i t possible i s by no means abrupt ; th e gradual constitutio n o f object s goe s hand i n han d wit h a gradua l renunciatio n o f ou r origina l relatio n t o vocal production . In order fo r the sound t o be able to stand fo r a thing , it mus t i n effect ceas e bein g a thing itself . We must, a t least , curtai l ou r intense involvemen t i n th e production o f soun d itsel f i n orde r t o inves t our attentio n i n it s representationa l capacities : energ y mus t b e with -

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drawn fro m soun d productio n a s physica l act , s o tha t th e wor d ca n become th e sig n o f somethin g else—somethin g externa l o r somethin g absent. Thi s developmen t i s als o a renunciation ; wha t mus t b e re nounced i s th e pleasur e o f auto-eroticism . Sound s o n thei r wa y t o be coming stabl e signifiers , Kristev a notes , at firs t represen t onl y i n part th e external object s the y ar e graduall y comin g t o denote ; the y als o ac t a s "representations o f a n 'interio r object, ' a n interna l perception , a n eroti cization o f th e bod y prope r durin g th e ac t o f formulatin g th e wor d a s a symbolic element " (Desire in Language 117). I t i s this auto-eroti c com ponent o f vocalizatio n tha t mus t b e abandoned o r repressed , i n orde r t o facilitate th e expeditious us e of sounds as (neutral) signifier s representin g the detache d object s tha t populat e th e codifie d symboli c univers e i n which ou r desire s wil l henceforth b e played out. 62 This re-orientation , however , i s never absolute . Obviou s disturbance s in symboli c languag e ar e ofte n precipitate d b y a dramati c liftin g o f jus t this repression . Th e speec h o f schizophrenics , Freu d argue s i n som e seminal remark s o n th e psychi c consequence s o f languag e acquisition , i s marked b y a re-investmen t o f energ y i n th e signifie r itself : treatin g thi s oral entit y a s a thin g i n it s ow n right , th e schizophreni c break s th e symbolic lin k tha t bind s i t t o it s signified , thereb y severin g hi s ow n tie s to th e share d symboli c univers e significatio n subtend s [Collected Papers 4:133). The passages i n Whitman's poem s an d notebook s dominate d b y echolalia an d othe r sort s o f ora l pla y an d patternin g ar e instance s o f a controlled regressio n t o just suc h a primitive investment . The attractio n o f suc h regressiv e possibilities suggest s the cost s o f th e re-orientation the y resist—cost s no t simpl y cancelle d b y th e hug e bene fits conferre d b y th e symboli c functio n o r th e frightenin g aspect s o f th e organization i t supersedes . Redefinin g ou r relatio n t o ou r bodie s a s wel l as t o ou r speech , thes e cost s amoun t t o wha t I have bee n callin g castra tion. Th e movemen t fro m semioti c vocalizatio n t o symboli c language , from th e wor d a s somati c objec t t o th e wor d a s neutra l sig n o f a thin g from whic h i t is detached, precipitate s a shift fro m auto-eroti c jouissance to a contingen t an d partia l pleasur e i n externa l objects . Th e object s precipitated ou t o f th e chora sunde r it s unity . Moreover , thes e object s isolated b y the word an d detache d fro m th e self are also lost in the word . Established b y representation , the y ar e accessibl e onl y i n relation s me diated b y a cultura l orde r tha t originate s elsewher e an d i s neve r itsel f accessible. The y are , tha t i s t o say , symboli c objects : appearin g a s in -

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stances of culturally define d entities , they have being, meaning, and valu e only withi n a symboli c circui t o f exchange . On e enter s thi s circui t onl y by relinquishin g unmediate d acces s t o th e unique , th e physical , an d th e real: whateve r remain s unname d withi n thi s syste m i s effectivel y dis solved o r fade d b y it . I t i s i n thi s sens e tha t symboli c languag e i s a language i n which th e objec t ha s bee n lost , or a language that sequester s the object. Th e auto-eroticize d bod y shape d b y the semiotic succumbs t o this fading : lik e th e vocalizatio n tha t help s structur e i t an d provoke s it s pleasure, i t i s occulte d b y th e symboli c mediatio n tha t give s stabilit y i n exchange. As we hav e seen , thes e ar e just th e losse s b y which th e protagonist o f Whitman's earl y edition s i s haunted . Enforce d b y th e separatio n o f signifier fro m signifie d whic h symboli c languag e an d cultur e demand , these losse s ar e als o exacte d b y th e ver y synta x o f ou r speech . Thi s syntactic componen t o f castratio n i s wort h noting , sinc e i t wil l hel p u s characterize bot h th e resistanc e involve d i n Whitman' s overtl y aberran t catalogue construction s an d th e mor e ambiguou s stanc e implie d b y th e syntactically norma l utterance s i n Leaves of Grass that nonetheles s see m to subver t throug h wor d magi c th e ver y separation s synta x ordinaril y enforces. Syntax, Kristev a argues , repeat s an d make s explici t th e division s al ready precipitate d b y th e oppositio n o f signifie r an d signified . I f th e signifier divorce d fro m th e signifie d i t represent s alread y posit s a de tached object , th e syntacti c operation s o f predicatin g an d judgin g mak e explicit bot h thi s positiona l ac t o r "thesis " inheren t i n namin g an d th e separation thi s "thetic " mod e entails : th e objec t i s firmly isolate d fro m the subjec t wh o name s i t throug h th e limitin g attributio n o f th e predi cate. Th e oppositio n betwee n nou n phras e an d ver b phrase , accordin g to Kristeva , i s thu s th e mar k withi n synta x o f th e subject-objec t spli t established b y th e theti c ac t o f positing , thoug h th e tw o division s ar e admittedly no t perfectl y homologous : "synta x i s th e ex-positio n o f th e thetic. Th e subjec t an d predicat e represen t th e divisio n inheren t i n th e thetic; the y mak e i t plai n an d actual " [Revolution in Poetic Language 54)-63 Syntax als o isolate s a subject ; moreover , i t alienate s th e ver y subjec t it precipitates . I t i s throug h th e ac t o f positin g formalize d b y accessio n to syntax , Kristev a argues , tha t a discret e subjec t i s stabilize d b y bein g set ove r agains t th e object : "fo r ever y signifie d transcendenta l object ,

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there is a transcendental ego , both of which are givens by virtue of theti c operation—predication an d judgment " (Desire in Language 130) . The subject, tha t is , i s paradoxicall y a functio n o f th e judgmen t tha t ema nates fro m it : "th e eg o constitute s itsel f onl y throug h th e operatin g consciousness a t the time of predication: the subject is merely the subject of prediction , o f judgment , o f th e sentence " (Desire in Language 130) . Symbolic language , Laca n thu s notes , generate s th e subjec t onl y a t th e price o f "splitting " it : "th e firs t spli t . . . make s th e subjec t a s suc h distinguish himsel f fro m th e sig n i n relatio n t o which , a t first , h e ha s been abl e to constitut e himsel f a s subject" (Four Fundamental Concepts 141). H e discovers himself no t as an autochtonous self-presenc e (thoug h he may fantasize himsel f a s one) bu t as a term located within a n already constellated fiel d organize d b y availabl e predicates : wha t Kristev a call s the "ope n combinatoria l system " (Revolution in Poetic Language 43 ) relating subject s an d object s throug h th e thesi s i s superimpose d o n an d stabilized b y th e structur e o f culturall y sanctione d relations. 64 Th e sta bilized subjec t wh o manipulate s synta x i s thus als o a n object shape d b y the synta x o f culture : "hi s nature, " to recal l Lacan' s phrase , "i s wove n by effects i n which i s to b e found th e structure of language , of whic h h e becomes th e material " (Ecrits 284) . Whethe r o r no t h e nee d fea r litera l castration, h e i s alread y fantasmaticall y castrated : separate d fro m th e objects precipitate d ou t o f th e chora an d los t i n th e word , h e als o encounters himsel f a s a n identit y generate d elsewhere . "Throug h th e effects of speech," Lacan notes, "the subject always realizes himself mor e in th e Other " (Four Fundamental Concepts 188) . Thi s alienatio n i s registered a s "the lack tha t constitutes castratio n anxiety " (Four Fundamental Concepts 73). 65 Such global formulation s soun d rather different fro m Whitman's protestations. Ye t thi s castrate d subjec t i s ver y nearl y th e exac t equivalen t of th e mod e o f identit y Leaves of Grass seek s t o annul : th e sundering s generated b y the signifier-signified spli t an d formalized b y our accessio n to syntax are very close to those implied by Whitman's condensing figure of "th e same old role." This trope, I argued earlier, comes to suggest not only th e poet' s subjectio n t o socia l shapin g bu t als o hi s consignmen t t o an uncomfortabl e bod y tha t bring s hi m int o awkwar d an d anxiou s relation t o others . Thi s conjunctio n a t firs t seem s odd , sinc e i t conflate s contingent social sanction s and what at least appear to be the immutable topological fact s tha t structure our interactions i n the oppositional for m

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of th e subject-objec t polarity . Ye t thi s unlikel y identificatio n o f cul tural an d topologica l constraint s ma y reflec t Whitman' s sens e tha t ou r images o f th e bod y ar e themselve s shape d b y syntax , an d ar e thu s part o f a globa l cultura l grammar . Accordin g t o Kristeva , a t an y rate , the subject-objec t polarit y i s precipitate d onl y throug h a n accessio n to positiona l languag e formalize d b y a synta x tha t als o alienate s th e subject, dividin g i t agains t itself . Th e poet' s relatio n t o other s ma y re flect o r repea t th e anxiet y o f thi s origin , i n which bot h a n alienate d sub ject an d it s object s ar e generate d withi n a n alread y organize d symboli c field. Jus t thi s comple x o f events , w e saw , appear s repeatedl y i n Whitman's depiction s o f th e not-yet-liberate d protagonis t o f Leaves of Grass. Whitman's catalogu e constructions , whic h disrup t th e syntacti c norm s that formaliz e suc h suppose d disasters , migh t perhap s b e construed a s a resistance no t onl y t o castratio n bu t als o t o th e symboli c orde r tha t exacts it . Th e syntacticall y disruptiv e practic e o f moder n experimenta l writing, a t least , shoul d accordin g t o Kristev a b e understoo d i n suc h insurrectionary terms . Whitman' s verba l texture s sometime s resembl e this artistic practice even more closely than the y do the properly infantil e vocalizations o f th e chora whic h thes e text s als o recall. 66 Violatin g th e syntactic closur e tha t subtend s th e symbolic , suc h experimenta l text s aggressively re-activat e th e semiotic , resurrectin g trace s o f a n unstabl e but stil l uncastrated body . They d o s o i n par t b y failin g properl y t o posi t an d detac h objects , a failure weirdl y compatibl e wit h jus t th e sor t o f incessan t namin g o f things characteristi c o f Whitman' s catalogues . Whitman' s procedur e doe s invoke the positional forc e o f the word. Lik e the texts Kristeva describes , however, hi s litanie s ten d t o stall , repeatin g a singl e syntacti c uni t b y finding, say , a substitut e nou n phras e rathe r tha n promptl y fulfillin g syntactic demand s wit h a verb phrase : The blab of the pave . . .. th e tires of carts and sluff o f bootsoles and talk of the promenaders, The heavy omnibus, the driver with his interrogating thumb, the clank of the shod horses on the granite floor. (185 5 31-32 ) Here, a s Kristev a suggests , "th e syntacti c divisio n (modified-modifier , NP-VP . . . ) i s disrupted " (Revolution in Poetic Language 55) . Suc h

140 Th e Embodie d Voic e disruption migh t b e understoo d a s a n implici t refusa l t o acknowledg e the ver y ground s o f socia l commerc e o r t o participat e i n it , sinc e i t rejects "on e functio n o f languag e thoug h no t th e onl y one : t o expres s meaning i n a communicabl e sentenc e betwee n speakers . Thi s functio n harbors coherenc e . . . or , i n othe r words , socia l identity " {Desire in Language 131) . Such disrupted enunciation s certainl y refus e th e receive d relational categorie s articulate d b y available , acceptabl e predicates . Ac cording t o Kristev a the y als o abor t th e positin g o r separatin g ou t o f th e very things the y name : suspendin g th e complementar y structur e o f nou n phrase plu s ver b phrase , the y thereb y subver t th e subject-objec t divisio n it formalizes . Hoverin g a t th e threshol d o f th e positional , thes e litanie s suggest jus t th e sor t o f ambiguou s spac e I discussed i n chapte r 2 : provi sionally projecte d object s stil l see m t o b e part o f th e subjec t wh o name s them. This failur e t o detac h object s firmly i s also implie d b y the breakdow n of representationa l closur e syntacti c incompletio n suggests . Th e orderl y construction o f th e verisimila r scen e posite d b y a subject-predicat e pai r is interrupted ; th e symboli c functio n seem s t o b e disturbe d b y energie s of a different order : This ellipsis or syntactic non-completion can be interpreted a s the thetic break's inability t o remain simply intra-syntactic—a divisio n within a signifying homo geneity. A heterogeneou s division , a n irruptio n o f th e semioti c chora, marks each "category " o f th e syntactic sequence and prevents th e "other" fro m bein g posited as an identifiable syntacti c term. . . . {Revolution in Poetic Language 56) Frustrating significatio n an d organize d instea d b y iterated syntacti c frag ments, suc h text s see m t o dissolv e th e worl d o f discret e object s posite d by synta x bac k int o th e rhythmic , somaticize d spac e thei r recurren t pattern suggests . Provisionally posite d object s ar e no soone r name d tha n they ar e eroded b y the "instinctua l rhythm " tha t organize s th e text. Lik e emphasis o n soun d a s an autonomou s value , syntactic non-completion i s thus also , accordin g t o Kristeva , a n "attemp t t o dissolv e th e first socia l censorship—the ba r betwee n signifie r an d signified " {Revolution in Poetic Language 63) . No t firmly isolate d b y complet e act s o f positing , "things" see m t o b e simpl y provisional , unstabl e accretion s o f th e so matic energie s voic e help s shape . A s such, the y ar e subjec t t o th e sor t o f rhythmic structurin g tha t organize s th e spac e o f th e chora, th e roug h alternation o f centripeta l an d centrifuga l energie s tha t a les s archai c

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register wil l isolat e an d formaliz e a s th e vocativ e an d positiona l power s of symboli c language : The entir e gamu t o f partia l drive s i s triggered withi n th e chor a underlyin g th e text, endlessl y "swallowing'Vrejecting , appropriating/expelling , inside/outside . The real object i s never posited a s lost, lacking. . . . instinctual rhyth m simulta neously posits an d passes throug h th e object. . .. drive s pass through th e bod y as well as the surrounding natural and social configuration. (Revolution in Poetic Language 99) Echoes, ripples, and buzze d whisper s . . . . loveroot , silkthread , crotc h an d vine. Like the patter n o f syntacti c recurrenc e tha t structure s suc h a text, it s referential procedur e ca n thu s als o b e thought o f a s anaphoric. Sinc e th e aborted speec h act s tha t mak e i t u p fai l t o posi t discret e scene s success fully, th e tex t instea d evoke s th e single , somati c locu s shape d b y voca l rhythm itself : when instinctua l rhyth m passe s through ephemera l bu t specifi c theses, meaning is constituted bu t is then immediately exceeded by what seems outside meaning. . . . Th e processes' matrix o f enunciation i s in fact anaphoric since it designates an elsewhere : th e chora tha t generate s wha t signifies . [Revolution in Poetic Language 100 ) In Leaves of Grass, a s w e sa w i n chapte r 2 , thi s hoverin g sens e o f anaphora serve s to dissolv e a n ofte n staggerin g amoun t o f materia l bac k into a space , shape d b y enunciation , indistinguishabl e fro m th e poet' s agglomerating body : Where the panther walks to and fro o n a limb overhead . . . . wher e the buck turns furiously a t the hunter, Where the rattlesnake suns his flabby length on a rock . . .. wher e the otter is feeding on fish. (1855 57) Cueing thei r iteratin g syntacti c fragment s t o th e singl e wor d "where, " these lines an d thos e tha t follo w the m mak e locatio n thei r explici t topic ; but thei r incomplet e act s o f positin g hav e th e effec t o f dissolvin g spatia l as wel l a s syntacti c position . Lik e th e mor e recen t text s Kristev a ana lyzes, th e section s o f Leaves of Grass organize d b y suc h stylize d disrup tion no t onl y resis t th e division s I have bee n callin g castratio n bu t als o subvert th e symboli c order tha t require s them .

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Or a t leas t the y see m to . Bu t w e shoul d not e that , unlik e th e modernis t texts Kristev a discusses , Whitman' s catalogue s ten d t o fulfil l thei r syn tactic commitments. Wherea s th e forme r initiat e syntacti c structure s bu t fail t o complet e them , Whitman' s typica l litanie s hypnoticall y suspen d and thereb y transfigur e th e ver y requirement s the y technicall y satisfy . Thus, fo r example , th e lon g catalogu e o f apparen t syntacti c fragment s excerpted jus t above turns out finally to modify a main claus e that passe s grammatical muster : "Wher e th e panthe r walk s t o an d fr o o n a lim b overhead [ . . . . ] I trea d da y an d nigh t suc h roads " (185 5 57 , 60) . Despite wha t gramma r tell s us , however , i n thi s litan y th e ver y ac t o f predication o r positin g lodge d i n th e mai n claus e i s effectivel y engulfe d by th e distende d anaphori c structur e tha t organize s th e catalogu e a s a whole, negatin g th e firm separatio n o f subjec t fro m objec t predicatio n implies. B y contras t t o th e staunchl y incomplet e utterance s Kristev a analyzes, o n th e othe r hand , Whitman' s grammatica l closur e doe s posi t a nam e fo r al l tha t precedes : gatherin g th e catalogue' s anaphori c ener gies under th e sig n o f a coheren t self , i t bring s thes e rhythmi c processe s to the punctual focu s o f a dominant " I . " 6 7 Co-optin g or commandeerin g normative gramma r instea d o f rebellin g agains t it , Whitman' s litanie s seem t o mel d th e profoundl y archai c structur e o f th e chora wit h a different , limina l visio n o f th e poet' s bod y an d word , implyin g a re lation t o th e cultura l orde r tha t i s transformativ e rathe r tha n insurrec tionary. This transformative relatio n i s suggested eve n mor e strongl y b y Whit man's proclamation s o f th e poet' s presence . Rathe r tha n disruptin g syn tax, thes e performativ e utterance s reve l i n th e positiona l powe r i t codi fies. Yet the y re-imagin e th e ver y operation s i n whic h the y engage : th e poet's performative s subscrib e t o th e grammatica l requirement s tha t insert u s i n a circui t o f symboli c identities , ye t clai m t o annu l th e ver y bar betwee n signifier s an d signified s tha t i n fac t generate s bot h th e objects o f cultura l exchang e an d th e subject s wh o engag e i n circulatin g them. Thes e pronouncements , tha t i s t o say , ar e instance s o f wor d magic, an d the y ow e thei r attractio n i n par t t o th e relatio n betwee n speaker an d symboli c order the y imply. Itself a hyperbolic versio n o f th e positional powe r tha t organize s thi s realm , word magi c suggests that w e can exercis e suc h forc e withou t payin g th e pric e o f castration , accedin g to th e benefit s o f th e symboli c withou t foregoin g archai c satisfactions . We migh t d o s o b y speakin g a stil l uncastrate d word . Wor d magi c thu s

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claims t o carr y forwar d int o symboli c languag e trait s peculia r t o a transitional stag e betwee n semioti c an d symboli c modes ; i n th e fantas y it sustains , th e threshol d betwee n thes e organization s i s effectivel y ef faced. W e ca n se e how thi s i s so b y pinpointing mor e precisel y th e stag e in th e shifting , fantasmati c relation s betwee n languag e an d objec t tha t word magi c reverts t o an d seem s to extend . The invarian t connection s betwee n signifier s an d signified s require d b y symbolic language , w e sa w above , codif y link s o f soun d image s t o intentional object s tha t develo p onl y gradually . A t first, w e noted , thes e associations ar e weakened b y intense investmen t i n sound itself : the lin k between a soun d an d th e externa l objec t i t wil l com e t o denot e mus t compete with a n interferin g associatio n betwee n th e sound an d th e auto erotic pleasur e it s productio n evokes . Th e developmen t o f symboli c language thu s demand s a progressiv e erodin g o f ou r investmen t i n th e physical aspect s o f voca l productio n an d th e somati c satisfaction s thes e afford. Ye t fo r a time , i t turn s out , intens e investmen t i n sound s facili tates rathe r tha n retard s thei r progressiv e bindin g t o objects , b y lendin g the connectio n betwee n thes e a fantasmati c meaning . Th e ti e betwee n word an d thing , tha t is , i s accorde d a strengt h i t wil l soo n n o longe r possess: give n th e continuin g sens e o f th e wor d a s physica l presence , what wil l becom e th e purely symbolic , conventional ti e between signifie r and signifie d i s registere d a s a literal , physica l bon d o f wor d an d thing . Connected t o a n externa l objec t bu t stil l strongl y associate d wit h a somatic proces s o r presence , th e wor d i s experience d a s a fantasmati c fusion o f thes e disparat e entities. 68 This fantasmati c structur e center s o n th e mouth ; th e particula r for m it take s depend s o n a primordia l associatio n betwee n ingestio n an d vocalization. Th e metonymi c connectio n betwee n thes e tw o activitie s provides th e basi s fo r a visio n o f namin g a s literal , physica l incorpora tion tha t onl y graduall y give s wa y t o th e constructio n o f a rulin g meta phor tha t posit s languag e a s like ingestio n sinc e it, too, afford s a kind o f possession o f th e object. A s Nicolas Abraha m an d Mari a Toro k suggest , in an argumen t congruen t i n many respect s with Kristeva's : Learning to fill the void of the mouth wit h words constitutes a n early paradigm of introjection . Clearl y thi s canno t occu r withou t th e constan t presenc e o f a mother wh o hersel f possesse s language . He r constanc y . . . i s th e necessar y guarantee o f th e meanin g o f words . When tha t guarante e i s assured, an d onl y

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then, words can replace the mother's presence and give rise to new introjections. First th e empt y mouth , the n th e absenc e o f object s becom e words , an d finall y experiences wit h word s themselve s ar e converte d int o othe r words . Thu s th e original ora l voi d wil l hav e foun d a remed y fo r al l it s want s throug h thei r conversion in linguistic intercourse with the speaking community.. .. Thus food absorption, i n th e literal sense , becomes introjection i n the figurative sense. To achieve thi s transition , presenc e o f th e objec t mus t b e supersede d b y auto apprehension o f it s absence. Language . . . makes up for tha t absenc e by representing presence.. . . ("Introjection—Incorporation" 6 ) The fantasize d conflatio n o f wor d an d thin g i s thu s als o temporary , and rejectio n o f i t i s crucial; bot h th e realit y principl e an d th e circui t o f cultural exchang e w e com e t o cal l realit y requir e th e effectiv e renuncia tion o f thi s identification . Th e entitie s supposedl y literall y incorporate d in th e wor d mus t b e recognize d a s symboli c object s neithe r subjec t themselves t o thi s sor t o f physica l possessio n no r directl y fuse d wit h th e physical real m the y hel p u s negotiate. An d ou r attachmen t t o thi s physical stratu m (firs t experience d b y the infan t a s subject t o litera l ingestion ) must b e largely replace d b y an investmen t i n the shared symboli c entitie s culture circulate s an d th e share d symboli c introjection s tha t lin k u s t o this syste m o f exchange . Base d o n th e renunciatio n o r repressio n o f th e primordial identificatio n o f ingestio n an d vocalization , incorporatio n and naming , th e symboli c orde r mus t thu s be , in Abraha m an d Torok' s phrase, " a 'communit y o f empt y mouths ' " ("Introjection—Incorpora tion" 6) . The empt y mout h indee d become s a crucial synecdoch e fo r th e subject's body , a bod y fo r whic h th e objec t i s no w lost . N o longe r experienced a s presen t i n th e word , th e objec t i s detache d fro m th e subject; n o longe r susceptibl e t o magica l incorporation , i t wil l retur n only vi a a circui t o f exchang e an d onl y a s symbolic: eithe r a s a word, o r through word s tha t giv e it a culturally mediate d meanin g an d value. 69 It is just these castrations tha t word magi c resists. Obeying the syntactic structures that formaliz e ou r symboli c relation to objects, word magi c appeals surreptitiousl y t o th e ver y incorporativ e metapho r th e symboli c compact demand s tha t w e renounce , collapsin g introjectio n bac k int o incorporation. Tha t renunciatio n i s always fragile , sinc e as Maria Toro k suggests il existe u n nivea u tre s archa'iqu e o u le s deux mecanismes , devenu s s i oppose s par la suite, pouvaient encore se confondre. [ a very archaic level exists where the two mechanisms , afterward s s o opposed , coul d stil l b e intermingled. ] (Torok , "Maladie du deuil" 722)

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Le fantasme d'incorporatio n apparai t don e comme le premier mensonge , l'effe t du premie r langag e rudimentaire . [Th e fantas y o f incorporatio n thu s loom s as the firs t lie , the effec t o f th e first rudimentary language. ] (Torok , "Maladi e d u deuil" 722) We ar e accordingl y alway s susceptibl e t o The fantas y o f incorporatio n [which ] aspire s t o accomplis h [appropriation ] b y magic, as it were, by carrying out in a literal sense something that has meaning only in a figurative sense. . .. I n the magic of incorporation, then , one finds . . . demetaphorization (takin g literall y wha t i s mean t figuratively). . . . ("Introjec tion—Incorporation" 4-5 ) Less overtl y disruptiv e an d les s profoundl y archai c tha n th e schizo phrenic speech analyze d b y Freud, sinc e it retains the binding of wor d t o thing suc h behavio r elides , thi s incorporativ e fantas y nonetheles s in volves withdrawal fro m th e socia l sphere , being indeed a kind o f rai d o n its objects. 70 Paraphrasin g Abraha m an d Toro k i n hi s introductio n t o their work , Derrid a thu s speak s o f "th e catastrophic reversa l tha t wil l occur wit h th e fantas y o f incorporation . Tha t fantas y transform s th e oral metapho r presidin g ove r introjectio n int o a reality" (Fors xxxviii). Related bu t no t simpl y identica l t o thi s incorporativ e fantasy , th e constellation o f putativ e linguisti c power s Freu d condense s i n th e ter m "word magic " ca n b e though t o f a s les s disruptiv e an d les s archai c i n turn. I n Whitman' s imaginativ e universe , a t least , th e magica l fusio n o f word an d thin g i s deploye d i n orde r t o re-projec t object s a s wel l a s t o incorporate them : th e thing s draine d fro m th e socia l spher e ar e give n back, a t leas t provisionally , i n transfigure d form. 71 I n Leaves of Grass, moreover, th e incorporativ e fantas y a t th e roo t o f wor d magi c co-exist s with les s cataclysmi c version s o f verba l sorcery , passin g ove r int o th e more genera l "omnipotenc e o f thought " Freu d adduce s a s a synony m for hi s term. 72 Regressiv e design s ar e thu s implici t withi n bu t d o no t always overtl y dominat e th e myria d scene s shape d b y magica l utteranc e in Whitman' s work ; archai c materia l ofte n inflect s wha t look s lik e a social scenari o withou t violentl y disturbin g it . Th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass deploy s wor d magi c not t o destro y th e socia l bon d bu t t o redee m it, cancellin g it s cost s b y effacin g th e boundar y betwee n symboli c an d semiotic registers . Kristeva's vision of the aggressive, adversarial stanc e implicit in work s

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that erod e th e divisio n betwee n signifie r an d signifie d thu s need s a t leas t some refurbishin g t o b e applicable t o Whitman : since poetry work s on the bar between signifie r an d signified an d tends to erase it, it would b e an anarchi c outcr y agains t th e thetic an d socializin g position of syntactic language. It depletes all communities, either destroying them or identifying with the moment of their subversion. (Desire in Language 174 ) It is not onl y th e anarchis t wh o "work s o n th e ba r betwee n signifie r an d signified." S o doe s th e shaman . Th e semioti c weaken s bot h representa tion an d sociability , b y making vocalization, s o to speak, it s own object . The shama n instea d operate s a rituall y controlle d evocatio n o f th e ti e between wor d an d thin g tha t symboli c languag e mus t repudiate . Claim ing t o effac e th e separatio n o f signifie r fro m signifie d tha t i n fac t make s symbolic languag e an d th e symboli c compac t possible , he seems thereb y to revitaliz e culture , recovering th e natura l groundin g o f socia l form s b y displaying the magica l powe r o f ritua l utteranc e ove r nature . Whitman' s protagonist i s les s comfortabl y ensconce d i n culture : h e wield s wor d magic i n orde r t o sugges t tha t th e castration s exacte d b y symboli c lan guage have no power ove r him. Ye t he seems thereby t o restore to us no t only the bodies but als o the social relations that should hav e been ours. 73 Leaves of Grass thu s aim s bot h t o reclai m cultur e fo r u s an d t o recove r more archai c mode s o f ou r bein g fo r culture . Effacin g th e threshol d between th e symboli c real m an d wha t precede s it , th e poe t create s a continuity i n whic h no t onl y wor d magi c bu t als o th e earlie r organiza tions Kristev a describe s see m compatibl e wit h socia l requirements . I t i s in terms o f thi s blurrin g o f boundarie s tha t w e can bes t understand wha t initially seem s a peculia r polarit y i n Whitman' s depiction s o f th e poet' s body, a n oddit y note d b y mor e tha n on e critic . Quenti n Anderso n ha s astutely remarke d th e reciprocit y o f wha t h e call s activ e an d passiv e poles i n thes e portrait s (Imperial Self 139-60) ; mor e recently , M . Jim mie Killingswort h ha s pointed t o th e paradoxical characterizatio n o f th e poet i n term s o f bot h phalli c bravad o an d a receptivity h e calls feminin e (60-87). W e migh t bette r ter m i t archaic , an d recal l tha t th e labil e somatic spac e o f th e semioti c i s graduall y succeede d b y a bod y imag e organized b y bot h th e punctua l incorporatio n an d th e punctua l self production wor d magi c seem s t o enable . Embodimen t o f th e wor d an d

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of th e patriarcha l powe r o f positing , thi s fantasmati c bod y i s phallic. In Leaves of Grass, indeed , i t i s th e phallu s itself ; ye t i t characteristicall y dissolves bac k int o th e chora ou t o f whic h i t rises. 74 Instance s o f wor d magic typicall y shad e ove r int o jus t th e sor t o f semioticize d verba l practice that attenuate s positional power ; th e poems thus seem to mingl e the bod y image s thes e contiguou s register s imply . Ye t th e ambiguou s presence thereb y create d preside s ove r a transfigure d cultura l spac e Whitman invite s u s to cal l America . 3. This bod y define s wha t th e bod y shoul d be . This is so despite both th e relative infrequenc y o f th e performativ e announcement s tha t see m t o generate th e poet' s presenc e b y mean s o f hi s wor d an d th e tendenc y o f Whitman's catalogue s t o leav e implici t th e somati c basi s o f th e collaps ing space the y evoke . The figure directl y identifie d wit h voic e epitomize s a visio n o f incarnatio n muc h mor e widel y a t work i n Whitman's poems . Given th e importanc e wit h whic h I a m endowin g thi s presence , i t i s probably pruden t t o offe r som e indicatio n o f th e prevalenc e o f hi s avatars i n the early edition s o f Leaves of Grass. Appearances o f th e poe t himsel f i n wha t migh t b e calle d hi s overtl y generic guis e recal l th e presenc e produce d b y apostroph e an d th e trans figuring power s o f voic e mos t strongly . " I kno w I have th e bes t o f tim e and space—an d tha t I wa s neve r measured , an d neve r wil l b e mea sured," th e poe t vaunt s i n "Son g o f Myself " (185 5 79) . Alludin g t o a power o f diffusio n tha t i n Leaves of Grass i s dramaticall y enacte d a s a power o f speech , suc h proclamation s ar e frequentl y supplemente d b y overt declaration s o f th e poet' s pneumati c prowess : " I inhal e grea t draughts o f space, " Whitma n proclaim s i n "Son g o f th e Ope n Road " (CRE 151 ; V H229). 75 Servin g her e t o collaps e interval s bu t elsewher e instancing th e poet' s powe r t o flow throug h them , thes e appeal s t o breath evok e throug h metonymi c suggestio n th e voca l an d linguisti c capacities tha t i n fac t underwrit e them : incorporatio n an d effusion , w e noted i n chapte r 2 , are magical, somaticize d version s o f th e vocative an d positional mode s of language . Voice i s als o th e implici t mode l fo r th e peculia r topolog y tha t orga nizes th e poet' s mythi c transaction s wit h objects . A n unlikel y boas t i n "Song o f Myself " thu s owe s bot h it s evocative powe r an d it s admittedl y tenuous coherenc e t o a n unstate d appea l t o voice ; lik e a passag e fro m

148 Th e Embodie d Voic e "Song of th e Answerer" w e looked a t earlier, it paradoxically image s th e poet a s "both immerse d an d immersing " (Anderson , Imperial Self 132) : I fly the flight of the fluid and swallowing soul, My course runs below the soundings of plummets. (1855 61) Suggesting both th e penetrative powe r tha t would allo w hi m to flow int o us and th e fluidit y o f a n inne r bod y spac e in whic h w e might b e melded , voice i s als o th e mode l fo r th e sor t o f labilit y tha t migh t allo w th e poe t to assum e thes e apparentl y contradictor y guises . Like these mythic versions of the poet, the bodies of others we glimpse in Whitman' s panorami c portrait s o f America n lif e ofte n posses s som e of th e trait s o f th e presenc e produce d b y apostrophe , thoug h i n mor e attenuated form . A t their mos t ecstatic , these evocations ar e marked no t by attentio n t o strenuou s physicality , bu t b y wha t F . O . Matthiesse n aptly call s th e poet' s "enjoymen t o f relaxe d buoyan t existence " (568) ; the scene s o f labo r o r recreatio n tha t fascinat e th e poe t ar e ful l o f th e sort o f undulant , rhythmi c movemen t epitomize d b y th e labil e presenc e of th e poe t himself . Matthiessen' s analysi s o f thi s portraitur e i s stil l unsurpassed. Notin g "th e regressive , infantil e fluidity , imaginativel y po lyperverse, whic h break s dow n al l matur e barriers " (535) , h e suggest s that these qualities typify th e bodies of others a s well as Whitman's own : "his epithet s o f movemen t revea l th e ver y kin d o f limbe r indolenc e tha t was s o characteristi c o f hi s ow n body " (s6^)7 6 A paralle l suggestio n takes a mor e revealin g form : " a simila r inde x t o th e rang e o f hi s plasti c skill i n creating movement, " Matthiesse n notes , is provided in the concluding passage of 'Song of Myself: I effuse m y fleshin eddies, and drift it in lacy jags. Such effusion condition s the slow-paced action that his loose rhythm can encompass best. (569) Here "effusion, " a n unlikel y proces s t o assig n t o soli d bodies , i s mad e the imaginativ e ke y t o Whitman' s portraiture , a readin g tha t emerge s from jus t th e sor t o f evocatio n o f th e poet' s ow n presenc e t o whic h w e have bee n attending . Matthiesse n thu s implie s th e orde r o f influenc e I am claimin g fo r Whitman' s visio n o f th e body : th e figure o f th e poe t modeled o n voice— a bod y emergin g fro m speech , o r dissolvin g bac k

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into it , a s her e a t th e clos e o f "Son g o f Myself"—define s th e character istics toward whic h al l bodies ough t t o tend . A fe w o f th e figures tha t populat e Leaves of Grass com e close r t o embodying suc h flui d energie s tha n eve n Whitman' s selectiv e catalogu ing o f observabl e labo r an d pla y wil l permit ; the y serv e a s bridge s between th e mythi c bod y o f th e poe t an d th e finite bodie s rendere d i n the book' s panorami c portrait s o f America n life . Two o f th e mos t mem orable o f thes e figures appea r i n Whitman's protea n comed y o f incarna tion, "Son g o f Myself. " Th e "friendl y an d flowing savage " o f sectio n thirty-nine combine s a labil e bod y wit h a magica l performativ e powe r that ha s bee n displace d fro m wor d t o bodil y gesture , makin g i t see m especially archaic ; h e i s clearl y a n avata r o f th e poet' s magica l presenc e (1855 69-70) . Th e "twenty-nint h bather " o f sectio n eleve n ha s als o been identified wit h th e poet—but i n his reticent rather than hi s transfig uring aspect . Edwi n Mille r thu s see s he r a s Whitman' s mos t poignan t self-portrait (Walt Whitman's Poetry 94) ; Iva n Mark i stresse s tha t she , like th e lonel y ma n wh o create d her , fulfill s he r desire s onl y i n imag ination (155) . Suc h attenuation s ar e appropriat e t o note . Bu t w e should not e a s wel l tha t he r elusiv e bod y resemble s th e poet' s effusin g one: Dancing and laughing along the beach came the twenty-ninth bather , The rest did not see her, but she saw them and loved them. The beards of the young men glistened with wet, it ran from thei r long hair, Little streams passed all over their bodies. An unseen hand also passed over their bodies, It descended tremblingly from thei r temples and ribs. (1855 34) The barel y physica l contac t tha t characterize s thi s imagined encounte r i s not onl y a n inde x o f Whitman' s furtiveness , thoug h i t i s surel y tha t i n part. Whitman' s twenty-nint h bathe r inhabit s a bod y reduce d t o wha t i t should properl y be ; i t i s jus t suc h a transparen t for m tha t Whitman' s proclamations o f th e poet's presenc e clai m t o incarnate . Such alter-ego s hel p sugges t tha t th e poet' s magica l presenc e i s the limi t to whic h al l bodie s ough t t o tend . A few o f Whitman' s depiction s o f th e poet himself , however , see m t o beli e th e crucia l rol e I a m assignin g t o

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language an d voic e i n definin g th e body ; s o d o som e o f hi s pronounce ments abou t presence . Whitma n sometime s seem s t o b e suggestin g tha t words ar e superfluous , sinc e silen t presenc e alread y convey s a s muc h o r more tha n the y ar e abl e to : your very flesh shall be a great poem and have the richest fluency not only in its words bu t i n the silent lines of it s lips and fac e an d betwee n th e lashes of your eyes and in every motion and joint of your body [....] (Preface , 185 5 11) But such pronouncement s ar e trickier tha n the y appear . Wha t ma y see m to b e a dismissa l o f languag e i n favo r o f presenc e turn s ou t o n close r examination t o b e a n assertio n tha t presenc e i s alread y language . Thi s odd notio n depend s o n Whitman' s appea l t o th e hermeti c doctrin e o f a language o f nature , a topi c t o whic h w e shal l tur n i n chapte r 5 . Th e point I want t o mak e her e i s simply tha t prais e o f silen t presenc e i s no t necessarily incompatibl e wit h a visio n o f th e bod y tha t center s o n th e word, howeve r od d thi s conjunction ma y seem . My assertio n tha t th e languag e o n whic h th e redeeme d bod y i s mod eled i s pre-eminentl y oral—tha t i t i s a n imag e o f voic e an d no t jus t a vision o f th e wor d tha t define s th e poet' s presence , eve n whe n tha t presence i s sai d t o b e silent—ma y see m odde r still . Sectio n twenty-fiv e of "Son g o f Myself, " whic h conclude s wit h a n evocatio n o f jus t suc h a silent presence , indee d make s som e apparentl y disparagin g remark s no t just abou t languag e bu t mor e specificall y abou t voice . A t on e poin t th e poet apostrophize s "speech, " whic h ha s supposedl y jus t addresse d him , in order t o admonis h it : Come now I will no t b e tantalized . . . . yo u conceiv e too muc h o f articula tion. Do you not know how the buds beneath are folded? Waiting in gloom protected by frost , The dirt receding before my prophetical screams. (1855 5 1) I shal l b e arguin g i n chapte r 5 tha t suc h apparen t dismissal s o f speec h are als o mor e equivoca l tha n the y seem , focussin g no t o n languag e an d voice a s suc h bu t onl y o n certai n o f thei r productions . W e ca n a t leas t note her e th e presence o f a verbal iron y whos e objec t i s not immediatel y apparent: th e sligh t over-formalit y o f bot h "prophetica l screams " an d "you conceiv e to o muc h o f articulation " sit s oddl y no t onl y wit h th e more lyrica l secon d an d thir d line s bu t als o wit h th e passag e tha t pre -

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cedes them . Ther e th e poe t report s th e word s tha t "speech " supposedl y spoke t o him : "I t provoke s m e forever , / I t say s sarcastically , Walt , yo u understand enoug h . . . . wh y don' t yo u le t it out then? " (185 5 51) . This demotic America n voic e ascribe d t o "speech " hardl y resemble s eithe r the "prophetica l screams " that supposedl y exemplif y th e poet's attempt s at visionar y languag e o r th e rathe r fastidiou s idio m i n whic h h e no w deprecates them . Wha t get s paraphrased an d evaluate d i n th e line s quote d above may thu s b e not speec h itsel f bu t onl y a degraded versio n o f it . An earlier demu r i s likewise equivocal: "Speec h i s the twin o f m y vision. . . . it i s unequa l t o measur e itself " (185 5 50) . This ma y mea n tha t speech , which can' t measur e it s own value , doesn't kno w it s proper limits . But it may suggest instead tha t the language game of measuring is of a differen t and lesse r orde r tha n th e linguisti c activitie s i n which th e wor d exercise s its ful l an d prope r force . Th e contras t betwee n th e performativ e power s of voic e an d th e merel y representationa l o r indicativ e use s o f words , I shall argu e i n chapte r 5 , is crucial t o Whitman' s tract s o n language . Th e provisos her e ar e accordingl y precede d b y som e line s extolling th e pene trative powers o f voic e and th e master y voic e affords : My voice goes after what my eyes cannot reach, With th e twir l o f m y tongu e I encompas s world s an d volume s o f worlds . (1855 50) What thu s turn s ou t t o b e a highl y equivoca l critiqu e o f speec h i s followed a t th e section' s conclusio n b y prais e o f a silen t presenc e whos e contrast t o voice may likewis e b e only apparent : Encompass worlds but never try to encompass me, I crowd your noisiest talk by looking toward you. Writing and talk do not prove me, I carry the plenum of proof an d every thing else in my face, With the hush of my lips I confound th e topmost skeptic. (1855 51) Simply notin g th e oppositio n declare d her e betwee n languag e an d th e poet's silen t presenc e fail s t o accoun t fo r th e uncann y qualit y o f thi s passage, whic h depend s instea d o n thei r conflation. 77 Contraste d t o th e writing literall y i n fron t o f u s an d th e tal k t o whic h w e have supposedl y been attending , thi s invisible face performing a n admonitor y hus h o f lip s we canno t se e i s mor e tha n slightl y unnerving . Thi s invisibilit y i s subtl y insisted o n b y th e poet' s avowa l tha t h e i s "lookin g towar d you, " sinc e

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this loo k i s on e w e woul d b e har d presse d t o return . Lik e th e elusiv e body pointe d a t b y Whitman' s deictics , thi s hoverin g bu t unlocatabl e figure wh o canno t b e "proved " b y mer e "talk " i s evoke d b y an d mod eled o n voice . Th e silen t bod y praise d i n Leaves of Grass i s a bod y defined b y speech . This de facto conflatio n o f voic e wit h silen t presenc e i n th e ver y passages tha t dra w ou r attentio n t o th e suppose d differenc e betwee n them i s responsible fo r som e o f ou r mor e spectacularl y sublim e encoun ters wit h th e poet . Lik e a serie s o f passage s w e looke d a t earlier , suc h scenes ar e characteristicall y cue d b y deictic s wit h n o discernibl e object , or imperative s orderin g u s t o engag e i n act s wit h th e poe t tha t hav e n o possible uptake . "A s Ada m Earl y i n th e Morning " provoke s a shive r b y commanding u s t o loo k o n an d touc h a bod y w e canno t se e o r ge t

hold of :

Early in the morning, Walking forth fro m th e bower, refreshed wit h sleep, Behold me where I pass—hear my voice—approach, Touch me—touch the palm of your hand to my body as I pass, Be not afraid o f my body, (i860 314) Here bod y an d voic e ar e metonymicall y associate d bu t als o explicitl y distinguished. Ye t th e bod y w e ar e directe d t o behol d an d touc h i s present onl y i n th e accent s o f thes e words ; i n thi s uncann y momen t w e put ou r hands , a s i t were , t o a voice , registerin g th e magica l presenc e voice implies. A dramatic passag e nea r th e end o f "S o Long!, " the concludin g poe m of Leaves of Grass sinc e i860 , likewis e achieve s it s effec t b y declarin g the distinctio n betwee n wor d an d bod y whil e dependin g o n thei r virtua l equivalence. Whitman contrast s th e poet's "songs " to the silent presenc e who appear s a s the book' s closin g revelation : My songs cease—I abandon them, From behin d th e scree n wher e I hid, I advance personally, solel y t o you. (V 2:45i)78

This magica l figure i s produce d b y subtractin g voic e fro m person , a n operation th e ne t resul t o f which , i n thes e particula r circumstances , might wel l b e calculate d a s zero . Name d instea d a s th e book' s crucia l "one," th e poe t himself , i t i s th e numinou s limi t Whitma n wil l cal l

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presence, a translucenc y takin g th e for m o f th e ver y thin g supposedl y deducted fro m it : th e poe t emerge s her e a s pure energ y an d (speech ) act , devoid o f mas s o r dross . I n Leaves of Grass th e final , silen t presenc e o n whom ou r attentio n rest s i s present a s voice and word . This presenc e define s wha t th e bod y ough t t o be . Yet however undulan t their movements , thi s figure' s avatar s ar e necessaril y compromise s be tween th e power s voic e suggest s an d th e limitation s bot h ou r finit e bodies an d th e shapin g t o whic h the y hav e bee n subjecte d entail . Th e presence conjure d u p b y apostroph e i s nowher e els e i n Leaves of Grass thus perfectl y incarnate : "Son g o f Myself " i s th e comed y o f thi s differ ence; "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " offer s a starker , mor e schemati c ver sion o f it . Appearin g i n hi s ow n righ t a s a figur e o f power , thi s magica l presence i s fo r u s a n imag e o f desire . Ye t whil e h e mark s ou r distanc e from wha t w e ough t t o be , h e als o seem s t o b e poise d o n th e brin k o f effacing thi s gap : leavin g u s i n som e sens e i n th e divide d worl d tha t wa s always ours , th e poet' s presenc e nonetheles s implie s tha t ou r relatio n t o the power s tha t dispos e us , an d thu s t o ourselve s an d ou r bodies , ha s already begu n t o b e altered ; wer e th e performativ e magi c marshale d b y his words eve r wholly realized , th e world woul d collaps e int o the vision ary, archaic space his own bod y implies . The ga p betwee n wha t th e bod y ough t t o b e an d wha t i t i s thu s reappears i n Leaves of Grass a s a gap afflicting th e word. Poised betwee n representation an d performance , o r betwee n a merel y conventiona l per formative forc e an d a performativ e powe r tha t i s properl y magical , th e poet's speec h hover s befor e a n apocalypti c prospec t tha t seem s alway s about t o be fulfilled. I t is indeed this fissure i n the word tha t lend s Leaves of Grass th e divide d qualitie s tha t defin e it , suspendin g th e poem s be tween figur e an d fulfillment , desir e an d power , comi c o r haunte d an d authentically visionar y modes . Whitman's foray s int o languag e theor y en d u p revealin g th e source s of suc h difficulties . Ben t o n liberatin g a speec h capabl e o f exercisin g th e powers t o whic h th e poem s aspire , b y parin g awa y th e supposedl y accidental attribute s o f languag e tha t undermin e suc h force , thes e writ ings instea d sugges t th e inevitabl e intertwinin g o f wha t Whitma n think s of a s objectionable an d desirabl e traits ; despite themselves , the y provid e an invaluabl e taxonom y o f al l tha t frustrate s wha t shoul d b e th e poet' s magic word . W e thu s nee d t o tur n t o Whitman' s writing s o n language :

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both t o se e h o w deepl y speculation s abou t th e w o r d permeate d th e poet's imaginatio n an d t o isolat e th e particula r linguisti c feature s tha t i n his vie w compromis e th e suppose d resource s o f speech . Returnin g t o Leaves of Grass i n chapte r 6 , w e wil l fin d jus t thes e feature s a t pla y i n W h i t m a n ' s speec h acts , lendin g the m th e complex , ambivalen t resonanc e that make s th e equivoca l fat e o f W h i t m a n ' s progra m th e ver y basi s o f his greatnes s a s a poet .

Notes i. O n thi s dialecti c o f th e bod y i n Whitman' s wor k se e Anderson , Imperial Self, especiall y 102—16 . 2. Whitma n criticis m ha s tende d t o offe r a simila r accoun t o f th e poet' s motivation, regardin g these apostrophe s a s touching evidenc e o f Whitman' s generosity; th e scen e i n whic h th e poe t communicate s hi s ecstati c visio n t o us is assumed t o pla y n o centra l rol e in shaping th e mod e of apprehensio n i t announces. See for exampl e Edwi n Miller , Walt Whitman's Poetry 209 , an d James Miller , Critical Guide 80 . A mor e tantalizin g accoun t o f Whitman' s apostrophes i s offered b y Richar d Collins , who suggest s tha t the y allo w th e poet t o re-creat e himself , transcendin g tim e an d space , b y impingin g o n hi s audience. Ye t Collin s goe s o n t o asser t tha t Whitma n mean s t o "by-pass " language, whic h h e supposedl y see s a s arbitrar y an d inadequate . Whil e according th e poet' s apostrophe s a mor e centra l role , recen t criticis m stil l tends to idealize the motives that impel them. See for exampl e Pease , "Blake, Crane, Whitman, an d Modernism " 76—78 ; Larson 7—30 ; and Kronic k 92— 117.

3. I take u p th e contrasts betwee n th e two poem s i n chapter 6 , below . 4. O n th e transcendental sel f a s a mode o f identit y tha t internalize s th e marke t economy fro m whic h i t supposedl y escapes , se e Anderson , "Propert y an d Vision i n Nineteenth-Centur y America. " Se e Calabres e fo r a n extende d consideration o f Whitman' s caree r i n term s o f th e problemati c Anderso n develops. 5. Killingswort h note s "th e ton e o f submissio n tha t lie s beneat h th e rathe r enigmatic las t lines of th e 'dar k patches ' passage" (53-54) . 6. O n th e relatio n o f th e Othe r t o th e symbolic code see Lacan, "Th e directio n of th e treatmen t an d th e principles of it s power" {Ecrits 226-80) , especiall y 233, an d "Th e subversio n o f th e subjec t an d th e dialecti c o f desir e i n th e Freudian unconscious " (Ecrits 292—325) , especiall y 305 ; se e als o Mac Cannell 55 . O n th e Othe r an d th e gaz e se e Lacan , "Anamorphosis, " Four Fundamental Concepts 79-90 , especiall y 84 . O n lack , se e Lacan , "Th e

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Subject an d th e Other : Alienation, " Four Fundamental Concepts 203-15 . 7. Se e NUP M 1:23 1 fo r th e noteboo k draf t thes e publishe d line s revise . Se e also chapter 3 , note 19 , above. 8. O n thi s poin t se e Anderson , Imperial Self 102-104 ; Edwi n Miller , Walt Whitman's Poetry, 2 0 - 2 3 ; an d Blac k 125-37 . 9. Thi s figure, intensel y charge d fo r Whitman , appear s onl y i n th e 185 6 text ; see V 1:221 . Man y critic s hav e commente d o n th e auto-eroti c base s o f Whitman's art . 10. Edwi n Mille r note s tha t th e poet' s confessio n i n thi s stanz a read s lik e a catalogue of th e seve n deadl y sin s (Walt Whitman's Poetry 206) . 11. Se e 119-2 0 fo r a consideration o f "th e ol d kno t o f contrariety. " 12. Killingswort h (52-53 ) make s a relate d poin t abou t th e 185 6 Leaves of Grass a s a whole , a n observatio n tha t arise s ou t o f hi s discussio n o f thi s passage. 13. O n th e Othe r an d th e cod e se e especiall y Lacan , Ecrits 233 . "Conscience " is to o restrictiv e a nam e fo r th e mechanis m a t wor k here ; se e fo r exampl e Freud's distinctio n o f th e agenc y o f th e super-eg o fro m th e functio n o f conscience, New Introductory Lectures 53 . But Freud' s super-eg o ma y als o be to o circumscribe d a concep t fo r wha t i s figured i n thes e lines , thoug h Whitman's fantas y o f vulnerabilit y t o apprehensio n ha s affinitie s wit h Freud' s description o f tha t agency' s function . Whil e Lacan' s Othe r ha s something i n common wit h Freud' s super-ego , it s etiolog y i s differen t an d it s purvie w i s larger; this aggrandizement migh t b e regarded a s the complement o f Lacan' s suspicion o f eg o psychology . Se e fo r exampl e Lacan' s "correction " o f stan dard translation s o f Freud' s classi c formulatio n o f th e tas k o f th e ego , ("Where i d was , ther e eg o shal l be " [New Introductory Lectures 71]) : " Ther e wher e i t was ' . . . I woul d lik e i t t o b e understood , 'i t i s m y dut y that I shoul d com e t o being ' " (Ecrits 129) ; se e als o Four Fundamental Concepts 44 . 14. Killingswort h (36-37 ) note s thi s intertwining , thoug h h e doe s no t rea d th e passage a s disturbing . 15. Killingswort h (36 ) make s a similar point . 16. I us e thi s awkwar d neologis m i n th e absenc e o f a suitabl e term : "hetero eroticism" an d "homo-eroticism " bot h restric t th e rang e o f possibl e reference inappropriately . 17. I mea n t o sugges t her e tha t th e questio n o f th e relativ e priorit y o f auto eroticism versu s eroticis m "proper " become s moot , sinc e bot h hav e bee n restructured b y the symbolic function ; neithe r i s any longe r "complete. " Bu t the relate d proble m o f th e orde r o f developmen t o f eg o libid o an d object cathexes i s itsel f on e t o whic h Freu d gav e a serie s o f shiftin g answers . Se e James Strachey' s commentar y i n "Appendi x B : Th e Grea t Reservoi r o f Libido," The Ego and the Id 53-56 . The uncomfortabl e confusio n betwee n auto-eroticis m an d eroticis m "proper" tha t mark s sectio n twenty-eigh t i s eve n mor e pronounce d i n th e

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notebook passag e Whitma n late r revise d fo r "Son g o f Myself" ; se e UP P 2:72.

18. I follow Anderso n here : see Imperial Self 117. 1 also have in mind a passage from Beverl y Dahlen' s pros e poe m A Reading 1-7: "havin g a thought th e same a s havin g a baby , i t come s fro m inside , unreal , th e fountain , that' s what we remember , w e were supposed t o b e golden, each one a savior, tha t would redeem it. no one told us so" (20). 19. Se e Civilization and Its Discontents, especiall y 56-62 . The uncircumscribe d eroticism calle d jouissance woul d hav e n o plac e i n suc h a structure. A s th e Lacanian journa l Scilicit suggests : "Tha t th e Othe r shoul d . . . ac t a s guarantee i s th e foundin g conditio n fo r an y possibilit y o f exchange , an d wha t must b e give n u p t o thi s i s th e jouissance o f th e subject . Th e castratio n complex thu s designate s th e passin g o f jouissance int o th e functio n o f a value, an d it s profoun d adulteratio n i n tha t process " (Lacan , Feminine Sexuality 120) . 20. "Eroticism, " Georges Bataill e suggests , "alway s entail s a breaking dow n o f the establishe d patterns... . o f th e regulate d socia l orde r basi c t o ou r dis continuous mod e o f existenc e a s separate individuals " (quote d i n Bernstei n 53; the ellipses are Bernstein's). 21. I hav e Kristeva' s usag e i n min d here : th e abjec t i s wha t threaten s th e boundary between the symbolic universe of "clea n and proper" subjects and objects and all that must remain outside it for it to remain itself; see Powers of Horror 1-18 . 22. Amon g recen t critics, Larson (59-72 ) an d Killingsworth (15-27 ) eac h offe r extended account s o f th e poe m tha t sometime s intersec t wit h th e readin g I offer, thoug h proceedin g fro m differen t vantages . Se e als o Richar d Chas e 54-5723. O n this point see Aspiz 172-73 . 24. O n this point see Larson 60-62 . 25. I a m indebte d her e t o th e accoun t o f fantas y offere d b y Laplanch e an d Pontalis: see "Fantasy and the Origins of Sexuality. " 26. Se e Larson 65 . 27. Se e Killingsworth 1 8 for a discussion o f som e related ambiguities at work in the phrase "signify me. " 28. Larso n (63 ) make s a similar point about this line. 29. Thes e line s ar e no t presen t i n CRE ; the y disappeare d fro m th e poe m i n i 8 8 i . S e e V 1:116 . 30. O n th e politica l aspect s o f thi s passage , whic h ar e emphasize d mor e force fully i n a n earlie r noteboo k version , se e Erkkila , Whitman 122-24 . M y analysis her e i s als o indebte d t o Larso n (67-68 ) an d Killingswort h ( 2 3 34); see also Marki 238-39 . Edwi n Miller (Walt Whitman's Poetry 81-82 ) stresses the Oedipal resonanc e of th e passage, which Erkkil a also mentions. 31. Fo r Whitman a s fo r th e contemporar y medica l an d eugenicis t discourse s Aspiz summarize s (183-209) , i t i s primaril y careles s o r pervers e socia l

The Embodied Voic e 15 7 practices tha t degrad e th e body ; i n "Faces, " contiguit y clearl y associate s both th e nee d fo r sign s an d th e body' s statu s a s a sig n itsel f wit h socia l oppression an d the deformation o f th e body i t causes. 32. Anderso n astutel y suggest s thi s figure' s exemplar y position : "On e ca n b e out o f one' s 'place ' i n one' s ow n body , jus t a s on e ma y hav e a 'castrate d face,' an epithet I take fro m th e poem 'Faces. ' The way i n which you , so t o speak, occupy your body, i s involved" (Imperial Self 142). There ar e o f cours e mor e sanguin e portrait s o f America n citizen s sprin kled throughou t Whitman' s work . M y poin t i s tha t th e visio n o f th e bod y they partiall y sugges t i s fulfille d b y th e poet' s ow n magica l presence ; thi s figure, I shall b e arguin g below , offer s u s a n imag e o f a body exemp t fro m symbolic shaping; its difference fro m the degraded bodies on which "Faces" focuses, lik e the differenc e betwee n goo d an d bad bodie s throughou t Whit man's work , i s thu s no t merel y contingent . "Castration " i s a crucia l trop e for this structural cleavage . 33. Freu d summarizes this constitutive functio n o f castratio n in "The Passing of the Oedipus-Complex" (Collected Papers 2:269-76) . 34. O n Oedipu s a s th e remnan t withi n Wester n bourgeoi s societ y o f mor e complex kinshi p system s tha t articulat e cultur e an d inscrib e th e sel f withi n it, see Lacan, Ecrits 66—68 and 142 . 35. I mea n t o suggest , o f course , no t tha t Whitma n an d Laca n ar e someho w equivalent, bu t tha t Whitma n i s th e scandalize d criti c o f a structur e ver y like the one Lacan explicates. 36. O n the relation between performative utteranc e and the denial of castration , see Durand, "Th e Anxiety of Performance " 173-74 . 37. O n th e prevalenc e o f fantasie s o f castratio n tha t characteristicall y remai n unconscious se e Freud , Analysis of a Phobia in a Five-Year-Old Boy, Collected Papers 3:i52n2 . Se e als o Laplanch e an d Pontalis , Language of Psycho-analysis 58—61 . 38. I cite th e 187 1 tex t here . Unti l 1871 , the secon d o f thes e line s declare d les s dramatically, "giv e ou t o f myself. " Thi s i s on e o f a smal l numbe r o f in stances i n whic h Whitman , afte r i860 , mad e mino r revision s i n earlie r poems tha t brin g ou t mor e sharpl y feature s o f th e poet' s presenc e crucia l to th e worl d o f th e firs t thre e editions , feature s wit h whic h Whitma n was n o longe r concerne d i n th e ne w poem s h e wa s writing . H e ma y hav e been motivate d b y a sens e o f wha t th e poem , a s written , alread y implied. 39. I take u p th e scandalou s aspec t o f Whitman' s performative s i n chapte r 6 , below. 40. O n th e idea l rathe r tha n materia l statu s o f tha t whic h ca n b e repeate d an d recognized a s th e same , se e Saussure' s discussio n o f phoni c identity , 1 0 7 110. Derrid a insist s repeatedl y o n th e circula r relatio n I adumbrat e her e between languag e an d iterability : hi s critique s o f language-origin s theorie s often tur n o n jus t thi s problematic . Se e especially "Th e Linguisti c Circl e o f

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Geneva," Margins of Philosophy 137-53 , an d th e readin g o f Rousseau , Grammatology 95-316 . 41. I tak e u p Derrida' s analysi s o f th e relatio n betwee n nam e an d essence , and it s pertinenc e t o Whitman' s languag e theory , i n chapte r 5 , below. 42. Ong' s wor k o n voic e an d writin g ca n functio n a s a usefu l explicatio n o f Whitman's visio n o f voic e an d presence , sinc e On g share s an d make s ex plicit several o f th e assumptions als o at work i n Leaves of Grass. I n additio n to Interfaces of the Word se e also Presence of the Wordy especially 111-75 , and Rhetoric, Romance, and Technology. 43. A s Derrida' s studie s o f Artaud , amon g othe r writings , suggest , fantasie s centering o n voic e ar e no t confined , i n hi s view, to philosophy , bu t pervad e Western image s o f th e body . Se e "L a parol e soufflee, " Writing and Difference 169-95 , a n d "Th e Theatr e o f Cruelt y an d th e Closur e o f Representa tion," Writing and Difference 232-50 . Derrida' s wor k shoul d als o make u s suspicious o f th e impuls e t o se e logocentrism a s a Western diseas e t o whic h non-Western people s ar e supposedl y immune . I hav e i n min d especiall y Derrida's critique , i n hi s readin g o f Levi-Strauss , o f th e anthropologist' s compensatory fantasie s concernin g th e racia l other ; Derrid a describe s thes e as a n occupationa l hazar d endemi c t o anthropolog y (se e Grammatology 101-40). Whil e fo r Levi-Strauss , a s Derrid a notes , i t i s the fal l int o writin g of whic h th e non-Europea n Nambikwar a ar e supposedl y innocent , fo r con temporary academic s reare d o n post-structuralis m th e characteristi c temp tation i s instead t o exemp t non-Wester n people s fro m th e very logocentris m which effort s t o exil e writin g hav e helpe d preserve ; Cultura l Studie s some times display s thi s post-Derridia n versio n o f th e impuls e t o romanticiz e th e cultural o r racia l other . Th e reifyin g o f linguisti c powers , an d o f th e sens e of self-presenc e voic e suggests , ma y b e temptation s t o whic h al l speakin g beings ar e vulnerable . 44. I n Grammatology, amon g othe r places , Derrida offer s a critique o f th e wa y this dichotom y ha s bee n mobilized ; se e especially 12-13 . 45. Derrida' s analyse s o f th e problematic o f th e bod y i n the work o f Artau d ar e pertinent here ; see note 43 , above. 46. Harol d Aspi z (67-68 ) show s tha t on e basi s fo r thi s notio n o f a "transpar ent" bod y i s th e anatom y chart , a sourc e o f inspiratio n fo r th e layin g bar e of bod y part s that occur s in the long catalogue which i n 185 6 an d thereafte r concludes th e tex t o f " I Sin g th e Bod y Electric, " th e poe m Whitma n i s evidently ponderin g here . Bu t transparenc y nearl y alway s ha s visionar y implications i n Whitman' s work , a s th e publishe d litan y i n whic h thi s notebook fragmen t apparentl y issue s bears out ; th e poem offer s a transfigu ration rathe r tha n a mere redaction o f anatomica l material : " O I think thes e are no t th e part s an d poem s o f th e bod y only , bu t o f th e soul , / O I thin k these ar e th e soul! " (185 6 179) . In i86 0 an d thereafter , thi s ac t o f transfig uration i s brough t ou t mor e strongly , b y mean s o f performativ e utterance :

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"O I say now thes e are not the parts and poems of th e body only , but of th e Soul, / O I say these are the Soul!" (i860 302) . See V 1:132 . 47. I develop this point more fully i n chapter 5 , below. 48. Se e for example Edwin Miller, Walt Whitman's Poetry 206 . 49. I here follo w Anderson' s suggestio n tha t Whitman i s intent on rejectin g the sense o f th e sel f a s founde d upo n " a fatall y dialecti c base " ("Whitman' s New Man " 19). 50. Thi s peculiar fragmen t i s immediatel y precede d i n Whitman's noteboo k b y some pronouncement s abou t individua l freedo m a s th e basi s o f America n society. Suc h a juxtaposition suggest s somethin g o f th e comple x intertwin ing o f ideologica l an d fantasmati c mode s i n Whitman' s work ; politica l material sometime s open s ou t int o th e sor t o f extravagan t speculatio n thi s quotation exemplifies , an d sometime s serve s a s a cove r fo r it . Whil e thi s intertwining doe s no t beli e Whitman's intens e politica l commitment s o r the political preoccupation s an d implication s o f Leaves of Grass, i t ma y wel l color our reception of particular, ostensibly political pronouncements. I take up these issues in chapters 6—8 , below. 51. Fo r a discussio n o f fantasie s o f privac y i n th e wor k o f Joh n Ashber y tha t intertwines with my argument here, see my "Private Language: Ashbery an d Wittgenstein." 52. Thi s passag e goe s o n t o not e a corollar y I tak e u p i n chapte r 5 , below : "That experienc e live s an d proclaim s itsel f a s the exclusio n o f writing , tha t is t o sa y o f th e invokin g o f a n 'exterior, ' 'sensible, ' 'spatial ' signifie r inter rupting self-presence" (Grammatology 98) . 53. Kristev a thu s argue s fo r th e pertinenc e o f infantil e linguistic organization s to the study of adul t speech; see Desire in Language 278 . 54. Thoug h th e "friendl y an d flowing savage " o f "Son g o f Myself " i s a n attempt to make just such a connection; see 149 . 55. Edwi n Mille r an d Stephe n Blac k bot h stres s th e regressiv e aspect s o f Whit man's work . Bu t I am particularl y indebte d t o Quenti n Anderso n here , a s well a s to Dorothy Gregory ; see chapter 1 , note 8 , above. 56. Se e fo r exampl e Emerson' s remark s o n th e chil d an d o n "aboriginal" ma n in "Self-Reliance" 2:2 9 an d 48-49 . 57. Kristev a explicitl y situate s he r notion s o f th e cbora an d th e semioti c i n relation t o Freud' s primar y processes ; se e Revolution in Poetic Language 25. O n primary an d secondary processe s se e Freud, "Formulations Regard ing th e Tw o Principle s i n Menta l Functioning, " Collected Papers 4 13-21.

58. Matthiessen' s remark s on Whitman's verbal textures are always astute, as is his sense o f th e relation o f verba l an d muscula r rhyth m i n Leaves of Grass; see especially 517-3 6 an d 564-77 . $9. Zwei g (253 ) note s the eroticizing of voice in the passage. 60. "Signifiance " i s Kristeva' s coinage . I n hi s introductio n t o Revolution in Poetic Language, Leo n S. Roudiez explains: "wha t we cal l signifiance, then,

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is precisely thi s unlimited an d unbounded generating process, this unceasin g operation o f th e drives toward, in, and through language" (17). 61. Se e Saussur e 111-13 ; thi s sens e o f th e constitutiv e rol e o f symboli c lan guage pervades Kristeva's account . 62. "Thi s instinctua l driv e wil l late r b e replaced , du e t o repression , b y the sig n representing (erasing ) i t within th e communicativ e system " (Desire in Language 217) . Th e Kristev a essa y I draw o n here , "Giotto' s Joy " (Desire in Language 210-36) , employ s th e Freudia n classificatio n o f "word-presenta tions" an d "thing-presentations " rathe r tha n Saussure' s signifier/signifie d antinomy; th e slippag e betwee n thes e terminologie s i s no t crucia l here . Se e Freud, "The Unconscious," Collected Papers 4:98-136 , especiall y 127-36 . 63. O n th e Lacania n mirro r stag e a s a preliminar y versio n o f an d necessar y precondition fo r suc h symboli c an d syntacti c stabilization , se e Kristeva , Revolution in Poetic Language 46-47 . 64. Se e Lacan's discussions of "point s de capiton," including Ecrits 303 . 65. I f th e bod y par t whos e expropriatio n come s t o figure thi s lac k i s genital , that i s due , accordin g t o Lacan , t o th e homolog y o f signifyin g an d sexua l structures; i t i s o n th e basi s o f sexua l difference , a s element s i n kinshi p systems, tha t cultur e appropriate s an d count s wit h us : "th e genita l driv e i s subjected t o th e circulatio n o f th e Oedipu s complex , t o th e elementary an d other structures of kinship " (Lacan, Four Fundamental Concepts 189) . 66. I n Revolution in Poetic Language, a n English translatio n o f Kristeva' s doc toral thesis , Kristev a devote s sustaine d attentio n t o th e wor k o f Mallarm e and Lautreamont . 6y. Th e foregoin g applie s t o catalogue s tha t en d wit h a mai n clause . Man y o f Whitman's litanie s instea d begi n wit h th e mai n clause , subsequentl y spin ning out a series of grammaticall y paralle l phrases ; these phrases also effec tively transmut e th e symbolic closure they ostensibly obey . Fo r an extende d discussion of suc h a catalogue, see chapter 2 , above. 68. Thi s organizatio n thu s conflate s no t onl y th e signifier/signifie d o r sound image/intentional-object pair , but also intentional objec t and physical thing . On th e crucial rol e of thi s last antinomy i n symbolic language, se e Saussure 65-66 an d 114-22 , an d Lacan, Ecrits 149-52 . 69. Se e Lacan's classic formulation concernin g need , demand, an d desire, Feminine Sexuality 80-81 . 70. Accordin g t o Abraha m an d Torok , th e archai c fantas y o f incorporatio n i s revived by catastrophic, psychicall y unacceptabl e event s that make introjection unbearable ; incorporatio n thu s involve s a rejection o r "encrypting " of aspects of ou r relations to others and our shared world. See "Introjection — Incorporation" 4—5. 71. Quenti n Anderso n stresse s th e importanc e o f incorporativ e fantasie s i n Whitman's poetry: "incorporation an d even engorgement qualified the body which wa s th e poet' s scene " (Imperial Self 104) . Se e als o Edwi n Miller : "Though rarel y observed , th e regressiv e natur e o f Whitman' s imager y i s

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clear. Hi s protagonist s ar e ingestin g experience— 'absorbing* i s on e o f hi s favorite words—in a manner suggestive of th e child at the mother's breast " (Walt Whitman's Poetry 62) . See also Black's brief but suggestive comment s on "magi c words," 72.-73 an d 166 . 72. Se e Freud, Totem and Taboo 75-99 , an d "The Uncanny," Collected Papers 4:393-94. 73. Fo r a n extende d discussio n o f Whitman' s poetr y i n relatio n t o shamanis m see Hutchinson, especially xi-xxviii an d 26-57 . 74. Se e Sedgwic k 20 5 fo r a discussio n o f th e phallic attribute s o f th e poet' s body. j$. I quote th e CR E text here ; until 1871 , "air " rather than "space " conclude s the line. 76. Matthiesse n credit s this last observation t o Jean Catel. 77. Larson' s readin g o f this passag e (93-98 ) i s congruen t i n severa l respect s with th e on e I offe r here . Fo r a differen t vie w o f th e passage , whic h i s nonetheless compatibl e wit h th e trajector y o f m y argument , se e Durand , "The Anxiety of Performance " 168 . 78. I quote fro m th e 186 7 rathe r tha n th e i86 0 version , fro m whic h th e con cluding "solel y t o you " i s absent . Thi s fina l apostroph e activate s th e pres ence th e line asserts ; it does s o b y implicitl y appealin g to voice an d addres s as evidenc e o f presence . Th e ver y final line s o f th e poe m conclud e Whit man's boo k o n a simila r note , thoug h th e relatio n declare d ther e betwee n presence an d deat h i s a troublin g on e ( I tak e i t u p i n chapte r 6 , below) : "Remember m y words—I lov e you—I depar t from materials , /1 a m as one disembodied, triumphant , dead " (i860 456) .

5. Writing and Representation He complete s n o poems , apar t an d separat e fro m himself... . Hi s line s ar e pulsations , thrills, wave s o f force , indefinit e dynamics , formless , constantl y emanatin g fro m th e livin g centre, an d the y carr y th e qualit y o f th e author' s persona l presenc e wit h the m i n a wa y that i s unprecedente d i n literature . —Burroughs, "Th e Fligh t o f th e Eagle " 2 3 5-361 After al l there' s somethin g bette r tha n t o write : that' s no t t o write : writin g i s a disease. —Whitman, quote d i n WWC 3:35 8

Camden 1. O n e o f th e man y ironie s recorde d b y H o r a c e Traubel , mostl y uncon sciously, i n hi s m a m m o t h recor d o f W h i t m a n ' s las t year s i n Camde n i s the visio n i t proffer s u s o f th e poe t o f th e voic e awas h i n th e exoti c se a of hi s o w n archives . Justi n Kapla n masterfull y render s th e weir d land scape ove r whic h W h i t m a n hovered : From boxe s an d bundle s i n th e storeroom , fro m th e bi g iron-bande d double hasped trun k tha t ha d bee n wit h hi m i n Washingto n an d no w stoo d agains t th e bedroom wall , h e release d drift s an d billow s o f paper . H e ha d kep t ever y imaginable variet y o f writte n an d printe d matter : manuscripts , ol d letterhead s and billhead s thriftil y save d an d writte n over , fade d scrap s o f writin g pape r an d even wallpape r pinned , pasted , o r tie d togethe r i n ragge d bundle s tha t ha d a before-the-flood look , notebook s an d diaries , man y o f the m homemade , scrap books, letter s receive d an d draft s o f letter s sent , printer' s proof s an d samples , photographs, memoranda , circulars , receipt s an d account s rendered , officia l documents, clipping s fro m magazine s an d newspapers . With a n occasiona l sho e or wa d o f stamp s o r stic k o f kindlin g mixe d i n haphazardly , thi s tid e churned i n a widening semicircl e i n fron t o f Whitman' s chair , seepe d int o th e corners of th e room an d unde r th e furnitur e an d wa s tracke d ou t int o th e hallway . Year afte r year , Whitman stirre d his archive with th e crook o f his cane. Relics of personal histor y floate d t o th e surface. (16 ) Despite th e h a p h a z a r d attitud e suc h clutte r seem s t o imply , W h i t m a n took a n intensel y proprietar y interes t i n thi s bizarr e hea p o f memora 162

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bilia. Hi s growin g intimac y wit h Traube l wa s indee d expresse d largel y through hi s increasing willingness t o confid e t o his would-be Boswel l th e task o f curatin g th e document s throug h whic h h e rummaged , man y o f which bor e directl y o n th e poet' s ow n life . A s year s passed , Whitma n gradually worrie d int o shap e th e self-portrai t h e charge d Traube l wit h preserving, exercisin g th e same sor t o f car e which, fo r al l thei r loosenes s and informality , h e lavishe d o n hi s poem s a s Leaves of Grass labore d toward it s authorize d "deathbed " version . A s Kapla n notes , th e lif e t o be offere d fo r posterity' s inspectio n wa s continuall y re-trace d an d ad justed: Sometimes Whitma n wa s hardl y consciou s o f reshapin g hi s pas t t o mak e i t conform t o th e ample , seren e an d masterfu l identit y h e achieve d lon g after . Sometimes he reshaped his past deliberately, just as he reshaped Leaves of Grass over th e cours e o f nin e edition s i n orde r t o giv e his life a s well a s his work a different emphasis . Eve r sinc e hi s strok e h e ha d bee n editin g hi s archives . . . . Some manuscripts h e carefully altered , destroyin g singl e pages, effacing o r disguising identifications, transposing genders, changing "him" to "her" or a man's initials to a number code. By the time he died scarcely a period in his life had not been "revised " i n on e way o r another . Som e periods ha d practicall y cease d t o exist so far as intimate documentation was concerned. (19) More wa s involve d i n suc h reconstruction s tha n a cautiou s concer n for leavin g a n uncompromisin g recor d o f one' s doing s behin d one . A s Quentin Anderso n ha s compellingl y argued , Whitma n wa s stil l a t wor k inventing "th e Person"—tha t idea l bein g give n birt h i n th e poems , mimed awkwardl y i n th e actua l life , bu t approximate d mor e closely , i t was t o b e hoped , i n th e hagiograph y throug h whic h tha t lif e woul d b e remembered ("Whitman' s Ne w Man " 49). 2 Whitma n ha d mad e th e creation o f suc h a Person th e principal ai m o f hi s poetry : to express by sharp-cut self assertion, One's-Self &C also, or may be still more, to map out, to throw togethe r fo r America n use , a gigantic embryo or skeleton of Personality, fit for the West, for native models [....] (COR R i:z4j) 3 A noteboo k entr y I quote d i n chapte r 4 suggest s th e remarkabl e aspec t this Person produce d b y a poem migh t attain : A poem i n which is minutely described th e whole particulars and ensemble of a first-rate healthy Human Body—it looke d into and through, as if it were transparent and of pure glass—and now reported in a poem—(NUPM 1:304) The devote d admirer s wh o gathere d aroun d th e poe t i n Camde n sometimes claime d t o discove r thi s numinou s qualit y i n Whitman's ow n

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person. Thei r testimonial s ar e perhap s mor e a tribut e t o th e poetry' s power tha n a reflectio n o f th e actua l physica l attribute s o f th e autho r o f Leaves of Grass, Whitman' s frien d John Burroughs , for example , inflect s what purport s t o b e physica l descriptio n wit h a rang e o f association s clearly provoked b y an encounte r wit h th e poetry : Then there was a look about him hard t o describe, and which I have seen in no other face,— a gray , brooding, elemental look , like the granite rock, somethin g primitive an d Adami c tha t migh t hav e belonge d t o th e firs t man ; o r wa s i t a suggestion of the gray, eternal sea that he so loved, near which he was born, and that had surely set its seal upon him? (Whitman: A Study 6z) 4 We nee d no t b e inordinatel y suspiciou s t o fin d thi s har d t o credi t a s a description o f th e man Burrough s visited in Camden. Burroughs' portrai t here, o f Whitma n a s a kin d o f primitive , cosmi c force , recall s th e omni potent presenc e o n who m th e poems center , "th e sourc e fro m whic h th e power an d actio n emanate " (Burroughs , "Th e Fligh t of th e Eagle" 2 3 7 5 3 8). The eve n mor e exorbitan t rhetori c o f Whitman' s frien d an d apologis t William O'Conno r thu s turn s ou t t o b e eve n mor e apt . Writin g t o Burroughs i n 1866 , O'Conno r opined : "An d you r though t i s als o min e —he i s an incarnation" (quote d i n Barrus 3 5 )/ Bizarr e as the descriptio n of a n actua l person , thi s make s mor e sens e a s a misplace d bu t incisiv e characterization o f th e poet-her o o f Leaves of Grass: generate d b y per formative utterance , this figure seem s to b e the livin g embodiment o f th e word. 7 This magica l presence , w e hav e seen , supposedl y overflow s th e boundaries o f th e work tha t produce s him . The Camde n inne r circl e was thus b y n o mean s alon e i n positin g th e existenc e o f a n actua l perso n who woul d correspon d t o th e figure evoke d b y th e poems . A s Kapla n relates, Whitma n receive d countles s letter s fro m me n an d wome n wh o extrapolated wildl y fro m thei r imaginativ e encounter s wit h th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass: In i86 0 a tota l stranger , Susa n Garne t Smit h o f Hartford , informe d hi m tha t after reading Leaves of Grass she felt "a mysterious delicious thrill!" and decided it was her destiny to bear him "a noble beautiful perfec t manchild. " My wom b i s clea n an d pure . I t i s read y fo r th y child , m y love . Angel s guard th e vestibul e unti l tho u comes t t o deposi t ou r an d th e world' s precious treasure... . Our boy, my love! Do you not already love him? He must be begotten on a mountain top, in the open air.

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He wrote " ? insan e asylum " on th e envelope of he r letter, bu t admitte d tha t if Susan was "insane" so were "Song of Myself" and "Children o f Adam." Like a number o f othe r women (an d men ) who responde d t o his poems and ha d thei r lives change d a s a result , sh e wa s i n par t th e victi m o f a n innocen t litera l understanding. (329)® It was a literalism th e poems ha d bee n designe d t o elicit . No les s sophisticated a reade r tha n th e Englis h woma n o f letter s Ann e Gilchrist , wh o in 187 0 publishe d a n importan t an d astut e revie w o f Whitman' s wor k praising it s depictio n o f femal e sexuality , apparentl y als o responde d t o Whitman's poetry , fro m th e first, i n somethin g lik e th e extravagan t terms sh e late r employe d t o characteriz e it s effect : Whitman' s poems , she wrote , wer e "hi s actua l presence, " provokin g "eac h reade r t o fee l that h e himsel f o r hersel f ha s a n actua l relationshi p t o him " (quote d i n Kaplan 333) . This was n o mer e figure o f speech : i n 187 6 sh e had se t ou t for America , inten t o n marryin g a ma n sh e ha d neve r met. 9 Whateve r their degre e o f literar y sophisticatio n an d whateve r th e exten t o f thei r personal acquaintanc e wit h th e poet , al l thes e devotee s see m t o hav e taken thei r cu e fro m th e poetry' s centra l assertion , identifyin g Whitma n himself wit h th e living presence Leaves of Grass claim s to produce . While reader s o f Leaves of Grass thu s extrapolate d fro m th e poem s and ofte n mad e claim s o n th e actua l ma n tha t woul d hav e bee n awk ward t o honor , Whitma n busie d himsel f i n Camde n wit h th e obvers e task o f funnelin g himsel f bac k int o th e world o f th e poetry . H e seem s t o have bee n nonplusse d a s ofte n a s please d b y th e avi d uptak e th e poem s generated, nervousl y dodgin g suc h especiall y intrepi d literalist s a s Gilchris t while tinkerin g wit h th e shap e o f th e idea l figure t o who m hi s reader s had responded. 10 Suc h reticenc e ma y hav e resulte d i n par t fro m th e poet's increasin g age . I t seem s als o t o hav e bee n a functio n o f th e vicissitudes o f Whitman' s privat e life : rathe r tha n tryin g t o pla y th e person th e poem s conjur e up , o n th e whol e Whitma n settle d i n his Camde n year s fo r baskin g indirectl y i n th e admiratio n an d amorou s fervor thi s figure provoked , whil e strugglin g i n privat e wit h th e les s apocalyptic bu t stil l turbulen t eroti c ambition s tha t occupie d hi m per sonally. Meanwhil e h e retrace d th e outline s o f th e personag e a s who m he woul d b e remembered , a somewha t toned-down , increasingl y desex ualized avata r o f th e poet-her o o f Leaves of Grass. Surrounde d b y acolytes a s he hovered ove r his archive, Whitman existe d simultaneousl y as an image-takin g shap e i n a n authorize d tex t laboriousl y gleane d fro m

166 Writin g an d Representatio n mountains o f heterogeneou s documents. 11 Th e garrulou s bu t cage y ol d man wh o emerge s i n th e cours e o f Traubel' s stud y wa s conjurin g u p i n front o f thei r nose s the figure by which thos e who gathere d abou t hi m i n Camden ofte n see m mesmerized ; th e poe t o f presenc e wa s dissolvin g himself int o hi s own idealize d representation. 12 This testamentar y gestur e migh t initiall y see m peculia r t o Whitman' s last years i n Camden. 13 Bu t some o f th e poet' s remark s t o Traubel le t u s see it as part o f a more general econom y Whitma n himsel f seem s to hav e regarded a s centra l t o hi s make-up . These comment s si t strangel y besid e the mos t dramati c pronouncement s o f Leaves of Grass. " I an d min e d o not convinc e b y arguments , similes , rhymes, " Whitma n ha d declare d there t o hi s audience ; "W e convinc e b y ou r presence " ("Son g o f th e Open Road, " 185 6 233) . Ye t a s w e hav e seen , th e ma n wh o onc e described himsel f a s "furtive lik e a n ol d hen " (Carpente r 43 ) als o im plied a fa r fro m direc t relatio n betwee n thi s presenc e an d th e perso n with who m i t might b e supposed t o b e simpl y identical : "M y body ? Ye s —it ha d t o b e given—i t ha d t o b e sacrifice d [ . . . ] " (WW C 3:582) . " I consider i t a Whitman trait, " the poet o f presence also remarked unnerv ingly t o Traubel , "th e abilit y t o tid e over , t o la y bac k o n reserves , t o wait, t o tak e time" (WW C 4:331) . 2. Th e secre t Whitma n thu s hinte d a t t o Traube l turn s ou t t o b e th e secret of writing ; i n Whitman's imaginatio n th e economy betwee n livin g presence an d representatio n aroun d whic h thes e las t remark s circle , a n operation characterize d b y substitutio n an d delay , i s persistently associ ated wit h th e functionin g o f texts . In hi s Camde n year s Whitma n wa s still sufficientl y draw n t o th e centra l clai m o f hi s earl y editions—tha t the poem s generat e a literal , livin g presence—bot h t o wis h sometime s that thi s suspect mode had playe d n o role in his life's wor k an d t o down play it s actua l contribution . Hi s intermitten t complaint s abou t writin g indeed concea l a s muc h a s the y divulg e abou t it s functio n i n Leaves of Grass: expressin g generalize d anxiet y abou t thi s mode while skirting th e issue of ho w i t migh t hav e facilitate d th e poet' s manifestation , Whitma n alternately grouse d t o Traube l abou t th e suppose d impotenc e o f texts — complaining abou t th e disadvantage s o f havin g decide d t o writ e a boo k rather tha n lectur e t o peopl e directly—an d raile d agains t th e illicit , seductive power s writin g an d th e mer e representation s i t disseminate s manage t o wield .

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Sitting i n Whitman' s Camde n hous e ami d th e clutte r Kapla n de scribes, whic h a t th e poet' s behes t h e devote d year s t o sortin g an d preserving, Traube l migh t b e imagine d t o hav e foun d suc h remark s perplexing; the y sugges t somethin g o f th e haunte d qualit y o f th e Cam den project , a t th e cente r o f whic h th e poe t o f voic e an d presenc e excoriated writin g an d representatio n whil e sitting perched ove r a mam moth editoria l enterprise . With Walt Whitman in Camden, though , betrays n o trac e o f suc h perplexity . Par t o f th e strangenes s o f th e Cam den transaction s derive s fro m th e wa y member s o f Whitman' s inne r circle see m t o hav e bee n abl e t o slid e dreamil y betwee n th e differen t roles the y wer e calle d upo n t o play . Th e earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass ha d bee n solitar y productions ; admitte d no w t o Whitman's work shop, Traube l an d hi s friend s wer e bot h assistant s an d audience , bot h producers an d consumer s o f th e myt h o f th e poet' s presence . Traubel , especially, seem s t o hav e bee n sufficientl y mesmerize d b y th e figure h e helped re-touc h t o hav e remaine d blithel y unawar e o f ho w tha t being' s creator, wh o labore d a t hi s side , employe d mean s tha t ough t t o hav e vitiated thei r ends . The issue of writin g is the crucial cas e in point. Whil e Whitman an d Traube l dirtie d thei r hand s wit h i t i n Camden , th e poet hero o f Leaves of Grass o n whom thei r idea l person wa s based remaine d wholly innocent o f such compromising involvements. 14 That a t least wa s the stor y th e poetr y told , an d Traube l woul d hardl y hav e bee n th e first reader o f Leaves of Grass t o b e transfixe d b y it . I n suc h poem s a s "Crossing Brookly n Ferry, " th e uncomfortabl e Camde n economy , i n which writin g i s bot h overtl y employe d an d energeticall y excoriated , i s replaced b y outrageous, insouciant denial : We understand, then, do we not? What I promised without mentioning it, have you not accepted? What th e study coul d no t teach—what th e preaching could no t accomplis h is accomplished, is it not? What th e pus h o f readin g coul d no t star t i s starte d b y m e personally , i s it not? (185 6 219 )

The uncann y figure wh o emerge s i n Leaves of Grass create s himsel f precisely b y virtu e o f thi s disclaimer . Wha t woul d otherwis e b e a n ordinary representatio n thereb y become s instea d a magica l presence . What woul d otherwis e b e a n economy , i n whic h th e autho r substitute s an idealize d imag e o f himsel f fo r hi s actua l person , become s instea d a n act o f sublim e self-manifestation : th e figure wh o ca n presen t himsel f

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where other s ca n merel y represen t themselve s i s ipso facto th e mythi cal redeeme r o f tim e an d spac e wh o stand s a t th e cente r o f Leaves of Grass. Still railin g t o Traube l agains t writing , bu t b y no w u p t o hi s nec k i n it , the olde r ma n editin g hi s oeuvr e i n Camde n occasionall y relaxe d hi s intransigence. H e eve n le t laps e hi s rigorou s exclusio n o f writin g fro m the centra l transaction s o f Leaves of Grass —as i f t o mak e peac e ther e too, a t last , wit h thi s mod e an d th e attenuation s i t implied , o r a s i f h e felt th e fiction o f th e poet' s presenc e wa s n o longe r wort h th e ris k o f absurdity th e poetry' s disavowal s o f writin g ran . Revisin g hi s poem s again fo r a forthcomin g 188 1 edition , Whitma n delete d th e las t o f th e lines just quote d fro m "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry"; 15 lik e other smal l bu t significant change s h e mad e i n th e poem , thi s excisio n ha s th e effec t o f allowing the figure of th e poet to slip from th e status of magica l presenc e to tha t o f inspirin g representation , a diminutio n no t unlik e th e strategi c retrenchment ove r which Traube l unwittingl y presided . A Livin g an d Full-Bloode d Ma n 1. More ambitiou s an d resolute , th e poe t o f Whitman' s earl y edition s i s correspondingly mor e vulnerabl e t o th e rol e playe d b y writin g i n hi s work. Thi s i s s o despit e th e panach e wit h whic h writin g an d readin g were originall y banishe d fro m suc h poem s a s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry" : everything the poet shoul d b e and al l he should be able to do are haunte d by writing . Th e poet' s ton e indee d finally suggest s thi s vulnerability , which i s registere d i n th e ver y bravad o wit h whic h h e attempt s t o de flect it. The divide d estimat e Whitma n offere d Traube l i n Camden , whic h focuses o n writing' s illici t power s a s wel l a s it s suppose d impotence , suggests tha t wha t Whitma n sometime s think s o f a s th e text' s simpl e inability t o produc e a livin g presenc e i s perhap s th e mos t straightfor ward, bu t ultimatel y no t th e mos t threatenin g proble m wit h Whitman' s de facto dependenc e o n writin g i n Leaves of Grass. Thi s inabilit y i s nonetheless damagin g enoug h t o Whitman' s claim s t o meri t excludin g writing fro m th e imaginative univers e o f th e early editions . The world o f the early Leaves of Grass is shaped b y the poet's magica l advent, whic h abrogate s spac e an d tim e an d subject s th e worl d t o hi s

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extensible identity . An y involvemen t wit h writin g undoe s thes e transfor mations. Th e distinctio n betwee n th e presenc e implie d b y voic e an d th e sort o f ordinar y representatio n produce d b y writing thus matter s i n par t because i t implie s a star k correlativ e contrast : th e contras t betwee n a magical transfiguratio n an d th e lac k o f one. 16 The denials of writing an d reading tha t recu r throughou t Whitman' s earl y edition s ca n b e under stood i n par t a s expression s o f suc h a schemati c opposition . Th e simpl e exteriority o f writing to voice, and o f the representations writin g proffer s to th e presenc e voic e announces , organiz e on e stran d o f Whitman' s remarks abou t writin g an d reading . Whitman thu s dismisse s writin g becaus e i t fail s t o effec t th e sor t o f spatial transformatio n th e presence produced b y voice implies. Rejectin g print a s hi s medium , h e make s i t responsibl e fo r perpetuatin g th e ver y intervals the poet shoul d overcome : This is unfinished busines s with me . .. . how is it with you? I was chilled with the cold types and cylinder and wet paper between us. I pass s o poorly wit h pape r an d type s . . . . I must pas s with th e contact of bodies and souls. ("A Song for Occupations," 185 5 87) 17 Writing als o conspicuousl y fail s t o overcom e th e tempora l separatio n of writer an d reader. 18 Abandonin g th e fiction o f voice that animate s th e poems, on e da y wit h Traubel , Whitma n thu s lamente d hi s decisio n t o write Leaves of Grass rathe r tha n se t up a s an itineran t lecturer , sinc e I needed t o reac h th e people: I could hav e done s o a t once , following ou t thi s method, instea d o f subjectin g mysel f t o th e terribl e delays—th e murderou s delays[....] (WW C 3:467) Assigned atypicall y i n thi s lat e remar k t o hi s poems , suc h disablin g dependence o n writin g ha d bee n rigorousl y exclude d fro m th e imagina tive universe o f Whitman' s earl y editions . Whitman's commen t t o Trau bel indeed stil l displays th e residual effect s o f th e very myth i t appears t o renounce: hi s hyperboli c phrasin g suggest s th e sor t o f epiphan y th e poetry's imag e o f voic e sustains , envisionin g no t th e ordinar y appear ance o f a n ordinar y perso n bu t a n apocalypti c adven t disastrousl y pre vented b y writing . A s th e textur e o f thi s passag e stil l implies , wha t writing threaten s fo r Whitma n i s no t simpl y th e abilit y t o ge t one' s message t o peopl e no w rathe r tha n later , bu t th e eterna l momen t o n which hi s imaginative visio n depends .

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It i s Whitman's imag e o f voice , that is , which suggest s tha t th e poet' s power i s magically self-renewing . An d i t is through breat h an d voic e tha t the poe t ca n apparentl y conve y thi s self-sustainin g forc e t o us ; a n im plicit associatio n wit h voic e govern s nearl y al l Whitman' s claim s con cerning hi s poetry' s redemptiv e effects . A passage i n "Th e Fligh t o f th e Eagle," an essa y o n hi s work Whitma n helpe d John Burrough s compos e for th e latter' s Birds and Poets, thu s appeal s indirectl y t o a n imag e o f voice i n orde r t o mak e credibl e som e surprisin g assertion s concernin g the poetry' s powe r t o contai n an d communicat e persona l energie s tha t have apparentl y becom e perpetual : He complete s n o poems , apar t an d separat e fro m himself . .. . Hi s line s ar e pulsations, thrills, waves of force , indefinite dynamics , formless, constantl y emanating from the living centre, and they carry the quality of the author's personal presence with them in a way that is unprecedented in literature. (235-36 ) This visio n depend s o n detachin g th e poet' s wor d fro m th e iner t tex t in which i t might see m t o b e lodged : Consider, yo u wh o perus e me , whethe r I ma y no t i n unknow n way s b e looking upon you! ("Crossing Brooklyn Ferry," 1856 220) The poet' s presence , evoke d her e b y a n apostroph e whos e implici t dis missal o f th e boo k w e ar e readin g suggest s b y contras t th e proximit y o f a voic e t o whic h w e attend , attain s it s uncann y qualit y throug h jus t thi s rejection o f writing. 19 We ca n thu s repeatedl y fin d Whitma n extricatin g th e preternaturall y active powe r h e associate s wit h voic e fro m th e writin g o f whic h Leaves of Grass i s at leas t apparently composed : the qualitie s whic h characteriz e Leaves of Grass ar e no t th e qualitie s o f a fine book o r poe m o r an y work o f ar t bu t the qualities of a living and full-bloode d man [ . . . . ] Yo u d o no t read , i t i s someon e tha t yo u se e i n actio n [ . . . ] o r racing along and shouting aloud in pure exultation. (CW 9:22) The inerti a Whitma n slough s of f her e i s th e inerti a o f representation . Disengaging himsel f fro m writing , th e poe t become s th e eternall y activ e presence wh o apparentl y dominate s no t onl y Leaves of Grass bu t als o the spac e beyon d it . Voic e transfigure s a worl d fo r whic h th e poem s provide no t a mere image but a magical synecdoche . 2. A s th e intricat e intertwinin g o f assertio n an d disclaime r i n suc h pas sages ough t alread y t o mak e clear , however , th e supposedl y straightfor -

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ward oppositio n betwee n th e boo k an d th e poet' s voic e an d bod y onl y begins t o describ e th e statu s an d functio n o f writin g i n Leaves of Grass; it tells us what Whitma n woul d lik e the relation betwee n writin g and th e poet's presenc e t o be . Th e Camde n transactions , whic h mak e massiv e use o f th e ver y too l Whitma n continue s t o excoriate , sugges t a mor e intimate an d unsettlin g connection . Th e presence produced i n the poem s inherits hi s power s no t quit e b y repudiatin g writin g bu t instea d b y employing surreptitiousl y th e very techne whose role the poet denies : the figure of the poet is a kind o f hallucination produce d b y keeping invisibl e the role writing plays i n its production . This dependenc e o f th e poet' s presenc e o n writing , an d o n th e repre sentation fo r whic h i t stands , i s no t merel y contingent , no t simpl y a n avoidable liabilit y incurre d throug h th e vocationa l acciden t o f havin g chosen t o writ e a book . Wha t Whitma n mean s b y presence i s a functio n of representation : th e poe t become s magical , exceedin g th e capacitie s o f ordinary person s an d definin g wha t presenc e shoul d be , b y enlistin g th e resources o f representation . I suggested i n chapte r 4 som e o f th e crucia l associations writin g an d representatio n posses s fo r Whitman , notin g th e supposed degradation s entanglemen t wit h the m implies . Makin g us e o f these mechanism s t o enabl e hi s advent , th e protagonis t o f Leaves of Grass become s ye t anothe r instanc e o f th e sor t o f symboli c entit y fro m whose coerciv e powe r h e ca n supposedl y fre e us , suffering himsel f fro m the alienatio n h e apparentl y cures . This uncomfortabl e intertwinin g haunt s no t onl y th e poet' s presence , but als o th e notio n o f voic e an d th e visio n o f wor d magi c enliste d t o produce it . If a certain kin d o f language— I hav e been callin g it castrate d —precipitates ou r alienation , th e poet' s uncastrate d wor d supposedl y exempts hi m fro m suc h fading . Ye t thi s uncastrate d languag e ma y tur n out t o b e impossibl e t o isolat e fro m th e falle n word : jus t a s Whitman' s book help s constitut e wha t w e ar e le d t o cal l th e poet' s presence , s o th e castrated languag e associate d wit h writin g surreptitiousl y lend s it s re sources t o th e seemingl y antithetica l speec h fo r whic h tha t presenc e stands a s surety . I t i s i n thi s sens e tha t th e entanglin g o f voic e wit h writing in Leaves of Grass points t o a n impass e that i s more than merel y contingent: th e magi c wor d tha t generate s th e poet' s presenc e achieve s its apparen t transfigurin g powe r b y suppressin g it s dependenc e o n th e very linguisti c mechanism s fro m whos e alienatin g dominanc e th e poe t should liberat e us .

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One crucia l tas k o f Whitman' s foray s int o languag e theor y i s to den y the necessit y o f thi s entanglement , an d thu s t o sustai n th e possibilitie s the poet' s wor d an d presenc e see m t o embody . Lik e hi s poems , Whit man's expositor y remark s o n languag e ar e organize d b y a contras t be tween writin g an d voice : th e apparentl y straightforwar d oppositio n be tween thes e mode s i s enliste d t o hel p kee p hi s othe r crucia l distinction s in place . Whitman' s attempt s t o isolat e a languag e define d b y th e re sources o f voic e ai m t o liberat e a magica l performativ e speec h fro m th e degradation tha t ha s apparentl y befalle n ordinar y language , a languag e supposedly denature d an d emasculate d b y bein g submitte d t o writing ; this extricatio n shoul d serv e i n tur n t o distinguis h th e poet' s redemptiv e presence fro m th e dangerou s representation s b y whic h other , socialize d selves have bee n captivated , an d which , indeed , they have become . Exercising a magica l powe r o f incorporatio n an d positing , thi s unfal len idio m woul d b e a symboli c languag e tha t ha s retaine d th e fantas matic resource s o f th e semioti c chora. Th e sig n an d it s meanin g woul d still b e function s o f th e rhythmic , vocali c feature s wit h whic h th e indi vidual speake r ca n endo w them ; the y woul d stil l b e molde d b y th e kinesthetic matri x o f th e speaker' s body , a matrix tha t i n the moment o f enunciation supposedl y als o replicate s th e organi c structur e o f th e crea ture o r thin g th e wor d names , a structure lurkin g i n th e word itself . Th e word woul d thu s b e doubl y expressive , an d i n th e ac t o f pronouncin g i t subject an d objec t woul d b e effectively fused . The othe r languag e i s instea d indicative : havin g allowe d it s vocal , expressive resource s t o b e enervate d b y writing , i t i s tie d t o neithe r speaker no r object , merel y representin g entitie s t o whic h i t possesse s n o intrinsic connection . Occultin g livin g presence s rathe r tha n revealin g them, thi s indicativ e languag e deliver s u s ove r t o a n alienatin g symboli c space filled with th e autonomou s representation s i t spawns . Yet th e distinction s Whitma n woul d lik e t o sugges t betwee n thes e two language s tur n ou t t o b e difficul t t o maintain . Sometime s hi s con trasts depen d o n characterization s tha t see m improbable . Sometime s a putative oppositio n collapses , a s feature s supposedl y reserve d fo r o r consigned t o one language turn u p rather unmistakabl y withi n th e other . And t o th e exten t tha t thi s effor t t o detac h on e for m o f languag e fro m another seem s unconvincing o r prove s untenable , the very liabilities tha t characterize th e falle n languag e shape d b y writin g als o necessaril y in habit th e supposedl y organic , ora l wor d Whitma n want s t o oppos e t o

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this mode. Evident i n Whitman's languag e theory, this unintended cross ing of categorie s i s reflected i n hi s poem s a s well. It s consequence s fo r a reading o f Leaves of Grass hav e littl e t o d o wit h an y mer e dismissa l of Whitman' s theorie s o r arguments . Hauntin g th e poet' s mos t dra matic performativ e gestures , thi s entanglemen t lead s t o th e sort s o f equivocation tha t mar k th e visionar y bu t extremel y mobil e idio m o f Whitman's poems ; hi s languag e theor y detail s th e crise s tha t motivat e these hesitations , lendin g the m a n urgenc y tha t migh t a t first see m sur prising. Whitman's attemp t t o distinguis h falle n languag e fro m th e poet' s re demptive speec h include s argument s abou t bot h th e appropriat e func tion an d th e prope r natur e o f words . Th e first center s o n a n oppositio n between th e performativ e power s o f languag e an d it s supposedl y de graded us e fo r merel y constativ e o r representationa l purposes . Th e sec ond i s cas t a s a distinctio n betwee n expressiv e an d indicativ e words , between organi c name s wedde d t o th e presence s the y conjur e u p an d arbitrary sign s limite d t o representin g thing s the y d o no t comprehen d and canno t present . Whitma n thu s associate s bot h th e forsakin g o f language's appropriat e tas k an d th e los s o f it s prope r statu s wit h a fal l into representation . H e thereb y make s castrate d languag e par t o f a n embracing cultura l mechanis m tha t entangle s u s i n images an d symboli c artifacts; th e poet's unfalle n utterance , b y contrast , shoul d faste n word s again t o things, restoring to us the organic an d integra l presence s cultur e has sequestere d an d allowin g u s t o resum e thi s prope r statu s ourselves . In hi s languag e theor y Whitma n associate s al l these antinomie s wit h th e crucial oppositio n betwee n voic e and writing ; yet all prove a s difficult t o sustain a s th e supposedl y obviou s contras t betwee n thes e tw o modes . In what follows , I shal l tak e u p i n tur n Whitman' s distinction s betwee n performative an d constativ e utterance , betwee n organi c an d arbitrar y signs, an d betwee n th e poet' s wor d an d presenc e an d th e image s an d artifacts wit h whic h cultur e ensnare s us . W e nee d t o pa y specia l atten tion t o th e wa y th e axia l bu t unstabl e oppositio n betwee n voic e an d writing intertwine s wit h thes e suppose d polarities . A provis o i s i n order . Th e ful l rang e o f Whitman' s remark s o n lan guage i s admittedl y les s cohesiv e tha n th e structur e o f claim s an d en abling distinction s I will adduce . Th e loosenes s o f Whitman' s formula tions ha s severa l causes . Th e note s Traube l assemble d a s An American

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Primer, whic h hav e bee n re-edite d a s the definitive Primer of Words, ar e hardly a finished piec e o f writing ; ye t the y ar e a s clos e a s Whitma n comes t o a manifest o o n languag e conversan t wit h hi s practic e i n th e poems. 20 Th e poem s themselve s discours e o n linguisti c matter s i n th e midst o f othe r concerns ; w e ca n hardl y expec t a perfectl y consisten t terminology t o emerg e fro m suc h glancin g attentions . Leaves of Grass, moreover, regularl y move s betwee n visionar y an d practica l contexts — between wha t Th e Poe t ough t t o b e abl e to d o an d wha t th e actua l poe t does. Thus, fo r example , while writing i s repeatedly sai d t o pla y n o par t in th e crucia l transaction s performe d b y Leaves of Grass, Whitma n als o sometimes casuall y refer s t o hi s poem s a s writing . Th e valu e o f suc h other importan t term s a s "sign " an d "indication " ca n als o wobble , a s Whitman move s betwee n visionar y an d practical , o r technica l an d ca sual, modes . Face d wit h suc h inconsistencies , I have trie d t o mak e prin cipal us e o f thos e work s an d passage s tha t ar e engage d i n relativel y sustained an d inten t examinatio n o f linguisti c issues , thoug h I hav e occasionally give n i n t o th e temptatio n o f marshalin g th e quotabl e stra y assertion.

Performatives an d Constative s i . Despit e th e staggerin g amoun t o f materia l h e generate d ove r th e course of hi s career, Whitman coul d sometime s b e despairing or dismiss ive about language : "suc h emotiona l revolts, " he remarked t o Traubel : against yo u all , against myself : agains t words—Go d dam n them , words: even the word s I mysel f utter : wonderin g i f anythin g wa s eve r don e wort h whil e except in the final silences. (WWC 4:13-14) Yet eve n suc h "fina l silences, " I argue d i n chapte r 4 , ar e i n Leaves of Grass conditione d b y a magica l presenc e dependen t fo r it s redemptiv e attributes o n associatio n wit h languag e an d voice . I f Whitman' s occa sional diatribe s agains t languag e thu s en d u p suggestin g despit e them selves hi s commitmen t t o a worl d shape d b y th e word , suc h sweepin g invectives ar e i n tur n fa r les s commo n tha n i s ofte n supposed : wha t might loo k lik e wholesal e dismissal s o f languag e ar e characteristicall y more limited , discriminatin g attack s o n certai n kind s of linguisti c behav ior; the y hav e th e ai m o f guardin g th e power s o f languag e agains t th e

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etiolations t o whic h th e supposedl y degrade d us e o f word s leave s the m liable. The languag e theor y o f th e 185 6 " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth, " th e Whitman poe m tha t give s most sustaine d attentio n t o linguisti c issues, is admittedly trick y t o gloss. 21 A t on e poin t th e poe m oppose s ordinar y language to "substantia l words" : the substantial words are in the ground and sea, They are in the air—they ar e in you. (1856 322) I shall tak e up this hermetic notion o f substantia l word s furthe r on . Her e I want t o concentrate instea d o n th e poem's lis t of the linguistic activitie s such word s pre-empt . Possesse d o f thes e strang e substantia l words , th e "rolling earth" apparentl y nee d no t bus y itself wit h mos t of the languag e games that occup y ordinar y speakers : The earth does not argue, Is not pathetic, has no arrangements, Does not scream, haste, persuade, threaten, promise, Makes no discriminations [....] (185 6 324) The poe t himsel f i s sufficientl y impresse d b y th e earth' s substantia l words t o wan t t o abando n som e o f hi s ow n linguisti c activity , whic h complements th e languag e behavio r th e rolling earth eschews : I swear I will never henceforth hav e to do with the faith that tells the best! I will have to do with that faith only that leaves the best untold. (1856 331) Such discursive foray s ar e in an y cas e unavailing, the poet no t bein g abl e to "tel l th e best " eve n whe n h e tries . Hi s attempt s t o d o s o resul t i n a n emasculation o f hi s crucial pneumati c powers : When I undertake to tell the best, I find I cannot, My tongue is ineffectual o n its pivots, My breath will not be obedient to its organs, I become a dumb man. (1856 330) These passage s dismis s a goo d dea l o f ordinar y languag e behavior . But it does not necessaril y follo w tha t th e poem reject s th e efficacy o f al l human speech . Poet s o r "sayers " ar e indee d declare d abl e t o emplo y substantial words : The grea t masters , th e sayers , know th e earth' s words , an d us e them mor e than the audible words. (1856 323)

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We wil l se e furthe r o n ho w "sayers " ca n rende r substantia l word s themselves audible , makin g the m availabl e fo r huma n consumption . Even s o modified , however , suc h word s apparentl y canno t b e employe d to "tel l th e best"—a t leas t th e poe t o f " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth " cannot s o emplo y them . Rathe r tha n decidin g tha t Whitman' s poet-her o is not ye t a maste r sayer , w e migh t bette r sugges t tha t "telling " isn' t a n appropriate wa y t o us e th e earth' s words . What " A Son g of th e Rollin g Earth" reject s i s no t language , no t eve n huma n language , bu t certai n kinds o f word s an d certai n linguisti c activitie s wit h whic h Whitma n associates them . Lik e th e poe t wh o canno t "tell, " th e rollin g earth , pas t master o f substantia l words , refuse s t o engag e no t i n languag e bu t i n a number o f languag e games : i n arguing , arranging , screaming , hastening , persuading, threatening , promising , an d discriminating . Betwee n them , poet an d rollin g eart h rejec t wha t J . L . Austi n woul d cal l locution , perlocution, an d th e sor t o f illocutio n whos e forc e i s socia l rathe r tha n magical (fo r Austin , the only kind) . Telling, an d perhap s arranging , ar e instance s o f locution , whic h Aus tin als o call s constativ e utterance : the y offe r report s o r representation s of condition s subsistin g independen t o f th e word s themselve s an d ar e judged accordin g t o th e criteri a o f trut h an d falsity , o f th e representa tion's conformit y o r lac k o f conformit y t o th e stat e i t represents (Austi n 1-3, 94-95) . Arguing , screaming, hastening, an d persuadin g fit Austin' s category o f perlocution—employin g languag e i n orde r t o ge t peopl e t o do somethin g (Austi n 101-2) . Threatening , promising , an d perhap s arranging ar e illocutions , o r wha t Austi n mor e typicall y call s performa tives: the y d o somethin g in sayin g somethin g (Austi n 99-100). 2 2 Ye t like th e mor e obviou s cas e o f performin g a clearl y bounde d ritua l suc h as a marriag e ceremon y o r th e christenin g o f a ship , threatenin g an d promising ar e performative s operativ e onl y withi n th e symboli c spher e of socia l reality . I dul y appris e yo u o f m y intentio n t o d o x upo n you r doing y o r no t doin g z; th e ac t I thereb y perfor m ha s symbolic , some times judicia l standin g rathe r tha n direc t physica l powe r o r magica l force, though bot h it s uptake an d it s perlocutionary sid e effects ma y lea k over int o th e physica l spher e ( I migh t accos t yo u i n carryin g ou t m y threat; yo u migh t hi t m e ove r th e hea d t o preemp t it s uptake) . Al l o f these language game s ar e rejected b y both poe t an d rollin g earth i n favo r of thos e mysteriou s substantia l word s whic h apparentl y ar e employed i n another fashion .

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Before goin g further , w e shoul d recal l ou r distinctio n betwee n th e practical an d visionar y context s o f Leaves of Grass. Ove r th e cours e o f Whitman's book , th e poet engage s i n a n awfu l lo t o f telling , persuading , and promising, throwin g i n some arguing, screaming, and threatenin g a s well. But none o f thes e moments presen t th e poet i n his mythic aspec t o r display hi m exercisin g hi s paradigmati c function : th e poet' s definin g task i s the utterin g o f word s possessin g magica l performativ e force . I t i s in ligh t o f thi s shamanisti c powe r tha t th e merel y symbolic , sociall y efficacious languag e game s dismisse d i n " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth " seem t o b e inadequate o r degrade d use s of words . In Leaves of Grass Whitman' s attack s o n th e constativ e ar e particularl y biting. Give n th e poet' s apparen t powe r t o ac t o n th e worl d directl y b y speaking, languag e tha t limit s itsel f t o a merel y discursiv e o r representa tional function , makin g report s abou t condition s i t ha s no t itsel f cause d and doe s no t change , ha s flagrantl y relinquishe d it s tru e calling . Whit man depict s suc h languag e no t onl y a s powerless bu t als o as disastrousl y self-enclosed: unabl e t o imping e o n th e worl d directly , i t become s circu lar; beginnin g b y referrin g t o a univers e tha t stand s outsid e it s compass , it end s u p referrin g t o itself . Whitman' s jibe s a t suc h supposedl y impo tent an d ultimatel y self-reflexiv e discours e ar e typicall y withering . Earl y in "Son g of Myself " h e dismisses mer e "talkers" : I have heard what the talkers were talking . . .. th e talk of the beginning and the end, But I do not talk of the beginning or the end. (1855 2.6) Like Emerson, Whitma n her e lance s the idea tha t meanin g an d valu e ar e lodged i n th e pas t o r future , o n whic h th e presen t woul d thu s depend . Yet th e compulsio n t o refe r presen t event s t o anothe r time , i n ligh t o f which the y migh t b e interpreted , i s her e tie d t o th e notion , wrong headed fo r Whitman , tha t languag e ca n d o n o mor e tha n offe r reports , generating tru e o r fals e proposition s abou t o r "tal k of" somethin g be yond it s dominion . Speakin g abou t a worl d t o whic h i t merel y refers , such languag e neve r take s hol d o f tha t worl d bu t instea d simpl y exfol iates, endlessl y deferrin g encounte r wit h th e ver y thing s o f whic h i t speaks. Suc h propositiona l languag e thu s entoil s u s i n a labyrinth : " I have heard wha t th e talkers were talking, the talk [ . . . . ] " A s Whitman' s

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disparaging epithe t "talkers " alread y implies , "tal k of" somethin g i s finally jus t talk abou t talk. 23 Whitman typicall y associate s such impotent , self-enclosed discours e wit h texts. Writing , whic h report s spoke n language , indee d come s t o epito mize language whic h itsel f merel y make s reports . Thus i n sectio n tw o o f "Song o f Myself, " immediatel y followin g th e lon g catalogu e i n whic h the poe t assimilate s an d transfigure s al l h e names , Whitma n bot h con trasts suc h visionar y transaction s t o th e degrade d activit y o f ferretin g out represente d conten t fro m poem s an d link s thi s goose-chas e t o writ ing an d reading . Whitma n tease s thos e wh o g o scurryin g afte r "mean ing"—who regar d th e poe m a s a repor t abou t somethin g beyon d th e words themselve s an d th e persona l powe r an d presenc e word s rightl y used ar e able to convey : Have you practiced so long to learn to read? Have you felt so proud to get at the meaning of poems? Stop this day and night with me and you shall possess the origin of all poems. (1855 26 )

Reading send s u s chasing afte r a n absen t speec h ac t it merely represents , just a s constatives offe r u s a truth t o whic h thei r languag e merel y refers . This associatio n pervade s Whitman's work : For it is not for what I have put into it that I have written this book, Nor i s it by reading it you wil l acquire it . ("Whoeve r Yo u Are Holding Me Now in Hand," i86 0 346) 24 There is something that comes home to one now and perpetually, It i s no t wha t i s printed o r preache d o r discusse d . . . . i t elude s discussio n and print, It is not to be put in a book . . .. i t is not in this book, It is for you whoever you are . .. . ("A Song for Occupations," 185 5 90) Writing thu s become s Whitman' s crucia l instanc e o f a disaste r t o which tal k i s also liable—th e fal l fro m performativ e utterance , i n whic h the wor d i s th e presen t exercis e o f th e speaker' s ow n force , t o mer e representation, i n whic h languag e i s directe d towar d somethin g outsid e itself an d beyon d th e speaker's control . In the magical univers e of Leaves of Grass, thi s identificatio n act s a s a kind o f ritua l containment : wha t i s

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epitomized b y writin g i s therefor e (o r thereby ) essentiall y foreig n t o speech, thoug h speec h enervate d b y writin g ma y b e liabl e t o it ; preyin g upon speech , writin g supposedl y render s i t susceptibl e t o disaster s fro m which i t migh t otherwis e hav e bee n immune. 25 Sectio n tw o o f "Son g o f Myself" thus ends by associating books with a spectral power tha t seem s to initiate rather than merel y accompany th e loss of personal forc e whic h characterizes th e fal l int o the labyrinth o f reference : You shall no longer take things at second or third hand . . .. no r look through the eyes of the dead . . .. no r feed on the spectres in books. (1855 26) Here contiguity feel s lik e magical contagion : Whitman' s lin e implies tha t culture seduce s u s into substitutin g somebod y else' s report s fo r ou r ow n perceptions an d activ e power s b y employin g th e necromanti c ar t o f writing. I shal l hav e mor e t o sa y furthe r o n abou t th e vampiri c figures that haun t thi s passage an d th e livin g death inflicte d b y the books ou t o f which the y ris e up . Protectin g u s fro m them , th e poe t migh t seemingl y also sav e u s fro m lapsin g int o th e emasculatin g us e o f languag e fo r merely constativ e o r reportoria l purposes , a fal l tha t ha s supposedl y come t o haunt speec h t o th e extent tha t writin g infects it . 2. Magica l performativ e powe r shoul d thu s defin e th e languag e tha t ha s not foolishl y bartere d it s natura l resource s fo r cultura l seductions . Suc h power shoul d b e availabl e t o thos e whos e voice s have no t bee n emascu lated b y the sort s o f degrade d involvement s writin g represents . The poe t of Leaves of Grass, wh o supposedl y doe s no t write , define s thi s savin g remnant; hi s performativ e powe r seem s t o mak e constativ e utteranc e superfluous. Her e i t i s importan t t o distinguis h onc e mor e betwee n th e practical an d visionar y guise s o f Whitman' s work . Th e poet' s languag e is of cours e engage d i n representin g (i t is finally entangle d mor e inextri cably i n representatio n tha n Whitma n woul d lik e t o believe) . Bu t thi s representational functio n i s effectivel y upstaged , sinc e Leaves of Grass dramatically obtrude s th e poet' s performativ e power s o n ou r attention . Those power s ar e a s extrem e a s th e disaster s fro m whic h th e poe t i s supposedly immune . Obeyin g th e formulai c logi c of magi c thinking , th e opposition Whitma n set s u p betwee n constativ e utteranc e an d magica l performative powe r make s on e a kin d o f ritua l opposit e o f th e other . I f representation i s disastrously self-enclosed , th e poet's performativ e wor d

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enjoys a specia l powe r ove r thing s tha t i s base d o n a speciall y intimat e connection t o them . The identificatio n o f prope r wor d us e wit h performativ e forc e per vades Whitman' s work . A dramati c passag e fro m The Primer of Words is particularly explicit , an d especiall y boisterous . It needs to be read wit h the distinctio n betwee n technica l an d casua l usage s i n mind ; it s designa tion o f th e performativ e poe t a s a "writer " i s highl y atypical , runnin g counter, a s w e shal l se e furthe r on , t o a diatrib e agains t writin g tha t traverses th e Primer an d help s organize it s crucial distinctions : A perfect writer wiM would make words do any thing that any thing can do sing, dance, kiss , copulat e d o th e mal e an d femal e act , bea r children , weep , bleed , rage, stab , steal , s w fir e cannon , stee r ships , pla y overture s o f musi c perfor m operas, sack cities , shoot tro t o n h charge with cavalr y o r artiller y o r infantry , or d o an y thin g tha t an y thin g ma n o r woma n o r th e natura l power s ca n do . (DBN3:742.)26 Whitman's assertio n her e o f th e virtua l equivalenc e o f word s rightl y used wit h "natura l powers " i s not jus t gratuitou s hyperbole : i t works t o lever performativ e languag e fro m th e statu s o f symboli c cultura l trans action t o that o f physica l act , according words a shamanistic power ove r things themselves . This contentio n tha t word s properl y employe d hav e magica l powe r over thing s i s sometime s supplemente d b y th e strange r suggestio n tha t such word s are things: As a sprig from th e pine tree or a glimpse anywhere into the daylight belittles all artificial flower work and all the painted scenery of theatres, so are live words in a boo k compare d t o cunningl y compose d words . (C W 9:159-60 ; emphasi s added) Not simpl y a way o f dramatizin g a distinction betwee n spontaneou s an d premeditated language , Whitman's openin g contras t her e betwee n natu ral an d cultura l productio n serve s t o confe r a mor e radica l powe r o n "live words" : th e passag e establishe s a n oppositio n betwee n thing s themselves an d representations , an d the n implie s that thi s division migh t fall no t betwee n object s an d th e word s attache d t o the m bu t withi n th e domain o f languag e itself. 27 Those who emplo y languag e fo r representa tional purpose s wrongl y assum e a separatio n betwee n word s an d a world o f rea l object s supposedl y beyon d thei r reach ; word s use d rightl y erase this catastrophic split .

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This contentio n tha t word s shar e thinghoo d wit h thing s indee d turn s out t o b e a rather mil d version o f thei r proper consanguinity . Whitman' s characteristic ai m i s no t t o se t word s o n a n equa l footin g wit h object s but t o sugges t thei r fusion . H e i s interested , tha t is , no t simpl y i n suggesting the substantiality o f th e word, bu t i n asserting its consubstan tiality wit h th e thin g an d it s resultan t talismani c power . I n Whitman' s work th e magica l forc e o f languag e supposedl y derive s fro m thi s fusion : A perfect use r o f word s use s things—[ . . . ] the y exud e [.. . ] i n powe r an d beauty fro m him—miracle s fro m hi s hands—miracle s fro m hi s mout h [ . . . ] things, lilies, clouds, sunshine, woman, poured consciously—things, whirled like chain-shot-rocks, defiance, compulsion, houses, iron, locomotives [. . . ] the oak, the pine, the keen eye, the hairy breast, the Texas ranger, the Boston truckman , the [ . . . ] woma n tha t arouse s a man , th e ma n tha t arouse s a woman . (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:740) The confusio n her e betwee n word s an d things—th e whol e catalogu e might b e a list of either , o r of on e as the other—is hardl y casual ; i t bot h underwrites an d illustrate s th e performativ e powe r th e passag e asserts . As w e hav e seen , i n Leaves of Grass thi s archai c fusio n o f wor d an d thing lend s the poet's performativ e utterance s thei r uncann y quality . In Whitman' s work , moreover , th e wor d i s no t simpl y a par t o f th e thing: i t i s th e ger m fro m whic h th e whol e wil l grow , a synecdochi c essence endowe d wit h magica l productiv e force . A noteboo k fragmen t makes thi s generativ e functio n o f languag e eve n mor e explici t tha n doe s the quotation abov e fro m th e Primer: From eac h word , a s fro m a womb, spring babe s tha t shal l gro w t o giant s an d beget superber breeds upon the earth. (UPP 2:84)28 Despite th e sometime s vehemen t tone s o f th e Primer —the quotatio n about makin g word s fire canno n an d charg e wit h cavalr y o r infantr y i s a goo d exampl e o f suc h bluster—th e poet' s performativ e wor d i s thu s not t o b e though t o f a s aggressiv e o r adversarial . Abl e t o generat e th e thing, th e wor d whic h i s it s essenc e ca n als o supposedl y restor e i t t o health o r hel p brin g t o fruitio n it s organi c potential . Th e tremendou s force o f th e poet' s utteranc e thu s supposedl y differ s fro m th e coerciv e power wielde d b y th e symboli c languag e o f culture : th e poet' s namin g recalls creatures an d object s t o their innat e cours e of developmen t rathe r than imposin g extrinsi c structure s upo n them ; i t can liberat e u s from th e

182 Writin g an d Representatio n violence o f culture , whic h characteristicall y divide s u s agains t ourselve s by implanting alie n proclivities withi n us . This savin g word mus t b e oral rathe r tha n written . Writing, engrave d on a surfac e itself , epitomize s fo r Whitma n no t onl y th e constative , bu t also th e mer e external s whic h representatio n i s characteristicall y con fined t o depicting . In Calamus th e poet' s ow n momentaril y forbiddin g "exterior" i s thus ambiguousl y eithe r hi s silent visage or hi s text : Recorders ages hence! Come, I will tak e yo u dow n underneat h thi s impassiv e exterior— I wil l tell you what to say of me. (V 2:38c)29 As Whitman's gestur e a t direc t addres s i n thes e line s implies , thi s liber ating descen t i s accomplished b y voice. Here supposedl y takin g u s dow n to a n otherwis e inaccessibl e interior , voic e mor e typicall y project s thi s sacrosanct regio n outward , bypassin g opaqu e surface s b y expressin g animating energie s a s sound . This visio n o f voic e depend s o n a n appea l t o topology . Proceedin g from a n interio r tha t lend s i t it s resonance , voic e a s i t wer e make s th e structure o f tha t inne r regio n audible. 30 Bu t i n Whitman's wor k voic e is given th e trickie r tas k o f expressin g th e animatin g energie s no t onl y o f the speake r fro m whic h i t emanate s bu t als o o f everythin g h e names . I t is no t immediatel y obviou s ho w th e voic e o f on e creatur e possesse s th e sort o f intimat e connectio n t o th e interio r o f anothe r tha t woul d mak e this expressive functio n possible . Whitman trie s to bridg e thi s gap throug h a theor y o f organi c naming : th e tru e nam e o f eac h creatur e mus t some how condens e th e organi c energie s it s ow n voic e manifests ; lurkin g i n the name , thes e resource s shoul d b e recoverabl e b y a speake r properl y endowed. Th e dichotom y w e hav e bee n examining , betwee n th e linguis tic activitie s o f constativ e an d performativ e utterance , thu s demand s a parallel distinctio n betwee n opposin g kinds o f words : betwee n arbitrar y and organi c names , indicativ e an d expressiv e signs . Repudiatin g th e merely representationa l use s of language , Whitman seek s als o t o dismis s the indicativ e o r arbitrar y elemen t i n semantics , i n individua l word s themselves. Writin g epitomize s thi s spher e o f languag e a s mer e designa tion; a s w e shal l see , th e poet' s ow n speciall y endowe d voic e i s th e privileged mediu m o f languag e i n its proper, expressiv e mode .

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Expression an d Indication : Organi c an d Arbitrary Sign s Whitman's attemp t t o disengag e organic , expressiv e name s fro m th e mass o f merel y arbitrary , indicativ e word s i n whic h the y ar e supposedl y mired i s perhaps th e mos t crucia l struggl e prosecute d i n hi s writing s o n language. This effort , however , seem s to ru n counte r t o othe r importan t aspects o f Whitman' s speculation s o n words . In takin g u p Whitman' s distinction betwee n organi c an d arbitrar y signs , which serve s t o dismis s a vas t rang e o f languag e behavio r whil e empowerin g th e poet' s magica l speech, I wan t therefor e t o juxtapos e thi s centripeta l impuls e t o th e centrifugal, demoti c visio n o f languag e Whitma n als o develops . Th e conflict betwee n thes e two notion s o f words , I shall tr y t o show , i s mor e apparent tha n real ; i n Whitman' s languag e theor y th e unrul y demoti c energies reshapin g th e America n idio m paradoxicall y serv e t o empowe r the poet' s specia l speec h b y liberatin g i t fro m th e synchroni c structure s to which i t would otherwis e b e subject; wha t migh t b e called Whitman' s practical concern s thu s en d u p servin g his visionary ambitions . It will also prove instructiv e to place Whitman's claim s for expressive , organic sign s i n th e contex t o f som e o f th e othe r linguisti c theorie s promulgated i n hi s period , bot h reputabl e an d shady . Severa l o f Whit man's ke y claims abou t languag e ar e aberran t wit h respec t to th e histor ical philolog y o f hi s ow n tim e an d no t simpl y whe n se t agains t th e structural linguistic s o f ours . These aberration s si t sid e b y sid e i n Whit man's wor k wit h view s tha t woul d probabl y hav e passe d muste r amon g the period' s foremos t philologists ; bot h Whitman' s modification s o f such respectabl e theor y an d hi s dramati c departure s fro m i t ar e indice s not s o much o f hi s lack o f understandin g a s of hi s own urgen t agenda. 31 Involving a visio n o f th e poet' s relatio n t o cultur e a s wel l a s t o th e word, tha t agend a brough t Whitman' s musing s on languag e into conflic t not onl y wit h th e workin g premise s o f historica l philolog y bu t als o wit h the enablin g assumption s o f a n earlie r America n debate . Bot h Whit man's languag e theor y an d th e socia l visio n wit h whic h i t comport s ca n be seen a s extreme version s o f mor e widesprea d transcendentalis t claim s that likewis e challenge d federalis t premises . I n hi s importan t recen t stud y of th e ongoin g argumen t durin g th e firs t seventy-fiv e year s o f th e repub lic over th e futur e o f th e America n language , Davi d Simpso n note s tha t transcendentalist theorist s brok e wit h a governin g postulat e o f th e fed eral perio d an d it s immediat e aftermat h whe n the y posite d som e sor t o f

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organic o r natura l ti e betwee n th e wor d an d th e thin g i t names . Th e nominalist presupposition s the y thereb y calle d int o question , Simpso n points out , had firml y situate d languag e a s a social institution, a produc t of contingen t huma n agreement s rathe r tha n a natura l fact . Debate s about particula r linguisti c practice s an d program s fo r languag e refor m had hithert o focuse d o n thei r socia l an d politica l rathe r tha n thei r sup posed ontologica l implications ; wha t mattere d abou t linguisti c practice s was ho w the y mediate d th e relation s betwee n socia l groups , no t ho w they might restore a n unmediated connectio n betwee n th e individual an d some sourc e prio r t o socia l conflict s o r accord s (Simpso n 230-37) . I t i s just suc h a sourc e fo r individua l perceptio n an d powe r tha t Whitma n i s intent o n liberatin g fro m th e socia l shapin g o f selve s th e federa l debat e took fo r granted . Hi s languag e theor y offer s a hyperboli c versio n o f th e characteristic transcendentalis t claim s Simpso n describe s (244—45) : a defense o f linguisti c innovatio n compatibl e wit h populis m turn s ou t t o empower th e rar e "grea t soul " who ca n liberat e th e organic resource s of words; recoverin g suc h roots , th e extraordinar y individua l i s freed fro m the trammel s o f culture , it s symboli c structure s an d it s ideologica l divi sions; he may perhap s fre e u s in turn. Whitman' s departure s fro m feder alist assumption s ar e thu s motivate d i n par t b y th e millennia l anti institutionalism an d visionar y individualis m tha t playe d importan t role s in th e politica l an d socia l rhetori c o f th e period. 32 A s w e shal l see , however, th e magica l power s Whitma n reserve s fo r exceptiona l individ uals ar e ultimatel y enliste d fo r end s no t easil y identifie d wit h eve n thi s Utopian stran d o f America n politica l life : th e incorporativ e spac e th e poet's powers supposedl y sustai n i s less a Utopian version o f Jeffersonia n agrarianism o r it s artisa n republica n varian t tha n a n archai c univers e miraculously restored . It is this magica l visio n o f th e word, a s well a s the rol e he accord s th e gifted individua l i n recoverin g suc h power , tha t place s Whitman' s mus ings o n languag e beyon d th e bound s no t onl y o f th e federalis t debat e Simpson describe s bu t als o o f th e philological researc h i n which h e too k such avi d interest . Whil e th e historical philologist s I shall atten d t o wer e not alway s s o firm i n distinguishin g nominalis t an d realis t perspective s as were the descendant s o f Lock e who shap e Simpson's earlie r America n scenario, Whitma n end s u p espousin g a n extrem e linguisti c realis m tha t would surel y hav e shocke d the m a s well . I t woul d probabl y als o hav e fuddled som e transcendentalists . Simpso n note s tha t th e varietie s o f

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realist argumen t pu t forwar d b y transcendentalis t theorie s o f languag e were typicall y carefull y hedge d (235-40) . Recen t wor k o n Emerso n indeed goes further, suggestin g that what look s like a statement o f realis t assumptions ca n instea d b e take n a s a sophisticate d performanc e o f something muc h close r t o a nominalis t theor y o f metapho r a s (cognitiv e and cultural ) power ; o n thi s readin g Emerson' s essay s mov e graduall y toward direc t assertio n o f a vie w hi s earlie r rhetorica l practic e alread y implies.33 Ye t i t i s undoubtedl y th e stran d o f linguisti c realis m whic h a t least overtl y dominate s th e earl y wor k tha t ha d th e greates t impac t o n Whitman. Th e relatio n betwee n Emerson' s speculation s an d Whitman' s vision o f languag e i s thus trick y t o compute ; I take i t up i n chapte r 7 , in connection wit h a us e o f metapho r i n "Son g o f Myself, " atypica l i n Leaves of Grass, tha t respond s t o nominalis t a s wel l a s realis t strand s in Emerson' s work . Here , I wan t t o focu s o n th e realis t claim s tha t dominate Whitman' s languag e theor y an d th e master y the y accor d th e poet. I argue in what follow s tha t Whitman concocte d hi s vision o f a languag e that woul d liberat e an d empowe r th e poe t b y deftl y mixin g th e postu lates o f academi c philolog y wit h mor e speculative , ofte n dubiou s con temporary theories . Sinc e thi s mi x i s comple x an d m y accoun t o f i t rather detailed , a prolepsis o f m y argumen t ma y b e helpful . As James Warre n ha s shown , Whitma n wa s intereste d no t onl y i n th e sort o f diachroni c chang e t o whic h historica l philolog y attended , bu t also i n les s commo n attempt s t o constru e suc h chang e a s progress , a program tha t typifie d no t pioneer s lik e Wilhel m vo n Humbold t bu t popularizers lik e Christia n Bunse n an d Maximilia n Schei e de Vere, bot h of who m Whitma n ha d read. 34 Mor e particularly , Whitma n characteris tically commented enthusiasticall y no t on the sort of inexorable phoneti c change charte d b y Bopp, 35 bu t o n th e unrul y semanti c innovation s tha t preoccupied student s o f th e America n language . H e tende d t o se e suc h changes a s freein g speec h fro m settle d constraint s an d thu s a s liberatin g language fro m th e rules imposed b y "grammarians" an d othe r conserva tive guardians o f culture . In a more visionary mode , he could equat e thi s liberation fro m arbitrar y restrictio n wit h th e redemptio n o f th e wor d from it s falle n statu s a s merel y arbitrar y sign , envisionin g th e recover y of it s suppose d organi c resources . Whitma n thu s manage d t o combin e the kin d o f optimisti c visio n o f linguisti c progres s h e encountere d i n

186 Writin g an d Representatio n Bunsen an d Schei e d e Ver e wit h a reclamatio n projec t mor e i n keepin g with th e notio n o f linguisti c degeneratio n espouse d b y Augus t Schleicher . Part o f th e attractivenes s o f Schleicher' s accoun t derive d fro m it s resem blance t o a visio n o f th e wor d i t di d no t explicitl y espouse : Schleicher' s work stir s u p ou r recollectio n o f th e stor y o f a los t adami c language , a language tha t migh t b e recovere d fro m ou t o f th e confusion s o f Babel . In Whitman' s speculations , i t i s jus t suc h a languag e tha t th e liberatin g progress o f America n Englis h migh t enabl e u s to retrieve . The Primer of Words thu s mingle s attentio n t o academicall y respect able historica l philolog y wit h interes t i n th e heterodox , hermeti c tradi tion Joh n Irwi n describe s i n American Hieroglyphics: Whitma n i s i n search o f somethin g lik e the silent , hieroglyphic "languag e o f nature " i n which thing s themselve s ar e alread y words . Ye t a s Irwi n notes , h e com bines thi s hermeti c visio n o f a silen t natura l languag e wit h a commit ment t o voic e (99-110) . Her e Whitma n follow s th e lea d o f a n extensiv e contemporary interes t i n wha t Charle s Kraitsi r calle d "glossology" — the doctrin e o f a motivate d connectio n betwee n th e thin g an d th e soun d that represent s it . This doctrin e wa s no t restricte d i n Whitman's tim e t o the hermeti c sphere s t o whic h post-Saussuria n linguistic s ha s consigne d it: a firm commitmen t t o th e wholl y arbitrar y natur e o f th e connectio n between signifie r an d signifie d i s no t t o b e foun d eve n i n th e wor k o f such a precurso r o f structura l linguistic s a s Humboldt. 36 Reputabl e lin guists, though , tende d t o b e circumspec t abou t bot h th e proportio n o f semantic activity suc h a supposedly motivate d connectio n migh t accoun t for an d th e natur e o f thi s tie : the y characteristicall y regarde d th e soun d of th e wor d a s havin g a motivate d connectio n no t t o th e essenc e o f th e object bu t onl y to th e speaker' s emotiona l respons e t o it ; th e connectio n between th e wor d an d th e thin g itself , whil e no t entirel y arbitrary , wa s thus mediate d rathe r tha n direct. 37 Whitman' s doctrin e o f organic , ex pressive soun d i n effec t combine s th e hermeti c notio n o f a languag e o f nature wit h suc h glossologica l presumptions : th e wor d i s organicall y connected t o th e thing an d no t jus t to ou r concep t o f it ; bu t thi s connec tion obtain s betwee n th e thing an d th e vocal sig n rather tha n inherin g i n some silent natural language . In Whitman' s visio n o f languag e i t i s thu s voic e tha t ca n realiz e th e organic, expressiv e potentia l conceale d i n words . Thi s expressivenes s has bee n los t throug h inattention—throug h ou r treatin g word s a s n o more tha n convenien t designation s t o ai d i n ou r commodificatio n an d

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exchange o f things . Writing , a s w e migh t expect , no t onl y exemplifie s but i s mad e a crucia l caus e o f thi s fal l fro m expressio n t o indication . That fal l migh t b e reverse d b y on e wh o remain s uncontaminate d b y print an d devote s hi s attention s instea d t o recoverin g th e resonanc e i n words that writing destroys. If Whitman steps beyond the bounds of serious philological discussio n by accordin g th e singl e speake r a determinativ e rol e i n shapin g th e progress and fate of language , his particular version of linguistic individualism turn s ou t t o b e extraordinar y b y nearl y an y standards . Th e speaker wh o woul d recove r th e organi c resource s o f word s need s re markable voca l prowes s a s wel l a s single-mindedness . Suc h ora l re sources, i n turn , migh t b e possesse d onl y b y on e wh o ha s steere d clea r not only o f writing bu t also of al l those psychic and bodily self-division s for whic h writin g come s t o stand : i t is finally only th e poet o r one wh o possesses a n uncastrated , pneumati c bod y lik e hi s wh o i s capabl e o f breathing int o word s an d thereb y retrievin g the m fro m th e deat h t o which writing leaves them liable. This i s i n par t a fortunat e limitation : i t i s importan t t o Whitma n t o distinguish clearl y betwee n th e poet's us e o f word s an d th e characteris tically coerciv e demand s o f othe r speakers , an d to insis t that this differ ence i s on e betwee n authenti c powe r an d mere trickery. Ye t a languag e theory tha t guarantees th e resource s o f th e word b y means of th e poet' s person i s on shak y ground: the poet's body , I argued in earlier chapters, is create d b y hypostatizin g th e apparen t power s o f language; i n Whit man's wor k th e suppose d power s o f th e wor d thu s creat e th e ver y creature who i s then sai d to guarante e thei r efficacy. I t is more useful t o think o f thi s pattern of argumen t as tracing a closed circle than a s being merely contradictory . Whitman' s work center s o n a language an d bod y that defin e eac h other , a structure tha t fold s bac k o n itsel f an d remain s inaccessible t o thos e outsid e wh o migh t tr y t o re-ente r it ; I have bee n calling this circle the archaic. 1. Much o f bot h The Primer of Words an d the longer, even more loosely organized noteboo k no w calle d Words 3* detail s Whitman's enthusiastic , often sophisticate d respons e t o th e historica l philolog y tha t dominate d the linguistic s o f hi s day . A portio n o f Rambles among Words, b y Whitman's acquaintanc e Willia m Swinton , whic h th e poe t ma y wel l have helpe d compose, 39 open s wit h a quotatio n fro m Wilhel m vo n

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Humboldt tha t suggest s wha t fascinate d Whitma n abou t thi s phas e o f linguistics: An idiom i s a n organism subject , lik e every organism, to the laws o f development. One must not consider a language as a product dead and formed but once: it is an animate being and ever creative... . (265 )40 Stressing continuou s renewa l rathe r than settled structure , the organicist metaphor Humbold t employ s her e provoked intens e debat e amon g nineteenth-century linguists , wh o argue d abou t th e legitimac y o f it s possible implications . The factio n o f philologist s historia n an d criti c Hans Aarslef f consider s th e period' s mos t regressiv e marshale d th e or ganicist metapho r t o argu e fo r th e complet e autonom y o f linguisti c development, it s freedo m fro m merel y "historical " chang e o r "politica l history" (Aarslef f 31—37) . While w e migh t expec t Whitman , too , t o b e nervous abou t th e influenc e o f contingen t politica l an d socia l develop ments o n wha t wer e afte r al l th e poet' s tools , h e characteristicall y cele brates th e effect s o f technologica l an d politica l chang e o n language . A s Whitman describe s them , thes e unrul y pressure s ar e registere d princi pally i n th e growt h o f ne w vocabulary . Whitman' s notebook s ar e filled with catalogues that attest to his lively, sustained interest in such linguistic innovation an d variety. H e frequently wrot e dow n list s of th e technical term s belongin g t o particula r trades : on e o f hi s noteboo k entrie s offers mor e tha n a hundre d sailin g terms , complet e wit h definition s (DBN 3:818-22) . Other s not e slan g expressions , presumabl y recentl y heard: "shin-dig," "spree," "bender," "bummer" (DBN 3:693) . This interest in contingent, historically generated semantic change can be foun d i n th e writing s o f philologist s les s committe d t o a literalize d interpretation o f th e notio n o f linguisti c organicis m tha n th e factio n Aarsleff rebukes ; it is a recurrent if minor strand in Humboldt's work. 41 But i t playe d a specia l rol e i n debate s abou t th e America n language : Whitman woul d surel y hav e note d assertion s i n the wor k o f Universit y of Virgini a linguis t Maximilia n Schei e d e Ver e abou t th e fructifyin g effect o n vocabular y o f th e ne w range s o f experienc e Americ a offere d (Scheie d e Ver e 195) . A s Simpso n argues , thi s espousa l o f America n linguistic innovatio n cam e t o pla y a n importan t par t no t onl y i n th e sometimes boisterou s claim s fo r America n cultura l independenc e bu t also i n argument s abou t th e appropriat e interna l socia l an d politica l profile o f th e republic ; th e America n debat e stresse d th e suppose d con -

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nection betwee n unbridle d linguisti c chang e an d populis t upheava l (Simpson 32 , 46) . Nationalis t an d populis t strand s dove-taile d i n th e rhetoric tha t contraste d America n democrac y wit h Europea n "feudal ism," a n ofte n polemica l dichotom y tha t helpe d motivat e Whitman' s enthusiastic espousa l o f linguisti c change . Whitman' s example s o f lin guistic innovatio n accordingl y focu s o n th e America n idiom , whos e grandly "lawless " growt h supposedl y no t onl y furthere d th e nation' s efforts t o shuc k of f "ultramarine " politica l an d socia l encrustation s bu t liberated th e energie s o f th e commo n peopl e fro m domesti c regulatio n as well. 42 Whitman sometime s praise s semanti c innovatio n a s a respons e t o th e generalized fermen t o f America n life : These States are rapidly supplying themselves with new words, called for by new occasions, new facts, new politics, new combinations.—[... ] Far plentier words additions arc needed will be needed, and, of course, will be supplied. (The Primer of Words, D^N 3:734 ) This celebratio n o f th e ne w ca n amoun t t o simpl e boosterism . Whitma n is capabl e o f inventoryin g th e country' s rapidl y growin g wor d stoc k a s if it were a kind o f economi c indicator : Factories, mills , an d al l th e processe s o f hundred s o f differen t manufactures , grow thousands of words. (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:747) In such moment s h e resembles th e very apostles of industry h e excoriate s in Democratic Vistas. More typically , however , Whitma n see s semantic chang e a s reflectin g and furtherin g politica l refor m rathe r tha n indiscriminat e economi c ex pansion. Hi s espousa l o f th e contemporar y America n craz e o f findin g native name s fo r nativ e realitie s i s motivate d mor e b y th e populis m h e considered th e central featur e o f th e American politica l traditio n tha n b y blind enthusias m fo r th e ne w o r mer e xenophobi c rejectio n o f thing s European. 43 Th e desir e t o consolidat e an d exten d America' s relativ e freedom fro m hierarchica l constrain t mark s Whitman' s sometime s crank y program fo r th e reform o f America n plac e names : Many of the Counties in the State—and in all the Eastern in other States—mus t be re-named What i s the name of Kings ' County [ . . . ] or of Queen s County t o us?—or St . Lawrence County?

190 Writin g an d Representatio n Get ri d a s soo n a s convenien t o f al l th e ba d names—no t onl y o f counties , rivers, towns,—but of persons, men and women—{Words, DB N 3:701) Objecting t o name s tha t commemorat e a king , a queen , an d a saint , Whitman her e position s linguisti c chang e a s both expressio n an d instru ment o f th e demoti c energie s that migh t challeng e suc h centralize d insti tutional authority . We ca n understan d thi s aspec t o f Whitman' s writing s o n languag e a s a celebratio n o f th e centrifuga l energie s suc h semanti c change s manifes t and further . Ther e was perhaps a logic to suc h verbal innovation : What d o yo u thin k word s are ? Do you thin k word s ar e arbitrar y positiv e an d original thing s i n themselves?—No : Word s ar e no t origina l an d arbitrar y i n themselves.—Words ar e a result—the y ar e the progeny o f what ha s been or is in vogue. (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:736) But i t wa s no t a logi c susceptibl e t o an y single , simpl e formula , no r di d it obe y th e demand s o f an y singl e principl e o r cente r o f power . On e o f the chapter s o f Swinton' s Rambles whic h Whitma n i s supposed t o hav e helped compos e i s quite explici t i n it s enjoymen t o f suc h uncontrollabl e diversification: And here a spinal fac t i s the composite character of our language: to what new realizations is it lifted i n America! The immense diversity of race, temperament, character—the copiou s stream s o f humanit y constantl y flowin g hither—mus t reappear in free, rich growths of speech. (288) Such energie s interes t th e write r o f thi s par t o f Rambles a t leas t i n par t because the y ar e opposed t o th e sor t o f socia l an d politica l conservatis m that als o found expressio n i n narrow linguisti c scholarship : The theory o f Englis h scholar s an d literateurs , for hundred s o f years , has been the theory o f repression . They have discouraged an d crampe d th e spontaneou s expansions of the Language.. . . (289) This demotic , anti-authoritaria n interpretatio n o f linguisti c chang e i s also explicit in Whitman's "Slan g in America" : Language, be it remember'd, is not an abstract construction of the learn'd, or of dictionary-makers, bu t i s somethin g arisin g ou t o f th e work , needs , ties , joys, affections, tastes , of lon g generations of humanity , and has its bases broad an d low, close to the ground. Its final decision s are made by the masses [ . . . .] (P W *:573)

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This understanding of linguistic innovation a s inherently political wa s by no means unusual. Impassioned advocac y of democrati c ferment ma y not hav e bee n typica l o f academi c philology ; bu t eve n Humbold t occa sionally praise d dialec t a s a source o f "strengt h an d vigor i n a languag e and a nation" and saw support for it as leading to "rappor t between th e upper classes and the masses" (Humanist without Portfolio 243-44) . Another wa y o f construin g linguisti c chang e importan t i n the Ameri can context , however , wa s explicitl y rule d ou t b y Humboldt . H e con sidered th e notio n tha t chang e constitute d progress , togethe r wit h th e frequent corollar y tha t progres s mean t movemen t towar d teleologica l fulfillment o f th e potentials o f th e word, a s vulgarizations o f th e interest in diachronic processes that characterized historical philology (Linguistic Variability 1-6) . A s Warre n point s out , thi s teleologica l visio n help s organize th e wor k o f tw o linguist s importan t t o Whitman , Christia n C. J. Bunsen and Maximilian Schei e de Vere (Walt Whitman's Language and Style 21-28) . A Hegelian stance explicitly governs Bunsen's massiv e Outlines of Universal History, Applied to Language and Religion** Scheie de Vere also tended to interpret linguistic change as progress, and to se e bot h linguisti c innovatio n an d th e expansionis t politica l energie s with whic h i t supposedl y wen t han d i n han d a s phase s i n a universa l development.45 Embracing thi s teleologica l vision, 46 Whitma n manage d t o fus e it , more dramatically tha n Scheie de Vere had done, with his interest in the unruly demoti c energie s linguisti c chang e wa s als o sai d t o reflec t an d further. There is something o f a contradiction here , or at least a tension: Whitman construe s linguisti c innovatio n a s the liberatio n o f centrifuga l energies tha t hav e escape d th e contro l o f an y single , centra l authority , and, simultaneously , a s concerte d progres s towar d a singl e goal . Whit man resolve s thi s apparen t dilemma , i n part , throug h appea l t o th e commonplace transcendentalis t distinctio n betwee n impose d an d or ganic structure: what looks lik e order is only the arbitrary imposition o f capricious authority; what seems to be anarchy obeys a deeper logic that will on e da y b e evident . A passag e fro m th e Primer tha t contrast s th e sort o f historica l change s trace d b y philolog y t o th e linguisti c fixity defended b y rear-guar d grammarian s thu s associate s suc h seemingl y chaotic innovation wit h the covert working of a n intrinsic, organic law: The Real Grammar will be that which declares itself a nucleus [. . . ] of the spirit of the laws, with perfect liberty to all to carry out the the [sic] spiri t of the laws,

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even by violating them, if necessary.—The Englis h Language is grandly lawless like the [ . .. ] race who use it.—Or Perhaps—o r rathe r break s out of the little ? laws to enter trul y th e highe r one s It is so instinct wit h tha t whic h underlie s laws [ . . . ] and the purport s o f laws, that I think i t goes toward th e dcstinati refuses al l petty interruptuptions in its way toward purports.—(DBN 3:735 ) Freedom fro m meddlin g authorities , however , turn s ou t to be a goal of thi s mysteriou s progres s rathe r tha n jus t a n instrument tha t further s it. I f o n th e on e han d demoti c energie s hel p advanc e th e cours e o f teleological development , o n th e othe r han d wha t suc h developmen t brings abou t i s apocalyptic liberatio n fro m a constraint Whitma n figures as simultaneousl y linguisti c an d political . Wha t migh t b e calle d th e practical politic s involve d i n Whitman's championin g o f linguistic pop ulism thus facilitate s no t onl y a teleological visio n of language bu t als o a millennialist politica l prospec t supposedl y enable d b y linguistic reform . The projec t o f shucking of f particular hierarchie s an d traditions passe s over int o a determination t o put an end to all culturally impose d restric tions; Whitma n ofte n suggest s tha t thi s goa l ca n be achieved throug h a liberation movemen t focuse d o n words. Whitman' s languag e theor y is thus pulle d beyon d th e bounds o f academi c philolog y i n par t b y the terms of an American politica l rhetori c to which th e poet enthusiasticall y contributed: espousin g wha t look s lik e radica l individualism , Whitma n accords i t the teleological privileg e an d millennial resonanc e whic h the Revolutionary re-craftin g o f the jeremiad len t th e notion o f freedom. 47 A passage fro m th e Primer tha t begin s by arguing for the replacement o f "ultramarine" name s an d the old hierarchies the y hel p kee p i n plac e accordingly modulate s int o a visionar y idio m tha t implicitl y identifie s such linguisti c renovation wit h th e adven t of the chiliad : The great proper name s use d in America mus t commemorat e wha t date s fro m things belonging to America, and dating thence [....] Becaus e What is America for? [.-.. ] To commemorate the old myths and goddesses and the gods? [.. . ] To repeat th e Mediterraneanean [sic] here ? Or the uses and growths of Europe here?—No;—(Na-o^o) bu t to destroy all them those growth fro m th e purposes of mankind the earth, and to erect a new world earth in their place. (DBN 3:755) What I hav e bee n callin g th e centrifugal aspec t o f Whitman' s lan guage theor y thu s combine s practica l populis m wit h a Utopian visio n of the end of fallen culture ; part of Whitman's enthusias m fo r the turbulen t undermining o f authorit y manifes t i n America n Englis h a s wel l a s in American politica l an d social lif e i s attributable t o his equation o f such

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subversion wit h th e end o f al l systemati c codificatio n an d restraint, an d with th e millennia l prospec t wit h whic h thi s liberatio n fro m arbitrar y control wa s associate d i n America n politica l discourse . A linguisti c stanc e that i n a practical contex t involve s championin g on e clas s ove r agains t another, o r appealin g t o on e sea t o f linguisti c authorit y rathe r tha n another, thu s translate s i n Whitman's Utopia n visio n int o th e notio n o f a language liberate d fro m al l competing social pressure s and all need fo r political adjudication . Th e sor t o f specifi c semanti c change s tha t o n Whitman's ow n accoun t bot h reflec t an d prosecut e ideologica l struggl e are enliste d t o suppor t a visio n o f languag e i n whic h th e wor d an d it s speaker hav e bee n free d fro m al l suc h collectiv e shaping ; th e demoti c energies tha t liberat e languag e fro m institutiona l contro l supposedl y return i t t o th e individua l a s a n unmortgage d possessio n subjec t solel y to his or her independent will . Both thi s linguisti c stat e o f natur e an d th e politica l possibilitie s t o which i t seem s t o attes t ar e ver y muc h ou t o f keepin g wit h th e federa l debate over language Simpson describes, in which both conservative an d demotic interest s regarde d word s a s necessaril y sociall y saturated , s o that escap e fro m th e pul l o f competin g interest s a t wor k i n the m wa s scarcely imaginable . Moreover , thei r resemblanc e t o th e Utopia n stran d of contemporar y politica l rhetori c tha t Sea n Wilent z an d Bets y Erkkil a describe as a radical recasting of th e Jeffersonian traditio n b y New Yor k artisans turn s out t o b e partial an d problematic. 48 I f a Utopian intensifi cation o f th e Jeffersonia n "relocatio n o f sovereignt y i n th e individua l rather tha n th e state " (Erkkil a 26 ) structure s a millennialis t politica l vision Whitma n share d wit h hi s mor e radica l contemporaries , bot h th e role h e assigne d t o languag e i n attainin g thi s prospec t an d th e par t h e accorded th e poe t i n realizin g th e resource s o f th e wor d an d bringin g them t o bea r o n hi s fello w citizen s ar e les s easil y assimilate d t o th e demotic politics o f th e period. As we shall see further on, the word free d from conservativ e codificatio n an d restrain t supposedl y recover s an d deploys a variety o f magica l powers , shapin g a regressive spac e w e ca n comfortably subsum e withi n neithe r Jeffersonia n no r radica l working class discourse . Whitman' s notio n o f wh o ca n an d canno t wiel d thos e powers i s als o har d t o reconcil e wit h demoti c concern s o r equat e wit h American politica l utopianism . I t woul d b e a n over-simplificatio n t o claim that Whitman's interest in diffuse, historicall y conditione d linguis tic change is simply a Trojan horse inside of which the imperial poet will

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be foun d lurking , sinc e hi s fascinatio n wit h suc h disorderl y processe s seems quit e genuine . Bu t th e centrifuga l force s enthusiasticall y trace d i n Whitman's notebook s o n language turn out to enable a dramatic concen tration o f power : i n Whitman's writing s o n languag e i t is not th e masse s but th e gifted individua l speake r o r "grea t soul " who make s optima l us e of th e freedo m fro m regulatio n an d constrain t demoti c energie s mak e possible; despit e Whitman' s occasiona l demurs , thi s figure i s les s exem plary tha n exceptional , an d th e univers e hi s power s shap e ma y b e th e fulfillment no t s o much o f America n consensu s an d communit y a s of th e desire to abrogat e th e nee d fo r them. 49 If Whitman' s claim s concernin g th e poet' s specia l power s hav e a problemati c relatio n t o hi s ow n demoti c rhetoric , the y ar e patentl y out o f keepin g wit h th e reputabl e linguisti c discours e o f hi s day : i n Whitman's languag e theor y individua l initiativ e rathe r tha n th e massive, impersona l processe s trace d b y philolog y i s th e crucia l sourc e of linguisti c revitalization . Hi s visio n o f wha t suc h renewa l migh t achieve i s als o aberran t b y contemporar y standard s a s wel l a s moder n ones. The powe r Whitma n accord s th e gifte d individua l speake r i n realizin g the resource s o f th e word i s a dramatic instanc e of th e way th e imagina tive demand s o f Leaves of Grass helpe d shap e th e agend a fo r th e lan guage theory, disturbing Whitman's ofte n faithfu l redactio n o f the reign ing assumptions o f academi c linguistics. When wearin g his practical hat , Whitman wa s perfectl y attentiv e t o stricture s agains t viewin g th e indi vidual a s a crucial sourc e of linguisti c change : No art , n o power , n o grammar , n o combinatio n o r proces s ca n originat e a language; it grows purely of itself, and incarnates everything. It is said of Dante, Shakespeare, Luther , an d on e o r tw o others , tha t the y create d thei r language s anew; this is foolish talk . ("America's Mightiest Inheritance" 56) 50 Yet in his visionary guise , Whitman coul d temporaril y ignor e the very perspective t o whic h h e wa s elsewher e committed . Followin g Schei e d e Vere i n arguin g tha t th e parin g awa y o f inflectiona l marker s tha t char acterized romanc e language s wa s t o b e understoo d a s progres s rathe r than decay, 51 Whitma n wa s in part simpl y taking a demotic stance, since he associate d th e syntacti c permutation s whic h th e los s o f suc h inflec tions encourage d wit h "freedom" :

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Thus individualis m i s [.. . ] a la w o f moder n languages , an d freedo m also. — The word s ar e no t buil t in , but stan d loose , and read y t o g o this way o r that . (WWs, DBN 3:723) Here "individualism " seem s t o signif y n o mor e tha n individua l choic e with regar d t o usage , a freedo m tha t implie s n o specia l power s fo r special speakers . I t turn s out , however , tha t som e wil l mak e bette r us e of suc h freedo m tha n others : Drawing languag e int o lin e b y rigi d grammatica l rules , i s th e theor y o f th e martinet applied to the most ethereal processes of the spirit, and to the luxuriant growth of all that makes art.—It is for small school-masters, not for great souls. (Words, DBN 3:666 ) Whitman's characterizatio n her e o f th e vas t machiner y o f diachroni c change a s "th e processe s o f th e spirit, " whic h ma y soun d polemica l o r simply purpl e t o ou r ears , wa s commo n parlance—simila r phrasin g turns u p regularl y i n Humboldt . Bu t hi s accompanyin g suggestio n tha t "great souls " ar e speciall y exemp t fro m regulatio n i s rather mor e brash , as i s the implicatio n tha t thi s freedo m derive s fro m thei r specia l respon sibility fo r a presumably teleologica l progress . The extrem e powe r Whitma n accord s th e gifte d individua l i n further ing linguisti c developmen t i s matched b y a trul y visionar y notio n o f th e sort o f languag e h e i s t o mak e available . Havin g ha d hi s ow n power s stimulated b y th e demoti c energie s tha t begi n t o se t word s fre e fro m conservative rule s an d restraints , the "grea t soul " is to clinc h thi s libera tion b y discoverin g resource s i n th e wor d n o mor e availabl e t o populis t innovation tha n t o grammatica l pedantry . Th e wor d i s t o b e anchore d firmly t o a n organic , natura l basi s i n things ; th e cultura l an d historica l vicissitudes tha t Whitma n enthusiasticall y trace s thu s paradoxicall y fa cilitate the vision o f a language beholde n t o neithe r histor y no r culture . Something o f thi s visionar y prospec t i s occasionall y discernibl e eve n in Whitman' s description s o f th e semanti c change s bein g fuele d b y tech nological growt h an d thu s usuall y associate d i n hi s wor k wit h demotic , centrifugal impulse s rather tha n wit h th e poet's supposed specia l powers. In wha t ma y o r ma y no t b e display s o f merel y playfu l exuberance , Whitman attribute s a kind o f organi c expressiveness t o the words coine d to kee p pac e wit h industria l innovation . H e endow s thes e word s wit h solidity an d imagine s the m a s sharin g th e qualitie s o f th e thing s the y name. Enthusin g ove r th e semanti c effect s o f th e growin g iro n industry , he suggests :

196 Writin g an d Representatio n They are ponderous, strong, definite, not indebted to the antique—they are iron iron words, wrought and cast.—I consider see them all good, a«d faithful, tre m sturdy, massive, permanent words.—I lov e well these iron words of 1856 . (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:747) Another quotatio n fro m th e Primer, though , give s witt y expressio n t o what wil l elsewher e b e crucia l doctrine : i t i s th e poe t o r speciall y adep t individual wh o realize s thi s organi c resonanc e lurkin g i n ne w words . Here Whitma n display s th e sor t o f daf t enthusias m tha t characterize s the poe t o f Leaves of Grass a t hi s mos t winning—simultaneousl y ear nest an d awar e o f hi s ow n outlandishness , bot h visionar y an d comic . His claim s nevertheles s si t strangel y i n th e quasi-discursiv e contex t o f the Primer: Kosmos-words, Words of the Enlargement Free Expansion of Thought, History, Chronology, Literatur e [ . . . ] ar e becomin g showin g themselves , wit h gran d large an d forehead s muscula r neck s an d breast s [ . . . . ] Thes e gladde n me!— I put my arms around them—touch m y lips to them. (DBN 3:739) As th e lovemakin g her e implies , i t wil l tur n ou t t o b e th e poet' s bod y and no t jus t hi s "grea t soul " tha t ca n fre e th e organi c resource s lurkin g in languag e an d thu s restor e word s t o th e consubstantialit y wit h thing s this passag e s o outrageousl y figures; Whitman' s visionar y notio n o f th e word i s a t onc e a visio n o f th e body . I t wil l see m mor e explicable , i f perhaps n o les s unsettling , tha t th e power s o f languag e shoul d depen d on th e poet' s bod y fo r thei r realizatio n onc e we have see n i n detai l wha t the organic resources o f th e word ar e supposed t o be . 2. On e indicatio n tha t th e powers Whitman want s t o claim fo r th e wor d are visionar y i s the apocalypti c tim e schem e hi s accoun t o f thei r realiza tion implies . This apocalypti c structur e suggest s dramatically ho w Whit man's languag e theory exceed s the practical linguistic s I have so far bee n detailing; i t serve s to differentiat e th e poet' s crucia l recuperativ e power s from th e unrul y demoti c energie s tha t ca n hel p se t the m i n motion . I t also provides a n instructiv e instanc e o f Whitman's willingnes s to jettiso n the strictures of historical philology i n order to sustain the poet's suppos edly magical speec h an d it s atavistic resonance . A provisiona l wa y t o distinguis h th e poet' s magica l power s fro m populist energie s migh t b e to sugges t that whil e the people fue l linguisti c expansion an d development , th e poe t instea d supposedl y recover s a

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prior stat e o f th e word , undoin g th e mediation s o f cultur e an d restorin g language t o it s natura l condition . Thi s i s somethin g o f a n over-simplifi cation, however : i n Whitman' s narrative , a s w e hav e seen , bot h th e apparently heterogeneou s linguisti c change s fostere d b y th e populac e and th e poet' s mor e discriminatin g transaction s serv e teleologica l ends . It is thus more precise to describe the time-scheme implied b y Whitman' s musings a s circular , an d t o not e tha t bot h peopl e an d poe t hel p prope l language alon g thi s route : exhibitin g a structure commo n t o apocalypti c discourse, Whitman' s languag e theor y envision s a developmen t tha t i s ultimately a return t o origins, to a n essenc e prior t o contingent historica l change. But whil e th e masse s an d th e linguisti c turbulence the y generat e help mov e languag e towar d thi s apocalypti c juncture , i n Whitman' s vision it is only the poet o r others lik e him who can take the crucial step s that complet e th e circle , turnin g progres s int o th e restoratio n o f a n edenic condition w e ought no t t o have lost . The progressiv e commitmen t eviden t i n Whitman' s discussion s o f semantic chang e thu s dove-tail s i n hi s writing s o n languag e wit h a n interest i n mor e recursiv e processes , t o whic h th e poe t ha s a privilege d relation. Historica l philolog y i s enliste d t o suppor t bot h thes e preoccu pations. But the vision o f restoratio n towar d whic h Whitman' s languag e theory gravitate s depend s o n les s reputable strand s o f philologica l spec ulation tha n doe s hi s consideratio n o f linguisti c progress ; inten t o n justifying th e poet' s power s an d th e escap e fro m falle n histor y the y should mak e possible , Whitma n abandon s hi s ofte n scrupulou s respec t for th e proviso s se t fort h b y scientifi c linguistics . Hi s visio n o f th e organic languag e th e poe t i s t o recove r i s a n extrem e versio n o f a n adamicism Aarslef f regard s a s a kin d o f distorte d imag e o f philology ; rigorous historica l philologist s ha d t o attac k adamicis t premise s pre cisely becaus e a n imaginativel y unfettere d interpretatio n o f philologica l research migh t appea r t o lend suppor t t o suc h assumptions . Humboldt's analysi s o f th e changin g statu s o f th e linguisti c sig n ca n serve as a cas e in point . Hi s remark s migh t see m t o encourag e adamicis t speculations: accordin g t o Humboldt , th e arbitrar y statu s o f th e sig n i s a historica l development , graduall y replacin g a motivate d connectio n between wor d an d thing ; suc h motivatio n characterize s language s i n their earlies t phase s o f developmen t rathe r tha n i n thei r maturit y (Lm guistic Variability 111 , 241—43). I shall tak e u p Humboldt' s ow n highl y circumspect accoun t o f th e natur e o f thi s connection , whic h woul d hav e

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disappointed adamicis t enthusiasts , furthe r on , whe n I ca n contras t i t directly to Whitman's ow n mor e extravagant musings . Only highly selective attentio n t o Humboldt' s writings , however , woul d allo w on e t o assume tha t th e recover y o f thi s vanished connectio n betwee n wor d an d thing wa s par t o f philology' s agenda . Accordin g t o Humbold t th e deca y of suc h a ti e i s b y n o mean s a n unequivoca l disaster : "luxurian t volup tuousness" o f soun d impede s rathe r tha n further s th e conceptua l mas tery tha t i s the principa l functio n o f th e wor d (Linguistic Variability 67 , 144). I t i s hardl y Humboldt' s ai m t o se t abou t tryin g t o restor e suc h motivated connection s i n orde r t o retriev e languag e fro m som e pre sumed degeneration . Academi c philolog y indee d characteristicall y rule d out speculatio n abou t th e presume d trait s o f a los t origina l languag e supposedly radicall y differen t fro m historicall y observabl e ones, insisting that th e principl e o f uniformitarianis m tha t guide d practica l researc h also gover n theoretica l reflectio n (Aarslef f 297-317) . Thu s Humbold t suggested tha t th e origina l caus e o f languag e i s itsel f a n unfathomabl e mystery—an assertio n wit h consequence s fo r enthusiast s seekin g a sup posed los t languag e sinc e i t wa s jus t suc h a transparen t motivatio n o f linguistic structure s tha t the y hope d t o discove r a t a tempora l origi n (Linguistic Variability 4) . Even Schei e de Vere, who a s we have seen wa s himself somethin g o f a n enthusias t whe n i t came to ascribin g a teleolog ical goa l t o linguisti c change , warne d o f th e futilit y o f seekin g t o trac k language to it s beginnings (19) . Such stricture s wer e necessary , accordin g t o Aarsleff , precisel y be cause historica l philolog y ha d rekindle d speculatio n concernin g th e re sources o f los t languages ; lik e th e doctrin e o f th e magica l power s o f th e sign, the vision o f a vanished speec h i n which n o longer availabl e power s had bee n freel y exercise d hover s a t th e edge s o f respectabl e debat e during the period, ironicall y fuele d b y academic research. On e had only , so t o speak , t o ru n th e machiner y o f historica l linguistic s backward s i n order t o b e something o f a n adamist . O r mor e precisely: couplin g diach ronic stud y wit h a Weltanschauung, on e learne d t o trac e language s t o their roots , no t simpl y t o ma p linguisti c chang e bu t instea d t o validat e notions o f systemati c progress o r decay . Accounts o f suppose d linguisti c degeneration tende d t o b e th e mor e boldl y speculative : committe d t o finding thei r wa y bac k t o th e poin t befor e linguisti c declin e ha d com menced, unfettere d theorist s posite d a period o f linguisti c activit y differ ent i n kin d fro m th e observabl e change s philolog y traced ; Schleicher' s

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suspect distinctio n betwee n "linguistics " an d "philology " turn s o n jus t such a difference. 52 The visio n o f linguisti c degeneratio n thi s sor t o f taxonomy coul d b e mad e t o suppor t als o possesse d a resonanc e tha t belied it s apparentl y pessimisti c import , sinc e i t offere d th e tantalizin g prospect o f recoverin g an d restorin g a los t adami c language . Eve n Schleicher, who m Aarslef f characterize s a s a dangerous combinatio n o f diligent practica l researche r an d rhapsodi c theorist , stop s shor t o f at tributing a n adamic mastery o f wor d ove r thing to pre-historic languag e —he posit s th e existenc e o f severa l earl y language s rathe r tha n th e single, singularl y empowere d on e o f th e biblica l accoun t (Schleiche r 2) . Yet philological succes s in tracing the words of contemporar y language s to thei r commo n root s fuele d a reviva l o f jus t suc h adamicis t specula tions, variousl y hedge d an d modified , amon g thos e les s tethere d t o th e constraints of a n academic discipline than Schleicher. Historica l philolo gists thus did repeated battl e against the misappropriation o f thei r work by romantic enthusiasts (Aarslef f 24-26 , 316-17) . Whitman manage d t o positio n himsel f o n bot h side s o f thi s contro versy. W e ca n find him scrupulousl y resistin g th e lur e o f a lost origina l language an d insistin g tha t speculatio n concernin g i t i s inherentl y vac uous: Language cannot be Traced to First Origins.—Of the first origins of language it is vain to treat, any more than of the origin of men and women, or of matter, or of spirit. ("America's Mightiest Inheritance" 56) Yet something very like this attempt turns out to b e central to his vision of th e word . The characteristi c tas k o f Whitman' s "grea t soul " i s pre cisely the recovery of a lost organic tie between word an d thing; he is to rescue languag e fro m th e degrade d stat e i n whic h th e connectio n be tween the m seem s t o b e merel y a matte r o f socia l convention . Th e enthusiastic espousa l o f linguisti c progres s i n The Primer of Words thu s meshes oddl y wit h a vision o f th e suppose d degeneratio n suc h develop ment is to overcome: Whitman combines the teleological speculation s he discovered in Bunsen and Scheie de Vere with an adamicist project fuele d by a vie w o f linguisti c declin e Schleicher' s accoun t helpe d mak e credi ble.53 Simpso n note s tha t th e visio n o f progres s as restoratio n wa s a fairly typical featur e of American polemics: Noah Webster, for example, argued tha t th e apparen t innovation s o f America n "yeomen " wer e i n fact a retur n t o olde r practice s abandone d i n Englan d unde r pressur e

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from foppis h urba n grammarians . Wha t Webste r ha d i t i n min d t o recover, however , wa s wel l withi n th e scop e o f huma n memory : Ameri can Englis h wa s bringin g abou t a retur n t o th e linguisti c goo d tast e o f the reig n o f Quee n Ann e (Simpso n 65-66) . Whitman , b y contrast, envi sions recovery o f a language les s like Anne's tha n Adam's . Like other enthusiast s who appropriate d an d modifie d th e approache s and result s o f academi c philology , Whitma n thu s marshale d historica l distinctions t o defen d a visio n o f languag e tha t wa s ultimatel y ahistori cal. I n th e accoun t o f adamicis t argument s tha t follow s i n th e nex t sections, w e wil l ofte n find Whitma n an d othe r proselytizer s makin g selective appea l t o philologica l evidence , enlistin g i t t o pain t a n edeni c portrait o f wha t languag e onc e was , henc e wha t i t intrinsicall y i s o r ought t o be . In Whitman's speculations , which ar e typical i n this regard , diachronic evidenc e i s characteristicall y solicite d t o enabl e th e poe t t o sort throug h an d evaluat e aspect s o f synchroni c structure . I f academi c philologists hel d tha t presen t language s wer e modification s o f olde r ones, element s o f whic h coul d b e foun d lurkin g withi n curren t forma tions, Whitma n suggest s tha t neglecte d trace s o f los t linguisti c power s subsist i n American English , supposedl y makin g possible th e recovery o f an older , unfalle n speech . In practic e Whitma n wield s thi s diachroni c razor quit e freely : hi s reclamatio n projec t ofte n amount s t o dividin g present languag e int o desirabl e an d undesirabl e aspects , a quarantin e operation justifie d a s the separation o f originary, authenti c features fro m those artificiall y imposed. 54 Mor e broadly , a n implici t appea l t o adami cist premisse s govern s nearl y al l Whitman' s speculation s o n th e poet' s special relatio n t o th e word : i n what follows , th e apocalypti c visio n o f a lost bu t recoverabl e origi n i n whic h languag e i s stil l a t on e wit h natur e lies behind an d justifie s eve n those discriminations no t overtl y concerne d with linguisti c change . 3. Bot h adamicis t assumption s an d th e wa y highl y selectiv e appea l t o diachronic dat a wa s enliste d t o suppor t the m ar e mos t dramaticall y evident i n argument s mounte d b y Whitma n an d severa l o f hi s contem poraries concerning the supposedly deterioratin g relatio n betwee n soun d and sense , th e nam e an d th e thin g i t names . Bu t I want t o tur n first t o another topi c i n whic h Whitma n wa s als o passionatel y involved . Les s overtly concerne d wit h diachroni c chang e tha n wit h synchroni c struc -

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ture, i t wil l hel p t o mak e clea r bot h th e threat s Whitman' s adamicis m wards off an d the condition i t should protect or restore. Fallen languag e and culture , w e sa w i n chapte r 4 , ar e mad e responsibl e i n Whitman' s work fo r a pervasive alienatio n tha t ough t t o b e avoidable : generatin g symbolic entitie s tha t becom e th e object s w e desir e an d dividin g u s against ourselve s b y implantin g suc h entitie s withi n u s a s well , the y occult th e unique , th e intrinsic , an d the natural, overlayin g the m wit h a taxonomy o f artificia l forms . Whitman' s effor t t o disentangl e organi c from arbitrar y sign s accordingl y intersect s wit h a polemi c agains t th e classifying powe r o f falle n language , a n aggressive , culturall y coerciv e force Whitma n contrast s t o th e suppose d resource s o f th e proper name . Proper name s sugges t t o Whitma n th e possibilit y o f a languag e tha t innocently expresse s th e essenc e o f eac h individua l creatur e o r thing . They see m t o impl y tha t linguisti c classificatio n i s a n avoidabl e an d therefore nefariou s violence : whil e th e classifyin g power s o f languag e generate th e coerciv e representation s cultur e imposes , th e prope r nam e exemplifies linguisti c resource s tha t supposedl y migh t hav e save d u s from thes e disasters. 55 W e shal l se e shortl y ho w Whitman' s visio n o f proper name s i s specificall y edenic : describin g a languag e tha t i s no t ours, i t als o define s a worl d tha t coul d no t b e ou r own . Whitman' s remarks, however , obscur e thi s impossibility : th e prope r nam e i s insis tently made to define what the word (an d the world) shoul d be. Whitman's writings on language make the slide from the proper name into classificatio n a crucial instanc e of th e supposedly merel y contingen t fall fro m expressio n t o indication . Whil e accordin g t o Whitma n th e expressive sign has an intrinsic connection t o what it signifies an d makes the object' s organi c energie s manifest , th e indicativ e sig n possesse s a merely arbitrar y relatio n t o it s objec t an d i s thu s devoi d o f suc h re sources.56 I n Whitman' s accoun t th e ac t o f categorizatio n exemplifie s this lapse . Inten t o n namin g a n objec t i n orde r t o mak e i t availabl e fo r practical manipulatio n rathe r tha n t o expres s it s uniqueness , falle n cul ture designate s th e thin g b y mean s o f a ter m alread y i n circulation , a word th e objec t mus t shar e wit h othe r entitie s tha t acquire d thi s desig nation thoug h equall y capriciou s procedures ; ignorin g th e object' s in trinsic characteristics , suc h indicativ e term s dispos e i t arbitrarily , drop ping it into gerrymandered groups . In Whitman's accoun t th e prope r nam e avoid s suc h violence—o r a t

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least i t ough t to . Attentiv e t o th e individua l entity , th e prope r nam e should expres s somethin g inheren t i n i t rathe r tha n foistin g a n alie n structure upo n it : Names of cities, islands, rivers, new settlements, dec. These should / must assimilate in sentimen t an d i n sound , t o somethin g organi c in th e place, or identica l with it. (Words, DBN 3:705) It turn s out , however , tha t th e propriet y o f th e prope r name , whic h should epitomiz e th e authenti c resource s o f language , i s peculiarl y vul nerable t o th e encroachment s o f classification , fro m whic h i t mus t b e vigilantly protected : th e prope r nam e ha s a n unnervin g tendenc y t o become a kin d o f surreptitiou s clas s name . In Whitman' s writing s o n language i t i s indee d paradoxicall y th e lapse d prope r nam e rathe r tha n the clas s nam e tha t come s t o exemplif y th e interrelate d evil s o f designa tion an d classification . Sometimes Whitman treat s the loss of organi c expressiveness tha t ca n befall th e prope r nam e a s a kin d o f accident , th e resul t o f mer e careless ness, o r o f ignoranc e a s t o wha t i s a t stak e i n th e proble m o f naming . We ar e often conten t t o hi t o n a n indicativ e nam e rathe r tha n strugglin g to divin e an organi c one : What i s the curious rappor t o f names ? [ . . . ] I have been informed tha t [.. . ] there are [. . . ] people who say that it is not important abou t names , or words —one word is as good as another [. . . ] if the designation [. . . ] be understood. —I say that nothing is more important than names. (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:753-54) Here th e fal l fro m expressio n t o indicatio n tha t ca n plagu e eve n th e proper nam e i s attribute d t o innocen t misunderstanding . Elsewhere , however, thi s slippag e seem s t o furthe r malig n purposes . Indicativ e name s can b e purposel y employe d t o denatur e th e uniqu e object , subjectin g i t to th e alienatin g violenc e o f socia l structur e b y consignin g i t to a strate gically motivate d rathe r tha n merel y accidenta l grouping . Suc h imperia l interference i s simultaneousl y linguisti c an d political . Th e ke y categor y of th e America n plac e nam e i s thu s Whitman' s crucia l instanc e o f suc h tampering: California i s sown thick with the names of all the little and big saints —(Chase them away and substitute aboriginal names What i s the strang e char m fitnes s [ . . . . ] Wha t th e fitness strange char m of

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aboriginal names?—Monongahela [.. . ] it rolls with venison richness upon the palate. (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:752) This extravagan t prais e o f aborigina l name s i s attributabl e i n par t t o the sor t o f politica l boosteris m I note d above : Whitma n aim s t o fre e America fro m al l linguistic evidence of foreig n influence. 57 Bu t ultramar ine name s ar e supposedl y foreig n i n a mor e profoun d sense , jus t a s native name s ar e nativ e i n a mor e radica l way . Aborigina l name s ar e supposedly indigenou s no t onl y t o th e regio n bu t also , as it were, to th e particular thing s the y name . I shall tak e u p furthe r o n Whitman' s argu ment fo r thi s suppose d organi c bon d betwee n prope r nam e an d uniqu e object whic h aborigina l name s exemplify ; i t depend s o n a ti e betwee n vocalization an d organi c structur e thi s quotatio n alread y implies . In contrast t o suc h supposedl y intrinsi c names , th e "foreignness " o f th e European word s affixe d t o th e America n landscap e consist s mos t pro foundly i n thei r merel y arbitrar y relatio n t o th e thing s the y name , a n arbitrariness thei r transplantatio n fro m ol d circumstance s an d use s in sures. These names ar e not truly proper: her e the fall fro m th e aborigina l name t o the merely arbitrar y foreig n on e is also implicitly a fall fro m th e proper t o th e clas s name , whic h assimilate s uniqu e nativ e place s an d objects t o alie n categorie s an d thu s annexe s the m fo r imperia l use . This violence has been inflicte d o n America n person s a s well as American places . Whitma n o f cours e inveigh s agains t suc h imperia l aggres sion. Bu t hi s progra m fo r rectifyin g i t share s th e crankines s tha t ofte n characterizes hi s plans fo r reform : What [ . . . ] is there in the best aboriginal names? What [.. . ] is there in strong words o f qualities , bodily , mental,— a nam e give n t o th e [ . . . ] cleanes t an d most beautiful body , or t o th e offspring o f th e same?—What i s there that will conform t o the genius of These States, and to all the facts [ . . . ] ?—What escape [. . . ] wit h perfec t freedom , withou t affectation , i s ther e fro m th e shoal s o f Johns, Peters, Davids, Marys, Or on what other name s happy principle , popular an d fluent, shal l could othe r words b e prefixed o r suffixe d t o these , to mak e them sho w who the y are , and what land they were born in, what government [. . . ] which of The States, and what genius , mark, bloo d [ . . . ] times [ . . . ] have coined them wit h thei r own strong-cut coinage? (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:744~45) 58 This invectiv e i s directe d i n par t a t th e sor t o f ultramarin e influenc e Whitman als o condemn s i n hi s consideratio n o f America n plac e names .

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Yet i n thi s instanc e too , th e transplante d Europea n nam e come s t o symbolize the class name; the political annexatio n inveighe d agains t her e is als o th e expropriatio n o f th e uniqu e an d prope r b y mean s o f th e category, fro m th e trammel s o f whic h Whitma n concoct s a n elaborat e program t o fre e America n citizens . This concer n fo r th e prope r govern s th e passag e despit e th e absenc e of an y over t clai m t o b e abl e t o restor e t o American s th e edeni c perfec tion o f th e trul y prope r name . I n th e "practical " contex t o f imaginin g reforms tha t migh t begi n t o und o th e damag e alread y cause d b y ultra marine names , Whitma n indee d envision s a n elaborat e inflectiona l sys tem tha t apparentl y migh t rebuf f th e imperia l interest s advance d b y foreign name s onl y a t th e cos t o f exacerbatin g anothe r linguisti c catas trophe: h e propose s t o reclai m American s fro m th e Europea n name s arbitrarily impose d upo n the m b y supplementin g thi s foreig n taxonom y with a more minutel y detaile d indigenou s one . The very laboriousness o f this effor t suggest s tha t th e ai m o f suc h reform s i s no t solel y political : European influence , afte r all , might b e more easil y repudiate d b y simpl y replacing th e stoc k o f foreig n name s wit h a n equa l numbe r o f "aborigi nal" ones . Whitman' s bizarr e visio n o f name s modifie d b y multipl e supplementary marker s shoul d thu s als o b e rea d a s a paradoxica l effor t to overcome the dangers of classification b y means of more classification . This parado x register s bot h th e intensit y o f Whitman' s discomfor t wit h the power o f th e category an d th e elusive status of a n edeni c limit he ca n approach onl y b y means that a t leas t temporarily exacerbat e th e very ills they shoul d cure . Whitma n struggle s t o revers e th e fal l fro m linguisti c propriety int o th e violence of classificatio n b y concocting a taxonomy s o minutely detaile d a s t o merge , a t som e asymptoti c limit , int o th e vision ary prospec t o f th e trul y proper : th e categor y finely enoug h tailore d t o fit onl y a singl e objec t woul d a s i t wer e dissolv e int o a trul y prope r name. The fantas y o f th e properly prope r nam e is thus indeed a n edenic one, applicable onl y t o Eden : a s Davi d Simpso n remind s u s (218-19) , th e commutable relatio n betwee n wor d an d objec t whic h define s th e prope r name a s inalienabl e privat e propert y i s conceivabl e onl y fo r a circum scribed, finite field of objects— a sacre d o r ritual spac e much lik e the on e to whic h Whitman' s catalogue s tr y t o reduc e profan e multiplicity . Shor t of tha t field an d tha t limit , th e effor t t o restor e th e prope r mus t mak e

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use o f imprope r means . Whitma n her e no t onl y implicitl y equate s th e violence o f cultura l imperialis m wit h th e linguisti c violenc e o f categori zation; th e violence of the category, in turn, seem s to be one from whic h naming an d languag e ca n b e onl y laboriousl y an d provisionall y sepa rated. Yet thi s pervasiv e entanglin g o f th e prope r nam e i n th e evil s o f categorization turn s ou t t o posses s ambiguou s significance . O n th e one hand, i t ca n sugges t th e elusivenes s o f th e proper withi n language , an d thus th e shak y statu s o f a linguisti c doctrin e centerin g o n it : th e ver y notion o f the proper i s in danger o f evaporating a s the fall int o th e class name turn s ou t t o hav e compromise d (nearly ) al l suppose d instances . Yet on the other hand , thi s slippag e o f the proper nam e int o th e surreptitious clas s nam e ca n paradoxicall y b e enliste d t o sugges t tha t th e supposed authenti c propriet y o f a few aboriginal word s properl y define s language: th e mas s o f name s tha t lac k th e traits thes e aborigina l word s seem t o posses s ca n b e disqualified a s no t reall y bein g prope r name s a t all. Th e fac t tha t categorizatio n turn s u p eve n withi n th e proper name , that is , ca n b e construe d a s enablin g rathe r tha n compromisin g a n attempt t o defin e th e resource s o f languag e o n th e basi s o f th e proper : occurring withi n th e domai n o f th e prope r nam e itself , th e laps e int o categorization tha t characterize s th e mas s o f languag e ca n b e regarde d as contingen t rathe r tha n inevitable ; i t seem s attributabl e t o cultura l imperialism rathe r tha n structura l necessity . The fiasco o f imprope r prope r name s i s accordingl y balance d i n Whit man's wor k b y a visio n o f clas s name s whic h obe y th e proprieties tha t (should) defin e th e proper nam e itself. A bizarre notion o f commutabilit y derived fro m a strictl y untenabl e vie w o f th e prope r nam e organize s Whitman's consideratio n o f al l nomination an d al l word use ; his vision of semantic s i s implicitl y governe d b y thi s determinatio n o f th e trul y proper nam e a s the proper mod e of language. This attempt t o extend the rules tha t ough t t o gover n th e prope r nam e t o th e entiret y o f languag e makes clea r tha t wha t motivate s th e distinctio n betwee n th e prope r name an d the category i s hardly th e effort t o formulate a n objective an d sustainable linguisti c taxonomy . I t i s instea d th e nee d t o imagin e a n entire languag e define d b y a n elusiv e limit : th e limi t o f on e represente r per represented , a vision o f absolute uniquenes s an d propriety someho w

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to b e sustaine d i n an d b y th e word . Thi s globa l aspiratio n respond s t o and seek s t o revers e th e violenc e o f a linguisti c an d cultura l imperialis m that seem s equally pervasive . Whitman's attemp t t o mak e al l languag e confor m t o th e commutabl e relation betwee n wor d an d objec t tha t shoul d defin e th e prope r nam e i s implied b y a serie s o f strang e pronouncement s tha t overtl y tak e u p th e problem o f precis e classificatio n rathe r tha n th e perfec t propriet y whic h the authenti c prope r nam e shoul d insure . Th e strangenes s o f thes e pro nouncements i s perhap s a functio n o f thi s displacement . Thei r vehe mence seems motivated a t least in part b y a concern tha t doe s not surfac e overtly: passionatel y arguin g tha t word s themselve s mus t b e protecte d from th e violenc e o f bein g lumpe d indiscriminatel y together , Whitma n thereby struggle s t o subdu e indirectl y a n aggressio n h e elsewhere blame s words fo r inflictin g o n things . W e ma y thu s find hi m insistin g puncti liously o n th e absolut e uniquenes s an d propriet y o f th e individua l word , fending of f th e partia l synonym s tha t mak e semantic s th e descriptio n o f a comple x networ k o f overlappin g terms . Word s themselve s shoul d b e accorded th e respec t prope r t o person s an d things , whic h is , precisely , respect fo r th e uniqu e o r proper : One beaut y o f word s i s exactitude:—T o me , eac h wor d ou t o f th e tha t now compose the English language, has its own meaning, and does not stand for any thin g bu t itself—an d ther e ar e n o tw o word s tha t ar c th e sam e and an y more than there are two persons the same. (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:736) In th e notebook s assemble d a s Words, w e ca n find Whitma n a t wor k warding of f a complementar y contamination . I f i n th e Primer n o tw o words ar e to possess overlapping meanings , in Words multipl e meaning s of a singl e ter m mus t als o b e rule d ou t (her e Whitma n misuse s "syn onyms"): Of course the word "Indian " does not belong apply to the American aborigines. —It originated—A n India n i s a ma n o r woma n o f th e [ . . . ] souther n an d eastern half of Asia. It confuses an d vexes language to have these such synonyms with contra-meanings. (DBN 3:709) The fac t tha t Whitma n i s her e pursuin g a visionar y agend a i s indi cated b y th e contras t betwee n thes e remark s an d a quotatio n th e practi cal studen t o f contemporar y linguistic s clippe d ou t an d paste d int o a n earlier pag e o f Words. Nothin g surroundin g th e extrac t suggest s disap proval:

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If it be a sign of richness in a language that a single word is used to express many quite different things, the good old English may be regarded as the Rothschild of languages. For instance, how many significations li e in that single monosyllable box? (DBN 3:684) Repudiating suc h slippage , Whitma n i n hi s visionar y guis e commit s himself instea d t o th e Utopia n projec t o f makin g word s themselve s ex hibit—and thu s perhaps sustain—perfect distinctnes s and autonomy . The visionar y statu s o f thi s progra m i s strikingl y suggeste d b y th e awkwardness o f Whitman' s attempt s t o imagin e ho w i t migh t b e pu t into practice . The projec t o f th e prope r lie s behin d Whitman' s remark s concerning frequenc y o f wor d us e a s wel l a s thos e abou t punctiliou s categorization. Bu t the implicit attemp t to make actual discours e exhibi t the commutabl e relatio n betwee n wor d an d individua l objec t whic h authentic prope r name s supposedl y sustai n lead s t o proviso s tha t ar e palpably outlandish. Each word, according to Whitman, must occupy its own proper place, and no key word ma y be repeated: (One single nam e belongs t o one singl e place only—as a word a a keyword of a X book may be best used only once in a book. In most instances A characteristic word once used in a poem, speech, or what not, i s the n exhauste d [. . . ] he who think s h e is going t o produc e effect s b y piling freel y usin g stron g words , i s bu t a ignoran t o f words . (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:750) What govern s Whitman' s bizarr e openin g stricture s her e i s th e implici t (and impossible ) visio n o f languag e a s reducibl e t o th e paradig m o f th e proper name: it is only th e (truly ) proper name that might have a single, irreplaceable referent . Bu t th e propriet y o f th e prope r nam e whic h i s Whitman's implici t mode l fo r al l wor d us e her e i s itsel f extravagantl y construed: lik e th e uniqu e bein g i t names , the word supposedl y belong s in only a single place (thoug h thi s is strictly inconceivable) ; i t should b e as incapabl e o f duplicat e appearance s a s th e singula r livin g bein g t o which it would thus be indissolubly wedded . We ca n se e clearl y her e wha t th e paradig m o f th e prope r nam e i s meant t o protect , an d wha t i t staves off: i n this vision, languag e simpl y reflects th e contents an d contours o f existence ; the discrete orders brough t into bein g b y discours e disappear . The violenc e fro m whic h Whitma n here protects th e word i s thus a violence fo r which al l word s excep t th e truly proper name are elsewhere made responsible: the violence of indis-

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criminate repetitio n o r application , a n aggressio n agains t th e unique an d proper creatur e an d occasion . Whitman's accoun t implie s tha t word s protecte d fro m suc h violenc e will als o b e innocent o f it , a consequence tha t obey s th e rule s o f magica l rather tha n logica l thinking . Word s use d a s i f the y wer e prope r name s should acquir e th e protectiv e virtue s o f th e prope r name ; n o longe r repeated indiscriminately , the y woul d n o longe r designat e indiscrimi nately either . Bu t Whitman' s visio n i n th e Primer o f th e wa y prope r us e transforms statu s goe s further . Th e commutabilit y o f nam e an d thin g that ough t t o gover n al l word us e not onl y wards of f th e violence word s otherwise d o t o things ; i t als o empower s th e wor d b y fusin g i t wit h it s object. Whitman' s admonitio n agains t havin g a singl e wor d appea r i n more tha n a singl e plac e i s thu s followe d b y som e surprisin g assertion s concerning th e pay-off fo r suc h punctiliou s wor d use : A great true composition in words, is returns the human body, male or female— that i s th e mos t perfec t composition , an d shal l b e best-belove d b y me n an d women, and shall last the longest, which slights no part of the body, and repeats no part of the body. (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:750-51 ) Whitman's closin g provis o her e make s i t clea r tha t mor e i s involve d i n these remark s tha n a ple a fo r physica l frankness . I f n o par t o f th e bod y is t o b e ignore d i n "perfec t composition, " n o par t i s t o b e repeate d either. I t is this one-to-one relatio n o f word t o thing, and no t simpl y lac k of squeamishness , tha t "return s th e huma n body, " a resul t whic h thu s seems to consis t of mor e than renewin g our respec t fo r an d comfor t wit h the flesh . In th e magi c tha t lurk s here , word s reserve d fo r a singl e occasion, an d namin g a singl e object , shoul d ceas e bein g mer e designa tions, sharing the qualities an d attainin g the quiddity o f what the y name . In Whitman' s languag e theor y word s treate d a s i f the y wer e thing s become consubstantia l wit h them ; th e wor d use d properl y conjure s u p the presence o f th e objec t wit h whic h i t is fused . This powe r i s o f cours e extreme . Bu t i t i s no t t o b e confuse d wit h th e sort o f powe r th e falle n wor d wields ; indee d i t serve s t o exorcis e tha t fallen power , protectin g an d presentin g th e unique , irreplaceabl e objec t rather tha n occultin g i t withi n a culturall y generate d category . Ye t th e awkwardness o f Whitman' s attemp t t o imagin e a languag e i n whic h

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each wor d woul d b e restricte d t o a singl e appearanc e an d wedde d t o a single object suggest s tha t th e elusive paradigm o f th e truly prope r nam e tells u s les s abou t languag e tha n abou t th e anxietie s ou r subjectio n t o i t provokes. Th e prope r nam e sustain s a drea m o f escap e o r exemption : from repetitio n an d multipl e applicatio n a s th e prope r mod e o f lan guage; fro m th e powe r o f th e transposabl e categor y ove r th e uniqu e creature an d occasion ; fro m th e coercive force a n imposed nomenclatur e exerts ove r everythin g i t names . Whitman's effort s t o mak e languag e displa y th e intrinsi c o r th e prope r thus respon d t o th e anxietie s detaile d i n Leaves of Grass a t th e pric e o f ignoring th e linguisti c relativis m characteristi c o f th e mos t sophisticate d contemporary languag e theory. 59 Humboldt , fo r example , argue s tha t the prope r nam e characterize s nominatio n onl y a t som e unrecoverabl e origin: eac h soun d o r single-syllabl e word , h e suggests , originally corre sponded t o a discret e impression , it s meanin g bein g a s uniqu e a s th e individual objec t tha t provoke d i t (Linguistic Variability 242-43) . Bu t he insist s tha t a phenomenon mor e trul y characteristi c o f languag e soo n takes over : th e soun d provoke d b y a particular impressio n i s attached t o others throug h th e principl e o f analog y centra l t o language , enlistin g what wa s onc e a prope r nam e t o d o th e wor k o f th e category . A s i n Whitman's account , thi s los s of propriet y i s also a loss of expressivity , a slide into designatio n a s well a s classification : This phenomenon , whereb y a language , followin g a genera l analogy , applie s sounds appropriate to specific cases to other cases to which they are strange can also be found i n other parts of its operation. {Linguistic Variability 243) Unlike Whitman , however , Humbold t present s thi s shif t a s inevitabl e and irreversible ; no r doe s he bemoan it s occurrence . We migh t indee d rea d suc h passage s a s offerin g a heuristi c fabl e rather tha n a literal historica l account : Humbold t ma y b e making asser tions abou t structura l necessit y i n th e guis e o f a tempora l narrative ; t o call somethin g a n origina l bu t unrecoverabl e trai t ma y b e no t t o lamen t its passing bu t instea d t o remar k it s structural inadequacy , it s incapacit y to perfor m th e wor k o f symboli c language . Accordin g t o bot h Aarslef f (150) an d Pau l d e Man (Blindness and Insight n 2 - 4 1 ) , account s o f th e origins o f languag e wer e rea d a s jus t suc h parable s o f structur e durin g the perio d i n whic h the y wer e written . Bu t Aarslef f furthe r argue s tha t philology's diachroni c focu s mad e i t increasingl y difficul t fo r mid-nine -

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teenth-century reader s t o understan d suc h narrative s i n th e heuristi c terms their authors had intended (150-63) , with the result that academic linguists younger than a liminal figure like Humboldt dismisse d remark s about origin s a s naiv e speculation s ungrounde d i n empirica l research , while enthusiast s embrace d the m a s literally vali d account s pointin g th e way bac k t o vanishe d trait s tha t ough t t o b e recoverable . Th e latte r response help s motivat e Whitman' s consideratio n o f th e prope r name , whose functio n a s tru e namin g ha s supposedl y bee n progressivel y oc culted b y a n aggressiv e categorizin g syste m tha t ough t t o hav e bee n avoidable and should be eradicable. As we shall see further on, Whitman explicitly appeal s t o th e putativ e trait s o f vanishe d (o r nearly-vanished ) languages in order to sustain this vision of the proper name as the proper mode of language . We ar e in a position t o understand thi s selective appea l t o diachroni c data as a way out of the structural impasse I have been analyzing: despite itself, Whitman' s synchronic accoun t reveal s th e sam e incapacit y o f th e proper nam e t o defin e th e field of languag e tha t Humboldt's diachroni c parable ma y hav e bee n designe d t o suggest . Jacque s Derrida , whos e interpretation o f th e genr e o f th e origin s essa y i s mor e skeptica l tha n Aarsleff's o r d e Man's, assimilatin g th e mod e itsel f t o wha t the y regar d as its subsequent misreading , understand s Rousseau' s Essay on the Origin of Languages t o b e makin g a similar appea l t o diachroni c narrativ e to evad e wha t th e tex t itsel f reveal s t o b e structural necessity . Minglin g paraphrase an d critique , Derrid a display s th e vision o f propriet y articu lated b y Rousseau , whic h i s a milde r versio n o f th e on e I have trie d t o uncover in Whitman's work, a s a kind of Fata Morgana o f the word. H e reminds us as well of what this mirage is designed to protect: the first substantives were not common bu t proper nouns or names. The absolutely literal [propre] i s at the origin: one sign to one thing, one representer per passion. (Grammatology 278-79) Which suppose s tha t ther e migh t b e . . . somethin g lik e a uniqu e sig n fo r a unique thing, a supposition contradictor y to the very concept and operation of the sign. To determine the first sign in this way, to foun d or deduce the entire system of signs with reference to a sign which does not belong to that system, is to reduce signification to presence. (Grammatology 284) What the proper name ought to sustain is presence: the pristine integrit y of th e thin g itself , no t ye t annexe d t o somethin g els e o r divide d agains t

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itself t o serv e alie n purposes . I f Derrid a suggest s her e tha t effort s t o justify th e primacy o f prope r name s o n a systematic o r taxonomic basi s will alway s prov e awkward , a n alternative argumen t for the perduranc e of the unique thing within language thus remains available: any evidence of a n organic, intrinsic tie between word and object will sugges t that the thing itself ca n be made present in and by the word. If the effort t o ward off expropriatio n b y suggestin g tha t al l wor d us e migh t confor m t o th e model o f th e prope r nam e remain s unconvincing , Whitma n thu s at tempts to ground the vision of the proper as the essence of languag e in a more radica l sor t o f propriety : th e prope r nam e i s no t onl y th e privat e property o f th e object ; i t i s als o prope r o r nativ e t o it , emanatin g fro m and no t jus t attachin g t o th e creatur e o r thin g i t names . A s Simpso n suggests, this vision of the word as proceeding from the thing is a drastic denial of the social provenance and ideological power of languag e (234 35). Skirtin g taxonomi c difficulties , i t cancel s th e coerciv e aspec t o f nomination b y makin g th e nam e a function no t o f cultura l project s bu t of th e natural object itself. It i s o f cours e har d t o find mor e tha n sporadi c an d questionabl e evidence o f suc h organi c link s betwee n wor d an d thin g i n actua l lan guages. Here , however , diachroni c data—o r selectiv e an d skewe d in stances o f it—i s readil y availabl e t o th e enthusiast . Seekin g t o sin k th e word i n th e thing , Whitma n finds som e suppor t i n discussion s o f th e motivated status of the sign among reputable linguists. But he also draws on the host of les s scrupulous speculation s thes e analyses helpe d spawn . Since thi s aspec t o f Whitman' s languag e theor y i s crucia l t o th e poet' s largest claims , i t i s wort h situatin g hi s visio n o f th e motivate d statu s o f the sign in this historical nexus . 4. Whitman' s visio n o f a language tha t emanates fro m thing s ha s muc h in commo n wit h th e notio n o f a "languag e o f nature " tha t enjoye d currency i n American transcendentalis t circle s an d their environs. Inter est in such a natural languag e wa s owing largel y to the efforts o f Ameri can Swedenborgians ; th e concep t i s evoke d powerfull y i n th e wor k o f Sampson Reed . Accordin g t o th e hermeti c traditio n Ree d expounds , a s Philip Gura explains, "at the Creation God had impressed into the fabric of natur e a set of correlatives , o r symbols, which man , after discovering the creative power o f hi s mind, coul d rea d with a new an d ever-increasing clarity (84—85)." 60 "There is a language," Reed thus suggested.

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not of words, but of things . . . . everythin g which is, whether animal or vegetable, is full o f th e expressio n o f tha t us e for whic h i t i s designed, a s of it s own existence. If we did bu t understan d it s language, what coul d ou r word s ad d t o its meaning? (Growth of the Mind 46) This languag e o f natur e wa s a languag e o f trul y prope r names : "Every thing which surround s u s is full o f the utterance o f one word, completel y expressive o f it s nature . Thi s wor d i s it s nam e . . ." (Growth of the Mind 4 7). Despite th e glancin g referenc e t o utteranc e here , this heterodox tradi tion devalue s th e spoke n wor d i n favo r o f th e languag e o f gesture , a s John Irwi n show s i n American Hieroglyphics. Accordin g t o Ree d th e "language o f nature " wa s th e languag e o f Eden , an d i t preclude d th e need fo r huma n speech : "Ada m an d Ev e kne w n o languag e bu t thei r Garden" ("Oratio n o n Genius " n ) . 6 1 Adam' s primar y languag e skill , that is , wa s knowin g ho w t o rea d th e analogical , spiritua l significanc e God ha d writte n o n o r implante d i n hi s creatures ; Adam' s communica tion supposedl y consiste d simpl y o f th e ostensiv e gesture s b y whic h h e shared hi s deligh t i n thes e intrinsi c meaning s wit h th e equall y adep t reader Eve. 62 Within thi s tradition, a s Irwin suggests , the birt h o f huma n speech constitute s a laps e fro m th e edeni c unio n o f Ada m wit h th e objects o f hi s garde n an d o f languag e wit h th e intrinsi c spiritua l mean ings t o whic h gestur e ha d modestl y draw n attention : th e fal l i s " a discontinuity whos e linguisti c equivalen t i s th e substitutio n o f th e arbi trary languag e o f spoke n word s fo r th e prio r an d necessar y languag e o f natural signs " (Irwi n 34) . Whitman's notio n o f organi c name s clearl y owe s muc h t o thi s tradi tion. W e canno t b e sur e tha t h e rea d Reed , o r tha t h e kne w Elizabet h Peabody's translatio n o f th e Frenc h Swedenborgia n Guillaum e Oegger' s The True Messiah, a crucia l sourc e fo r Emerson' s "Nature." 6 3 Bu t Swedenborgianism wa s muc h discusse d i n th e circle s Whitma n fre quented; Floy d Stoval l take s the poet's acquaintanc e wit h it s basic tenets for grante d (228-29). 6 4 As Irwin persuasivel y suggest s (29) , a prelapsar ian "languag e o f things " seem s t o b e wha t Whitma n ha s i n min d i n hi s enigmatic reference s t o "substantia l words " i n " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth": Human bodies are words, myriads of words (1856 322) Air, soil, water, fire, these are words, I myself am a word with them [....] (185 6 323)

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Devoted t o recoverin g suc h substantia l words , the poem a t leas t appear s to shar e Reed' s suspicio n o f huma n speech : I swear I begin to see little or nothing in audible words! I swear I think all merges toward th e presentation o f the unspoken meaning s of the earth! (1856 329) Yet as Irwi n als o suggests , Whitman's wor k combine s th e notio n o f a language o f natur e wit h a commitment t o voice : Whitman's attempt to regain the original language of natural signs , his effort t o replace "audibl e words " wit h "th e presentatio n o f th e unspoke n meaning s o f the earth," involves the paradoxical use of phonetic signs to restore the unspoken (nonphonetic) languag e o f pictographi c ideograms . . .. i t i s in ligh t o f th e Romantic concept of song as the transcending of the mediation of spoken language through spoken languag e tha t Whitman' s effor t t o transfor m th e physical int o the metaphysical must be understood. (38) This notio n tha t voic e migh t recove r th e languag e o f natur e i s indee d central t o Whitman's work ; bu t a s we shall see it is less paradoxical tha n Irwin suggests . First , Whitman' s commitmen t t o th e hermeti c doctrin e of signature s o r natura l writing , a doctrine th e hieroglyphic craz e helpe d revive, i s mor e ambivalen t tha n Irwi n implies . Second , hi s passionat e espousal o f th e organi c propertie s o f soun d an d o f ora l languag e grow s out o f a systemati c argumen t fo r th e expressiv e power s o f th e phoneme , an argumen t promulgate d b y bot h academi c an d hermeti c linguist s dur ing the period. Third, th e yoking of thi s notion o f expressive orality wit h the doctrin e o f a languag e o f natur e i s less aberrant tha n Irwi n suggests : we can discove r a similar conjunctio n i n such a central sourc e as Boehme and find i t in Emerson a s well. Detailed b y Irwin , Whitman' s enthusias m fo r Champollion' s decodin g of th e hieroglyph s i s undeniable , a s i s hi s interes t i n th e doctrin e o f natural signature s wit h whic h a hermeti c interpretatio n o f hieroglyphi c script comporte d (20-24) . Ye t hermeti c writin g i s stil l writing ; a s I argued i n chapte r 3 , Whitman' s respons e t o th e visio n o f natur e a s emblem boo k i s accordingly ambivalent . Hi s depictio n o f a hieroglyphi c book o f natur e i s often marke d b y the sor t o f impatienc e tha t character izes hi s reactio n t o indicativ e signs : thoug h it s emblem s ar e supposedl y motivated rathe r tha n arbitrary , eve n nature' s hieroglyph s signif y a pres-

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ence the y d o no t mak e manifest . A s Whitma n depict s it , th e natura l emblem typicall y lack s th e qualit y o f revelatio n i t possesse s i n Reed' s account, approachin g instead , i n its opacity, the blankness o f the "husk " or indicativ e surface . W e ca n recal l a passage fro m a n earl y noteboo k i n this regard; i t mingles aw e with a quotient o f frustration : And I cannot put my toe anywhere to the ground, But it must touch numberless and curious books Each one scorning all that schools and science can do fully t o translate them. (UPP 2:70) In the comic world o f "Son g o f Myself, " th e poet sometime s react s t o the sign s tha t resis t decipherin g wit h staunc h goo d humo r an d a resolv e to d o hi s leve l best . H e ca n soun d lik e a n od d mi x o f prophe t an d grammar schooler : And I know I am solid and sound, To me the converging objects of the universe perpetually flow , All are written to me, and I must get what the writing means. (1855 43) Yet th e absenc e o f direc t revelatio n leave s eve n th e resilien t her o o f "Song o f Myself " confrontin g a hieroglyphi c tex t whos e opacit y ca n b e haunting. I n sectio n si x th e poe t read s a dar k fatalit y i t seem s t o b e hi s fate t o accep t rather tha n overcome : A child said, What is the grass? fetching it to me with full hands; How coul d I answe r th e child ? . . . . I d o no t kno w wha t i t i s an y mor e than he [....]

Or I guess it is a uniform hieroglyphic , And it means, Sprouting alike in broad zones and narrow zones, Growing among black folks as among white, Kanuck, Tuckahoe, Congressman, Cuff, I give them the same, I receive them the same. (1855 29) The darknes s an d wonde r discernibl e her e ar e provoked no t onl y b y th e death th e poe t believe s h e read s i n thi s "unifor m hieroglyph, " bu t als o by th e stil l elusiv e meanin g o f suc h mortality , th e difficul t legibilit y o f this natural text . Sometimes, a s i n thi s sectio n o f "Son g o f Myself, " th e poet attribute s the difficult y h e encounter s i n decipherin g suc h natura l hieroglyph s t o his ow n incapacities . Mor e characteristically , though , hi s trouble s ap pear t o derive from a n intrinsic defect i n the text he tries to read. Outsid e

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the comi c contex t o f "Son g o f Myself, " a s I suggested i n chapter 3 , this deficiency tend s t o provok e no t good-humore d patienc e bu t a gri m resolve t o brea k throug h th e blockag e i t causes. Th e poet's generi c tas k is not to read nature's emblems but to burrow through them and reclaim the presences the y signify . S o i n "Son g o f th e Ope n Road " the "incom prehensible" surface s o f th e boo k o f natur e ar e implicitl y t o b e peele d away rather than perused: The earth is rude, silent, incomprehensible at first—natureis rude and incomprehensible at first, Be not discouraged—keep on—there are divine things, well enveloped I swear t o yo u ther e ar e divine thing s mor e beautifu l tha n word s ca n tell! ("Song of the Open Road," 1856 231) Nature's surfaces are indeed sometimes depicted not as hermetic signs that encryp t sens e bu t instea d a s non-sense . Suc h image s ar e a kin d o f catachresis of the trope of natur e as emblem book : The great poet submits only to himself. I s nature rude, free, irregular? If nature be so , d o yo u to o b e so . D o yo u suppos e natur e ha s nothin g unde r thos e beautiful, terrible, irrational forms? (CW 9:162) Within th e hieroglyphi c traditio n Whitma n modifies , th e emblemati c surface o r signatur e attest s t o th e object' s divin e provenance , whil e ou r inability t o deciphe r i t i s th e mar k o f ou r ow n falle n nature . Fo r Whit man, b y contrast , th e emblemati c surface s o f object s ar e unnecessar y sources o f blockage , an d their illegibilit y i s more ofte n attribute d t o th e fallen, divided status of the object than to our incapacities. Writing, even "hieroglyphic" writing , i s thu s t o b e cas t asid e i n favo r o f th e actua l presence i t attest s t o bu t doe s no t directl y reveal . Rathe r tha n bein g rendered unnecessar y b y th e boo k o f nature , huma n language—o r a t least th e poet' s language—mus t instea d restor e th e deficiencie s o f na ture's tex t o r by-pas s th e necessit y fo r readin g it . A s th e recurren t topological trop e tha t intertwine s wit h Whitman' s depiction s o f th e book o f natur e alread y implies , i t i s voice tha t wil l perfor m thi s crucia l task. Emanatin g fro m insid e th e creatur e o r object, voic e an d soun d ar e supposedly direct , unmediate d expression s o f it s animatin g energie s o r intrinsic structure; unfallen huma n language—whic h i s oral language — supposedly repeat s such expressive effusions . It i s th e poet' s tas k t o restor e thi s expressiv e stratu m t o word s no w apparently devoi d o f a n organi c ti e t o th e thing s the y name , word s

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whose misus e a s mer e token s o r designation s ha s obscure d thi s crucia l feature. Despit e Whitman's ambivalen t interes t i n the notion o f hermeti c script an d th e doctrin e o f signatures , i n hi s wor k suc h abus e o f th e ora l resources o f th e wor d i s epitomized—or perhap s eve n engendered—b y writing. Whitman's notio n tha t prope r huma n speec h reproduce s th e sound s an d hence th e essentia l energie s o f th e creature s an d object s i t name s wa s characteristically repudiate d b y the period' s professiona l linguists . But i t found a kin d o f partia l suppor t i n th e widespread , respectabl e belie f i n the motivate d statu s o f th e ora l sign . I f th e heterodo x traditio n Irwi n recapitulates ascribe d a natural , organi c connectio n wit h object s o r es sences onl y t o suc h hermeti c writte n sign s a s th e hieroglyph , associatin g oral languag e wit h th e fal l int o arbitrar y designation , a contrar y bu t equally visionar y traditio n thu s als o persiste d i n Whitman' s time . I t enjoyed th e advantag e o f bein g abl e t o fin d i n th e wor k o f professiona l linguists attenuate d version s o f a doctrin e whos e radica l implication s a properly unfettere d understandin g migh t restore . I suggeste d earlie r tha t eve n Humbold t doe s no t subscrib e t o th e notion tha t th e phonem e i s purel y arbitrary . H e is , however , rathe r circumspect concernin g bot h th e natur e o f th e connectio n betwee n sig nifier an d signifie d an d th e proportio n o f semanti c dat a thi s ti e migh t account for ; a s I noted , h e als o posit s a gradua l declin e o f suc h a motivated ti e betwee n th e nam e an d th e thin g i t denominates , a shif t h e remarks withou t lament . Pur e onomatopoeia , traditionall y th e trum p card o f theorist s wishin g t o demonstrat e th e motivate d natur e o f th e linguistic sign , i s fo r Humbold t a kin d o f fictiv e limit , neve r wholl y realizable i n articulat e huma n language ; i t i s i n an y case , h e remark s a bit scornfully , rathe r crud e (Linguistic Variability 52). 65 Ye t Humbold t accords som e rol e t o wha t h e call s "indirec t imitation" : simila r object s supposedly ten d t o receiv e name s sharin g commo n sounds , an d ther e is , in a numbe r o f cases , a t leas t som e imitativ e basi s fo r thes e share d features (Linguistic Variability 52-53) . Mor e commonly , however , th e designation o f a range of relate d object s b y similar-sounding words lack s even suc h imperfec t imitativ e rationale : th e sig n i s characteristicall y motivated wit h respec t t o th e syste m o f sign s bu t no t wit h regar d t o th e thing i t denote s (Linguistic Variability 53) . Moreover , accordin g t o Humboldt, eve n word s wit h som e imitativ e basi s modif y thi s featur e b y

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incorporating th e speaker' s emotiona l respons e t o th e thing he names; i t is for thi s reason, among others, that pure vocal imitation doe s not occu r in languag e (Linguistic Variability 35). 66 Ye t Humbold t suggest s tha t even th e mediate d connectio n betwee n wor d an d objec t wa s onc e suffi ciently natura l fo r languag e t o b e naturall y understoo d (Humanist without Portfolio 249) . Suc h connection s betwee n sound s an d th e impres sions tha t provoke d the m supposedl y stil l lur k i n th e root s o f our polysyllabi c words , thoug h w e n o longe r hea r o r understan d the m (Linguistic Variability 242-43) . Whil e Humbold t note s thi s los s h e is no t inten t o n recoupin g it ; th e principa l busines s o f languag e i s a cognitiv e master y suc h sensuou s immediac y ca n imped e rathe r tha n foster. Similar claim s an d proviso s ca n b e foun d i n bot h Schei e d e Vere an d Bunsen. Lik e Humboldt , Schei e d e Ver e posit s a motivate d connectio n between soun d an d meaning , thoug h unlik e hi s predecesso r h e seem s rather enthuse d b y th e prospec t o f retrievin g an d decipherin g suc h ties : the philologist, h e declare s must . . . inquir e int o th e reason s wh y suc h forms , an d n o others , hav e bee n chosen to express such ideas. Proceeding from th e fundamental truth , that in the working of th e divine mind o f man , nothing i s casual o r arbitrary , h e must try to trac e th e correspondenc e betwee n th e oute r for m an d th e inne r meaning — between word and idea, and thus engage in the doctrine of sounds. (199) Scheie de Vere does not allo w thi s archaeologica l enthusias m t o oblit erate th e othe r crucia l limitatio n Humbold t ha d place d o n th e doctrin e of th e motivate d sign . Researc h int o th e connectio n betwee n soun d an d sense will neve r restor e a direct, unmediate d ti e between wor d an d thin g or recove r a languag e tha t give s direc t expressio n t o th e animatin g energies o f th e thing s i t names . Interjection s an d onomatopoei a canno t possibly be , a s enthusiast s woul d hav e it , th e key s t o suc h a n origina l natural language , sinc e the y ar e no t languag e a t all : "unarticulate d sounds ar e not words " (21) . Bunsen put s thi s mor e forcefully , enlistin g a n ethnocentri c observa tion alie n t o th e spiri t o f Humboldt' s linguisti c relativis m t o clinc h a n otherwise broadl y Humboldtia n point : "n o imitatio n o f natur e exist s i n language an y mor e tha n doe s expressio n o f sensation . Th e interjection s are n o part s o f speech , an y mor e tha n th e 'clicks ' o f th e Hottentot s (passionate interjections ) ar e articulat e sounds " (2:132) . No r ca n artic ulate languag e originat e i n pur e onomatopoei a (2:130) . Bunse n thu s

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firmly denies th e existenc e o f an y direct , expressiv e ti e betwee n nam e and object . Whil e ther e i s a n analogica l relatio n betwee n th e phonem e and th e wa y som e qualit y o f th e objec t impresse s th e speaker , th e connection betwee n the name and the thing itself i s merely indicative: It is not that the sound is imitated, or the purely animal sensation is expressed, but th e objec t i s indicated by th e imitatio n o f a qualit y b y whic h th e min d perceives it.. . . (2:132; emphases added) Yet i n Bunse n a s i n Schei e d e Vere, thes e restriction s se t limit s t o a n enthusiastic interes t i n th e motivate d statu s o f th e phoneme . "Ever y sound," Bunse n maintains , "mus t originall y hav e bee n significativ e o f something," obeyin g a n "inwar d necessity , no t a n arbitrar y o r conven tional arrangement " (2:81) . The relation between sound and sense, Bunsen believed , inhere d i n a connection betwee n th e emotiona l respons e a creature o r objec t provoke d i n it s huma n witnes s an d th e physiologica l experience o f producin g differen t phoneme s b y activatin g variou s por tions of the mouth (2:90 , 132) . This visio n o f a motivate d connection , howeve r mediated , betwee n meaning an d soun d possesse d a n allur e speculator s o n languag e foun d hard t o resist . Suc h a borderline figure as Charle s Kraitsir , whos e wor k was publishe d an d champione d b y Elizabet h Peabod y an d influence d a climactic passag e o f Thoreau' s Walden, thu s combine d respec t fo r th e mediated statu s o f th e ti e betwee n wor d an d thin g wit h enthusiasti c espousal o f a cranky educational progra m designed to make this connection accessibl e onc e mor e (t o youn g schoolchildren! ) an d thu s retriev e language from the supposedly degenerate condition in which the relation between soun d an d sens e appear s merel y arbitrary. 67 Positin g th e sam e sort o f connectio n betwee n a n initiatin g impressio n an d th e physiolog y of a voca l respons e a s Bunse n describes , Kraitsi r i s bol d enoug h t o hazard a kin d o f dictionar y o f phoneme s o r "germs " an d t o analyz e words no t merel y int o their component signifyin g syllable s bu t also int o these suppose d primordia l parcel s o f organic , physiologica l sense . O f labials, for example, Kraitsi r opines: They betoke n th e followin g phenomen a an d things: the secondar y o r tertiary, the level or horizontal, the broad, wide, parallel, moving, visible, effected, mealy, superficial, palpable , meeting , mounting , bot h multu m an d minus , measure , middle, falling, flowing,fluttering,flattening, flame,blood, etc., in short, things that are liplike. (168)

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Kraitsir i s adaman t abou t th e natural , an d therefor e invariant , statu s o f such connections: "al l germs hav e an inherent, natural, absolute, organi c meaning . . ." (209) . This intrinsic meaning, though, has been progressively obscured. Ne w words—for reason s Kraitsi r doe s not quit e satisfactorily explain—ofte n violate this natural signifyin g system : These elements [germs], though imbued with absolute, organic significance, have been differently use d or abused by wordwrights. . . . (171) More important , careles s pronunciatio n ha s allowe d th e ti e betwee n sound an d sens e that inheres in words (o r in words not coined b y abusiv e namers) t o sli p away , sinc e th e aura l propertie s o f th e ver y germ s i n which thi s connectio n inhere s hav e bee n perverte d b y misguide d speec h habits. Kraitsir doe s not tak e this degradation calmly : Of wha t importanc e i s the mis-pronunciation whic h i s about 15 0 years old?— Of what importance are dysharmony, cacophony, falsehood, the cutting off fro m other nations , and al l other evi l things connected with , and resultin g from , th e vulgar practice? (39) According t o Kraitsi r th e cause s o f thi s slippag e ar e intellectual , moral , and aestheti c deficienc y o r perversit y (124) . Bu t linguisti c degeneratio n itself gravel y exacerbate s th e defects fro m whic h i t results: How should a senseless dislocation o f sounds, letters, and ideas remain withou t baneful consequence s to the life of humanity? (79) The injuries inflicted t o the sense of hearing (which amount to a deafness fo r the elegancies o f harmon y an d melody);—nay— a perversio n o f th e ver y mora l sentiments,—are among the fruits o f the customary methods of teaching the Ai, Bee, See. (44 ) Kraitsir's ir e her e i s directe d a t th e neglec t o f phonic s i n th e teachin g o f reading. Unlik e suc h enthusiast s o f spellin g refor m a s Noa h Webster , however, Kraitsi r hel d ou t agains t tamperin g wit h Englis h orthograph y to giv e eac h lette r a singl e soun d an d thu s mak e th e writte n wor d represent it s oral counterpar t i n straightforwar d fashion . Fo r the curren t oral for m o f th e wor d i s itself th e targe t o f Kraitsir' s reformis t energies , and present spelling , which preserve s older, more organic pronunciation , is th e ke y t o restorin g thi s origina l propriety . Wha t wa s neede d wa s therefore a comple x instructiona l syste m i n whic h childre n woul d first be taugh t th e "proper " sound s o f th e phoneme s togethe r wit h th e graphi c

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representations whic h stil l posses s a n invariant , commutabl e relatio n t o these original , authenti c phonemi c values ; pupil s woul d thereb y simul taneously b e taugh t t o rea d phoneticall y an d t o pronounc e Englis h words "correctly. " Onl y the n woul d the y b e reminde d o f th e curren t pronunciation o f th e wor d the y ha d jus t bee n taugh t t o rea d an d prop erly pronounce ; bot h th e ga p betwee n correc t an d incorrec t pronuncia tions an d th e distortio n o f orthographi c (an d etymological ) goo d sens e required t o twis t th e writte n wor d int o it s curren t ora l embodimen t would presumabl y engende r intens e abhorrenc e an d inspir e th e youn g student wit h ardo r fo r reform—o f pronunciatio n rathe r tha n spellin g (59—60). Kraitsir' s whol e accoun t i s itsel f marke d b y th e sor t o f zea l a vision o f th e motivate d statu s o f th e sig n tend s to provoke—an enthusi asm fostere d b y th e surmise s o f figure s lik e Humboldt despit e th e provi sos with whic h academi c linguist s too k car e to surroun d them . While Kraitsi r thu s espouse d refor m designe d t o restor e indirec t mo tivation t o the sign , he respected th e line drawn b y academic philologist s between articulat e huma n languag e an d pur e imitativ e effusion . Benja min Taylor , a les s influential bu t stil l symptomati c America n enthusiast , reversed thi s patter n o f restrain t an d indulgence . Havin g littl e t o sa y about linguisti c rehabilitation , Taylor' s od d Attractions of Language, or a Popular View of Natural Language, in all its Varied Displays, in the Animate and Inanimate World; and as Corresponding with Instinct, Intelligence and Reason blur s th e boundar y betwee n th e expressive , natural cr y an d articulate , conventiona l huma n speech . Taylo r i s not s o bold a s to eras e it entirely : These voic e o r vowe l sounds , ar e th e fluid material of al l artificia l language , which woul d naturall y flow on, i n a curren t o f continuou s sound , di d no t th e skill of man, form, limit and distinguish it. On the other hand, the mouth-sounds or consonants compos e all that is strictly artificial in spoken language ; here the superiority of our race is clearly seen. (183) Despite th e enthusias m fo r artific e expresse d here , a predominan t thrust o f Taylor' s boo k i s th e attemp t t o den y tha t th e introductio n o f convention marke d b y consonanta l interruption s o f vocali c flo w consti tutes a n exil e o f articulat e huma n languag e fro m th e domai n o f natural , expressive sound . Th e differenc e betwee n thes e tw o realm s i s said t o b e one of degre e rather tha n kind :

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between natura l an d artificia l language , ther e i s n o intermediat e chasm , o r bridgeless gul f t o b e o'erleaped ; bu t th e transitio n i s easy, an d th e connectio n indissoluble. (182; quoted in Simpson 239) Interjections ar e accordingl y rehabilitated ; regarde d a s par t o f th e lan guage-system proper , the y sugges t th e possibilit y o f sustainin g natura l expressivity withi n codifie d speech . Since the interjectio n i s the expressio n o f emotion , rathe r tha n o f thought , i f w e continu e t o giv e i t a name and a place in artificial language , it must be as the link that binds the two great divisions together. (183) 68 Onomatopoeia i s also resuscitated : The waterfall, i s suggested t o him, and a sound involuntarily escape s his lips; it may be dash or roar, bu t whatever it is, it is an imitation, and b y the assistance of gesture, is understood b y his companion. (175) The passag e fro m suc h expressiv e imitatio n t o articulat e namin g i s pre sented wit h n o hin t o f rupture : "Tha t soun d becam e a word , an d tha t word a name . . ." (179) . Lurking behin d th e enthusiasm s o f Kraitsi r an d Taylor , a s a kin d o f ideal limi t a t whic h the y migh t converge , i s th e notio n o f adami c lan guage o r th e languag e o f nature . I f languag e a t it s origi n wa s directl y imitative, a s Taylo r suggests , an d i f th e sound s mad e b y nature' s crea tures ar e a s expressiv e o f thei r nature s a s huma n phonemes , accordin g to Kraitsir , ar e of huma n responses , then ther e must have been a primor dial languag e i n whic h th e essentia l energie s o f al l nature' s creature s were directly repeate d b y human speech . This primordial languag e ough t to b e recoverable . Th e languag e o f nature , tha t i s t o say , migh t hav e been oral , an d attentio n t o euphon y migh t restor e it . This notio n o f a spoken languag e o f natur e i s at odds with th e particula r hermetic lineag e Irwi n traces . Oegger' s The True Messiah, fo r example , is quit e explici t i n connectin g ora l languag e wit h th e fall . Th e languag e of nature , Oegge r insists , i s "quit e distinc t o f tha t whic h consist s i n sounds whic h ar e articulate d b y mean s o f th e elasticit y o f th e air , an d which hav e merel y a conventiona l meaning " (84) . Bu t suc h a crucia l seventeenth-century sourc e fo r th e traditio n o f a languag e o f natur e a s

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Jacob Boehm e engage s i n painstaking analyse s o f biblica l passage s alon g lines ver y muc h lik e Kraitsir's . Les s circumspec t tha n Kraitsir , i n fact , Boehme glosse s th e wor d o f Go d rathe r tha n th e wor d o f ma n an d thu s claims t o fatho m th e essenc e o f create d thing s an d divin e act s rathe r than th e essentia l principle s o f th e huma n reactio n t o them . Accordin g to Boehm e th e sensation s tha t occu r i n th e mout h whe n w e pronounc e God's wor d alou d ar e a kin d o f voca l emble m o f th e hermeti c meanin g of th e divin e act s thos e word s represent . Glossin g "I n th e beginnin g created GO D heave n an d earth, " fo r example , Boehme remark s o f "cre ated" (©(tuff) : For th e teet h retain the word , lettin g th e spiri t g o fort h leisurely betwee n th e teeth. Thi s signifiet h tha t th e astringen t qualit y holdet h th e eart h an d stone s firmly an d fas t together ; an d yet , fo r al l that , letteth th e spirit s o f th e eart h spring up, grow and bea r blossom s out of th e astringent spirit; which signifiet h the regeneration or restitution of the spirits of the earth. (Aurora 466) God's othe r boo k i s likewise a talking one . Like the biblica l word , al l animal natur e reveal s its essential propertie s i n its sounds : Therefore th e greatest understanding lies in the signature, wherein man . .. ma y not onl y lear n t o kno w himself , bu t therei n als o h e ma y lear n t o kno w th e essence of all essences; for by the external form o f all creatures, by their instigation, inclinatio n an d desire , als o b y thei r sound , voice , and speec h whic h the y utter, the hidden spirit is known; for nature has given to everything its language according to its essence and form , fo r ou t of the essence the language or sound arises, and the fiat of that essence forms the quality of the essence in the voice or virtue whic h i t send s forth , t o th e animal s i n th e sound , an d t o th e essential s [vegetables] in smell, virtue, and form. (Signature of All Things 12) In th e anima l kingdo m i t i s soun d tha t reveal s essence . Thi s expressiv e quality ca n persist i n the sounds o f huma n language : if th e spiri t open s t o hi m th e signature, then h e understand s th e speec h o f another; and further, h e understands how the spirit has manifested an d revealed itself (ou t of the essence through the principle) in the sound with the voice. . . . fo r wit h th e soun d o r speec h th e for m note s an d imprint s itsel f int o th e similitude o f another ; a like tone o r soun d catche s an d move s another , an d in the soun d th e spiri t imprint s it s ow n similitude , whic h i t ha s conceive d i n th e essence, and brought to form in the principle. . . . an d with this signature he enters into another man's form, and awakens also in the other such a form in the signature; so that both forms mutually assimulate

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[sic] togethe r i n on e form , an d the n ther e i s one comprehension, on e will, one spirit, and also one understanding. (Signature of All Things 9-10) Articulate huma n speec h thu s share s th e expressivenes s o f God' s tw o speaking books . Moreover , a s th e positin g her e o f a huma n powe r o f auditory "comprehension " o r "understanding " tha t result s i n th e merg ing o f speake r an d heare r alread y implies , unlik e anima l soun d huma n language—at leas t i n it s prelapsarian state—ca n captur e an d repea t th e essences o f other s a s wel l a s expressin g th e speaker' s own . Thu s i n Boehme's accoun t Adam' s languag e i s characteristicall y conceive d a s oral rathe r tha n gestural ; i n thi s traditio n th e sound s o f th e name s h e bestows, lik e th e phoneme s o f th e divin e word , conve y th e essence s o f what the y name : For as Adam spoke for the first time, he gave names to all the creatures according to their qualitie s and inherent effects. An d it is truly the language of al l nature, but not every many knows it, for it is a secret, a mystery. .. . (quoted in Aarsleff 6o).69 This traditio n lie s behin d crucia l passage s i n Emerson' s "Th e Poet, " an earl y version o f whic h Whitma n hear d Emerso n delive r i n New Yor k in 184 2 (Kapla n 101) : Like the metamorphosis of things into higher organic forms, is their change into melodies. Ove r everythin g stand s it s daemon , o r soul , and , a s the for m o f th e thing is reflected b y the eye, so the soul of the thing is reflected b y a melody. The sea, the mountain-ridge, Niagara, and every flower-bed, pre-exist, or super-exist, in pre-cantations , whic h sai l lik e odor s i n th e air , an d whe n an y ma n goe s by with a n ea r sufficientl y fine , h e overhears them , an d endeavor s t o writ e dow n the notes, without diluting or depraving them. (Collected Works 3:15 ) As i s typica l o f Emerson' s fables , th e en d o f thi s passag e ha s a n equivocal import : it s stor y o f slippag e i s on e w e migh t wel l choos e t o read a s a parable o f structura l necessit y rathe r tha n a s a straightforwar d account o f a contingenc y whic h carefu l attentio n migh t evade . In Whit man's theory , b y contrast , suc h dilutio n i s indee d a depravity , an d i t ought t o b e avoidable . Emerson' s casua l associatio n her e o f suc h slip page with writin g becomes a crucial tene t fo r Whitman , a s does the nee d to stee r clea r o f thi s (supposedl y contingent ) practic e an d th e linguisti c debility i t triggers . Conversely , Whitma n insist s o n th e powe r o f th e extraordinary voic e t o restor e th e natura l sound s locke d u p i n th e mut e words o f book s o r los t becaus e o f th e sor t o f disregar d fo r euphon y

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Kraitsir excoriates . Mor e systematicall y committe d t o th e notio n o f expressive soun d tha n t o the doctrine o f a silent language of natur e fro m which speec h woul d mar k a fall, Whitman assert s that soun d reveal s th e essential nature s o f th e thing s fro m whic h i t emanates . Lik e Benjami n Taylor o r th e Emerso n o f "Th e Poet " (bu t les s circumspectly), h e argue s for a continuit y betwee n suc h expressiv e effusion s an d articulat e huma n speech. Lik e Kraitsir , h e champion s a progra m o f educationa l refor m that supposedl y wil l restor e ou r aura l tac t an d ou r voca l capacities , permitting u s to re-activat e th e expressiv e strat a no w dorman t i n words . Yet while thi s refor m i s to b e generally disseminate d throughou t Ameri ca's schools , its ultimate objec t wil l b e realized onl y b y the poet himself : the expressiv e potentia l o f th e adami c wor d wil l b e recovere d b y th e pneumatic powers o f a body tha t ha s kept aloo f fro m th e related linguis tic and cultura l disaster s fo r whic h writin g i s made to stand . 5. Whitman' s mos t sustaine d poeti c treatmen t o f linguisti c issues , th e enigmatic " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth, " promulgate s thi s visio n o f a n oral languag e o f nature . Thi s i s s o despit e bot h th e poem' s suspicio n o f the "audibl e words " o f ordinar y huma n speec h an d it s occasional equa tion o f "substantia l words " with physica l thing s themselves, a conflatio n which evoke s th e hermetic doctrin e o f signature s espouse d b y Oegger o r Reed. Various line s in the poem displa y thes e latter tendencies : Human bodies are words, myriads of words [••••]

Air, soil, water, fire, these are words [....]

Syllables are not the earth's words, Beauty, reality , manhood , time , life—th e realitie s o f suc h a s thes e ar e th e earth's words. (1856 322-23) 70 Both th e associatio n o f substantia l word s wit h th e divin e writin g o f th e book o f natur e evident here and the attendant dismissa l of oral language , however, si t sid e b y sid e i n th e poe m wit h mor e extensiv e evocation s o f an elusiv e natura l speech . What i n Ree d i s an aberran t imag e of voic e a t odds wit h th e dominan t doctrin e o f God' s eloquen t silence—"Every thing which surround s u s is full o f the utterance o f on e word, completel y expressive o f it s nature " {Growth of the Mind 47 ; emphasi s added ) — becomes th e centra l organizin g trop e i n Whitman's visio n o f a languag e of nature .

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This connection betwee n voic e and natural languag e is presaged earl y in th e poem b y a pai r o f line s tha t overtl y dea l wit h th e provenance o f "substantial words " rather tha n thei r mode : the substantial words are in the ground and sea, They are in the air—they are in you. (1856 322 ) The topologica l moti f adduce d here , whic h modifie s th e simple identifi cation o f physica l object s an d substantia l word s elsewher e i n the poem , associates suc h word s wit h depth s rathe r tha n surfaces . A later passag e goes o n t o sugges t th e connection , pervasiv e i n Whitman' s work , be tween suc h interio r space s and the sounds tha t emanat e fro m them : The eart h doe s not exhibit itsel f no r refuse t o exhibit itself—possesse s stil l underneath, Underneath th e ostensible sounds , th e august choru s o f heroes , the wail of slaves, Persuasions o f lovers , curses, gasps of th e dying, laughte r o f youn g people, accents of bargainers, Underneath thes e possessing the words that never fail. (185 6 325; emphases added) The first o f these lines sustains Whitman' s topologica l motif , it s opening paradox issuin g int o a contrast betwee n surface s an d something "under neath" the m tha t b y th e passage' s en d turn s ou t t o b e "words. " Thi s sequestering accord s wit h hermeti c doctrine, as does the implication tha t such word s wil l "exhibit " themselve s onl y t o a specia l sor t o f discern ment. Bu t this discernmen t turn s ou t to b e aural rathe r tha n visual : th e initial topologica l distinctio n give s way in the passage's succeedin g line s to a contrast concernin g soun d rathe r tha n sight , a n opposition betwee n "ostensible sounds " an d th e word s "underneath " them . Whitman' s phrasing her e seem s to point no t to the sort of difference betwee n soun d and silenc e Irwin' s tracin g o f hermetic traditio n migh t lea d u s to expect , but t o a distinction betwee n sound s tha t ar e "ostensible" an d those tha t are not . "Underneath " thu s bear s a n acousti c sens e compatibl e wit h it s topological one : the sounds bein g made within visibl e forms ar e also too faint t o be heard b y those no t specially traine d t o listen fo r them ; ye t to the practiced ea r they ca n be heard "underneat h th e ostensible sounds. " As i n th e traditio n articulate d b y Reed , eac h o f thes e substantia l words i s a kind o f living synecdoche o f the thing itself, the distillation of

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its uniqu e essence . Bu t i n Whitman' s redactio n th e substantia l wor d captures thi s essenc e b y condensin g th e livin g creature' s diffus e vocali c activity, crystallizin g th e supposedl y primordial , indissolubl e lin k be tween ora l effusio n an d organi c energ y int o a discret e an d bounde d vocal signature . While even Boehme had prudentl y restricte d th e domai n of suc h voca l signature s t o th e anima l kingdom , associatin g th e signa tures o f vegetable s an d mineral s wit h thei r silen t substantia l form s in stead, Whitma n enthusiasticall y extend s th e notio n o f voca l substantia l words t o al l of nature . As we saw i n chapter 3 , his cosmology figures th e productive forc e o f natura naturans a s a voice ; " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth" seem s likewis e to endo w al l natura naturata, whethe r animat e o r inanimate, with it s signature sound. 71 Whitman's mos t detaile d evocation s o f th e vocal effusions suc h substan tial word s supposedl y recou p ar e thos e whic h depic t th e sound s mad e by th e poe t himself . Th e mos t memorabl e o f thes e passage s i s on e w e looked a t i n chapte r 4 , th e poet' s apostroph e t o hi s sou l i n sectio n five of "Son g o f Myself" : Loafe with me on the grass. . . . loose the stop from you r throat, Not words , not musi c or rhym e I want.. . . no t custo m o r lecture , not even the best Only the lull I like, the hum of your valved voice. (1855 28) Steering clea r no t onl y o f discursiv e activit y an d designatio n bu t eve n o f the divisio n o f voca l performanc e int o discret e words , this voice emit s a continuous strea m o f soun d unmarke d b y the articulations tha t establis h recognizable unit s o f sens e onl y b y sacrificin g organi c expressiveness . Expending itsel f i n th e presen t withou t reserve , thi s effusio n seem s indistinguishable fro m th e animatin g energie s tha t shap e th e bod y from whic h i t emerges : i t i s th e bod y a s breat h an d th e breat h becom e vocal, th e pneuma a s the origi n o f languag e i n pure, unmediate d expres sion. Yet what make s thi s lull or hu m th e purveyor o f presence , the perfec t expression o f th e organi c energie s o f th e creatur e fro m whic h i t pro ceeds, als o mark s th e poet' s neume a s not ye t bein g language. 72 Lackin g articulation, thi s continuou s flo w o f soun d wil l not b e repeatable excep t in som e idea l tota l repetition : havin g n o boundarie s o r units , i t canno t

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be calle d bac k excep t i n it s entirety . Lik e th e notio n o f th e properl y proper name , th e visio n o f a speec h originatin g i n a pur e expressiv e stream o f soun d i s thu s i n dange r o f founderin g o n th e proble m o f iterability centra l t o language ; th e wor d mus t b e transposabl e an d re peatable i n orde r t o b e a word . Thi s requiremen t seem s t o undermin e the possibility of an unmediated, expressive relation between the signifier and th e individua l creatur e o r occasion ; i t threaten s t o exclud e fro m language al l tha t i s uniqu e an d organic , occultin g expressio n wit h indi cation an d subduing the proper to the category. I t is not clear how voca l effusions migh t be crystallized int o iterable "substantial words " without losing their unmediated relatio n to process and presence. As we sa w alread y b y watching Benjami n Taylo r struggl e t o den y it s import, thi s ga p betwee n voca l effusion s an d th e bounded , repeatabl e units create d b y consonanta l articulatio n marked , fo r th e linguistic s o f Whitman's da y a s fo r tha t o f ou r own , th e spli t betwee n natur e an d culture, betwee n natura l anima l soun d an d conventiona l huma n lan guage. Seeking like Taylor an d others with adamis t leanings to elide this rift and its significance, Whitma n employ s the effective (i f suspect) tacti c of displacement : h e makes th e shif t fro m on e registe r to th e other occu r within natur e itsel f an d thu s diffuse s it s import . Int o th e ga p betwee n expressive voca l stream s an d thos e actua l name s whic h designat e a creature bu t fai l t o expres s it s animatin g energy , h e inserts th e substan tial word s o f th e earth—no w inaudibl e voca l signature s tha t compres s expressive effusion s int o single , repeatabl e words . Appearin g i n nature , such articulat e soun d woul d stil l b e natural ; accordin g t o ou r commo n and sometime s barel y consciou s mythologies , i t woul d thu s stil l b e di rectly expressive , no t ye t institutin g th e mediation s w e associat e wit h culture. This doctrin e o f natura l articulatio n als o implie s tha t th e expressiv e language o f natur e migh t stil l b e ours. I f the language o f natur e alread y consists o f bounded , iterable words, then the difference betwee n natura l sound an d huma n speec h i s n o longe r structural ; i t thu s ough t t o b e merely contingent . A n elliptica l passag e i n th e openin g sectio n o f " A Song o f th e Rollin g Earth " accordingl y attribute s t o "th e masters " th e power to translate the earth's substantial words. Here Whitman decline s to specify th e procedures such masters employ, instead offering a gnomic formulation tha t approaches catachresis :

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The workmanship of souls is by the inaudible words of the earth, The grea t masters , th e sayers , know th e earth' s words , an d us e them mor e than the audible words. (1856 323) But a passage furthe r o n tha t attribute s suc h powers of translatio n t o th e poet himsel f begin s t o unpac k thi s parado x o f a huma n languag e tha t employs (initially ) "inaudibl e words" : This is a poem for the sayers of the earth—these are hints of meanings, These are they that echo the tones of souls, and the phrases of souls; If they did not echo the phrases of souls, what were they then? (1856 330) Here th e "echo " whic h i s th e poet' s speec h seem s t o b e a crucia l incre ment rathe r tha n a mer e cop y o r attenuation : apparentl y amplifyin g what w e ca n thin k o f a bi t crudel y a s th e decibe l leve l o f th e hithert o "inaudible" "tone s o f souls, " i t no t onl y add s expressiv e name s t o th e vocabulary o f a n otherwis e indicativ e huma n languag e bu t a t th e sam e time liberate s creature s an d object s fro m th e entrapmen t t o whic h th e faintness o f thei r ow n voca l effort s woul d otherwis e consig n them . Whitman's visio n o f languag e make s muc h o f th e topolog y tha t figure s expressive sound s a s lurkin g "underneath " impassiv e exteriors , lackin g the volum e t o emerge , an d o f th e salvifi c rol e thu s accorde d th e huma n speech abl e to recover an d amplif y thes e vocal productions . Positing suc h a promethea n rol e fo r th e "masters, " Whitma n else where seek s to enlarg e th e realm o f suc h expressiv e naming , extending i t to th e spher e o f actua l languages . O r almos t actual : Whitma n accom plishes thi s expansio n b y makin g selectiv e us e o f th e diachroni c dat a o f comparative philolog y t o suppor t wha t detaile d synchroni c analysi s woul d suggest ar e untenabl e assertions . Strivin g t o sugges t tha t perfectl y ex pressive word s o f th e sor t "th e masters " supposedl y emplo y ca n b e discovered amon g th e mas s o f merel y indicativ e word s tha t mak e u p current languages , h e enlist s philologica l argument s concernin g th e de creasing motivatio n o f th e sig n t o justif y apocalypti c claim s abou t th e speech o f th e "re d aborigines, " whos e rich , supposedl y onomatopoeti c words stil l designated man y o f th e place names in Whitman's America. 73 In Whitman' s account , no t muc h els e o f thes e aborigina l language s remains: thei r syntacti c rule s an d discursiv e practice s dro p convenientl y from view , leavin g onl y thos e tantalizing , apparentl y primitiv e prope r names. Whitma n advocate s recoverin g an d usin g a s man y o f thes e a s possible, hopin g thereb y t o mak e availabl e t o America n Englis h th e

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powers o f a nearl y vanishe d speec h whic h consiste d entirely , i t migh t well hav e seemed , o f organic , expressiv e signs . I n "Startin g fro m Pau manok," Whitma n indee d effectivel y claim s tha t th e onomatopoeti c words o f India n language s d o no t merel y imitat e o r approximate , bu t perfectly repea t natura l sounds , directl y presentin g th e essentia l animat ing energie s suc h sound s supposedl y purvey . Lik e th e "substantia l words " of th e earth , whic h the y apparentl y duplicate , thes e name s woul d thus crystalliz e eac h uniqu e individua l presenc e int o a singl e expressiv e word: The red aborigines! Leaving natura l breaths , sound s o f rai n an d winds , call s a s o f bird s an d animals in the woods, syllabled to us for names, Okonee, Koosa, Ottowa, Monongahela, Sauk , Natchez, Chattahoochee, Kaqueta, Oronoco. Wabash, Miami, Saginaw, Chippewa, Oshkosh, Walla-Walla, Leaving suc h t o Th e States , they melt , the y depart , chargin g th e wate r an d the land with names, (i860 20) Here th e troublin g ga p betwee n pur e expressiv e effusion s an d articulate , iterable words i s supposedly bridge d withi n huma n languag e rather tha n in th e sacrosanc t real m o f nature ; bu t i t i s once mor e crosse d i n remot e territory exemp t fro m clos e scrutiny . Withou t absolutel y effacin g it , Whitman i s thu s fre e t o preserv e th e distinctio n betwee n natura l soun d and codifie d huma n languag e eve n mor e tenuousl y tha n Taylo r had . I t is registered onl y i n a single word i n the second o f these lines, which mark s a sligh t breac h betwee n th e perfec t repetitio n o f expressiv e sound s an d mere imitative approximation : "call s as of bird s an d animals. " This very line open s wit h a les s circumspec t formulation : "Leavin g natura l breaths , sounds of rain an d winds. " In keeping with thi s euphoric openin g rathe r than wit h th e momentar y qualificatio n tha t follow s it , th e phras e tha t ends Whitman' s lin e register s th e crucia l transpositio n suc h perfec t rep etition ha s supposedl y accomplished : no w "syllable d t o u s fo r names, " natural sound s hav e becom e miraculousl y iterable ; Indian language s ca n apparently graf t consonanta l articulatio n t o voca l effusio n withou t ex pressive loss , making th e energie s an d essence s o f al l things availabl e fo r human speec h an d huma n use. 74 This visio n o f a n articulat e speec h abl e t o translat e expressiv e sound s without slippag e seem s to accomplis h wha t Whitman' s taxonomi c strug -

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gle wit h prope r an d clas s name s coul d onl y awkwardl y suggest : th e organic word s o f such a tongue woul d groun d languag e i n the proper, directly presentin g th e unique creatur e an d its intrinsic qualities . The y would thu s mak e categorizatio n an d th e discours e tha t mobilize s it unnecessary , liberatin g u s fro m thei r coercions . Thi s bracin g corol lary o f Whitman' s visio n o f organi c namin g i s adduce d i n a passag e from th e Primer whos e implication s fo r semantic theor y ar e rathe r stag gering: Names are a test of the esthetic and of spirituality [....] A delicate [. .. ] subtle something ther e i s in the right name—a n undemonstrabl e nourishmen t tha t soothes a exhilirate s [sic] an d nurishes [sic] th e soul [ . . .. ] Masses o f men, unaware what they smoothly [? ] [. . . ] like, lazily inquire what difference ther e is betwee n on e nam e [ . . . ] and another.—But th e few fine ears of the worl d decide for them also and recognize them [.... ] As All that immense volumes, and more than volumes, can tell, are conveyed in the right name. (DBN 3:7 $6)75 Despite Whitman' s referenc e t o "fine ears, " the difference h e insists on between "righ t names " and th e shoddy alternative s accepte d by "masses of men " involve s mor e tha n simpl e mellifluousness . "Righ t names " sup posedly convey , in a single expressive word, al l that "immens e volumes " can "tell. " Here Whitman's axia l opposition betwee n truly proper name s and th e coercive categorie s foiste d o n things b y class name s an d manipulated i n predication an d judgment assume s it s most radica l form . Dis course an d the aggressions i t mobilizes ar e supposedly rendere d unnec essary b y the organic name , whic h expresse s th e essence o f the object, out o f whic h al l its proper attribute s wil l flower : "Al l lies folde d i n names," Whitma n suggest s elsewher e i n the Primer (DB N 3:755) . "Righ t names" supposedl y contai n i n their ver y phoneme s th e entire manifol d of predicate s tha t (properly ) pertai n t o the creature o r object. 76 What ever discourse add s to this plenitude it adds nefariously; injectin g foreig n attributes int o a harmoniou s an d self-sustaining structure , i t disrupt s what woul d otherwis e be a proper organi c unfolding . As I argued above , however , Whitma n i s interested no t in promulgating precise linguisti c distinctions—whethe r synchroni c o r diachronic—bu t in sustainin g th e capacitie s al l languag e ough t t o possess : h e i s les s

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concerned t o isolat e th e suppose d power s o f som e limite d segmen t o f language tha n t o exten d thei r domain , suggestin g tha t th e resource s manifest i n on e plac e ar e laten t elsewhere . H e accordingl y discover s th e expressive power s exemplifie d b y America n India n plac e name s lurkin g within word s les s conspicuousl y onomatopoetic . Th e poet , afte r all , should b e abl e t o deplo y expressiv e languag e withou t havin g t o confin e his speech t o a few exoti c place names . When i t comes to the mass of American English , however, th e distinction betwee n indicativ e an d expressiv e languag e characteristicall y n o longer correspond s t o a differenc e betwee n on e kin d o f wor d an d an other. I t typicall y depend s instea d o n th e wa y an y give n wor d i s em ployed. A single wor d ca n fal l fro m expressio n t o indicatio n i f i t i s use d improperly; conversely , it s expressiv e resource s ca n b e restore d b y a speaker properl y attentiv e an d appropriatel y endowed . Thi s modifica tion seem s dictated i n part b y the demands of credibility. Whitman need s to maintai n th e forc e o f a distinctio n tha t become s increasingl y tenuou s the mor e i t i s extended : perusa l o f a dictionary , fo r example , woul d hardly yiel d obviou s principle s fo r detachin g th e vocabular y o f a n ex pressive Englis h languag e fro m a n indicativ e one . Perhap s mor e impor tant, though , i s th e fac t tha t thi s altere d criterio n no t onl y extend s th e domain o f organi c languag e bu t simultaneousl y restrict s it . O r mor e precisely: th e focu s o n prope r us e extend s th e rang e o f organi c vocabu lary whil e limitin g th e roste r o f thos e abl e t o activat e it . Whitma n thu s preserves th e axia l distinctio n betwee n th e poet' s liberatin g speec h an d the mass of socia l language whose oppressive effects hi s word i s to undo . 6. In Whitman' s languag e theor y thi s distinctio n betwee n th e abusiv e and redemptiv e us e of word s i s mapped ont o a contrast betwee n writin g and voice . I f th e rightnes s o f "righ t names " derive s fro m thei r origi n i n natural sounds , Whitman's paradig m fo r th e loss of expressiv e resource s is th e passag e fro m soun d t o silence ; writin g become s th e crucia l in stance o f a repetitio n tha t denature s wha t i t repeats . Thi s associatio n obeys a logi c wit h whic h w e ar e b y no w familiar : wha t i s patently tru e of writing ought no t to apply to its apparent opposite , speech. Like othe r features o f Whitman' s languag e theory , thi s focu s o n th e harmful effect s of written repetitio n serve s to displac e the difficultie s associate d wit h th e sign's iterability fro m th e real m o f structura l necessit y t o that o f suppos edly contingen t practice . Th e ga p betwee n continuou s vocali c effusion s

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and th e articulate d sound s tha t ar e repeatabl e onl y becaus e the y inter rupt thi s flow an d subjec t i t t o codification , generatin g th e wor d b y sacrificing expressiv e immediacy , i s elide d b y drawin g attentio n instea d to a parallel bu t supposedl y avoidabl e rift : silencin g voice, writing sever s the word fro m it s apparent fusio n wit h livin g presence. If written repeti tion i s thu s responsibl e fo r deprivin g languag e o f it s organi c resources , voice shoul d b e abl e t o repea t word s withou t suc h slippage ; accordin g to Whitma n voic e ca n indee d revers e th e emasculatio n o f th e wor d writing exacts . If th e poe t o f " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth " claim s t o b e abl e t o deploy th e earth' s "substantia l words " o r "ech o th e tone s o f souls, " h e thus make s perfectl y clea r tha t writin g canno t effec t thi s expressiv e repetition: The truths of the earth continually wait, they are not so concealed either, They ar e calm , subtle , untransmissibl e b y print . (" A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth," 1856 324 )

Silent itself, writing epitomize s th e carelessness fo r expressiv e soun d tha t also supposedl y characterize s th e us e o f word s fo r discursiv e purposes ; in " A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth " th e impossibilit y o f transmittin g th e earth's word s i n writin g thu s parallel s th e poet' s inabilit y t o "tel l th e best." In th e Primer, Whitma n associate s writin g no t onl y wit h th e fal l int o discourse an d designatio n bu t als o with th e nefariou s wor k o f classifica tion. Whitma n indee d figures writin g a s somethin g lik e classificatio n squared: i f classificatio n occlude s thing s b y imposin g categorie s gener ated b y th e languag e syste m upo n them , writin g occult s object s alto gether, sinc e thos e mesmerize d b y thi s practic e supposedl y devot e thei r energies t o codifyin g word s themselves . Obsessiv e concer n fo r orthogra phy thus comes to figure th e self-enclosed qualit y o f a language detache d from it s sourc e i n expressiv e natura l sound s an d employe d t o sustai n a social, symboli c orde r tha t i s itsel f a produc t o f suc h emasculate d dis course and th e classifications i t generates. Whitman associate s this mani a for th e la w o f th e letter , whic h kill s th e spiri t o f livin g speech , wit h morbidity an d impotence : The spellin g of word s i s subordinate.—To Grea t Excessiv e nicet y Morbidnes s about fo r nic e spelling , m e an d tenacit y fo r o r agains t som e on e lette r o r so , means dandyism and impotence in literature. (DBN 3:740)

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Whitman's closin g trop e her e suggest s th e los s o f performativ e forc e that supposedl y accompanie s suc h self-enclose d attentions . In the Primer the activit y o f writin g come s t o epitomiz e no t onl y th e squanderin g o f proper powe r bu t als o th e impossibilit y o f restorin g i t b y mean s o f reforms tha t fai l t o atten d t o th e expressiv e sound s i n whic h th e word' s authentic resource s inhere : But it is no small thing, nor easy; not a no quick growth; Jt4s not a mere matter of rubbing out one word and of writing another.—The Real names do not never come so easily. (DBN 3:755) The substitution o f on e written wor d fo r anothe r wil l alway s b e unavail ing, sinc e th e ne w term , lik e th e old , ha s bee n fashione d wit h th e sam e lack o f regar d fo r ora l values that disqualifie d it s predecessor. Suggestin g nervous correctio n rathe r tha n adami c inspiration , Whitman' s imag e (and graphi c practice! ) her e seem s t o mak e writin g responsibl e fo r turn ing language int o a palimpsest. Writin g woul d thu s itsel f b e th e disaste r it anxiousl y trie s t o cure , the catastroph e i t initiate s bein g precisel y tha t of substitution : th e replacemen t o f on e particula r writte n wor d fo r another canno t revers e bu t instea d merel y repeat s a n initial , disablin g exchange o f silenc e fo r sound , indicativ e writin g fo r expressiv e voicing . All writing substitute s fo r a voice supposedl y fuse d wit h livin g presence , a voice whose expressiv e powers i t cannot convey . Writing i s thus th e impoten t circulatio n o f castrate d words . Not onl y misguided attempt s a t linguistic reform bu t also the characteristic dictio n of book s supposedl y reflect s thi s crucial debility . Even Whitman's "prac tical" remark s concernin g th e difference s betwee n ora l an d writte n lan guage thu s contribut e t o mappin g th e spli t betwee n organi c expressio n and steril e artifice ont o th e distinctio n betwee n speec h an d writing : Books themselves have their peculiar words—all words,—namely those that are never used excep t in books in living speech, in the real world, but onl y used in the world s o f books.—Nobod y eve r actuall y talk s a s book s an d play s talk . (DBN 3:735) The relatively moderat e ton e of thi s pronouncement, oddl y enough, is perhaps a functio n o f th e ver y absolutenes s o f th e contras t Whitma n here claim s t o bemoan ; th e exaggerate d distinctio n betwee n spoke n an d written dictio n serve s t o circumscrib e writin g an d it s damagin g effects . What mos t trouble s Whitma n i s no t th e separatio n o f on e sor t o f lan guage fro m anothe r bu t thei r interpenetration . Writin g i s dangerous no t

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because i t establishes a distinct spher e of impotent languag e bu t becaus e it tend s t o pre y upo n an d emasculat e speech : whil e writin g ca n neve r restore authenticit y t o words , i t ca n drai n thei r prope r power s fro m them. The los s o f connectio n t o th e livin g an d th e organi c precipitate d b y writing i s thu s mor e threatenin g whe n i t befall s th e otherwis e health y word subjected t o the pen and committed to paper, enervating its expressive resources an d reducing i t to designation. Scornfu l thoug h h e may be of thos e wh o propos e orthographi c reforms , Whitma n accordingl y in veighs t o Traube l agains t "th e damnabl e practice " o f ba d penmanshi p and th e "infamou s yawnin g gulf " i t create s (WW C 4:303). Thi s con demnation o f a particula r kin d o f writin g seem s peculiar , give n Whit man's characteristi c blanke t rejectio n o f the mode itself : her e he tries in effect t o insur e writin g itsel f agains t th e disaster fo r which h e has mad e it th e paradigmati c cause , o r a t leas t t o arres t th e fallin g awa y fro m presence an d powe r i t occasions . I f ther e i s a not e o f horro r i n Whit man's phrasin g tha t feel s hyperbolic , i t may thus registe r a worry whic h the reformis t concern s announce d her e displace . Wha t present s itsel f a s an exaggerate d fea r abou t th e possible slippag e o f designatio n t o whic h illegible scrawl s ca n lead , tha t is , migh t b e understoo d a s th e indirec t expression o f anxiet y abou t a mor e fundamenta l an d les s eradicabl e threat: wha t characteristicall y worrie s Whitma n abou t writin g is not the practical fea r ove r th e blottin g o f a particula r designation , bu t th e fal l into designatio n itself , a debacl e al l writin g precipitates . Whitman' s vehemence ma y thu s registe r a sens e tha t th e attemp t t o minimiz e th e linguistic damag e writin g doe s b y monitoring writin g itsel f i s inherentl y futile. I t seems als o t o reflec t uneasines s ove r hi s own involvement wit h this mode—a n involvemen t tha t shoul d hav e bee n avoidable , thoug h the harm writin g inflict s i s not. If th e Camden transaction s sometime s revea l Whitman' s uneas y immer sion i n writin g an d i n th e liabilitie s fo r whic h i t stands , th e languag e theory o f th e 1850 s adamantl y associate s th e poe t wit h th e power s o f voice. Thes e power s includ e th e abilit y t o repai r th e loss o f expressive ness whic h th e wor d subjecte d t o writin g suffers . Speakin g no t onl y Indian plac e name s bu t als o th e degraded, apparentl y merel y indicativ e words i n commo n circulation , th e poe t an d other s lik e hi m re-activat e the expressiv e potential s o f language , conjurin g u p th e voca l stream s

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which word s originall y crystallize d an d resurrectin g th e livin g energie s such effusion s convey . Not jus t an y voice , though , ca n retriev e word s fro m th e slid e int o designation writin g precipitates . Thi s tas k ca n b e accomplishe d onl y b y a speake r endowe d wit h super b voca l equipment , a n endowmen t o f course epitomize d b y th e gargantua n pneumati c prowes s o f th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass. Possessor s o f "super b vocalism " (DB N 3:752 ) ar e sai d to animat e word s muc h a s Whitman' s poet-her o animate s th e livin g creatures int o who m h e infuse s hi s transfigurin g breath ; the y breath e into names , reactivatin g th e expressiv e power s o f th e origina l voca l performance o f whic h eac h nam e i s a residue : The heart subtl e charm o f beautifu l pronunciatio n i s not i n dictionaries, grammars, mark s o f accent , o r an y formula s o f a languag e o r an y thin g i n th e an y laws or rules.—The heart charm of aU the beautiful pronunciatio n o f all words, of al l tongues, is a i n perfect, flexible vocal organs , flexible and i n a develope d harmonious sou l [ . . . . ] Al l words, spoken b y from these , have superb deepe r sweeter sounds, new meanings, impossible on an y less terms.—Such meanings , such sounds , continuall y wai t i n al l words , ever y wor d tha t exists—i n thes e words,—perhaps slumbering , no t worke d throug h years , perhaps close d fro m all easy, tympans of temples, and lips, brains, until the that of that comes which has that th e qualit y o f tha t non e w a waitin g patientl y m i n that th e words.— and seem [?] never to die.—(The Primer of Words, DBN y.j^$) 77 The semanti c doctrin e towar d whic h Whitma n work s hi s wa y here , in whic h th e intonationa l resource s o f th e super b vocalis t supposedl y make possibl e th e creatio n o f "ne w meanings, " an d i n whic h meanin g itself i s equated wit h "sound, " i s rather stunning ; bu t i t derives fro m th e theory o f organi c name s i n whic h i t i s embedded. A s the passag e make s clear, th e well-endowe d voic e doe s no t s o muc h inven t unprecedente d meanings a s re-activat e sense s "slumbering " i n th e word s themselves , expressive strat a lurkin g i n th e sound s onc e uttere d b y particula r crea tures an d capture d i n th e onomatopoeti c word s coine d b y inspire d ab original namers . Thes e expressiv e resource s fal l dorman t onc e th e wor d passes over int o designation, a disaster thi s passage once more associate s with writing—eve n a writin g whic h trie s t o offe r cue s fo r speec h ("no t in dictionaries , grammars , marks of accent") o r th e writin g o f th e poet' s own tex t ("Suc h meanings , such sounds , continually wai t i n [ . . . ] every word tha t exists—i n thes e words,—perhap s slumberin g [ . . . ] throug h

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years"). Languag e thu s supposedl y depend s fo r it s healt h o n th e re sources o f individua l utterance , whic h ca n fre e word s fro m tha t impov erished conditio n i n whic h mer e designatio n ha s replace d expressiv e mastery. Whitman sometime s associate s suc h liberatin g "vocalism " wit h th e sort o f demotic , centrifuga l energie s h e regard s a s on e importan t sourc e of linguisti c renovation . In hi s chauvinisti c mode , h e ca n g o s o fa r a s t o prophesy th e genera l diffusio n o f suc h voca l power s throughou t th e American populace : The Americans ar e going to b e the most fluent an d melodiou s voiced people in the world—and th e mos t perfec t user s of words . (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:732)

He ca n als o urg e adoptio n o f educationa l reform s supposedl y abl e t o bring abou t thi s dissemination , thoug h hi s recommendation s shar e th e awkwardness tha t typifie s hi s attempt s t o implemen t a visionar y pros pect through a practical program : What vocalism most needs in these States, not only in the few choicer words and phrases, but in our whole talk, is ease, sonorous strength, breadth, and openness. Boys an d girl s shoul d practic e dail y i n free , lou d reading—i n th e ope n air , if possible [ . . . . ] le t you r orga n swel l loudl y withou t screaming—don' t specif y each syllabl e or word , bu t le t them flow—fee l th e sentiment o f what yo u rea d or say, and follow where it leads. ("America's Mightiest Inheritance" 6o)78 It i s no t simpl y th e ungainlines s o f suc h reformis t schemes , however , that limit s Whitman' s enthusias m fo r spreadin g "super b vocalism " throughout th e land . Th e probabl y unintentiona l hin t o f phalli c powe r in th e precedin g passag e ("le t you r orga n swell" ) register s a n attribut e of voic e tha t i s elsewher e explici t doctrine : word s invigorate d b y voic e are procreative . I t i s no t onl y schoolchildre n whos e acces s t o thi s sper matic powe r migh t provok e misgivings . Whitma n i s ultimatel y mor e concerned t o circumscrib e tha n t o diffus e th e resources with whic h voic e is invested i n his work . The phalli c powe r o f voice , an d th e anxiet y occasione d b y th e pros pect of other s wielding it, are both conveye d b y an agitate d passage fro m "Song o f Myself. " Ther e th e alway s unstabl e "soldering " o f active passive pole s ont o masculin e an d feminin e position s i s particularly fluid, 79 a labilit y provoked no t onl y by Whitman's ow n conspicuousl y malleabl e erotic identification s bu t als o b y th e circumstanc e tha t i n thi s scen e th e

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phallic positio n i s investe d i n voic e an d ca n thu s assum e especiall y protean embodiment : A tenor large and fresh a s the creation fills me, The orbic flex of his mouth is pouring and fillingme full. I hear the trained sopran o . . . . sh e convulses me like the climax of my lovegrip; The orchestra whirls me wider than Uranus flies, It wrenches unnamable ardors from m y breast, It throbs me to gulps of the furthest dow n horror, It sail s m e . . . . I da b wit h bar e fee t . . . . the y ar e licke d b y th e indolen t waves, I am exposed . . .. cu t by bitter and poisoned hail, Steeped ami d honeyed morphin e . . . . m y windpipe squeeze d i n the fakes of death. (185 5 52 )

Here occupyin g th e passiv e rathe r tha n th e active , phalli c positio n th e poems customaril y reserv e fo r him , th e poe t i s penetrate d b y voice , which "wrenche s unnamabl e ardors " fro m him , disposin g hi m "wide r than Uranu s flies." In thi s final eroti c pun , a n embedde d pronomina l adjective tentativel y stabilize s th e scar y slid e fro m activ e t o passive , briefly suggestin g a scene in which someon e els e assumes the passive rol e and th e poe t himself , perhaps , momentaril y take s u p th e positio n o f phallic power . I t i s no t insignifican t tha t thi s obliqu e re-assertio n o f mastery depend s o n a n apostroph e code d int o the passage b y Whitman' s word play , a speec h ac t th e poe t performs . Fo r i f th e "ardors " th e otherwise passiv e protagonis t experience s remai n "unnamable, " thi s blockage i s occasione d b y hi s los s o f us e o f th e ver y orga n speec h act s require, a n orga n whic h i n thi s passag e other s emplo y t o invad e him : "my windpip e squeeze d i n th e fake s o f death. " Th e dangerou s (i f attrac tive) passivit y figured her e i s th e passivit y o f bein g "voiced" ; i t i s a n uncharacteristic positio n th e poet o f Leaves of Grass doe s no t choos e t o experience to o often. 80 Whitman's languag e theor y i s designe d t o mak e th e recurrenc e o f such a n even t unlikely . The power s o f voic e with whic h Whitma n some times aspires t o endo w th e general populac e ar e more typically restricte d to the exceptional few : What beaut y ther e i s in words! What a lurking curiou s char m i n th e soun d of some words!—Two or three Then voices! Five or six times in a lifetime, (perhaps not so often,) voice s you hav e heard s«€ h from me n an d wome n spea k i n such

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towering such perfect voices, as they spoke the most common word! (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:732.-33 ) It i s indee d characteristicall y th e poe t rathe r tha n other s wh o ca n b e found exercisin g hi s pneumatic power s b y performing th e sort s o f echo lalic effusions h e has recommended t o America's schoolchildren : I amuse myself b y exercising my voice in recitations, and in ringing the changes on all the vocal and alphabetical sounds. {Specimen Days, PW 1:158)81 Like his fantasize d ephebes , the poe t work s her e a t blurrin g th e codifie d articulations tha t purchas e indicativ e precisio n a t th e cos t o f expressiv e impoverishment. In th e contex t o f th e lat e pros e piec e Specimen Days, such vocalizin g i s regarded a s a pleasan t pastim e or , a t most , a regime n for health . Bu t i n Whitman' s earlie r work , whil e apprentice s blu r pho nemes an d syllable s t o improv e thei r ow n equipment , th e poe t an d hi s occasional peer s brin g thei r alread y perfecte d prowes s t o bea r o n word s in orde r t o transfigur e languag e itself . Exempt fro m th e rule s tha t emas culate voice and inhibi t attempt s t o recapture it s expressive powers, they are linguistic over-men : Language must cohure [sic]—it cannot be left loosely to float [.. . ] to fly away. —Yet al l th e kws rule s o f th e accent s an d inflection s o f word s dro p befor e a perfect voice— & tha t ma y follo w th e rules , o r b e ignoran t o f them—i t i s indifferent which . (The Primer of Words, DBN 3:738-39 ) It i s o n suc h heroi c figures tha t Whitman' s languag e theor y ultimatel y depends. We need t o investigat e th e source of thei r remarkabl e powers . 7. As we migh t b y now expect , th e capacity t o transfigure languag e doe s not com e wit h practic e alone ; performin g voca l trill s i n th e ope n ai r turns ou t t o b e a necessar y bu t hardl y sufficien t par t o f th e vocalist' s regimen. Whitman' s additiona l requisite s fo r linguisti c mastery , whic h are arduou s indeed , obe y a doubl e necessit y wit h whic h w e ar e als o familiar: validatin g th e supposed abilit y of individual speaker s to redee m the wor d b y positin g a n unshakabl e foundatio n fo r thei r powers , thes e taxing requirement s simultaneousl y restric t t o a chose n fe w th e abilit y to exercis e the authenti c performative forc e o f language . In th e Primer Whitma n thu s supplement s th e progra m o f voca l gym nastics sketche d abov e wit h som e vehemen t stipulation s regardin g th e safeguarding o f th e vocalist' s body . W e ar e thereb y reminde d tha t voic e

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and th e organi c languag e i t supposedl y recover s war d of f disaster s tha t are no t onl y linguistic ; effort s t o insur e linguistic , vocal , an d bodil y purity an d propriet y intertwin e regularl y i n Whitman' s work . Bu t th e Primer give s thi s pervasiv e connectio n th e mor e particula r for m o f a cause-and-effect relation , makin g voca l prowes s depen d o n th e posses sion of a proper body. Voice can restore organic expressiveness t o words only i f voic e itsel f remain s a natural , unpollute d organ , a statu s i t ca n retain onl y i f i t i s lodge d i n a n organis m equall y natura l an d pure . Th e redeemer who woul d reclai m th e expressiveness an d propriety o f word s must thu s stee r clea r no t onl y o f writing , bu t als o o f al l thos e involve ments fo r whic h writin g come s t o stan d i n Whitman' s work , entangle ments tha t defor m th e bod y an d thereb y emasculat e th e voic e a s surel y as writing itself denature s the word: All sorts of physical, moral and mental deformities are inevitably returned in the voice. (DBN 3:738) Drinking brandy, OF gin, beer, is generally fatal to the perfection of the voice;— A Meanness of mind , an d all i s the same;—Gluttony, i n eating, of cours e the same; a thinned habit of body, or a rank habit of body—masturbation, inordinate going with women, total and spoil sternly rot the voice. Ye t none no man can have a great vocalism, whose amiab who has no experience of love woman who with woman and no who has no experience with man [sic],—The voice is rich with the cxp arousing with finalfibreand xxxxx charm of the voice, follows the chaste experience drench of love. (DBN 3:737) We ar e clearly i n th e realm o f magic thinkin g here. Both th e agitate d phrasing an d th e rang e o f behavio r specifie d i n Whitman' s apotropai c litany migh t wel l remin d u s o f th e passag e fro m th e 185 5 Prefac e con cerning th e "name[s ] o f word[s ] o r deed[s] " that "stampe d o n th e programme" ar e "dul y realize d an d returned , an d tha t returne d i n furthe r performances . . . and they returne d again " (185 5 19-20) . I f we excep t the final, idealized stipulation of the necessity of experiencing the "chaste [. . . ] drench o f love"—a n oxymoroni c descriptio n whic h mingle s reti cence and braggadocio i n a manner reminiscent of "Childre n of Adam, " and which, like the latter, seems like a piece of counter-phobic bravado 82 —this list , lik e th e passag e fro m th e Preface , doe s no t simpl y adjur e abstinence fro m over-indulgenc e bu t anxiousl y ward s of f al l manne r o f entanglements an d th e daemoni c powe r the y apparentl y unleash , pro tecting wha t i t seem s t o imagin e a s th e perfec t autonom y an d self -

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sufficiency o f a clean an d proper body. 83 It is only fro m suc h a body tha t a redemptiv e voic e might emerge . It i s wort h notin g i n passin g tha t thes e proclamation s inadvertentl y register th e precariou s statu s o f th e redeeme r the y envision , enlistin g mechanisms i n his defense tha t threate n th e very autonom y fo r which he ought t o stand . A s in the Preface , wha t menace s self-presenc e an d self completion i n thi s passag e turn s ou t t o b e no t jus t interactio n wit h others bu t also th e introjection o f a regulatory structur e tha t make s the body a functio n o f somethin g outsid e itself . Bot h th e daemoni c repeti tions of the Preface an d the stamping wit h whic h the y ar e associated are apposite here , a s is the cultural origi n o f thi s mechanis m o f inscriptio n that divide s th e self : her e to o i t i s implicitl y no t jus t impuls e bu t the cultural codin g an d contro l o f desire , an d the obsessions t o whic h the y lead, tha t violat e th e voca l purit y an d bodil y integrit y Whitma n anx iously trie s t o protect . Thi s i s so despit e hi s invocatio n o f a moralize d vocabulary t o condem n wha t threaten s th e vocalist's autonomy . Recog nized explicitl y elsewher e i n Whitman's wor k a s a threat, cultura l pros criptions ar e here paradoxicall y deploye d t o war d of f interaction s the y have themselves helpe d t o make threatening : a s in the Preface, the moral armature overtl y enliste d t o contro l behavio r i s ultimately par t o f wha t provokes anxiet y i n this agitate d passag e rathe r tha n th e key to assuag ing it; Whitman's condemnator y term s themselves undermin e the propriety the y ar e called o n to guard . Thi s parado x i s a kind o f mirror-imag e of a proble m I shal l tak e u p furthe r on : if th e vocalist i s compromise d here by the very sanction s Whitman enlists , elsewhere he turns ou t to be constituted b y mechanisms he claims to rebuff. In either case , the propriety fo r whic h thi s figure shoul d stan d i s violated b y gestures tha t osten sibly sustain it ; he comes into bein g as a function o f alien powers agains t which h e ought to defend . Like man y o f Whitman's pronouncement s abou t th e body, thes e dec larations ar e thus a s ambivalent a s they ar e evocative. Fo r the purpose s of m y present argument , however , thei r impor t i s as follows. O n the one hand, suc h attempt s t o guarante e th e powers o f the word b y groundin g them i n a body exemp t fro m self-divisio n confor m t o the logic of Whit man's languag e theory : i t make s sens e tha t onl y th e possessor o f a self sufficient bod y migh t retriev e fo r languag e th e organi c powe r o f th e proper name , freein g th e word fro m entanglement s b y which h e himself supposedly remain s uncompromised . Ye t this appea l is nonetheless awk-

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ward, sinc e somethin g ver y lik e circularity hover s ove r Whitman' s med itation o n bod y an d voic e here . I t appear s tha t voic e ha s th e powe r t o recall word s t o thei r prope r meanings , activatin g a n idio m whic h ca n extricate u s fro m th e trammel s i n whic h cultur e an d falle n languag e otherwise entoi l us , onl y i f i t proceed s fro m a bod y someho w alread y exempt fro m suc h entanglement . W e ca n a t leas t not e tha t th e sor t o f person o n who m th e linguisti c argumen t o f th e Primer converge s an d finally depend s begin s t o loo k ver y muc h lik e a fantas y figure concocte d to embody , already , immunit y t o jus t th e kin d o f self-divisio n an d los s of propriet y fro m whic h th e languag e theor y an d it s visio n o f organi c names appeare d a t first to offe r a more reasone d basi s fo r exemption . Elsewhere i n th e Primer, Whitma n offer s a n additiona l glimps e of th e vocalist tha t seem s initially t o solv e such difficulties , suggestin g how thi s figure migh t hav e manage d t o maintai n th e augus t aloofnes s fro m dan gerous interactio n th e passag e w e hav e bee n considerin g make s a requi site fo r hi s redemptio n o f words . Ye t despit e itself , th e passag e display s this aloofnes s a s an endangere d trait , defende d b y troubling means . Thi s entry fro m th e Primer ha s th e virtu e o f makin g mor e explici t th e visio n of identit y wit h whic h Whitman' s languag e theor y intertwines . Ye t i t i s ultimately compromise d b y a n eve n keene r versio n o f th e troublin g circularity i t seems at first to resolve. Here Whitman's forbiddin g caveat s concerning th e bodil y templ e i n whic h voic e i s enshrine d ar e supple mented b y some rathe r dauntin g positive requirements : Latent, i n a grea t writer , use r o f words , mus t actuall y b e al l passions , crimes, trades, animals , stars , God , sex , th e past , night , space , metals , an d th e like — because thes e ar e th e words , an d i f h e wh o i s no t these , plays wit h a foreig n tongue, talkin g xx x turnin g helplessl y t o dictionarie s an d authorities . (DB N 3:742)84

Specifying th e sourc e o f th e vocalist' s powers , thes e declaration s als o suggest ho w h e migh t stee r clea r o f th e self-dividin g desire s h e ca n indulge onl y a t th e cos t o f hi s resources : thi s figure nee d no t embroi l himself i n transitive relation s an d th e code s that structur e them , sinc e h e contains al l hi s object s i n himself . Thi s visio n o f completenes s an d self sufficiency display s dramaticall y th e magica l mod e o f identit y Whit man's apparentl y demoti c an d open-ende d musing s o n languag e ar e ultimately enliste d t o sustain ; mor e tha n jus t a pure an d health y physica l specimen, thi s "grea t use r o f words " show s a stron g famil y resemblanc e to th e poe t o f suc h piece s a s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry. " Apparentl y

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composed i n 185 5 o r 1856 , whe n Whitman' s poet-her o wa s jus t bein g concocted, th e Primer no t onl y make s explici t th e linguisti c resource s this redeeme r ca n marsha l bu t als o show s th e necessit y o f hi s birth. 85 Outside th e enchante d sphere s o f th e natura l expressiv e effusion , th e "substantial words " o f th e earth , an d th e onomatopoeti c prope r name s of aborigina l languages , thi s passag e suggests , i t i s onl y a magicall y agglomerating bod y lik e th e poet' s tha t ca n full y awake n th e expressiv e properties dorman t i n what ar e otherwise merel y indicativ e words . Though startling , thi s groundin g o f authenti c languag e i n a magicall y incorporative bod y conform s t o a logic Whitman's theor y o f naming an d his doctrine o f expressiv e soun d imply . Organi c names , after all , supposedly condens e th e voca l effusion s o f th e thing s the y name , effusion s expressive o f th e uniqu e organi c matrice s fro m whic h the y emerge . Th e voice abl e t o re-activat e thi s perfectl y expressiv e stratu m shoul d accord ingly emanat e fro m a bod y capabl e o f duplicatin g th e kinestheti c re sources whic h th e nam e supposedl y crystallizes . Tha t bod y shoul d be abl e t o transfor m itsel f into , o r els e shoul d alread y contain , al l the creature s an d thing s t o whos e expressiv e name s i t aspire s t o giv e voice. This arduou s requiremen t i s i n par t a fortunat e limitation : evokin g the protea n poe t o f Leaves of Grass, i t make s th e redemptio n o f lan guage depen d upo n hi m an d enforce s a ver y stric t boundar y indee d between th e organi c idio m t o whic h h e give s voic e an d th e mas s o f ordinary languag e tha t facilitate s socia l exchange . Ye t a s muc h i n keep ing wit h th e spiri t o f Whitman' s enterpris e a s thi s final dependenc e o f the wor d o n th e bod y o f th e poe t ma y be , i t i s nonetheles s a shak y foundation fo r th e languag e theor y th e Primer trie s t o expound . I t i s awkward enoug h tha t Whitma n keep s hi s essentia l theoretica l distinc tions i n plac e b y appealin g i n th e supposedl y discursiv e contex t o f th e Primer t o a fantasmati c figure modele d o n th e poe t o f th e imaginativ e universe o f Leaves of Grass. 86 I t i s mor e uncomfortabl e stil l tha t th e person o n who m th e power s o f languag e ultimatel y depen d i s brough t into being , i n th e poems , precisel y b y voice . Th e voic e tha t supposedl y generates th e presenc e o f thi s linguisti c savior , th e Primer let s u s know , might posses s th e magica l power s requisit e fo r suc h a n ac t onl y i f i t emanates fro m th e ver y sor t o f bod y that , i n th e poems , i t apparentl y creates. The fac t tha t th e poet-her o o f Leaves of Grass owe s hi s existenc e t o

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the suppose d functionin g o f th e ver y linguisti c power s o f whic h th e Primer make s hi m th e implici t guaranto r i s neatly suggeste d b y the for m his presenc e i n th e poem s takes . Th e poet , I suggested earlier , i s a kin d of zero-degre e incarnation , a figure no t onl y produce d bu t als o define d by his vocal attributes : "on e i n whom yo u wil l se e the singularit y whic h consists i n n o singularity " ("Leave s o f Grass : A Volum e o f Poem s Jus t Published" 25) , the poe t i n hi s mythi c guis e i s a kin d o f generi c being , a voice hypostatized a s a livin g presence. But th e power s o f voic e ar e the n guaranteed b y this hypostatization . The passag e fro m th e Primer I hav e bee n considerin g als o offer s evidence o f thi s reification , displayin g onc e mor e th e slipper y sens e o f causality i t involves . I f th e "grea t use r o f words " mus t alread y possess , "latent in " himself , al l tha t h e i s t o name , i t i s har d t o imagin e wha t form suc h internalizatio n migh t tak e othe r tha n th e possessio n o f th e words themselve s an d th e symboli c introjectio n thos e word s mak e pos sible; i t i s difficul t t o conceiv e a credibl e meanin g fo r Whitman' s asser tion tha t i s not simpl y tautological . I t is not onl y th e general difficult y o f imagining suc h internalizatio n a s anythin g othe r tha n figurative tha t encourages u s t o rea d Whitman' s formulatio n a s tautology . Her e th e powers o f th e word ar e guaranteed b y bein g grounded i n what w e migh t choose to regar d a s a magically agglomeratin g body : suc h a bod y woul d be capable of the sort of litera l incorporation tha t would giv e Whitman' s claims her e substantiv e meaning . Bu t i n Whitman' s wor k thi s bod y ca n be sustaine d onl y i f th e magica l power s o f languag e alread y obtain : throughout Leaves of Grass, th e poet's assimilativ e powers are registere d precisely a s the powers o f th e word . If th e orde r o f causalit y Whitma n detail s betwee n a magical , incorpora tive body an d a magi c word i s thus finally circular , thi s pattern i s hardl y a sig n o f mer e meaninglessness . Instea d i t trace s a powerfu l closure , a structure tha t circle s bac k o n itself , rebuffin g ou r attempt s t o re-ope n and re-ente r it . I n thi s archai c realm , languag e an d bod y defin e eac h other: voic e produce s echolali c effusion s inseparabl e fro m th e somati c rhythms o f th e bod y fro m whic h the y emanate , articulatin g a spac e no t yet separate d int o subjec t an d object . Prope r t o th e semioti c chora, thi s fantasmatic interminglin g o f bod y an d voice , an d o f sel f an d other , i s partially sustaine d b y th e limina l practic e o f wor d magi c evoke d i n th e Primer an d th e poems; the magic word shoul d war d of f th e emasculatin g

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divisions enforce d b y th e indicativ e sig n an d th e symboli c orde r i t struc tures. The circularit y endemi c t o Whitman' s accoun t i s thu s powerfull y evocative. Ye t a languag e theor y tha t finds it s justificatio n i n th e incor porative, semioticize d bod y o f th e poe t beg s th e ver y question s i t pur ports t o solve . The ga p betwee n expressiv e effusio n an d articulate , codi fied language, as well a s the difference betwee n a n organic speech endowe d with magica l performativ e forc e an d a falle n idio m tha t merel y refer s t o what i t names , ar e supposedl y bridge d b y a n archai c bod y w e migh t continue t o possess onl y i f these rifts hav e alread y bee n healed ; a fantas matic bod y define d b y th e chora i s mad e t o guarante e th e magica l powers o f th e symboli c word . The fragile distinction s sustaine d b y thi s presenc e organiz e bot h The Primer of Words an d Leaves of Grass. Th e poet' s bod y an d th e notio n of vocalis m i t is enlisted t o guarante e preven t th e liabilitie s attribute d t o fallen, symboli c languag e fro m definin g th e sig n a s such . The y war d of f the possibilit y tha t al l languag e trade s i n designations ; tha t th e paradig matic nou n i s th e arbitrar y clas s nam e an d no t th e expressiv e prope r one; tha t classificatio n an d coercio n pervad e th e field define d b y lan guage. Al l namin g woul d then , i n th e sens e Kennet h Burk e ha s estab lished, b e rhetori c an d persuasion. 87 Al l performance, i n Austin's terms , would posses s merely social , symbolic force . What separate s goo d fro m ba d languag e woul d thu s b e almos t noth ing. This i s so not onl y becaus e o f th e circularit y I have bee n tracing . A s we shal l see , th e trait s o f th e magica l presenc e associate d wit h th e adamic wor d ar e themselve s troubling . Thi s difficult y i s b y n o mean s insignificant: th e poet' s presenc e i s no t onl y th e crucia l sourc e fro m which th e adami c wor d emanates , bu t als o th e ke y instanc e o f wha t i t can produce . In Leaves of Grass th e deficien t entitie s circulated b y falle n language ar e explicitl y measure d b y contras t t o thi s figure. Wha t stand s opposed t o constativ e utteranc e o r discourse , representatio n o r designa tion, i s no t simpl y anothe r for m o f namin g o r anothe r linguisti c mode , but th e poe t himself . In " A Son g fo r Occupations " i t i s thu s th e poet' s presence that supposedl y abrogate s th e detour s o f representation : I bring what you much need, yet always have [....]

And sen d n o agen t o r mediu m . . . . an d offe r n o representativ e o f value — but offer th e value itself. (1855 89)

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In "Son g o f Myself " a s well, this presence i s itself th e visionary meanin g all discourse gropes to report : Man or woman! I might tell how I like you, but cannot; And might tell what it is in me, and what it is in you, but cannot; And might tell that pining I have—that pulse of my nights and days. Behold! I do not give lectures, or a little charity; When I give, I give myself. (V i:62) 88 This claim i s repeated i n "Son g of th e Ope n Road" : I and mine do not convince by arguments, similes, rhymes, We convince by our presence. (1856 233) We ca n thu s measur e th e spac e betwee n falle n an d unfalle n languag e by seein g ho w wel l th e poet' s presenc e keep s the m apart . Producin g bu t also produced b y unfalle n language , no t onl y th e guaranto r bu t als o th e prime exampl e o f it s power , thi s presenc e ough t no t o f cours e t o b e compromised—or constituted—b y th e characteristic s tha t defin e th e fallen word . Epitomize d b y writing , thos e negativ e feature s als o struc ture th e relate d phenomen a o f th e mechanis m an d th e image , an d th e related operation s o f repetitio n an d representation . Contrastin g thes e t o the poet' s presenc e an d t o th e workin g o f th e unfalle n wor d tha t pro duces him, Whitman mean s thereb y t o validate the linguistic possibilitie s with whic h thi s figur e i s fused . Ye t i n detailin g thes e contrasts , Whit man's expositio n i s no t simpl y bothered , a s heretofore , b y th e unlikeli ness o f som e o f hi s attributions . Instea d hi s polaritie s ten d t o collaps e into on e another , t o th e exten t tha t i t wil l prov e nearl y impossibl e t o distinguish th e poet fro m al l he should serv e to la y to rest . Presence an d Representatio n In Whitman's wor k th e axial distinctio n betwee n th e poet's presence an d the entitie s spawne d b y falle n languag e i s registere d i n par t i n term s o f the proble m o f power . Himsel f th e incarnatio n o f th e organi c word , th e poet ca n supposedl y conve y t o u s th e livin g energie s i t crystallizes . Neither emergin g fro m no r expressin g suc h animatin g force , the produc tions o f falle n discours e ar e mer e simulacra ; lackin g living , organi c reality themselves , the y ough t t o posses s n o powe r ove r tha t reality , o r over us .

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This nea t opposition , however , structure s onl y par t o f Whitman' s treatment o f symboli c productions . Whitma n als o repeatedl y rail s agains t the powe r falle n languag e manage s t o exercise , struggling t o brin g u s t o our sense s b y arguin g tha t thi s forc e i s illegitimate ; ou r worshi p o f th e symbolic entitie s generate d b y th e falle n wor d i s idolatrous . Ye t th e exaggerated powe r Whitma n sometime s accord s suc h idol s suggests tha t he himsel f i s hardly immun e t o thei r seductions . Hi s brusqu e dismissal s of arbitrar y languag e an d it s production s modulat e int o mor e agitate d attempts a t expulsion ; entitie s an d operation s sometime s characterize d as impoten t tur n ou t t o posses s a nearl y fata l attractio n an d t o exercis e an almos t fata l power , fro m whic h no t onl y other s bu t als o th e poe t himself mus t b e saved. Thi s hyperbolic treatmen t o f th e powers o f falle n language can b e understood i n part a s a tacit recognition tha t it s supposedly illici t o r illusor y construct s defin e us . Bu t i t register s a s wel l th e disturbingly intimat e relatio n thes e production s tur n ou t t o posses s t o the poet' s ow n presence . Th e phobi c qualit y o f Whitman' s rhetori c ca n perhaps bes t b e explained a s a functio n o f thi s contagion an d th e uneas iness it inspires: not onl y d o symboli c entities possess an almos t inescap able power; thi s resisted powe r ma y constitut e th e poet himself . Intent o n wardin g of f suc h conclusions , Whitma n make s writin g th e crucial instanc e o f th e duplicit y tha t lend s th e arbitrar y wor d a forc e i t should no t possess ; ou r enchante d worshi p o f text s epitomize s th e idol atry whic h th e simulacr a generate d b y falle n languag e inspire . Falle n language an d it s untowar d effects , i n turn , becom e synecdoche s fo r th e representations o f al l kind s tha t dominat e cultur e an d th e forc e the y exercise ove r us ; Whitma n ascribe s dangerou s seductiv e power s t o al l manner o f symboli c entitie s an d artifacts . Whil e hi s singlin g ou t o f writing shoul d serv e t o exemp t th e poet , wh o supposedl y doe s no t indulge i n it , fro m Whitman' s indictmen t agains t th e falle n word , thi s broader focu s suggest s th e scop e o f th e dominatio n fro m whic h h e ca n therefore fre e us . Ye t th e poet' s presenc e ma y tur n ou t t o b e har d t o distinguish no t onl y fro m th e entities generate d b y writing bu t als o fro m the myria d representation s tha t surroun d an d defin e us ; thi s would-b e liberator woul d thu s himsel f b e a produc t an d a part o f th e ver y syste m of symboli c dominatio n h e supposedl y resists . In wha t follows , I wil l first tak e u p Whitman' s oppositio n betwee n th e poet' s presenc e an d th e writing tha t epitomize s falle n language , turnin g nex t t o th e broade r problem o f th e troublin g relatio n betwee n th e rea l thing s supposedl y

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produced b y hi s magic wor d an d th e variet y o f representation s tha t emasculate us. 1. Whitman' s effort s t o dismis s writin g ofte n tur n o n a n oppositio n between th e organi c resource s o f voic e an d th e supposedl y merel y me chanical efficac y o f a merely mechanical medium . Unconnected t o livin g presence rathe r tha n emergin g fro m i t a s the voice does , writin g substi tutes structure s o f it s ow n makin g fo r th e organi c entitie s i t canno t fathom. Thi s substitutio n i s sometime s sai d t o mak e writin g an d it s productions impotent . Th e techn e o f writin g ca n achiev e onl y technica l reforms, wieldin g a degrade d perlocutionar y powe r incapabl e o f tru e performative effect : States! Were you looking to be held together by the lawyers? By an agreement on a paper? Or by arms? Away! I arrive, bringing these, beyond all the forces of courts and arms, These! to hold you together as firmly as the earth itself is held together. The old breath of life, ever new, Here! I pass it by contact to you, America. (["States!"], i860 349) 89 As Whitman' s closin g deicti c an d th e apostrophi c scen e i t activate s imply, his political argumen t here turns on a n opposition betwee n voic e and writing. Voice, which emanates fro m a n interior, possesses a performative force that helps further organic unities; writing, an inert mark on a surface, effects conjunction s that are merely superficial . Yet suc h mechanica l structure s manag e t o counterfei t th e power s o f living organisms. Devoid of animatin g impulse, they nonetheless exercis e a bizarr e sor t o f initiative : obeyin g th e wil l o r functionin g a s the prox y of n o living agent, the y nonetheless continu e relentlessly t o act. In Whitman's wor k al l manne r o f cultura l artifact s ca n acquir e thi s daemoni c power. Bu t writin g i s th e crucia l instanc e o f it . Possessin g n o lif e o f it s own, th e tex t nonetheles s regenerate s itself , impingin g o n th e presen t moment an d th e livin g creature s whos e energie s ough t t o shap e it . Repeating itsel f inexorably , th e tex t an d th e mechanica l energie s i t conveys d o no t merel y displac e th e properl y self-sufficien t presence s o n which the y impinge . Finally , w e shal l see , the y hollo w the m ou t fro m

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within. Lik e othe r cultura l mechanisms , writin g replicate s b y lodgin g within u s till it takes possession o f us . At th e ver y least , writin g enervate s th e presence s i t affects , robbin g them o f thei r activ e force : Have we not darken'd an d daze d ourselve s with book s long enough? ("Pas sage to India," CRE 42.1; V 3:574) This stupefyin g effec t turn s ou t t o b e a comparativel y mino r evil . Impinging on th e present fro m ou t o f the past, writing possesses a powe r that i s eeri e becaus e i t i s th e powe r o f somethin g n o longe r alive ; th e images Whitma n choose s fo r suggestin g th e dangerou s actio n o f suc h ghostly repetitio n ar e exorbitan t enoug h t o b e startling. Ou r fascinatio n with text s i s figured a s a perverse , unhealth y commerc e wit h th e dead . Bewitched, th e livin g expen d thei r energie s "pressin g th e nose s o f dea d books upon themselve s and upo n thei r country [ . . . ] " ("Lette r t o Ralp h Waldo Emerson, " 185 6 353) . Thi s cadaverou s anthropomorphis m tell s only hal f th e stor y o f ou r relatio n t o books . I f text s weig h o n u s lik e corpses, this oppressiv e effec t i s matched b y the benefi t the y d o the dea d whose word s the y preserve . Writing sustain s th e dea d whos e word s liv e through i t b y a proces s o f repetitio n tha t migh t b e calle d vampiric : drained o f their very animation b y this debilitating intercourse, the livin g become automaton s wh o serv e a s mouthpiece s o f th e deceased . I f Whit man declare s i n "Son g of Myself" that , i n reading books , we feed o n th e merely spectral—"no r loo k throug h th e eye s o f th e dea d . . . . no r fee d on th e spectre s i n books " (185 5 26)—thes e spectra l presences , whic h resurrect themselve s onl y b y virtue o f ou r mesmerize d cooperation , fee d on u s as well. This enervatin g exchang e i s sometime s figured a s violen t encroach ment. Writin g ca n stifl e speech , throttlin g th e breat h an d th e livin g presence i t sustains . A n oddl y ferociou s imag e fro m th e 185 6 "Lette r t o Ralph Wald o Emerson " suggest s thi s force : "Her e als o formulas , glosses , blanks, minutiae , ar e chokin g th e throat s o f th e spokesme n t o death " (1856 351) . But th e powe r o f writin g sometime s assume s a for m tha t i s more disturbing precisely becaus e it is less violent an d overt . Rather tha n choking o r stiflin g voice , writing ca n instea d insinuat e itsel f int o speech , draining it s resonance . Repeatin g word s writte n dow n b y others , w e speak writing , losing the proper power s o f voice :

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9

(And who are you—blabbing by rote, years, pages, languages, reminiscences, Unwitting to-da y tha t yo u d o no t kno w ho w t o spea k a singl e word?) . ("Myself an d Mine," i860 225) In Whitman's imaginatio n th e wor d writte n dow n an d the n repeate d b y others wh o hav e rea d i t i s n o longe r proper—i t i s pronounced throug h a kin d o f ghostl y ventriloquism , i n whic h th e dea d spea k throug h th e mouths o f th e living. Such words ar e not s o much uttere d a s echoed, an d have themselves bee n hollowe d ou t b y death. 90 This commerce with th e dead no t only saps the voice. It also enervate s the body : Investigating here , w e see , no t tha t i t i s a littl e thin g w e have , i n havin g th e bequeath'd libraries, countless shelves of volumes, records, & c; yet how serious the danger, depending entirely on them, of the bloodless vein, the nerveless arm, the false application, at second or third hand. (PW 2:425) Engaged her e i n Democratic Vistas i n formulatin g a socia l critiqu e tha t is often trenchant , Whitman give s writing its due, ambivalently acknowl edging it s benefits. 91 Ye t eve n i n th e pragmati c contex t o f th e Vistas, writing retain s somethin g o f th e magica l forc e poem s an d Primer accor d it: suc h uncann y powe r i s registere d her e i n Whitman' s descriptio n o f the "bloodless " an d "nerveless " bod y enervate d b y reading . This metapho r o f readin g an d writin g a s debilitatin g diseas e i s fre quent in Whitman's work ; i t suggests the peculiar intimac y o f th e dange r writing represents : After al l there's something bette r than t o write: that's not to write: writing is a disease. (WWC 3:358) Denouncing th e danger s o f thi s illnes s t o Traubel , Whitma n include s himself amon g the infected : In most of us I think writing gets to be a disease. We scribble, scribble, scribble —eternally scribble: God looks on—it turns his stomach: and while we scribble we neglect life. (WWC 1:350) As Whitman's insistentl y iterativ e phrasin g her e suggests , th e diseas e o f writing i s characterized b y repetitive , obsessive behavior . When i t come s to writing, though, repetitio n compulsio n i s not onl y a symptom; repeti tion, w e hav e seen , i s itself th e sourc e o f th e anxiet y writin g provokes. 92 The diseas e o f writin g thu s produce s behavio r tha t fuel s thi s infectio n

250 Writin g an d Representatio n rather tha n simpl y manifestin g it ; onc e expose d t o writing , w e ar e progressively debilitate d b y our own compulsive acts. In anothe r pronouncemen t recorde d b y Traubel , Whitma n offer s a n even mor e siniste r versio n o f th e threa t t o bodil y integrit y pose d b y th e disease o f writing , an d b y th e repetitiv e behavio r o f whic h thi s illnes s consists. Writin g insinuate s itsel f int o ou r interiors , preyin g upo n th e pneumatic body : The trouble mostly is that writers become writers and cease to be men: writers reflect writers , writers agai n reflect writers , until th e man is worn thin—worn through. (WWC 1:195) Whitman's trop e o f reflectio n her e equate s th e repetition s effecte d b y writing with th e diffusion o f images . I n the context o f Whitman's work , to sugges t tha t the text i s an image i s to insis t that the powers exercise d by its replicating for m ar e scandalous: lik e the image, the text i s a mere simulacrum; nothin g itself , i t shoul d posses s n o powe r excep t tha t o f reminding u s o f it s origina l an d returnin g ou r attentio n t o it . Thi s "original" i s o f cours e th e speec h ac t writin g records—o r a t leas t i t should be . Bu t her e Whitma n trace s a pervers e lineage : th e origi n o f writing an d the images i t disseminates ma y itself b e an image or text. In Whitman's estimatio n text s tha t hav e thu s bartere d awa y a n authenti c genesis i n livin g speec h shoul d b e utterl y powerless . S o i n a somewha t querulous literar y estimate , derivativ e poems—mer e reflections—ar e said not to perdure as "living" poems might: Rhymes an d rhymer s pas s away—poem s distille d fro m othe r poem s pas s away, The swarm s o f reflector s an d th e polit e pass , an d leav e ashes . ("B y Blu e Ontario's Shore," 1856 194) Yet in the passage fro m Traubel , Whitma n suggest s that the supposedl y merely illusor y powe r o f th e cop y o r reflectio n someho w manage s t o bring abou t a disastrous effect . The en d result of suc h scribbling , o f th e further repetitio n o f mer e writing, i s no t simpl y tha t the productions o f such a writer "pas s away. " Instead, thi s replication o f writte n image s i s said t o exercis e a dreadfu l power , thoug h i t recoil s upo n th e write r rather than acting on others. The author is himself hollowed out by such bewitched activity : "th e ma n i s wor n thin—wor n through. " Attendin g to images, he becomes a mere image or shadow himself. Associate d wit h the image , wit h a nothin g o r non-presenc e tha t insinuate s itsel f withi n

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us like a disease, writing an d repetitio n no t onl y captivat e bu t als o com e to destro y us . Onc e activated , the y devou r voic e an d presenc e inexora bly, eating them awa y fro m within . The anxiet y registere d i n suc h passage s ma y deriv e no t onl y fro m th e seemingly cataclysmi c natur e o f thi s invasion , bu t als o fro m it s virtua l inescapability. In Whitman's wor k th e threa t pose d b y writing turn s ou t to b e bot h intimat e an d pervasive . Th e overwrough t qualit y tha t fre quently characterize s Whitman' s depiction s o f th e effect s writin g ha s o n voice an d presenc e migh t thu s b e understoo d a s resultin g i n par t fro m denial: wha t ma y b e structura l necessit y assume s th e for m o f a disaste r whose luri d feature s bot h reflec t th e poet' s attemp t t o mak e i t see m foreign an d authoriz e hi s insistenc e tha t i t remai n so . "Usurpation, " Derrida suggests , bot h registerin g an d displacin g th e forc e o f a melo drama t o whic h Whitma n woul d thu s b e very muc h committed , "neces sarily refer s u s t o a profoun d possibilit y o f essence . . . . Ho w wa s the tra p an d th e usurpatio n possible? " (Grammatology 40) . Ho w could writin g an d th e repetitio n fo r whic h i t stand s com e t o inhabi t the voic e an d disposses s i t o f it s prope r powers ? O r ho w coul d the y not. The repetitio n tha t hollow s ou t speec h woul d thu s constitut e lan guage, definin g th e fat e no t onl y o f th e misguide d write r entoile d i n literary histor y an d discipleship , bu t o f an y sel f shape d b y th e word . Rather tha n dependin g o n th e speakin g subject' s pneumati c power s t o animate an d fill it, language would instea d generat e him b y dividing hi m against himself : i t would tur n voic e into a n ech o an d consciousnes s int o a kin d o f palimpsest . Hyperboli c o r hysterica l thoug h i t ma y seem , Whitman's associatio n o f writin g an d repetitio n wit h a deb t exacte d b y the dead thu s perhaps figures a n essential truth , a prospect les s escapabl e than eve n hi s uncann y image s suggest . Th e dea d ma y b e sai d t o spea k through th e mouth s o f th e livin g insofa r a s they posses s a prio r relatio n to th e languag e i n whic h th e livin g articulat e themselve s an d thei r de sires; givin g voic e t o thi s language , th e livin g ar e themselve s hollowe d out b y death , structure d b y a non-presenc e tha t define s wha t presenc e can be , depriving i t of it s autonomy an d propriety . 2. Whitman' s image s o f writin g infiltratin g voice , however , serv e t o relegate a n intertwinin g the y to o recor d a s pervasiv e t o th e statu s o f a

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disaster. I f writing i s Whitman's figur e fo r th e contingenc y o f enervatin g repetition, an d o f th e fadin g o f self-presenc e suc h repetitio n exacts , th e poet's wor d an d presenc e ar e th e crucia l instance s o f a languag e an d identity tha t supposedl y escap e thes e debacles . Ye t eve n th e poet' s pris tine vocalis m turn s ou t t o b e liabl e t o th e infection s fo r whic h writin g serves a s a carrier . An d hi s presence ca n b e hard t o distinguis h fro m th e captivating bu t counterfei t figure s writin g an d repetitio n produce . Whit man must , a t least , protec t th e poet' s wor d fro m exposur e t o writin g and it s echoi c effect s wit h particula r vigilance ; an d h e mus t painstak ingly detac h th e poet' s for m fro m th e image s generate d b y ordinar y repetition, wit h whic h i t migh t al l to o easil y b e confused . Her e to o th e danger o f usurpation—o r o f simpl e confusion—implie s " a profoun d possibility o f essence. " The luri d feature s writin g an d repetitio n assum e in Whitman's wor k ma y thu s serv e no t onl y t o sugges t that th e disaster s they inflic t ar e avoidable , bu t als o t o den y thei r intimat e relatio n t o th e poet's ow n voic e and presence . The poe t himsel f repeatedl y insist s o n hi s independenc e fro m suc h compromising involvements . H e proclaim s himsel f th e champio n o f th e present moment , o f a here an d no w wholl y adequat e an d self-contained : Happiness no t i n anothe r place , but thi s place . . not fo r anothe r hour , bu t this hour. ("A Song for Occupations," 1855 96) And h e fend s of f th e repetitio n tha t hollow s ou t speec h an d turn s th e living into phantoms : I am the poet of reality I say the earth is not an echo Nor man an apparition. (UP P 2:69) These pronouncement s shoul d bot h accomplis h an d exemplif y th e repudiations the y announce . Animated b y the poet's voice, they ought t o possess th e performativ e forc e prope r t o language , bringin g abou t ou r liberation rathe r tha n merel y describin g it . Bu t i n orde r t o d o so , the y must themselve s alread y fulfil l th e conditio n the y declare . The ech o rob s the wor d o f it s prope r force ; turnin g presen t speec h int o a repetitio n o f and referenc e t o prio r utterance , i t sap s performativ e powe r an d con signs language t o th e degrade d tas k o f representation . Th e magical forc e of th e poet' s word—a s wel l a s hi s ow n bodil y integrity—thu s depend s on hi s immunit y t o th e echoi c effect s h e deplores : th e poe t "put s toda y

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out o f himsel f wit h plasticit y an d love " ("Son g o f th e Answerer, " 185 5 130) onl y b y preserving inviolat e hi s own livin g speech . Whitman insist s o n thi s lac k o f infectio n repeatedly ; hi s ver y vigi lance, however, suggest s th e poet' s susceptibilit y t o th e dangerou s influ ences fro m whic h h e claim s t o fre e us . Whitman's braggin g declaration s of originalit y shoul d b e understoo d a t leas t i n par t a s a n effor t t o kee p at ba y thi s contagio n tha t threaten s th e poet' s voice : i n denyin g tha t th e poet i s subjec t t o influence , Whitma n i s no t s o muc h seekin g t o inser t himself int o th e cano n a s t o detac h himsel f fro m th e filiation s canon s both reflec t an d sustain . Thu s h e note s approvingl y o f th e write r o f Leaves of Grass, i n hi s ow n anonymou s "review " o f th e 185 5 edition : "He make s n o allusion s t o book s o r writers ; thei r spirit s d o no t see m t o have touche d hi m [ . . . ] " ("Leave s o f Grass : A Volum e o f Poem s Jus t Published" 24) . Th e anxiet y lurkin g i n thi s magisteria l pronouncemen t becomes mor e over t i n a mor e privat e context ; i n a noteboo k entr y Whitman warn s himself : "Mak e n o quotation s an d n o referenc e t o an y other writers " (C W 9:4) . Whitman' s absolutis m her e make s thi s repu diation resembl e a magica l rit e o f expulsion ; i t suggest s th e intimac y o f the threat suc h declaration s war d off . If Whitma n i s worrie d abou t th e wa y repetitio n an d th e ech o see m able t o compromis e th e poet' s wor d an d presence , th e suggestio n tha t these operation s migh t contribut e t o o r constitut e the m i s eve n mor e disturbing. Ye t lik e hi s effort s t o protec t th e poet' s ow n speec h fro m outside interference , hi s attempt s t o distinguis h th e poet' s powe r ove r others fro m th e illicit powers of repetitio n en d up suggesting the intimat e relation betwee n thes e supposedl y inimica l forces . Th e poe t ma y declar e himself t o b e th e champio n o f th e presen t moment ; bu t hi s continuin g power ove r u s depend s precisel y o n hi s abilit y t o repea t hi s presence . The dichotom y betwee n th e poe t an d wha t h e oppose s woul d thu s no t quite amoun t t o a differenc e betwee n a living presence firml y ensconce d in ir s ow n presen t momen t an d a n ech o o r repetition : i t woul d depen d instead o n a subtle r distinctio n betwee n tw o kind s o f repetition . Whit man's diatribe s agains t writin g ar e motivate d i n par t b y th e precarious ness o f thi s opposition ; th e urgenc y wit h whic h writin g an d it s power s are exorcise d i s a functio n o f th e clearl y vita l plac e o f repetitio n i n Whitman's ow n poetry . Th e poe t subdue s other s t o hi s omnipresen t form muc h a s writin g i s sai d t o imping e o n futur e reader s an d tak e possession o f them ; bu t th e poet, supposedly , doe s not write .

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In Whitman' s wor k th e differenc e betwee n goo d an d ba d repetitio n thus turn s o n a differenc e betwee n voic e an d writing . Whil e writin g embalms a n utterance , unnaturally preservin g i t afte r th e livin g presenc e that animate d i t has died , voice emanates fro m a n actua l livin g presence, conveying it s energie s t o us . An d whil e writin g insinuate s th e pas t int o the presen t an d turn s th e livin g into mouthpiece s o f th e dead , th e poet' s announcements—both uttere d an d hear d b y u s "now"—supposedl y subdue bot h pas t an d futur e t o a n eterna l momen t thei r ow n recurrenc e defines. Lik e a counter-magic fighting of f th e influence o f th e dead, thes e pronouncements see m t o secur e u s i n a livin g presen t restore d t o it s proper integrit y b y mean s o f a speec h whos e powe r o f goo d repetitio n fends of f th e repetition effecte d b y writing . Unlike th e ba d repetitio n whic h hollow s ou t self-presence , th e repeti tion o f th e poet's livin g word thu s restore s self-presenc e t o us . While th e writing that repeat s itsel f throug h u s drains our voices of their resonanc e and ou r bodie s of their strength , the poet supposedly pour s his magicall y repeating wor d insid e u s i n orde r t o rene w ou r bodil y integrit y an d reactivate ou r ow n voca l powers . Wellin g u p withi n u s a s h e fuse s himself int o us , the poet's word s ar e the ideal for m o f ou r own : It is you talking just as much as myself . . . . I act as the tongue of you, It was tie d i n you r mout h . . . . i n min e it begin s to b e loosened. ("Son g of Myself," 1855 82) The magical repetitio n o f which the poet's living speech seems capabl e thus no t onl y preserve s presenc e b y fighting of f th e ba d repetitio n ef fected b y writing ; thi s goo d repetitio n define s wha t livin g presenc e is . The poet's apparen t powe r t o reproduc e himsel f a s the same , I argued i n chapter 4 , makes him see m like the magical incarnatio n o f a n ideal form , a self-sustainin g bein g immun e t o interference ; unaffecte d b y extrinsi c forces o r contingen t events , he is what h e is, presenting himsel f full y an d directly. Repetitio n o f th e wron g sor t devour s th e living ; bu t livin g presence become s what i t is by virtue of (anothe r sor t of ) repetition . This distinctio n i s as crucial t o th e poet's projec t a s it is precarious: i t prevents th e poet' s announcement s fro m bein g anothe r instanc e o f th e very mechanism s fro m whic h h e shoul d sav e us . Whitma n accordingl y associates thi s dichotom y betwee n goo d an d ba d repetitio n wit h a con trast whic h bot h seem s t o shor e i t u p an d underline s it s importance — one betwee n presenc e an d representation . Whil e writin g i s th e cop y o f

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an utterance rathe r tha n th e utteranc e itself , speec h i s a present ac t an d attests to a living presence. I argued earlier that Whitman's manipulatio n of thi s dichotom y betwee n writin g an d voic e i s designe d t o sustai n a possibility whic h th e contras t betwee n the m doe s no t ordinaril y imply : while th e ba d repetitio n operate d b y writin g cheat s u s b y producin g a mere imag e o r simulacrum o f th e livin g word, counterfeitin g th e speak ing presenc e i n whic h tha t wor d shoul d originate , th e goo d repetitio n effected b y th e poet' s voic e magicall y reproduce s th e actua l presenc e o f the poet himself . The poet's word thus apparently fend s of f a treachery Whitman ofte n equates wit h culture . Floodin g u s wit h a presenc e wh o define s wha t presence is , o r situatin g u s firmly amon g th e actua l object s hi s perfor matives supposedl y produce , th e poet' s announcement s kee p a t ba y th e simulacra i n which cultur e would otherwis e enmes h us , steering us clear of a welte r o f symboli c entitie s tha t ar e suppose d t o serv e bu t instea d overshadow organi c presence s an d usur p thei r powers , ultimatel y de vouring bot h ou r object s an d ourselves . Ye t thi s crucia l oppositio n threatens t o collaps e unde r th e weigh t o f th e shak y distinctio n i t ough t to shore up. The dichotomy betwee n the poet's presence and the simulacra spawne d b y cultur e turn s ou t t o b e a s tenuou s a s th e contras t between goo d an d ba d repetition . A simila r difficult y compromise s Whitman's broade r effor t t o distinguis h th e ful l rang e o f th e poet' s performative announcements , an d th e variet y o f rea l presence s the y supposedly produce , fro m th e degraded operatio n o f representatio n an d the idols it imposes o n us . The poet's power i s always disturbingl y clos e to th e powe r o f ba d repetitio n enjoye d b y th e reflectio n o r image , an d this proximity mus t repeatedly b e denied. 3. Lik e hi s consideratio n o f writin g an d repetition , Whitman' s estimat e of th e representation s tha t dominat e symboli c spac e i s divided . Lik e texts, representations ar e sometimes said to be impotent, though we may be duped into according them a force they do not inherently possess. But Whitman himsel f ofte n endow s representation s wit h exorbitan t power s —powers virtuall y indistinguishable , indeed , fro m thos e supposedl y ex ercised b y th e poet' s ow n presenc e o r marshale d b y hi s performativ e word. Like hi s treatmen t o f writing , Whitman' s analysi s o f representation s includes a n accoun t o f th e seemingly inexplicabl e fascinatio n the y man -

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age to compel . Substituting itsel f fo r th e thing it represents, the represen tation irresistibl y draw s ou r attentio n t o itsel f rathe r tha n directin g u s t o the creature or object fo r whic h i t stands. We come to value the represen tation a s i f i t wer e th e thin g itself. 93 Thi s pathologica l fascinatio n i s a s pervasive a s it is unnatural. The poet mus t repeatedly retriev e us from it : Have you reckone d th e landscape too k substanc e an d for m tha t i t might be painted in a picture? Or men and women that they might be written of, an d songs sung? Or the attraction of gravity and the great laws and harmonious combinations and the fluids of the air as subjects for the savans? Or the brown land and the blue sea for maps and charts? Or the stars to be put in constellations and named fancy names? Or that the growth of seeds is for agricultural tables or agriculture itself? (" A Song for Occupations," 185 5 91) This allur e i s especially scandalou s whe n i t seduce s u s into preferrin g representations t o ourselves : we wander i n a space rilled with apparentl y autotelic images , idol s tha t see m neithe r t o refe r t o no r leav e roo m fo r the huma n creature s wh o hav e bee n taugh t t o effac e themselve s befor e them. Th e poe t trie s t o pu t a n en d t o thi s perversion b y remindin g u s of the proper relatio n betwee n image s and thos e who creat e them : All doctrines, all politics and civilization exurge from you , All sculptur e an d monument s an d anythin g inscribe d anywher e ar e tallie d in you, The gist of historie s an d statistic s a s far bac k a s the record s reac h i s in you this hour—and myth s and tales the same; If you were not breathing and walking here where would they all be? The most renowned poems would be ashes . . .. oration s and plays would be vacuums. ("A Song for Occupations," 1855 9Z) Our attentio n mus t repeatedl y b e disengage d fro m th e representativ e substitute an d recalle d t o it s living source: This printe d an d boun d boo k . . . . bu t th e printe r an d th e printing-offic e boy? [••••]

The well-taken photograph s . . . . bu t you r wif e o r frien d clos e and soli d in your arms? ("Song of Myself," 1855 74) Like writing, the representation o f whateve r sor t tend s not onl y to diver t our attention , bu t t o wea r awa y ou r live s a s well . Dominate d b y it , culture amount s t o fetishism : i t train s u s t o ador e th e sig n an d devalu e

Writing an d Representation 25 7 the thin g i t signifies ; w e serve th e representations tha t ough t t o serv e us. 94 * The intimac y o f this threa t i s registered i n the poet's ow n susceptibility t o it . Whitma n privatel y warn s himsel f agains t suc h emasculatin g idolatry, jus t a s h e elsewher e forbid s himsel f al l referenc e t o othe r writers: Poet! beware les t your poems are made in the spiri t that come s fro m th e study of pictures of things—and no t from th e spirit that comes from th e contact with real things themselves. (CW 9:10) While Whitman' s attack s o n representation ofte n see m motivate d by pragmatic concerns , warnin g u s of a dange r i n order t o enlist ou r support i n eradicatin g it , hi s sens e o f persona l susceptibilit y t o th e ver y threat fro m whic h h e hopes to protect other s begin s to imply the sort of inextricable entanglemen t w e saw at work i n his jeremiad agains t writ ing. Th e poet's ton e ca n indeed impl y tha t th e power symboli c form s exercise ove r u s is inexorable. "Respondez!, " a poem first publishe d i n 1856 an d prudently exclude d fro m Whitman' s "deathbed " edition , i s a vitriolic diatrib e agains t a culture infatuate d wit h representations . Ye t a note o f terrified fascinatio n graduall y emerge s fro m beneat h th e tone of violent invective : Let nothing but love-songs, pictures, statues, elegant works, be permitte d to exist upon the earth! [••••]

Let shadows be furnished wit h genitals ! Let substances b e deprived of their genitals!

N...1

Let books take the place of trees, animals, rivers, clouds! [..••]

Let the portraits of heroes supersede heroes! [....]

Let the reflections o f the thing s of the worl d b e studied i n mirrors! Let the things themselves still continue unstudied! Let a man seek pleasur e everywher e excep t i n himself! Let a woman see k happiness everywher e excep t i n herself! (Say ! what rea l happines s hav e you had one single time through your whole life?) (185 6 319-21) 95 What begin s as a jeremiad demandin g repentanc e and reform modulate s here int o somethin g mor e closel y resemblin g a transfixe d recitatio n o f inevitabilities.

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Whitman's denigratio n o f representations , hi s repeated insistenc e tha t they posses s n o legitimat e powe r i n themselves , i s thus th e les s revealin g facet o f hi s polemic . Expendin g muc h energ y t o convinc e other s tha t they hav e bee n dupe d b y a sleight-of-han d b y whic h h e remain s unmys tified, Whitma n elsewher e reveal s tha t h e to o i s pre y t o suc h trickery . Few o f thos e h e seek s t o warn , indeed , woul d ascrib e suc h extrem e powers t o representation s a s he sometimes doe s himself . Whitman ofte n attribute s indirect , perlocutionar y powe r t o represen tations: word s affec t ou r notion s o f wha t the y name . I n Democratic Vistas, fo r example , h e argue s fo r renovatin g "th e ide a o f th e women o f America, (extricate d fro m thi s daze , thi s fossi l an d unhealth y ai r whic h hangs abou t th e wor d lady) [ . . . ] " (P W 2:389) . Bu t h e sometime s accords representation s a mor e startlin g power— a powe r o f whic h th e ominously equippe d shadow s i n "Respondez! " alread y giv e som e hint . Representations ca n supposedl y affec t livin g beings directly , exercising a force that i s magical rathe r than merel y conventional. Whitman suggests , for example , tha t model s o f th e huma n for m ca n adversel y affec t th e physiology o f actua l babie s abou t t o b e born , th e representatio n no t simply affectin g ou r idea s bu t insinuatin g itsel f int o th e ver y ac t o f procreation.96 Attractiv e statue s wil l hel p produc e attractiv e babies , whil e caricatures wil l lead t o huma n deformities : Exaggerations wil l b e revenged i n human physiology . Clea n an d vigorou s children ar e jette d an d conceive d onl y i n thos e communitie s wher e th e model s of natural forms are public every day . . . (Preface, 185 5 17-18 ) And I say that clean-shaped childre n can be jetted and conceived only where natural forms prevail in public, and the human face and form are never caricatured. ("Says," i860 419) We ca n rea d thes e passage s a s a kin d o f nightmare , i n whic h a distinction tha t keep s th e poet' s crucia l value s i n plac e collapses . Whe n Whitman inveigh s agains t representation s becaus e the y seduc e u s int o ignoring thing s themselves , h e blame s the m fo r blurrin g ou r sens e o f categories whos e essentia l stabilit y i s nonetheless no t i n question . Here , however, representation s ver y nearl y bege t presences . W e ca n under stand thi s genealogica l confoundin g eithe r a s a spectacula r instanc e o f nefariousness an d perversio n o r a s the disintegratio n o f th e very opposi tion betwee n representatio n an d presenc e tha t energize s suc h notion s o f invasion an d betrayal . Thes e passage s conjur e u p a landscap e i n whic h

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there are n o presence s tha t ar e no t als o representations , i n whic h th e very distinction betwee n real and symbolic objects no longer obtains. Or rather: her e wha t w e tak e t o b e organi c presence s o r thing s themselve s are the progeny o f representation . Passage s tha t migh t b e interpreted a s invectives against an avoidable threat can thus also be read as an oblique admission o f th e constitutiv e rol e playe d b y representatio n i n shapin g our objects: the things we cal l presences hav e themselves bee n produce d by representation. In Whitman's work the poet himself rise s up as a presence supposedl y immune t o thi s contamination ; th e rea l thing s h e claim s t o generat e b y means o f hi s wor d ar e importan t ancillar y cases . Bu t Whitman's night mare o f a worl d filled b y th e offsprin g o f magicall y activ e statue s ca n also b e rea d a s a ba d drea m abou t th e poet' s ow n powers . Lik e hi s treatment of writin g and repetition, that is, this anxious vision obliquel y registers no t onl y th e pervasive rol e played b y representation i n shapin g cultural space , bu t als o a n intimate, uncomfortabl e affinit y betwee n th e presences produce d b y th e poet' s ow n magi c wor d an d th e symboli c entities tha t replac e rea l things . I n these passages mer e caricatures, pos sessing no inherent, organic relation to what they represent, are accorded a striking power: the y ca n alte r the interiors or essences of th e creature s whose oute r form s the y misrepresent . Thi s powe r o f th e caricatur e o r false sig n i s indee d nearl y identica l t o th e forc e elsewher e reserve d fo r true expressiv e sign s o r fo r th e speec h o f th e poe t wh o realize s thei r organic resources : th e powe r o f magica l performance , th e abilit y t o generate the things one names simply b y naming them. Revising Whitman's preferre d vie w of the influence exercise d by symbolic forms—whos e apparen t forc e ough t t o b e illusory—thi s de facto intertwining o f th e power s o f representation s wit h th e power s o f th e poet's ow n wor d als o unsettle s th e vision o f organi c language Whitma n struggles to convey. The tremendous power organic language supposedl y wields i s sai d t o b e wholl y natural . Ye t i f th e power s representation s exercise are in passages like these not merely acknowledged bu t exaggerated, thi s exaggeratio n perhap s measure s no t onl y Whitman' s nervous ness about cultural coercio n bu t also a n uncomfortable sens e of hi s ow n grandiose ambitions . Briefl y accordin g t o representation s a frightenin g version o f th e sweepin g power s th e poe t claim s t o wiel d fo r wholl y generous purposes, such passages register the terrors of a world in which the energie s o f other s hav e becom e a s formidabl e a s th e poet' s own ,

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their ambition s a s imperial . No t easil y distinguishabl e fro m th e power s exercised b y representations, th e powers o f th e poet's speec h woul d thu s be deprive d o f tha t specia l benignit y an d innocenc e Whitma n typicall y claims fo r them . No t thereb y reduce d t o impotence , hi s wor d woul d enter an d compet e fo r th e symboli c spac e i n whic h representations , constituting namabl e presences , shape u s by recruiting u s to thei r partic ular, intereste d version s o f wh o w e are. 97 Despite Whitman' s protestations , hi s wor k offer s ampl e evidenc e o f this unsettlin g resemblanc e betwee n th e poet' s wor d an d presenc e an d all the y shoul d serv e t o la y t o rest . W e might , fo r example , not e a striking similarit y betwee n th e perversel y fascinatin g representation s against which Whitma n warn s u s and th e poet's ow n imaginativ e labors . It is Whitman, afte r all , who devise s the daring chiasmu s betwee n word s and thing s tha t lever s languag e int o th e positio n o f a thin g itsel f whil e relegating object s t o th e statu s o f simulacra . Fe w representation s wor k harder tha n a poe m lik e "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " t o effac e th e exis tence o f a worl d beyon d thei r border s o r t o clai m tha t th e landscape s they fashio n meri t ou r exclusiv e attention ; lik e thos e dangerou s repre sentations whic h spaw n subsequen t production s tha t refe r bac k t o the m rather tha n t o "thing s themselves, " "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " whic h generates th e presen t a s th e Mobiu s stri p o r eterna l momen t th e poem' s apostrophes nam e "now, " i s a n ideall y self-perpetuatin g structure . Th e figure o f th e poet suc h speec h act s produce—Whitman's ke y instance o f a livin g presenc e supposedl y uncontaminate d b y representation—i s in deed th e crucia l cas e o f thi s disconcertin g resemblanc e betwee n th e products o f magi c languag e an d th e simulacr a fro m whic h the y shoul d save us. 4. Th e cleares t evidenc e o f thi s confoundin g i s the circumstanc e tha t th e poet's presence , whil e seemingl y produce d b y voice , i n fac t owe s it s existence t o writing . Sai d t o bloc k th e poet' s manifestation , writin g enables it ; sai d t o compromis e hi s power s o f self-creation , writin g con stitutes them . Writin g generate s th e poet—bu t onl y a s th e obvers e o f what h e i s declare d t o be . Th e poet' s presenc e define s wha t presenc e should b e b y simultaneousl y perfectin g an d occultin g th e operatio n o f representation tha t bring s i t into being . Whitman's repeate d denial s tha t writin g an d readin g pla y a rol e i n the poet' s manifestatio n serv e t o war d of f thi s confoundin g o f presenc e

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and representation . W e shoul d recal l bot h th e insistenc e wit h whic h thi s denial i s mad e i n Whitman' s wor k an d th e sor t o f collaps e i t keep s a t bay. Writin g doe s no t attes t t o th e poet' s actual , livin g presence : i t repeats word s spoke n i n anothe r plac e an d tim e an d offer s u s onl y th e representations o f speec h an d th e persona l presenc e speec h implies . I t must b e rule d ou t o f th e poet' s imaginativ e universe , amon g othe r rea sons, because it fails t o effect suc h a magical emanation , leavin g the poe t caught i n the compromised bod y he longs to transfigure . Yet the techne that threaten s th e poet's redeeme d presenc e als o make s it wha t i t is—o r wha t i t seem s t o be . Tha t presenc e doe s not , a s Whit man woul d hav e it , appea r i n a tex t b y acciden t o r incidentally ; i t achieves it s seemingl y magica l powe r precisel y b y helpin g itsel f t o th e resources o f a writin g whos e rol e th e poem s mus t deny . Thi s poin t i s perhaps a n obviou s one ; but i t bears a bit of spellin g out, since Whitma n is committed t o makin g i t hard t o see . The poet's voice and presence , I suggested earlier , seem to annul spac e by traversin g it . Actua l voices , o f course , hav e limite d power s o f diffu sion. But the voice that augments itsel f wit h writin g seems able to conve y everywhere th e presence t o which voic e attests. The written voic e speak s from a distanc e ou r ac t o f readin g render s close ; i t conflate s th e else where fro m whic h i t announces itsel f an d th e "here " in which w e receiv e it. Th e intimate , strangel y spaceles s spac e o f suc h poem s a s "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry " arise s largel y fro m thi s textua l circumstance . Th e ap parent abilit y o f Whitman' s mythi c voic e t o diffus e itsel f throug h tim e and thu s collaps e i t depend s mor e obviousl y o n recours e t o a text ; onl y the voic e tha t ha s helpe d itsel f t o th e resource s o f writin g an d represen tation speak s an d repeat s it s words eternally. 98 The vaporou s bod y tha t ca n fus e itsel f int o u s is also create d throug h Whitman's cann y manipulatio n o f a text . Actua l voices , o f course , pro ject themselve s fro m bodie s tha t remai n finite an d bounded . I n Whit man's text , however , ther e is no body , bu t onl y th e hauntin g illusio n o f an unlocatabl e voice . Paradoxically , th e voic e w e see m t o hea r a s w e read, unencumbere d wit h a n actua l body , ca n therefor e defin e a n im plicit bod y wholl y modele d o n it s ow n characteristics . Define d no t onl y by fluidity bu t als o b y a n eeri e transparency , thi s disembodie d bod y makes the poet "on e i n whom yo u wil l se e the singularity whic h consist s in no singularity" ("Leave s o f Grass: A Volume of Poems Just Published " 25). Suc h a n essentialize d for m come s int o bein g onl y throug h th e text ,

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which transmute s effacemen t int o idealize d presence—o r int o a n idea l image o r sign . Immun e t o th e vicissitude s tha t continuall y reshap e al l material existents , sinc e he resurrects himself wheneve r a reader encounters his words, the poet can repeat his advent eternally in identical form . This powe r o f repetition , whic h make s hi m wha t h e is , i s virtuall y indistinguishable fro m th e powe r Whitma n excoriate s text s fo r exploit ing. Ye t i t endow s th e poe t wit h th e perfec t autonom y an d propriet y that mak e hi m th e incarnatio n o f wha t Leaves of Grass mean s b y presence. The figure Whitma n claim s t o generat e migh t thu s b e define d a s a being possessin g precisel y thos e positiv e trait s an d power s tha t charac terize th e image , eve n though , b y virtue o f som e powerfu l magic , i t is a living bein g instead . Voice , whic h attest s t o actua l presence , figures this magic i n Leaves of Grass. Writing , whic h epitomize s th e representa tional functio n o f th e word, shoul d play no rol e in the poet's manifesta tion. Admitte d overtl y int o th e univers e o f Leaves of Grass, i t shoul d destroy th e redemptiv e figure it s surreptitiou s us e seem s t o create . A t least a s ordinaril y practice d an d understood , writin g woul d perfec t th e poet's presence , an d defin e wha t presenc e is , throug h recours e t o a n image o r simulacrum . I n Leaves of Grass presenc e woul d fad e int o it s sign. Yet jus t a s Whitma n envision s a magica l operatio n whic h employ s the power s peculia r t o representatio n t o constitut e no t a n imag e bu t a living presence, s o to o h e proposes a writing tha t i s not simpl y writing. Ascribing an oxymoronic status to his poems and to the volume in which they appear , Whitman woul d hav e u s regard Leaves of Grass a s a book that is somehow no t a book, bu t the actual bodily presence of its author: Camerado! This is no book, Who touches this, touches a man. (V 2:452)" These announcement s hove r betwee n outright , outrageou s denia l o f th e very existenc e o f th e boo k w e ar e readin g an d a n implici t clai m t o transmute wha t readin g is , ver y nearl y makin g explici t th e precariou s transaction on which the poet's presence depends. As the delicate rhythm of repudiatio n an d revelatio n her e suggests , th e visionary prospec t Leaves of Grass claim s t o actualiz e ultimatel y hinge s on a paradoxical mod e o f communication a s crucia l t o Whitman' s projec t a s i t i s difficul t t o con ceive: the poet's exemplary mod e of existenc e depend s on the possibilit y

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of a peculiar kin d o f inscriptio n tha t efface s itsel f o n demand , metamor phosing into a living presence conveyed t o us as surely as representation s are disseminated b y ordinary writing . Oblique reference s t o thi s specia l sor t o f writin g ar e sprinkle d throughout Whitman' s work , inflectin g eve n remark s no t directl y con cerned wit h th e poet' s presence . I earlie r cite d a contras t betwee n "liv e words in a book" an d "cunningl y compose d words " (C W 9:159-60). 10 ° There Whitma n seem s to b e makin g a simpl e distinctio n betwee n word s —whether spoke n o r written—tha t aris e spontaneousl y an d thos e tha t have counterfeite d thei r occasio n an d thereb y forfeite d thei r naturalnes s and immediacy . Ye t a liberatin g i f no t quit e logica l inferenc e hover s i n Whitman's locution . Ther e shoul d b e a relatio n betwee n th e occasio n and spiri t i n whic h writin g i s compose d an d it s mod e o f perdurance . Implicit in Whitman's phrasin g is the notion tha t a text dashed off rathe r than cunningl y composed , th e innocen t an d a s i t wer e incidenta l tran scription o f spontaneou s speech , migh t sustai n th e fusio n wit h livin g presence voice supposedl y enjoys , als o reaping the ancillar y benefit s tha t derive fro m writin g ye t bein g compromise d b y non e o f th e defect s tha t characterize tha t mod e a s it is ordinarily practiced. 101 Whitman's repeate d pronouncement s concernin g th e wa y Leaves of Grass wa s compose d shoul d b e understoo d i n thi s light . A mythica l linguistic possibility lie s behin d suc h seemingl y workmanlik e statement s as the following : I avoid at all times the temptation t o patch u p and refine, preferring t o let each version o r whateve r g o ou t substantiall y a s i t wa s first suggested . (WW C 1:64-65)

It lurk s a s wel l i n hi s repeate d declaratio n tha t Leaves of Grass wa s composed i n a natural, spontaneou s atmosphere , a n assertio n tha t migh t seem simpl y to propound a kind o f aestheti c athleticism : I have read these leaves to myself i n the open air, I have tried them by trees, stars, rivers, I have dismissed whatever insulted my own soul or defiled my body ("By Blue Ontario's Shore," 1856 196) 102 These avowal s ar e matche d b y command s tha t th e boo k b e read onl y i n such a setting : "rea d thes e leave s i n th e ope n ai r ever y seaso n o f ever y year of your lif e [ . . . ] dismiss whatever insult s your ow n soul , and you r very fles h shal l b e a great poe m [ . . . ] " (Preface , 185 5 11) . It is as i f th e

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spontaneity an d similarit y o f th e differen t occasion s o f writin g an d reading coul d someho w unit e them , abrogatin g th e delays , distances , and mediation s tha t characteriz e texts . Effacin g itsel f becaus e o f it s nearly incidental character , suc h writing would becom e a voice, and thu s a presence . But writin g i s writing. An d despit e Whitman' s espousa l o f a n almos t transparent, almos t incidenta l variet y o f tex t whic h woul d apparentl y perform th e neutra l tas k o f simpl y conveyin g th e protagonist' s presenc e without diminishin g hi s powers , th e rol e playe d b y writin g i n constitut ing thi s figure i s hardl y th e innocen t on e suc h a n envisione d mod e implies: lendin g it s resource s t o voice , writin g create s Whitman' s poet . And lik e anyon e else , Whitman canno t writ e withou t bein g liabl e to th e negative trait s o f thi s mode—trait s h e himsel f spell s out , i n a repeate d exorcism tha t serve s finally t o specif y i n som e detai l th e linguisti c fea tures tha t compromis e th e magica l power s hi s imag e o f voic e seem s t o sustain, returnin g th e poe t t o th e ver y spac e h e claim s t o transcend . Whitman's nee d t o mak e us e o f writin g t o mobiliz e th e suppose d re sources o f voic e alert s us to a n entanglin g whic h furthe r slipper y distinc tions betwee n on e sor t o f tex t an d anothe r ar e a bi t to o obviousl y gerrymandered t o stav e off : th e poet' s presence , whic h shoul d fre e u s from th e sway of representations , owe s its apparently liberatin g qualitie s to th e very mode i t should redeem . 5.1 hav e bee n arguin g tha t thi s debacl e i s more tha n merel y contingent ; it obey s a necessit y a t wor k i n al l Whitman' s musing s o n wha t presenc e should be . To poin t t o th e rol e o f writin g i n Leaves of Grass i s thus no t simply to note that the poet's presence isn't quite a presence but is rather, sadly a s it were, the representation o f suc h a presence; though th e poem s gain muc h o f thei r powe r b y denyin g it , tha t poin t i s finally obviou s t o all bu t th e mos t ferven t acolyte. 103 I t i s instea d t o sugges t tha t th e perfected presenc e wh o apparentl y escape s th e alienatio n impose d b y representation i s generate d a s a .Activ e limi t o f representatio n itself . Whitman's figure o f wha t w e woul d b e wer e w e no t subjecte d t o th e mediating structure s o f cultur e i s a kin d o f hallucinatio n produce d b y the very mechanisms fro m whic h i t seems to sav e us. If thi s i s so , the n thi s figure embodie s no t th e supposedl y prope r relation betwee n representatio n an d presenc e h e i s invoke d t o sustain , but it s opposite . Th e visio n o f presenc e fo r whic h th e poe t stand s i s i n

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certain way s peculiar , jus t a s th e transaction s tha t see m t o produc e hi m manipulate representatio n t o generat e presenc e i n a manne r fa r fro m common. Ye t i n hi s trick y relatio n t o representatio n a s i n othe r crucia l respects, this figure turn s ou t t o b e oddly exemplary . Representation , w e think, ough t t o b e ancillar y t o presence : neithe r blockin g it s manifesta tion no r constitutin g ou r image s o f i t and thereb y compromisin g wha t i t seems t o be , representatio n shoul d lea d u s obedientl y bac k t o th e rea l presence fo r whic h i t stands. Walter Ong' s formulatio n o f thi s pervasiv e view is as benign a s the process he describes : In it s interna l dynamics , imitatio n i s amiabl y self-destructive : i f th e imitatio n is totall y successful , th e produc t i s indistinguishabl e fro m nature . {Interfaces 283-84) In Whitman's wor k th e relation betwee n representatio n an d presence , insofar a s i t i s admitte d t o obtai n a t all , seem s t o resembl e tha t offere d in Ong' s happ y account ; bu t i t i s mad e mor e gratifyin g stil l b y bein g given a magica l cast . In th e univers e o f Leaves of Grass, representatio n is not merel y "indistinguishable " fro m presenc e bu t ca n apparentl y pro duce it ; writing , i f i t play s an y rol e i n th e poems , doe s no t simpl y counterfeit bu t supposedl y metamorphose s int o th e voic e tha t attest s t o the adven t o f th e poet' s person . Give n a mor e importan t rol e t o pla y when i t is given an y role at all, representation i n Leaves of Grass thereb y becomes al l the mor e "amiable" : makin g n o claim s o n it s own behalf , i t supposedly yield s u p it s place completel y t o presenc e withou t encroach ing on it s proper priority . The stor y th e poems want t o tel l is thus a more atavisti c an d resonan t version o f th e accoun t On g offers . Jacque s Derrida' s formulatio n o f th e relation betwee n representatio n an d presenc e i s mor e trenchant ; les s i n keeping wit h Whitman' s aspirations , i t i s mor e attune d t o th e econom y that bot h enable s an d trouble s them . Summarizin g a commo n vie w w e might attribut e eithe r t o Whitma n o r Ong , Derrid a manage s simulta neously t o unsettl e it , suggestin g tha t representatio n produce s th e ver y presence it s apparent effacemen t seem s to restore : perfect representation shoul d represent perfectly. It restores presence and efface s itself a s absolut e representation . Thi s movemen t i s necessary. Th e telo s o f th e image is its own imperceptibility. When the perfect image ceases to be other than the thing, it respects the thing and restore s originar y presence . (Grammatology 297-98)

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The ironi c torqu e her e i s lodge d primaril y i n Derrida' s las t sentence , and especiall y i n hi s formulatio n o f tha t fictive limi t a t whic h "th e perfect imag e cease s t o b e othe r tha n th e thing. " Displayin g th e magi c thinking that sustain s Whitman's visio n of presence and lie s behind mor e attenuated version s o f i t a s well , thi s paraphras e subvert s th e logi c i t offers t o repeat : i t implies that "th e thin g itself" is itself a n image . Wha t we mea n b y presence , tha t is , i s a functio n o f representation . Thi s i s assuredly s o in Leaves of Grass: th e iterability tha t generate s th e proper , self-sustaining for m whic h qualifie s i n Whitman' s wor k a s presenc e i s inseparable fro m representation . This idea l form , Derrid a suggests , ca n neve r find it s matc h i n th e physical objec t o r b e embodie d b y it ; representatio n produce s a n imag e of presenc e tha t wil l alway s remain , s o t o speak , behin d things . I f th e sign gives birt h t o th e hallucinator y possibilit y w e cal l presence , i t thu s also generate s th e notio n tha t th e opaque , shiftin g surface s befor e u s poorly represen t suc h presence , indicatin g i t onl y b y separatin g u s fro m it. The ide a o f presenc e i s thus inseparabl e fro m th e suppose d cataclys m of its loss: representation doe s no t suddenl y encroac h upo n presence ; i t inhabit s i t a s th e very condition o f its experience.... The interior doublin g of presence, its halving, makes it appear as such.. .. (Grammatology 312) Whitman's chiasmu s o f word s an d things , whic h play s a crucia l rol e in structurin g th e imaginativ e univers e o f Leaves of Grass, offer s wha t we migh t wan t t o cal l a n amiabl e transumptio n o f th e predicamen t Derrida her e view s a s inescapable . I t ascribe s th e division s tha t o n Derrida's accoun t inher e i n representatio n t o a supposedl y remediabl e defect i n things . In Whitman' s work , w e hav e seen , materia l object s ar e themselves calle d "representations, " i n par t t o sugges t thei r deficiency , their differenc e fro m th e proper entitie s language names. This nomencla ture als o serve s t o efface , throug h semanti c displacement , th e operatio n of representatio n tha t generate s th e idea l form s hypostatize d a s pres ences. Voice i s Whitman's figure fo r thi s crossing : incarnatin g languag e an d wedding it to living presence in the poet's apostrophes, Whitman's imag e of voic e seem s t o realiz e th e chiliasti c prospect s th e wor d implies . Writ ing undoe s thi s chiasmus : namin g th e sig n a s sign , it reveal s th e poe t a s

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a representation . Wha t accordin g t o Whitma n i s a contingen t i f al l to o common fate , t o whic h w e ar e le d b y falle n culture , thu s assume s th e form o f a necessity , enacte d mos t dramaticall y i n th e ver y speec h act s that supposedl y evad e it . "The signifier, " Jacque s Laca n suggests , makes manifest th e subject of its signification. Bu t it functions a s a signifier onl y to reduce the subject in question to being no more than a signifier, to petrify th e subject in the same movement in which it calls the subject to function, t o speak, as subject. (Four Fundamental Concepts 207) the subjec t manifest s himsel f i n thi s movemen t o f disappearanc e tha t I hav e described a s lethal . . .. I have calle d thi s movemen t th e fading of th e subject . (Four Fundamental Concepts 207-208) Producing Whitman' s imag e o f voic e a s a functio n o f representation , writing make s proclamation s o f th e poet' s presenc e instance s o f thi s fading. Apocalypti c thoug h thei r ton e ma y ofte n be , thes e speec h act s are a n unwillin g i f no t unwittin g instanc e o f th e parado x Laca n acerbi cally describes ; the y reduc e eve n th e supposedl y transfigurin g identit y they generat e t o th e statu s o f a castrated subject , o r a sign. Yet eve n thi s sig n o f identity , thi s imag e o f voice , i s resonant . I t i s what remain s t o u s o f th e prope r bodie s w e onc e possessed , o r tha t w e imagine wer e ours . No t ye t enactin g th e apocalyps e i t imagines , repre senting thi s bod y bu t no t ye t presentin g it , Leaves of Grass offer s us , ambiguously, a n imag e of recovery , o r a n imag e as loss. Though the y d o no t mak e i t over t o r incorporat e i t withi n th e poet' s project, Whitman' s poem s nonetheles s hin t at this attenuation associate d with writing ; the y ca n affor d t o d o s o since , whil e suc h intimation s imply the still unrealized statu s of the poet's redemptive aspirations, they do no t radicall y compromis e hi s integrity . Hi s possibl e exercis e o f th e aggressive power s fo r whic h writin g come s t o stan d i s a darke r featur e of Leaves of Grass, abou t whic h th e poems ar e less forthcoming. Sai d t o effect ou r exodu s fro m th e field o f falle n cultur e an d th e mediation s o f the symboli c code , th e poe t an d hi s wor d ca n b e understoo d a s trium phant instance s o f thei r working ; th e poet' s presence , afte r all , i s itsel f symbolic, it s bein g a s wel l a s it s meanin g dependen t o n a socia l circui t of exchange . Fa r fro m impotent , suc h symboli c forms—Whitma n tell s

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us himself—ar e activ e an d indee d coercive , usurpin g th e plac e o f th e natural, th e intrinsic , an d th e proper . Whitma n ofte n come s clos e t o calling this usurpation culture ; the poet i s part o f it . Only rarel y doe s thi s sens e o f complicit y surfac e i n Whitman's work . Admission tha t th e presence generate d i n the poems i s himself a produc t of th e symboli c orde r an d a n instanc e o f it s power s an d seduction s i s most sustaine d i n th e Calamus sequenc e tha t first appeare d i n th e i86 0 Leaves of Grass. Strenuou s denia l o f thi s relatio n i s mor e typica l o f Whitman's first tw o editions . Strugglin g t o realiz e hi s magica l power s and mak e goo d hi s performativ e claims , th e poet-her o o f th e 185 5 an d 1856 Leaves of Grass i s seemingl y threatene d wit h impotenc e rathe r than uncomfortabl e responsibility : i f th e transfiguration s h e announce s do no t quit e com e off , h e appear s t o b e a wistfu l figure possesse d o f noble aspirations , rathe r tha n a trafficker i n rhetoric an d persuasio n lik e anyone else . No t onl y th e visionar y power , bu t als o th e patho s an d humor o f Whitman' s earl y edition s ar e thu s generate d b y th e poet' s claims t o renounc e th e falle n languag e game s b y mean s o f whic h ordi nary speaker s cajol e an d coerc e us . While th e aggressiv e implication s o f the poet' s entanglemen t i n writin g an d representatio n ar e resolutel y suppressed i n th e earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass, th e melanchol y an d comic one s periodicall y reliev e th e apocalypti c intensitie s o f th e perfor mative project Whitma n wil l not permit the m t o redirect . To sugges t tha t th e unfalle n wor d Whitma n envision s repeatedl y collapses int o th e falle n languag e fro m whos e effect s th e poe t shoul d liberate u s i s thu s hardl y t o assum e a dismissiv e stanc e towar d th e poetry. Disquietin g suggestion s concernin g th e poet' s wor d hove r throughout Whitman' s work , no t onl y i n th e diatribe s tha t tr y t o dis count them , bu t mor e valuabl y i n th e mobile , divide d ton e o f loca l pronouncements. Extrem e claim s concernin g th e powe r o f th e wor d organize th e imaginativ e univers e o f Leaves of Grass; ye t a t it s best , Whitman's poetr y accommodate s th e hesitations , equivocations , an d brusque bu t vulnerabl e assertion s w e migh t expec t a simultaneou s com mitment t o an d suspicio n o f suc h visionar y claim s t o generate ; a t time s the mos t programmati c o f poets , Whitma n i s elsewher e th e reluctan t ironist, comedian , o r elegis t o f hi s ow n project . Rathe r tha n comin g t o rest wit h th e truis m tha t Whitman' s wor k neve r quit e perform s wha t i t claims to , w e nee d t o trac e thi s pla y o f avowa l an d doub t throug h hi s poetry. Despit e wha t Leaves of Grass declares , th e poet' s voic e an d

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presence exis t fo r u s a s a n exuberan t bu t trouble d attemp t a t perfor mance, an d a s a surreptitiou s bu t sustaine d meditatio n o n thei r o w n possibility.

Notes 1. Quote d i n Anderson , "Whitman' s Ne w Man " 18 . As Anderson point s out , Whitman collaborate d o n this chapter concernin g his work. See "Whitman' s New Man " n . 2. Steve n Calabrese offers a n importan t accoun t of Whitman's extende d effort s to tur n th e Person int o a marketable commodity . 3. Lette r t o William D . O'Connor, Januar y 6 , 1865 . 4. Se e also Burroughs, Notes on Walt Whitman as Poet and Person 56 . 5. Quote d i n Anderson, "Whitman' s Ne w Man " 44 . 6. Thi s remark pre-date s Whitman' s Camde n years . O'Connor wa s part o f th e poet's earlie r Washington circle ; see Kaplan 287-89 . 7. Richar d Mauric e Bucke , the Canadia n alienis t who was anothe r clos e frien d and staunc h supporter , thu s suggeste d i n a simila r vein : "Wit h Wal t Whit man, hi s outward life , his inward spiritua l existenc e an d hi s poetry, were al l one; in every respec t each tallie d wit h th e other" (Walt Whitman 51) . 8. Kaplan' s accoun t derive s fro m WW C 4:312-14 . Se e als o WW C 4:212 , 4:234, an d 1:49-50 . 9. Gilchrist' s revie w appeare d i n th e Bosto n Radical, unde r th e titl e "Englis h Woman's Estimat e o f Wal t Whitman. " Writte n i n 1869 , it appears i n In Re Walt Whitman (41-55 ) a s " A Woman' s Estimat e o f Wal t Whitman. " Hav ing fende d of f Gilchrist' s initia l advances , Whitma n becam e friendl y wit h Gilchrist an d he r childre n an d cam e t o admir e he r greatly; se e Kaplan 3 3 0 33 an d 364—67 , and Erkkil a 312-16 . Whitman' s respons e t o Gilchris t wa s of cours e colore d b y hi s sexua l orientation ; bu t i t i s o f a piec e wit h hi s general nervousnes s abou t th e reactions Leaves of Grass provoked. Discuss ing anothe r suc h letter , receive d som e year s before , wit h Traubel , Whitma n remarked: "It' s on e o f th e confession s [ . . . ] I ge t confession s ever y no w and then : fro m women , fro m men : the y see m t o inur e t o th e kin d o f wor k I do: I don't a s a rul e kno w wha t t o d o wit h them : the y mainl y amaz e m e [ . . . . ] I haven't rea d i t myself fo r years : take it along, anyhow: I want yo u t o have it: i t belongs with th e other riff-raff yo u have " (WW C 4:212) . 10. A s Erkkil a notes , "Whitma n cautione d he r [Gilchrist ] no t t o confus e 'a n unauthorized an d imaginar y idea l Figure ' with th e 'plain personage ' o f Wal t Whitman" (Erkkil a 313) . Mor e tha n a littl e disengenuous , Whitma n her e blames a confusio n tha t threatene d t o becom e personall y embarrassin g o n Gilchrist's imaginatio n rathe r tha n hi s own ; h e thu s manage s bot h t o avoi d repudiating th e Perso n an d t o stav e of f th e awkwar d consequence s thi s figure produced . Erkkil a quote s fro m COR R 2:170 .

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11. O n th e spli t betwee n Whitman' s sometime s tormente d privat e lif e an d hi s carefully controlle d transaction s wit h th e Camde n circl e se e Anderson , "Whitman's New Man " 47. 12. I n hi s discussio n o f Rousseau , Derrid a explore s thi s economy , o f whic h Rousseau wa s explicitl y aware . "Le t u s not e tha t th e econom y i s perhap s indicated in the following," Derrida suggests: "the operation that substitutes writing fo r speec h als o replace s presenc e b y value : t o th e / am o r t o th e / am present thu s sacrificed , a what I am o r a what I am worth i s preferred. . . . I renounce m y presen t life , m y presen t an d concret e existenc e i n orde r to make myself known in the ideality of truth and value" (Grammatology 142) . As w e migh t expect , Whitma n claim s t o conflat e presenc e an d value : "[I ] send n o agen t o r mediu m . . . . an d offe r n o representativ e o f value—bu t offer th e value itself" ("A Song for Occupations," 185 5 89) . 13. I n Camden Whitman devote d mone y a s well a s time to insuring his perdurance. H e scandalize d a grou p o f Englis h benefactor s b y takin g th e mone y they had collecte d t o reliev e his supposed destitutio n an d lavishing i t on a n enormous mausoleum (Kapla n 25 , 49-52) . 14. Anderso n implie s a simila r tension . Discussin g th e collectio n o f clipping s reprinted a s par t o f th e apparatu s o f Walt Whitman's Autograph Revision of the Analysis of Leaves of Grass (For Dr. R. M. Bucke's Walt Whitman), he remarks : "Whe n w e tur n t o th e Appendi x w e ar e o f cours e confronte d by a montag e o f clipping s o f th e sor t tha t filled hi s scrapbook s i n his cluttere d Camde n nest . Th e reade r i s invite d t o witnes s th e pro cess o f assemblag e fo r himself , fo r here , whateve r ou r views o f th e Person , he ma y b e sai d t o hav e rise n up , an d bee n revealed " ("Whitman' s Ne w Man" 49). 15. Th e las t o f thes e line s disappear s fro m th e poe m i n 1881 ; se e V 1:223.

16. Anderson , amon g others , thu s note s Whitman' s "assertio n o f a n agenc y more inclusiv e an d unmediate d tha n print " (Imperial Self 120) . Se e als o Edwin Miller, Walt Whitman's Poetry xv . 17. Thi s intimatio n tha t th e poe t ha s jus t by-passe d hi s text , o r i s abou t t o d o so, was deleted from the poem in i 8 8 i ; s e e V 1:83—84 . 18. A s Walte r On g note s i n a remar k i n keepin g wit h th e spiri t o f Whitman' s work, i n writing "the person who produces a n utterance has been more and more effectivel y distance d fro m th e perso n wh o take s i n th e utterance " (Interfaces 288) . Ong thus suggests, as Whitman might, that "death presides at bot h end s o f th e writin g operation . Th e basi c reaso n i s tha t th e perso n being addresse d a s presen t i s i n fac t absent , an d because , obversely , th e author i s no t presen t t o hi s reade r althoug h hi s word s wil l be " (Interfaces 2.39). 19. Breitwiese r (133—34 ) draw s attentio n t o th e uncann y effec t o f Whitman' s manipulation o f voice and writing. 20. An American Primer wa s published in 1904 ; see DBN 3:728-29^439 .

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21. I n th e 185 6 editio n th e poe m appear s unde r th e awkwar d bu t revelator y title "Poe m o f Th e Sayers of The Words o f The Earth. " 22. Difficult-to-classif y case s suc h a s "arranging " serv e Austin' s purpose s thoug h they appea r t o frustrat e them : rathe r tha n strugglin g t o developin g a nea t taxonomy, Austi n i s intent o n demonstratin g th e overlappin g o f hi s catego ries an d henc e th e rol e playe d b y illocutionar y o r positiona l forc e i n any utterance: "T o perfor m a locutionary ac t is in general, we may say, also an d eo ipso t o perform a n illocutionary act " (98) . 23. Whitman' s much-vexe d notio n o f "indirection " ha s bearin g here . A s bot h Feidelson an d Anderso n hav e noted , "indirection " ca n b e understoo d a s a procedure whic h subvert s language-as-statement ; i t abrogate s th e notio n that a worl d exist s beyon d o r remove d fro m languag e itself . Se e Feidelso n 18—21 and Anderson , "Whitman' s Ne w Man " 1 5 - 2 1 . 24. Her e in Calamus wha t ha s been lef t ou t of the book i s of course in one sens e the explici t declaratio n o f th e poet' s homosexuality . Bu t lik e othe r thing s that matte r t o Whitman , th e poet' s sexualit y ough t t o b e a presen t forc e rather tha n a conditio n t o b e reporte d on : wha t w e nee d t o acquir e i s no t knowledge o f th e poet' s sexua l preference s bu t a n immediat e experienc e o f his body . 25. Thi s i s o f cours e th e symptomati c structur e Derrid a ha s adumbrated . Se e especially hi s analysis of Rousseau , Grammatology 97-268 . 26. I n quotin g fro m th e Primer I have reproduce d man y o f th e tentativ e formu lations Whitma n late r crosse d ou t (a s indicate d i n DBN) , thoug h i n a number o f case s I have replaced thes e with brackete d ellipses . As w e shal l see , Whitman's designatio n her e o f th e maste r o f performa tive powe r a s a "writer " i s highl y uncharacteristic ; I tak e i t t o b e wha t I earlier calle d a "casual " characterization . Th e passag e whic h immediatel y follows thi s on e i n th e Primer crosse s ou t "writer, " preferrin g th e phras e "great [ . . . ] user o f words"; se e 241. 27. A t odd s wit h th e myt h o f voic e tha t animate s Leaves of Grass, thi s notio n of "liv e words " tha t appea r i n a boo k i s nonetheles s i n keepin g wit h th e need t o salvag e th e tex t tha t i s sometime s admitte d t o conve y th e poet' s presence t o us . See 262—64. 28. O n Whitman' s fascinatio n wit h th e suppose d powe r o f th e wor d t o evok e the thing, see Asselineau 2:23 2 an d Matthiesse n 556 . 29. I quote her e fro m th e 186 7 rathe r tha n th e i86 0 text . 30. Ong' s descriptio n o f th e relatio n betwee n soun d an d inferiorit y ca n serv e t o adumbrate th e apparent phenomenologica l basi s for Whitman's extravagan t proclamations: " a fiel d o f sigh t suggest s alway s a beyon d o r a beneat h which i s no t seen . B y contrast , soun d give s perception s o f interior s a s interiors withou t thei r bein g opene d u p int o surfaces : I ca n ta p a n objec t and lear n thereb y whethe r i t is solid o r hollow " {Interfaces 122) . 31. Whil e I hav e com e t o rathe r differen t conclusions , I hav e benefite d greatl y in m y consideratio n o f Whitman' s languag e theor y fro m th e wor k o f Jame s

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Perrin Warren; see especially Walt Whitman's Language and Style, particularly 1-90 . Warren' s importan t book , Walt Whitman's Language Experiment, appeared as the present study was going to press. 32. O n the intensification o f millennial anti-institutionalism an d radical individualism during the antebellum period see Ziff 28-29 , Fredrickson 7-20, and Bercovitch, American jeremiad 132-75 . O n thei r Revolutionar y anteced ents, which Simpson' s account o f the federal perio d scants , see Bercovitch, American Jeremiad 93-131 and Erkkila 12-27 . 33. I have in min d especiall y Julie Ellison's Emerson's Romantic Style, though her terminolog y differ s fro m th e on e I mak e us e o f here . Se e als o Pease , Visionary Compacts 220—34. 34. O n Whitman' s interes t i n Bunse n an d Schei e d e Vere , se e Warren , Walt Whitman's Language and Style 5, 25-26; and Stovall 162-65 , 213. 35. Se e Aarsleff 13 , 16, 294, and 386. 36. Se e Saussur e 67-7 0 fo r hi s classi c formulatio n concernin g th e arbitrar y bond between signifier an d signified . 37. Suc h a mediate d ti e betwee n wor d an d thin g i s als o posite d i n th e grea t speculative essays on language origins by Herder and Rousseau: see Herder, Essay on the Origin of Language, especiall y 99-119; and Rousseau, Essay on the Origin of Languages, especially n - 1 6 . 38. Fo r a description of this notebook see DBN 3:664113436. 39. Se e NUPM 5:1624-26 , an d Warren, "Whitman a s Ghostwriter" an d Walt Whitman's Language and Style 3-10, fo r a history of the scholarly controversy concernin g th e authorshi p o f chapter s n an d 1 2 of Rambles; both Grier (NUPM) and Warren attribute at least some role in their composition to Whitman . Whil e I occasionally quot e fro m thes e chapter s i n wha t fol lows, none of my main contentions concernin g Whitman's languag e theory depends principally on material garnered from thi s source. 40. Thoug h th e passag e i s attribute d i n Rambles t o Humboldt , accordin g t o Warren i t appears no t t o b e a precise quotation; bu t i t resembles closely a passage from Linguistic Variability 27 ; Warren cite s another translatio n of the same passage, Humanist without Portfolio 280. See Warren, Walt Whitman's Language and Style n . 41. Se e for example Linguistic Variability 72, 145-46, 154-55, a nd 188 . 42. Whitma n applie s th e ter m "lawless " mor e particularly t o slang ; bu t slan g functions fo r hi m a s a kind o f synecdoch e fo r th e linguistic innovation fo r which he praises American speech; see "Slang in America," PW 2:572—77. 43. O n th e extravagant perio d enthusias m fo r nativ e place names see Simpson 118—21 an d 206—209 .

44. Se e for example 1:36 . 45. Se e Scheie de Vere 14 , 91-93, 106-107 , and 238-39 . I am indebted her e to Warren ; se e especiall y Walt Whitman's Language and Style 21-28 . Scheie de Vere's argument is rather complex, since the assertion that linguistic progress i s furthere d b y political conques t mus t b e reconciled wit h th e

Writing an d Representatio n 27 3 apparently opposin g contentio n tha t i t i s th e language s o f conquere d peo ples rathe r tha n conquerin g one s whic h eventuall y com e t o dominat e th e linguistic mixtures that result from political occupation ; see 116—25. 46. Se e Warren , Walt Whitman's Language and Style 30 , fo r a n accoun t o f Whitman's interest in linguistic teleology . 47. O n the cultural importanc e o f teleologica l claim s fo r the American Revolu tion an d America n libert y se e Bercovitch , American jeremiad 133-34 . A s Bercovitch points out (American Jeremiad 135) , an insistence on the distinction betwee n mer e licens e an d th e sor t o f libert y tha t serve d teleologica l ends was also a staple of America n political rhetori c in the period followin g the Revolution . Whitman' s interes t i n demoti c fermen t thu s locate s hi m i n the mor e libera l cam p withi n th e American consensu s Bercovitc h describes . The centripetal energie s of th e poet, however , mar k not so muc h a countervailing conservatism, still within that consensus, as a desire to escape politics altogether. Se e chapters 6 - 8 , below . 48. O n artisa n republicanis m an d it s Jeffersonian backgroun d se e Erkkil a 1 2 27 an d Wilentz, especially 61-106 . 49. I mean t o sugges t th e strai n involve d i n trying to contai n Whitman' s fanta sies o f th e poe t withi n th e sor t o f figura l recuperatio n o f individualis m Bercovitch describe s a s a stapl e o f America n rhetori c ( a recuperatio n i n which th e politica l thinke r o f Democratic Vistas enthusiasticall y partici pates, an d towar d whic h th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass als o gestures) : "I n virtually ever y on e o f th e countles s biographie s o f America n heroes , fo r example, the author insists that 'true individualism' is not something uniqu e —not a Byronic or Nietzschean assertio n o f superiority—bu t a n exemplum of America n enterprise : a mode l o f progres s an d contro l tha t typifie s th e society a s a whole" (Bercovitch , American Jeremiad 156) . On the America n tendency t o recas t revolutionar y o r romanti c "individuality " a s America n "individualism," and thus to harness potentially radical energies for the task of developin g communa l consensus , see also Bercovitch, "Emerson , Individualism, an d th e Ambiguitie s o f Dissent " an d "Th e Proble m o f Ideolog y i n American Literar y History. " I take u p th e comple x relatio n o f Whitman' s poet figure t o this dialectic in chapter 8 , below . 50. I n "Slan g i n America, " similarly , Whitma n approvingl y quote s Arthu r Sy mons concernin g "languages , i n th e constructio n o f whic h whol e people s unconsciously co-operated , th e form s o f whic h wer e determin' d no t b y individual genius , bu t b y the instinct s o f successiv e generation s [ . . . ] " (P W 2.:574)51. O n Schei e d e Vere' s an d Whitman' s interpretation s o f inflectiona l levelin g see Warren, "Real Grammar" 4 - 6 . 52. Se e Aarslef f 13-1 4 an d 293—99 , an d Warren , Walt Whitman's Language and Style 14-16 . 53. I a m indebte d her e t o relate d assertion s b y Warren ; se e Walt Whitman's Language and Style 21-28 .

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54. I a m indebte d t o Warre n fo r th e notio n o f Whitman' s strategi c mixin g o f synchronic an d diachroni c linguistics , thoug h m y sens e o f bot h th e particu lar combinatio n Whitma n concoct s an d th e purpose s i t serve s differ s mark edly fro m his; see Walt Whitman's Language and Style 21 . 55. Irwi n (32 ) note s Whitman's valorizatio n o f prope r names . 56. O n Whitman' s us e o f th e ter m "indication " an d it s statu s a s a deficien t mode o f significatio n tha t fail s t o produc e th e presenc e o r expres s th e intrinsic qualities o f th e things i t signifies, se e chapter 2 , above. 57. Se e for exampl e DB N 3:756 . 58. I t i s somethin g o f a parado x tha t Whitma n choose s th e trop e o f coinin g here to figure th e influences tha t supposedl y giv e each person hi s or he r ow n unique identity . Perhap s thi s parado x registers , i n displace d form , th e diffi culties of attemptin g t o recove r th e proper i n language . 59. O n relativis m a s a crucia l principl e fo r Humbold t se e Aarslef f 345-4760. Fo r account s o f Reed' s influenc e o n Emerson , se e Strauc h v—xii i an d Gur a 79-86. 61. O n Reed' s vie w o f th e superfluousnes s o f huma n speec h i n a prelapsaria n state, see also Gura 83 . 62. Ree d explains : "The y ha d nothin g t o communicat e b y words ; fo r the y ha d not th e powe r o f concealment . Th e su n o f th e spiritua l worl d shon e brigh t on thei r hearts , an d thei r sense s wer e ope n wit h deligh t t o natura l objects . . . . What ha d the y t o say?" ("Oratio n o n Genius " 11) . 63. O n Oegger' s influenc e o n Emerso n se e Gura 86-8 7. 64. O n Whitman' s relatio n t o Swedenborgianis m se e also Irwin 30 . 65. Fo r th e classic structuralist positio n o n onomatopoei a se e Saussure 69 . 66. O n thi s point se e Aarsleff 346-47 . 6y. Se e Gur a 126—2 9 fo r a semina l discussio n o f Kraitsir , an d 129—3 6 fo r a n account o f Thoreau' s appropriatio n o f Kraitsir' s doctrine s i n th e railroad cut passage in Walden. 68. Se e Saussure 6 9 - 7 0 fo r a structuralist accoun t o f interjections . 69. Se e Aurora 541—42 . Aarsleff (78^1 ) cite s a n apposit e passag e fro m Boehme : "Now, tha t Ada m stoo d i n th e imag e o f Go d an d no t tha t o f th e beast s i s shown b y th e fac t tha t h e kne w th e propert y o f al l th e creature s an d gav e names to al l the creature s accordin g t o their essence , form, an d property ; h e understood th e languag e o f natur e a s reveale d and articulated wor d i n al l essence, for th e name o f each creatur e has its origin here " (emphasi s added) . See Boehme, Mysterium Magnum 1:134 . Aarslef f 59-6 1 cite s paralle l pas sages fro m othe r seventeenth-centur y tracts . 70. Th e las t two line s quoted her e appear onl y i n the 185 6 text; se e V 1:266 . 71. Whitman' s notio n tha t eve n inanimat e object s produc e expressiv e sound s seems t o deriv e fro m a sens e o f th e relatio n betwee n soun d an d structur e akin t o that adduce d b y Ong; see note 30 , above. 72. O n th e neume, whic h Whitman' s lul l an d hu m resembles , see Derrida :

Writing an d Representation 27 5 With thi s exemplary mode l o f a pure breath (pneuma) an d of an intact life, of a song and an inarticulate language, of speech without spacing, we have, even if it is placeless [atopique] o r Utopian, a paradigm suitabl e to our measure. We can name an d define it. I t is the neume: pur e vocalization , for m o f a n inarticulate son g withou t speech , whose nam e means breath. . . . {Grammatology 249 ; bracketed interpolations ar e the editor's) As I suggeste d i n chapte r 4 , above , thi s mythologize d imag e o f voic e i s perhaps th e model fo r the very self-presenc e i t seems t o present : To spea k befor e knowin g ho w to speak, not to be able either to be silent or to speak, this limi t o f origin i s indeed tha t of a pure presence , presen t enoug h t o be living, to be felt in pleasure [jouissance] but pure enough to have remained unblemishe d by the work o f differance , inarticulat e enoug h fo r self-delight [jouissance de soi] not to be corrupted b y interval, discontinuity , alterity . (Grammatology 249 ; bracketed inter polations ar e the editor's) 73. O n the nineteenth-century vogu e fo r American India n languages, an d on th e traits len t b y enthusiasti c Anglo s t o suc h seemingl y paradisa l speech , se e Simpson 202-29 . Se e Abrams 95 concernin g romantic commonplaces abou t American India n languages . 74. Not e to o tha t thes e aborigine s "depart , charging th e wate r an d th e lan d with names. " Bot h magneti c an d juridica l i n it s implication s (" I charg e you"), thi s wor d suggest s a performativ e forc e simultaneousl y natura l an d cultural. 75. Th e questio n mark s enclose d i n bracket s ar e the editor's ; brackete d ellipse s are mine. 76. Derrida' s descriptio n o f the Active limi t a t which languag e woul d no t yet be discourse bu t woul d expres s i n singl e word s al l tha t discours e labor s t o reconstruct ha s bearing here . H e is both paraphrasin g an d undermining th e views o f Rousseau : Between prelanguag e an d the linguistic catastroph e institutin g th e division o f dis course, Roussea u attempt s t o recapture a sort of happy pause , the instantaneity o f a full language , the image stabilizing what was no more than a point of pure passage: a language withou t discourse , a speec h withou t sentence , withou t syntax , withou t parts, without grammar, a language of pure effusion, beyon d the cry, but short of the hinge [brisure] that articulates and at the same time disarticulates the immediate unity of meaning , withi n whic h th e being of the subject distinguishe s itsel f neithe r fro m its acts nor from it s attributes. I t is the moment whe n ther e ar e words ("th e word s first used b y mankind")—which d o not yet function a s they d o "in languages alread y formed" an d i n whic h me n "firs t gav e ever y singl e wor d th e sens e o f a whol e proposition". . . . Bu t language canno t b e truly bor n excep t b y the disruption and fracture o f that happ y plenitude , i n the very instan t that this instantaneity i s wrested from it s fictive immediac y an d put back int o movement . I t serve s a s a n absolut e reference poin t fo r him who wishes t o measur e an d describe differenc e withi n dis course. On e cannot do it without referrin g to the limit, always alread y crossed, of an undivided language , wher e th e proper-infinitive-present i s so welded t o itself tha t it

276 Writin g an d Representatio n cannot even appear in the opposition of the proper noun and the verb in the infinitive present. (Grammatology 279—80; the bracketed interpolation is the editor's) The suppose d lin k betwee n soun d an d sens e Whitma n adduce s i n th e pas sage fro m th e Primer wa s a commonplac e i n th e rhapsodi c treatment s o f Native American languages that flourished in mid—nineteenth-century Americ a (Simpson 210-11) . Bu t Whitman i s les s typica l i n linkin g othe r commonl y noted feature s o f "aboriginal " language s wit h thi s onomatopoeti c quality . The "fitness " of nativ e place name s was ofte n attribute d to their adjectival , epithetic origi n (Simpso n 209) . An d thei r abilit y t o conve y wha t woul d otherwise require separate predication was explained b y their "syncretism": place name s wer e ofte n forme d b y joinin g a nou n an d ver b phras e int o a single, length y compoun d wor d (Simpso n 220) . I n Whitman' s accoun t th e properties wit h whic h etymolog y an d syntacti c agglutinatio n hav e thu s endowed th e name are attributed instead to its aural features alone : All aboriginal names [. . . ] sound good [.... I ] was asking for something savage and luxuriant, an d behol d her e ar e th e aborigina l names . I se e ho w the y ar e bein g preserved. The[y] «H are honest words—they give the true length, breadth, depth— They all fit,—Mississippi!—how th e word teWs winds with chutes—[... ] it [... ] rolls a stream three thousand miles long;—Ohio, [. . . ] Connecticut, Ottawa, [. . . ] Monongahela [. . . ] all fit. (The Primer of Words DBN 3:743; bracketed interpolation is the editor's; bracketed ellipses are mine) Humboldt note s th e syntacti c agglutinatio n o f America n India n language s but regards it as a defect {Linguistic Variability 112) . 77. Al l bu t th e first sentenc e o f thi s noteboo k entr y ha s bee n struc k throug h with tw o vertica l lines ; th e entir e passag e nonetheles s appear s i n Traubel' s American Primer; se e DBN 3:745^345 . 78. Linke d here to a n awkward effor t a t reform, this attack o n articulation wa s a commonplac e o f speculativ e romanti c an d pre-romantic linguistics . Com pare Rousseau' s assertio n tha t progres s i n articulatio n accompanie s a los s of expressiv e accen t (16) ; lik e Whitman , Roussea u associate s writin g wit h this shif t (21—22) . Herder , i n a simila r vein , point s ou t tha t accen t o r intonation i s unwritabl e (93 ) an d characterize s writin g a s th e mer e corps e of livin g speech (94-96) . 79. O n the relation between the active-passive and masculine-feminine polaritie s see Freud, "The Development o f th e Libido an d the Sexual Organizations, " Introductory Lectures 327 ; an d "Femininity, " New Introductory Lectures 101-3.

80. Anothe r conspicuou s instanc e o f suc h passivity , sectio n twenty-eigh t o f "Song of Myself, " is part of th e extended sequence the scenario quoted here initiates. 81. Her e Whitman's oxymoronic "alphabetica l sounds " implicitly dissolve writing back into voice. 82. Whitman' s visio n o f a "chast e [. . . ] drenc h o f love " derives i n par t fro m

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eugenicist polemic s (se e Aspi z 183-209) , a n origi n incompatibl e wit h nei ther phobic nor counter-phobic qualities . 83. I take thi s phras e fro m Kristeva , o r mor e precisel y fro m Leo n S . Roudiez , her English translator; see Powers of Horror viii . 84. Her e Whitman's revision s serv e to stres s the associations o f indicatio n wit h writing, and expression with voice, that pervade the Primer. 85. O n th e datin g o f th e Primer se e DB N 3 : 7 2 8 - 2 9 ^ 4 3 9 , an d Warren, "Dat ing Whitman's Languag e Studies." 86. Conversely , bot h th e attemp t t o justif y i n th e discursiv e contex t o f th e Primer th e sort s o f linguistic power s th e poems displa y an d the appearanc e there o f a figure ver y muc h lik e th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass sugges t tha t Whitman woul d lik e t o regar d th e poetry' s sometime s outlandis h transac tions as something more than mere fiction. 87. Se e for example Philosophy of Literary Form 3 - 8 . 88. I quot e th e 187 1 tex t here . Prio r edition s al l offe r sligh t modification s o f the less striking 185 5 versio n of the final line: "What I give I give out of myself." 89. Not e tha t Whitman' s "Here! " is performative , activatin g th e passin g o n o f the "breath of life" to which words an d voice seem to attest. 90. O n recitatio n a s the loss o f prope r speec h se e Derrida, "L a parole souflee, " Writing and Difference 169-95 , especiall y th e discussio n o f th e figure o f the prompter (souffleur) , 176-81 . 91. Fo r other , mor e positiv e estimates o f th e practica l benefit s o f writin g an d the technolog y tha t reproduce s it , se e "Lette r t o Ralp h Wald o Emerson, " 1856 349 ; "Startin g fro m Paumanok, " i86 0 21 ; and "Son g o f th e Exposi tion," V 3:618 . 92. O n repetitio n a s a mechanis m independen t o f th e recuperativ e procedure s of th e sympto m se e Freud , Beyond the Pleasure Principle, especiall y 6-17 . Jettisoning the supposed biologica l basi s of this compulsion t o repeat and of the deat h driv e wit h whic h Freu d associate s it , Laca n understand s thes e i n terms o f th e "fading " o f th e subjec t exacte d b y accessio n t o th e symbolic ; see Pour Fundamental Concepts 53-6 4 an d 197-208 . Se e also Hertz, "Freud and the Sandman," The End of the Line 9 7 - 1 2 1 . 93. Thi s fetishisti c valuatio n o f th e representatio n ma y b e ineradicable : "I t i s perhaps unavoidabl e that , whe n a subjec t confront s th e factitiousnes s o f object relation , whe n h e stand s a t th e plac e o f th e wan t tha t found s it , th e fetish become s a life preserver. . . . But is not exactl y languag e ou r ultimat e and inseparabl e fetish ? An d language , precisely , i s base d o n fetishis t denia l ('I kno w that , bu t jus t th e same, ' 'th e sig n i s no t th e thing , bu t jus t th e same,' etc.) an d define s u s i n ou r essenc e a s speaking beings . Becaus e o f it s founding status , th e fetishis m o f 'language ' i s perhap s th e onl y on e tha t i s unanalyzable" (Kristeva , Powers of Horror 37) . 94. I here us e the terms sig n an d thing, rathe r than signifie r an d signified, i n an effort t o paraphras e Whitman' s argument , i n whic h th e continuin g avail -

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ability of something prior to , and unaffecte d by , the process of significatio n is of paramoun t importance . 95. Becaus e o f th e parallelis m tha t govern s thi s passage , th e las t o f thes e line s implies tha t th e transitio n fro m narcissis m t o objec t relation s i s someho w equivalent t o a fal l int o representation . O n th e connectio n betwee n thes e shifts, se e chapter 4 , above . 96. Whitma n seem s to dra w her e on contemporar y eugenicis t belief s abou t th e effects o f th e psychi c an d mora l state s o f th e participant s o n th e offsprin g of intercourse ; se e Aspi z 193—206 . Espouse d b y psuedo-scienc e o r not , this belief tha t thought s directl y determin e physical realit y i s an instanc e of magic thinking, inflected her e by anxiety . 9j. O n th e recruitin g o f subject s t o ideologica l position s se e Althusser, "Ideol ogy an d Ideologica l Stat e Apparatuses. " 98. Se e Ong, Interfaces 136 . 99. I quote her e fro m th e 186 7 text ; th e i86 0 versio n lack s th e "Camerado! " which make s thi s utterance a n apostrophe . 100. Se e 180 , above . 101. O n "good " writin g se e Derrida, Grammatology 17 . 102. Se e also WWC 3:148-49 . 103. Thoug h Whitman' s wor k encourage s jus t suc h extravagan t responses . Se e above, 163-65 .

6. Inscription s Mr Burk e rouze d th e indignatio n o f al l rank s o f men , whe n b y a refinemen t i n cruelt y superiour t o tha t whic h i n th e Eas t yoke s th e livin g t o th e dea d h e strov e t o persuad e u s that w e an d ou r posterit y t o th e en d o f tim e wer e rivete d t o a constitutio n b y th e indissoluble compac t o f a dea d parchment , an d wer e boun d t o cheris h a cors e a t th e bosom, whe n reaso n migh t cal l alou d tha t i t should b e entombed . —Wordsworth, " A Lette r t o th e Bisho p o f Landaff " 1:4 8 Nor, perchance — If I should b e where I no mor e ca n hea r Thy voice , no r catc h fro m th y wil d eye s thes e gleam s Of pas t existence—wil t tho u the n forge t That o n th e bank s o f thi s delightfu l strea m We stoo d together . . . . —Wordsworth, 'Tinter n Abbey, " Poems 1:36 1 America doe s no t repe l th e pas t o r wha t i t ha s produce d unde r it s form s o r ami d othe r politics o r th e ide a o f caste s o r th e ol d religion s . . . accept s th e lesso n wit h calmnes s . . . is no t s o impatien t a s ha s bee n suppose d tha t th e sloug h stil l stick s t o opinion s an d manners an d literatur e whil e th e lif e whic h serve d it s requirement s ha s passe d int o th e new lif e o f th e ne w form s . . . perceive s tha t th e corps e i s slowl y born e fro m th e eatin g and sleepin g room s o f th e hous e . . . perceive s tha t i t wait s a littl e whil e i n th e doo r . . . that i t wa s fittest fo r it s day s . . . tha t it s actio n ha s descende d t o th e stalwar t an d wellshaped hei r who approache s . . . and tha t h e shal l b e fittest for hi s days . —Whitman, Preface , 185 5 5 Closer ye t I approach you , What though t yo u hav e o f me , I had a s muc h o f you— I lai d i n m y store s i n advance , I considered lon g an d seriousl y o f yo u befor e yo u wer e born . Who wa s t o kno w wha t shoul d com e hom e t o me ? Who know s bu t I am enjoyin g this ? Who know s bu t I am a s goo d a s lookin g a t you now , fo r al l yo u canno t se e me ? —Whitman, "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " 185 6 21 8 Why shoul d no t w e als o enjo y a n origina l relatio n t o th e universe ? —Emerson, Nature, Collected Works 1: 7

"To rea d apostroph e a s sig n o f a fiction whic h know s it s ow n fictive nature," Jonathan Culle r suggests , "i s t o stres s it s optative character , it s 279

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impossible imperatives : command s whic h i n thei r explici t impossibilit y figure event s i n an d o f fiction " ("Apostrophe " 146) . Understood i n thi s way, Culle r notes , apostroph e an d othe r mode s o f poeti c addres s tha t seem t o excee d th e power s o f ordinar y speec h ar e neithe r mystifie d no r demystified, involvin g instea d a n investmen t i n mystificatio n tha t simul taneously register s it s contrar y ("Apostrophe " 153) . That bein g so , ou r task a s readers o f apostroph e an d simila r lyri c speech act s is to atten d t o this play o f investment s an d adduc e what migh t b e called it s imaginativ e rhythm: grante d tha t suc h gesture s ar e no t merel y mystified , w e nee d t o ask wha t sor t o f stak e they hav e in the enchantments the y se t in motion , and ho w the y reac t t o whatever work s t o disenchan t them . We migh t begi n t o positio n Whitma n i n thi s regar d b y placin g th e lines above fro m "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " ove r agains t th e poem wit h which Culle r ends his account of apostrophe, Keats's "This living hand" : This living hand, now warm and capable Of earnest grasping, would, if it were cold And in the icy silence of the tomb, So haunt thy days and chill thy dreaming nights That thou would wish thine own heart dry of blood So in my veins red life might stream again, And thou be conscience-calm'd. See, here it is— I hold it towards you. (Keats 503; quoted in Culler, "Apostrophe" 153) According t o Culle r th e poem' s crucia l achievemen t i s it s abilit y t o vanquish th e skepticis m whic h th e final clai m t o presenc e i s likel y t o provoke. "Th e narrator, " Culle r notes , contrasts his life with his death, proleptically predicting that when he is dead the reader wil l see k t o overcom e hi s death , wil l blin d himsel f t o hi s deat h b y a n imaginative act. We fulfill thi s icy prediction, not by seeking actually to sacrifice our live s that Keat s might live , but b y losing our empirica l lives : forgetting th e temporality whic h support s the m an d tryin g to embrace a purely fictiona l tim e in whic h w e ca n believ e tha t th e han d i s reall y presen t an d perpetuall y hel d toward us through the poem. ("Apostrophe" 154 ) Keats's poem ma y tur n o n a harsher dialecti c than Culle r suggests . It can be argue d tha t th e poe m i n som e sens e demand s ou r live s precisel y b y making i t impossible t o ignore that i t has itself alread y sacrifice d Keats's . Associating livin g presenc e wit h voic e bu t mor e especiall y wit h deixis , the poem conversel y wed s faile d deixi s to death, contrasting "Thi s livin g hand, now warm an d capabl e / Of earnes t grasping" with the dead hand ,

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incapable o f suc h a gesture, which ma y com e t o "haunt " us . Though a n image o f voic e implie s th e poet' s presenc e a t th e lyric' s close , i t i s th e failure o f th e deicti c gestur e o n whic h th e final proclamatio n turn s tha t works Keats' s chillin g effect : i t i s th e absenc e o f th e hand , rathe r tha n the fiction o f it s presence , tha t haunt s us , a resul t brough t abou t les s b y an achieve d mystificatio n tha n throug h it s collapse. This demystificatio n of cours e initiate s a fiction o f it s own : w e shoul d indee d spea k o f th e fiction o f th e absenc e o f th e hand , o r o f it s ghostl y dissolving , rathe r than simpl y o f it s failur e t o appear , sinc e i t is , as i t were , th e vanishin g of a han d neve r literall y ther e i n th e first plac e tha t activate s th e rathe r terrifying prolepti c powe r o f Keats' s poem . Thi s disappearanc e precipi tates "Thi s livin g hand, " a t it s close , int o th e conditio n o f epitaph ; a s the hand evaporates , the fiction o f voic e to which th e lyric appeals seem s to laps e int o mut e inscription . Thi s laps e i s very lik e wha t th e poe t ha s predicted wil l b e passe d o n t o us . I f hi s prophesy i n a sens e come s true , that i s becaus e i t name s a conditio n t o whic h th e poem' s ow n econom y of addres s subject s us : callin g o n u s t o animat e th e speaker' s voic e an d presence b y lendin g ourselve s t o th e prosopopoei a whic h generate s th e poem, Keats' s tex t recruit s u s t o a communit y o f suppose d personhoo d whose dissolutio n no t onl y prefigure s bu t seem s to precipitate ou r own. 1 Here voic e an d inscriptio n ar e dispose d s o a s t o yiel d a n illusio n no t only of presence bu t als o of it s fading . Though ther e i s a quotien t o f iron y i n invokin g th e titl e o f Geoffre y Hartman's semina l essa y i n suc h a context , "Fals e Theme s an d Gentl e Minds" thu s describe s a romanti c rhetorica l an d imaginativ e rhyth m pertinent t o Keats' s poe m (Beyond Formalism 283-97) . Her e disen chantment i s essential t o th e poem' s achievemen t o f a sparer—i f i n thi s case mor e ominous—enchantment . Rathe r tha n wardin g of f demystifi cation, "Thi s livin g hand" no t onl y invite s bu t indee d depend s o n it . Whitman's typica l apostrophe s ar e mor e solicitou s o f th e enchant ments the y initiate . M y epigrap h fro m "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " i s characteristic i n thi s regard . Outrageousl y makin g invisibilit y a n at tribute o f th e poet' s livin g presence rathe r tha n lettin g i t b e registered a s the conditio n tha t undoe s hi s claims , thi s passag e avoid s th e reversal s that structur e "Thi s livin g hand," restrainin g an y tendenc y t o demystifi cation an d enlistin g it with minima l disruptio n int o a fiction by no mean s purged o f it s naiv e implications. 2 I t i s no t unti l th e i86 0 editio n o f Leaves of Grass tha t Whitma n regularl y associate s th e insubstantialit y

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of th e poet' s presenc e wit h death . Unti l then , i f inscriptio n i s occasion ally allowe d int o th e imaginativ e univers e o f th e poems , it s negativ e implications ar e vigorousl y denied ; i n th e 185 5 an d 185 6 Leaves of Grass, Whitma n seem s ben t o n detachin g th e poet' s word s fro m th e condition o f epitap h rathe r tha n lettin g the m laps e int o suc h ominou s monumentality. The dialectica l relatio n t o archai c source s Hartma n make s centra l t o romantic mythopoeia , tha t is , seem s no t t o b e crucia l t o th e achieve d fiction o f Leaves of Grass; th e poem s o f Whitman' s earl y edition s see m less intent o n purifying suc h energie s than o n retrievin g them intact . Thi s project doe s no t quit e plac e Whitma n outsid e th e problemati c Hartma n understands a s energizing romanticism: th e impuls e towar d purification , Hartman suggests , coexists i n a n unresolvabl e tensio n wit h th e daemon ization i t struggle s t o tam e {Beyond Formalism 289) . A s w e shal l see , however, Whitman' s stanc e doe s locat e hi m ove r agains t th e paradig matic positio n Hartma n assign s th e Wordsworthia n projec t o f demysti fication.3 One sig n o f Whitman' s commitmen t t o th e sor t o f archai c resonanc e Wordsworth struggle s t o purg e i s the wa y Leaves of Grass fend s of f th e very notio n o f fiction Culle r invokes . Culle r point s ou t tha t th e fictive status o f lyri c apostroph e i s characteristicall y har d t o kee p clearl y i n view, sinc e "apostroph e i s different i n tha t i t make s it s point b y tropin g not o n th e meanin g o f a word bu t o n th e circui t o r situatio n o f commu nication itself " ("Apostrophe " 135) . But Whitman's campaig n o n behal f of th e supposedl y litera l statu s o f th e poet' s addresse s i s especially zeal ous. Th e imag e o f voic e conjure d u p b y hi s repeate d denia l tha t writin g plays an y rol e i n hi s poem s serve s t o sugges t tha t th e linguisti c power s displayed i n th e poem s ar e mor e tha n merel y fictive, implyin g th e poet' s ability t o recove r th e archai c energie s lurkin g i n words . Th e poe t seem s to liberat e magica l performativ e powe r fro m debase d involvemen t wit h the constative ; expressio n fro m indication ; th e shamanisti c power s o f the prope r nam e fro m th e coercion s o f th e category ; an d th e livin g presences produce d b y th e magi c wor d fro m th e representation s cultur e would teac h u s to value in their place . As w e saw , Whitman' s discursiv e tract s o n languag e ar e likewis e intent o n demonstratin g th e poet' s specia l acces s t o thes e linguisti c re sources. Suggestin g tha t Whitma n woul d lik e t o regar d a s litera l th e powers whic h th e poet' s apostrophe s epitomize , thes e pros e writing s

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possess a vehemenc e whic h implie s a s wel l tha t th e gestur e o f disen chantment i s no t on e th e poetr y wil l invit e o r accommodat e comforta bly. Ye t th e awkwar d entanglement s w e uncovere d i n Whitman' s lan guage theor y sugges t tha t Leaves of Grass i s likel y t o en d u p subjectin g the poet' s magica l claim s t o th e ver y purgatio n the y resist . Th e poem s themselves recor d simila r entanglement s repeatedly . Indeed , whil e Whit man's pros e tract s adamantl y repudiat e writin g an d th e lapse s fo r whic h it stands, his poems ofte n see m t o registe r awarenes s no t onl y o f th e rol e writing play s i n producin g th e poet' s imag e o f voice , bu t als o o f th e melancholy implication s thi s intertwinin g possesses . Rarel y mad e ex plicit, a n unsettlin g self-consciousnes s abou t thei r ow n statu s seem s t o lurk withi n man y o f th e poet' s mos t buoyan t pronouncements : wha t Whitman's languag e theor y suggest s despit e itself , throug h a troublin g circularity, th e poem s o f Leaves of Grass revea l i n th e self-divide d quality o f individua l speec h acts . The bravad o o f th e poet' s declaration s can pas s ove r ver y delicatel y int o a more quizzica l an d vexe d awareness . It i s a s i f th e voic e t o whic h th e univers e ough t t o resoun d suddenl y heard itsel f wit h a n eeri e detachment , sensin g tha t i t wa s no t quit e bringing of f th e magica l transactio n it s performative utteranc e declared . This sudde n sens e o f distanc e ofte n seem s t o b e provoked b y a n ambig uous awarenes s o f th e rol e playe d b y writin g i n purveyin g th e poet' s word; typicall y undeclared , thi s awarenes s seem s t o hove r i n th e poet' s tone. This i s tone, o f course , in somethin g o f a catachrestic sense : it is as if the resonanc e o f th e poet's pronouncement s wer e hollowe d ou t b y th e muteness an d monumentalit y o f inscription ; o r a s if Whitman's imag e of voice ha d alway s t o fre e it s exuberan t accent s fro m th e shado w o f a writing threatenin g t o darke n it s claims. This flickerin g recognitio n amount s t o demystificatio n o f a sort . Bu t in Whitman' s earl y edition s a purifyin g o f th e poet' s fiction s i s resiste d rather tha n welcomed : almos t neve r allowe d t o redirec t hi s projec t o r prompt a redefinitio n o f wha t hi s presenc e means , i t characteristicall y provokes anxiet y o r melancholy ; th e accents that attes t to it are typicall y wistful, an d th e comed y i t can occasio n i s characteristically a rueful one . These response s for m a kin d o f surreptitiou s counterpoin t t o th e expan sive self-confidenc e wit h whic h th e poet' s presenc e i s typicall y pro claimed; the y sugges t th e importanc e t o Leaves of Grass o f a cann y bu t precarious mystification . Broodin g ove r th e poems ' ow n mod e furtivel y but obsessively , Leaves of Grass confirm s th e centra l plac e Whitman' s

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myth o f languag e hold s i n hi s imaginative vision : no t onl y th e poet-her o but also the author o f Leaves of Grass seems to have invested his identity to a remarkable degre e i n a dream o f th e word, an d o f th e kind s o f self presentation an d comman d o f other s i t ough t t o mak e possible . Sensin g themselves a s writing, Whitman's visionar y pronouncement s momentar ily waver, leavin g th e poe t i n a spac e h e doe s no t comman d an d canno t redeem. Inventories This displacemen t o f th e poet's speech-act s b y writing can ofte n b e quit e subtle. Bu t I want t o begi n wit h a rathe r massiv e versio n o f th e sor t o f wavering I have i n mind ; les s carefull y manage d tha n th e delicat e mod ulations o f ton e tha t enric h Whitman' s apostrophes , i t suggest s b y it s sheer preponderanc e th e way th e performative visio n tha t animate s Leaves of Grass remain s vulnerabl e t o the ills it ought t o cure . Sending a cop y o f Whitman' s boo k t o Carlyl e i n 1856 , Emerso n attached a mischievou s an d no w famou s disclaimer : "afte r yo u hav e looked int o it , i f yo u think , a s yo u may , tha t i t i s onl y a n auctioneer' s inventory o f a warehouse , yo u ca n ligh t you r pip e wit h it " (Slate r 509) . "I expec t hi m t o mak e th e song s o f th e nation, " h e i s suppose d t o hav e remarked mor e acerbicall y som e year s later , "bu t h e seem s t o b e con tented t o mak e th e inventories " (quote d i n Schyber g 104) . Emerso n surely ha d Whitman' s notoriou s catalogue s i n min d here , as Ezra Poun d perhaps di d to o whe n h e claime d that , havin g alway s recalle d tha t ther e were abou t twent y page s o f goo d poetr y i n al l o f Leaves of Grass, h e found o n goin g bac k t o locat e the m tha t h e couldn' t rediscove r whic h ones they were. 4 Lik e Emerson' s increasingl y dou r equivocations , Pound' s predicament suggest s something of th e unpredictable mi x of exhilaratio n and exasperatio n w e ca n ofte n fee l readin g Whitman ; eve n th e mos t enthused encounte r wit h th e poet's massiv e list s is likely to b e overtake n by a sens e o f tediu m a t unexpecte d an d no t necessaril y consisten t junc tures. Som e o f Whitman' s catalogues , o f course , ar e mor e successfu l than others . Ye t t o a n unnervin g degre e almos t al l thes e litanie s ar e subject t o od d slippage s o f focus ; thes e see m du e les s t o momentar y lapses o f attentio n o r sympath y o n th e part o f th e individual reade r tha n to a difficulty endemi c to the catalogues themselves. It is as if what hold s

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our attentio n i s likel y suddenl y t o evaporate , o r t o metamorphos e int o something altogethe r les s compelling . Ther e ar e surel y variou s way s t o account fo r thi s slippage . Bu t w e migh t understan d i t i n par t a s a function o f th e slid e fro m magica l performanc e t o constativ e utterance , or fro m expressiv e namin g t o mer e indication , t o whic h thes e list s see m conspicuously liable . Th e resonanc e an d powe r whic h th e name s th e poet intone s ofte n see m t o posses s ca n simpl y disappear , turnin g wha t we ha d bee n registerin g a s a vocativ e dram a o r a ceremon y o f positin g into a n ari d list ; rathe r tha n assimilatin g o r animatin g th e thing s the y name, Whitman' s catalogue s the n see m merel y t o enumerat e them . Understood a s inventor y rathe r tha n magica l act , th e massiv e litanie s o f Leaves of Grass ca n b e rather bleak . Serving t o hedg e th e poet' s bets , th e mobile , frequentl y comi c ton e that pervades "Son g of Myself " help s insure the catalogues ther e agains t such effects . Bu t th e sor t o f lapse s I hav e bee n describin g ar e b y n o means peculia r t o Whitman' s weake r poem s o r confine d t o hi s late r work. I n line s Whitma n adde d t o th e 185 5 poe m " A Son g fo r Occupa tions" fo r th e 186 7 edition , th e poe t introduce s th e dauntin g catalogu e that ha d alway s compose d mos t o f th e poem' s fift h sectio n wit h a n assertion tha t make s explicit the performative, o r a t least perlocutionary , task abou t t o commence : Strange and hard that paradox true I give; Objects gross and the unseen Soul are one. (V: 1:93 ) The firs t printin g o f th e poe m alread y conclude s Whitman' s lon g lis t o f the paraphernalia o f American trade s b y summing up what the catalogu e should hav e accomplishe d o r a t an y rat e mad e convincing : In the m th e hef t o f th e heavies t . . . . i n the m fa r mor e tha n yo u estimated , and far less also, In them, not yourself . . . . yo u and your soul enclose all things, regardless of estimation. (1855 96) One nee d no t cowe r i n th e seemingl y limite d spher e o f one' s individua l identity, tha t is , sinc e tha t identit y i n fac t subsume s al l things. 5 Thi s incorporative trop e i s one wit h whic h reader s o f Leaves of Grass ar e o f course familiar . Ye t th e catalogu e frame d b y thes e declaration s seem s gradually t o dissipat e th e vocativ e energie s tha t migh t accomplis h suc h

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ends; th e poet' s wor d seem s t o los e itsel f amon g th e myria d act s an d appurtenances it s ritua l forc e wa s t o subsume : House-building, measuring , sawing the boards, Blacksmithing, glass-blowing , nail-making , coopering , tin-roofing , shingle dressing, Ship-joining, dock-building , fish-curing, flagging of sidewalk s b y flaggers, The pump, the pile-driver, the great derrick, the coal-kiln an d brick-kiln, [....] The blast-furnac e an d th e puddling-furnace , th e loup-lum p a t th e botto m o f the mel t a t last , th e rolling-mill , th e stump y bar s o f pig-iron , th e stron g clean-shaped T-rail for railroads, Oil-works, silk-works , white-lead-works , th e sugar-house , steam-saws , th e great mills and factories , Stone-cutting, shapel y trimming s fo r facade s o r windo w o r door-lintels , th e mallet, the tooth-chisel, th e jib to protect the thumb, The calking-iron , th e kettl e o f boilin g vault-cement , an d th e fire unde r th e kettle, The cotton-bale , th e stevedore' s hook , th e sa w an d buc k o f th e sawyer , th e mould o f th e moulder , th e working-knife o f th e butcher , th e ice-saw , an d all the work with ice, The work an d tools of the rigger, grappler, sail-maker, block-maker , Goods of gutta-percha, papier-mache, colors, brushes, brush-making glazier's implements, The venee r an d glue-pot , th e confectioner' s ornaments , th e decante r an d glasses, the shears and flat-iron, The awl an d knee-strap, the pint measure and quart measure, the counter and stool, th e writing-pe n o f quil l o r metal , th e makin g o f al l sort s o f edge d tools, The brewery, brewing , the malt, the vats, every thing that is done by brewers, wine-makers, vinegar-makers , Leather-dressing, coach-making, boiler-making, rope-twisting, distilling, signpainting, lime-burning , cotton-picking , electro-plating , electrotyping , ster eotyping, Stave-machines, planing-machines , reaping-machines , ploughing-machines , thrashing-machines, stea m wagons. ( V i : 93-95 ; CR E 2.16-17) 6 This staggerin g enumeratio n continue s fo r anothe r eigh t lon g lines . Its cumulative effec t i s les s bracing tha n stupefying : Whitman' s lis t seem s finally simpl y t o detai l th e incapacitatin g proliferatio n o f industria l in struments i t ough t t o redeem . Ou r sens e her e o f a sor t o f massiv e inerti a is surel y attributabl e i n par t t o th e recalcitranc e o f th e "gross " object s Whitman's lis t includes , a propert y t o whic h th e poe t explicitl y draw s

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our attentio n an d make s th e occasio n o f hi s paradox . Bu t i t probabl y results a s well fro m th e very mani a fo r inventoryin g tha t ough t no t onl y to registe r thi s riddl e bu t als o t o intimat e it s visionar y resolution : i t i s hard t o read al l the way through thi s catalogue without comin g to regar d it a s merel y a Herculea n exercis e i n stock-clerking . Th e inerti a tha t overtakes thi s litany , tha t is , derives partly fro m a troubling sens e of th e distance betwee n al l thes e word s an d th e thing s the y name : wha t ough t to b e a ceremon y o f re-possessio n seem s t o collaps e int o a merel y indicative enumeration . Thu s understood , Whitman' s word s simpl y re-trace a dispersive , metonymicall y organize d space , rathe r tha n re gathering i t int o th e poet' s imperiu m b y mean s o f th e ritua l powe r o f utterance. A failing t o which th e poet's catalogue s ar e always liable, this slippag e may b e precipitated her e b y the absenc e o f th e sor t o f extende d phrases , set firmly i n parallel relatio n b y strongly marke d anaphora , whic h Whit man usuall y employs . Th e litanie s i n Leaves of Grass depen d fo r thei r success o n th e suggestio n o f ceremonia l statu s suc h insistentl y iterativ e procedures establish . The y rel y a s wel l o n th e sens e o f voic e thes e ritualized locution s imply : i n Leaves of Grass i t is voice tha t re-activate s the magica l power s o f th e word , re-animatin g th e expressiv e energie s lurking i n the names o f things . What undermine s thi s concluding lis t from " A Song for Occupations " is thu s als o writing . I f th e apparen t slippag e fro m expressio n t o indica tion her e is precipitated b y an increasin g sens e of distanc e betwee n wor d and thing , this awarenes s i s provoked i n turn b y a gradual dissipatio n o f Whitman's imag e of voice and th e resultant foregroundin g o f the writin g literally i n fron t o f us . A s Walte r On g point s out , "Writin g an d prin t distance th e uttere r o f discours e fro m th e hearer , an d bot h fro m th e word, whic h appear s i n writin g an d prin t a s a n objec t o r thing " {Interfaces 283) . Regarded wit h th e sort o f detachmen t prin t invites , the poet' s inventory seem s t o b e a n exercis e i n th e mer e designatio n o r indicatio n writing stand s fo r i n Whitman's work . Like thi s slid e fro m performanc e t o indication , another , closel y relate d lapse ca n afflic t Whitman' s catalogues . Viewe d a s performance , thes e litanies see m t o relocat e productiv e powe r i n the poet's ow n presen t act , canceling th e precedenc e whic h th e concatenate d worl d o f thing s woul d

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otherwise possess . Regarded a s designation, Whitman's list s instead enu merate wha t pre-exist s them , detailin g a priorit y the y ar e powerles s t o reverse. Not simpl y an ago n betwee n nam e an d thing, this struggle fo r priorit y is als o a battl e ove r word s themselves . A s performance , Whitman' s litanies tak e power ove r the word a s well a s the world, makin g languag e the magica l instrumen t o f th e poet' s will ; a s indication , hi s catalogue s repeat word s whos e significanc e i s no t hi s t o determin e an d whos e power ove r things i s not primaril y hi s to dispose. 7 Thus emptie d out , th e poet's enumeration s confir m rathe r tha n contes t the already-spoken con dition o f th e wor d an d th e already-bespoke n statu s o f th e thing s i t names. 8 Naming th e body, the catalogue fro m " I Sin g the Body Electric " makes dramaticall y clea r tha t thi s battl e fo r linguisti c priorit y i s als o a struggle agains t alienation. 9 I t is a struggle th e poet seem s to lose : Head, neck, hair, ears, drop and tympan of the ears, Eyes, eye-fringes, iri s of the eye, eye-brows, and the waking or sleeping of the lids, Mouth, tongue, lips, teeth, roof of the mouth, jaws, and the jaw-hinges, Nose, nostrils of the nose, and the partition, Cheeks, temples, forehead, chin , throat, back of the neck, neck-slue, Strong shoulders, manly beard , scapula, hind-shoulders, and the ample sideround of the chest, Upper-arm, arm-pit, elbow-socket, lower-arm, arm-sinews, arm-bones, Wrist and wrist-joints, hand, palm, knuckles, thumb, forefinger, finger-balls, finger-joints, finger-nails, Broad breast-front, curlin g hair of the breast, breast-bone, breast-side, Ribs, belly, back-bone, joints of the back-bone, Hips, hip-sockets, hip-strength, inward an d outward round , man-balls, manroot, Strong set of thighs, well carrying the trunk above, Leg-fibres, knee, knee-pan, upper-leg, under-leg, Ankles, instep, foot-ball, toes, toe-joints, the heel, All attitudes, all the shapeliness, all the belongings of my or your body, or of any one's body, male or female, The lung-sponges, the stomach-sac, the bowels sweet and clean, The brain in its folds inside the skull-frame. (185 6 177-78) 10 What ough t t o b e a ritual o f repossession , a healing an d re-animatin g o f the bod y b y mean s o f pneumati c energie s endowe d wit h restorativ e force, come s t o see m instea d lik e a n obsessiv e enumeration , a sor t o f mad, encyclopaedi c cataloguin g o f th e disjecta membra whic h th e alien -

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ated bod y subjecte d t o cultura l encodin g ha s become . A s th e poet' s words see m t o fal l fro m voic e t o writing , th e precedenc e whic h th e catalogue seek s t o revers e stay s wher e i t was , wit h th e surroundin g world Whitman' s languag e belatedl y names , i n th e receive d term s tha t shape ou r sens e of it . For th e mos t part , th e possibl e lapse s t o whic h w e hav e bee n attendin g threaten thes e litanie s withou t re-inflectin g them : Whitman' s catalogue s rarely registe r thei r equivoca l statu s i n discernibl e modulation s o f voice . Yet i n th e occasiona l list s tha t foregroun d Whitman' s transumptiv e claims b y explicitl y declarin g them , th e poet' s triumphan t accent s some times seem tinge d b y anothe r tone : See! steamers steaming through my poems! See, in my poems immigrants continually coming and landing, [....]

See, pastures an d forest s i n m y poems—See, animals , wild an d tame—See , beyond th e Kanzas , countles s herd s o f buffalo , feedin g o n shor t curl y grass, See, in my poems, old an d ne w cities, solid, vast, inland, with pave d streets, with iron and stone edifices, and ceaseless vehicles, and commerce. ("Start ing from Paumanok, " i86 0 21) Visionary i n thei r implications , thes e exuberan t declaration s o f th e poet' s power ar e nonetheles s marke d b y a quotien t o f patho s o r slightl y mel ancholy wit ; i t i s occasione d b y th e ver y belatednes s thi s catalogu e claims to overcome . Prolepsis What migh t b e calle d a dram a o f prolepsi s i s thus centra l t o th e equivo cal speec h act s tha t organiz e Whitman' s work . I f Whitman' s catalogue s both registe r an d contes t th e priorit y o f worl d an d cod e t o th e poet' s own utterance , hi s apostrophe s ca n b e understoo d a s mor e dramati c attempts t o escap e th e foreclosur e thi s belatednes s entails : the y projec t the poet int o anothe r scen e at which h e is, so to speak , th e first to arrive . This priority i s often th e explicit subjec t o f th e poet's declaration s t o us : What thought you have of me , I had a s much of you—I lai d in my stores in advance,

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I considere d lon g an d seriousl y o f yo u befor e yo u wer e born . ("Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry," 185 6 218) Seeming t o liberat e th e poet , thes e addresse s simultaneousl y threate n to subjugat e us ; here th e poet seem s to wiel d ove r other s th e very powe r from whic h h e himself supposedl y escapes . Kerry Larso n thu s draw s ou r attention t o "th e insistentl y proleptic driv e behin d thes e solicitations " (18). n H e als o astutel y note s tha t th e poet' s repeate d insistenc e tha t h e comes no t t o dominat e bu t t o emancipat e u s paradoxicall y insure s thi s subjugation, sinc e exercising th e power th e poe t proclaims, o f "awaken ing th e dorman t wil l o f th e secon d person—th e slumberin g 'glor y o f you' . . . amount s t o paralyzin g it " (47) . "Ba d fait h o r a cas e o f self-interest masqueradin g unde r th e guis e o f a disinterested generality, " Larson goe s o n t o argue , "i s . . . not th e rea l issu e here . . ." (53) . As we shall see , thi s gestur e o f exculpatio n ma y wel l b e to o sweeping ; bu t i t does aler t u s t o th e complexit y o f bot h Whitman' s ambition s an d hi s consequent predicament . A s we have see n i n other connections , th e poe t of Leaves of Grass ca n ofte n b e foun d deployin g th e ver y mechanism s his work seem s devoted t o defusing . Larson construe s thi s awkwar d impass e a s a n instanc e o f th e Ameri can politica l dilemm a wit h whic h Whitman' s wor k sometime s struggle s —the paradoxica l tas k o f tryin g t o posi t a n originar y nationa l compac t that i s indissolubl e withou t bein g constraining. 12 Usefu l sinc e i t point s out th e explicitl y politica l implication s o f addres s i n Whitman' s work , such a readin g nonetheles s run s th e ris k o f enlistin g th e poet' s perfor matives i n a constitutiona l dram a a t th e cos t o f undul y restrictin g th e range o f implicatio n o f thi s figure o f presenc e an d th e prolepti c power s he exercise s an d struggle s t o re-define . Th e poe t an d th e encounte r h e initiates condens e concern s tha t ar e broadl y ideologica l bu t hardl y cir cumscribed b y wha t w e ordinaril y mea n b y politics . Wha t th e poe t himself seem s t o becom e a s h e addresse s u s i s not comfortabl y compre hended unde r th e rubri c o f politica l individualism ; an d th e peril s h e claims t o war d of f ar e to o broadl y define d t o b e equate d wit h th e political target s o f eve n a radicall y individualis t politica l iconography . Whitman's polemica l distinctio n betwee n voic e an d writing , w e sa w i n chapter 5 , implie s tha t th e poet' s apostrophe s by-pas s no t jus t institu tionalized modes of political mediation but a cultural mechanism pervasive enough t o tak e writin g a s it s image : i t is , indeed , th e powe r o f image s and representation s tha t th e poet' s voic e an d presenc e ough t t o rende r

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nugatory. Whitma n depict s thes e mechanism s no t simpl y a s dangerous , but a s necromantic instrument s deploye d b y th e vampiric dead : enticin g us int o a worshi p o f symboli c form s tha t pre-emp t th e prope r priorit y and organi c growth o f livin g presences, writing and representatio n inflic t a kin d o f livin g death o n thos e they infect. 13 The poet' s presenc e ca n supposedl y awake n u s fro m thi s letha l en chantment. Whitman' s figure o f voice , w e saw , bespeak s th e poet' s ability t o exercis e power o f a different kind , power whic h ca n liberat e u s from simulacr a b y restorin g wha t the y destroy : h e comes amon g image s as th e essenc e o f livin g presence , freein g u s fro m ou r bewitche d idola try. 14 Th e prolepti c powe r o f Whitman' s apostrophe s i s thu s wholl y benign, sinc e wha t th e poe t pre-empt s i s no t othe r presence s bu t th e symbolic structure s tha t woul d violat e thei r proper autonomy . Yet the uncomfortabl e disclaimer s o f coerciv e inten t t o whic h Larso n draws attentio n sugges t a n entanglemen t ou r ow n examinatio n o f Whit man's languag e theor y ha s als o revealed : th e poet' s presenc e ma y b e a n instance o f precisel y th e sor t o f preemptiv e authorit y Whitma n warn s u s against, an d h e may liberat e u s from ou r ol d idolatrie s onl y b y imposin g new idol s upo n us . Makin g surreptitiou s rathe r tha n over t us e o f th e symbolic mechanism s h e claim s t o banish , i n orde r t o perfor m wha t w e are thereb y seduce d int o callin g ou r liberation , th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass ma y no t simply , a s Larso n suggests , commi t som e o f th e aggres sion he would lik e to obviate; he may subjec t u s to a fiercer enchantmen t rather tha n introducin g a finer, mor e purified one . If th e livin g voic e Whitma n claim s t o projec t woul d incarnat e th e liberating powe r t o whic h h e aspires , whil e writin g epitomize s th e sym bolic structure s fro m whic h h e supposedl y free s us , th e imag e o f voic e able t o occul t it s dependenc e o n th e ver y writin g Whitma n repudiate s i s the vehicl e o f thi s enchantment . Ye t Whitman' s attemp t t o sequeste r writing i s no t wholl y successful . Hi s figure o f voic e thu s sometime s intimates th e equivoca l relation s amon g wha t ough t t o b e th e poet' s enabling dichotomies . I n th e poet' s apostrophes , th e crucia l distinction s between th e performativ e an d constative , expressio n an d indication , proper livin g presenc e an d symboli c construc t o r simulacru m ca n see m to hover , suspended , shor t o f th e dramati c resolutio n t o whic h Whit man's imag e o f voic e shoul d attest . Seemin g sometime s t o suspen d th e poet's power s a s well , thi s irresolutio n ma y instea d revea l th e troublin g status of a n authorit y b y no mean s vitiate d o r renounced .

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Characteristically n o mor e explici t i n Whitman's apostrophe s tha n i n his catalogues , suc h equivocation s ar e nonetheles s registere d intimatel y in thes e addresse s t o us : the y see m t o re-inflec t th e poet' s utterance , o r to len d i t a strangely hoverin g accent . Enterin g th e univers e o f Leaves of Grass surreptitiously , th e ambiguities tha t trouble th e poet's magi c wor d seem t o haun t hi s declaration s an d th e projec t the y supposedl y further , rather tha n provokin g a dialectical reversa l o r initiatin g a sparer, demys tified fiction. We ca n clarif y thi s stanc e towar d disenchantment , an d se e what i s a t stake i n th e particula r visio n o f priorit y Whitma n struggle s t o sustain , by juxtaposing suc h speec h act s to the very different strategie s of Words worth i n a poe m lik e "Tinter n Abbey. " A s i n Whitman' s work , demys tification i s associate d i n Wordsworth' s poe m wit h th e passin g o f voic e into text . Thoug h "Tinter n Abbey " leave s thi s connectio n implicit , w e can indee d contras t Whitman' s characteristi c investmen t i n a figure o f voice t o Wordsworth' s commitmen t t o wha t migh t b e calle d a figure o f writing. Redeemin g mor e primitiv e enchantments , writin g i n "Tinter n Abbey" figures a mod e o f perduranc e an d a mechanism o f influenc e tha t are explicitl y symbolic—an d thus , fo r Wordswort h thoug h no t fo r Whitman, a prolepti c powe r n o longe r constrainin g o r pre-emptive . Whitman's figure o f voic e thu s ward s of f attenuation s Wordswort h celebrates; a purgin g o r purifyin g o f imaginatio n tha t Leaves of Grass registers onl y indirectly , an d wit h anxiet y o r melancholy , i s Words worth's explici t theme . A s w e shal l se e furthe r on , however , discomfor t concerning the proleptic power exercise d b y their ow n word s is nonetheless a burden thes e poets share . Wordsworth: "Tinter n Abbey " Discussing "Th e Ruine d Cottage " i n Wordsworth's Poetry, Geoffre y Hartman suggest s tha t "th e them e o f th e complete d poe m i s the human ized imaginatio n . . . " (140) . Thi s descriptio n i s equall y applicabl e to "Tinter n Abbey, " whic h thu s occupie s a lat e stag e i n th e embrac ing dialecti c Hartman' s classi c stud y trace s throug h Wordsworth' s work. "Wordsworth' s grea t claim, " Hartma n argue s ther e concernin g the prior phas e o f thi s dialectic , "i s tha t th e imaginatio n ca n b e natural ized, an d tha t th e 'heroi c age ' o f it s naturalizatio n [eventually ] save s i t from bein g los t t o huma n life " (210) . Nature , i n Hartman' s well -

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known account , liberates the poet's imagination fro m th e sudden, violent intensities Harol d Bloo m call s "sublim e solipsism"; 15 bu t i t comes grad ually t o b e see n a s th e typ e rathe r tha n th e litera l sourc e an d guarante e for continuitie s tha t ar e accordingl y recognize d a s communa l an d sym bolic. This tamin g o f sublim e power , Hartma n notes , i s alway s precarious . Wordsworth achieve s i t onl y b y skirtin g persisten t intimation s h e find s troubling: "Nature , time , memory , an d poetr y itself , ca n onl y fitfully bind a n imaginatio n whic h i s radicall y i n exces s o f natur e a s o f ever y socializing principle " (211) . Hymne d i n Wordsworth' s recollectio n o f the Simplo n Pas s (Prelude 185 0 6.592-616), 1 6 thi s sublime powe r mor e characteristically provoke s misgivings ; according to Hartman i t is indeed often disavowed , appearin g i n Wordsworth' s earl y work , especially , no t as th e poet' s ow n possession , bu t displace d an d disguise d a s a n en croaching an d terrifyin g natura l force . I want t o com e back , towar d th e end o f thi s chapter , t o Hartman' s accoun t o f thi s earlie r stag e in Words worth's dialectic , sinc e trace s o f suc h frightenin g sublimit y persis t eve n within th e purifie d myt h o f symboli c continuit y worke d ou t i n "Tinter n Abbey." Troublin g Wordsworth' s sustaining , humanize d visio n o f cul tural transmission , thes e intimation s o f les s gentl e powe r ma y mar k no t so muc h th e difficult y o f socializin g th e imaginatio n a s th e unsettlin g persistence of violently pre-emptive socia l mechanisms fro m whic h imag inative powe r ca n neve r b e wholl y detached . Leaves of Grass, itsel f archaic i n it s aspirations , i s mor e over t i n wardin g of f hostil e atavisti c powers with whic h th e poet's ow n magica l capacitie s migh t b e confused ; but "Tinter n Abbey " ha s no t simpl y lef t behin d suc h haunte d ground. 17 Given th e degre e t o whic h Wordsworth' s an d Whitman' s vision s o f poetry ar e opposed , the y indee d conceiv e i n surprisingl y simila r term s the socia l mechanism s fro m whic h i t need s t o b e disentangled . Whit man's anxietie s thu s emerg e a s no t simpl y aberrant ; bu t i t i s possibl e that wha t provoke s the m ca n b e redressed neithe r b y political actio n no r by a poetic program tha t exceed s it . We nee d t o tur n now , however , t o th e myt h o f huma n continuit y tha t dominates "Tinter n Abbey " an d th e writin g tha t figures it , i n orde r t o distinguish thi s versio n o f romanti c dialecti c fro m th e mor e archai c ambitions tha t animat e Leaves of Grass an d th e figure o f voic e evoke d to sustain them . "Fo r Wordsworth, " Pau l d e Man note s in an early essa y

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that take s issu e with th e crucia l rol e Hartma n accord s natur e i n Words worth's work , ye t seem s fa r mor e compatibl e wit h Hartman' s accoun t than d o the severer intimation s o f d e Man's late r writing , the relationships towards time have a priority over relationships towards nature; one finds , i n hi s work , a persisten t deepenin g o f self-insigh t represente d a s a movement tha t begin s i n a contac t wit h nature , the n grow s beyon d natur e t o become a contact with time. The contact, the relationship with time, is, however, always a negativ e on e fo r us , for th e relationshi p betwee n th e sel f an d tim e is necessarily mediate d b y death ; i t i s th e experienc e o f mortalit y tha t awaken s within u s a consciousness of time that i s more than merel y natural. ("Tim e an d History in Wordsworth" 16-17) 18 It i s jus t thi s shif t tha t "Tinter n Abbey " record s an d respond s to . While Leaves of Grass celebrate s a n eterna l presen t centerin g o n th e poet's presenc e an d apparentl y regenerate d b y wor d magi c an d th e power o f voice , i n "Tinter n Abbey " th e presen t momen t i s instea d th e site o f a precariou s an d partia l renewal , provokin g a dialecti c o f relin quishment an d recover y tha t effectivel y give s u p presenc e fo r wha t ca n be sustaine d beyon d it s loss. 19 Temporalit y an d th e attenuation s ou r awareness o f i t provoke s conditio n th e poem' s subdue d affirmation s from it s opening . Wordsworth' s titl e alread y suggest s th e "vacillatin g calculus o f gai n an d loss , o f hop e an d doubt . . . ." whic h Hartma n regards a s th e poem' s subjec t (Wordsworth's Poetry 27) : "Line s Com posed a Fe w Mile s abov e Tinter n Abbey , o n Revisitin g th e Bank s o f th e Wye durin g a Tour . Jul y 13 , 1798 " (Poems 1:357) . Thi s elaborate , conspicuously circumstantia l headin g doubl y inscribe s th e vati c presen t of lyri c utterance withi n a temporal structur e tha t condition s th e poem' s claims. I t make s th e poem' s presen t a commemoratio n o r ques t fo r recovery o f a prior inciden t outsid e th e bound s o f lyri c speech. It furthe r qualifies thi s lyri c performance b y emphaticall y projectin g it , too , int o a past, no t onl y datin g it s occurrenc e bu t conflatin g enthusias m an d tran scription, presen t inspiratio n an d a n ac t o f writte n compositio n whic h conserves suc h afflatu s fo r futur e use . Implied b y Wordsworth's title , this preoccupation wit h time, and wit h a structur e o f attenuate d repetition s tha t ca n mitigat e bu t no t overcom e its force, lend s the poem a reflective, ruminativ e intensit y which manage s to see m bot h celebrator y an d somber . I t i s th e sens e o f wonde r tha t predominates i n Wordsworth's openin g lines, which dwel l on th e precar -

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iousness o f eve n suc h contingen t an d partia l recover y a s the poet discov ers and seek s to preserve : Five years have passed; five summers, with the length Of five long winters! and again I hear These waters, rolling from thei r mountain-spring s With a soft inland murmur.—Once again Do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs , That on a wild secluded scene impress Thoughts of more deep seclusion; and connect The landscape with the quiet of the sky. (Poems 1:357-58 ) Like th e cliff s whic h joi n thi s re-encountere d scen e wit h th e tranqui l expanse abov e it , suggestin g th e possibilit y o f a deeper , mor e inwar d sequestering tha n th e poet's presen t perception alon e provides, the poe m itself wil l b e a mediu m o f connection , positin g th e continuitie s tha t sustain us . Bu t i t i s als o a meditatio n o n thei r fragility , a qualit y sug gested in part b y the rhythm o f hesitation an d recovery that characterize s Wordsworth's delicatel y enjambe d blan k verse ; the penultimate lin e here indeed poise s o n a verb positione d s o as to problematize th e very projec t it names. 20 Imaged i n th e natura l scen e an d renewe d b y encounte r wit h it , th e tenuous continuit y "Tinter n Abbey " struggle s t o affir m doe s no t inher e there; i t i s neithe r guarantee d no r fulfille d b y a natura l presenc e tha t rejuvenates itsel f o r a presen t momen t i n whic h th e poe t migh t b e thought t o recove r it . Partl y a hymn t o ongoin g lif e o r natura l presence , "Tintern Abbey " i s mor e cruciall y a celebratio n o f min d a s " a mansio n for al l lovely forms " (Poems 1:361) , of th e power t o generate the image s or representation s tha t perdur e beyon d th e extinguishin g o f immediat e presence. We ar e told tha t th e peculiarly huma n sustenanc e th e poe t ha s obtained fro m th e scen e h e no w revisit s wa s paradoxicall y release d no t by immersion i n the landscap e bu t b y separation fro m it : These beauteous forms, Through a long absence, have not been to me As is a landscape to a blind man's eye: But oft, in lonely rooms, and 'mid the din Of towns and cities, I have owed to them In hours of weariness, sensations sweet, Felt in the blood, and felt along the heart;

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And passing even into my purer mind, With tranquil restoration. . .. (Poems 1:358 ) Figured a s a reactio n t o urba n lif e an d henc e a s contingent , th e alienation tha t precipitate s wha t Wordswort h her e describe s a s a purifi cation o f sensation turn s out to be necessary to the continuities the poem celebrates, a s doe s th e remova l th e poet seem s likewis e t o lament . Fur ther o n i n the poem, anticipate d absenc e encroache s eve n o n th e poet' s present experience : th e significanc e o f th e presen t scen e inhere s i n it s future powe r t o sustai n th e poe t wh o wil l hav e los t it . Th e landscap e indeed rise s u p befor e th e poet les s a s a n impingin g presenc e tha n a s a clarified o r resolved image , and it is precisely a s an image he will be able to recal l tha t th e scene is valued: And now, with gleams of half-extinguished thought , With many recognitions dim and faint, And somewhat of a sad perplexity, The picture of the mind revives again: While here I stand, not only with the sense Of present pleasure, but with pleasing thoughts That in this moment there is life and food For future years. . .. (Poems 1:359) Here bot h th e presen t momen t an d th e actua l presence s on e migh t b e supposed t o recover there are virtually efface d a s discrete categories. The present become s th e site in which on e hopes fo r memory , an d presence s take o n meanin g a s the images fro m whic h the y ar e here mad e virtuall y indistinguishable. Representatio n seem s no t simpl y t o surviv e th e extin guishing of present perception , bu t to extinguish perceptio n itself. 21 "Tintern Abbey " nonetheles s skirt s th e sublim e transumptio n tha t would celebrat e thi s image-makin g facult y a s self-sustainin g an d self delighting. Mor e nearl y hymne d i n the ninth sectio n o f th e Immortalit y Ode, th e "obstinat e questioning s / O f sens e an d outwar d things , / Fall ings fro m us , vanishings " (Poems 1:52.8 ) ar e i n "Tinter n Abbey " dis placed ont o a shadow y Miltoni c figure, hoverin g i n a passag e I quote d above. Thi s Miltoni c ghos t i s conjure d u p i n orde r t o exemplif y a n imaginative stanc e antipodal t o the poet's own: "These beauteou s forms , / Throug h a lon g absence , hav e no t bee n t o m e / As is a landscap e t o a blind man' s eye. " Furthe r on , Wordsworthia n imaginatio n i s likewis e positioned ove r agains t th e transumptive visionar y intensit y avowed , fo r example, b y the Keat s o f "Od e to Psyche, " wh o can "see , and sing , by

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my ow n eye s inspired " (36s). 22 Wordswort h doe s gestur e a t the sort of profound interiorizin g o f outwar d form s an d externa l power s w e asso ciate with suc h sublimity : And I have felt A presence that disturbs me with the joy Of elevated thoughts; a sense sublime Of something far more deeply interfused , Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, And the round ocean and the living air, And the blue sky, and in the mind of man. (Poems 1:360 ) These line s hove r uneasil y betwee n hymnin g natur e an d celebratin g a n imaginative powe r tha t migh t introjec t i t i n totalit y an d thu s mak e u s independent o f furthe r transaction s wit h th e external world . Disruptin g the eas y harmonie s suggeste d her e b y paralle l structure , Wordsworth' s preposition "in, " in the final line , accomplishe s a sudde n intensificatio n and suggest s a peculiarl y huma n sor t o f immanence : mind , rathe r tha n being simpl y anothe r sit e i n whic h vitalizin g powe r ca n lodge , ca n apparently internaliz e bot h th e totality o f thing s see n an d the force tha t animates them . Ye t suc h intimation s o f radica l powe r ar e followe d almost immediatel y b y a characteristic demur : Therefore am I still A lover of the meadows and the woods, And mountains; and of all that we behold From this green earth; of all the mighty world Of eye, and ear,—both wha t they half create, And what perceive; well pleased to recognize In nature and the language of the sense The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse, The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul Of all my moral being. (Poems 1:360 ) As the idiom o f the last tw o lines her e suggests , i n context thes e qualifi cations ar e less important a s an epistemological cred o tha n a s an ethica l one: registerin g the claims a contingent an d changing world make s upo n imaginative power, thi s avowal o f reciprocity modulate s directl y int o the poem's hym n t o the humanized imagination . This Wordsworthia n visio n o f imagination no t only renounce s th e mor e intense pleasure s o f the sublime. It also succeed s intoxication s fo r whic h

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sublimity itsel f provide s a substitute : th e demystifie d visionar y poetr y that ca n see , an d sing , b y it s ow n eye s inspire d ha s alread y give n u p word magi c for a realm o f representation imaginativel y compellin g enoug h to eclips e th e worl d i t ca n n o longe r directl y master . Denominate d i n "Tintern Abbey " a s th e head y delight s o f youth , th e pleasure s relin quished b y both th e sublime an d the humanized imaginatio n resembl e in important way s th e ecstasie s th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass claim s t o restore: 23 For nature then (The courser pleasures of my boyish days, And their glad animal movements all gone by) To me was all in all.—I cannot paint What then I was. The sounding cataract Haunted me like a passion: the tall rock The mountain, and the deep and gloomy wood, Their colours and their forms, were then to me An appetite; a feeling and a love, That had no need of a remoter charm, By thought supplied, nor any interest Unborrowed fro m th e eye.—That time is past, And all its aching joys are now no more, And all its dizzy raptures. Not for this Faint I, nor mourn nor murmur; other gift s Have followed; fo r such loss, I would believe, Abundant recompense. . . . (Poems 1:360 ) Here ea r as well a s eye plays its part, th e "sounding cataract " effectivel y supplementing Wordsworth' s explici t focu s o n immediat e visua l plea sure. Ye t thi s i s no t ye t "th e might y worl d / O f eye , an d ear,—bot h what the y hal f create , / An d wha t perceive, " sinc e th e ver y tensio n between perceptio n an d imaginative creatio n i s not yet operative. Thought , apparently, ha s no t ye t detache d itsel f fro m th e immediat e scene , o r a t least i s no t awar e o f havin g don e so . If th e poe t "canno t pain t / Wha t then I was, " thi s suppose d incapacit y i s thu s no t merel y a hyperboli c assertion o f his present distanc e fro m hi s former self . Instea d i t registers, in displace d form , a paradigmatic shift : th e poet canno t represen t a self not ye t consciously immerse d i n or defined b y representation. 24 Appear ing to the youth a s "all in all," nature i s still experience d a s a festival o f immediate livin g presenc e i n whic h al l things , himsel f included , share . The passage recalls , though it s vision is not quite identical to, the archaic Whitmanian worl d o f interpenetrating subject s an d objects.

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I have been arguin g that voic e is the key agen t of thi s fusio n i n Leaves of Grass. I t i s crucia l t o th e abandone d stag e Wordswort h depict s her e too, thoug h i n "Tinter n Abbey " it s importanc e i s lef t implicit , bein g suggested i n par t b y th e definin g rol e textua l transmissio n play s i n th e contrasting mod e o f identit y th e poe t come s t o assume . Registere d i n this passag e i n th e hauntin g soun d o f th e cataract , itsel f a n equivoca l image, th e associatio n o f th e on e lif e withi n u s an d abroa d wit h voic e and soun d i s more over t i n anothe r importan t evocatio n o f thi s supersede d mingling o f sel f an d world . I hav e i n min d wha t i s b y no w a locus classicus i n Wordsworth criticism , the requiem fo r th e boy o f Winander , composed, lik e "Tinter n Abbey, " i n 1798: 25 There was a Boy; ye knew him well, ye cliffs And islands of Winander!—many a time, At evening, when the earliest stars began To move along the edges of the hills, Rising or setting, would he stand alone, Beneath the trees, or by the glimmering lake; And there, with fingers interwoven, both hands Pressed closely palm to palm and to his mouth Uplifted, he , as through an instrument, Blew mimic hootings to the silent owls, That they might answer him.—And they would shout Across the watery vale, and shout again, Responsive to his call,—with quiverin g peals, And long halloos, and screams, and echoes loud Redoubled and redoubled; concourse wild Of jocund din!. . . (Poems 1:362) If Wordsworth' s recollectio n o f th e earlie r sel f wh o ha d first com e t o Tintern Abbe y offer s a mor e muted , almos t sombe r versio n o f thi s boisterous echoi c play , tha t ma y b e becaus e th e cataract-haunte d yout h he recall s ther e i s alread y faintl y trouble d b y intimation s tha t ar e thrus t upon th e bo y o f Winander mor e starkly : And, when there came a pause Of silence such as baffled hi s best skill: Then, sometimes, in that silence, while he hung Listening, a gentle shock of mild surprise Has carried far into his heart the voice Of mountain-torrents; or the visible scene Would enter unawares into his mind With all its solemn imagery, its rocks,

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Its woods, and that uncertain heaven received Into the bosom of the steady lake. (Poems 1:362 ) These line s trac e a n intricat e dialectic : it s operative notion s ar e silence , voice, imagery, and reflection. Distancin g the boy from th e natural worl d in which h e was immersed, th e eerie silence of this scene metamorphose s even mor e strangel y int o voice . Distan t an d devoid o f an y intimation o f call and response, this voic e might b e described, onl y a bit too schematically, a s th e voic e o f natura naturans rathe r tha n o f natura naturata. Suddenly manifes t i n an d a s itself , rathe r tha n appearin g throug h a multitude o f discret e creature s an d objects , Natur e simultaneousl y de clares it s integrit y an d detache s itsel f fro m th e bo y wh o intuit s it ; th e birth o f th e peculiarl y huma n powe r t o intui t o r posi t a structure d totality, a s well a s the individual phenomen a tha t compos e it , is also the origin o f human self-consciousnes s an d difference. Thi s birt h migh t als o be calle d a fall : i t i s marked b y a paradigmati c shif t i n th e boy' s atten tions, from unselfconsciou s immersio n i n immediate presence to involvement wit h image s an d representations . Fro m wha t "Tinter n Abbey " names th e aching joy s of the eye, the boy passes to the sobering stillnes s of "solem n imagery, " a phrase suggestiv e of reflective distance . Cal l and echoic respons e ar e likewis e replace d b y a mor e sombe r an d inwar d transaction, i n which "th e visible scen e / Would ente r unaware s int o his mind," a proces s perhap s epitomize d b y the final instanc e Wordswort h offers u s o f it : th e boy' s min d internalize s "tha t uncertai n heave n re ceived / Into th e bosom o f th e steady lake. " Her e a n expans e suggestiv e of totality , an d of idealization , i s explicitly mad e availabl e t o the boy as an image . Th e accompanyin g sens e o f tranqui l restoration , though , i s shadowed b y a hint of delusion: the "uncertain" heaven seems stabilized , but thu s als o transmuted , a s i t appear s a s a reflectio n i n wha t Words worth call s th e "steady " lake . Wordsworth' s ver b "received " likewis e manages t o see m bot h comfortin g an d faintl y troubling . Suggestin g a deep sequesterin g broadl y appropriat e t o th e lak e itsel f bu t no t t o th e particular operatio n o f optica l reflectio n describe d here , i t bot h implie s and problematize s a profoun d interiorizin g Wordsworth' s wor k consis tently associate s wit h imagination . Thi s stanz a o f "Ther e Wa s a Boy " thus poise s o n a birt h int o th e human univers e o f image s an d represen tations whic h involves , ambiguously , bot h th e appearanc e o f th e worl d as a totalit y an d th e fading, o r a t leas t th e transmutation, o f everythin g in it.

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Characteristically ambivalent , Wordswort h typicall y struggle s t o re gard thi s fallin g awa y fro m natura l presenc e a s fortunate . "Ther e Wa s a Boy," however, poise s a t a liminal moment : Wordswort h leave s the bo y uncomfortably suspende d bot h abov e th e natura l scen e and , a s i t were , above th e natura l sel f stil l literall y immerse d i n i t ("h e hun g / Listen ing"). 26 Th e poe m barel y intimate s tha t th e totalit y th e bo y glimpse s attests t o a n activ e powe r tha t i s hi s own : a powe r aki n no t t o natura naturata bu t t o natura naturans, th e imaginativ e powe r whic h ca n bin d up disparat e form s int o a whole o f it s own making . Stopping far shor t o f the sort of claim s for imaginativ e autonom y tha t characterize Wordsworth' s meditatio n o n th e crossin g o f Simplo n Pas s (indeed killin g of f th e bo y befor e h e migh t mak e them) , "Ther e Wa s a Boy" als o leave s unrealize d th e bindin g o f imaginativ e powe r t o huma n continuities an d communa l concerns . Th e poe m i s characteristic , how ever, in its preoccupation wit h thi s latter project. Typicall y regardin g th e moment detaile d i n "Ther e Wa s a Boy" not onl y a s an acces s of creativ e energy bu t als o a s a fallin g awa y fro m th e supposedl y unmediate d pleasures o f a forme r stage , Wordswort h struggle s t o conceiv e o f th e imaginative power o f totalization a s fulfilling itsel f no t i n an abrupt , self starting individual ac t but in the building out o f a human univers e whos e continuities migh t replac e th e natura l one s fro m whic h w e hav e bee n reft. Seekin g a transmissibilit y whic h migh t mak e u p fo r th e self-renew ing lif e o f nature , Wordsworthia n imaginatio n mus t renounc e th e sub lime autonom y tha t characterize s it s mos t intens e manifestation s an d bind itsel f t o th e projec t o f symboli c transmissio n tha t fo r Wordswort h defines huma n cultur e an d huma n selves . It i s partl y th e lac k o f suc h symboli c connectio n tha t i s registere d i n the regre t tha t haunt s th e clos e o f "Ther e Wa s a Boy. " Blockag e afflict s not onl y th e bo y wh o "hun g / Listening " bu t als o th e poe t wh o shoul d be his imaginative heir : This boy was taken from hi s mates, and died In childhood, ere he was full twelve years old. Pre-eminent in beauty is the vale Where he was born and bred: the churchyard hangs Upon a slope above the village-school; And, through that churchyard when my way has led On summer-evenings, I believe, that there A long half-hour togethe r I have stood Mute—looking at the grave in which he lies! {Poems H363) 27

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Despite th e closin g focu s o n hi s ow n muteness , wha t th e poe t lack s here is not so much voic e as writing. Conspicuou s b y its absence, partic ularly in the context of a poetic corpus littere d enoug h wit h suc h inscrip tions fo r a numbe r o f critic s t o regar d the m a s Wordsworth' s crucia l metonymy fo r poetr y itself , i s any mention o f a n epitaph. 28 Th e boy, as the poe m present s hi m t o us , never recover s fro m th e silenc e tha t over takes th e world o f mimi c hooting s i n which h e was formerly immersed . While th e poet mourn s th e loss o f thi s unreflectiv e immediacy , wha t h e requires in order to carry on is not the joy of the boy's innocent effusion s but th e recor d o f a n altere d languag e tha t migh t hav e succeede d the m and acknowledge d thei r demise. 29 Lik e th e boy' s abruptl y truncate d career, the poet's speechlessness i s thus paradigmatic: perhaps suggestin g a reflectiv e interval , i t ma y instea d impl y a mor e profoun d disorienta tion; th e poe t wh o confront s th e boy' s fal l fro m voic e t o blan k silenc e lapses int o a transfixe d stat e tha t threaten s t o pu t a n en d t o poetr y itself.30 While a n image o f voice i s Whitman's crucia l figure fo r a n individua l power immun e t o natural contingenc y an d scornful o f the compensator y mechanisms o f culture , Wordswort h thu s characteristicall y renounce s voice fo r writing , a shift tha t accommodate s fat e rathe r tha n defyin g it . If hi s poetry i s epitaphic, Wordsworth' s epitaphi c mod e no t only mark s the plac e o f deat h bu t conspicuousl y internalize s it , a difficul t gestur e that harbor s abundan t recompense ; i n Wordsworth' s poetr y mortalit y tells u s wh o w e ar e sinc e i t occasion s th e transmissio n tha t make s ou r identity sustainable . "There Wa s a Boy " displays no t thi s recognitio n bu t the need fo r it . If th e poe m i s itsel f epitaphic , i t come s to o lat e t o mediat e th e ga p between voic e an d silenc e effectively ; or , to put it differently, th e boy of Winander die s to o early , befor e h e ca n se e th e virtu e o f writin g a n epitaph o r befor e h e know s wha t suc h a n inscriptio n migh t say . Whil e Wordsworth's Essays on Epitaphs sugges t tha t memorial s compose d b y and frankl y attribute d t o th e bereave d ar e mor e suitabl e tha n thos e i n which th e dea d themselve s supposedl y addres s u s (2:60-61) , "Ther e Was a Boy" is by no mean s alon e i n Wordsworth's poeti c corpu s i n the sense of insufficienc y tha t haunt s thi s belate d gesture : th e poems tha t i n effect suppl y inscription s fo r unlettere d monument s characteristicall y seem t o struggl e t o redee m th e dead fro m a n otherwise unremittin g an d frightening mutenes s tha t threaten s t o consum e thos e wh o confront thi s

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blankness a s well . Despit e wha t th e Essays on Epitaphs declare , i n Wordsworth's imaginativ e univers e on e migh t ideall y writ e one' s ow n epitaph. On e woul d a t leas t pass on t o one' s inheritor s th e materia l wit h which t o compos e one ; paradoxically , thi s woul d consis t les s o f th e particulars o f one' s lif e tha n o f th e assuranc e tha t on e ha d alread y entered int o wha t migh t b e called a n epitaphi c attitude . What on e migh t pass on , tha t is , turn s ou t t o b e th e sens e o f transmissibilit y itself , a symbolic legac y tha t fo r Wordswort h come s t o see m virtuall y synony mous with culture . This is precisely wha t th e poet o f "Tinter n Abbey " does . A poem tha t seems t o begi n a s a celebratio n o f natura l renewa l an d modulate s int o a hymn t o imaginativ e powe r thu s end s a s a ritua l o f huma n continuity . Despite th e lac k o f an y over t referenc e t o epitaph , th e poe m culminate s with a n extravagantl y funerea l gesture : emptyin g livin g presenc e an d voice int o testamentar y inscription , th e poe t assume s hi s ow n deat h i n order t o ensur e th e transmissio n tha t wil l annu l it . Engravin g hi s ow n epitaph, s o t o speak , her e an d no w i n hi s sister' s heart , h e give s himsel f up t o th e symboli c circuit i n whic h h e will survive . "Tintern Abbey " evoke s thi s symboli c continuit y quit e explicitl y a s an alternativ e t o th e self-delighting an d self-renewin g natura l totalit y th e poet ma y possibl y hav e posite d mor e tha n perceived , a whol e fro m which hi s positional powe r ha s in an y cas e separated him : well pleased to recognize In nature and the language of the sense The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse, The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul Of all my moral being. Nor perchance, If I were not thus taught, should I the more Suffer m y genial spirits to decay: For thou art with me here upon the banks Of this fair river; thou my dearest Friend, My dear, dear Friend; and in thy voice I catch The language of my former heart , and read My former pleasures in the shooting lights Of thy wild eyes. . . . (Poems 1:360-61 ) This displacemen t an d th e partia l repetitio n i t achieve s o f th e poet' s experience modulate s int o th e mor e ambitiou s projec t o f bequeathin g that conclude s "Tinter n Abbey. " I t demands a more drasti c curtailment :

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and, in after years, When these wild ecstasies shall be matured Into a sober pleasure; when thy mind Shall be a mansion for all lovely forms, Thy memory be as a dwelling-place For all sweet sounds and harmonies; oh! then, If solitude, or fear, or pain, or grief, Should be thy portion, with what healing thoughts Of tender joy wilt thou remember me, And these my exhortations! Nor, perchance— If I should be where I no more can hear Thy voice, nor catch from th y wild eyes these gleams Of past existence—wilt thou then forge t That on the banks of this delightful strea m We stood together; and that I, so long A worshipper of Nature, hither came Unwearied in that service: rather say With warmer love—oh! with far deeper zeal Of holier love. Nor wilt thou then forget , That after man y wanderings, many years Of absence, these steep woods and lofty cliff s And this green pastoral landscape, were to me More dear, both for themselves and for thy sake! (Poems 1:361-62 ) These line s ar e quit e moving . Ye t wha t th e poe t proffer s Doroth y here migh t b e regarde d a s eithe r a gif t o r a n affliction ; i t i s probabl y fairest t o se e it as both. The cos t to Doroth y i s an instanc e o f th e burde n that transmissio n impose s o n inheritors : w e wil l tak e i t u p whe n w e turn, towar d th e en d o f thi s chapter , t o th e aggressio n lurkin g i n bot h Wordsworth's an d Whitman' s bequests . I f thi s passag e nonetheles s in vites Doroth y t o thin k o f th e repetition s i t envision s a s a legac y offere d rather tha n a s a n entailmen t enjoine d upo n her , tha t vie w i s a t leas t partially justifie d b y th e fac t tha t Wordswort h her e passe s o n no t jus t his particula r memorie s an d demand s bu t a visio n o f transmissibilit y itself. This transmissio n exact s it s pric e fro m th e poe t a s wel l a s fro m hi s sister. I t i s epitomize d b y th e ver y inscriptio n whic h allow s hi m t o survive. I f Doroth y i s to becom e th e poet' s faithfu l reader , renewin g hi s experience b y rememberin g an d repeatin g hi s word s i n hi s absence , h e must tur n himsel f int o he r writer , a tas k th e poe m associate s wit h th e willing introjectio n o f death . Chastenin g th e resonanc e o f voic e b y sub duing i t t o th e conditio n o f epitaph , th e poe t effectivel y reduce s himsel f

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here and no w to what h e must become in order t o survive: he transmute s his lif e an d hi s presenc e int o th e transmissibl e word s throug h whic h h e will endure , definin g himsel f throug h th e scen e o f hi s deat h an d th e bequest tha t hi s demis e wil l activate. 31 Thi s gesture , bot h sever e an d sustaining, i s th e crucia l legac y th e poe t passe s o n t o hi s sister ; h e predicts tha t i t will a t som e late r dat e sustai n he r too , b y definin g he r a s it has come to defin e him . This transactio n condense s an d dramatize s a logi c tha t fo r Words worth, a s fo r Whitman , ver y nearl y define s th e spac e o f culture— a bargain Wordswort h accept s an d internalizes , bu t o f whic h Whitma n wants t o wan t n o part . I f the poet o f "Tinter n Abbey " wil l surviv e in a n epitaph, throug h signs , the n h e wil l surviv e a s a sign , sustaine d i n a symbolic circuit . An d i f h e ca n perfor m thi s substitution , tha t mus t b e because i t ha s i n a sens e alread y occurred ; th e poe t mus t alread y hav e taken u p hi s plac e a s par t o f a communa l networ k o f image s an d representations. "Tinter n Abbey " embrace s thi s initiatio n an d th e relin quishing o f self-sufficienc y tha t attend s it : the y ar e registere d i n th e poet's intentl y envisione d sacrific e o f hi s ow n livin g presence, a dissolu tion whic h strangel y fulfill s th e poem's burde n o f goo d hope . If thi s descriptio n seem s to o unremittin g o r to o bleak , tha t i s partl y because I hav e mad e i t s o impersonal . Wordswort h insist s tha t hi s affectional bon d t o hi s siste r i s crucial t o th e humanizing compac t "Tin tern Abbey " initiates . Th e mechanis m tha t permit s th e poet' s surviva l may b e pervasiv e enoug h t o defin e culture . Bu t i n Wordsworth' s poe m this global mechanis m take s th e for m o f th e intensel y personal transmis sion with whic h "Tinter n Abbey " concludes ; it is crucial to Wordswort h to insis t tha t h e wil l surviv e onl y i f Dorothy' s lov e fo r hi m make s he r a willing participant i n a shared enterprise . As w e shal l se e furthe r on , thi s persona l etho s typifie s Wordsworth' s vision o f poeti c an d cultura l transmission . Th e contras t betwee n hi s work an d th e characteristi c ambition s o f Leaves of Grass i n thi s regar d will prov e instructive . I n Whitman' s poems , relianc e o n particula r inti macies an d th e fidelity the y ca n generat e i s meticulousl y excluded . Th e responses o f th e poet' s auditor s nee d no t b e solicite d becaus e the y ar e apparently compelled , b y a performativ e idio m an d th e livin g presenc e supposedly poure d int o u s b y th e ritua l i t activates : accordin g t o Whit man's governin g myt h w e ca n neve r escap e eithe r th e poet' s insight s o r

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the imperia l an d amorou s figur e wh o i s thei r burden . Appealin g t o hi s sister, Wordsworth pin s his hopes on a personal bon d rathe r tha n o n th e sort o f structura l necessit y Whitman' s poem s see m to enforce . It i s possible , o f course , t o overstat e th e humanize d an d humanizin g aspects o f Wordsworthia n transmission ; Wordswort h himsel f ma y in deed b e committe d t o suc h overstatement . On e migh t wel l no t wan t t o be Dorothy , o r t o hav e one' s futur e response s enjoine d i n thi s way . Ye t the distinctio n betwee n Whitman' s performative s an d th e optative s an d exhortations wit h whic h "Tinter n Abbey " conclude s i s importan t eve n if i t doe s no t quit e bespea k a contras t betwee n constrain t an d freel y exercised choice . A s Hartma n suggests , optative s ca n b e considere d a s attenuations o f ritua l address , modulation s fro m a n archai c magica l universe int o a demystifie d spac e i n whic h daemoni c power s hav e bee n at leas t partl y relinquishe d i n favo r o f explicitl y symboli c one s (Beyond Formalism 287-88) . Writing i s Wordsworth' s condensin g figure fo r thi s supposedl y hu manizing transformatio n o f power . I n "Tinter n Abbey " inscriptio n fore grounds th e symboli c statu s o f cultura l continuities , drawin g attentio n as well to what thi s purification shoul d perfect—the reciprocit y of write r and reader , o f th e dea d an d th e living , a mutuality tha t fo r Wordswort h not onl y make s possibl e th e connection s tha t sustai n u s bu t als o give s them thei r value. Whitman, writin g in a moment whe n h e is not yet wit h us, imagine s a magica l speec h i n whic h h e wil l b e ever-presen t t o us . Wordsworth, addressin g Doroth y o n th e occasion o f thei r share d visit t o the Wye , conjure s u p hi s ow n effacemen t an d death , compellin g th e recitation o r re-readin g o f hi s words whic h i s not onl y thei r characteris tic mode bu t als o their imaginativ e burden . Speech Act s In th e archai c univers e voic e shape s i n Leaves of Grass, th e poet' s presence thu s slough s of f th e cultura l bargai n Wordswort h celebrates ; apparently invulnerabl e t o contingenc y an d loss , the poet ha s no nee d of the symboli c structur e tha t partiall y recuperate s them . Bu t Whitman' s figure o f voic e i s mad e possibl e b y writing . Th e attenuation s Words worth accept s accordingl y haun t Leaves of Grass despit e th e poet' s insistent ebullience . Writin g mean s fo r Whitma n ver y muc h wha t i t

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means fo r Wordsworth : i t displays th e poet's relianc e no t onl y o n repre sentation bu t mor e particularly o n a mechanism o f cultura l transmissio n Whitman repeatedl y excoriates . Claimin g t o fre e u s fro m th e mediatin g cultural structure s tha t preserv e u s onl y a t th e pric e o f turnin g u s int o images ourselves , Leaves of Grass thu s hover s betwee n performin g thi s liberation fro m representatio n an d merel y representin g it . Whitman' s announcements o f the poet's presence are poised betwee n a transumptiv e word magi c an d a belate d constativ e mod e whos e assertion s ar e belie d by recalcitran t fact , betwee n th e revelatio n o f a livin g presenc e uncom promised b y sign s an d th e melanchol y o r comi c displa y o f jus t suc h signs. Purveyin g Whitman' s figure o f voice , writin g indee d threaten s t o reduce th e poet' s presenc e t o a sig n itself : turnin g presen t addres s int o epitaph, i t display s o r exact s th e fadin g o f th e self-sufficien t identit y t o which voic e should attest . Rarely acknowledge d overtly , thi s econom y migh t b e though t o f a s afflicting a poe t wh o remain s unawar e o f it s working . Bu t Whitman' s mobile idio m ofte n seem s t o registe r th e poet' s ow n sens e o f th e ambig uous statu s o f hi s project. Thi s i s especially true with respec t to the laps e of power writin g in part represents : a s we shall se e further on , Whitma n is less uncomfortable wit h suggestion s tha t th e poet's nobl e powers hav e not quit e bee n successfull y exercise d tha n wit h intimation s tha t h e ha s managed t o wiel d a less innocent force , on e ultimately difficul t t o distin guish fro m th e authorit y fro m whic h i t shoul d fre e us . Whil e acknowl edgment o f thi s darke r powe r o f th e poet's wor d i s difficult t o discer n i n Leaves of Grass, quotient s o f patho s o r ruefu l wi t ofte n lur k i n th e poet's visionar y proclamations . The y sugges t tha t som e o f th e doubt s Whitman's claim s tend to provoke amon g his readers ca n also preoccup y the poet , thoug h i n Whitman' s first tw o edition s the y ar e almos t neve r allowed t o redefin e wha t hi s adven t means . In explorin g suc h equivoca tions, i t wil l b e usefu l t o retur n t o som e o f th e apostrophe s w e con sidered i n earlier chapters , in orde r t o judge the difference writin g make s in the poet's declarations . We can ofte n hea r thi s difference i n his tone . 1. I n Whitman' s apostrophe s voic e an d writin g situat e th e poe t himsel f in quit e differen t ways . I n sectio n fort y o f "Son g o f Myself, " w e sa w i n chapter 4 , voic e attest s t o an d define s th e transfigurin g presenc e Whit man's declaratio n announces :

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Behold! I do not give lectures, or a little charity; When I give, I give myself. (V: i:6z) 32 We migh t hea r thi s addres s a s mixing visionar y intensit y an d bragga docian delight : revealin g th e splendidl y invisibl e presenc e wh o define s what presence is, the poet seems to revel not only in his conjuring power s but als o i n the stupefactio n likel y t o atten d ou r difficul t apprehensio n o f this marvel . Whitman' s deicti c "Behold!, " I argued , suggest s a n ac t o f transubstantiation fo r whic h stupefactio n migh t wel l b e a n appropriat e initial response . Th e lac k o f a visible bod y her e force s u s t o loo k fo r th e poet i n hi s word ; seemin g t o fulfil l Whitman' s visionar y ambitions , th e figure o f voic e t o whic h ou r searc h lead s suggest s tha t w e wil l indee d find hi m there— a livin g presence , bot h embodie d an d ideal , no w risin g up befor e us . Bu t anothe r possibl e sourc e o f stupefactio n lurk s i n thes e lines. Rathe r tha n takin g thi s transactio n a s a n instanc e o f successfu l magic, we migh t instea d regar d i t a s a cas e o f wha t J . L . Austin charm ingly call s "infelicity " (14) : ou r difficult y beholdin g th e poe t ma y be speak no t th e profundit y o f hi s power s bu t th e simpl e failur e o f hi s speech act . An y attentio n t o thes e line s a s writin g wil l ten d t o provok e this sens e o f faile d magic , disturbin g th e constellatio n Whitman' s figure of voic e suggests . Broadly affiliate d wit h indicatio n i n Whitman's work , writing display s th e indicativ e statu s o f th e poet's word s wit h particula r sharpness here: it reduces the elusive presence voice suggests quite simpl y to absence . Absence itself , however , ca n b e understoo d a s attestin g no t quit e t o "infelicity," bu t instea d t o th e workin g o f a darke r powe r tha n th e poe t intends t o mobilize , o f whic h h e migh t b e victi m rathe r tha n agent . These line s ma y instanc e th e operatio n o f th e necromanti c cultura l powe r Whitman associate s wit h texts . Th e absenc e o f a palpabl e bod y her e might intimat e a relatio n betwee n poe t an d wor d tha t i s a kin d o f demonic parod y o f th e confluenc e Whitman' s figure o f voic e implies . Rather tha n bespeakin g th e fusio n o f wor d an d livin g presence , th e announcement "Behold ! [ . . . ] / [ . . . ] I giv e myself " ca n sugges t tha t the identit y name d her e ha s effectivel y bee n reduce d t o nothin g bu t th e words i n whos e presenc e w e are . Th e indicativ e sign s t o whic h w e giv e our allegiance , Whitma n ofte n complains , d o no t simpl y fai l t o produc e living presence s bu t com e t o defin e an d thereb y emasculat e th e selve s whose place s the y usurp ; fallin g unde r thei r sway , w e n o longe r appea r to others , o r t o ourselves , a s livin g presences, bu t simpl y a s signs . Whit -

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man's announcement s o f th e poet' s presenc e woul d thu s exemplif y th e very cultural mechanis m fro m whic h the y supposedl y fre e us . Similar ambiguitie s troubl e man y o f th e poet's announcements : I and mine do not convince by arguments, similes, rhymes, We convince by our presence. ("Song of the Open Road," 185 6 233) These lines , too , ca n see m t o fractur e int o variou s voicings : w e migh t think w e hea r i n the m a visionar y intensit y o r th e prid e o f triumphan t revelation; a melanchol y intimatio n o f "infelicity " o r a ruefu l comed y provoked b y thi s sam e failure ; o r a rathe r mor e chillin g sens e tha t presence, for us , is simply th e presence o f signs . How shar p a n iron y w e discove r i n suc h passage s wil l depen d i n par t on whethe r w e thin k o f the m a s uttere d o r inscribed . Moreover , th e question o f whether we think o f Whitman's speake r a s sharing our ironi c awareness ma y als o tur n o n th e rol e w e attribut e t o writing : th e voic e we imagin e w e hea r ma y itsel f b e trouble d b y inscriptio n an d wha t i t implies. I n th e case s s o fa r befor e us , i t i s probabl y judiciou s t o ascrib e such disquietin g awarenes s t o reade r mor e tha n t o poet ; whil e hint s o f comedy an d melanchol y d o see m t o lur k i n thes e announcements , i n context thei r boastfu l an d visionar y aspect s ar e clearly predominant. 33 A number o f Whitman' s announcement s o f th e poet' s presence , though , seem genuinel y equivoca l i n bot h ton e an d import : ther e th e problem s I have bee n worryin g see m quit e palpabl y t o worr y th e poe t a s well . W e are mos t ap t t o sens e a hoverin g accen t i n th e performative s tha t ar e most richl y erotic ; give n Whitman' s particula r eroti c bent , w e nee d t o attend especiall y t o passage s tha t conjur e u p no t onl y a n idealized , invisible presenc e bu t als o th e labil e bod y tha t i s th e archai c precurso r of suc h idealization . Th e mor e inten t th e poe t seem s t o b e on inhabitin g and enjoyin g th e polymorphou s bod y hi s announcement s imply , th e more thos e announcement s see m haunte d b y a sens e o f tha t body' s ineffability. A brie f passag e fro m "Son g o f Myself, " whic h w e attende d t o earlie r from a differen t perspective , i s perhap s mos t delicatel y poise d betwee n pleasure an d pathos : This is the press of a bashful han d . . .. thi s is the float and odor of hair, This i s the touc h o f m y lip s t o your s . . . . thi s i s th e murmu r o f yearning . (185542)

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The wistfulnes s o f th e poet' s ton e her e i n par t reflect s th e characteristi c furtiveness o f Whitman' s desire ; bu t i t als o registers th e equivoca l statu s of th e poet' s claim s t o performativ e power , th e longin g o f thi s languag e to b e more than language . The amorous encounte r th e poet initiates her e depends on Whitman's insisten t conflation o f bod y an d word, a conjunc tion o n whic h hi s deictic s insis t an d t o whic h a n imag e o f voic e shoul d attest. Ye t we can hea r i n this voice an unhapp y intimatio n o f somethin g that undoe s it s claims— a furtiv e sens e o f th e distanc e betwee n al l thes e words an d th e body the y name , bu t canno t quit e manag e t o be . It i s admittedl y awkwar d t o specif y th e mechanis m throug h whic h writing affect s th e ton e o f voic e t o whic h w e respon d here . We ar e use d to attachin g poem s t o "speakers, " an d t o insistin g o n th e distinctio n between th e poet writing his poem an d the speaker engaged i n the speec h act the poet represents. If Whitman characteristicall y conflate s thes e two, for instanc e b y callin g hi s speake r "Wal t Whitman, " h e ma y d o s o a t least i n par t i n orde r t o occul t th e Activ e statu s o f th e speec h act s o n which th e poem s focu s an d th e rol e playe d b y writing i n facilitatin g th e image o f suc h acts . Bu t i n passage s lik e thi s one , i t i s a s i f th e poet' s awareness o f th e tex t h e wa s engage d i n writin g infiltrate d th e imag e o f voice hi s poe m projects : th e distanc e betwee n wor d an d thing , an d th e merely indicativ e statu s o f th e linguisti c sign , see m t o troubl e a speake r who, supposedly innocen t of writing, should b e immune to these suppos edly avoidabl e deficiencie s o f th e wor d a s well . Writin g an d wha t i t implies see m t o darke n wha t migh t otherwis e b e a purel y visionar y utterance. Like th e mechanis m tha t migh t mak e Whitman' s speake r awar e o f inscription, th e precis e effect s o f thi s awarenes s o n ton e ar e no t eas y t o pin down . W e migh t conceivabl y discer n i n thes e line s fain t intimation s of th e ic y recognition tha t structure s Keats' s "Thi s livin g hand," thoug h they provoke n o dialectical reversal : the economy in which th e sign take s the plac e o f th e presenc e i t announces , rathe r tha n producin g it , ca n indeed see m al l th e mor e inexorabl e becaus e o f th e poet' s insisten t proclamation o f a magi c tha t shoul d kee p thi s reductio n a t bay . Ye t a sense o f stoi c acceptanc e i n th e fac e o f a n inevitabl e fat e i s less apparen t here tha n a wistfulness whic h suggest s tha t th e speake r believe s tha t th e failure o f wor d magi c whic h haunt s thes e line s migh t wel l hav e bee n avoided. The poet's ton e seem s to hove r equivocall y amon g quie t triumph , seductiveness, an d a poignanc y provoke d b y th e possibl e infelicit y o f

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these speec h acts . Shadowe d b y a writin g tha t call s int o questio n th e very presenc e the y proclaim , thes e line s see m trouble d b y a melanchol y sense o f misse d encounter , a feelin g tha t th e poet' s transfigurin g bod y may b e dissolvin g eve n a s Whitma n trie s t o inhabi t i t an d enjo y th e labile eroticism i t should mak e possible . In suc h eroticall y charge d passages , the poe t seem s t o wave r betwee n a labilit y tha t promise s th e delight s o f a no t ye t Oedipalize d sexualit y and a n utte r evaporatio n tha t pre-empt s th e very assignation wit h whic h these addresse s entic e us . We ca n thu s understan d th e elusivenes s o f thi s figure o f presenc e a s a n ambiguou s sign : i t bot h render s th e somati c instability o f a n archai c bod y an d mark s th e poet' s inabilit y t o recove r it. Seekin g t o reclai m th e power s o f wor d magi c bu t perhap s displayin g instead th e purel y symboli c statu s an d powe r o f th e sign , Whitman' s apostrophes als o sugges t th e unattainabilit y o f th e polymorphou s bod y they struggl e t o resurrect , a body prior eve n to the word magi c that bot h supersedes an d recall s it . Inten t o n restorin g th e bod y a s a presenc e unmarked an d unmediate d b y signs , Whitman' s declaration s migh t al ways enac t th e occultin g o f thi s pre-symboli c bod y instead ; i t migh t always b e onl y a collectio n o f sign s wit h whic h w e ar e left . Th e hin t o f melancholy w e ca n hea r i n thes e announcement s register s no t onl y th e possible failur e o f th e poet' s wor d magi c bu t als o th e dissolutio n o f th e archaic bod y thi s magi c shoul d evoke , a fadin g exacte d b y th e ver y words tha t nam e it . Th e patho s o f thi s double d sens e o f namin g haunt s Whitman's imag e of voic e throughout Leaves of Grass. 2. Poise d betwee n th e magica l productio n o f a rebor n bod y an d it s vanishing, suc h announcement s i n Whitman's first tw o edition s typicall y register thi s latte r effec t onl y i n equivoca l accent s tha t lur k behin d th e poet's leadin g tone . In th e i86 0 Leaves of Grass, however , Whitman' s attitude towar d th e poet' s presenc e ha s itsel f becom e ambivalent , an d his relatio n t o hi s earlie r fictions i s frequentl y wary . Bot h th e Calamus sequence an d th e Sea-Drif t poe m "A s I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life, " we will se e in chapter 7 , sharply repudiat e Whitman's figure o f presence , though i n quit e differen t ways . A number o f th e othe r poem s compose d for th e i86 0 Leaves, though , attenuat e Whitman' s authorizin g myt h without rejectin g it . Focusin g overtl y o n th e mechanism s tha t simulta neously creat e an d dissipat e th e poet' s presence , the y sto p shor t o f renouncing thi s figure an d hi s powers.

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In thes e poem s Whitman' s apostrophe s frequentl y adver t directl y t o the existenc e o f th e writin g tha t threaten s t o bloc k th e poet' s adven t o r simply dissolv e him. Insistin g tha t Leaves of Grass i s not a book, o r els e that th e tex t w e ar e readin g i s about t o metamorphos e int o a voic e an d a presenc e (o r i s doing so now) suc h announcement s nonetheles s ten d t o brood ove r th e econom y Whitman' s appea l t o voic e ha d earlie r serve d to occult , probin g a n ac t o f transformatio n whos e powe r ha d depende d on th e eas e wit h whic h apostroph e seeme d t o accomplis h it . I n i860 , moreover, thi s problemati c transfiguratio n i s repeatedly associate d wit h the poet' s death . Ther e ar e surel y severa l reason s fo r thi s intensifie d concentration o n mortality . Whitman' s ne w focu s o n genita l rathe r tha n infantile, polymorphou s sexualit y implicate s the poet i n the generationa l economy h e ha d earlie r seeme d t o evade . At th e sam e time , thi s editio n also offers stron g intimations o f th e spiritual interest s which increasingl y preoccupied th e poet; severa l i86 0 poem s tentatively adduc e the oceani c afterlife o n whic h suc h late r piece s a s "Passag e t o India " dilate . Ye t i n the i86 0 editio n deat h als o image s a fat e Whitman' s figure o f voic e seems increasingl y t o precipitat e rathe r tha n elude : i t name s th e fading , made palpabl e b y writing , whic h relianc e o n th e sig n exacts . I n th e production o f Whitman' s idea l figure o f presence , manifestatio n an d dissolution com e increasingly t o seem inseparable. 34 The melanchol y tha t haunt s previou s announcement s o f th e poet' s presence i s accordingl y mor e eviden t i n severa l paralle l declaration s i n i860; i t appear s no t jus t a s a n undertone , bu t a s a persisten t respons e the poe t mus t registe r overtly , temperin g hi s characteristi c ebullience . A brief evocatio n o f th e poet' s presenc e i n "Startin g fro m Paumanok " compresses this movement, focusin g mor e on affirmatio n tha n dejection ; but i t advert s t o th e deat h tha t mus t b e suffere d i n orde r t o attai n th e effusing bod y th e poet celebrates : O Death! O for al l that, I am yet of you, unseen, this hour, with irrepressibl e love, Walking New England, a friend, a traveller, Splashing m y bar e fee t i n th e edg e o f th e summe r ripples, o n Paumanok' s sand, ( i 8 6 0 18)

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We ar e likel y t o imagin e thi s unsee n bod y dabblin g it s fee t i n Lon g Island's water s a s itsel f rathe r fluid ; i t seem s to hav e purge d itsel f o f th e stolidity o f flesh . Associate d wit h presenc e bu t also , explicitly , wit h death, thi s figure mus t suffe r dissolutio n an d pas s throug h absenc e i n

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order t o becom e wha t i t ough t t o be . Declare d overtl y here , thi s detou r organizes al l Whitman's proclamation s o f th e poet's presence , taking th e form o f th e writin g tha t purvey s thos e announcements ; th e poe t mus t pass throug h image s o r signs , i f no t simpl y int o them , t o becom e wha t Whitman call s presence. In these lines death display s the reliance of wha t we mea n b y presenc e an d identit y o n a mechanis m whic h precipitate s a fading o f al l tha t i s no t th e word . I f Whitman' s announcement s o f th e poet's advent , wit h thei r focu s o n lability , als o evok e a bein g prio r t o this birt h an d thi s death , they d o s o only b y mean s o f th e very sign s tha t accomplish o r exac t it . The haunting leave-takin g o n whic h Leaves of Grass come s to rest , in i860 an d thereafter , inhabit s suc h paradoxe s mor e fully . In th e closin g sections o f "S o Long! " Whitma n dwell s o n th e overlappin g o f wha t produces th e poet' s presenc e an d wha t dissolve s it ; hi s declaration s o f the poet' s triumphan t manifestatio n ar e difficul t t o tel l fro m poignan t admission o r lament . The best-know n line s i n th e poe m ar e probabl y thos e tha t ambigu ously eithe r disavo w o r clai m t o transubstantiat e th e poet' s book . W e have alread y attende d t o thes e proclamations : This is no book, Who touches this, touches a man. (i860 455) In late r editions , a n awkwar d ritua l salutatio n make s mor e explici t Whitman's apostrophi c mod e here , a dimensio n whic h serve s t o disen tangle a numinou s presenc e fro m Whitman' s boo k b y appealin g t o th e living voice apostrophe implies : Camerado! This is no book, Who touches this, touches a man. (V 2:45z)36 The succeedin g stanz a goe s on t o adduc e th e sor t o f labil e bod y voic e can als o define : 0 ho w your fingers drowse me! Your breat h fall s aroun d m e like dew—your puls e lull s the tympans o f my ears, 1 feel immerged [sic] fro m hea d to foot , Delicious—enough. (1860455 ) This passag e manage s t o see m bot h overstimulate d an d poignant . Evok ing th e polymorphou s pleasure s o f th e chora an d lendin g the m th e

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unfocused, globa l intensit y tha t woul d no w b e calle d jouissance, Whit man's heavil y somaticize d descriptio n simultaneousl y function s t o mak e the visibl e a littl e har d t o see ; i t thu s oddl y suggest s th e elusivenes s o f the archai c encounte r tha t migh t produc e th e sens e o f surfei t th e poe t declares. In "S o Long! " thi s elusivenes s haunt s evocation s o f bot h th e archai c body los t throug h sign s an d th e punctua l presenc e whos e dramati c manifestation supposedl y free s u s fro m thei r dominion . Th e melanchol y lurking i n th e passag e jus t considere d i s als o eviden t i n th e line s tha t conclude th e stanz a tha t precede s them . Ther e th e powe r t o conjur e u p the living presence implie d b y apostrophe, to dra w i t up out o f the book , belongs no t t o th e poet himsel f bu t t o death : [Camerado!] This is no book, Who touches this, touches a man, (Is it night? Are we here alone?) It is I you hold, and who holds you, I spring from th e pages into your arms—decease calls me forth, (i86 0 455) If the impediment represente d b y writing gives way t o a n actua l presenc e here, thi s figure's adven t paradoxicall y take s th e for m o f a dissolution . It is this paradox, a s much a s the sens e of furtivenes s tha t ofte n attache s to eroticis m i n Leaves of Grass, tha t account s fo r th e wistfulnes s s o strongly registere d i n th e thir d an d fort h o f thes e lines : askin g whethe r we ar e her e alon e i s i n par t a displace d wa y o f askin g i f w e ar e her e a t all, a doub t stil l reflecte d i n th e insistenc e that , i n th e nex t line , trie s t o keep i t a t bay . The poet , i t would seem , becomes th e embodied presenc e who define s wha t presenc e an d bod y shoul d b e onl y b y tradin g on e absence fo r another , passin g through writin g only b y passing into death . Or ver y nearl y so . Bu t "S o Long! " struggle s t o plac e th e poe t a t th e threshold betwee n thes e tw o absences , an d thus , a s i t were , t o protec t him fro m both . Th e poe t hover s o n th e brin k o f a deat h h e bot h anticipates an d hold s bac k from : So I pass—a little time vocal, visible, contrary, Afterward, a melodious echo , passionately ben t for—deat h makin g m e undying, The bes t o f m e the n whe n n o longe r visible—fo r towar d tha t I have bee n incessantly preparing, (i860 455) We hav e her e what look s lik e cosmic doctrine , an d th e labile , caressabl e presence conjured u p out o f the book fo r ou r delectatio n i n other stanza s

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might see m to b e simply identica l t o the immortal sou l adverte d t o in th e second an d thir d o f thes e lines . But this i s supposedly no t quit e the case : What i s there more , that I lag and pause , and crouc h extende d wit h unshu t mouth? Is there a single final farewell? My songs cease—I abandon them, From behin d th e screen wher e I hid, I advance personally, solel y t o you . (V 2:45i)37

It is this figure stallin g a t the edge of death , rathe r tha n th e inhabitant o f an afterlif e th e poe m als o imagines , wh o epitomize s presenc e i n Leaves of Grass. I suggested i n chapte r 4 tha t thi s silen t presenc e i s define d b y the ver y voic e supposedl y subtracte d fro m it . Thi s imag e o f voice , i n turn, acquire s it s elusiveness an d it s apparent idealit y fro m it s proximit y to th e condition s wit h whic h i t i s no t t o b e simpl y confused : t o th e writing ou t o f whic h i t emerge s an d th e deat h int o whic h i t wil l shortl y dissolve. In th e poem' s ver y las t lines , th e poe t i s onc e mor e define d b y hi s closeness t o a fat e tha t ha s no t ye t quit e claime d him . Deat h is , a s i t were, th e limi t t o whic h th e bod y emergin g fro m writing , an d produce d as an imag e o f voice , ineluctably tends— a limi t a t whic h i t cannot quit e arrive withou t ceasin g t o b e what i t is . This sligh t bu t crucia l distanc e i s described a s the spac e o f a resemblanc e tha t i s not ye t a perfect identity , of a n "as" : Dear friend, whoever you are, here, take this kiss, I give it especially to you—Do not forget me, I feel like one who has done his work—I progress on, The unknown sphere , more real than I dreamed, more direct, darts awakening rays about me—So long! Remember my words—I love you—I depart from materials , I am as one disembodied, triumphant, dead, (i860 456) Having supposedl y passe d throug h writin g t o appea r t o u s a s a transfig ured presence , th e poe t her e hover s jus t shor t o f a definitive dissolvin g that woul d leav e his body availabl e to being represented bu t no t to bein g presented directly . Havin g jus t emerge d fro m sign s an d o n th e verg e o f passing once more under thei r sway, he becomes, by virtue of this doubl e proximity an d thi s doubl e danger , wha t presenc e shoul d be . In thes e closin g section s o f "S o Long! " bot h imager y an d ton e dra w

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out suc h equivocations , callin g ou r attentio n t o th e paradoxe s a t whic h apostrophe i n Leaves of Grass typicall y hint s mor e obliquely . Th e idea l presence whic h shoul d redee m u s fro m sign s take s it s powe r fro m it s reliance o n them ; th e labile , archai c bod y tha t precede s suc h idealit y now exist s for u s only i n a linguistic practice that simultaneousl y evoke s and occult s it . Th e poe t voice s thes e intimation s indirectl y throughou t Leaves of Grass, ofte n i n th e ver y pronouncement s tha t shoul d kee p them a t bay ; the y ar e audible , thoug h ofte n onl y faintly , i n th e patho s and humo r tha t registe r a felt laps e fro m magica l performativ e power . 3. Lik e th e poet' s ow n presence , th e redemptiv e encounte r t o whic h h e calls u s turn s ou t t o b e highl y equivocal . In th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass, thi s assignatio n supposedl y render s unnecessar y th e sort o f symboli c transmissio n Wordswort h invokes . Th e charme d scen e into whic h Whitman' s apostrophe s fol d u s depend s fo r it s contour s o n an imag e of voice . Even i n "S o Long! " th e poe t wh o ha s ver y nearl y dissolve d int o hi s own imag e hold s bac k fro m th e econom y t o whic h Wordswort h sternl y subjects himself : th e hauntin g encounte r betwee n poe t an d audienc e shapes a tenuous idyll that delay s the death Wordsworth invites ; it seems to rende r superfluou s th e symboli c transmission , epitomize d b y writing , that i n "Tinter n Abbey " introject s mortalit y an d thu s allow s a figurative survival beyon d it . Prior t o i860 , Whitman's apostrophe s typicall y insis t more adamantl y o n th e poet' s abilit y t o creat e a magica l meetin g tha t protects bot h poe t an d audienc e fro m suc h attenuation : supposedl y preserving th e poe t fro m th e dissolutio n ove r whic h "S o Long! " lingers , these direc t addresse s see m t o creat e a repeatin g even t an d a protecte d space tha t rescu e u s too , no t onl y fro m natura l chang e an d contingenc y but als o fro m th e rul e o f representatio n tha t partiall y subdue s them . I n poems suc h a s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " w e sa w i n chapte r 3 , ou r reliance o n sign s i s displayed a s exacting a price th e poe t i s unwilling t o pay. Hi s adven t seem s to liberat e bot h himsel f an d hi s auditors fro m th e public spac e rule d b y ligh t an d define d b y images , a spac e i n whic h w e can avai l ourselve s o f th e stabilizin g power s o f representatio n onl y b y being subjecte d t o the m ourselves . On e o f th e crucia l function s o f th e scene inaugurated b y the poet's apostrophes , we noted i n chapter 4 , is to shelter u s fro m thi s realm , an d fro m th e fadin g o f self-presenc e i t exacts,

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by sequesterin g u s i n a n agglomeratin g zon e indistinguishabl e fro m th e poet's ow n polymorphou s body . Grantin g a kis s o r a touc h wher e Wordsworth offer s a las t wil l an d testament , Whitma n supposedl y initi ates u s no t int o a cultura l circui t tha t wil l preserv e u s throug h others , provided w e reduc e ourselve s t o th e sign s tha t symboli c operation s ca n transmit, bu t int o a magical spac e that obviate s the need fo r suc h media tions an d exempt s u s fro m th e cultura l stipulation s tha t regulat e ou r access to them . The tenuou s differenc e betwee n suc h interchange s an d th e symboli c economy the y clai m t o by-pas s i s nonetheles s registere d i n th e rol e writing play s i n th e poet' s apostrophes . Th e tex t o f Leaves of Grass threatens t o dissolv e th e charme d encounte r Whitman' s imag e o f voic e defines, fracturin g i t int o separat e occasion s o f writin g an d reading . Or , if Whitman' s writte n tex t ca n b e sai d itsel f t o constitut e a singl e trans action i n whic h bot h write r an d reade r participate , i t i s a symboli c on e rather tha n a magical communion . Whitman's lat e poe m "Souvenir s o f Democracy, " whic h focuse s overtl y not onl y o n a n ac t o f inscriptio n bu t mor e particularly o n th e poet' s las t will an d testament , thu s doe s no t s o muc h abando n a possibilit y a s la y bare th e paradoxica l condition s tha t hav e subtende d i t fro m th e first. The poe m i s interestin g no t onl y fo r wha t Whitma n no w admits , bu t also fo r th e wa y suc h admission s intertwin e wit h wha t h e continue s t o proclaim. Organize d aroun d a questionabl e oppositio n wit h whic h w e are alread y familiar—on e betwee n tw o sort s o f writing—"Souvenir s o f Democracy" adamantl y contrast s th e opposin g consequence s o f thes e different modes , distinguishin g betwee n a merel y symboli c transmissio n and th e liberating encounte r th e poet's tex t supposedl y initiates : The business man, the acquirer vast, After assiduou s years, surveying results, preparing for departure, Devises house s an d land s t o hi s children—bequeaths stocks , goods—fund s for a school or hospital, Leaves mone y t o certai n companion s t o bu y tokens , souvenirs o f gem s and gold; Parceling out with care—And then, to prevent all cavil, His name to his testament formally signs. But I, my life surveying, With nothing to show, to devise, from it s idle years,

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Nor houses, nor lands—nor tokens of gems or gold for my friends, Only these Souvenirs of Democracy—In them—i n al l my songs—behind me leaving, To You , whoeve r yo u are , (bathing , leavenin g thi s lea f especiall y wit h m y breath—pressing on it a moment with my own hands; —Here! fee l ho w th e puls e beat s i n m y wrists!—ho w m y heart's-bloo d i s swelling, contracting!) I will You, in all, Myself, with promise to never desert you, To which I sign my name, Walt Whitman [signature ] (CRE615)38 Admitting th e necessar y entanglin g o f Whitman' s crucia l transaction s with th e symboli c mechanism s fro m whic h the y shoul d sav e us , th e poem cannil y focuse s o n th e materia l aspec t o f th e poet' s procedures , hoping thereb y t o sugges t tha t a n actua l presenc e migh t b e transmitte d by them . Blow n o n o r bathe d b y th e poet' s breat h an d presse d betwee n his hands , th e "leaf " tha t hold s hi s writin g ca n supposedl y regenerat e a trace of his presence. It is with this trace that we are invited to commune . The encounte r thereb y initiate d supposedl y offer s u s an alternativ e t o the transmissio n detaile d i n th e poem' s openin g stanza . Mediate d b y public, juridica l structure s an d epitomize d b y th e unregenerat e writin g that purvey s them , thi s symboli c transactio n i s made t o see m bot h sadl y impersonal an d slightl y rapacious . Th e inheritanc e th e businessma n be queaths i s neve r quit e redeemabl e fro m th e symboli c mechanism s tha t make hi s legacy transferable : th e poe m display s tha t fadin g o f rea l presences int o symboli c entitie s wit h whic h Whitma n i s persistentl y concerned. Accumulate d i n par t i n th e symboli c form s o f "stocks " an d "funds" an d transmitte d vi a th e symboli c efficac y o f a las t wil l an d testament, thi s legac y i n a t leas t on e instanc e get s cashe d i n simpl y fo r more conspicuousl y symboli c objects : "tokens , souvenir s o f gem s an d gold." I n othe r cases , les s tautologica l operation s occur : funds , fo r ex ample, ar e turne d int o " a schoo l o r a hospital. " Ye t th e impersonalit y that haunt s thes e transaction s seem s t o b e on e fro m whic h th e partner s themselves wil l neve r successfull y emerge . Brought int o relatio n b y sym bolic object s an d th e lega l instrumen t tha t insure s thei r prope r disposal , the businessma n an d hi s heir s see m sundere d b y th e ver y transmissio n that bind s them . I n contras t t o th e poet , a livin g creatur e define d b y pulse and breath , the businessman i s himself reduce d t o a purely juridica l function:

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And then, to prevent all cavil, His name to his testament formally signs. There i s somethin g faintl y ghastl y i n thi s exercis e o f contro l a s Whit man's diagrammati c descriptio n present s it . Those affecte d b y th e testa ment's stipulation s d o no t s o much interac t wit h a person a s submit t o a name o r sign . Thi s powe r o f a symboli c agen t an d even t t o gover n persons haunt s Whitma n throughou t Leaves of Grass. "Souvenirs o f Democracy " nonetheles s hover s ove r th e possibl e re semblance betwee n th e transaction th e poet initiates and th e mechanism s from whic h i t shoul d sav e us . Whitman end s b y proclaimin g th e poet' s advent an d conjurin g u p th e intimat e scen e hi s presence shoul d inaugu rate; bu t thi s final performative i s qualified b y a final paradox. Adherin g to th e procedure s o f th e wil l an d testamen t whos e impor t h e claim s t o redefine, Whitma n close s no t b y revealin g a presenc e bu t b y appendin g his signature . We ar e lef t no t quit e with a living person bu t instea d wit h his lega l proxy—th e mar k no t onl y o f hi s absence , bu t als o o f th e symbolic structure s tha t mak e suc h fadin g mor e tha n merel y contingent . The occasion t o which w e are called b y the poem thu s vacillates betwee n the savin g intimac y Whitman' s imag e o f voic e seem s t o shap e an d th e sort o f codifie d symboli c transaction inscriptio n migh t activate. 39 Despite th e ostentatiou s repudiatio n o f writin g i n Whitman' s earlie r work, wha t w e migh t cal l th e signatur e als o trouble s th e chiliasti c pro clamations o f th e poet' s presenc e tha t occu r there . Ou r confrontatio n with Whitman' s tex t intimate s no t simpl y th e poet' s failur e t o appear , but als o th e symbolic , mediated , an d broadl y institutiona l statu s o f th e supposedly purel y persona l transaction s t o which h e calls us. 4. Lik e th e poe t an d th e scen e h e initiates , th e audienc e summone d b y apostrophe t o commun e wit h hi m als o possesse s a highl y ambiguou s status. Turnin g onc e mor e o n Whitman' s imag e o f voic e an d it s relatio n to writing, thi s ambiguit y i s often starkes t i n passages tha t poin t directl y to Whitman' s tex t an d tr y t o fac e dow n it s consequences. In "Souvenir s of Democracy, " th e businessman' s las t wil l an d testamen t seem s t o reduce to virtual cipher s not onl y the businessman himsel f bu t als o thos e who assum e hi s legacy . Whil e th e poet' s adven t i s mean t t o protec t u s from th e fadin g tha t attend s thi s sor t o f symboli c transmission , w e sa w that th e signatur e tha t initiate s hi s bequeathin g o f presenc e activate s th e very sor t o f procedur e tha t presenc e claim s t o by-pass : calle d t o th e

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intimate, charme d communio n tha t wil l preserve ou r sacrosanc t individ uality, w e ar e summone d t o thi s encounte r b y a n impersona l an d essen tially juridical instrument . Ye t if the poet's performative wer e to succeed , its effect woul d b e not symboli c bu t magical : producing th e poet's livin g presence ou t o f hi s breath-leavene d text , "Souvenir s o f Democracy " would dra w u s int o th e intimat e scen e th e poet' s signature , meanwhile , simultaneously promise s an d belies . The differen t effect s o n u s o f thes e differen t transactions , betwee n which "Souvenir s o f Democracy " i s poised, ar e registered i n the instabil ity of th e very pronoun tha t name s us : To You , whoeve r yo u are , (bathing , leavenin g thi s lea f especiall y wit h m y breath—pressing on it a moment with my own hands; —Here! fee l ho w th e puls e beat s i n m y wrists!—ho w m y heart's-bloo d i s swelling, contracting!) I will You, in all, Myself, with promise to never desert you. (CRE 615) Here Whitman' s shifte r name s th e individua l addresse d b y a n imag e o f voice an d summone d t o th e magical , intimat e transactio n tha t migh t preserve hi s or he r uniqueness . But it names a t th e sam e time the anony mous, generi c addresse e define d b y participatio n i n th e codifie d trans mission activate d b y the signature. 40 Epitomized i n "Souvenir s o f Democracy " b y th e lega l instrumen t o f the wil l an d testament , suc h codificatio n an d th e fadin g o f individualit y it exacts ar e mor e broadl y associate d i n Leaves of Grass wit h writing . If address i n Whitman' s poem s ofte n seem s designe d t o cour t th e sor t o f anonymity writin g implies , tha t ma y wel l b e i n orde r t o displa y th e poet's powe r t o rescu e u s fro m it . Ye t i n Whitman' s boo k th e "you " salvaged b y apostroph e i s alway s i n dange r o f fadin g bac k int o th e field of inscriptio n fro m whic h th e poet' s magica l voic e ha s calle d it . Thi s i s so eve n i n th e encounter s shape d b y apostroph e i n Whitman' s first tw o editions, despit e th e typica l absenc e ther e o f th e sor t o f over t referenc e to writing tha t organize s "Souvenir s o f Democracy. " While Whitman' s earlie r apostrophe s typicall y finesse thei r resem blance t o th e mechanism s o f symboli c transmissio n fro m whic h the y should exemp t us , thei r seductiv e appea l nevertheles s turn s o n thei r equivocal differenc e fro m th e mor e publi c procedure s the y recall , a distinction likewis e lef t unstated , perhap s sinc e our divinin g of i t will b e one sig n o f ou r election . Suggesting , i n thei r strangel y universa l applica bility, th e scop e an d definin g powe r o f codifie d publi c instruments , th e

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poet's announcement s enlis t a n imag e o f voic e t o transfor m th e proce dures t o whic h the y allude , thereb y transformin g a s wel l th e " y ° u " t o whom the y speak . The gestur e i n whic h th e poe t wh o ha s apparentl y bee n addressin g a multitude suddenl y single s ou t a n intimat e partne r i s a characteristi c feature o f Whitman' s apostrophes : O my comrade! 0 yo u an d m e a t last—an d u s tw o only . ("Startin g fro m Paumanok, " i 8 6 0 22 )

I noted i n chapter 2 some of th e benefits tha t accru e to the poet b y virtu e of th e paradoxica l " y ° u " suddenl y focuse d o n here . Suggestin g direc t address bu t diffusin g themselve s throug h writing , these pronouncement s conjure u p a "you " simultaneousl y intimat e an d universal : a s uniqu e a s the singl e addresse e th e intimat e ton e implies , ye t a s numerou s a s th e audience reache d b y Whitman's text . The poet' s ton e i n suc h passage s suggest s tha t th e surplu s o f eroti c enjoyment Whitman' s trop e o f voic e thereb y seem s t o secur e i s b y n o means incidenta l t o suc h moments . Th e gentl e seductivenes s tha t char acterizes thes e addresse s i s very muc h a function o f th e peculiar scenari o Whitman's apostrophe s create : th e poet' s ton e reflect s th e amorou s as surance whic h accrue s t o th e love r wh o ha s mastere d thi s metamorpho sis of writin g int o speech , the poise of th e man wit h a limitless supply o f available partners . Such assuranc e ofte n lend s th e poet' s overture s a n ai r o f relaxe d confidence, an d a slightl y teasing , flirtatious qualit y virtuall y uniqu e t o Whitman: This hour I tell things in confidence, 1 might not tell everybody but I will tell you. ("Song of Myself," 1855 43) This declaratio n indee d make s it s tric k o f mod e th e occasio n fo r it s flirtatious innuendo : Whitman' s electio n o f "you, " a selectio n mad e from a field o f "everybody, " i s a seductiv e gestur e tha t turn s o n th e magical transformatio n o f th e tex t whic h everyon e ma y rea d int o th e tender an d intimat e voic e tha t apparentl y addresse s a single , chose n partner. This seductiv e announcemen t o f ou r persona l electio n i s repeate d i n several o f Whitman' s apostrophes , turnin g alway s o n thi s tric k playe d with thei r mode :

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Whoever you are, now I place my hand upon you, that you be my poem, I whisper with my lips close to your ear, I have love d man y wome n an d men , bu t I love none bette r tha n you . ("T o You," 185 6 206-207 )

Clearly enjoyin g thi s seduction , Whitma n her e als o assert s tha t th e partner h e calls to himself i s thereby transformed . Lik e the erotic benefit s that accru e t o th e poet , th e wa y thes e apostrophe s see m t o transfigur e those h e addresse s i s als o a crucia l sourc e o f thei r appeal . Whitman' s curious clai m her e tha t thi s transformatio n involve s turnin g th e " y ° u " into th e poe m itsel f ca n b e understoo d i n par t a s a n effor t t o identif y audience a s wel l a s poe t wit h th e word . Bu t i t serve s mor e particularl y to recreat e u s a s selve s shape d b y th e charme d occasio n int o whic h th e poet's speec h seem s t o dra w us : th e poet' s apostrophe s see m t o cal l u s from th e publi c real m organize d b y codifie d institutiona l practices , se questering u s i n a n intimat e spac e devoi d o f suc h mediation . A s w e noted, th e transmutatio n w e thereb y underg o i s registere d i n th e emer gence o f a singular , seemingl y uniqu e "you " fro m a plural , essentiall y anonymous one . Called fro m th e matrix o f Whitman's publi c text b y th e poet's voice , we ar e summoned t o assum e our sacrosanc t individuality . Such mesmerizin g effect s alread y rel y o n a remarkabl v sophisticate d manipulation o f tone , an d o f th e curiou s possibilitie s o f Whitman' s Active mode . Ye t th e pla y o f writin g an d speec h tha t generate s Whit man's scenari o o f seductio n an d liberatio n ha s it s sadde r underside . I t suggests itsel f a s w e sens e th e poet' s voic e fallin g bac k int o th e writin g from whic h thes e accent s emerge . Drainin g Whitman' s "you " o f it s tenuous individuality , thi s slid e int o writin g render s poignan t th e inti mate ton e o f th e implie d speakin g voice . Th e anonymit y o f a generi c addressee nearl y alway s haunt s thes e locutions , fo r al l thei r mor e confi dent an d winsom e qualities . I t threaten s t o leav e th e poe t fac e t o fac e with hi s book , seekin g a love r effectivel y reduce d t o th e indeterminat e features o f a n anonymou s audienc e o f readers ; an d i t seem s t o abando n those reader s t o th e conditio n fro m whic h th e poet' s voic e shoul d hav e called them . Like other, relate d moment s o f fadin g i n Leaves of Grass, thi s lapse is not quit e contingent . Address , o f course , i s no t alway s s o dramaticall y menaced b y writin g o r s o liabl e t o abrup t transformatio n b y wha t writing implies ; but tha t i s because it does not alway s depen d s o directl y on writin g t o produc e it s effects . Th e powe r o f th e apostrophe s I hav e

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been considerin g derive s no t simpl y fro m direc t addres s bu t als o fro m the wa y suc h speec h act s bot h allud e t o an d see m t o transfigur e mor e public occasion s an d forms . I t i s precisel y th e apparen t abilit y o f thes e announcements t o transfor m a globa l transactio n int o a n intimate , pri vate on e tha t lend s the m thei r seductivenes s an d thei r redemptiv e force : they thereb y see m t o transfigur e a field o f symboli c interaction s rathe r than simpl y t o occu r someplac e withi n it . Facilitate d b y writing , th e global scop e th e poet' s apostrophe s commandee r i s a n instanc e o f th e power o f representatio n t o organiz e a genera l field throug h mediating , and codified , transactions . I f th e poe t borrow s thi s powe r i n orde r t o deny it s hol d ove r us , hi s apostrophe s ar e thu s liabl e t o tur n int o a n especially dramati c exhibitio n o f th e ver y mechanism s the y hop e t o exorcise. I argue d i n chapte r 5 tha t th e poet' s pristin e presenc e i s a function o f th e representationa l econom y i t seem s t o transcend . Th e individuality o f thos e th e poe t addresses , supposedl y rescue d an d re vealed a s sacrosanc t b y his apostrophes , likewis e depend s o n a symboli c realm tha t severel y qualifie s it . I n Whitman' s apostrophe s thi s depen dence is registered i n the way a n identit y whos e uniqueness i s defined b y its emergenc e fro m a field structured b y writin g seem s t o fad e bac k int o the matri x fro m whic h i t came. Like the dissolutio n o f the bod y th e poe t wants t o spea k int o bein g an d inhabit , thi s fadin g o f th e lover s h e addresses an d hope s bot h t o enjo y an d t o sav e i s a sourc e o f th e melan choly tha t lurk s i n Whitman's announcement s t o us . "None Shal l Escap e Me " This laps e o f individual s int o th e blank , anonymou s feature s o f a kin d of generi c identit y shape d b y globa l symboli c mechanism s i s on e o f th e terrors t o which th e imaginative univers e o f Leaves of Grass is especially liable. A contras t t o Wordsworth' s wor k wil l onc e mor e prov e instruc tive. Whil e thi s fea r i s not , a s w e shal l se e a bi t furthe r on , on e fro m which Wordswort h i s wholl y free , i t i s ver y muc h mitigate d b y hi s commitment t o a determinedly persona l mod e o f symboli c transmission : in Wordsworth' s wor k symboli c form s supposedl y sustai n individua l identity rathe r tha n subvertin g it . Whitma n neithe r accord s symboli c transactions thi s sustainin g powe r no r embrace s th e sor t o f persona l interdependence Wordswort h see s the m a s fostering . Th e peculia r com bination o f desire s an d fear s tha t shape s th e relatio n betwee n poe t an d

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audience i n Leaves of Grass thu s stand s out wit h specia l sharpnes s whe n juxtaposed t o th e visio n o f transmissio n tha t animate s Wordsworth' s poetry. Wordsworth typicall y conceive s ou r recruitin g t o cultura l compact s as an initiatio n int o sympath y an d mutuality , rathe r tha n a subjection t o a syste m o f bindin g precedents . Whil e symboli c mechanism s i n Leaves of Grass see m t o reduc e th e particula r transaction s i n which individual s engage t o instance s o f a generi c an d essentiall y anonymou s operatio n that subvert s identity , Wordsworth conversel y tend s to imagine the sym bolic field a s nothin g bu t a collectio n o f th e sor t o f individua l tie s celebrated i n "Tinter n Abbey. " The communit y depicte d i n "Th e Broth ers," fo r example , i s to b e understoo d no t a s a concatenatio n o f institu tions, rules , an d laws , bu t a s a networ k o f individua l relation s an d individual narrative s o f persona l connectio n an d fidelity. In th e villag e graveyard t o whic h th e alienate d prodiga l Leonar d returns , ther e ar e thus n o tombstones , sinc e a s th e Pries t explains , "W e hav e n o nee d o f names an d epitaphs ; / We tal k abou t th e dea d b y our fire-sides" (Poems 1:406). As Leonard rightl y concludes : Your Dalesmen, then, do in each other's thoughts Possess a kind of second life: no doubt You, Sir, could help me to the history Of half these graves? (Poems 1:407 ) Though th e absenc e o f palpabl e inscriptio n i s crucia l t o th e etho s Wordsworth evoke s here , th e passag e b y n o mean s turn s o n th e sor t o f agitated rejectio n o f writin g characteristi c o f Leaves of Grass. Whil e here i n "Th e Brothers " socia l cohesio n an d continuit y ar e sustaine d b y talk, the image of voic e Wordsworth's passag e celebrates is hardly Whit manian: voic e i s devote d t o repeatin g it s part o f a communa l narrative . An eas y commerc e betwee n voic e an d writin g thu s typifie s Words worth's work . I f th e poe t o f "Tinter n Abbey " save s Doroth y mnemoni c effort b y writin g hi s legac y down , i n "Th e Brothers " th e living , s o t o speak, retur n th e favor , keepin g th e dea d aliv e i n memor y throug h thei r own faithfu l voicin g o f wha t amount s t o a n unwritte n text . Thi s perme able borde r betwee n voic e an d writin g bespeak s th e amicabl e relatio n not onl y betwee n th e livin g an d th e dead , bu t als o betwee n individua l and communa l energies . Neithe r expressin g autonomou s individualit y nor enactin g it s fadin g b y mean s o f a n inscriptio n conceive d a s anony -

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mous an d global , th e commemorativ e recitation s describe d i n "Th e Brothers" embod y a communa l spac e tha t i s simply th e su m o f individ ual relation s o r o f th e narrative s tha t preserv e them , enrichin g th e livin g by connecting the m t o th e dead. 41 In Wordsworth' s wor k th e overlappin g symboli c tie s tha t mak e u p cultural spac e ar e thu s no t simpl y intimate : apparentl y innocen t o f coercive sanctions , the y als o depen d o n individua l uptake , o n a freely bestowed fidelit y tha t seem s t o mak e communa l coherenc e a contingen t and indee d precariou s achievemen t sustaine d principall y b y individua l feelings o f inter-dependenc e an d mutua l regard . "Tinter n Abbey, " I noted earlier , draw s attentio n t o thi s suppose d freedo m throug h th e optative o r hortatory , rathe r tha n performative , mod e o f th e poet' s closing addres s t o Dorothy , an d mor e broadl y i n th e solicitud e wit h which h e envision s he r futur e life . Wordsworth's portrai t o f socia l com pacts thu s lend s the m th e sam e sor t o f respec t fo r contingenc y an d individual circumstanc e tha t characterize s hi s visio n o f imagination : th e poet fo r who m ey e and ea r half creat e but als o half perceiv e is concerned to tempe r powe r a s muc h a s t o celebrat e it , whethe r i t b e th e sublim e power o f poeti c imaginatio n o r th e socia l powe r a t wor k i n testamen t and transmission . Paradoxically, Leaves of Grass i s no mor e comfortabl e wit h thi s sor t o f freedom tha n i t i s with th e sweepin g symboli c power s suc h contingenc y might mitigate . Thi s doubl e suspicio n ca n hel p u s isolat e th e opposin g pressures Whitman' s apostrophe s ar e designed t o resis t and th e resultan t tensions that troubl e the relation betwee n poe t an d audienc e which thes e speech act s organize . Whil e Whitma n characteristicall y excoriate s sym bolic transaction s fo r th e inexorabilit y o f thei r functionin g an d th e consequent reductio n o f identity t o a kind o f cipher , the mode of individ uality h e struggle s t o sustai n i s i n certai n respect s peculiar : i t ought , fo r example, t o b e self-sufficien t rathe r tha n dependen t o n others , immun e to th e individua l initiativ e exercise d b y othe r selve s rathe r tha n vulnera ble to it . Lik e mos t o f th e crucia l feature s o f th e imaginativ e univers e o f Leaves of Grass, th e relatio n betwee n sel f an d othe r governe d b y Whit man's imag e o f voic e thu s possesse s profoundl y archai c appeal . Center ing th e power s o f th e wor d o n th e poet' s ow n self-startin g speec h act , word magi c detache s the m fro m th e governin g cultura l structure s tha t give u s limite d symboli c powe r i n exchang e fo r th e los s o f autonom y

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Whitman sometime s trope s a s castration . Ye t th e magi c wor d simulta neously free s th e poe t fro m dependenc e o n th e sor t o f individua l uptak e Wordsworth celebrates , a contingenc y tha t woul d see m t o b e i n hi s interest sinc e i t apparentl y indicate s th e les s tha n tota l subjectio n o f individuals t o th e prolepti c powe r o f cultura l mechanisms . I n on e sens e this parado x i s perfectly resolvable : fo r Whitman , I suggested i n chapte r 2, th e contingent , transitiv e act s tha t tak e plac e i n th e symboli c real m ruled b y ligh t ar e instance s no t o f individua l freedo m an d initiativ e bu t of ou r subjectio n t o a cultura l gramma r tha t dictate s th e form s ou r supposedly freel y chose n relation s ca n assume . Ye t the poe t wh o aspire s to protect u s from th e symbolic structure s tha t violat e our prope r auton omy nevertheles s finds himsel f i n th e awkwar d positio n o f initiatin g transactions whos e effect s ca n b e difficul t t o tel l fro m th e danger s h e warns u s against . Obviatin g th e poet' s dependenc e o n others , wor d magic in Leaves of Grass enforces o n Whitman' s audienc e a necessity n o less total tha n tha t h e attributes t o symboli c functions , thoug h w e ar e t o think o f i t as beneficent rathe r tha n constraining . My contentio n tha t th e poe t i s nervou s abou t th e freedo m hi s audienc e might b e abl e t o exercis e i s apparentl y belie d b y Whitman' s repeate d attempts t o impres s o n u s a sens e o f thi s ver y liberty . Certainl y th e bes t known, an d probabl y th e mos t touchin g example s o f thi s insistenc e appear nea r th e en d o f "Son g o f Myself" : I lead no man to a dinner-table or library or exchange, But each man and each woman of you I lead upon a knoll, My left hand hooks you round the waist, My right hand points to landscapes of continents, and a plain public road. Not I, not any one else can travel that road for you, You must travel it for yourself. (1855 80) I am the teacher of athletes, He that b y me spreads a wider breas t tha n m y own prove s the width o f my own, He most honors my style who learns under it to destroy the teacher. The bo y I love, the same becomes a man no t throug h derive d powe r bu t in his own right. (1855 81)

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The i86 0 "Poet s t o Come " likewis e insist s tha t wha t th e poet o f Leaves of Grass imposes o n u s is our ow n freedom : Leaving it to you to prove and define it, Expecting the main things from you . (i860 187 ) I wil l com e bac k t o thes e line s furthe r on ; th e "it " whic h end s th e first of the m ha s a rathe r surprisin g anteceden t tha t strangel y circumscribe s the liberty th e poet bestows , making ou r assumptio n o f i t difficul t t o tel l from constraint . Kerr y Larson ha s in an y case persuasively demonstrate d this disturbin g aspec t o f th e poet' s attempt s t o expostulat e wit h u s concerning ou r freedom ; h e argue s tha t Whitma n i s a t leas t a s nervou s about suc h independenc e a s h e i s solicitou s o f i t (7-29 , 39-55) . A s Larson note s (49) , declaration s o f ou r libert y ar e thu s ofte n give n para doxical formulation : I teach straying from me , yet who can stray from me? I follow you whoever you are from th e present hour; My words itch at your ears till you understand them. (1855 81) The pre-emptiv e aspec t a t wor k i n suc h equivoca l assertion s sometime s predominates quit e clearly : None shal l escap e me , an d non e shal l wis h t o escap e me . (" A Son g fo r Occupations," 1855 89) More particularly , whil e th e poe t repeatedl y insist s tha t w e hav e th e liberty t o improvis e futur e transaction s o f ou r own , h e i s characteristi cally les s enthusiasti c abou t accordin g u s a n equivalen t degre e o f free dom i n ou r dealing s wit h him . Th e apparentl y magica l transaction s initiated b y apostroph e see m t o exemp t th e poet fro m th e sor t o f contin gent an d anxiou s interaction s depicte d i n th e troublin g sixt h sectio n o f "Crossing Brookly n Ferry. " As w e migh t expect , i t i s voic e tha t suggest s th e irresistibilit y whic h should characteriz e th e poet' s performativ e transaction s wit h us . Whit man's figure o f voic e indee d implie s tha t w e pla y n o activ e o r essentia l role i n th e poet's advent : th e powers o f diffusio n prope r t o voic e d o no t depend o n somebod y else' s hearin g it s words ; i n Leaves of Grass th e poet's announcement s supposedl y diffus e no t just a living sound bu t als o a livin g presence. Able t o project himsel f b y mean s o f hi s word, th e poe t would hav e n o nee d o f u s i n orde r t o effec t hi s perdurance . I f h e

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nonetheless take s troubl e t o conve y hi s visionar y understandin g t o us , he does so, it would seem , so that w e can shar e his marvellous secret . The poet' s amorou s ambition s likewis e see m t o b e satisfie d b y thi s figure o f voic e whethe r o r no t w e wis h t o cooperat e i n th e tryst s hi s announcements initiate . Voice s plac e thei r auditor s i n a singularl y pas sive position, seemin g t o penetrat e t o thei r interior s withou t waitin g fo r active participatio n o r assent . Th e bod y modele d o n voic e shoul d shar e these undissuadable powers . Yet th e tex t whic h produce s thi s figure o f voic e undercut s th e poet' s claims t o self-sufficiency , returnin g hi m t o relation s tha t ar e contingen t rather tha n magica l an d suggestin g hi s dependenc e o n th e ver y audienc e his voca l prowes s seem s t o mak e incidenta l t o hi s survival an d pleasure . Said t o b e diffuse d b y voice , Whitman' s utteranc e depend s fo r it s reac h on unacknowledge d act s o f reading : th e poet' s idea l for m i s resurrecte d only a s w e rea d hi s text ; w e sustai n th e imperia l figure voic e seem s t o create, th e presenc e tha t seem s t o produc e itsel f throug h a n ac t o f parthenogenesis. Slippin g fro m th e magica l statu s o f livin g presenc e Whitman claim s for him , the poet dependen t o n readin g survives, despite himself, a s th e sor t o f imag e o r sig n Wordswort h celebrates , an d b y virtue o f th e kin d o f symboli c transmissio n tha t i n "Tinter n Abbey " i s explicitly sai d t o rel y fo r it s success on freel y grante d individua l uptake . Whitman sometime s overtl y acknowledge s thi s uncertain relatio n an d its crucia l role . In suc h moments , th e writin g an d readin g usuall y ban ished fro m th e poet's univers e ar e openly admitte d int o it s confines: the y serve, in part, a s a sig n o f th e poet' s dependenc e o n othe r people . As we shall se e in th e followin g chapter , suc h admission s ar e mos t frequen t i n Whitman's i86 0 Calamus sequence . I n th e 185 5 a n d 185 6 Leaves of Grass, b y contrast , w e ca n sens e thi s dependenc e fo r th e mos t par t onl y in th e undertone s tha t distur b th e poet' s declarations—an d only , a s i t were, a s w e remov e ourselve s fro m th e spher e define d b y hi s voic e an d its emanation . W e ca n fee l th e poet' s nee d fo r u s i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry," despit e wha t h e declares , thoug h i t lurk s fa r behin d th e leadin g tone: It avails not, neither time or place—distance avails not, I a m wit h you , yo u me n an d wome n o f a generation , o r eve r s o man y generations hence, I project myself , als o I return—I a m wit h you , an d kno w ho w i t is . (185 6 212—13)

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The magica l figure wh o dominate s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " seem s t o dissolve i f we think abou t readin g thes e lines. We can the n perhap s hea r a subdue d bu t finally urgen t entreat y here : a ple a fo r ou r assent , ou r cooperation i n thi s scen e b y virtu e o f whic h th e poe t ma y perhap s become th e trop e o f wha t h e declare s himsel f alread y literall y t o be — the omnipoten t figure capabl e o f suc h a transfiguring act . We ca n sens e thi s nee d fo r ou r participation , a s well, in a passage w e considered alread y fro m "Son g o f Myself" : This hour I tell things in confidence, I might not tell everybody but I will tell you. (1855 43) The poet' s voic e speak s i n a magica l spac e it s accent s rende r near , an d to thos e compelle d int o th e circl e o f it s intimacy . Bu t i t speaks i n a tex t which disperse s tha t spac e again , t o other s it s word s ma y sometime s manage t o master , bu t ove r who m it s power s remai n contingen t rathe r than assured . In th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass, thi s dependenc e o f th e poet o n hi s audienc e provoke s melanchol y rathe r tha n Wordsworth' s subdued celebration . To fal l fro m a magical universe into a symbolic on e is partly t o giv e up self-sufficienc y an d power , an d thi s i s an attenuatio n the Whitma n o f th e earl y edition s doe s no t willingl y accept . Insofa r a s the symboli c real m ca n b e characterize d b y th e freel y electe d intimac y Wordsworth make s centra l t o it , w e ca n understan d Whitma n a s reject ing a cultural compac t t o whic h Wordswort h gladl y subscribes . Wordsworth: Epitaph s This contras t tell s us a good dea l abou t th e imaginativ e stanc e of Leaves of Grass. Ye t simply t o oppos e Whitman' s insisten t atavis m t o wha t ca n be mad e t o loo k lik e Wordsworthia n demystificatio n i s t o mis s a n im portant anxiet y thes e poet s share . Wordsworth' s visio n o f freel y chose n personal fidelity ward s of f intimation s abou t cultura l transmissio n tha t possess a surprisin g resemblanc e t o Whitman' s mor e over t denuncia tions. Idealizing symbolic compacts, Wordsworth trie s to elide both thei r proleptic powe r an d thei r globa l scope , defusin g th e ver y danger s Whit man openl y record s an d resists . Thi s share d anxiet y register s a peri l more unsettlin g tha n mer e externa l threat . A s w e shal l see , Words worth's visio n o f beneficen t transmissio n i s trouble d b y th e alway s

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equivocal relatio n betwee n a pre-emptive versio n o f symboli c continuit y he struggles t o banis h an d th e humanized mod e he espouses. Wordswor thian transmissio n ma y perpetuat e som e o f th e domination s i t hope s t o leave behind ; it s noble r pleasure s ma y alway s b e tinge d wit h a les s laudable enjoymen t o f th e coerciv e powers i t ostensibly repudiates . Sim ilar ambiguitie s lur k i n th e compac t initiate d b y th e poe t o f Leaves of Grass. I n Whitman' s wor k th e writin g tha t bot h facilitate s an d under mines th e liberatin g magi c o f th e poet' s apostrophe s ma y function , no t simply t o diminish xhis powers , bu t t o mar k thes e a s power s o f anothe r kind. Despit e th e melanchol y whic h awarenes s o f th e poet's dependenc e on inscriptio n characteristicall y provoke s i n Leaves of Grass, writin g intimates no t onl y th e poet's failur e t o fre e u s but als o his exercise of th e sort o f coerciv e symboli c forc e h e claim s t o liberat e u s from . Whil e Wordsworth an d Whitma n offe r ver y differen t picture s o f th e sor t o f influence poetr y exercise s an d th e sor t o f effec t i t ca n achieve , thei r notions o f wha t i t ough t not t o d o thu s tur n ou t t o b e strangel y similar . And fo r bot h poets , thi s visio n o f wha t poetr y shoul d no t do—whic h is als o wha t cultur e shoul d no t d o an d wha t th e poe t ca n supposedl y help i t t o sto p doing—turn s ou t t o b e hard t o isolat e fro m wha t poetr y does. A carefu l loo k a t Wordsworth' s cover t anxietie s concernin g cultura l transmission ca n thu s serv e t o acqui t Leaves of Grass o f th e charg e o f indulging a merel y idiosyncrati c phobia ; registere d eve n i n Words worth's ver y differen t bod y o f work , whic h celebrate s ou r relianc e o n symbolic compacts, the price Whitman mor e conspicuously lament s ma y be on e h e accuratel y describes . Wordsworth' s difficultie s detachin g th e legacy poetry bequeath s fro m th e cost exacted b y what i s supposed t o b e cultural transmissio n o f th e wron g sor t will als o prove instructiv e fo r a n appraisal o f Leaves of Grass. Th e poet' s apostrophe s ma y b e a dramati c instance o f a n aggressivit y generall y a t wor k i n cultura l transmission , and no t simpl y a peculiarl y unattractiv e manifestatio n o f Whitman' s supposedly aberran t omnivorou s egotism . In Wordsworth's wor k th e sustainin g legacy offere d b y epitaph doe s no t simply overcom e silence . This is admittedly th e most overt threat agains t which Wordsworthia n transmissio n i s marshaled : th e los s o f voic e tha t befalls alte r ego s suc h a s th e bo y o f Winander , markin g wha t migh t b e called existentia l intimations , characteristicall y finds restitutio n i n th e

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communal tex t tha t replace s los t natura l continuitie s wit h symboli c ones. Comin g upo n a haunte d an d silen t spot , suc h epitaphi c piece s a s the earl y "Line s (Lef t upo n a Sea t i n a Yew-tree) " (Poems 1:254-56 ) strive to rescue the dead fro m muteness , and to humanize the unspeakin g landscapes the y inhabited , b y recoverin g a lesso n the y di d no t hav e th e insight o r foresigh t t o transmit . Ye t th e Wordsworthia n tex t als o take s the place of another , mor e dangerou s transmission . The powe r o f th e wron g sor t o f inscription , specificall y th e wron g sort of epitaph , t o subver t rathe r tha n sustai n u s is the burden o f a locus classicus o f Wordswort h studies , fro m th e thir d o f th e Essays upon

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Words ar e to o awfu l a n instrumen t fo r goo d an d evi l t o b e trifle d with : the y hold above all other external powers a dominion over thoughts. If words be not (recurring to a metaphor use d before ) a n incarnation o f the thought bu t only a clothing for it, then surely will they prove an ill gift; such a on£ as those poisoned vestments, rea d o f i n th e storie s o f superstitiou s times , whic h ha d powe r t o consume an d t o alienat e fro m hi s righ t min d th e victi m wh o pu t the m on . Language, i f i t d o no t uphold , an d feed , an d leav e i n quiet , lik e th e powe r of gravitation o r th e ai r w e breathe , i s a counter-spirit , unremittingl y an d noise lessly a t wor k t o derange , t o subvert , t o la y waste , to vitiate , an d t o dissolve . (2:84-85) It i s no t quit e clea r wh o wil l b e poisone d o r dissolve d here—th e dea d who shoul d b e preserve d inviolat e i n memor y o r th e livin g wh o shoul d be uphel d b y a reveren t relatio n t o them , a relatio n th e epitap h shoul d support. Bu t Wordsworth take s pain s t o mak e th e sourc e of suc h devas tation perfectl y explicit : word s tha t cloth e o r disguis e th e writer' s though t rather tha n incarnatin g i t ar e responsible . Accordin g t o Wordswort h such degrade d epitaph s threate n t o corne r th e market , overwhelmin g authentic expression : Energy, stillness, grandeur, tenderness, those feelings which are the pure emanations o f nature , thos e thought s whic h hav e th e infinitud e o f truth , an d thos e expressions which ar e not what the garb is to the body but what the body is to the soul, themselves a constituent part an d power or function i n the thought — all thes e ar e abandone d fo r thei r opposites,—a s i f ou r Countrymen , throug h successive generations , ha d los t th e sens e of solemnit y an d pensivenes s (no t t o speak o f deepe r emotions ) an d resorte d t o th e Tombs o f thei r Forefather s an d Contemporaries only to be tickled and surprized. (2:84) As the by-now voluminou s commentar y o n thes e passages has shown , this crucia l bu t questionabl e oppositio n betwee n tw o sort s o f languag e

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condenses tension s centra l t o al l thre e o f th e Essays. 43 I will com e bac k briefly, a bi t furthe r on , t o th e problemati c notio n o f th e proper relatio n between languag e an d thought , an d betwee n communa l discursiv e prac tice and individua l identity , posited b y Wordsworth's contrastin g figures of bod y an d garment . Bu t I want t o tur n first t o wha t th e very notio n o f improper expressio n serve s to occult . In th e Essays Wordswort h blame s th e dangerou s slippag e betwee n feeling an d expressio n o n pervers e literar y taste : Would w e no t recoi l fro m suc h gratifications , i n suc h a place , i f th e genera l literature o f th e Countr y ha d no t co-operate d wit h othe r cause s insidiousl y t o weaken our sensibilities and deprave our judgements? (2:84 ) He suggest s tha t "viciou s diction " (2:86) , especiall y i n th e for m o f neoclassical antithese s designe d t o displa y compositiona l clevernes s rathe r than t o revea l true feeling , ha s becom e a n incapacitatin g distraction . Ye t the counterfeitin g o f authenti c feeling s fo r th e dea d emerge s i n th e Essays a s a threa t bot h pervasiv e an d urgen t enoug h t o mak e literar y habit a curious sourc e fo r it : These suggestions ma y b e further usefu l t o establis h a criterion o f sincerity , by which a Writer may be judged; and this is of high import... n o faults have such a killing power as those which prove that he is not in earnest, that he is acting a part, ha s leisur e fo r affectation , an d feel s tha t withou t i t he could d o nothing . This is one of the most odious of faults ; becaus e it shocks the moral sense: and is worse in a sepulchral inscription, precisely in the same degree as that mode of composition calls for sincerity more urgently than any other. (2:70) The urgency o f this call for sincerit y would see m to bespeak a peculia r difficulty occasione d b y th e epitaph . I f epitaphi c writin g i s peculiarl y liable t o th e counterfeitin g o f appropriat e sentiments , tha t ma y b e be cause suc h feeling s struggl e agains t other s deeme d les s proper . A s th e curious epithe t "killing " i n th e passag e abov e alread y implies , wha t Wordsworth present s a s bizarr e lapse s o f decoru m ca n b e understoo d instead a s eruptions o f a persistent, i f persistently disavowed , aggressio n directed agains t th e dead. 44 A t th e ver y beginnin g o f th e first o f th e Essays, Wordswort h suggest s tha t epitaphs , o r a t leas t th e monument s on whic h the y ar e inscribed , originat e a s a defens e agains t jus t suc h aggressivity: Almost all Nations have wished that certain externa l signs should point out the places wher e thei r dea d ar e interred . Amon g savag e tribe s unacquainte d wit h

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letters this has mostly been done either by rude stones placed near the graves, or by mounds of earth raise d ove r them. This custom proceeded obviousl y fro m a twofold desire ; first , t o guar d th e remain s o f th e decease d fro m irreveren t approach o r fro m savag e violation : and , secondly , t o preserv e thei r memory . (2-149)

Throughout th e Essays, th e oppose d impulse s enumerate d here—t o preserve th e dea d i n memor y o r t o d o violenc e t o them—ten d implicitl y to intermingle . Thoug h Wordswort h doe s no t pu t i t thi s way , epitaph s are thu s constantl y tempte d t o perfor m th e ver y sacrileg e the y wer e invented t o forestall . Whil e h e deploy s th e phras e wit h other , particula r compositional fault s i n mind , Wordsworth' s "genera l recommendatio n that they who have offended o r may be disposed to offend i n this manne r would tak e int o seriou s though t th e heinousnes s o f thei r transgression " (2:92) ca n thu s serv e a s a formulatio n o f th e intensel y ambivalen t feel ings provoke d b y th e epitaphi c enterprise . In thi s respect , a t least , th e fault o f imprope r epitaph s i s not tha t the y are mere garments rathe r tha n true incarnation s o f th e writer's feelings : th e problem i s with th e feeling s themselves. The Essays giv e some indication , however , tha t suc h aggressiv e senti ments ar e no t entirel y inappropriate . Th e turbulen t emotion s an d di vided agend a o f th e epitap h write r ma y respon d t o disquietin g intima tions concernin g th e dead, a s this curious passag e suggests : Amid th e quie t o f a Church-yar d thu s decorate d a s i t seeme d b y th e han d o f Memory, an d shining , if I may so say, in the light of love , I have been affecte d by sensation s aki n t o thos e whic h hav e rise n i n m y min d whil e I hav e bee n standing by the side of a smooth Sea , on a Summer's day. It is such a happiness to have, in an unkind World, one Enclosure where the voice of detraction i s not heard; wher e th e trace s o f evi l inclination s ar e unknown ; wher e contentmen t prevails, an d ther e i s n o jarrin g ton e i n th e peacefu l Concer t o f amit y an d gratitude. I hav e bee n rouze d fro m thi s reveri e b y a consciousness , suddenl y flashing upo n me, of the anxieties, the perturbations, and, in many instances, the vices and rancorous dispositions , by which th e hearts of those who lie under so smooth a surface an d s o fair a n outside must have been agitated. The image of an unruffled Se a has still remained; but my fancy has penetrated into the depths of tha t Sea—wit h accompanyin g thought s o f Shipwreck , o f th e destructio n o f the Mariner' s hopes , the bone s o f drowne d Me n heape d together , monster s of the deep , an d al l th e hideou s an d confuse d sight s whic h Clarenc e sa w i n hi s Dream! (z:6i-64) 45 Here th e disturbin g passion s Wordswort h glimpse s ar e ostensibl y rele gated safel y t o th e past , sinc e h e imagine s the m a s troublin g th e dea d

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during thei r lives . Ye t the y tur n th e Se a itself , Wordsworth' s figure fo r the graveyar d wher e th e dea d no w reside , int o somethin g lik e Lear' s terrible ocean . Elsewhere i n th e Essays, thi s agitatio n carrie d int o th e grav e seem s t o well up fro m i t to consume the living. I have in mind the passage, alread y quoted, o n languag e a s "counter-spirit, " an d i n particula r th e imag e o f the poisone d coa t tha t serve s t o figure th e killin g effect s o f th e wron g sort o f words . A s Pau l d e Ma n remind s us , thi s i s th e coa t o f Nessu s ("Autobiography a s De-Facement, " Rhetoric of Romanticism So). 46 Thi s garment wa s a gri m legac y offere d b y th e dyin g t o th e living : give n b y the centau r Nessu s t o Deianeira , i t wa s mean t t o poiso n he r husban d Heracles, wh o ha d jus t inflicte d o n Nessu s a morta l woun d (Grave s 2:193). Whil e th e passag e i n th e Essays overtl y concern s th e har m don e by livin g writer s o f epitaphs , eithe r t o th e dea d o r t o thos e wh o rea d o f them, a mor e archai c drea d o f th e magica l violenc e th e dea d ma y d o th e living thu s lurk s here . A s Wordswort h note s elsewher e i n th e essays , with a disapprova l w e ar e no w i n a bette r positio n t o understand , epitaphs ca n als o tak e th e for m o f inscription s supposedl y offere d no t by th e livin g bu t b y th e dea d themselves , fro m beyon d th e grav e (2:60 61); suc h a transmission, Wordsworth' s figure her e implies, may inflic t a mortal wound . I t is to thi s threat o f violence , in part, that th e aggressio n of th e livin g responds . In d e Man' s semina l readin g o f th e Essays, th e violenc e Wordswort h attributes t o imprope r epitaph s i s thu s mad e t o characteriz e th e mod e itself. D e Ma n locate s thi s violenc e mor e particularl y i n "th e laten t threat tha t inhabit s prosopopeia, " epitaph' s organizin g trope : namely tha t b y makin g th e deat h [sic] speak , th e symmetrica l structur e o f th e trope implies, by the same token, that the living are struck dumb, frozen i n their own death. The surmise of the 'Pause, Traveller!' thus acquires a sinister connotation tha t i s not onl y th e prefiguratio n o f one' s ow n mortalit y bu t ou r actua l entry int o th e froze n worl d o f th e dead . ("Autobiograph y a s De-Facement, " Rhetoric of Romanticism y8) 47 Despite Wordsworth's effort s t o attribut e i t to deprave d literar y prac tice an d thu s relegat e i t t o th e statu s o f perversion , a simila r sens e o f threat haunt s th e vision o f benig n transmissio n articulate d i n the Essays, suggesting tha t epitap h ma y alway s i n par t inscrib e a n ac t o f violenc e perpetrated no t onl y b y th e livin g agains t th e dea d bu t als o b y th e dea d

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against th e living . We ca n understan d thi s latte r violenc e a s th e produc t of a wil l t o perdure , an d o f th e consequen t claim s a n olde r generatio n makes o n a younge r one , i n tryin g t o liv e throug h i t an d mor e particu larly i n entailin g th e ver y possession s an d privilege s i t ostensibl y be queaths. Bu t thi s persona l passio n bot h fuel s an d i s fueled b y the globa l cultural energ y Laca n call s th e passion o f th e signifier . I f lendin g a voic e and a fac e t o th e dea d seem s t o exac t a reciproca l fadin g o f ou r ow n speech an d visage , whic h shoul d b e simpl y palpabl e an d present , tha t may b e becaus e th e perduranc e o f th e dea d a s par t o f a shadow y com munity o f addres s tha t make s claim s o n u s intimate s no t onl y th e sym bolic status of identit y bu t also its entailment b y the social configuration s that preced e ever y individual . A s th e imag e o f th e coa t o f Nessu s itsel f implies, th e dange r i n pervers e epitaph , o r simpl y i n epitaph , i s thu s finally no t tha t o f a divorc e betwee n feelin g an d expression , insid e an d outside, o r individua l experienc e an d communa l practice , bu t rathe r o f an intimat e relatio n betwee n the m tha t i s the revers e of wha t w e think i t ought t o be : i t i s a s if , reversin g th e logi c o f Wordsworth' s figure, th e body wer e alway s i n dange r o f becomin g th e resul t o r "incarnation " o f the garment (a s if clothes made the man). Both enablin g and disenabling , this powe r o f th e coa t o f Nessus , o f th e dea d an d o f th e structur e thei r writing transmits , no t simpl y t o uphol d bu t i n anothe r sens e t o consti tute an d thereb y fad e th e living , i s persistentl y skirte d i n Wordsworth' s work. Ye t i f silenc e an d existentia l anguis h ar e th e externa l threat s against whic h epitap h i s marshaled , thi s doubl e violence , a t onc e per sonal an d mor e broadl y cultural , alway s remain s a s a threa t interna l t o epitaph itself , troublin g a notio n o f transmissio n whic h ca n neve r b e wholly detache d fro m it . As i n Whitman' s work , th e luri d contour s thi s dange r assume s i n th e Essays upon Epitaphs ma y b e partl y a functio n o f denial . I n severa l o f Wordsworth's poems , th e threatenin g aspec t o f th e epitap h o r monu ment is more overt an d th e dangers it represents are more nearly inescap able; in such case s the poet respond s mor e stoically . The first o f Wordsworth' s commemorativ e "Matthew " poem s i s prefaced b y the followin g headnote : In th e Schoo l o f i s a tablet, o n whic h ar e inscribed , i n gil t letters, the Names of th e several persons wh o hav e been Schoolmaster s ther e since the foundation o f the School, with th e time at which they entered upon an d quitted

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their office . Opposit e t o on e o f thos e Name s th e Autho r wrot e th e followin g lines. (Poems 1:380) The epitap h th e poe t compose s i s thu s a n answe r to , o r a n attemp t t o rescue Matthew from , no t simpl y the silence of mortalit y bu t the inscription o f a n insufficien t o r imprope r memorial. 48 Th e poem' s conclusio n makes this clear, with a kind o f tough-minde d wonder : —Thou soul of God's best earthly mould! Thou happy Soul! and can it be That these two words of glittering gold Are all that must remain of thee? (Poems 1:381 ) Here th e reductio n o f individua l identit y t o th e impersonalit y o f th e letter i s presente d wit h a kin d o f schemati c simplicit y tha t suggest s th e inexorable, a fat e epitomize d o r exacte d b y epitaph . O r epitap h o f th e wrong sort : th e whol e sequenc e o f Matthe w poem s ca n b e understoo d in part a s an attemp t t o restor e th e bod y thi s coa t o f Nessu s wastes . Ye t as th e fiction o f th e headnot e itsel f implies , i n a sens e th e poet' s projec t is offered a s a kin d o f margina l glos s o n thi s passio n o f th e lette r rathe r than a n alternativ e t o it . Wordsworth's closin g "must " likewis e suggest s a fatalit y th e poe m ca n mitigat e bu t no t evade , a fatalit y tha t seem s t o lean int o th e futur e an d appear s t o hav e design s on th e poet himself . The lon g narrativ e poe m "Michael " als o propose s itsel f a s a benefi cent, sustaining transmission : Therefore, though it be a history Homely and rude, I will relate the same For the delight of a few natural hearts; And, with yet fonder feeling , for the sake Of youthful Poets , who among these hills Will be my second self when I am gone. (Poems 1:456) It woul d perhap s b e untowar d t o describ e th e poe m itsel f a s a coa t o f Nessus drape d o n Wordsworth' s readers , though it s burden turn s ou t t o be rathe r severe . Bu t w e ca n a t leas t not e tha t thi s benig n transmissio n doubles an d attempt s t o revers e th e disastrou s transmissio n th e poe m narrates, a legac y likewis e designe d t o b e benign . I hav e i n min d th e poem's centra l incident , th e layin g o f a cornerston e b y th e shepher d Michael an d hi s departin g son , a n ac t th e fathe r regard s a s initiatin g a covenant:

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I knew that thou couldst never have a wish To leave me, Luke: thou hast been bound to me Only by links of love: when thou art gone, What will be left of us!—But, I forget My purposes. Lay now the corner-stone, As I requested; and hereafter, Luke , When thou art gone away, should evil men Be thy companions, think of me, my Son, And of this moment; hither turn thy thoughts, And God will strengthen thee: amid all fear And all temptation, Luke, I pray that thou May'st bear in mind the life thy Fathers lived, Who, being innocent, did for that cause Bestir them in good deeds. Now, fare thee well— When thou return'st, thou in this place wilt see A work which is not here: a covenant Twill be between us; but, whatever fat e Befall thee, I shall love thee to the last, And bear thy memory with me to the grave. (Poems 1:466 ) Michael's closin g provision s here , whic h softe n th e injunction s o f th e covenant symbolize d b y th e sheep-fol d whos e cornerston e th e son i s to lay, ar e jus t th e sor t o f humanizin g gesture s tha t characteriz e Words worth's ow n act s o f transmission . Ye t th e deman d o f th e covenan t effectively over-ride s th e extenuations th e father attache s t o it, inflictin g the ver y psychi c violenc e h e trie s t o mitigate ; th e covenan t determine s what th e so n mus t b e i n orde r t o tak e u p hi s plac e i n a lineag e b y n o means wholl y softene d o r humanized. 49 Failin g thi s injunctio n repre sented b y th e foundatio n stone , th e so n lose s hi s plac e an d hi s name , despite the father's goo d intentions : Meantime Luke began To slacken in his duty; and, at length, He in the dissolute city gave himself To evil courses: ignominy and shame Fell on him, so that he was driven at last To seek a hiding-place beyond the seas. (Poems 1:467 ) It i s at leas t i n part th e covenant tha t drive s hi m there, a fact tha t lend s the father's ensuin g stoicism th e proportions o f tragedy rathe r tha n mer e pathos: He went, and still looked up to sun and cloud, And listened to the wind; and, as before,

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Performed all kinds of labour for his sheep, And for the land, his small inheritance. And to that hollow dell from time to time Did he repair, to build the Fold of which His flock had need. Tis not forgotten yet The pity which was then in every heart For the old Man—and 'tis believed by all That many and many a day he thither went, And never lifted up a single stone. {Poems 1:468) This scene images the fate that haunts Wordsworth's epitaphi c mode . To note the troubling overlap betwee n the benign transmission to whic h Wordsworth aspire s an d th e sor t o f ferocious , pre-emptiv e energie s de tailed i n a poem lik e "Michael " is no mor e t o accus e the poet o f simpl e duplicity tha n t o sugges t tha t th e shepherd' s effort s t o softe n th e com pact wit h hi s so n ar e merel y hypocritical . Bu t jus t a s Michae l assume s something o f th e archai c visag e o f a patriarch , despit e himself , s o to o the poe t canno t hel p bu t participat e in , an d benefi t from , th e ver y cultural coercion s he struggles to personalize an d humanize. Traces of suc h coercive energies trouble even the gentle injunctions of "Tintern Abbey. " The difficult y i s no t t o overstat e th e case , o r t o dis count th e quotien t o f imaginativ e generosit y tha t make s Wordsworth' s exhortations moving . Ther e i s nevertheles s somethin g troubling abou t the detail wit h which th e poet envision s bot h Dorothy' s futur e stat e and her appropriate respons e t o it . I t is disturbing, too, that both envisione d circumstance an d stipulate d respons e s o closel y approximat e Words worth's ow n a s t o ver y nearl y reduc e Doroth y t o th e conditio n o f th e poet's specula r reflection . I f ther e i s jus t a hin t o f unctuousnes s i n th e tone o f Wordsworth' s closin g cadenza , i t ma y aris e fro m a n effor t t o deny thi s unpalatabl e aspec t o f th e poet' s desires , an d o f th e transmis sion whic h further s them . Despit e genuin e effort s t o softe n it s effects , the poet' s inscriptio n exercise s a positiona l authorit y tha t tend s t o b e pre-emptive, a symboli c forc e associate d mor e tha n onc e i n Words worth's wor k wit h patriarcha l power . Recallin g th e lega l machiner y o f inheritance and entailment, the gesture of transmission with which "Tintern Abbey " close s ma y necessaril y activat e th e prolepti c authorit y o f the name of the father .

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Wordsworth: Th e Sublim e In Wordsworth's poetr y the project of humanizin g cultural transmissio n is no t simpl y identica l t o th e tas k o f curtailin g th e individua l powe r Wordsworth call s imagination ; bu t w e sa w earlie r tha t th e tw o enter prises ar e related . The patriarcha l authorit y lurkin g eve n i n th e closin g section o f "Tinter n Abbey, " conversely , resemble s i n it s pre-emptiv e positional forc e th e abrup t imaginativ e powe r tha t manifest s itsel f a s poetic sublimity . Thi s similarit y migh t lea d u s t o modif y Hartman' s classic accoun t o f Wordsworthia n imagination , whic h ha s s o fa r stoo d us i n goo d stead , i n on e salien t respect ; i n doin g so , w e wil l i n par t b e following th e lea d o f som e brie f bu t suggestiv e remark s i n Hartman' s own later essays on Wordsworth, as well as the more extended argumen t of Thoma s Weiskel' s The Romantic Sublime. I n Wordsworth's Poetry, we saw , Hartma n argue s tha t imaginatio n mus t b e boun d an d human ized because, as it manifests itself in moments of sublime influx, it reveals itself a s a power prio r t o socia l compact s an d destructiv e o f them : i t i s in thi s sens e tha t Bloom' s notio n o f "sublim e solipsism " i s apposit e t o Hartman's analysis . W e migh t instea d sugges t tha t imaginatio n i n it s sublime aspec t i s dangerous , no t becaus e i t abrogate s socia l compacts , but becaus e i t recall s socia l power s o f th e wron g kind . Th e dialecti c o f the sublime, Weiskel argue s a t length i n his immensely usefu l study , can be understoo d a s a condense d versio n o f th e Oedipa l drama . Words worth's ambivalence with regard to imagination ma y measure in part his uneasiness concernin g th e sor t o f unchecke d patriarcha l forc e als o evi dent i n wha t hi s wor k encourage s u s t o thin k o f a s th e wron g sor t o f epitaph and the wrong sort of transmission. 50 A brie f accoun t o f th e caree r o f Wordsworthia n imaginatio n i n suc h Oedipal term s wil l prov e usefu l here , i n par t becaus e o f th e wa y thi s history differ s i n its details fro m Whitman' s attempt s to revise the Oedi pal configuration . Bu t th e broa d effor t t o posi t poetr y a s a n alternativ e to th e Oedipa l compac t i s a projec t thes e poet s share . Moreover , th e resemblance between poetic transmission an d the Oedipal structure fro m which i t shoul d fre e u s i s likewis e a burde n b y whic h bot h poet s ar e troubled. This confluence suggest s that poetic language may derive much of it s power ove r u s from th e very mechanism s t o which i t often aspire s to offer a n alternative. Hartman's germina l accoun t i n Wordsworth's Poetry, though , o f

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Wordsworthian imaginatio n a s a n essentiall y autonomou s powe r tha t must firs t b e naturalized , an d the n humanized , neglect s intimation s tha t imagination i s linke d t o cultura l authorit y fro m th e first . I f imaginatio n appears ove r agains t th e poet , i n bot h Wordsworth' s earl y wor k an d th e descriptions o f hi s childhoo d i n The Prelude, assumin g th e guis e o f a hostile natura l forc e tha t erupt s i n th e mids t o f th e landscape , thi s displaced violenc e supposedl y register s th e poet' s discomfor t wit h imag inative autonomy : Nature's familiar aspec t is eroded; quasi-apocalyptic creatures and visions emerge. This, we know, is a sign that imagination i s beginning to reveal itself as a power separate fro m o r eve n oppose d t o nature ; ye t i t seem s t o Wordswort h a s i f nature, not imagination, were rising up against him. It is nature that is demonic. . . . (Wordsworth's Poetry, 84-85) A simila r displacement , Hartma n suggests , lend s th e crucia l "spot s o f time" their broodin g quality : In episodes where the violation [o f nature] is patent we can say that the spirit of place rises up in revenge against the violator. But where it is secret, as in the two spots of tim e (fo r n o clear desecratio n ha s occurred), we must assum e that th e boy's very awareness of his individuality—a prophetic or anticipatory awareness nourished by self-isolating circumstances—react s o n him as already a violation. A sudden self-consciousness, transferred t o outward things , is raised against him under the mask of nature. (Wordsworth's Poetry, 214-15) Projection an d denial , however , d o no t alon e accoun t fo r thi s risin g up o f sublim e powe r ove r agains t th e poet ; no r i s it quit e imagination' s autonomy tha t th e spot s o f tim e revea l i n displace d form . A s Weiske l stresses, th e Oedipa l configuratio n o f thes e moment s i s palpabl e (175 — 85). The powe r tha t confront s th e poe t ca n b e understoo d a s the powe r of th e father , a cultura l authorit y t o b e inherited an d internalize d onl y if one ha s firs t acknowledge d it s otherness an d pu t onesel f unde r it s sway . The secon d o f th e spot s o f time , o f course , center s overtl y o n th e deat h of Wordsworth' s father ; i t als o concerns , Weiske l show s i n hi s fin e analysis, th e boy' s unstate d intimation s o f thi s even t (183) . Desire d a s well a s feared , th e impendin g deat h o f th e fathe r provokes , i n self imposed retribution , wha t th e earlie r "spo t o f time " call s a "visionar y dreariness" (Prelude 185 0 12.256) , a sens e tha t th e natura l scen e i s haunted b y an obscur e bu t menacin g force: 51 'twas a day Tempestuous, dark, and wild, and on the grass

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I sate half-sheltered b y a naked wall; Upon my right hand couched a single sheep, Upon my left a blasted hawthorn stood. (1850 12.297-301 ) This configuratio n become s a kin d o f kno t t o whic h th e bo y obsessivel y returns afte r hi s father's death : And, afterwards, th e wind and sleety rain, And all the business of the elements, The single sheep, and the one blasted tree, And the bleak music of that old stone wall, The noise of wood and water, and the mist That on the line of each of those two roads Advanced in such indisputable shapes; All these were kindred spectacles and sounds To which I oft repaired, and thence would drink, As at a fountain. . .. (185 0 12.317—26) This sor t o f obsessiv e reversio n t o a haunte d scen e associate d wit h a brooding powe r w e migh t wel l ter m patriarcha l als o characterize s Wordsworth's precedin g descriptio n o f a "spo t o f time. " Ther e th e relation betwee n suc h obsessiv e retur n an d a burdene d Oedipa l resolu tion i s rather spectacularl y overt . The terrai n o n whic h th e poet encoun tered, no t th e gibbe t wher e a murdere r ha d bee n hanged , whic h ha d mouldered away , bu t th e bar e inscriptio n o f hi s name , carve d i n "mon umental letters " (185 0 12.241) , an d th e adjacen t spot , haunte d b y "vi sionary dreariness, " o n whic h h e ha d see n th e gir l "vexe d an d tosse d / By th e stron g wind " (185 0 12.260-61 ) becom e wit h a bizarr e appro priateness th e preferred sit e of th e poet's ow n late r courtshi p rites : When, in the blessed hours Of early love, the loved one at my side, I roamed, in daily presence of this scene, Upon the naked pool and dreary crags, And on the melancholy beacon, fell A spirit of pleasure and youth's golden gleam; And think ye not with radiance more sublime For these remembrances, and for the power They had left behind?. . . (1850 12.261—69) This scen e th e poe t re-treads , a s Weiskel astutel y notes , i s a spo t where , in th e for m o f th e bar e letter s o f th e execute d murderer' s name , "Th e order o f la w i s inserte d int o th e orde r o f natur e b y mean s o f writing "

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(178). According to Weiskel i t is this inscription an d th e law i t bespeaks, even mor e tha n th e particula r fact s o f th e murde r o r executio n them selves, that ha d occasione d th e boy' s fear : "Th e elemen t o f pani c enter s the tex t wit h th e appearanc e o f th e characters , a s if the y constitute d th e deep meanin g o f th e grave , an d no t vic e versa " (178) . Th e youn g ma n who woo s o n thi s spo t become s a husban d an d fathe r i n hi s ow n righ t only b y internalizing th e law whose inscriptio n h e has witnessed here . There ar e moment s i n Wordsworth' s poetry , Weiske l suggests , whe n the poe t seem s read y t o pu t o n thi s ferociou s powe r o f th e la w himself , if rathe r uneasily . Commentin g o n th e passag e i n Boo k XII I o f The Prelude i n whic h th e poe t visit s th e archai c ruin s o n th e Plai n o f Saru m and conjure s u p a druidic ceremony , Weiskel remarks : The Salisbur y visio n exhibit s wit h stunnin g clarit y Wordsworth' s ambivalen t relation to the archaic power of the Word. He is in part the victim of the vision; there is naivete in his incantation; he doesn't know what will follow. But he also participates i n th e power, assumin g th e ancient rol e as if i t wer e his inevitabl e due. That the vision presents such a contrast to his self-conception a s poet serves to expose the partiality of that conception, though not its sincerity. (192)52 Something o f thi s ferociou s positiona l forc e associate d wit h th e nam e of th e fathe r persist s i n th e crucia l eruption s o f poeti c sublimit y i n The Prelude, A detaile d accoun t o f suc h passage s woul d o f cours e hav e t o take int o consideratio n th e importan t differences , note d b y Hartma n and Weiskel , betwee n th e poet' s visio n o n Moun t Snowde n an d hi s meditation o n th e crossin g o f th e Simplo n Pass , itsel f a prelud e t o th e more ominou s sublimitie s o f Gond o Gorge. 53 Bu t i n bot h th e Snowde n and Simplo n episodes , a self-startin g powe r seem s t o th e poe t t o erup t abruptly; an d i n both , thi s sublim e imaginativ e powe r recall s th e sor t o f positional forc e tha t als o characterize s th e patriarchal function , whethe r in it s deifi c o r huma n guise . I quote fro m th e passag e o n th e crossin g o f Simplon, since it presents a crux tha t merit s consideration : Imagination—here the Power so called Through sad incompetence of human speech, That awful Powe r rose from th e mind's abyss Like an unfathered vapou r that enwraps, At once, some lonely traveller. I was lost; Halted without an effort t o break through; But to my conscious soul I now can say— 'I recognize thy glory': in such strength

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Of usurpation, when the light of sense Goes out, but with a.... flash that has revealed The invisible world (185 0 6.592-602 ) Weiskel, wh o tend s t o associat e Wordsworth' s rathe r protea n ter m "imagination" with wha t Hartma n call s th e "humanize d imagination, " rather tha n wit h min d i n it s mor e augus t an d terrifyin g sublim e aspec t —which i s wha t Hartma n take s Wordswort h t o mea n b y imaginatio n proper—sees imaginatio n a s resisting both sublimity and Oedipalizatio n here. I woul d sugges t instea d tha t Oedipa l intensitie s ar e no t alway s banished quit e s o firml y fro m Wordsworth' s conceptio n o f th e poet' s task, an d tha t thi s atypica l passag e i s a n instanc e no t o f a resistance t o Oedipalization bu t o f a n internalizatio n o f th e Oedipa l compact , a n internalization no t usually s o apparent in Wordsworth's work . Th e crux here i s th e ter m "unfather'd" : assigne d b y th e passag e t o imagination , this epithe t i s associate d b y Weiskel wit h th e eg o a s well : "i t i s a t onc e the ego' s nee d an d it s attemp t t o b e unfathered, t o originat e itsel f an d thereby refus e acknowledgemen t t o a superior power . The Imaginatio n is not an evasion of th e oedipus complex bu t a rejection of it " (203). Yet here the vapor of imaginatio n rise s up not as an emanation of th e ego or the self , bu t a s a blockin g agent , a n apparentl y externa l forc e tha t abruptly thwarts it. If imagination itself appear s as "unfathered," glimpsed rising fro m th e mind' s abyss , tha t doe s no t quit e mean , therefore , tha t the self who glimpses this force is unfathered too . It is only by subjecting himself t o this power prior to every individual tha t the poet puts it on; it is only b y acceptin g thi s unfathere d forc e tha t h e acquire s th e power o f positing o r fathering , whethe r cultura l o r poetic . Accordin g t o Words worth's accoun t i t i s onl y late r tha t thi s powe r i s re-cognize d a s a n attribute of "soul. " This bargain , Oedipa l i n it s structure , i s implicitl y accepte d i n th e meditation o n Simplon , a passag e Hartma n rightl y see s a s exceptional . But Weiskel i s surel y correc t t o sugges t that , fo r th e mos t part , Words worth seek s t o distanc e th e poet' s power s fro m th e sor t o f patriarcha l authority inherite d here . Wha t Hartma n i n Wordsworth's Poetry term s a naturalizin g an d humanizin g o f imagination , Wordswort h thu s als o displays as its feminizing: i n his work idealized versions of a pre-Oedipal space an d a materna l influenc e whic h ca n supposedl y pas s ove r int o culture fro m it , unscathed , ar e marshale d agains t th e terror s o f th e patriarchal sublime .

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In Wordsworth's Poetry Hartma n persuasivel y link s th e naturalizin g of imaginatio n i n Wordsworth' s wor k wit h th e gradua l disappearanc e of thos e incident s i n whic h a threatenin g powe r suddenl y erupt s i n th e midst o f a natura l landscape . Broode d ove r i n Wordsworth' s earl y po etry a s wel l a s i n th e passage s i n The Prelude tha t recal l th e poet' s earl y development, thes e frightenin g manifestation s giv e wa y t o description s of landscap e tha t stres s continuit y rathe r tha n abrup t disjunction , omni present flux rathe r tha n sudde n eruption s o f power : The obsession wit h specifi c place lifts fro m hi m or blends into a more generous conception of nature. .. . What happens here and now has happened before, and is elsewhere, everywhere.... This multiplying locus assumes a tremendous sweep and molds for itsel f a subtler for m a s the blank verse of the fragments become s an exercise in fluidity. The strongest contrasts become blendings; new corridors are opened and hidden subsistencies revealed. (166) In contrast t o th e sudde n concentration s o f forc e I have bee n associatin g with positiona l an d patriarcha l power , th e fluidity o f thes e gentle r land scapes suggest s a mor e archai c spac e no t ye t organize d b y suc h punc tuality. Wha t Hartma n term s a contras t betwee n apocalyps e an d natur e can als o b e understoo d a s a n oppositio n betwee n Oedipa l an d pre Oedipal dispositions : lik e severa l o f Whitman' s catalogues , suc h pas sages o f natura l descriptio n evok e a n idealize d versio n o f th e registe r Kristeva call s th e semiotic , a n organizatio n shape d b y a relatio n t o th e mother's bod y no t ye t mediate d b y symboli c structure s o r regulate d b y paternal prohibition. 54 Amon g th e passage s i n Wordsworth' s wor k ex plicitly stressin g th e rol e o f th e mothe r i n shapin g thi s sor t o f space , th e best known i s probably th e one fro m Boo k I I of The Prelude: Blest the infant Babe, (For with my best conjecture I would trace) Our Being's earthly progress,) blest the Babe, Nursed in his Mother's arms, who sinks to sleep Rocked on his Mother's breast; who with his soul Drinks in the feelings of his Mother's eye! For him, in one dear Presence, there exists A virtue which irradiates and exalts Objects through widest intercourse of sense. No outcast he, bewildered and depressed: Along his infant veins are interfuse d The gravitation and the filial bond Of Nature that connect him with the world. (1850 2:233-44 )

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For most , acces s to thi s space is subsequently blocked : Such, verily, is the first Poetic spirit of our human life, By uniform contro l of after years, In most, abated or suppressed; in some, Through every change of growth and of decay, Pre-eminent till death. (1850 2:260-65 ) In Wordsworth's accoun t i t is those stil l blesse d b y a special ti e to th e feminine wh o ar e bes t abl e t o sustai n thi s sens e o f dee p interfusin g supposedly onc e guarantee d b y th e maternal . Boo k XI V o f The Prelude thus evoke s th e feminin e a s a principl e tha t ca n continu e t o softe n patriarchal sublimitie s withi n th e social , symbolic spac e th e nam e o f th e father rules . Wordsworth' s paea n t o Doroth y insist s tha t he r savin g grace rescue d hi m fro m a ferocit y tha t ha d alread y begu n t o clai m him : Child of my parents! Sister of my soul! Thanks in sincerest verse have been elsewhere Poured out for all the early tenderness Which I from the e imbibed: and 'tis most true That later seasons owed to thee no less; For, spite of thy sweet influence and the touch Of kindred hands that opened out the springs Of genial thought in childhood, and in spite Of all that unassisted I had marked In life or nature of those charms minute That win their way into the heart by stealth, Still to the very going-out of youth, I too exclusively esteemed that love, And sought that beauty, which, as Milton sings, Hath terror in it. Thou didst soften dow n This over-sternness; but for thee, dear Friend! My soul, too reckless of mild grace, had stood In her original self too confident , Retained too long a countenance severe. (1850 14:232-50 ) Here th e gentl e continuitie s tha t i n Wordsworth' s wor k characteriz e a natural spac e evocativ e o f th e pre-Oedipa l an d a n infantil e conditio n associated wit h th e materna l ar e mad e t o pas s ove r withou t los s into th e social relatio n betwee n th e poe t an d hi s sister. Wordsworth' s relatio n t o Dorothy, a t an y rate , i s said t o cur e th e poe t o f hi s obsessio n wit h thos e sublimities I have bee n callin g patriarcha l an d linkin g t o Oedipa l trans -

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mission. In "Tinter n Abbey, " thi s gentle r relatio n make s possibl e a n ac t of bequeathin g Wordswort h seem s t o understan d a s a feminize d alter native t o the Oedipa l compac t griml y depicte d elsewher e in his work . A goo d dea l mor e migh t b e sai d abou t th e idealize d image s o f bot h the materna l and , mor e broadly , th e feminin e Wordswort h invoke s t o authorize thi s visio n o f gentl e continuity . Bu t w e ca n confin e ourselve s to notin g tha t Wordswort h want s t o locat e a feminin e principl e fre e o f sublime violence within symboli c culture and no t just prior to it. Scarcely more comfortabl e wit h Oedipa l transmissio n tha n i s Whitman, Words worth thu s manage s t o celebrat e symboli c compacts , imaginin g a for m of the m supposedl y innocen t o f patriarcha l authorit y an d it s prolepti c power. Ye t a s w e hav e seen , th e beneficen t transmissio n h e hope s t o enact remain s haunted b y traces o f just such coerciv e energies . Power an d La w If Wordswort h defuse s th e threa t o f patriarcha l powe r b y imaginin g a symbolic, essentiall y textua l transmissio n shape d b y th e feminin e an d thus supposedl y exemp t fro m Oedipa l demands , Whitma n b y contras t invokes a n archai c imag e o f voic e whos e positiona l powe r i s magica l rather tha n symbolic ; h e thu s aim s t o commandee r th e powe r o f th e father rathe r than , lik e Wordsworth , t o attenuat e it . Lik e Wordsworth , Whitman retreat s fro m th e symboli c spac e governe d b y patriarcha l au thority t o a flui d semioti c terrai n tha t evoke s a n archai c relatio n t o th e mother. Bu t Whitma n seem s mor e draw n tha n Wordswort h t o th e powe r lodged i n positiona l an d patriarcha l authority , thoug h h e i s certainly n o less leer y o f it s cost . H e is , conversely , les s inten t o n isolatin g a versio n of symboli c compact s h e ca n affirm , les s committe d tha n Wordswort h to fosterin g benig n symboli c mechanism s wit h recognizabl e connection s to a networ k o f existin g institution s the y migh t refor m rathe r tha n subvert. Thi s i s s o despit e Whitman' s attempt s t o associat e th e poet' s presence wit h a visionar y democrati c prospect , since , a s muc h recen t criticism ha s shown , th e communit y supposedl y initiate d b y th e poet' s advent i s meant t o by-pas s jus t such institutiona l mediation. 55 W e migh t re-cast thi s formulatio n mor e broadly , describin g Whitman' s projec t a s a paradoxica l attemp t t o groun d ou r socialit y i n a mod e o f relatio n no t governed b y commo n subjectio n t o symboli c la w o r th e castratio n i t exacts. Whereas Wordsworth' s searc h i s fo r a transmissio n tha t i s sym -

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bolic bu t no t patriarchal , Whitman' s deman d i s fo r a versio n o f posi tional power tha t is inherent rather than culturally invested or inherited. Word magi c i s th e privilege d for m o f thi s fantasy ; a connectio n t o hi s audience that accords the poet tremendous powe r yet acquits him of th e alienating effec t an d coerciv e inten t Whitma n identifie s wit h symboli c mechanisms i s the mode of relatio n such magic should permit. This redemptiv e fantas y i s o f cours e attende d b y it s ow n peculia r temptations. I have bee n arguin g no t onl y tha t bot h Wordswort h an d Whitman aspir e t o a mode o f relatio n tha t is not Oedipal , bu t also tha t the alternative transmissio n eac h proposes i s finally impossible to isolat e from th e aggression s i t should redeem . Give n Whitman's particula r fas cination wit h th e ver y positiona l powe r h e dreads , thi s contagio n i s likely t o b e especiall y acute . Whil e i t i s somethin g o f a n overstatement , since suc h powe r i s no t withou t it s attractions fo r Wordsworth too , w e might almos t sa y tha t coerciv e symboli c authorit y i s a residu e Words worth canno t quit e manag e t o purg e fro m hi s work, wherea s i n Leaves of Grass this supposedly repudiated force turns out in practice to be very difficult indee d to distinguish fro m the sort of power the poet seems only too pleased to wield. Despite both the winsome quality that characterizes the poet' s declaration s o f hi s liberatin g manifestatio n an d th e melan choly tha t attend s intimation s o f th e collaps e o f thi s presenc e int o jus t another sign , Whitman' s apostrophe s d o no t simpl y succeed , o r fail , i n freeing us from pre-emptive cultura l mechanisms; they are themselves an instance o f them , exactin g th e ver y fadin g fro m whic h Whitma n want s to believe his declarations protect us. The poet' s apostrophe s exercis e thi s pre-emptiv e symboli c powe r mos t palpably a s Whitman' s imag e o f voic e seem s t o fad e int o writing ; th e text whic h suggest s a melancholy laps e o f th e magica l powe r Whitma n associates wit h voic e als o reveal s hi s exercis e o f powe r o f another , les s beneficent sort . W e ma y o f cours e alread y b e uncomfortabl e wit h th e magical scen e int o which voic e seem s to fol d us : the archai c space voic e initiates i n Whitman' s wor k i s no t withou t it s terrors , amon g the m th e very eclipsing of boundarie s which Whitman tend s to see as an unmixe d blessing sinc e i t dissolve s th e pola r relation s structure d b y th e sig n an d governed b y th e la w o f th e father . Ou r possibl e discomfor t wit h th e scenario shape d b y th e poet' s voice , tha t is , i s matche d b y Whitman' s anxieties concernin g th e scen e o f symboli c transmissio n epitomize d b y writing: inscriptio n subject s u s to power s Leaves of Grass characteristi -

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cally depict s i n luri d terms . Th e poe t who , despit e hi s bes t intentions , ends u p exercisin g a powe r mobilize d b y writin g an d unnervingl y diffi cult t o distinguis h i n it s effect s fro m th e symboli c transmissio n agains t which h e repeatedl y rail s i s thus caugh t i n a position tha t i s compromis ing i n mor e tha n on e respect . H e doe s no t simpl y wiel d a powe r h e hopes t o attenuat e sinc e i t provoke s pragmati c misgivings ; rather , h e becomes a n instanc e o f th e ver y thin g h e ha s violentl y excoriate d an d rejected. Callin g int o questio n th e repudiatio n Whitma n proclaims , th e violence o f hi s invective s agains t writin g an d representatio n implie s tha t this resemblanc e ma y affor d th e poe t a satisfactio n n o les s intens e tha n his distaste : suggestiv e les s o f simpl e disapprova l tha n o f powerfu l am bivalence, Whitman' s diatribe s agains t symboli c transmissio n see m t o register a mi x o f anxiet y an d fascinate d attraction . I f Whitman' s tex t precipitates th e ver y fadin g o f identit y fro m whic h Leaves of Grass claims t o preserv e us , th e poe t i s thu s no t simpl y caugh t u p despit e himself i n a pervasiv e symboli c structur e n o speec h ac t ca n quit e leav e behind, o r entangle d i n aggression s endemi c t o politica l unio n whic h h e attenuates a s much a s anyone can. Rather, the extreme anxiety provoke d by mechanism s o f symboli c transmissio n i n Leaves of Grass i s matche d by th e poet' s intens e i f cover t interes t i n wieldin g thos e mechanism s himself. Whil e thi s ma y b e a paradox , i t i s hardly a n incomprehensibl e one: lik e thos e unde r th e swa y o f a compulsio n t o repea t describe d b y Freud nea r th e openin g o f Beyond the Pleasure Principle ( n ) , th e poe t gains a measur e o f contro l ove r th e injur y don e hi m an d th e anxiet y i t provokes b y repeatin g an d reversin g th e scen e o f it s transmission ; shift ing fro m passiv e t o activ e role , he inflict s injur y an d anxiet y i n hi s turn , gaining a retrospectiv e master y ove r the m a t th e pric e o f passin g the m on. 56 W e thu s nee d t o atten d no t onl y t o th e wa y inscriptio n i n Leaves of Grass ca n ac t t o subjec t us , bu t als o t o th e poet' s investmen t i n this aggressiv e aspec t o f hi s supposedl y liberatin g transaction s wit h us. 57 One wa y t o ge t a t th e uncomfortabl e intertwinin g o f th e poet's presenc e with th e cultural operation s fro m whic h i t should fre e u s is to recall bot h the untowar d effect s attribute d t o th e dea d i n Whitman' s wor k an d th e poet's disconcertin g resemblanc e t o thes e ominous figures. A s we saw i n chapter 5 , Whitman associate s writin g an d representatio n wit h thos e n o longer alive , depictin g thes e mechanism s a s instrument s tha t permi t th e

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dead t o maintai n a ghoulis h existenc e a t th e expens e o f th e living . W e saw tha t Whitma n expend s a goo d dea l o f effor t tryin g t o detac h th e effects o f th e poet' s presenc e fro m thi s sor t o f necromancy : w e sa w a s well tha t th e tenuou s distinction s betwee n ba d an d goo d repetition , an d between representatio n an d a living presence someho w fortifie d wit h th e powers o f th e sign , en d u p suggestin g th e ver y affinit y the y ough t t o dispel. In "S o Long!, " w e noted , th e poe t indee d acquire s th e qualitie s that elsewher e defin e hi m a s th e epitom e o f livin g presenc e precisel y b y hovering a t the brin k o f a death tha t i s not quit e allowe d t o clai m him . Some portrait s o f th e poe t mak e thi s troublin g resemblanc e eve n clearer. Leaves of Grass offer s u s occasiona l glimpse s o f a figur e wh o has crosse d th e threshol d a t whic h "S o Long! " stalls . These vision s o f a presence wh o ponder s u s fro m th e kingdo m o f th e dea d sugges t no t simply tha t th e poet' s effec t ca n b e difficul t t o distinguis h fro m th e supposedly necromanti c power s t o whic h cultur e subject s us , bu t als o that these are powers Whitman i s not entirely averse to wielding. Despit e the bracin g aspec t o f thes e uncann y encounters , th e poe t assume s i n them, i f no t quit e th e ghoulis h aspec t attribute d t o specter s elsewher e i n Whitman's work , a t leas t the visage of th e dea d father : I but advance a moment, only to wheel and hurry back in the darkness. I a m a ma n who , saunterin g along , withou t full y stopping , turn s a casua l look upon you, and then averts his face, Leaving it to you to prove and define it, Expecting the main things from you. ("Poets to Come," i860 187 ) Though i t i s th e poe t wh o avert s hi s fac e here , th e "casua l look " tha t precedes thi s gestur e invest s i t wit h sublimit y rathe r tha n implyin g hu mility o r submission . An d th e thir d an d fourt h o f thes e lines , which w e glanced a t earlier , offe r a n especiall y troublin g instanc e o f th e poet' s claim tha t h e confer s o n u s ou r ow n liberty : th e "it " w e ar e t o exercis e our freedo m definin g turn s ou t t o b e th e poet' s fleetingl y reveale d face ; our initiativ e consist s i n fillin g i n th e contour s o f hi s visage. Like God o r his patriarcha l avatar , th e poe t turn s o n u s a countenanc e w e ar e no t quite permitte d t o gaz e o n bu t ar e enjoine d nonetheles s t o recall ; w e acquire ou r ow n identit y b y assuming what w e can o f his . Another poe m i n th e i86 0 editio n make s clea r th e effec t suc h a transaction migh t hav e o n us . Lef t implici t i n th e line s jus t quote d fro m "Poets t o Come, " th e mesmerize d gaz e wit h whic h w e ar e expecte d t o

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look bac k towar d thi s obscure bu t dominatin g figur e i s described overtl y in a passage fro m "Startin g fro m Paumanok " tha t als o evokes the poet' s ghostly visage . Ther e th e poet' s audienc e i s reduce d t o a conditio n disturbingly simila r t o tha t Whitma n elsewher e ascribe s t o thos e unde r the sway o f writin g an d th e proleptic transmissio n i t effects : See projected, through time, For me, an audience interminable, With firm and regular step they wend—they never stop, Successions of men, Americanos, a hundred millions, One generation playing its part and passing on, And another generation playing its part and passing on in its turn, With faces turned sideways or backward toward me to listen, With eyes retrospective toward me. (i860 6-7 ) There i s somethin g quit e disconcertin g abou t thi s parade : "playin g it s part an d passin g on, " eac h fleeting generatio n marche s forwar d int o oblivion, its eyes not even fixed o n the stage it briefly inhabit s but instea d cast bac k towar d th e dead poet , who seem s almost to direct this haunte d procession. W e ar e ver y clos e here t o th e sor t o f eeri e pre-emptive effec t Whitman rail s against i n his diatribes characterizing writing as an instru ment o f th e dead . Th e passag e als o recall s th e uncann y chiasmu s o f th e living an d dea d d e Ma n discern s i n epitaph : her e too , th e prosopopoei a central t o cultura l transmissio n seem s no t onl y t o confe r a fac e o n th e dead, bu t t o exac t i n exchang e th e animatio n o f th e living , feedin g i t t o the poet wh o mesmerize s thei r gaze ; in this passage i t is the livin g rathe r than th e dea d wh o see m spectral . These hauntin g passage s hav e somethin g o f th e fee l o f fleeting an d equivocal admissions , a s i f Whitma n wa s briefl y draw n t o sugges t th e ominous aspect s o f th e transmissio n attribute d t o th e poet' s magica l voice but purveyed b y writing. Yet it may b e ultimately mor e disconcert ing tha t passage s give n a predominantl y upbea t ai r ca n als o impl y thi s troubling resemblanc e betwee n th e poet' s transaction s an d th e pre-emp tive cultura l mechanism s the y supposedl y replace . I t turn s out , indeed , that th e apostrophe s whic h mos t full y detai l th e supposedl y beneficen t effects o f th e poet' s presenc e ofte n sugges t mos t strongl y th e disturbin g

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resemblance betwee n ou r encounter s wit h hi m an d th e symboli c trans missions they are designed to obviate. As w e sa w i n chapte r 5 , accordin g t o Whitma n writin g violate s ou r proper autonomy , installin g insid e u s a n alie n tex t writte n b y th e dead . This text supposedl y pre-empt s ou r own word s an d enervates the livin g voice tha t migh t spea k them ; transmittin g th e demand s o f th e dead , i t saps our vitality a s well, wearing away our own living presence. Supposedly impingin g o n u s a s a livin g presenc e himself , th e poe t claim s t o restore ou r autonom y an d integrit y t o us . Ye t i n th e 185 6 "Poe m o f You, Whoeve r Yo u Are, " Whitman's attempt s t o detai l thi s restoratio n of selfhoo d uncannil y repea t th e alienatin g self-divisio n the y shoul d heal: I only a m h e wh o place s ove r yo u n o master , owner , better , god , beyon d what waits intrinsically in yourself. (185 6 207) The complex coercion here involves not simply a power relation betwee n poet an d reade r but , mor e intimately , th e implantatio n o f a mod e o f identity no t quit e describabl e a s a recovered autonom y o r wholeness. 58 Despite th e appearanc e o f th e reassurin g ter m "intrinsically " here , th e line describe s no t a n organi c identit y bu t a divide d one . Imaginin g thi s internal divisio n a s on e betwee n maste r an d slave , owne r an d owned , social bette r an d inferior , o r go d an d huma n worshiper , thi s lin e als o attributes t o th e poet' s interventio n th e installation , o r a t least th e acti vation, o f thi s agonisti c structur e o f selfhood : th e poe t doe s no t quit e deny tha t h e place s ove r u s a master, a n owner , a better , o r a god, bu t only tha t eac h o f thes e agent s o f contro l "waits " alread y withi n us , presumably bidin g its time to assume its due authority. I a m suggesting , o f course , tha t th e poet' s attempt s t o restor e ou r proper self-sufficienc y tur n ou t t o resembl e th e operation s b y whic h culture create s a mod e o f self-policin g identit y n o longe r characterize d by suc h autonomy : th e lin e read s lik e a parable o f th e implantatio n o f the super-ego. The irony at work here thus exceeds the properly politica l dilemma tha t cultura l transmissio n necessaril y turn s o n th e powe r rela tions i t sometime s want s t o eschew ; th e ver y selve s w e thin k o f a s engaging in or escaping this coercive relation ar e products o f it. Some line s a bi t furthe r o n i n th e poe m offe r anothe r imag e fo r thi s generation o f supposedl y sacrosanc t subjects. Recalling a trope deploye d

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differently elsewher e i n Whitman' s work , the y to o manag e t o sugges t the disturbin g resemblanc e betwee n th e poet' s transaction s wit h u s an d the psychic violence they shoul d heal : But I paint myriad s of heads , but paint no head without it s nimbus of goldcolored light, From m y hand , fro m th e brai n o f ever y ma n an d woma n i t streams , efful gently flowing forever. (185 6 207) In th e contex t o f Whitman' s work , thes e line s imply tha t th e supposedl y autonomous individualit y th e poe t call s fort h i s simpl y anothe r versio n of th e culturall y conferre d identit y fro m whic h w e ar e apparentl y bein g preserved. Her e th e poe t take s th e plac e o f th e su n o f "Crossin g Brook lyn Ferry, " paintin g th e coroll a o f ligh t i t project s there , whic h install s us i n th e real m o f image s an d representations . Th e poet' s gestur e dra matically repeat s thi s subjugation . A s Whitman's strangel y double d gen itive construction implie s ("Fro m m y hand, fro m th e brai n o f ever y ma n and woma n i t streams") , w e acquir e th e hal o tha t wil l b e mad e t o symbolize ou r sacrosanc t individualit y onl y a s w e tak e u p ou r place s i n a representatio n emanatin g fro m th e poet—o r fro m th e Other , th e resemblance betwee n thi s scen e an d th e on e i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry" suggests , an Othe r whos e wor k th e poet ha s her e effectively bee n empowered t o perform . The poet' s suppose d abilit y t o polic e th e identit y h e thus confer s als o resembles a capacit y "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry " associate s wit h th e su n and th e ligh t an d darknes s i t projects. I n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " w e saw i n chapte r 3 , the poe t himsel f i s provoked t o painfu l self-interroga tion b y mean s o f a shado w tha t impinge s upo n hi m suddenly . Declarin g the poet' s ascen t t o th e sun' s throne , Whitma n i s at pain s ther e t o insis t that h e wil l pu t a n en d t o thi s sor t o f augus t interrogation , replacin g i t with savin g emanation s o f hi s ow n transfigurin g presence . Bu t i n a pai r of line s fro m "Poe m o f You , Whoeve r Yo u Are, " th e poe t seem s les s intent o n dismantlin g ou r self-divisio n tha n o n monitorin g it : I pursue you where none else has pursued you [....]

I track throug h you r winding s an d turnings— I com e upo n yo u wher e yo u thought eye should never come upon you. (1856 208) While th e poe m a s a whol e i s emphatically committe d t o recallin g u s t o the psychic integrit y cultur e ha s obscured , th e poet' s abilit y t o penetrat e

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to ou r interior s nevertheles s doe s no t s o muc h overcom e a s uncannil y repeat an d reinforc e ou r subjugatio n t o a n othernes s plante d perma nently withi n us . If th e poet' s attempt s t o repai r ou r integrit y ca n thu s en d u p repeatin g the proces s o f ou r self-division , hi s claim s t o restor e t o u s a worl d tha t has bee n occulte d b y misleadin g representation s ca n likewis e hav e the disconcerting effec t o f provoking the very fading o f the real they supposedly cure . A s w e sa w i n chapte r 5 , accordin g t o Whitma n th e representations cultur e teache s u s t o rever e ten d t o supplan t thing s themselves, robbin g u s o f ou r livin g worl d an d recruitin g u s t o a real m of simulacr a Whitma n characterize s a s apparition s fobbe d of f o n u s b y the dead . Ye t th e poet' s warning s agains t thi s disaste r see m t o provok e or a t leas t repea t it : claimin g t o dissolv e th e miasm a i n whic h cultur e shrouds us , h e seem s t o b e dissolvin g th e worl d itself . Th e openin g o f "Poem o f You , Whoeve r Yo u Are " thu s seem s les s liberatin g tha n pre emptive: Whoever you are, I fear you are walking the walks of dreams, I fear those realities are to melt from unde r your feet and hands; Even now, your features, joys, speech, house, trade, manners, troubles, follies, costume, crimes, dissipate away from you , Your true soul and body appear before me, They stand forth ou t of affairs—out o f commerce, shops, law, science, work, farms, clothes, the house, medicine, print, buying, selling, eating, drinking, suffering, begetting , dying. (1856 206) Whitman's ton e her e betray s somethin g o f th e ferocit y a t wor k i n suc h foreclosure: th e hin t o f harshnes s i n thes e line s suggest s no t jus t denun ciation o r invective , bu t th e wieldin g o f a mor e jealou s powe r tha t itsel f exacts th e dissolutio n agains t whic h th e poe t warn s us . Th e poet , i n effect, pre-empt s ou r world , no t s o muc h preservin g u s fro m a rud e awakening otherwis e certai n t o befal l u s a s precipitatin g i t her e an d now: thes e line s see m t o pul l ou r realitie s ou t fro m unde r us , turnin g them int o apparition s an d thereb y claimin g the m fo r th e ghostl y regio n the poe t himsel f seem s t o inhabit . Whitman' s catalogu e technique , w e can not e i n passing , i s deployed her e i n circumstance s tha t mak e it s preemptive aspec t apparent : i f Whitman's litanie s typically see m to collaps e a disperse d objec t worl d int o th e poet, thes e line s mak e clea r tha t thing s are thereby repossesse d fro m thei r erstwhil e owners .

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A simila r tensio n betwee n salvifi c an d aggressiv e impulse s make s th e 1855 "T o Thin k o f Time" an extended exercis e in disturbing intimation . Pondering death , th e poet i s concerned t o reassur e u s that w e shall com e through i t unscathed ; ye t h e i s jus t a s inten t o n disabusin g u s o f ou r fondness fo r al l that canno t pas s through th e eye of th e needle with us : To think that the rivers will come to flow, and the snow fall, and fruits ripe n . . an d act upon others as upon us now . . .. ye t not act upon us; To think o f al l these wonders of city and country . . and others taking great interest in them . . and we taking small interest in them. To think how eager we are in building our houses, To think others shall be just as eager . . and we quite indifferent . I see one buildin g th e hous e tha t serve s him a fe w year s . . . . o r sevent y o r eighty years at most; I see one building the house that serves him longer than that. Slowmoving and black lines creep over the whole earth . . . . the y never cease . . . . the y are the burial lines, He that wa s Presiden t wa s buried, an d h e that i s now Presiden t shal l surel y be buried. (1855 99) These line s hove r betwee n stoi c wisdom an d a darke r pleasure ; partl y a warning o r a n attemp t t o console us for th e coming loss the poet depicts , they nonetheless see m to exac t the very fadin g o f th e world the y foresee . The hin t o f satisfactio n lurkin g her e ca n b e explaine d a t leas t i n par t by the position a t whic h th e poe t i s once mor e implicitl y poised : presen t to u s a s a disembodie d voic e discoursin g o n las t thing s t o thos e stil l under th e swa y o f wha t precede s them , h e seem s t o occup y a limina l vantage, being on term s n o les s familiar wit h th e realm beyon d th e grav e than h e i s wit h ou r own . Hi s warnin g thu s serve s t o wil t a worl d w e might otherwis e usur p whe n w e succee d him , b y willin g i t t o u s i n mortgaged condition : things , a s i t were , com e t o shar e th e deat h int o which th e poem's speake r seem s abou t t o pass . They have in any event been reduced t o the status of signs, a conditio n the poem' s prolepti c discours e likewis e seem s t o precipitat e a s wel l a s describe: Pleasantly and well-suited I walk, Whither I walk I cannot define, but I know it is good, The whole universe indicates that it is good, The past and present indicate that it is good. (1855 104 )

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As Whitman's semioti c vocabulary her e suggests, the fading the poem both register s an d provoke s i s linke d t o th e hegemon y o f symboli c systems. The eschatologica l concern s tha t dominat e th e poet' s state ments accordingl y scree n a les s disinterested , mor e agonisti c cultura l drama played out by his speech act s and the relation to us they establish. If ou r possessio n o f ou r worl d i s conspicuousl y contingent , tha t i s i n part becaus e ou r univers e i s n o longe r simpl y physical ; bot h ou r worl d and ou r selve s tak e th e for m o f a series o f symboli c value s whic h thos e who preced e u s no t onl y determin e bu t ca n als o bequeat h o r withhold . In "To Think of Time" the poet puts on something of the power reserved for the dead who precede us in this lineage of entailments. Exercising the positional powe r t o categorize an d confer , hi s pre-emptiv e announce ments not only mobiliz e bu t also covertly reve l in the quotient of aggression a t wor k i n cultura l transmission . Poise d betwee n th e position s o f the dea d an d th e living , th e poe t escape s th e foreclosur e tha t pre-empt s the latte r b y becomin g on e o f th e forme r an d passin g thi s injur y on ; bequeathing th e conspicuousl y conditiona l inheritanc e h e ha s himsel f been offered, h e thereby retains a hold on it himself . Throughout Leaves of Grass, w e hav e seen, Whitman's governin g trop e for this pre-emptive symbolic transmission i s writing. The appearance of the poet's supposedl y magica l voic e i n the text o f Whitman' s boo k thu s always implie s th e sor t o f powe r relatio n mad e mor e over t i n th e pas sages w e hav e bee n considering . I f Whitman' s imag e o f voic e evoke s a mode o f presenc e an d a variety o f beques t not compromise d b y the lack these passages displa y an d the aggressivity i t provokes, writing intimate s more tha n th e poet' s inabilit y t o transcen d o r transmut e thes e defects . The poet' s transmissio n doe s no t simpl y fai l t o fre e u s b y failin g t o occur: succeedin g al l to o well , i t subject s u s t o th e coercion s Whitma n would lik e to be able to repudiate. As we noted, Whitman's written apostrophes implicitly recal l the very codified instrument s thei r intimat e ton e an d gesture s a t privat e addres s ostensibly by-pass . The power the y manag e t o exercise ma y deriv e fro m just this resemblanc e t o formall y institute d transaction s an d the cultura l authority the y possess. Lik e Wordsworth's act s of poeti c bequeathin g i n this respect , Whitman' s apostrophe s ca n i n par t b e regarde d a s atten uated version s o f mor e strictl y codifie d an d mor e clearl y empowere d

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instruments o f socia l transmission : the y bot h evok e th e powe r o f suc h mechanisms a s th e wil l an d testamen t an d lac k thei r institutionall y sanctioned authority . Ye t bot h Wordsworth' s an d Whitman' s act s o f transmission als o exhibi t th e prolepti c powe r o f suc h instrument s i n it s most genera l form : wha t Wordswort h an d Whitma n clai m t o confer , o r at leas t to uphold , i s not a particular inheritanc e o r righ t but subjectivit y itself.59 Ye t the y conve y identit y onl y i n th e alienate d for m the y ai m t o cure. Mor e intensel y ambivalen t abou t cultura l authorit y tha n Words worth, Whitma n i s caugh t i n a n especiall y compresse d an d powerfu l version o f thi s paradox . Like th e visionar y an d poignan t aspect s o f th e poet' s apostrophes , this darke r implicatio n o f Whitman' s addresse s i s als o reveale d i n thei r tone, thoug h thi s registe r i s neve r dominant . W e ca n sometime s discer n a certai n residua l coldnes s i n thes e announcements , a sens e o f distanc e perhaps reflectin g no t jus t th e anonymit y intrinsi c t o writte n address , but als o a hin t o f th e poet' s dar k pleasur e i n imposin g i t o n us . Like th e instruments o f transmissio n h e excoriates , th e poe t recruit s u s to imper sonal structure s whic h predat e ou r appearanc e an d confe r o n u s identi ties tha t ar e sustainabl e onl y becaus e the y ar e imposed . Ther e i s thu s a quotient o f sentimentalit y i n th e determination—Whitman' s a s wel l a s ours—to hea r th e poet' s apostrophe s a s eithe r visionar y o r poignant . The melancholy tha t attend s the collapse of the poet's apocalypti c claim s also mask s th e symboli c powe r the y wield , obscurin g th e quotien t o f satisfaction Whitma n derive s fro m thi s surreptitious exercis e of control . The end o f th e 185 6 "Son g o f th e Ope n Road " seem s to poise amon g these various possibilities : Mon enfant! I give you my hand! I give you my love, more precious than money, I give you myself, before preaching or law; Will you give me yourself? Will you come travel with me? Shall we stick by each other as long as we live? (1856 239) Like th e contrast s i n thes e line s betwee n presenc e an d law , ero s an d symbolic accumulation , th e antinom y o f seductiv e an d poignan t tone s here i s on e wit h whic h w e ar e familiar . A s i s customar y i n Leaves of Grass, suc h polarities ar e structured b y an oppositio n betwee n voic e an d writing. Ye t Whitman' s tex t implie s no t simpl y th e dissolutio n o f th e visionary scen e th e poe t announces , bu t als o th e workin g o f another , less generou s operation . Enticin g u s wit h wha t i s suppose d t o b e a n

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elusive bu t litera l presence , th e poe t initiate s a symboli c transactio n an d recruits u s t o th e kin d o f compac t fro m whic h h e claim s t o exemp t us : we ar e persuade d her e t o giv e ou r allegianc e t o a n imag e o r sign , committing ourselve s t o jus t th e sor t o f mediatin g cultura l construc t w e are supposedl y bein g invite d t o avoid . Moreover , ou r ow n anonymit y matches th e blanknes s o f th e figure wh o summon s us . I f Whitman' s sentimentalized gestur e at direct addres s ("Mo n enfant!" ) seem s to singl e us ou t an d sustai n ou r uniqueness , hi s tex t instea d inaugurate s on e o f those symboli c ritual s i n whic h ou r identit y i s stipulate d i n functiona l rather tha n individua l terms : th e gestur e a t persona l intimacy , indeed , seduces u s int o foregoin g wha t i t seem s t o promise , initiatin g u s int o a n anonymous transactio n i n whic h ou r identit y wil l b e sustained , i n me diated form , onl y a s it s suppose d uniquenes s i s relinquishe d an d w e become instance s o f th e generi c addresse e Whitman' s writte n deicti c names. Despit e Whitman' s gestur e a t embrace , ther e i s a certai n emo tional distanc e lurkin g i n thes e lines ; i t register s a n anonymit y th e pas sage is not simpl y unabl e t o overcom e bu t itsel f exacts . The poet' s activ e i f ambivalen t participatio n i n thi s recruitin g o f subjects i s mor e eviden t i n announcement s i n whic h th e performativ e dimension i s mor e overt . A n apostroph e fro m "Poe m o f You , Whoeve r You Are " whic h I quote d earlie r thu s possesse s a rathe r chillin g effect , though Whitman' s gestur e o f electio n encourage s u s to overlook it : Whoever you are, now I place my hand upon you, that you be my poem, I whisper with my lips close to your ear, I have loved man y women an d men , but I love none better tha n you . (185 6 206-207)

Whitman's tex t doe s no t simpl y registe r th e impotenc e o f hi s figure o f voice o r wistfull y retur n u s t o th e publi c spac e fro m whic h tha t voic e sought t o summo n us ; her e inscription , a n instanc e o f th e generalizin g operation fro m whic h th e passag e claim s t o exemp t us , activel y recruit s us t o th e sor t o f symbolicall y mediated , culturall y conferre d identit y such operation s establish . I f th e poet' s livin g hand , mad e magicall y present, woul d besto w o n u s a mod e o f identit y exemp t fro m suc h mediation, th e dea d han d conveye d b y th e text , th e han d a s imag e o r representation, itsel f exact s th e fadin g Whitman' s gestur e a t intimac y seems t o fen d off . Th e melanchol y whic h seem s t o atten d th e fadin g o f the poet' s ow n presenc e int o hi s tex t serve s i n par t t o mas k thi s pre -

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emptive aspec t o f th e transmissio n h e initiates . Wor d magic—whic h should counte r symbolic transactions bu t which, i n its inevitable failure , always ends up in practice collapsing back into them—thus register s not only th e poet's wish t o escape th e strictures of th e symbolic, but also his desire t o wiel d it s power s himself , i n mor e drasti c i f supposedl y mor e beneficent form . Such symboli c power , though , lurk s i n Whitman' s apostrophe s onl y as a n unacknowledge d substratum . I f th e poet' s han d i s finally no t s o very differen t fro m th e han d Keat s thrust s towar d u s i n orde r t o haun t us, an d i f th e poet' s presence , lik e Keats's , i s on e w e woul d lik e t o imagine as living in order that it might cease being an avatar of the dead father, thos e ar e intimation s Leaves of Grass resist s rathe r tha n in vites, avoidin g th e reversal s Keats' s poe m exhibit s t o suc h disquietin g effect. Neither thi s entanglemen t no r Whitman' s attempt s t o hid e i t shoul d b e understood a s sign s o f mer e hypocrisy . The y suggest , instead , a n ambi tion tha t i s divide d an d a stanc e towar d transmissio n tha t i s deepl y ambivalent. Whitman's apostrophe s register not only his commitment t o discovering a sourc e o f intrinsi c authorit y anterio r t o culture , bu t als o both the contrary desire to wield cultural power and the wish to ennobl e it b y purgin g it s mor e disastrou s effects ; the y revea l th e poet' s impuls e to spar e u s the injur y h e ha s suffered , bu t als o hi s urg e to discharg e hi s anxiety b y passin g i t on . Woun d t o a tighte r pitc h tha n Wordsworth' s "Tintern Abbey, " o r eve n "Michael, " Whitman' s apostrophe s partici pate to a never quite determinable degree in the coercions they also want to resist , a t onc e repelle d an d fascinate d b y a structure o f transmissio n they occult yet exemplify . We need to atten d to this quotient of aggression , lest we over-idealiz e the effect s o f th e poet's speec h act s or the impulse s tha t motivat e them ; we flatte n ou t Whitman' s addresse s t o u s i f w e focu s solel y o n hi s generosity, o r o n th e melanchol y tha t attend s th e failur e o f hi s nobles t aims. Bu t w e als o nee d t o remembe r tha t th e poe t woul d lik e t o trans mute th e ver y injur y h e inflicts . Lik e Whitman' s figure o f presence , th e image o f a transmission exemp t fro m th e coercion s la w impose s i s no t only unstable but also destabilizing; it holds out to us the elusive promise of a n unalienatin g inheritanc e an d a n unalienate d identity . Unrealize d by Leaves of Grass an d strictl y unrealizable , th e prospects suggeste d b y

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the poet' s apostrophe s ar e properl y Utopia n o r apocalyptic , figures o f desire an d o f unassuage d discontent . Ye t th e passage s tha t evok e ou r liberation necessaril y activat e w h a t balk s desir e an d separate s u s fro m fulfillment.

Notes 1. D e Man offer s th e classic account o f thi s economy mobilize d b y epitaph an d the prosopopoei a tha t organize s it : se e "Autobiograph y a s De-Facement, " Rhetoric of Romanticism 6 7 - 8 1 . Se e als o Cynthi a Chase , Decomposing Figures 83-8 9 an d Debr a Fried , "Repetition , Refrain , an d Epitaph. " 2. Se e Breitwiese r 134-4 5 fo r a contrar y reading . Breitwiese r regard s a pro gram o f demystifkatio n a s central t o Whitman's addresse s t o hi s audience . 3. Se e Hartman , "Wordsworth , Inscriptions , an d Romanti c Natur e Poetry, " Beyond Formalism 206—30 , especially 225-26 ; an d "Romanti c Poetr y an d the Geniu s Loci, " Beyond Formalism 311-336 , especiall y 329 : "Thu s Wordsworth refuse s t o rene w archai c modes . A n unghostl y poetr y i s born , a tru e vernacular, 'word s tha t spea k o f nothin g mor e tha n wha t w e are.' " 4. Appropriatel y enough , I am unabl e t o relocat e thi s anecdote . 5. Fo r a readin g o f thi s catalogu e antithetica l t o th e on e I offer , se e Thoma s 12-22.

6. I cite the CR E text , whic h i s more unremittin g i n it s mania fo r enumeratio n than i s the original 185 5 version . 7. D e Ma n regard s thi s tensio n betwee n performativ e an d constativ e pole s a s intrinsic t o al l language : th e positiona l powe r o f th e word , whic h suggest s radical freedo m sinc e i t seem s t o inher e i n individua l utterance s an d speec h acts, depend s o n th e prio r existenc e o f code s tha t mak e positin g possibl e only b y making position a function o f differentia l structure s tha t ar e alread y in place . Fo r a concis e summar y o f d e Man's argument , se e Chase, Decomposing Figures 94-98. 8. O n th e alread y uttere d an d th e alread y bespoke n se e Bakhti n 293-9 4 an d 33i9. O n thi s point se e Larson 155-56 . 10. Thi s catalogue i s not presen t i n the 185 5 text ; se e V 1:130-32 . 11. Commentin g o n th e en d o f "Son g o f Myself, " Bloo m note s a simila r dy namic: "Th e haw k accuse s Whitma n o f belatedness , o f 'loitering, ' bu t th e poet i s on e wit h th e hawk , 'untranslatable ' i n tha t hi s desir e i s perpetual , always transcending act . There, in the twilight, Whitman arrest s the latenes s of th e day , dissolvin g th e presentnes s o f th e present , an d effusin g hi s ow n presence unti l i t i s ai r an d earth . A s th e atmospher e w e ar e t o breathe , th e ground w e ar e t o walk , th e poe t introject s ou r future , an d i s somewhere u p ahead, waitin g fo r u s to catc h u p " (Poetry and Repression 263—64) .

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12. Se e especially xiv-xxii , 14-20 , an d 56-59 . 13. Thi s visio n o f th e dea d preyin g upo n th e livin g i s o f cours e no t uniqu e t o Whitman; relate d preoccupation s indee d tur n u p repeatedly i n the writing s of th e poet's post-revolutionar y cohort ; se e Forgi e 53 . M y poin t i s not tha t Whitman di d no t shar e th e politica l concern s o f hi s era—o f cours e h e di d —but tha t h e redefine s th e danger s o f cultura l inheritanc e b y whic h hi s generation wa s especiall y trouble d i n such sweepin g term s tha t they excee d the scop e o f politica l adjudication , provokin g a n apocalypti c interventio n likewise har d to regar d as a trope fo r political action ; see chapter 8 , below . Even Emerson, who associate s the burden of cultural inheritance that preoccupied hi s generatio n wit h th e mechanis m o f writing , an d wh o accord s i t inclusive rathe r tha n narrowl y politica l scope , treat s th e proble m o f influ ence trope d b y th e rol e o f book s a s a dialecti c intrinsi c t o cultur e rathe r than a nefariou s interferenc e t o b e overcom e b y magica l means . O n thi s aspect of Emerson' s work se e Larson's valuable account (30-39) . 14. M y interpretatio n o f Whitman' s apostrophe s differ s sharpl y her e from Lar son's. Hi s respons e t o th e poet's claim s t o presenc e i s on th e whole dismis sive: "h e make s o f himsel f a figure o f voic e impatien t t o overlea p th e constraints o f representatio n altogether. . . . Ye t . .. suc h call s t o presenc e are bound to seem especially melodramati c an d unearned" (85). I have been arguing, on the contrary, that the import of Whitman's apostrophes depend s crucially o n th e contour s Whitman' s figure of presenc e appear s t o assume. In particular, th e culturall y provocativ e stanc e thes e announcement s impl y is boun d u p intimatel y wit h th e archai c bod y imag e the y suggest . Larso n thus cast s Whitman' s ambition s an d anxietie s i n comparativel y restricte d terms: "Whil e no t necessaril y false , th e pictur e o f th e America n Ada m sauntering dow n th e roa d i s deceptiv e s o fa r a s i t encourage s u s t o believ e that wha t Whitman mos t neede d fro m poetr y wa s th e assuranc e o f a self fathering authorit y fre e fro m th e affliction s o f persona l an d cultura l belat edness" (56) . This is, I take it, exactly wha t Whitman di d need fro m poetr y —though not , without qualifications, fro m political theory . 15. Se e fo r exampl e "Emerso n an d Influence, " A Map of Misreading 160—76, especially 166-72 . 16. I n quoting from The Prelude I cite book an d line rather than page numbers; as a rule I quote the 185 0 rather than the 180 5 text . 17. O n the intractable persistence of the daemonic and its centrality to Romanc e and Romanticism, see Hartman, "False Themes and Gentle Minds," Beyond Formalism 283-97 , especiall y 289 . 18. "Tim e an d Histor y i n Wordsworth " wa s publishe d i n a specia l issu e o f Diacritics i n 1987 ; the essay is a transcription o f a lecture de Man delivere d at the Christian Gauss Seminar in Criticism at Princeton in 1967 ; see "Time and History i n Wordsworth" 4 m. I take up some of de Man's later remarks on Wordsworth o n 334 . 19. O n this point see Ferguson 70 .

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20. O n th e resource s o f Wordsworthia n blan k vers e se e Hartman , Unmediated Vision 3 and 25 . 21. I here follow Weiskel ; see 141-42 . 22. O n Wordsworth' s ambivalen t relatio n t o Miltoni c blindnes s se e Hartman , Wordsworth's Poetry 99 . 23. Weiske l notes , however, tha t regressiv e tendencies ar e no t wholl y foreig n t o the Wordsworthian sublime , or wha t Keat s calle d th e "egotistica l sublime, " which Weiske l als o denominate s th e "positive " a s against th e "negative " o r "true" sublime ; se e especially 137 , 150-64 , 185 , and 194-204 . I n general , I plac e les s stres s o n th e regressiv e aspect s o f Wordsworthia n imaginatio n than Weiske l does ; I see it a s more implicate d i n the sublimit y an d Oedipal ization Wordswort h want s t o resist; se e 342—43. 24. Inasmuc h a s thi s yout h i s in hi s earl y twenties—Wordsworth' s first visi t t o Tin tern Abbe y havin g occurred i n 1793—w e canno t understan d hi s immer sion i n presenc e an d lac k o f interes t i n " a remote r charm , / B y though t supplied" a s exactl y literal ; th e autobiographica l trajector y th e poe t trace s is a kin d o f imaginativ e o r temperamenta l recapitulatio n o f a n earlie r psychi c development. 25. O n th e datin g o f "Tinter n Abbey " an d "Ther e Wa s a Boy " se e Poems 1:953-55. Th e classi c accoun t o f "Ther e Wa s a Boy " i s d e Man's : se e "Time an d Histor y i n Wordsworth," especiall y 5-9 , an d "Wordswort h an d Holderlin," Rhetoric of Romanticism 4 7 - 6 5 , especiall y 50-54 . I a m in debted a s well to Ferguson 69, 167-70 , an d 242-49 , an d Hartman , Wordsworth 's Poetry 19-22 . 26. I here , o f course , follo w d e Man : se e "Tim e an d Histor y i n Wordsworth " 7 - 8 an d "Wordswort h an d Holderlin " 5 2 - 5 3 . 27. Notin g th e "hangs " whic h describe s th e Churchyard , d e Ma n suggest s tha t the scen e itsel f no w reflect s o r repeat s th e boy' s precariousnes s ("Tim e an d History i n Wordsworth" 8) ; moreover, th e very presence of a compositiona l echo can b e understood a s an ironi c allusion t o the sort of reciprocit y o f cal l and respons e th e bo y ha d earlie r enjoyed , whic h ha s lapse d int o a mutenes s that claim s th e poe t a s wel l a s th e boy . O n ech o a s trop e i n Wordsworth' s work an d mor e particularly i n "Ther e Was a Boy," see Ferguson 161-71 . 28. O n epitap h a s a Wordsworthia n figure fo r poetr y se e Ferguson , especiall y 155-72, an d Hartman , Wordsworth's Poetry 12-1 3 a ° d 2 ° - D e Ma n remarks, wit h typicall y mordan t humor : "Hartma n i s quit e right i n sayin g that th e poe m ["Ther e Was a Boy" ] 'become s a n . . . extended epitaph ' . . . though on e migh t wan t t o ad d tha t i t i s the epitap h writte n b y th e poe t fo r himself, fro m a perspectiv e tha t stems , s o t o speak , fro m beyon d th e grave . This tempora l perspectiv e i s characteristi c fo r al l Wordsworth' s poetry — even i f i t oblige s u s t o imagin e a tombston e larg e enoug h t o hol d th e entir e Prelude" ("Tim e an d Histor y i n Wordsworth" 9) . 29. I n a n earlie r versio n o f th e poem , Wordswort h mourn s hi s ow n passag e from on e stat e t o another , rathe r tha n projectin g i t ont o a bo y wh o ha s

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since literall y die d (se e Poems 1:954-55 , an d d e Man , "Tim e an d Histor y in Wordsworth " 8—9) . Thi s revisio n probabl y responds , a s Hartma n sug gests, t o th e nee d fo r narrativ e closur e (Wordsworth's Poetry 20) ; bu t i t also serves to foreground th e topos of transmission , 30. Hartman' s remark s o n th e Wordsworthia n topo s o f "th e halte d traveler " are pertinent here: see Wordsworth's Poetry 3-18 . 31. O n th e characteristi c fadin g o f voic e int o inscriptio n i n Wordsworth' s po etry, se e Hartman , The Fate of Reading 161-6 3 a n ^ 2.89-92 . Discussin g Rousseau, Derrid a outline s a n economy simila r t o tha t se t in motion a t th e conclusion of "Tinter n Abbey": see chapter 5 , note 12 , above. 32. I quote th e 187 1 text , i n which Whitman' s deicti c dram a i s sharpest; se e V 1:62 fo r the various versions of this passage. 33. See , fo r example , th e materia l surroundin g th e firs t passag e jus t discusse d (1855 70) . 34. O n Lacan' s formulatio n o f th e relatio n betwee n deat h an d th e sig n se e chapter 5 , not e 92 , above . O n th e relatio n betwee n deat h an d th e poet' s presence i n Leaves of Grass, I am indebte d t o comment s b y Donal d Peas e on a draft o f "Whitman' s Presence : Apostrophe, Voice , an d Text i n Leaves of Grass," thoug h m y formulation s depar t fro m hi s suggestion s i n certai n respects. 35. I rea d th e "you " her e a s th e audienc e o f Leaves of Grass; th e openin g exclamation (" O Death!") migh t best be regarded as an ejaculation concerning but not addresse d t o death, though a modulation fro m on e addressee t o another is also possible. 36. I quote the 186 7 text . 37. I quote the 186 7 text , which introduce s "solel y to you." 38. I quote th e origina l 187 2 text , printe d i n CR E among th e poem s exclude d from Leaves of Grass. Th e poe m appear s i n th e "deathbed " edition , i n truncated form , a s "M y Legacy" ; se e th e editoria l not e o n CR E 615 ; fo r "My Legacy," see CRE 497-98. 39. O n the undermining of animatin g intention and performative efficac y whic h the signature suggests, see Derrida, "Signature Event Context" 193—96 . 40. Breitwiese r (131 , 136 ) points to the anonymity of the written "you," though he construes its import differently tha n I do. 41. Wordsworth' s enablin g fictio n i s thus that we choos e writing , rathe r than it choosing us. 42. O n th e Essays upon Epitaphs se e d e Man , "Autobiograph y a s De-Face ment," especially 74—81 . 43. O n Wordsworth's opposin g trope s of languag e a s incarnation an d languag e as garment , an d th e problemati c statu s o f th e antithesi s the y figure, se e d e Man, "Autobiograph y a s De-Facement " 79—9 1 an d Ferguso n 30-34 . O n the relate d passag e i n The Prelude (185 0 5.426-59 ) concernin g a drowne d man and his garments, see Cynthia Chase, Decomposing Figures 14-29 an d Warminsky 25-30 .

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44. Thi s hostilit y ca n appea r i n th e sor t o f compositiona l freak s Wordswort h frowns on , such as puns which mak e light of th e deceased person's name: Palmers all our Fathers were I a Palmer lived here. (2:68) It ca n lur k i n th e od d alacrit y wit h whic h poeti c closur e seem s read y t o mime the ferocity o f fate , producing an untoward comic effect : Aged 10 Weeks The Babe was sucking at the breast When God did call him to his rest. (2:93) On this sort of effec t se e Fried. 45. Owe n an d Smyser, Wordsworth's editors , mak e thi s associatio n t o Lear, i n addition t o notin g th e explicit referenc e t o Richard III; see Prose Works of William Wordsworth 2:106 . 46. Se e also Cynthia Chase , Decomposing Figures 63 an d 87 . 47. Se e also Fried 617 . 48. O n this point see Ferguson 86 . 49. A s Laca n notes , speakin g a s i t happen s o f th e beneficen t rathe r tha n th e harmful effect s o f ou r insertio n i n th e Oedipa l configuration , th e cultur e will ten d t o mak e goo d whateve r i s lackin g i n th e particula r familia l case ; see Ecrits 199 , 217 . 50. I n his 197 9 essa y "Words , Wish, Worth: Wordsworth," Hartma n take s u p Oedipal aspect s o f Wordsworthia n imagination ; se e especiall y 177-81 , 193-95, an d 200-205. So far as I know, though, the argument I am making here abou t Wordsworth' s attractio n t o th e feminin e a s a supposed alterna tive to Oedipal terror s is not one Hartman has advanced. 51. Hartman' s brie f bu t suggestiv e reconsideratio n o f thi s passag e i n "Words , Wish, Worth : Wordsworth " note s th e presenc e o f suc h Oedipa l material ; see 2 1 1 - 1 2 .

52. O n th e terror s o f thi s passag e se e als o Hartman , "Words , Wish , Worth : Wordsworth" 200-202 . 53. Se e Hartman , Wordsworth's Poetry 42-4 8 an d 60-67 ; an d Weiske l 4 8 53, 153 , an d 194—204 . Eve n th e Snowden vision , though , i s not lackin g i n the terrors , provoke d b y abruptl y reveale d power , characteristi c o f th e "negative" sublime , whic h followin g Weiske l I have bee n associatin g wit h Oedipalization. Weiske l himsel f indirectl y suggest s thi s aspec t of th e Snow den passage: "I t is inconceivable tha t Wordsworth shoul d hav e given u s the Mount Snowde n visio n withou t th e subsequent editorializin g i n whic h h e turns experience into emblem an d takes possession" (53; emphasis added). 54. I n his 197 7 essa y " A Touching Compulsion, " Hartman stresse s the associa tion Wordswort h make s betwee n natura l landscap e an d the materna l term , though h e does no t focu s there , a s in Wordsworth's Poetry, o n th e sense o f blending which I am associating with the register Kristeva calls the semiotic,

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or o n th e possibl e contras t t o Oedipalizatio n an d th e sublime ; se e The Unremarkable Wordsworth 25-30 . A genera l consideratio n o f th e tensio n between th e Oedipa l fathe r an d th e pre-Oedipa l mother , brough t t o bea r very briefl y o n Wordsworth , ca n b e foun d i n hi s Saving the Text; se e especially 75-10 7 an d 151-54 . O n th e "egotistical " sublim e a s a partia l reversion t o th e pre-Oedipa l an d a n attempte d foreclosur e o f th e paterna l term, see Weiskel 15 0 and 162-64 . O n th e negativ e or "proper " sublim e a s an evasio n o f th e materna l an d th e pre-Oedipal , se e Hertz , "Th e Notio n o f Blockage i n th e Literatur e o f th e Sublime, " The End of the Line 40-60 , especially 5 1 - 5 3 . O n th e rol e o f th e materna l i n Wordsworth , wit h specifi c reference t o th e passage I take up immediatel y below , see Ferguson 130-38 ; for a more sever e estimate se e Warminsky 2 2 - 2 5 . 55. Se e fo r exampl e Fredrickso n 2 0 - 2 1 ; Grossma n 20 3 an d 2o8n28 ; Pease , "Blake, Crane , Whitman , an d Modernism " 66; an d Larson , especiall y xx , 28, an d 246n7 ; Larso n argues , though, tha t Whitman' s ambivalen t politica l views le d hi m t o re-instat e a versio n o f th e ver y mediatin g mechanism s h e had supposedl y eliminated . 56. O n repetitio n a s a retrospectiv e attemp t t o maste r anxiety , se e the extende d discussion i n Beyond the Pleasure Principle 6-17 . Thoug h Freu d argue s fo r the theoretica l independenc e fro m th e pleasur e principl e o f bot h th e com pulsion t o repea t an d th e deat h driv e whic h i t supposedl y manifests , hi s opening discussio n focuse s instea d o n th e difficult y o f detachin g on e fro m the other in practice; Whitman's apostrophes , certainly, institute a repetitio n in the servic e of pleasure . The converse , however, ma y als o b e true: Lacan' s linking of repetitio n compulsion , an d th e fading o r deat h tha t inhabit s it , t o the rul e o f th e sig n suggest s tha t pleasure , fo r th e huma n subject , ma y always b e a pleasure i n repetition, haunted b y death. Enabled b y inscription , the pleasur e th e poe t derive s fro m th e perfectl y iterabl e scen e i n whic h h e appears t o u s i s a t an y rat e inseparabl e fro m a n anxiet y whic h provoke s aggression, a pleasure writte n ou t unde r th e sign of death . 57. O n th e aggressiv e aspect s o f th e poet' s apostrophe s se e Anderson , "Whit man's Ne w Man " 39—47 ; Grossman 195 ; and, of course , D. H. Lawrence' s classic account , especiall y 167 . I a m indebte d a s wel l t o Larso n (30-55) . While Larson' s lac k o f attentio n t o th e for m th e poet seem s to assum e in hi s addresses t o u s lead s t o a narrowe r interpretatio n o f wha t i t i s Whitma n intends t o by-pas s tha n th e on e I offer, I am i n substantia l agreemen t wit h his broadl y deconstructiv e suggestio n tha t th e poe t end s u p perpetuatin g some o f th e coercion s h e claim s t o alleviate . My sens e of thi s entanglement , though, i s rathe r darke r tha n Larson's . I n keepin g wit h hi s treatmen t o f apostrophe a s a devic e supposedl y furtherin g Whitman' s considere d medi tation o n a politica l problem , Larso n tend s t o regar d th e aggressio n mobi lized b y Whitman' s addresse s a s a n unavoidabl e hazar d o f constitution making an d cultura l transmission , a coercio n inseparabl e fro m th e nee d fo r consensus. Bu t a s th e luri d an d frequentl y violen t rhetori c provoke d b y th e

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problems o f writin g an d representatio n i n Whitman' s wor k suggests , w e need als o t o atten d t o bot h th e extrem e anxiet y coerciv e transmissio n pro vokes i n Leaves of Grass an d the attendant fascinatio n i t compels. I f we are willing t o se e th e elemen t o f coercio n i n Whitman' s relatio n t o us , tha t is , we shoul d als o b e willing (a s Lawrenc e was ) t o se e i t a s extreme; constitu tional democrac y surel y ask s les s o f u s tha n th e poe t does . Whitman' s apostrophes ma y thus hav e les s to tell u s about political praxi s or the perils of constitution-makin g tha n abou t th e terror s an d aggression s socializatio n can inspire—response s whic h ca n o f cours e b e mobilize d fo r ideologica l purposes. See chapter 8 , below . 58. O n this passage see Larson 51-52 . 59. Larso n (49 ) make s a similar point about Whitman.

7. Legacies The poe t i s a god, or , th e youn g poe t i s a god. Th e ol d poe t i s a tramp. —Stevens, "Adagia, " Opus Posthwnus 17 3

Over th e cours e o f Whitman' s career , th e paradoxe s t o whic h w e hav e been attendin g prove d difficul t t o sustain . Tenuou s itsel f ye t neve r quit e free o f th e liabilitie s i t supposedl y leave s behind , Whitman' s imag e o f voice prett y muc h vanishe s fro m th e poem s writte n afte r i860 . Th e national cataclys m tha t fo r a time became the focu s o f Whitman's work , demanding attentio n t o th e sor t o f intractabl e materia l rendere d i n Drum-Taps, i s certainly on e reaso n fo r thi s disappearance . Ye t the cosmi c opinionizing tha t i n tur n succeed s Whitman' s wa r poetr y assuage s no t only hi s lingerin g doubt s concernin g th e legac y o f th e nation' s conflict , but als o mor e intimat e anxietie s neve r quit e lai d t o res t b y th e elusiv e vision o f identit y promulgate d i n th e earlie r work. 1 Part s o f th e i86 0 Leaves of Grass als o sugges t tha t th e mod e o f presenc e s o exuberantl y imagined i n the prior incarnation s o f Whitman's boo k ha d itsel f com e t o seem untenabl e o r inadequate ; thi s re-valuatio n seem s du e onl y i n par t to th e darkenin g o f th e America n politica l horizon . Th e Calamus se quence struggle s t o accep t a mod e o f identit y shape d b y th e cultura l demands an d constraint s fro m whic h th e poet' s earlie r speec h act s ha d seemed t o exemp t him , an d t o celebrat e a transmissio n close r t o th e symbolic on e proffere d i n "Tinter n Abbey " tha n t o th e magical transac tions initiate d b y th e poet-her o o f th e 185 5 an d 185 6 Leaves of Grass, The Sea-Drift poe m "A s I Ebb' d wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " register s th e enormous cos t o f thi s accommodation . These piece s mar k a n en d t o th e poeti c projec t I hav e bee n tracing . Articulated mos t programmaticall y i n severa l o f th e poem s compose d for th e 185 6 edition , tha t projec t first emerge s i n Whitman' s comi c masterpiece "Son g of Myself, " shadowed b y the doubts an d demur s tha t 366

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re-appear mor e sharpl y i n i860 . Befor e turnin g t o Calamus an d "A s I Ebb'd," I thu s wan t t o loo k a t Whitman' s exuberan t bu t equivoca l beginning. Th e scop e o f "Son g o f Myself " offer s th e reservation s tha t trouble Whitman' s imag e o f voic e ampl e roo m t o appear ; bu t it s comi c mode tolerate s suc h doubt s wit h relativ e equanimity . Whitman' s caree r thus begin s wit h a poem tha t exhibit s somethin g lik e the play o f mystifi cation an d demystificatio n I hav e bee n relegatin g t o th e border s o f hi s mythopoeic project . Thi s peculiarit y help s accoun t fo r th e poem' s de served reputatio n a s Whitman' s majo r achievement . Th e virtua l disap pearance o f suc h flexibilit y i n subsequen t wor k mark s Whitman' s in creasing commitmen t t o enforcin g hi s imaginativ e visio n rathe r tha n probing th e paradoxes i t occasions .

"Song o f Myself " I thin k I coul d tur n an d liv e awhil e wit h th e animal s . . . . the y ar e s o placi d an d self contained, I stand and look a t them sometime s hal f the day long . They do not sweat and whine abou t their condition, They do not lie awake i n the dark and weep fo r their sins, They do not make me sick discussing their duty to God, Not on e i s dissatisfied . . . . no t one i s demented with th e mania of ownin g things, Not on e kneel s to another nor to his kind that lived thousands o f years ago —''Song o f Myself," 185 5 55-5 6 Failing to fetc h m e at first kee p encouraged, Missing m e one place search another , I stop some where waiting fo r you

—"Song of Myself, " 185 5 8 6

"Song o f Myself " i s Whitman' s comed y o f incarnation ; i t revel s i n the paradoxes occasione d b y the poet's effort t o imagine the world eithe r as th e produc t o f th e magi c wor d o r a s gris t fo r it s mill . I n thi s first, buoyant ritua l o f voca l performance , th e powe r o f voic e encounter s multiple center s o f resistance : bot h th e assimilativ e an d th e idealizin g tendencies I have been tracing through Whitman' s wor k repeatedl y foun der o n th e quirk y specificit y o f individua l live s an d objects . A s bot h Richard Chas e (59—66 ) an d Joh n Kinnair d (27—33 ) hav e argue d con cerning th e peculia r virtue s o f "Son g o f Myself, " Whitma n i s a t thi s

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point i n his career conten t t o celebrat e thi s tussle rather tha n determine d to resolv e it . Antipoda l sense s o f "identity, " bot h Chas e an d Kinnair d suggest, ar e thu s playe d of f agains t on e anothe r t o principall y comi c effect: th e poe m take s pleasur e bot h i n individua l quiddit y an d i n th e "merge" tha t intimate s ou r commonness . Fro m th e vantag e o f m y argu ment, thi s cosmi c comed y take s th e for m o f a n unresolve d struggl e between th e agglomeratin g power s o f th e performativ e wor d an d th e multiplicity i t trie s t o transmute . Voic e an d th e labil e energie s i t evoke s are pitte d i n th e poe m agains t soli d bodie s o f whateve r sort , whethe r they b e th e finit e form s i n whic h th e poe t himsel f assume s momentar y embodiment o r th e bodie s o f others , whic h voic e shoul d prope l towar d the merge . Bu t voic e itsel f i s the sit e o f a simila r struggle . Th e ritualize d aspects o f Whitman' s catalogues , whic h evok e a sens e o f th e word' s performative powe r an d see m t o activat e centripetal , assimilativ e ener gies, compet e wit h a tendenc y t o conspicuous , sometime s comicall y obtrusive metaphor , whic h diffuse s suc h ritua l forc e an d delay s th e mastery i t implies . "Son g o f Myself " als o employ s a mobile , frequentl y slangy idiom : i t draw s attentio n t o th e socia l provenanc e o f words , subverting th e sens e o f sacre d utteranc e b y recallin g th e profan e an d multiple use s of speech . This sor t o f comi c doubling , i n whic h virtuall y ever y assertio n an d every desir e i s countered b y its opposite, reflects i n part th e ebullienc e o f beginnings. Yet the comedy o f "Son g of Myself" is matched b y a delicate pathos likewis e unsurpasse d i n Whitman' s work , an d w e migh t als o understand th e poem' s tendenc y t o pois e betwee n alternative s bot h a s a function o f th e difficultie s tha t precipitat e th e poem' s wistfulnes s an d a s a wa y o f evadin g them . I f "Son g o f Myself " seem s confiden t enoug h i n the poet' s newl y discovere d powe r t o awai t it s ful l effec t wit h equanim ity, revelin g meanwhil e i n al l tha t temporaril y resist s hi s mastery , thi s tendency t o irresolutio n i s also a way o f diffusin g th e dangerou s aspect s of tha t power . Th e poem' s inclinatio n t o evad e closure , tha t is , serve s partly t o mas k th e sort s o f intimation s w e explore d i n th e previou s chapter. 2 Whitman' s inventiv e capacities , w e shal l see , ar e lavishe d es pecially o n devisin g multiple, and mutuall y subverting , versions of prior ity an d prolepsis ; th e poem' s wonderfull y extravagan t myth-makin g i s in par t a wa y o f avoidin g th e darke r aspect s o f a cultura l transmissio n "Song o f Myself" bot h resist s an d exemplifies .

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1. I f "Son g o f Myself " i s Whitman's comed y o f incarnation , i t i s none theless shadowe d b y a n anxiou s sens e o f wha t th e bod y ca n become . The poem's visio n o f th e bod y oscillate s betwee n th e antipoda l scene s of sections five an d twenty-eight , bot h o f whic h w e hav e alread y exam ined.3 I n sectio n five, th e recollecte d idyl l o n th e gras s define s flesh a s a sort o f eroti c doubl e o f voice , o f th e luxurian t "lul l an d hum " o f a speech prio r t o meanin g an d articulation ; th e bod y thu s evoke d seem s itself t o b e innocen t o f segmentatio n an d encoding . Th e stratifie d bod y depicted i n sectio n twenty-eight , b y contrast, experience s desir e a s a sor t of sparagmos, a violen t fragmentin g alon g line s o f cleavag e alread y marked ou t upo n o r withi n it. 4 Eroticism , w e saw , seem s i n sectio n twenty-eight bot h t o threate n th e cultura l codin g o f th e bod y and , i n the panic thi s disruption provokes , t o registe r th e power o f suc h inscrip tion. This dichotom y i s typica l o f Whitman' s first tw o editions . Wha t is les s characteristi c i s ho w fa r Whitma n i s willin g t o move , i n a celebratory mode , alon g th e continuu m stretchin g betwee n thes e pola r possibilities. Thi s flexibilit y depend s o n a n outloo k tha t i s essen tially comic : embodimen t itself , a s Kinnair d suggests , i s i n "Son g o f Myself" fundamentall y ironic . An y incarnat e form , howeve r perfect , is alread y a tangible , finite version , an d thu s a limitation , o f th e pro tean imag e o f voic e i n whic h th e poe m revels . "Son g o f Myself " i s dis posed t o celebrat e th e doublin g tha t results , offerin g a n ironica l sens e of th e bod y a s bot h a particula r thin g an d a chambe r fo r th e voic e which exceed s an d dissolve s suc h particularity . Mor e convincingl y tha n Whitman's subsequen t poems , "Son g o f Myself " thu s take s pleasur e in th e incarnat e selve s tha t resis t th e merg e a s wel l a s i n th e voic e that propel s it , lavishin g detaile d attentio n no t onl y o n th e poet' s own bod y bu t als o o n th e resilient , defiantl y individua l bodie s o f others. Ther e ar e limits , however , t o thi s revel : delightin g no t onl y i n the sor t o f fluid bodie s tha t sta y closes t t o voice , bu t als o i n wha t w e might cal l phalli c bodies , whic h a s i t wer e stan d u p fo r themselves , the poe m i s nevertheles s inten t o n wardin g of f th e encodin g tha t de prives th e bod y o f suc h independence , turnin g i t int o a sit e define d b y lack. "Song o f Myself" begin s with a voice assumin g embodiment :

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I celebrate myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. I loafe and invite my soul, I lean and loafe at my ease . . .. observin g a spear of summer grass. (1855 25) Here poe t an d audience , sel f an d other , bu t als o voic e an d bod y ar e brought int o equivocal relatio n b y Whitman's pla y on "assume. " If these lines dra w ou r attentio n t o th e proble m o f prolepsi s o r transmission— a topic t o whic h w e shal l return—the y als o defin e "Son g o f Myself " a s a comic exploratio n o f identity , distributin g th e poet' s sel f betwee n th e protean voic e engage d i n celebratio n her e an d th e bodie s thi s otherwis e elusive agen t put s on . Th e provocativel y insoucian t loafe r supposedl y mesmerized b y th e gras s i s th e secon d o f thes e incarnations ; lik e th e single spear h e contemplates , h e seems in his self-sufficiency suggestivel y phallic. Th e poet' s prio r incarnatio n i s easy t o miss , since i t i s nearl y a s fluid a s th e voic e tha t generate s it . Whitman' s addres s t o a possibl y plural "you, " i n lines two an d three , implies a process of vocal diffusion . In th e magica l univers e inaugurate d her e i t i s no t jus t th e poet' s words , but als o th e atom s h e put s on , tha t radiat e t o al l o f us ; the y defin e hi s body a s a n emanatin g energ y rathe r tha n a fixe d an d bounde d form . I t is not onl y th e poet' s discours e o r it s truth bu t als o thi s labil e bod y tha t we "shal l assume" : i n th e cours e o f th e poe m w e supposedl y assimilat e this presence , no t onl y takin g th e poet' s speec h an d breat h int o ou r interiors bu t thereb y minglin g his effusing bod y with ou r own . This i s th e versio n o f th e bod y "Son g o f Myself " celebrate s mos t easily. A s I argue d i n chapte r 4 , th e poe m offer s u s numerou s glimpse s of wha t w e migh t cal l a semioticize d body , a n elusive , indeterminat e presence tha t evoke s the archai c somati c spac e Kristeva term s the chora. The poet's abilit y t o metamorphos e fro m shap e to shap e i n the course of "Song o f Myself " itsel f suggest s suc h lability . Severa l o f th e particula r guises h e don s ar e als o conspicuousl y fluid . W e hav e ha d occasio n t o notice som e o f thes e elusiv e incarnation s already : th e invisibl e presenc e who i s "around , tenacious , acquisitive , tireles s . . . . an d ca n neve r b e shaken away " (185 5 31) ; th e figur e wh o ca n "fl y th e flight o f th e fluid and swallowin g soul " an d whos e "cours e run s belo w th e sounding s o f plummets" (185 5 61) ; th e rhythmicall y define d body , alternatel y ab sorptive an d effusing , evoke d b y th e catalogu e o f sectio n two . Ther e i s

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also th e bod y no t wholl y bod y o f sectio n four , whic h seem s a s impalpa ble as the transcendental deco r o n whic h i t weirdly leans : Apart from th e pulling and hauling stands what I am, Stands amused, complacent, compassionating, idle, unitary, Looks down, is erect, bends an arm on an impalpable certain rest, Looks with its sidecurved head curious what will come next, Both in and 6ut of the game, and watching and wondering at it. (1855 28) Section thirty-thre e likewis e offer s u s a diffus e for m whos e vestigia l discrete parts see m incongruou s enoug h t o occasio n som e quiet comedy : My ties and ballasts leave me . . .. I travel . . . . I sail . . .. m y elbows rest in the sea-gaps, I skirt the sierras . . .. m y palms cover continents, I am afoot with my vision. (1855 57) In "Son g o f Myself " th e bodie s o f thos e th e poe t encounter s o r imagines als o frequentl y assum e thes e dissolvin g contours . Th e twenty ninth bathe r o f sectio n eleve n an d th e "friendl y an d flowin g savage " o f section thirty-nin e ar e perhap s th e mos t extravagan t o f thes e portraits. 5 Whitman's catalogue s likewis e typicall y enucleat e th e bodie s the y ren der, catchin g the m u p int o rhythmi c pattern s tha t see m t o dissolv e soli d boundaries. A s w e sa w i n chape r 2 , deverba l nouns , whic h pu t barel y hypostatized processe s i n th e grammatica l plac e o f things , contribut e t o this effect, a s in the catalogue i n sectio n eigh t we looked a t there : The blab of the pave . . .. th e tires of carts and sluff o f bootsoles and talk of the promenaders, The heavy omnibus, the driver with his interrogating thumb, the clank of the shod horses on the granite floor. (185 5 31-32 ) The secon d o f thes e lines , however , offer s som e resistanc e t o Whit man's characteristi c dissolvin g o f incarnat e particular s int o ambien t rhythmic energies . Od d enoug h t o sna g ou r attentio n an d momentaril y impede th e catalogue' s forwar d flow , th e phras e "interrogatin g thumb " focuses briefl y o n a bod y movemen t tha t seem s quirk y rathe r tha n common; i t serve s t o isolat e th e omnibu s driver , markin g hi s identit y a s specific rathe r tha n shared . Th e catalogue s i n "Son g o f Myself, " t o which I will return, ar e ful l o f suc h gestures . As we shall se e a bit furthe r on, th e sens e o f quiddit y Whitman' s incongruou s trope s sugges t als o characterizes severa l o f the poem's mor e extended portraits ; this celebra tion o f th e kinesthetic peculiarity an d apparen t self-containmen t o f othe r

372. Legacie s bodies an d selve s is also relativel y rar e i n Leaves of Grass outsid e "Son g of Myself. " Such trait s ar e mor e commonl y attribute d t o th e poet . The y ma y fo r the mos t par t b e restricted t o hi m sinc e Whitman link s thes e qualitie s t o phallic prowess, a s a passage I cited i n chapte r 4 makes clear : [I] make shor t accoun t o f neuter s an d geldings , and favo r me n an d wome n fully equipped , And beat the gong of revolt , an d sto p with fugitive s an d them tha t plot and conspire. (1855 47) The phalli c completenes s displaye d her e i s associate d i n turn , i n Whit man's earl y editions , wit h a powe r o f self-productio n attribute d t o th e word i n it s magi c aspect : th e powe r o f positing , conceive d i n a magica l rather tha n symboli c mode , shoul d generat e a self-sufficien t subjec t rathe r than precipitat e it s fading . Phalli c bravad o an d delighte d self-contain ment thu s properl y belon g t o th e poet : insofa r a s Whitman' s wor k i s governed b y a mythopoei c imagination , i t i s th e poe t i n hi s finite guis e who incarnate s th e powers o f voic e an d word . Yet i n "Son g o f Myself " Whitma n i s willin g no t onl y t o len d thes e qualities o n occasio n t o others , bu t als o to prob e th e poet' s ow n posses sion o f them . Th e poet' s proclamation s o f phalli c self-deligh t ca n see m oddly insistent , suggestin g tha t hi s vaunte d self-completenes s is , para doxically, a n adversaria l stance : Showing the best and dividing it from th e worst, age vexes age, Knowing the perfect fitness and equanimity of all things, while they discuss I am silent, and go bathe and admire myself. Welcome i s ever y orga n an d attribut e o f me , an d o f an y ma n heart y an d clean, Not a n inc h no r a particle o f a n inc h i s vile, and non e shall b e less familia r than the rest. (1855 27) As exclusiv e a s i t i s exhaustive , thi s self-absorptio n shoul d secur e th e body agains t the divisions imposed b y the discourse the poet walks awa y from here ; i n "Son g o f Myself " th e poet' s phalli c bod y i s a n answe r t o the self-divided, castrate d bod y culture shapes. 6 As Thoreau wa s perhap s the first t o note , th e poe t thu s "occasionall y suggest s somethin g a littl e more tha n human. " "I t i s a s if, " h e wrot e Harriso n Blak e i n th e sam e 1856 letter , "th e beast s spoke " (quote d i n Untermeye r 965) . Thi s i s o f

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course a scenari o t o whic h "Son g o f Myself " turn s i n it s searc h fo r th e sort o f self-sufficienc y cultur e pre-empts : I think I could tur n an d liv e awhile with th e animals . . . . the y ar e so placid and self-contained. (185 5 55) Such a vantage i s not eas y t o occupy . Vita l t o th e argumen t o f "Son g o f Myself," th e poet' s assertion s o f phalli c master y thu s ten d nevertheles s to th e humo r o f th e tal l tale , lendin g Whitman' s epi c o f incarnatio n a frequent ai r o f comi c bravado : You sea! I resign myself to you also . . .. I guess what you mean, I behold from th e beach your crooked inviting fingers, I believe you refuse to go back without feeling of me; We must hav e a turn togethe r . . . . I undress . . . . hurr y m e out o f sigh t of the land, Cushion me s o f t . . .. roc k me in billowy drowse, Dowse me with amorous w e t . . .. I can repay you. (1855 45) In suc h passages , hyperbol e draw s attentio n t o th e exorbitan t aspec t o f the poet' s claims , ostentatiousl y makin g goo d th e sens e o f lac k tha t haunts th e divide d body . In "Song o f Myself " th e comedy occasione d b y the poet's proclamation s of phalli c self-sufficienc y i s no t alway s o f th e rathe r boisterou s sor t evident i n thi s las t example . I f th e poet' s phalli c bod y provoke s revelry , exhibiting a completenes s tha t cultura l inscriptio n threatens , i t ca n als o occasion wistfulness , sinc e i t mark s a limi t o f th e ver y positiona l powe r it instances : an y particula r guis e th e poe t assume s put s a sto p t o th e metamorphic possibilitie s his hitherto disembodie d voic e suggests. 7 "Th e motif o f 'Son g o f Myself, ' " Richar d Chas e thu s note s astutely , "i s th e self taking on a bewildering variety o f identities an d wit h a truly virtuos o agility extricatin g itsel f fro m eac h one " (66). Th e protagonist' s deligh t in inhabitin g a specifi c bod y mingle s pleasur e i n th e particula r guis e assumed wit h a satisfactio n abou t whic h h e i s less forthcoming ; a s i f h e still abide d elsewhere , apar t fro m th e limitin g for m i n which w e glimps e him, the poet seem s to remai n strangel y unapproachabl e an d inviolate . The quotien t o f low-keye d comed y i n sectio n nin e i s thus occasione d by somethin g lik e bemusement . Despit e th e joyou s deliriu m describe d there, th e poe t seem s t o tak e pleasur e no t onl y i n th e for m h e assume s

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but als o i n th e sligh t distanc e h e preserve s fro m it . Her e voic e itsel f seems oddly reticent , a s if it spoke fo r anothe r sel f stil l held i n reserve : The big doors of the country-barn stan d open and ready, The dried grass of the harvest-time loads the slow-drawn wagon, The clear light plays on the brown gray and green intertinged, The armfuls ar e packed to the sagging mow: I am there . . .. I help . . .. I came stretched atop of the load, I felt its soft jolts . . .. on e leg reclined on the other, I jump from th e crossbeams, and seize the clover and timothy, And roll head over heels, and tangle my hair full of wisps. (1855 32) Manifest her e a s a sor t o f residua l shynes s towar d th e scen e h e describes, the poet's typicall y les s than complet e immersion i n the particular form s h e assume s receive s explici t commen t mor e tha n onc e i n "Song o f Myself. " I n sectio n sixteen , a n avowa l o f self-satisfie d quiddit y is precede d b y a demu r tha t make s i t see m les s dogmati c tha n quietl y comic: I resist anything better than my own diversity, And breathe the air and leave plenty after me, And am not stuck up, and am in my place. (1855 41) In sectio n forty-two , th e poe t seem s les s proud o f th e particula r plac e he assume s than surprise d b y it : . . . . A call in the midst of the crowd, My own voice, orotund sweeping and final. (1855 73) Here voice , which shoul d b e the poet' s inviolat e core , seems momentar ily to los e itself i n the body i n which i t is temporarily ensconced : i t seems ventriloquized, appearin g a s th e voic e o f another , sinc e i t emanate s unexpectedly fro m a particular , finite form . Th e humo r occasione d b y this imbroglio i s peculiarly Whitmanian . A bi t furthe r o n i n th e poem , thi s sor t o f compromisin g specificit y i s mischievously dissolved . Th e particula r sel f wh o propose s t o stan d u p firmly an d testif y seem s t o metamorphos e int o a n unstabl e multitud e o f identities befor e h e can d o so : It is time to explain myself. . .. le t us stand up. (1855 76) That a t leas t i s on e possibl e readin g o f thi s line . It s humo r woul d thu s depend o n playin g of f a slightl y unctuou s scenario , suggeste d b y a reading o f th e " u s " a s a presumabl y tractabl e grou p o f follower s o r

Legacies 37 5 believers, agains t a mor e richl y comi c one : the risin g u p o f th e poet' s multiple selve s seem s giddil y insurrectionary , subvertin g no t onl y th e decorum o f th e grou p meetin g w e ar e invite d t o imagin e bu t als o th e very notions of testimony an d identity thi s decoru m reflects . In a similar vein , sectio n twent y revert s to the atomic literalis m o f the poem's openin g i n orde r t o mak e explici t th e comed y lurkin g i n th e paradox o f incarnation first suggeste d there : Who goes there! hankering, gross, mystical, nude? How is it I extract strength from th e beef I eat? What is a man anyhow? What am I? and what are you? All I mark as my own you shall offset i t with your own, Else it were time lost listening to me. (1855 43) Here th e delicatel y weighe d adjective s o f th e first lin e issu e int o th e reductive literalis m o f th e second , onc e mor e t o humorou s effect . I n these lines voice accosts the embodied identit y i t has assumed, ponderin g what turn s ou t t o b e a n unstabl e composit e i n severa l respects : o f seemingly self-sufficien t quiddit y an d unsatisfie d desire ; o f omnivorou s egotism an d universa l intimations ; o f th e fles h o f othe r creatures , in gested, an d the resultant bod y tha t i s the self. Voic e probe s th e contra dictions i n whic h incarnatio n ha s entangle d it , bumpin g u p agains t incongruous limitation s of its own protean potential . Alternating betwee n comi c bravad o an d comi c reticence , thes e por traits o f the poet i n his phallic but finite guises thus bespea k bot h deligh t and uncertainty . Suggestin g a self-sufficienc y dependen t ultimatel y o n a vision o f wor d magic , whic h woul d mak e th e body th e embodiment o f voice an d rende r i t independen t o f everythin g outsid e th e self , thes e passages simultaneousl y registe r no t onl y th e sens e o f limitatio n whic h these apparentl y self-generate d ye t finite forms imply , but also the attendant fragilit y o f thi s drea m o f th e self-sufficien t body . Gazin g wit h a n odd detachmen t o n form s h e imagine s himsel f t o be , the poe t hint s a t their vulnerability , thei r relatio n t o a n outsid e o r a n othe r tha t remain s unassimilated an d unmastered . I t i s a s i f th e fantas y o f th e bod y a s phallic, a s self-containe d an d self-engendered , coul d no t b e playe d ou t without callin g itsel f int o question . Tha t "Son g o f Myself " is nevertheless read y t o celebrat e thi s bod y i s on e measur e o f th e poem' s comi c poise.

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This fragil e visio n o f self-completio n i s also explore d throug h th e poet' s enchanted contemplatio n o f othe r selves . Th e poem' s comi c toleranc e for frequentl y incompatibl e perspective s an d multipl e center s o f author ity i s eviden t i n Whitman' s willingnes s t o discove r wha t I hav e bee n calling phalli c qualitie s i n thos e th e poe t confronts . Celebrator y lik e th e poet's self-portraits , thes e glimpse s o f phalli c exuberanc e nevertheles s seem peculiarl y intent . W e shoul d o f cours e understan d th e poet' s mes merized attentio n t o hi s phalli c demigod s a s a sig n o f desire . Bu t desir e itself i s i n par t a functio n o f th e precariou s statu s o f identit y t o whic h we hav e bee n attending . Th e poet' s rap t contemplatio n o f wha t appear s to b e th e radian t self-sufficienc y o f other s possesse s a n intimat e an d b y no mean s simpl e relatio n t o th e proble m o f hi s ow n putativ e complete ness. Th e phalli c master y th e poe t observe s migh t perhap s serv e t o confirm, o r els e challenge , hi s own . Bu t i t ma y instea d brin g i t int o being. Thu s whil e sectio n twent y tendentiousl y declare s tha t on e self contained identit y ca n "offset " another , i n "Son g of Myself" this joyou s struggle amon g riva l potentate s intertwine s wit h a les s overtly adversar ial ye t ultimatel y mor e unnervin g relatio n betwee n sel f an d other . Th e passage fro m sectio n twent y indirectl y implie s a s much . Th e poe t wh o must "extrac t strengt h fro m th e bee f I eat" become s himsel f b y incorpo rating someon e o r somethin g else . Eve n thi s incorporativ e procedure , moreover, i s pu t i n questio n b y th e comed y w e note d i n thes e lines , which turn s o n th e incommensurabilit y betwee n huma n identit y an d such absorptiv e physiologica l processes . N o longe r co-extensiv e wit h reality, th e poet lodge d i n a particular bod y mus t transac t relation s wit h an outside , relation s fo r whic h ingestio n tend s t o becom e a n awkwar d model. Fantasie s o f incorporatio n repeatedl y generat e comi c incongruit y in "Son g o f Myself, " a s th e poe t confront s th e disparit y betwee n hi s image o f voic e an d hi s finite body . I n sectio n thirty-on e thi s bod y get s overburdened whe n i t tries to realize literally the incorporative capacitie s which th e vocative word suggests : I find I incorporate gneis s an d coa l an d long-threade d mos s an d fruit s an d grains and esculent roots, And am stucco'd with quadrupeds and birds all over, And have distanced what is behind me for good reasons, And call any thing close again when I desire it. (1855 55)

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Here th e things th e poet call s close, which ough t t o have bee n take n int o the body , en d u p stuc k t o it s surfac e instead . Generate d throug h a literalized understandin g o f th e power s o f th e word, th e drea m o f incor poration founder s o n jus t thos e boundin g surface s whic h th e poet' s image o f voic e seem s t o dissolve , boundarie s tha t mak e palpabl e ou r finite status an d limite d capacities . Despite th e poet' s suppose d abilit y t o metamorphos e fro m voic e int o particular incarnat e form , "Son g o f Myself " thu s als o implie s another , less parthenogeneti c origi n fo r hi s phalli c body . Rathe r tha n reflectin g the punctual self-productio n wor d magi c should mak e possible, the sense of phalli c self-completio n woul d instea d originat e i n a comple x experi ence o f othe r bodies . An d eve n thi s paradoxicall y derivativ e self-suffi ciency woul d depend , no t o n th e magica l incorporatio n o f othe r selve s word magi c can als o suggest , bu t o n th e symboli c mechanism s o f identi fication an d introjectio n an d thei r imaginar y roots. 8 Partl y a taunt an d a challenge, othe r seemingl y self-sufficien t identitie s mor e cruciall y serv e as models fo r th e poet's ow n presumptiv e self-containment . Ye t in doin g so, the y unnervingl y sugges t tha t th e poe t owe s hi s apparen t self-suffi ciency no t onl y t o others , bu t ultimately , a s w e shal l see , t o th e socia l circuit tha t sustain s symboli c operation s an d determine s thei r particula r configuration. In th e comi c worl d o f "Son g o f Myself, " th e pleasur e th e poe t take s i n the exuberan t physicalit y o f other s i s mingle d mos t clearl y wit h a sens e of playfu l struggle . Th e eroticize d passage s tha t describ e th e labo r o r play o f thos e t o who m th e poe t i s attracted ten d t o focu s o n pattern s o f movement idiosyncrati c enoug h t o offe r resistanc e t o th e sor t o f absorp tive impulse s tha t dominat e severa l o f th e poem' s lon g catalogues . Lik e his descriptio n o f th e drive r wit h th e "interrogatin g thumb, " th e poet' s contemplation o f th e butche r bo y an d blacksmith s i n sectio n twelv e seems t o tak e pleasur e no t i n a sens e o f imaginativ e o r sensua l mergin g so muc h a s i n a n implicit , eroticize d tussl e i n whic h th e othe r parrie s such assimilation : The butcher-boy put s off hi s killing-clothes, or sharpens his knife a t the stall in the market, I loiter enjoying his repartee and his shuffle an d breakdown.

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Blacksmiths with grimed and hairy chests environ the anvil, Each has his main-sledge . . .. the y are all o u t . . .. ther e is a great heat in the fire. From the cinder-strewed threshold I follow their movements, The lithe sheer of their waists plays even with their massive arms, Overhand the hammers roll—overhand s o slow—overhand s o sure, They do not hasten, each man hits in his place. (1855 34-35 ) The enucleatin g energie s typical o f Whitman's wor k ar e not absen t here : suggested mos t strongl y b y th e wonderfu l coinage , a deverba l noun , describing th e movemen t o f th e blacksmiths ' torsos—"Th e lith e sheer of thei r waists"—th e merg e i s als o hinte d a t b y th e communa l activit y in whic h thes e worker s engage . Ye t th e cadenc e o n whic h th e passag e ends—its monosyllable s establishin g a slow , insisten t distributio n o f spondaic stresses—suggest s th e persistenc e o f syncopated , divers e ener gies rathe r tha n thei r dissolution : "eac h ma n hit s i n hi s place. " Peculia r usages—"Blacksmiths wit h grimed an d hair y chest s environ th e anvil " —likewise dra w attentio n t o a gritt y physicalit y an d a multiplicit y o f action an d energ y no t reduce d t o an y singl e flow. Simila r element s ar e a t work i n Whitman's precedin g descriptio n o f th e butcher-boy : hi s "shuf fle" an d "breakdown " evinc e kinestheti c energie s that woul d b e difficul t to subdue , a n effec t nicel y augmente d b y th e presen t opacit y o f Whit man's term s (thes e dances n o longe r bein g popular ones) . All these bodie s take palpable pleasur e i n their ow n individuality ; i t is one sourc e o f th e eroticis m tha t suffuse s thes e descriptions . Par t o f th e erotic tensio n here , however , i s mor e properl y poetic : i t derive s fro m a conflict betwee n th e absorptiv e energie s a t wor k i n th e poem' s languag e and th e muscula r activitie s tha t resis t reductio n t o them . Bein g o f a linguistic order , thes e assimilativ e energie s ar e no t a n over t featur e o f the represente d scene . Yet in "Son g o f Myself" th e poet's voic e typicall y hints a t their incipient embodiment : th e struggle here, in part, i s between the phalli c bodie s o f other s an d th e diffuse , semioticize d bod y o f th e poet. While th e assimilativ e tendencie s o f th e poet' s idio m ar e les s eviden t in th e portrai t o f th e African-America n dray-drive r tha t follow s i n sec tion thirteen , th e sens e tha t thi s figure represent s a taun t o r challeng e t o the poe t i s stronger ; i t i s establishe d b y device s analogou s t o thos e w e have just examined. Motivated i n part b y racial stereotypes , the resultan t

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sense o f eroti c ago n i s nonetheles s fundamenta l t o th e poem' s sens e o f the phallic body : The negr o hold s firml y th e rein s o f hi s fou r horse s . . . . th e bloc k swag s underneath on its tied-over chain, The negro that drives the huge dray of th e stoneyard . . . . stead y and tall he stands poised on one leg on the stringpiece, His blu e shir t expose s hi s ampl e nec k an d breas t an d loosen s ove r hi s hipband, His glance is calm and commanding . . .. h e tosses the slouch of his hat away from hi s forehead , The sun falls o n his crispy hair an d moustach e . . . . fall s o n the black of his polish'd and perfect limbs. I behold the picturesque giant and love him . . .. an d I do not stop there, I go with the team also. (1855 35) Perhaps becaus e Whitman' s iterativ e synta x an d th e absorptiv e ener gies it suggest s ar e pretty muc h absen t here , the shadowy , labil e body o f the poe t w e ofte n sens e hoverin g ove r th e represente d scene , present a s an imag e o f voic e eve n whe n no t mor e directl y depicted , seem s t o hav e disappeared. Instead , th e passag e give s u s a brief , enigmati c glimps e o f the poe t i n wha t appear s t o b e anothe r guise : " I behol d th e picturesqu e giant an d lov e him [ . . . . ] " Sectio n twelv e offer s u s a n equall y brie f bu t more explici t self-portrait : "Fro m th e cinder-strewe d threshol d I follo w their movements. " I n bot h thes e descriptions , th e poe t i s identifie d no t with th e assimilativ e energie s o f voic e an d th e diffus e presenc e the y imply, bu t a s a profile d figure, a finite bod y place d ove r agains t th e bodies t o whic h h e i s drawn. I n additio n t o th e ago n t o whic h w e hav e so fa r bee n attending—betwee n phalli c independenc e an d th e mor e archaic energie s o f th e merge—thes e passage s thu s als o focu s o n th e relation betwee n othe r selve s an d th e poe t i n hi s discrete , embodie d guise. Recalling tha t th e poe t i n hi s finite for m i s himsel f ofte n depicte d a s phallic, we migh t wan t t o trea t suc h moment s a s instance s o f th e impe rial "offsetting " proclaime d i n sectio n twenty : carryin g ou t th e wealt h of th e Indie s i n orde r t o brin g hom e th e wealt h o f th e Indies , th e poe t would o n thi s readin g b e capabl e o f enjoyin g th e phalli c self-sufficienc y of other s becaus e i t tallie s wit h hi s own . Whitman' s visio n o f magi c language i s marshale d t o sustai n thi s independen t origi n o f th e phalli c body. Ye t i n thi s poe m o f multipl e myth s an d frequentl y incompatibl e

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intimations, a differen t genealog y fo r th e poet' s vaunte d self-sufficienc y can b e extracted . I n th e lin e fro m sectio n twelv e quote d above , w e glimpse th e poe t a s a kin d o f profil e oddl y divorce d fro m Whitman' s image o f voice , a conspicuousl y inconspicuous , margina l figure no t him self characterize d b y the phallic attribute s tha t mesmeriz e him . The brie f evocation o f th e poet i n sectio n thirteen , whil e les s striking, accord s hi m a similarl y periphera l an d passiv e role . Th e sligh t sens e o f wistfulnes s that inhabit s thes e passage s migh t b e sai d t o emanat e fro m thi s profile d figure. O n thi s reading , encounter s wit h phalli c bodie s offe r no t a reflec tion o f th e poet' s self-sufficiency , bu t a mode l fo r it : rathe r tha n bein g encounters betwee n offsettin g equals , thes e passage s ar e suffuse d b y a desire that emanate s fro m lack . Other passage s i n "Son g o f Myself " mak e thi s specula r etiolog y o f identity mor e explicit . While the poet i s sometimes sai d t o creat e himsel f ex nihilo, h e elsewher e trie s o n a variet y o f provisiona l guises : partl y a celebration o f democrati c community , thes e identification s shoul d als o be understoo d a s tentativ e exercise s i n self-construction . Wha t th e poe t puts o n i s not jus t a possible socia l rol e bu t als o a possible body , a for m whose stereotypica l qualitie s serv e th e caus e no t onl y o f democrati c idealization bu t als o o f phalli c self-containment : th e stylize d bodie s th e poet assume s sugges t a n idealize d body-integrit y tha t i s i n som e sens e the poem's desideratu m rathe r tha n it s starting point. 9 I t is thus not onl y republican enthusias m tha t motivate s Whitman' s frequentl y sentimenta l portraiture: 10 Alone far in the wilds and mountains I hunt, Wandering amazed at my own lightness and glee, In the late afternoon choosin g a safe spot to pass the night, Kindling a fire and broiling the freshkilled game , Soundly fallin g aslee p o n th e gathere d leaves , my dog an d gu n b y my side. (1855 3^-33 ) Far les s compelling tha n Whitman' s kinestheticall y attentiv e portrait s o f butcher-boy, blacksmiths , an d dray-driver , thi s cliche d attemp t t o imag ine onesel f a s another , lik e othe r simila r effort s i n "Son g o f Myself, " i s nonetheless centra l t o th e poem' s dialecti c o f th e body . Th e poe t her e puts o n a neatl y cohesiv e identit y tha t wil l indirectl y underwrit e th e integrity o f hi s own . It shoul d b e eviden t tha t th e imaginativ e transaction s tha t organiz e a passage lik e thi s on e ar e o f a les s archai c orde r tha n thos e whic h shap e

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much o f Whitman' s work . W e hav e her e t o do , no t wit h a fantas y o f incorporation, sustaine d b y an appea l t o the chora o r the magical confla tion o f namin g an d ingestio n tha t seem s to restor e thi s register , bu t wit h identification an d introjection . Some o f th e poem' s mor e explicitl y eroti c reverie s als o abando n th e fluid mergin g typica l o f Whitman' s work . Instea d the y depic t a n econ omy o f desir e i n whic h others , throug h thei r attention s rathe r tha n b y virtue o f th e poet' s magica l absorptiv e powers , migh t besto w o n hi m a completeness the y see m t o possess . I n sectio n fourteen , th e poet' s brie f but intensel y imagine d passivit y suggest s no t onl y a stylize d femininity , but als o a n imaginar y exchang e i n whic h h e woul d acquir e phalli c attributes b y seducin g thos e wh o alread y posses s them . Th e poet' s pas sive posture i s especially strikin g sinc e it appears, in the first and thir d o f the line s below , i n th e mids t o f a n otherwis e conspicuousl y phalli c self portrait—a self-portrai t i t effectively enables: 11 What is commonest and cheapest and nearest and easiest is Me, Me going in for my chances, spending for vast returns, Adorning myself to bestow myself on the first that will take me, Not asking the sky to come down to my goodwill, Scattering it freely forever . (185 5 36) Like th e phalli c portrait s tha t preced e i t i n th e poem , thi s passag e i s poised betwee n celebratin g a putativ e self-sufficienc y ("Scatterin g i t freel y forever") an d displayin g th e econom y tha t generate s th e illusio n o f it . Here th e integrit y o f th e poet' s body , provisiona l rathe r tha n assure d and reflecte d rathe r tha n originary , seem s t o depen d no t o n a n archai c completeness sustaine d b y wor d magic , bu t o n hi s insertio n int o a n economy o f desir e whos e inter-relate d position s h e wil l com e t o occup y in prope r turn . A s th e stylize d gende r role s adduce d her e imply , th e poet's bod y imag e i s a functio n no t onl y o f th e bod y image s o f others , but als o o f th e symboli c syste m b y whic h thos e other s hav e themselve s been shaped , an d throug h whos e ritual s the y pursu e th e cours e o f thei r desire. The specula r origi n o f th e phalli c bod y thu s ultimatel y leave s th e poet vulnerabl e t o mechanism s tha t "Son g o f Myself, " lik e th e res t o f Whitman's work , i s inten t o n resisting . A s w e shal l se e b y examinin g some of th e poem's grimme r portraits , thi s etiology make s apparen t self sufficiency a produc t o f th e ver y mediatin g socia l structure s whic h a properly phalli c bod y an d prope r identit y shoul d b e able to dissolve .

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Whitman's willingnes s t o entertai n a heterodo x accoun t o f th e poet' s origins i s perhap s th e crucia l instanc e o f th e comi c equanimit y tha t characterizes "Son g o f Myself. " Bu t th e poem' s goo d humo r ha s it s limits. S o fa r a s Whitman' s portrait s o f th e bod y ar e concerned , thes e are reache d a s th e poe t attend s t o thos e th e cultur e ha s maime d o r humiliated. Partl y a n inde x o f Whitman' s radica l egalitarianism , thes e disturbing description s ca n als o b e understood a s painful foray s int o th e risks o f self-fashioning . In th e conspicuousl y fantasmati c univers e o f "Song o f Myself, " the y serv e i n par t t o tes t ou t th e consequence s o f th e poet's intimatio n tha t hi s sens e of hi s own bod y derive s fro m a sequenc e of identifications , rathe r tha n springin g ful l blow n fro m hi s spermati c word. Whitman's portrait s o f damage d bodie s sugges t tha t thi s proces s o f internalization leave s the poet ope n t o som e frightenin g involvements . I t is true tha t Whitman' s claim s t o posses s on e identit y wit h al l those wh o suffer—"I a m th e ma n . . . . I suffered . . . . I was there " (185 5 62)—d o not alway s fee l credible . The y ma y indee d beli e th e comprehensivenes s of socia l imaginatio n t o whic h the y ar e mean t t o attest : focusin g o n images o f broke n bodie s whic h th e poe t ca n supposedl y assum e a s hi s own, thes e passage s ar e typicall y fa r les s attentive t o th e dense , an d les s accessible, social historie s tha t shap e th e wounded selve s with who m th e poet claim s t o identify , historie s tha t presumabl y differentiat e th e per ceptions o f thes e sufferers fro m th e poet's intuition s o f them . Yet a mor e general sens e of th e power o f socia l mechanism s pervade s these portrait s nevertheless. B y no mean s self-sufficien t o r self-contained , severa l o f th e bodies th e poe t observe s ar e shattere d testament s t o th e shapin g powe r of political , ideological, an d economi c formations : The disdain and calmness of martyrs, The mothe r condemne d fo r a witc h an d burn t wit h dr y wood , an d he r children gazing on; The hounded slav e that flags in the race and leans by the fence, blowing and covered with sweat, The twinges that sting like needles his legs and neck, The murderous buckshot and the bullets, All these I feel or am. (1855 62) The demoti c bonhomi e tha t aspire s t o overcom e suc h socia l violenc e simply b y welcomin g it s victim s bac k int o th e fol d wit h ope n arm s ca n

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feel rathe r forced; 12 s o ca n attempt s t o evok e a genuinel y individua l sufferer wit h who m th e poet supposedl y commune s a s the perfect dem ocrat.13 The poem' s portrait s o f socia l violenc e ar e indeed characteristi cally mos t successfu l whe n mos t generalized . Whitma n i s capabl e o f a sort of allegorica l portraitur e not unworthy o f Dante : Here and there with dimes on the eyes walking, To feed the greed of the belly the brains liberally spooning. (1855 73) They who piddle and patter here in collars and tailed coats . . .. I am aware who they are . . .. an d that they are not worms or fleas, I acknowledge the duplicates of myself unde r all the scrape-lipped and pipelegged concealments. (1855 74) Attending t o passage s o f simila r violenc e thoug h o f a less allegorica l sweep, Kerr y Larso n astutel y point s t o th e darke r aspect s o f a contras t whose comi c mode we noted earlier. These mangled bodie s serve in part as foils fo r the poet's image of voice : the speake r roam s throug h a galler y o f presence s helplessl y trappe d i n th e constraining for m o f thei r ow n bodies . . .. Holdin g u p th e bod y t o vie w a s infinitely woundable is here to uphold the invulnerable sway of an onlooker who is nothing but disembodied voice.. . . (140) Yet as Larson implies (140) , "Song of Myself" is by no means lacking in intimations o f th e poet's vulnerabilit y t o jus t such wounding. Whil e th e disembodied consciousnes s observin g citizen s "wh o piddl e an d patter " claims a n affinit y no t wit h suc h degrade d actualit y bu t instea d wit h a n essence tha t supposedl y remain s inviolat e beneat h it , on e o f th e poem' s key moment s o f crisi s i s precipitate d b y intimation s diametricall y op posed to this sort of assurance : Askers embody themselves in me, and I am embodied in them, I project my hat and sit shamefaced and beg. I rise extatic [sic] through all, and sweep with the true gravitation, The whirling and whirling is elemental within me. [38] Somehow I have been stunned. Stand back! Give me a little time beyond my cuffed hea d and slumbers and dreams and gaping, I discover myself on the verge of the usual mistake. (1855 68)

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The middl e stanz a here , delete d afte r i860 , alleviate s otherwis e an guished recognitions . I t unconvincingl y suggest s a visionar y transcen dence no t onl y o f th e sociall y impose d suffering s th e poe t observes , hi s sympathy fo r whic h ha s becom e nearl y unbearable , bu t als o o f identifi cations tha t b y no w posses s rathe r terrifyin g implications. 14 Thes e include, bu t ar e no t limite d to , th e prospec t tha t th e poet' s ow n bod y might b e subjecte d t o a litera l woundin g simila r t o tha t h e observes . They encompas s a s wel l a sens e o f th e danger s o f identification : i n a violent socia l space , the bod y imag e th e poet assume s wil l necessaril y b e shaped b y intimation s o f injury . Th e mutilate d o r degrade d selve s b y whom h e i s haunte d als o sugges t tha t th e specula r constructio n o f th e body, once begun, is difficult t o circumscribe, making identity dependen t on th e ver y scenari o th e poe t hope s t o avoid : takin g i n th e image s o f other bodie s t o constitut e hi s own , th e poe t thereb y open s himsel f a s well t o th e violen t socia l force s an d coerciv e symboli c syste m tha t hav e shaped them . In suc h disastrou s instance s a s those I have bee n detailing , this shapin g involve s a grotesqu e violatio n o f autonom y an d integrity . Like th e sufferer s h e observes , th e poe t shape d b y thi s socia l scen e wil l in some sense also b e radically maime d an d incomplete . Registering an d respondin g t o th e damag e don e b y bot h slaver y an d nascent capitalism, 15 an d implyin g th e nee d fo r a redeeme d bod y politi c that wil l no t b e guilt y o f suc h sins , passage s lik e thi s thu s als o offe r a painful versio n o f th e narrativ e o f self-constructio n alread y implie d i n the poem' s portrait s o f mor e triumphan t selves . Attending t o hi s phalli c heroes, th e poe t take s fro m the m a completenes s whos e borrowe d o r derivative statu s suggest s hi s own lack ; her e suc h lack , violently marke d on th e bodie s o f others , i s itsel f introjected . Fa r fro m bein g self-engen dered, ou r apparen t integrit y i s derived , a functio n no t onl y o f other s but als o o f th e entir e socia l configuratio n o f whic h the y ar e part . Eve n the phallic body depend s o n th e force s i t seems to kee p a t bay . Characteristically, th e poem s o f Whitman' s first tw o edition s pul l back fro m suc h disturbin g intimations . The y stee r clea r o f th e vicissi tudes o f introjection , instea d marshalin g th e magi c wor d a s incorpora tive powe r i n orde r t o dissolv e int o th e plenu m o f th e sel f othe r bodie s and th e danger s the y auger . Displayin g a comi c equanimit y virtuall y unique i n Whitman' s work , "Son g o f Myself " celebrate s a n eroti c ago n of discret e bodie s an d selves , despit e th e disaster s t o whic h th e identifi cations o n whic h i t turns ca n lead .

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2. This equanimit y concernin g th e bod y derive s i n part fro m Whitman' s image o f voice . Despit e th e vicissitude s o f it s attempt s t o find adequat e embodiment, voic e remain s a privilege d figure fo r identit y i n "Son g o f Myself." Th e poet' s voic e ma y hav e troubl e dissolvin g others , o r ge t temporarily enmeshe d i n a bod y itself . Bu t neithe r th e comi c no r th e more anxiety-provokin g incongruitie s thes e adventure s amon g incarnat e particulars occasio n quit e dethrone s Whitman' s governin g trope , sinc e voice, i n th e poem , ca n recove r itsel f b y withdrawin g fro m th e ver y embodiments wit h whic h i t flirts. 16 The poem' s opennes s t o contradiction , however , i s no t limite d t o Whitman's exploration s o f th e body . I n "Son g o f Myself " voic e als o confronts dispersiv e tendencie s close r t o home . Th e ritua l powe r o f utterance i s unsettled b y a tendency t o metaphor , whic h foreground s th e human rathe r tha n natura l provenanc e o f th e word an d suggest s tha t it s force i s pragmatic rathe r tha n magical . Attentio n t o slang , and t o incon gruous ranges of vocabulary wittil y juxtaposed, furthe r suggest s that thi s pragmatic powe r i s necessaril y entangle d wit h question s o f cultura l au thority an d ca n b e wielde d effectivel y onl y b y thos e wh o atten d t o it s configurations. Th e poet' s utteranc e i s thus immerse d i n th e ver y socia l conflicts fro m whic h Whitman' s stylize d litanie s see m a t first t o exemp t it. Lik e th e divide d sens e o f th e bod y "Son g o f Myself " explores , thi s probing o f th e poem' s imag e o f voic e evince s a negativ e capabilit y Whitman soo n prove d unabl e t o sustain . In the poem's catalogues , dispersive linguistic energies intertwine wit h a powe r o f resistanc e ascribe d t o thing s themselves . Whitman' s litanie s are marke d b y th e sor t o f attentio n t o idiosyncrati c detai l w e note d a s well i n som e o f hi s mor e extende d portraits . Suc h detailin g tend s t o focus o n kinestheti c particulars , lendin g individual creature s an d object s a solidit y unusua l i n Whitman' s work ; th e worl d th e poe t encounter s can see m genuinel y multipl e an d unassimilable . Th e lon g catalogu e tha t dominates th e poem' s thirty-thir d sectio n offer s a numbe r o f thes e act s of attention : w e encounte r "th e ry e a s i t ripple s an d shade s i n th e breeze"; th e "lo w scragge d limbs " t o whic h th e poe t hold s (185 5 58) ; "the geese " tha t "ni p thei r foo d wit h shor t jerks " (185 5 59) . Suc h observed particular s see m especiall y resistan t t o th e dominan t flow o f Whitman's catalogue s whe n the y ar e conveye d b y coinage s o r pith y misspellings, whic h len d th e wor d somethin g o f th e quiddit y discovere d in th e thing : "A t th e cider-mill , tastin g th e swee t o f th e brow n sqush "

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(1855 59) . Whitma n obtain s a simila r effec t b y employin g term s tha t have th e ai r o f bein g neologism s thoug h the y ar e not : "Th e prostitut e draggles he r shawl , he r bonne t bob s o n he r tips y an d pimple d neck " (1855 39 ; emphasis added). Like suc h idiosyncrati c vocabulary , metaphorica l term s ca n serv e t o draw ou r attentio n no t onl y t o th e resistance creature s an d objects offe r to th e poet' s absorptiv e impulses , bu t als o t o th e wa y languag e itsel f registers thi s resistanc e i n th e ver y ac t o f tryin g t o overcom e it . Thi s disturbance need not b e spectacular to b e effective: "Son g of Myself " is sprinkled wit h term s tha t prov e t o b e metaphorica l onl y i f w e devot e special attentio n t o them; they quietl y engag e the pervasive othernes s o f things. A figurativ e dimensio n i s jus t barel y noticeable , fo r example , i n Whitman's descriptio n o f th e rattlesnake i n section thirty-three: "Wher e the rattlesnak e sun s hi s flabby length o n a rock " (185 5 57; emphasi s added). Her e th e poet' s struggl e t o nam e wha t h e see s appear s i n th e tension betwee n a physical , concret e ver b an d adjectiv e an d th e mor e abstract nou n t o whic h the y attach , a nou n whic h thu s function s a s a trope, a slightl y awkwar d usag e provoke d b y th e foreignnes s o f th e creature th e poe t look s at . Sligh t displacement s towar d th e figurative also mark the following: "th e sharp-peaked farmhous e with its scalloped scum" (185 5 57 ; emphasi s added) ; "th e mockingbir d sound s hi s deli cious gurgles" (185 5 59 ; emphasis added). The movemen t towar d figure is no t alway s s o unobtrusive . "Son g o f Myself" is studded wit h th e sort of conspicuousl y metaphorica l term s a Wordsworthian o r Coleridgea n taxonom y woul d catalogu e a s examples of fanc y rathe r tha n imagination , instance s o f figuration notabl e fo r their improbabilit y an d seemin g inappropriateness: 17 "th e alligato r i n his tough pimples sleep s by the bayou" (1855 57 ; emphasis added) ; "the ground-shark's fin cut s like a black chip ou t o f th e water " (185 5 58 ; emphasis added) . Suc h trope s provid e a jolt o f surpris e tha t defamiliar izes th e object , abruptl y impedin g th e assimilativ e momentu m o f th e poet's litanies b y condensing th e sense of strangenes s that lurks in Whitman's les s riveting figures. In such moments , creature s an d objects see m to resis t no t onl y th e poe t bu t als o th e ac t o f namin g whic h ha s bee n provoked t o suc h contortion s i n attemptin g t o ge t a grip o n them . On e way t o sugges t ho w muc h a t odd s suc h fancifu l trope s ar e wit h Whit man's characteristi c practic e i s t o not e tha t th e figures just cite d woul d

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be perfectl y a t hom e i n th e wor k o f Mariann e Moore . Moore' s bristl y lists ca n b e rea d a s subversion s o f th e sublim e poeti c o f whic h Whit man's earl y edition s offe r a hyperbolic , becaus e avowedl y magical , in stance. I n "Song of Myself, " though, Whitma n play s Moor e t o hi s ow n shaman, impeding the very rituals of appropriatio n i n which he engages. The crucia l sourc e fo r th e divide d sens e o f th e wor d tha t result s i s probably Emerson. Whitman seems on the whole to have read Emerson's essays wit h a tenacious literalis m tha t wa s extrem e i f no t unexampled . The visio n o f languag e w e trace d i n chapte r 5 , which reache s a kind o f apotheosis in contemplating the resources of the proper name, gets much of it s impetu s fro m th e realist , correspondentia l stran d o f Emerson' s work mos t eviden t i n Nature. Bu t a s Juli e Elliso n argues , followin g Bloom, fro m a t least the time o f "Th e Poet " Emerson's wor k i s marke d by an extravagantly prodiga l sens e of metaphor , whic h comport s wit h a nominalist rathe r tha n realis t theor y o f languag e (195-208) . A s Elliso n suggests, Emerson' s deligh t i n producin g multipl e figures, cascadin g se ries o f image s i n whic h eac h trop e displace s th e on e befor e it , ca n b e understood a s a n expressio n o f hi s growin g sens e o f namin g itsel f a s displacement, a s fertil e misapprehensio n (166-74) . Extravagan t us e o f trope can suggest that the capacity of the word to grasp the thing is itself figurative—that ou r power , whic h lie s i n figuration, i s nomina l an d pragmatic rathe r tha n bein g grounde d i n th e orde r of things . Conspicu ous metapho r ca n also serve to dramatiz e th e peculiarly huma n tempor ality se t i n motio n b y language : i f th e nam e i s a figure, i t propel s u s toward a future b y positing a vision which ou r own commitmen t t o ou r tropes ca n hel p mak e true : "al l language, " Emerso n suggest s i n "Th e Poet," "is vehicular and transitive, and is good, as ferries and horses are, for conveyance , no t a s farm s an d house s are , fo r homestead " (3:2c). 18 This prospective , pragmati c powe r i s quit e differen t fro m th e instanta neous mastery of the thing supposedly exercise d b y the so-called organi c name. A crucia l sourc e o f pleasur e i n th e passage s fro m "Son g o f Myself " we hav e bee n examining , suc h capriciou s figuration an d th e nominalis t vantage i t implie s soo n virtuall y disappea r fro m Whitman' s work . Th e object lose s th e othernes s tha t fancifu l metapho r conspicuousl y violate s and thus ultimately sustains ; the name is rooted firmly, as if "untouche d / B y trop e o r deviation " (Stevens , Collected Poems 471) , i n th e ritua l

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power o f th e prope r whic h a n increasingl y unrelieve d verba l stylizatio n implies. The magica l statu s o f th e poet's wor d i n the poems tha t follo w "Son g of Myself" i s suggeste d no t onl y b y stylize d synta x an d avoidanc e o f conspicuous metaphor , bu t als o b y idiomati c pruning . "Poeti c style, " notes Mikhai l Bakhti n i n remark s applicabl e t o th e rituall y oriente d utterance o f muc h o f Leaves of Grass is b y conventio n suspende d fro m an y mutua l interactio n wit h alie n discourse , any allusion to alien discourse. . . . . I t follow s tha t an y sens e o f th e boundedness , th e historicity , th e socia l determination an d specificit y o f one's own languag e is alien to poetic style, and therefore a critical qualifie d relationshi p t o one' s ow n languag e (a s merely on e of many languages in a heteroglot world) is foreign t o poetic style. . . . (285)19 This commitmen t t o th e monologic , Bakhti n argues , places poetr y i n the servic e o f politica l centralizatio n an d hegemon y (287) . Lyri c utter ance nonetheless sustain s a fantasy tha t th e poet's speec h i s exempt fro m such historica l entanglement , it s avoidanc e o f competin g discourse s giv ing the illusio n tha t the word plunges into the inexhaustible wealth and contradictory multiplicity of the object itself, with its "virginal," still "unuttered" nature. .. . (278) The visio n o f th e poe t a s adami c name r i s thu s a recurren t figure fo r lyric authority : Only the mythical Adam, who approached a virginal and as yet verbally unqualified world with the first word, could really have escaped from star t to finish this dialogic inter-orientation wit h the alien word that occurs in the object. Concrete historical human discourse does not have this privilege. . . . (279) Adamicism, we saw in chapter 5 , is a crucial element i n Whitman's pros e tracts o n language , whic h ar e als o inten t o n explainin g awa y th e powe r of th e "alie n word " an d "historica l huma n discourse " t o stan d betwee n the poet an d suc h originar y naming . We sa w a s well , however , tha t Whitman' s adamicis m an d th e recla mation projec t i t authorizes overla p wit h another , potentiall y competin g

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vision o f language . Th e untid y semanti c an d discursiv e jostlin g Bakhti n associates wit h th e notio n o f heteroglossia , I argued, i s ultimately mad e to subserv e magica l ends , paradoxicall y centerin g linguisti c authorit y i n the poe t himself ; bu t Whitman' s interes t i n decentralize d linguisti c in novation, w e noted , i s no t wholl y attributabl e t o suc h possibilitie s fo r dialectical reversal . "Slan g i n America " i s particularly enthusiasti c i n it s treatment o f demoti c speech , championin g slan g becaus e i t reveal s pop ulist linguisti c energie s tha t resis t centralize d authorit y an d illustrate s dramatically th e socially saturated an d politically intereste d statu s of an y discourse. 20 Th e essa y finds it s match , amon g Whitman' s poems , i n th e idiomatic mobilit y o f "Son g o f Myself" : revellin g i n th e competin g social vision s registered b y heteroglossia, Whitman play s the centralizin g tendency o f ritua l addres s of f agains t th e dispersiv e fac t o f idiomati c conflict. Masterfull y collagin g myria d verba l texture s or , whe n i t want s to, juxtaposin g incongruou s one s t o comi c effect , "Son g o f Myself " performs tha t "danc e o f th e intellec t amon g words " Ezr a Poun d wa s later t o cal l logopoei a (Pound , Literary Essays 25)— a practic e Poun d claimed, surely under th e grip of a n anxiet y o f influence, t o have encoun tered onl y i n Propertiu s an d Laforg e (Pound , Literary Essays 33). 21 Th e mode i s quintessential^ American , an d th e discursiv e melang e o f "Son g of Myself " alread y anticipate s th e mor e ambitiousl y orchestrate d ca cophony o f Huckleberry Finn. "Song o f Myself " offer s ampl e evidenc e o f Whitman' s penchan t fo r slang. Hi s demoti c term s ar e judiciousl y placed , bein g deploye d fo r maximum leverage . Th e sudde n shif t i n idio m suc h intrusion s accom plish serve s typicall y t o re-direc t whateve r argumen t i s i n progress , th e juxtaposed vocabularie s mobilizin g competin g perspectives . Thus , fo r example, th e solemnit y towar d whic h th e poet' s guesse s abou t th e gras s in sectio n si x graduall y modulat e i s deftl y re-inflecte d b y th e sudde n appearance o f slan g term s tha t len d a n earth y qualit y an d a suggestio n of resilienc e t o som e otherwis e sombe r line s devote d t o detailin g th e return o f eart h t o earth : Or I guess the grass is itself a child . . .. th e produced babe of the vegetation. Or I guess it is a uniform hieroglyphic , And it means, Sprouting alike in broad zones and narrow zones,

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Growing among black folks as among white, Kanuck, Tuckahoe, Congressman, Cuff, I give them the same, I receive them the same. (1855 29; emphases added) In "Son g o f Myself " thi s resistanc e suggeste d b y slan g i s marshalle d less ofte n agains t natura l threat s tha n agains t suc h socia l danger s a s pretension an d undu e refinement : "Washe s an d razor s fo r foofoo s . . . . for m e freckle s an d a bristlin g beard " (185 5 46) . Th e attitude s thu s lanced ar e themselve s give n idiomati c embodimen t i n th e poem . Indee d the poe t himself , o r a t leas t a certain rang e o f hi s utterance, ca n becom e the objec t o f thi s levelin g tendency , a s th e contex t i n whic h th e ter m "foofoos" get s detonated make s clear : I am the poet of commonsense and of the demonstrable and of immortality; And am not the poet of goodness only . . .. I do not decline to be the poet of wickedness also. Washes and razors for foofoos . . . . fo r me freckles and a bristling beard. What blurt is it about virtue and about vice? Evil propel s me , an d refor m o f evi l propel s m e . . . . I stan d indifferent . (185546) The belief s expresse d her e ar e al l o f a piece , th e jib e a t "foofoos " fitting i n smoothl y wit h th e othe r demoti c sentiment s expresse d i n thes e lines. Idiom , though , tell s a differen t story . Th e speake r wh o ca n sa y " J do not decline to be th e poe t o f wickednes s also " i s marke d b y hi s finicky locutio n a s prett y muc h on e o f th e foofoo s h e claim s t o scorn . I t may thu s b e partl y th e discours e o f th e poe t himsel f tha t provoke s th e exasperated, earth y question , "What blurt i s i t abou t virtu e an d abou t vice?" Likewise , th e figure wh o ca n "stan d indifferent " expresse s a disinterested distanc e tha t i s the ver y opposit e o f th e impassione d level ing o f th e middl e line , which direct s it s barb a t al l thos e wh o sound , w e can suppose , lik e this stilte d voic e tha t claim s t o b e on th e sid e of mora l and socia l inclusiveness. 22 This exampl e i s instructive i n a numbe r o f respects . I t alert s u s to th e possibility tha t th e ideologica l struggle s int o whic h slan g an d demoti c idiom enter can b e played out primarily throug h incongruitie s o f diction , whose subtletie s nee d no t alway s receiv e over t themati c comment . An d it show s tha t som e o f th e poet' s ow n utterance s ca n becom e th e objec t of demoti c scorn . Th e fac t tha t th e poe t ca n b e a t odd s wit h demoti c

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tendencies i s a complicatio n w e migh t no t hav e expected . I t suggest s a n ambivalent socia l identificatio n tha t itsel f become s on e o f th e poem' s implicit subjects : idiomati c conflic t draw s attentio n t o th e poet' s ow n tendency t o standoffishness ; entangle d wit h question s o f class , that ten dency stand s i n th e way o f th e merge , or a t leas t o f it s social realization . Yet thi s clas h o f idiom s als o reveal s th e demoti c a s a n ambiguou s category i n it s ow n right : "Son g o f Myself " i s willin g t o hazar d th e possibility that populist energies might prefer t o impede the poet's assim ilative urg e rathe r tha n furthe r it , a circumstanc e tha t ha s th e od d effec t of markin g a troubling tensio n betwee n th e poetic program o f Leaves of Grass an d th e clas s interest s an d ideologica l perspective s fo r whic h Whitman ofte n claime d t o speak . A s we might expect , "Son g of Myself " often associate s slan g wit h a n earthines s an d fran k sexualit y connecte d in tur n t o th e them e o f th e merge : th e demotic , i n part , subvert s th e exclusiveness mor e "refined " idiom s an d attitude s see k t o maintain . Ye t since i t serve s a s wel l t o lanc e abstractio n an d generalization , th e de motic also gets aligned wit h a contrary impuls e toward resistan t idiosyn crasy. The very presence o f slang , indeed, serve s to cal l into questio n th e apparently transcenden t authorit y o f th e stylize d ritua l utteranc e tha t propels th e merge . Conspicuous appearance s o f slan g term s thu s tur n ou t t o b e th e obvious high-point s o f a muc h mor e extensiv e verba l dram a playe d ou t in the poet's own speech , a drama simultaneousl y idiomati c an d ideolog ical. Devoi d o f slang , on e o f th e poem' s earlies t verba l tussle s nonethe less anticipates th e pyrotechnic s o f th e late r "foofoos " passage , subvert ing th e poet' s momentar y pretension s an d recallin g hi m fro m a preach y and professoria l rol e to his rightful plac e a s demotic champion : Houses an d room s ar e ful l o f perfumes. . . . th e shelve s ar e crowde d wit h perfumes, I breathe the fragrance myself , and know it and like it, The distillation would intoxicate me also, but I shall not let it. The atmosphere i s not a perfume . . . . i t has no taste of th e distillation . . . . it is odorless, It is for my mouth forever . . . . (1855 25) The secon d vers e paragrap h her e bring s t o a clima x a dram a als o a t work i n the first. Lik e the Emerson o f Nature a s Richard Poirie r mischie vously describe s him (68) , the character wh o invite s us out int o the ope n

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air i n thi s passag e ca n himsel f soun d lik e a n inveterat e denize n o f th e parlour: h e calls air "atmosphere " and manage s to contrast it to perfum e in a phrase itsel f exquisitel y distilled : "i t ha s n o tast e o f th e distillatio n . . . . i t is odorless." There i s high comed y waitin g aroun d Whitman' s lin e ending, a s w e bum p int o a ver y differen t voic e an d quit e anothe r sens e of th e world : "I t i s fo r my mout h forever. " Thi s voic e second s th e assertions o f it s predecessor , bu t doe s s o i n suc h a wa y a s t o qualif y those earlie r remarks , lettin g u s hea r the m a s instance s o f th e ver y attitude t o whic h the y clai m t o object . Th e firs t vers e paragrap h ha s quietly prepare d thi s climax , playin g of f "breath e th e fragranc e myself " against th e mor e earth y an d emphati c "an d kno w i t and lik e it. " Here demoti c intrusion s sav e the poe t fro m a n inadverten t stiltednes s which resist s th e merge . In sectio n three , though , a popula r idio m an d the gritt y physicalit y i t suggest s instea d stic k i n th e cra w o f th e poem' s assimilative tendencies : To elaborate is no a v a i l . . .. Learne d and unlearned feel that it is so. Sure a s th e mos t certai n sur e . . . . plum b i n th e uprights , wel l entretied , braced in the beams, Stout as a horse, affectionate, haughty , electrical, I and this mystery here we stand. Clear and sweet is my s o u l . . .. an d clear and sweet is all that is not my soul. (1855 27 )

Insisting on physica l specificitie s an d ou r investmen t i n them, the carpen ter's lingo in the second o f thes e lines also injects a class element into th e passage, suggestin g a n ironi c attitud e towar d th e univers e o f abstrac tions. On e suc h abstractio n ha s jus t claime d tha t clas s differences ar e ultimately o f n o account : "Learne d an d unlearne d fee l tha t i t is so." The working clas s idio m tha t follow s qualifie s th e sligh t glibnes s o f thi s inclusive assertion . W e ca n not e a simila r strain , betwee n a n inclusiv e formulation an d a pith y vocabular y tha t prove s irreducibl e t o it , i n th e passage's succeedin g phrases . " I an d thi s myster y her e w e stand " sum s up, an d thu s thin s out , th e irascibl e pleasure s articulate d i n th e lin e above it: "Stou t a s a horse, affectionate, haughty , electrical." This line is itself a collectio n o f irreconcilables , resistan t t o generalization . It s heter ogeneity derive s i n par t fro m th e incommensurabilit y o f it s categories , no tw o term s her e bein g quit e co-planar . Bu t it s pricklines s i s als o

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idiomatic: "Stou t a s a horse " seem s no t quit e t o com e ou t o f th e sam e mouth tha t say s "haughty." A t once idiomatic, conceptual, an d political , and implyin g difference s o f outlook , ethos , an d class , suc h multiplicit y tends to imped e th e merge rather tha n furthe r it . The poe m abound s i n suc h lexica l dramas , whic h ar e characterize d by th e sor t o f comi c subversivenes s t o whic h w e hav e jus t bee n attend ing. Thus i n section twenty-one , the assertion "w e hav e had duckin g an d deprecating about enough'" (185 5 45 ; emphasis added ) come s t o res t o n a phras e tha t seem s idiomaticall y a t odd s wit h wha t precedes ; i t migh t make u s wonde r whethe r th e ver y ter m "deprecating " isn' t itsel f a n instance o f th e superio r attitud e th e poe t struggle s t o expel . Othe r con trasts ar e quieter , suggestin g no t a n explosiv e conflic t bu t th e inevitabl e co-presence o f divergen t perspective s i n a linguisti c univers e tha t i s superimposed o n a social one : Maternal as well as paternal, a child as well as a man, Stuffed wit h th e stuf f tha t i s coarse, an d stuffe d wit h th e stuf f tha t i s fine . (1855 40) Supposedly illustratin g th e assertio n o f th e poet' s ow n diversit y offere d in th e firs t o f thes e lines , th e demoti c idio m o f th e secon d als o serve s t o qualify it , deflectin g th e passag e towar d a comi c register : i t suggest s th e positioned statu s an d thu s th e merel y partia l validit y o f an y singl e for mulation, eve n whe n tha t formulatio n itsel f assert s th e valu e o f multi plicity. Whether suc h sociall y saturated locution s furthe r o r impede the poet' s incorporative projec t i n particula r instances , thei r cumulativ e effec t i s thus t o cal l int o questio n th e efficac y o f ritua l languag e an d th e centri petal aim s fo r whic h Whitma n deploy s i t i n "Son g o f Myself. " Th e relative absenc e o f verba l pla y i n th e poem s tha t follow , an d mor e especially i n thos e writte n afte r th e appearanc e o f th e 185 5 edition , i s thus onl y i n par t a reflectio n o f Whitman' s declinin g inventiveness ; i t also mark s a shif t fro m a playfu l o r ironi c attitud e towar d th e poet' s program t o a mor e insisten t one . I n thei r multiplicity , th e divergen t languages o f "Son g o f Myself " sugges t a variet y tha t i s irreducible , it s very taxonom y remainin g elusive . Alertin g u s t o th e socia l provenanc e of an y idiom , suc h verba l multiplicit y tend s t o undermin e th e ai r o f ritual authorit y a t which th e poet's ow n speec h ofte n aims , reminding u s that a hierati c languag e apparentl y prio r t o socia l dispute s i s i n fac t a n

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instrument fo r prosecutin g them . Thi s priorit y t o socia l formations , w e have seen , i s crucia l t o th e poet' s program : i n th e myt h tha t propel s "Song o f Myself " a s throughou t th e earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass, the poet an d hi s word ough t no t t o b e products o f th e socia l order , bu t should offe r u s a n alternativ e t o it s coercions . Ye t i n "Son g o f Myself " the ritual languag e that might inaugurate thi s liberation itsel f repeatedl y metamorphoses int o varietie s o f sociall y locate d speech , underminin g the ver y dichotom y betwee n th e natura l an d th e cultural , th e intrinsi c and th e imposed , whic h th e poe t claim s t o retrieve . Veerin g fro m on e received idiom t o another , the poet's speech risks relinquishing the magical priorit y o f th e ritua l wor d an d come s clos e t o revealin g instea d it s own socia l saturatio n an d belatedness. 3. Th e idiomati c dram a o f "Son g o f Myself " thus intertwine s wit h th e poem's concer n wit h prolepsis , a preoccupatio n w e als o sa w troublin g Whitman's visio n o f incarnation . Lik e the poet's body , hi s ritual speec h often seem s to be shaped and limited by the social order whose authorit y it should be able to pre-empt. "Song of Myself" does not of cours e go so far as to cede firm priority to th e social mechanism s fro m whic h th e poet shoul d fre e us ; instead, i t offers multipl e version s o f precedenc e an d prolepti c power . Thi s toler ance fo r irresolutio n typicall y provoke s th e comed y tha t characterize s the poem : w e ca n vie w i t a s bot h insurrectionar y an d tough-minded , since Whitman' s humo r contest s dominan t structure s withou t claimin g clear-cut victory over them. But the poem's conspicuous irresolutio n can also occasion wistfulness, an d this response is cannier than might at first be apparent . The poet' s inabilit y t o establis h firm priorit y ove r th e structures tha t shap e u s defer s th e chiliasti c prospect s h e sometime s claims to ushe r in; but it thereby occults the uncomfortable implication s of th e poet' s ow n power . Th e poet' s wistfulnes s thu s tend s t o b e senti mental, sinc e h e benefit s fro m th e blockag e ove r whic h h e sometime s pines.23 Th e visio n o f "Son g o f Myself " remains ultimatel y comic , irre solution an d good hope enabling and sustaining each other. The drama of suc h poems as "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry" is both more clear-cut an d mor e uncomfortable . Ther e th e poe t pre-empt s th e powe r of cultur e t o pre-emp t ou r self-sufficiency , interposin g himsel f betwee n us an d th e mechanism s tha t woul d otherwis e contro l us . A s w e hav e seen, Whitman thereb y runs the risk of revealin g the poet a s an instance

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of th e ver y coerciv e authorit y fro m whic h h e supposedl y preserve s us . "Song o f Myself " i n effec t relinquishe s suc h absolut e priorit y i n orde r to evad e it s consequences , a temporar y expedien t tha t helpe d Whitma n produce hi s comi c masterpiece . Her e th e poe t n o soone r claim s priorit y than h e cede s it . Generatin g th e episodic , digressiv e structur e tha t ha s baffled th e rag e t o orde r o f mor e tha n on e critic, 24 "Son g o f Myself " concocts a serie s o f multipl e myth s tha t kee p powe r an d priorit y circu lating, displacin g eac h clai m t o authorit y befor e it s disturbin g implica tions ca n b e tallied . Ye t Whitma n i s carefu l t o ves t powe r i n th e poe t often enoug h t o sugges t that h e has a special relatio n t o it . As i n mos t o f th e majo r poem s o f th e 185 5 an d 185 6 editions , i t i s especially th e prolepti c forc e o f cultura l authorit y tha t th e poe t mus t combat. Hi s attack s o n th e custom s an d law s tha t mak e claim s o n hi m typically shar e th e boisterousnes s o f hi s boast s o f phalli c autonomy , with whic h the y intertwine : Whimpering an d trucklin g fol d wit h powder s fo r invalid s . . . . conformit y goes to the fourth-removed , I cock my hat as I please indoors or out. Shall I pray? Shall I venerate and be ceremonious? I have pried through the strata and analyzed to a hair, And counselle d wit h doctor s an d calculate d clos e and foun d n o sweete r fa t than sticks to my own bones. (1855 43) Religions an d th e gods the y would plac e over u s are supposedly likewis e pre-empted b y the originary forc e o f th e poet's phalli c body : Magnifying an d applying come I, Outbidding at the start the old cautious hucksters, The mos t the y offe r fo r mankin d an d eternit y les s than a spir t o f m y ow n seminal wet. (1855 71) Such prodigiou s force , o f course , present s danger s o f it s own . A s w e have seen , assertion s o f th e poet' s potency , whic h displa y hi s freedo m from anterio r powers , ar e thu s incongruousl y paire d wit h demur s con cerning his possible design s on us : These are the thoughts of al l men in all ages and lands, they are not original with me,

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If they are not yours as much as mine they are nothing or next to nothing, If they do not enclose everything they are next to nothing. (1855 41) Yet th e resoundin g authorit y o f thi s renunciator y gesture , w e followe d Larson i n noting , i s itsel f rathe r troubling ; i t catche s th e poe t u p i n a paradox aki n t o that propounde d b y the Creta n liar. 25 If th e poet' s direc t attempt s t o abjur e th e prolepti c powe r h e else where declares thus turn ou t to be an ambiguou s means of assuagin g ou r anxieties, the repeated displacement s t o which the poem's multipl e fable s subject hi s claim s ar e a subtle r an d mor e effectiv e device . This tendenc y to prodigal myth-makin g i s at work fro m th e very beginnin g o f "Son g of Myself." Despit e thei r remarkabl e ai r o f bras h cockiness , th e poem' s opening line s announc e th e poet' s powe r i n suc h a wa y a s to qualif y hi s claims t o absolut e priority ; th e myt h w e alread y note d here , o f th e poe t as self-delightin g origin , co-exist s wit h another , implici t creatio n story . The poet's ow n identit y i s already double d i n Whitman's first line , which splits him int o th e antipoda l role s o f activ e subject an d enigmati c object : "I celebrat e myself. " The clai m o f blissfu l self-containmen t i s thus qual ified i n th e ver y phras e tha t announce s it , which suggest s tha t th e sel f i s an elusiv e entit y tha t precede s th e poet' s speec h act , a priorit y whic h qualifies th e transparenc y th e lin e implies . This sens e of divide d identit y also trouble s th e ensuin g visio n o f th e poe t o n mora l holiday : " I loaf e and invit e m y soul. " Her e th e blith e meanin g o f a n idiomati c phrase , which sustain s th e poet' s claim s t o self-sufficiency , i s played of f agains t a mor e sombe r visio n evoke d b y th e litera l sens e of thes e words an d th e scene o f invocatio n the y conjur e up . Thi s expectan t receptivit y o r wis e passiveness als o qualifies th e claim o f phalli c equanimity tha t follow s (" I lean an d loaf e a t m y ease . . . . observin g a spear o f summe r grass") . Like hi s relatio n t o himself , th e poet' s connectio n t o u s i s articulate d in a fragmentar y narrativ e tha t remain s sufficientl y ambiguou s t o cal l into questio n th e commandin g precedenc e h e seem s t o claim . I t i s no t quite certain wha t fabl e w e are bein g told : And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. (1855 25) We note d earlie r tha t Whitman' s pla y o n "assume " confound s intellec tual an d atomi c priority: i t is not onl y th e poet's idea s but als o his atom s that w e wil l pu t on , a conflatio n tha t work s t o mak e languag e an d sel f indistinguishable fro m th e order o f nature . Thereby free d fro m th e clutche s

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of culture , hi s emanatin g bod y an d wor d migh t loose n it s gri p o n u s a s well. Ye t whic h aspec t o f natur e th e poe t himsel f shoul d b e identifie d with remain s a littl e uncertain . Whitman' s imag e o f voic e serve s t o connect th e poe t wit h th e productiv e energ y o f natura naturans, appar ently endowin g hi m wit h th e abilit y t o generat e th e ver y bod y h e as sumes. Bu t th e ter m "assume " ca n als o impl y tha t th e poet take s o n a n obligation: th e bod y h e put s o n woul d o n thi s readin g b e impose d o n the poe t rathe r tha n generate d b y him . H e woul d b e reduce d t o th e status o f a created object—shaped , lik e the rest o f us , by the power o f a natura naturans whos e desig n passe s throug h him . Th e implication s o f this diminishe d statu s ar e not entirel y mournful . Wrenchin g powe r fro m culture, th e poem' s openin g relocate s i t ambiguousl y eithe r i n th e poe t or i n a natur e irreducibl e t o him ; th e poet' s claim s t o prolepti c powe r are tempere d b y a n alternativ e myth , i n whic h poe t an d audienc e alik e are subjecte d t o a n anterio r force . Throughou t "Son g o f Myself, " th e oscillation betwee n thes e account s i s manage d i n suc h a wa y a s t o disperse th e uncomfortabl e implication s o f th e poet' s precedenc e almos t as soon a s they begi n t o gather . Establishing th e poem' s oscillatin g rhyth m o f countervailin g claims , the nex t fou r section s o f "Son g o f Myself " markedl y displa y thi s sor t o f equivocation. Sectio n tw o tend s t o gathe r powe r t o th e poe t himself , implying it s subsequen t radiatio n t o us : i t leave s cultur e behin d fo r a nature whic h i s the n filtered throug h th e absorptiv e an d effusin g bod y defined b y Whitman's lon g catalogue. The sectio n accordingl y end s wit h one o f thos e disclaimer s o f prolepti c inten t wit h whic h w e ar e familiar ; the poe t assure s u s tha t hi s absolut e priorit y enable s rathe r tha n pre empts ou r ow n ("Yo u shal l no t loo k throug h m y eye s either , no r tak e things fro m me , / Yo u shal l liste n t o al l side s an d filter the m fro m yourself" [185 5 26]) . He i s not throug h backpedalling . Th e priorit y suggeste d s o forcefull y in sectio n tw o i s succeede d b y a spat e o f qualifications ; th e poe t i s depicted i n a variet y o f incongruou s condition s an d disperse d amon g multiple myth s o f th e self . Sectio n thre e begin s wit h a hym n t o th e present ("Ther e wa s neve r an y mor e inceptio n tha n ther e i s now" [185 5 26]) an d end s wit h a prais e o f self-presenc e grounde d i n th e poet' s phallic completenes s ("Knowin g th e perfec t fitness an d equanimit y o f things, whil e the y discus s I am silent , an d g o bath e an d admir e myself " [1855 27]) . Yet i n th e interva l betwee n thes e sanguin e assertions , Whit -

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man brood s ove r a n ominou s imag e o f pre-emptiv e power . I t subject s poet an d audienc e alik e to a sublime anterio r force : Urge and urge and urge, Always the procreant urge of the world. Out o f th e dimnes s opposit e equal s advanc e . . . . Alway s substanc e an d increase, Always a knit of identit y . . . . alway s distinction . . . . alway s a breed of life . (1855 26-27 )

In keepin g wit h th e wa y th e sectio n begin s an d ends , thes e line s see m bent o n subduin g th e menacin g implication s o f th e powe r the y describe . We shoul d note , however , tha t th e threa t the y struggl e t o tam e itsel f functions t o alleviat e a mor e troublin g danger : th e pre-emptiv e forc e o f this shadow y sexua l mechanis m dissipate s th e oppressiv e aspect s o f th e poet's ow n power , presentin g a daemonic alternativ e t o it . If section s tw o an d thre e equivocat e b y ambiguousl y assignin g prior ity bot h t o th e poe t an d t o alie n agents , section s fou r an d five conspicu ously divide th e poet himself . Section fou r threaten s t o turn hi m int o th e precipitate o f th e very cultural force s h e had earlie r seeme d t o ward off : Trippers and askers surround me, People I meett …. th e effect upo n m e of m y early lif e . . . . o f th e ward an d city I live in . . .. o f the nation, The lates t new s . . . . discoveries , inventions, societie s . . . . author s ol d an d new. (185 5 z %)

A demur intervenes : They come to me days and nights and go from m e again, But they are not the Me myself. (1855 28) This figure wh o redresse s th e poet' s alienation , however , i s immediatel y made t o see m mor e tha n a littl e alie n himself . W e hav e looke d a t th e section's succeedin g lines already : Apart from th e pulling and hauling stands what I am, Stands amused, complacent, compassionating, idle, unitary, Looks down, is erect, bends an arm on an impalpable certain rest, Looks with its sidecurved head curious what will come next, Both in and out of the game, and watching and wondering at it. (1855 28)

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Repository o f a n elusiv e self-containment , thi s profile d characte r seem s almost to prefigure th e uncannily aloo f ico n of identity that hovers abov e the poe t i n "A s I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life. " Th e "soul " o f sectio n five, wh o succeed s th e "M e myself " depicte d here , i s certainl y les s forbidding; ye t h e to o i s no w remote , an d mus t b e invoked . Partl y a melancholy intimatio n o f th e divide d statu s o f th e subject , suc h distan t images of self-containe d identit y als o serve to suspend the uncomfortabl e consequences o f th e poet' s imperia l energies , b y delayin g hi s definitiv e advent. Despite suc h demurs , th e poem' s first five section s ten d t o cente r powe r and authorit y i n the poet, qualifyin g bu t no t radicall y underminin g wha t seems t o b e a priorit y ove r natur e a s wel l a s culture . Sectio n si x con cludes wha t migh t b e calle d th e poem' s overtur e (i n sectio n seve n th e poet launche s ou t int o th e sor t o f panorami c socia l spac e tha t i s mos t fully rendere d i n th e catalogues , beginnin g hi s assimilativ e labor) . Ther e Whitman offer s multipl e myth s o f th e poet' s plac e tha t ar e a t odd s wit h the precedin g image s o f hi s priority , assuagin g ou r possibl e anxietie s b y conspicuously subjectin g hi m t o th e sam e pre-emptiv e force s tha t limi t us. O f al l th e movement s o f "Son g o f Myself, " thi s sectio n i s poise d most elaboratel y amon g competin g account s o f precedence ; i t ca n serv e as a synecdoch e fo r th e delicat e irresolutio n achieve d b y th e poe m a s a whole. In relation t o th e poem's first five sections, the mos t obviou s displace ment o f powe r i n sectio n si x i s fro m poe t t o nature : elaboratin g th e central tex t "al l flesh is grass," the section make s nature rathe r tha n poe t the sit e o f circulatio n an d dissemination . Ye t thi s visio n o f nature' s priority i s itsel f qualified . Th e te n section s tha t conclud e "Son g o f Myself," whic h prepar e fo r th e final irresolutio n o f th e poet' s leave taking throug h a temporar y intensifyin g o f contrar y claims , balanc e sweeping assertion s o f hi s precedenc e no t onl y wit h equall y sweep ing denial s o f it s pre-emptiv e power , bu t als o wit h mor e unremit tingly naturalize d account s o f th e force s governin g developmen t an d decay: Rise after ris e bow the phantoms behind me, Afar down I see the huge first Nothing, the vapor from th e nostrils of death, I know I was even there. . .. I waited unseen and always,

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And slept while God carried me through the lethargic mist, And took my time. .. . and took no hurt from th e foetid carbon. (1855 77) This ominous passag e suggest s that resignin g priority t o nature , whil e it serve s t o assuag e th e untowar d implication s o f th e poet' s power , i s ultimately n o mor e tolerabl e tha n cedin g i t t o culture . Th e visio n o f nature offere d i n thes e section s o f th e poe m indee d hover s betwee n th e sublime dialecti c jus t barel y maintaine d her e an d a tendenc y t o abjec tion, whos e starkes t emergenc e Kerr y Larso n (141-42 ) locates : O sun s . . . . O gras s of grave s . . . . O perpetual transfer s an d promotion s . . . . i f you do not say anything how can I say anything? Of the turbid pool that lies in the autumn forest , Of the moon that descends the steeps of the soughing twilight, Toss, sparkles of day and dusk . . .. tos s on the black stems that decay in the muck, Toss to the moaning gibberish of the dry limbs. (1855 84) The poem' s openin g section s ar e marke d b y les s violen t oscillations . Section si x no t onl y play s of f natur e agains t th e poe t mor e equivocally ; it comes full circl e by also slipping back an d fort h unobtrusivel y betwee n tales o f natura l priorit y an d cultura l authority , thu s assuagin g th e anx ieties eviden t i n th e passag e above , whic h hav e bee n provoke d b y th e very visio n o f unrelieve d naturalis m t o whic h th e earlie r sectio n migh t also appea r t o subscribe . The openin g line s o f sectio n si x establis h th e natura l plenitud e an d attendant aw e that encourag e the negative capability which characterize s the sectio n a s a whole : A child said, What is the grass? fetching it to me with full hands; How could I answer th e child? . . .. I do not know what it is any more than he. (185 5 29 )

A serie s o f provisional , wonderfull y prodiga l attempt s t o answe r th e child's questio n follow . Th e phrase "o r I guess," which cue s the first fe w of them , suggest s a tolerance fo r uncertaint y tha t i s quite moving ; if i t is motivated no t onl y b y fait h an d generosity , bu t als o by a desire to evad e the unpleasan t implication s o f an y singl e answer , tha t doe s no t mak e i t less so . Lik e th e poe m a s a whole , thes e guesse s begi n wit h a n extrem e contraction tha t wittil y center s al l meanin g an d valu e o n th e poe t him self:

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I guess it must be the flag of my disposition, out of hopeful gree n stuff woven . (1855 29) The myt h tha t succeed s thi s on e likewis e make s natur e a n inde x o f something no t merel y natural . Bu t it displaces th e poet's primacy : Or I guess it is the handkerchief o f the Lord, A scented gift and remembrancer designedly dropped, Bearing th e owner' s nam e somewa y i n th e corners , tha t w e ma y se e an d remark, and say Whose? (1855 29) Natural processe s ar e her e mad e t o figure a n orde r tha t transcend s them. Ascribe d t o a n elusiv e go d ("Whose?") , th e signatur e tha t mark s nature wit h thi s la w als o implicitl y subject s i t t o th e cultura l authorit y or patriarcha l plac e fro m whic h suc h inscriptio n emanates . Ye t here to o wit serve s to qualify th e poet's formulatio n eve n a s he offers it . An inde x of negativ e capability , thi s evasivenes s ma y als o registe r discomfort . Whitman's nex t metalepsi s ma y thu s serv e i n par t t o dispers e th e anxie ties typicall y provoke d b y cultura l entailmen t i n Leaves of Grass. I t brings th e sectio n ful l circle , linking huma n kinshi p no t wit h patriarcha l authority an d th e sign but instead with natura l cycle s of birt h an d decay : Or I guess the grass is itself a child . . .. th e produced babe of the vegetation. (185529)

While we tend t o think o f it as Whitmanian, thi s naturalism ma y itsel f provoke Whitman' s discomfort . Th e nex t stanz a employ s th e trop e o f the "unifor m hieroglyphic " t o subsum e natura l processe s onc e mor e t o an ac t o f inscriptio n tha t secure s thei r meaning . Ye t th e demoti c flavo r lent thes e line s b y th e slan g term s t o whic h w e attende d earlier—"Kan uck, Tuckahoe, Congressman, Cuff"—prepare s fo r th e populist levelin g of cultura l distinction s tha t ensues : " I giv e them th e same, I receive the m the same " (185 5 29) . Her e th e linkin g o f democrac y an d death , abou t which Lawrenc e complaine d (169—70) , seems to posses s implication s o f which Whitma n i s b y n o mean s unaware : perfec t equalit y get s achieve d only i n th e retur n o f eart h t o earth , whic h i s a t onc e a dissolvin g o f th e order o f cultur e bac k int o th e les s punctilious orde r o f nature . As we migh t b y no w expect , th e section' s nex t lin e evades th e starke r implications o f suc h natura l processes . Ostentatiousl y drawin g attentio n to th e humanizin g fantasie s tha t alread y lur k i n th e precedin g stanza' s lending o f voic e t o th e grass , i t als o foreground s th e oscillatin g rhyth m

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of th e section' s figuration, thereb y intensifyin g it : "An d now i t seem s t o me the beautifu l uncu t hai r o f graves " (185 5 30 ; emphasis added). 26 The ensuin g vers e paragrap h draw s ou r attentio n t o rhetoricit y i n another way : Tenderly will I use you curling grass, It may be you transpire from th e breasts of young men, It may be if I had known them I would have loved them; It ma y b e yo u ar e fro m ol d peopl e an d fro m women , an d fro m offsprin g taken soon out of their mothers' laps, And here you are the mothers' laps. (1855 30) Whitman dwell s her e onc e mor e o n a n imag e o f natura l proces s a s prolepsis. Ye t th e apostroph e tha t organize s thes e line s ha s th e effec t o f drawing natur e int o th e univers e o f huma n speech , thu s reversin g th e very priorit y t o whic h th e poe t seem s t o defer . Thes e line s indee d fee l their wa y towar d a possibl e commo n groun d betwee n th e order s o f nature an d culture , tryin g t o imagin e a spac e organize d b y neithe r th e symbolic la w o f th e fathe r no r th e inhuma n rhythm s o f a purely biologi cal generatio n an d decay . The y d o s o i n par t b y shiftin g attentio n fro m the earlie r figures o f patriarcha l authorit y t o a fleetin g glimps e o f th e maternal, o r mor e precisel y a n idealizin g fantas y o f it : comin g briefl y t o rest o n a n imag e o f mothe r an d infant , thes e line s cente r huma n orde r on a scen e apparentl y prio r t o th e patriarcha l inscriptio n whic h wil l codify it . Yet a s the oddly scrupulou s pairin g i n the final two line s seem s meant i n par t t o imply—"fro m offsprin g take n soo n ou t o f thei r moth ers' laps , / An d her e yo u ar e th e mothers ' laps"—thi s orde r whic h ha s not ye t asserte d shar p contro l ove r natur e i s no t simpl y reducibl e t o i t either, instead offsettin g an d balancin g natura l processes , or intervolvin g with them . O r s o th e poe t woul d hav e it , imaginin g gras s an d materna l laps a s alternative , yet apparentl y reconcilabl e location s fo r huma n selves . But th e rathe r touchin g awkwardnes s involve d i n tryin g t o tak e literall y the figure tha t sustain s thi s prospec t suggest s somethin g o f th e strai n that attend s th e poet' s attemp t t o trea t huma n an d natura l universe s a s cooperative an d commensurate : th e poet' s closin g phras e register s th e strangeness o f th e vision t o which hi s hopes hav e led . We ca n hea r a relate d awkwardnes s i n th e apostroph e an d prosopo poeia tha t organiz e th e verse paragraph a s a whole. Culler ha s alerted u s to th e sens e o f strai n likel y t o emerg e whe n poet s addres s uncom -

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prehending foliage . Ye t a delicate melancholy , an d a wistful humor , als o play throug h thes e lines . Perhap s the y registe r no t s o muc h th e vati c struggle t o ge t gras s t o understan d a s th e mor e huma n reticenc e tha t helps motivat e thi s displace d speec h act : talkin g t o natur e i s als o a wa y of speakin g circuitousl y rathe r tha n directl y t o huma n auditors . There i s great tac t an d skil l i n th e wa y Whitma n handle s th e obliqu e interactio n of thes e scene s o f address . Lik e th e displacement s tha t organiz e th e section a s a whole , th e awkwardnes s o f th e poet' s apostroph e t o th e grass is made t o reflec t hi s diffidence wit h regar d t o question s of cultura l order an d authority . I t suggest s bot h hi s effor t t o dra w ou t a benig n principle o f priority an d successio n an d th e impasse in which thi s projec t lands him : hi s rhetorica l difficultie s registe r th e fragilit y o f hi s visio n o f a non-coerciv e principl e o f successio n an d continuity . Indee d th e poe t can offe r us , i n lie u o f anythin g mor e tangible , onl y thi s utterance , touchingly poised betwee n huma n an d natura l auditors , as a problemati c hint o f ho w a non-pre-emptiv e orde r migh t feel . Ye t i t owe s it s appea l in par t t o th e ver y impass e tha t prevent s th e realizatio n o f th e prospec t at whic h i t points : i t i s onl y b y suspendin g u s betwee n th e disparat e orders o f natur e an d cultur e tha t th e poet defer s th e unpleasan t implica tions o f each. 27 In what follows , Whitma n seem s to ponde r th e quotien t o f awkward ness t o whic h w e hav e bee n attending . Speakin g no t t o natur e bu t t o himself, th e poe t muse s o n th e strangenes s o f hi s ow n figure, o r o f a literal readin g o f it : This grass is very dark to be from th e white heads of old mothers, Darker than the colorless beards of old men, Dark to come from unde r the faint red roofs of mouths. (1855 3°) Continuing t o prob e th e limit s o f hi s figure b y attemptin g t o tak e i t literally, h e nex t imagine s th e blade s o f gras s a s organ s o f speech . W e might lin k thes e "utterin g tongues " to th e mother s wit h who m gras s ha s recently bee n identified . Her e to o what i s groped fo r i s at least i n part a n organizing order tha t is not patriarchal, one based on expressive, effusiv e voicing rathe r tha n pre-emptiv e inscription : O I perceive after al l so many uttering tongues! And I perceiv e the y d o no t com e fro m th e roof s o f mouth s fo r nothing . (185530)

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Yet th e effor t t o lif t u p natur e int o cultur e a s livin g speech , an d thu s t o ground huma n orde r i n simpl e presence rathe r tha n prolepti c hieroglyp h or sign , once mor e proves elusive : I wish I could translate the hints about the dead young men and women, And the hints about ol d men and mothers , and the offspring take n soo n out of their laps. (1855 30) Paradoxically, thi s inabilit y seem s momentaril y t o offe r a n answe r t o the proble m o f priorit y an d power . Th e poe t turn s t o us , a s i f cultur e itself migh t b e organize d a s a n exchang e o f nothin g mor e tha n tentativ e guesses, none countervailin g another : What do you think has become of the young and old men? And what do you think has become of the women and children? (1855 30) But a s th e quotien t o f sl y teasin g lurkin g i n thes e question s implies , the precedin g investigatio n o f orde r an d authorit y ha s mad e suc h a solution difficul t t o accept . Th e poe t thu s step s onc e mor e t o th e fore front. Addressin g u s rathe r tha n th e grass , h e bot h posit s an d call s hi s positing int o question , simultaneousl y reassertin g authorit y an d atten uating its effect : They are alive and well somewhere; The smallest sprout shows there is really no death, And if ever there was it le d forwar d life , an d doe s no t wai t a t th e en d t o arrest it, And ceased the moment life appeared. All goes onward and outward . . . . an d nothing collapses, And t o di e i s different fro m wha t anyon e supposed , an d luckier . (185 5 30 ; emphasis added) In it s unlikeliness , whic h make s i t see m oddl y conjectura l despit e th e firmness a t whic h Whitma n gestures , th e adjectiv e o n whic h th e sectio n ends ca n serv e a s a n imag e fo r th e delicat e balanc e o f assertio n an d forebearance o n whic h "Son g o f Myself " woul d lik e the whol e proble m of power an d precedenc e t o com e to rest . The issu e o f priorit y thu s kep t unresolve d i n th e openin g section s o f th e poem continue s t o troubl e it s unfolding , provokin g no t onl y th e ambiv alent treatmen t o f th e bod y an d th e figurative an d idiomati c variet y w e

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noted earlier , bu t als o th e sor t o f multipl e fabulatio n t o whic h w e hav e just bee n attending . W e ca n confin e ourselve s her e t o observin g tha t "Song o f Myself " end s wit h a final declaratio n o f priorit y tha t manage s to resolv e th e poe m o n a not e o f conspicuou s irresolution . Th e imperia l figure wh o stand s fron t an d cente r a t th e poem' s openin g dissolve s a t it s close: The last scud of day holds back for me, It flingsmy likeness after th e rest as true as any on the shadowed wilds, It coaxes me to the vapor and the dusk. I depart as air . . .. I shake my white locks at the runaway sun, I effuse m y fleshin eddies and drift i t in lacy jags. I bequeath myself to the dirt to grow from th e grass I love, If you want me again look for me under your bootsoles. You will hardly know who I am or what I mean, But I shall be good health to you nevertheless, And filter an d fibre your blood. Failing to fetch m e at first keep encouraged, Missing me one place search another, I stop some where waiting for you (1855 85-86 ) Not onl y doe s th e poe t fad e awa y her e int o th e myster y o f proces s h e initially seeme d t o concente r an d resolve . Hi s disseminatin g for m als o divides int o ai r an d grass , impalpable voic e an d compos t o f flesh . "Son g of Myself " thu s leave s u s t o ponde r th e stil l enigmati c contrarie s it s opening appeare d t o fus e i n th e poet' s reveale d presence : o f wor d an d body, natura naturans an d natura naturata, informin g logo s and formed , individuated matter . Thi s fracturin g o f th e poet' s perso n als o leave s u s poised betwee n tw o competin g fable s o f prolepsis, already implici t i n th e poem's openin g lines . Departin g a s ai r an d dissolve d int o nature , th e poet still retains the originary powe r implie d b y the pervasive associatio n among atmosphere , breath , an d voice ; we can expec t hi m t o reappea r a s present, performative utterance . Ye t he also persists as grass, the produc t of a n atomi c circulatio n whos e sourc e an d meanin g sectio n si x ha s rendered conspicuousl y opaque . Figuring th e poe t bot h a s creativ e an d create d natur e an d hoverin g

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between antipoda l fable s o f priorit y an d power , thi s final sectio n o f "Song o f Myself " als o finds othe r way s t o leav e equivoca l th e effec t th e poet's precedence migh t have on us . The diffuse presenc e we are directe d to see k ou t seem s t o lea d u s ou t int o a n open , uncharte d spac e an d t o promise tha t w e wil l discove r ther e th e ke y t o al l being , includin g ou r own. Ye t a s Harold Bloo m ha s noted , th e poet's abilit y t o locat e himsel f in a mysteriou s spo t tha t i s no t onl y th e objec t o f ou r quest , bu t i s als o somehow alway s u p ahea d o f us , evince s a n uncann y priorit y {Poetry and Repression 263-64) . Characterizing "Son g o f Myself " an d recurrin g occasionall y throughou t the 185 5 leaves of Grass, thi s sort of delicat e suspension, a t once comic, poignant, an d deepl y uneasy , give s wa y i n th e 185 6 editio n t o les s balanced an d ofte n mor e vehemen t resolutions . Ther e th e poe t typicall y comes unambiguousl y befor e us , assuming the imperial guis e that make s him maste r no t onl y o f hi s auditor s bu t o f natur e an d cultur e a s well . Declaring that h e comes a s voice, the poet insist s on hi s beneficent effect ; the rol e playe d b y inscriptio n i n constitutin g th e identit y whic h suppos edly saves us from sign s is resolutely suppressed . This myt h play s onl y a mino r rol e i n mos t o f th e poem s Whitma n wrote fo r hi s i86 0 edition . Ther e th e poe t i s les s concerne d wit h hi s ability t o com e befor e u s than wit h th e priority o f inscriptio n t o hi s ow n voice an d person . Quit e palpabl y th e produc t o f th e symboli c mecha nisms his earlier incarnations appeare d t o keep at bay, he now character istically devote s himsel f t o probin g th e sourc e o f thi s inscriptio n an d trying to reconcil e himsel f t o it s effects . Calamus Mankind ha s alway s dreame d o f seizin g an d fixin g tha t fleetin g momen t whe n i t wa s permissible t o believ e tha t th e la w o f exchang e coul d b e evaded , tha t on e coul d gai n without losing , enjo y withou t sharing . A t eithe r en d o f th e eart h an d a t bot h extreme s of time , the Sumeria n myt h o f th e golde n ag e an d th e Andama n myt h o f th e futur e lif e correspond, th e forme r placin g th e en d o f primitiv e happines s a t a tim e whe n th e confusion o f language s mad e word s int o commo n property , th e latte r describin g th e bliss o f th e hereafte r a s a heave n wher e wome n wil l n o longe r b e exchanged , i.e. , removing t o a n equall y unattainabl e pas t o r futur e th e joys , eternall y denie d t o socia l man, o f a world i n which on e migh t keep to oneself. —Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship 496-9 7

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If w e rea d W h i t m a n a s a politica l poe t an d th e firs t t w o edition s o f Leaves of Grass a s politica l discourse , th e i 8 6 0 Calamus sequenc e migh t seem t o m a r k a dramati c retrea t fro m th e publi c sphere , suggestin g a sharp contractio n o f th e poet' s sympathies . Th e Calamus poem s some times p u t forwar d thi s readin g themselves : But no w tak e notice , lan d o f th e prairies , lan d o f th e sout h savannas , Ohio' s land, [••••]

For I can b e your singe r o f song s n o longer—On e wh o love s m e is jealous o f me, and withdraw s m e from al l but love , With th e res t I dispense—I seve r fro m wha t I thought woul d suffic e me , fo r it does not—i t i s now empt y an d tasteles s to me , I heed knowledge , and th e grandeur o f The States, and th e example o f heroes , no more , I am indifferen t t o m y own songs— I wil l go with hi m I love, It i s t o b e enoug h fo r u s tha t w e ar e together—W e neve r separat e again . ("Long I Thought Tha t Knowledg e Alon e Would Suffic e Me, " i86 0 3 5 4 55) 28 Going farthe r tha n W h i t m a n himsel f doe s here , Bets y Erkkil a view s this proclaime d tur n fro m politic s t o privac y a s itsel f a sympto m o f political malaise : This poe m i s usuall y cite d a s evidenc e tha t Whitman' s crisi s o f th e lat e 1850 s was brough t o n b y a homosexua l lov e relationship . Bu t th e poe m ma y als o suggest th e reverse : tha t hi s crisi s o f fait h i n th e "grandeu r o f th e States " precipitated hi s turn towar d th e privacy o f love . . . . (Whitman the Political Poet 152)

Like th e divide d natio n i n whic h Sout h wa s breakin g fro m Nort h an d privat e interest wa s prevailin g ove r publi c interest , Whitman' s separat e perso n ha d seceded fro m th e democrati c e n masse . {Whitman the Political Poet 154 ) Kerry Larso n concurs : Better, i t appears , t o resig n hi s commissio n now , circ a 1858 , tha n t o se e i t rendered meaningles s i n th e immediat e future . Petulan t an d bitter , h e elect s t o "go wit h hi m I love, / It is enough fo r u s that w e are together." A t least it ca n b e said o f them , i n a ton e close r t o reproac h tha n consolation , tha t "w e neve r separate again. " (169 ) While ther e i s undoubtedl y a degre e o f trut h i n thi s suggestio n o f a relation betwee n politica l disillusio n an d th e poet' s withdrawa l t o th e

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privacy o f "path s untrodden " (i86 0 341) , th e correlatio n Erkkil a an d Larson offe r i n thes e passage s i s suspiciously tidy . Assignin g politic s th e role o f caus e an d affectiona l lif e tha t o f effect , the y her e reduc e Whit man's lov e poetry t o the status o f mer e compensation o r displacement. 29 Committed t o thi s reading , Larso n manage s t o hea r emotiona l contrac tion i n th e poet' s ver y tone : th e whol e sequence , i n hi s view , i s marre d by th e petulanc e an d bitternes s h e discern s i n th e line s fro m "Lon g I Thought" quote d above . These line s ar e no t amon g th e sequence' s strongest , an d thei r tone , not full y controlled , i s accordingl y difficul t t o gauge . Bu t the y migh t better b e faulte d fo r bein g sentimenta l o r ostentatiousl y demonstrativ e than fo r th e qualitie s Larso n locate s i n them . Likewise , th e Calamus sequence a s a whole run s th e risk o f occasionall y aggrandizin g an d over simplifying th e ne w emotiona l gamu t t o whic h th e poe t self-consciousl y attends; bu t thes e ar e fault s provoke d b y a new-found emotiona l expan siveness, and no t b y the sort of bitte r withdrawal Larso n hears . Paradox ically, th e sceni c contractio n o f Calamus, it s relinquishin g o f th e pano ramic scop e tha t typifie s th e 185 5 an d 185 6 Leaves of Grass i n favo r o f a serie s o f sheltere d encounter s "b y margin s o f pond-waters " (i86 0 341), facilitates a strengthening o f th e poet's bond s t o others . Something o f thi s emotiona l expansio n i s evident eve n i n th e pointe d renunciations o f "Lon g I Thought." In this poem Whitman bot h aggran dizes an d over-simplifie s th e commitment s o f th e poe t o f th e first tw o editions o f Leaves of Grass; hi s reason s fo r doin g s o see m complex . Both alludin g to an d briefl y enactin g his earlier role as bard o f the natio n in anothe r passage , Whitman ma y i n part b e trying to sum u p neatly an d thereby ennobl e a perio d o f hi s caree r h e i s presumabl y puttin g behin d him. H e woul d thu s als o b e magnifyin g th e sacrific e h e make s fo r love : in th e traditio n o f Propertius , fo r example , h e woul d validat e th e strengt h of hi s feelin g b y pointedly givin g u p a n epi c career fo r a lesser lyri c one . Yet th e line s tha t announc e thi s nobl e renunciatio n als o subtl y under mine th e grandeu r the y ostentatiousl y relinquish , implyin g a critiqu e o f the poet's prio r career . Whitman's apostrophe s i n "Lon g I Thought" ar e peculiarly, indee d comically , awkward : But now take notice, land of the prairies, land of the south savannas , Ohio's land, Take notice, you Kanuc k woods—an d yo u Lak e Huron—and al l that with you roll toward Niagara—and you Niagara also,

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And you, Californian mountains—Tha t yo u each and all find somebod y else to be your singer of songs, For I can be your singer of songs no longer [..-..] (i86 0 354) This boisterousnes s bot h complicate s an d qualifie s th e politica l commit ment i t foregoes . Th e projec t o f politica l poetr y a s Whitman sometime s aspired t o practic e i t i s mad e t o see m bot h overblow n and , i n th e fel t strain involve d i n apostroph e here , curiousl y abstrac t an d remote . Th e poet's politica l claim s thu s appea r a s th e questionabl e counterpar t o f a bardic rol e wit h whic h w e are , b y i860 , quit e familiar : her e mad e t o seem comic , th e poet' s sweepin g addres s t o th e continen t characteristi cally generate s th e omnipresen t figure capabl e o f subsumin g it . Th e troubling impersonalit y o f thi s process , whic h i n a sens e foreclose s th e very relatio n i t appear s t o inaugurate , i s suggeste d no t onl y b y thes e lines but als o b y the contrasting idio m tha t succeed s them : I am indifferent t o my own songs—I will go with him I love, It i s t o b e enoug h fo r u s tha t w e ar e together—W e neve r separat e again . (1860355)

Perhaps a bit too self-conscious an d a bit too proud o f their own delicac y and tact , these closing lines nonetheless sugges t an intimac y tha t appear s as somethin g o f a relie f afte r Whitman' s bellicos e apostrophes . Her e what migh t b e calle d a tona l contractio n register s a n intensificatio n o f sympathy an d involvement . Avoidin g direc t address , Whitma n end s th e poem b y speakin g o f hi s belove d rathe r tha n t o him ; i n contras t t o hi s preceding declamations , whic h the y hel p evaluate , thes e understate d assertions sugges t a mor e comple x an d sustaine d relation , a ti e tha t i s both ric h an d vulnerable . How w e evaluat e th e intimacie s o f Calamus thu s depend s i n par t o n what w e mak e o f th e bardi c stanc e o f Whitman' s first tw o editions : w e are likel y t o dismis s Calamus a s merel y privat e i f w e prais e Whitman' s earlier poetr y fo r bein g publi c an d political . Complementar y simplifica tions accompan y thes e complementar y views . T o interpre t th e subsum ing presence of the 185 5 an d 185 6 editions a s a trope for politica l union , as Whitma n sometime s di d himself , i s t o ignor e th e mor e regressiv e satisfactions thi s figure affords . Lewi s Hyde' s wor k o n gif t economie s should thu s b e applied t o Leaves of Grass wit h mor e caution tha n eithe r Hyde o r Larso n observe . Whitma n migh t sometime s wis h t o sa y o f

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himself wha t Hyd e say s o f th e divin e intermediarie s o f myth , bu t w e need no t sa y it for him : I have come to think o f th e circle, the container i n which th e gift moves , as its "body" or "ego." (16) Aborigines commonly refer to their own clan as "my body," just as our marriage ceremony speaks of becoming "one flesh." (17) gods . . . become incarnate and then offer thei r own bodies as the gift.... (58 ) Larson cast s Whitman i n this role, though h e acknowledges tha t the poe t will have some trouble fulfillin g it : Rather than bein g obliterated b y this process of exchange, the self ideally incarnates the medium of exchange itself.. . . (40) Though Whitman' s Unionis m di d no t lea d hi m dow n th e roa d o f politica l compromise, th e impuls e t o articulat e a n accor d whos e authorit y woul d b e irrevocably sealed in the moment of its accomplishment remained essentially the same [a s Daniel Webster's]. In his role as Answerer the poet of course intended to mak e tha t accomplishmen t visibl e b y presentin g himsel f a s th e conjunctiv e medium for the social discourse. . . . (58) Whitman's poems , tha t is , aim t o wel d u s togethe r b y themselve s incar nating the medium o f socia l exchang e rathe r tha n simpl y being message s sent throug h it ; th e poet' s body , likewise , serve s a s th e divin e gif t tha t circulates throug h th e bod y politic , insuring the solidarit y o f th e group . We nee d a t th e ver y leas t t o atten d carefull y t o th e rol e th e poe t accords himsel f i n thi s fantasy . Bein g th e sit e o r mediu m o f exchang e rather tha n a participan t i n it , h e i s himsel f exemp t fro m th e ver y conjunctive relation s h e supposedl y embodies . Th e satisfactio n w e tak e in Whitman's poe t figure may depend a t least as much o n the exceptiona l status h e enjoy s a s o n th e socia l nor m h e supposedl y secures . We migh t note a s wel l tha t th e circui t o f exchang e th e poet' s presenc e supposedl y incarnates ha s bee n redefine d i n rathe r remarkabl e ways . Appearin g everywhere a t once , th e poe t doe s no t s o muc h circulat e amon g u s a s constitute a sor t o f magica l glu t tha t bring s exchang e itsel f t o a n apoca lyptic end. The regressiv e satisfaction s afforde d b y the poet becom e eve n clearer i f w e recal l that , accordin g t o th e sometime s inconsisten t topol ogy o f Leaves of Grass, thi s figure wh o flow s int o u s als o subsume s us : social spac e an d th e exchange s tha t articulat e i t ar e effectivel y dissolve d into th e poet' s amorphou s body , returnin g u s t o a n archai c real m i n

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which codifie d transaction s woul d n o longe r b e necessary . T o cal l thi s a vision o f politica l possibilit y i s t o mistak e som e o f th e crucia l satisfac tions i t affords . By contrast , th e poe t o f Calamus i s n o longe r inten t o n bein g th e medium o f ou r union ; acceptin g a mor e limite d role , h e reconcile s himself t o participatin g i n transitiv e relation s rathe r tha n figurin g them . This wil l appea r t o b e a retrea t onl y i f w e insis t o n readin g Whitman' s earlier trop e o f presenc e exclusivel y a s a politica l figure , ignorin g it s psychic implications . I n Calamus Whitma n give s u p th e self-sufficienc y that i s a crucia l desideratu m o f th e 185 5 an d 185 6 Leaves of Grass, entering a circui t o f exchang e o f whic h h e i s neithe r th e origi n no r th e master; i t i s b y assumin g a plac e i n thi s circui t tha t h e receive s no t onl y his affectiona l partner s bu t als o hi s identity . N o longe r self-sufficient , the poe t o f Calamus i s dependen t o n th e sor t o f intimate , contingen t relations tha t characteriz e Wordsworth' s "Tinter n Abbey, " relation s th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass effectivel y foreclose . I n Calamus, writing i s i n par t th e sig n o f suc h fragile connections . Bu t th e poet' s recourse t o inscriptio n suggest s a s wel l hi s relianc e o n a mor e genera l circuit o f exchange , withi n whic h th e particula r relation s int o whic h h e enters becom e possibl e an d tak e o n meaning . Thi s dependenc e o n a general structur e obtain s despit e th e oppositio n Calamus set s u p be tween a public heterosexual econom y an d a secret homosexual one . Like writing, the phallic Calamu s roo t i s in Whitman's sequenc e a sign of thi s dependence an d th e lac k i t installs , whic h produce s desire . I n Calamus the poe t mus t circulat e th e phallu s instea d o f claimin g t o b e it . More over, th e sel f wh o take s u p hi s plac e a s a n activ e agen t withi n thi s economy i s himself a product o f it : th e poe t wh o writes , we shal l see , is also written , define d b y th e passag e throug h hi m o f th e phallu s h e transmits. 1. If the poet's retrea t fro m th e panoramic swee p of th e first tw o edition s receives explici t commen t i n Calamus, s o to o doe s thi s contrar y move ment fro m putativ e self-sufficienc y t o involvemen t wit h others. 30 Som e lines fro m a draf t o f "I n Path s Untrodden, " printe d b y Fredso n Bower s in Whitman's Manuscripts: Leaves of Grass (i860), offe r th e mos t concise an d explici t formulatio n o f thi s shift : Was it I who walked the earth disclaiming all except what I had in myself? Was it I boasting how complete I was in myself ?

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O little I counted the comrade indispensable t o me! 0 ho w m y soul—Ho w th e sou l o f ma n feeds , rejoice s i n it s lovers , it s dea r friends! And no w I care no t t o wal k th e eart h unles s a lover, a dear friend , wal k b y my side. (Bower s 68) 31 "I Sa w i n Louisian a a Live-Oa k Growing " assert s a simila r opposition , though th e stanc e th e poe t renounce s ther e i s no t associate d explicitl y with Whitman' s o w n prio r poetry : 1 saw in Louisiana a live-oak growing , All alone stood it , and the moss hung down fro m the branches, Without any companion i t grew there, uttering joyous leaves of dar k green, And its look, rude , unbending, lusty , made me think of myself , But I wondered ho w i t could utte r joyou s leaves , standin g alon e there , without its friend, it s lover near—for I knew I could not. (i86 0 364-65 ) Commenting o n th e openin g line s o f "No t Hea t Flame s u p an d Consumes," Pau l Zwei g draw s ou t som e o f th e crucia l implication s o f the shif t i n perspectiv e tha t remain s implici t here : Whitman had sexualized nature in "Song of Myself," but the eroticism ha d been solitary; i t ha d bee n a "religion " o f lon e ecstasy . Her e ther e i s anothe r person ; they ar e two . . . . Th e voic e o f th e poem , too , i s new . Th e flus h o f deligh t i s mingled wit h a suggestio n o f vulnerability . A s a lover , Whitma n i s no t self contained. H e ca n n o longe r simpl y "effus e [his ] fles h i n eddies , an d drif t i t i n lacey jags, " lik e a polymorphousl y pervers e child . H e mus t concentrat e o n hi s elusive partner ; accep t th e estrangemen t o f hi s ver y self , whic h no w exist s fa r from him, in the guise of a beloved but uncontrollable face , moved by an obscure will. (296 ; interpolation i n original) 32 In Calamus thi s focu s o n particular , intimat e ties , whic h ar e b y thei r nature neve r assured , emerge s quit e movingl y fro m th e contex t o f Whit man's earlie r work . Th e delicat e poignanc y o f a poe m lik e "Whe n I Heard a t th e Clos e o f th e Day " i s especiall y strikin g i f w e recal l th e performative idio m o f prio r editions , her e conspicuousl y absent : When I heard a t th e clos e o f th e da y ho w m y nam e ha d bee n receive d wit h plaudits in the capitol, stil l it was not a happy night for me that followed ; And else , whe n I caroused, o r when m y plan s wer e accomplished , stil l I was not happy; But th e da y whe n I rose a t daw n fro m th e be d o f perfec t health , refreshed , singing, inhaling the ripe breath of autumn , When I saw the full moo n in the west grow pale and disappear in the morning light,

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When I wandered alon e ove r th e beach , and , undressing , bathed , laughin g with the cool waters, and saw the sun rise, And when I thought how my dear friend, m y lover, was on his way coming, O then I was happy; 0 the n eac h breat h taste d sweeter—an d al l that da y my food nourishe d m e more—And the beautiful da y passed well, And the next came with equal joy—And with the next, at evening, came my friend; And that night , while all was still, I heard th e waters roll slowly continuall y up the shores, 1 heard th e hissing rustle of the liquid and sands, as directed to me, whispering, to congratulate me, For the one I love most lay sleeping by me under the same cover in the cool night, In the stillness, in the autumn moonbeams, his face was inclined toward me, And hi s ar m la y lightl y aroun d m y breast—An d tha t nigh t I wa s happy . (1860357-58)

Here performative s ar e renounce d i n favo r o f narrative : th e poe t evoke s a conspicuousl y contingen t sequenc e o f events . Th e eviden t fragilit y o f these recollecte d scenes , whic h lend s th e poe m a n elegia c cast , offer s a marked contras t t o th e sor t o f magicall y repeatin g an d perfectl y assure d occurrence Whitman's performativ e utterance s characteristicall y see m t o generate. As Quenti n Anderso n notes , i n Whitman' s wor k thi s sor t o f intimat e narrative i s accorde d significan t powe r ove r th e sel f onl y i n Calamus. The involvement s thes e poem s detai l ver y largel y defin e wh o th e poe t is. 33 "T o a Stranger" explicitl y remark s thi s fatality : Passing stranger! you do not know how longingly I look upon you, You must be he I was seeking, or she I was seeking, (It comes to me, as of a dream,) [....]

[. . . ] your bod y ha s becom e no t your s only , no r lef t m y bod y min e only . (1860366)

The casualnes s o f fata l encounte r her e migh t b e regarde d eithe r a s a residual, protectiv e distancin g o r a s a sweepin g recognitio n o f ou r sus ceptibility t o others ; shapin g th e poet' s ver y body , thi s vulnerabilit y leaves him ope n i n either case to the sort of reciproca l interaction s whic h the magica l announcement s o f hi s adven t i n prio r edition s serv e t o foreclose. Like the recollecte d intimacie s o n whic h Calamus dwells , the futur e i t

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sometimes anticipate s als o balk s th e tota l contro l Whitman' s earlie r manipulation o f performativ e utteranc e appeare d t o afford . I n th e 185 5 and 185 6 Leaves of Grass, th e imag e o f presenc e suggeste d b y Whit man's figur e o f voice seems itself t o produce an d gover n the future scene s on whic h i t impinges . In Calamus th e poe t i s instea d characteristicall y said t o writ e t o us . H e thu s anticipate s a futur e hi s word s influenc e bu t do no t generate , solicitin g relation s h e canno t simpl y spea k int o being . While Calamus stil l make s us e o f apostrophe , whic h alway s effect s a n equivocal collaps e o f th e momen t i n whic h a message , is receive d bac k into th e on e i n whic h i t wa s produced , Whitman' s foregroundin g o f writing typicall y serve s t o dispe l thi s illusion : "Wh o i s no w readin g this?" (i86 0 361) . Drawin g attentio n t o th e poet' s inabilit y t o specif y his futur e addressee—a n incapacit y tha t onl y faintl y haunt s apostroph e in prio r editions—thi s writte n addres s highlight s a contingenc y Whit man's earlie r figure o f voic e ha d bee n enliste d t o subdue . I f th e poet' s voice i n th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass seem s t o b e a mediu m in whic h w e ar e immersed , th e writte n wor d o f Calamus i s instea d a n instrument tha t reache s towar d u s acros s a distanc e i t als o registers , drawing attentio n t o a separateness whic h litera l face-to-fac e encounter s might als o reveal . Whitman's characteristi c associatio n o f th e poe t wit h breath , an d with a diffuse , elusiv e touch, thu s appear s onl y rarel y i n Calamus: "Th e old breat h o f life , ever new, / Here! I pass it by contact t o you, America " ("States!" i86 0 349). 34 The mor e typica l insistenc e o n textua l transmis sion an d it s anonymit y serve s paradoxicall y t o establis h no t onl y th e contingency bu t als o the particularity o f ou r relations : Who is he that would become my follower? Who would sign himself a candidate for my affections? Ar e you he? ("Whoever You Are Holding Me Now in Hand," i86 0 345) Are you the new person draw n towar d me , and asking something significan t from me ? ("Are You the New Person Drawn toward Me?" i860 358) These writte n addresse s sugges t tha t onl y particula r selve s ca n brin g t o life th e relatio n th e poet' s question s see k t o provoke ; awaitin g th e re sponses hi s earlier apostrophe s see m t o compel , the poet stay s open her e to plurality an d chance . 2. Ye t th e poet' s availabilit y t o relation s tha t ar e particula r an d contin gent draw s hi m int o a structur e o f exchang e whos e law s ar e general ; i n

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Calamus Whitma n seem s to cas t his desire out int o an organized cultura l space i n whic h i t migh t find it s place an d it s fulfillment . Calamus enter s this aren a mos t explicitl y a s the poet addresse s th e future. Underspecify ing thei r addressee , Whitman' s writte n apostrophe s dra w attentio n no t only t o a n irreducibl e multiplicit y o f individua l selve s and wills , but als o to th e wide r field withi n whic h particular s ar e arrayed . Eac h individua l "you" wh o answer s th e poet' s cal l wil l i n effec t ste p forwar d fro m th e anonymous, functiona l categor y o f th e secon d person ; markin g th e ga p between thes e tw o sense s o f "you, " Whitman' s conspicuousl y tentativ e written addresse s manag e t o brin g bot h loca l an d globa l perspective s t o our attention . Holdin g of f fro m th e sor t o f assure d zeroing-i n tha t characterizes apostroph e i n Whitman' s prio r editions , th e poet' s ad dresses suspen d th e particula r uptak e the y als o invite , poisin g o n th e condition o f it s possibility . Evoked b y th e apostrophe s cite d above , thi s organize d spac e withi n which particula r relation s occu r i s a n explici t concer n o f th e poem s i n which Whitma n transmit s a legacy t o us . This i s so despite his renuncia tion o f ostentatiousl y publi c bequests : Nor will I be able to leave behind me any wealthy bequest to found a hospital or library, Nor reminiscence of any deed of courage, for America, Nor literary success, nor intellect—nor boo k for the book-shelf; Only these carols, vibrating through the air, I leave, For comrades and lovers. ("No Labor-Saving Machine," i860 373) 35 Here th e contractio n o f concer n th e poet declare s i s counterbalanced b y a subtle r expansio n implici t i n Whitman' s apparentl y intimat e conclud ing phrase : "comrade s an d lovers " suspend s betwee n exclusiv e an d inclusive referents , designatin g eithe r particula r familiar s o r th e genera l categories t o whic h the y belong . Lik e th e pronomina l equivocation s w e attended t o above , thi s ambiguou s legacy draw s ou r attentio n bac k outward, focusin g o n th e relatio n betwee n individua l intimacie s an d th e communal lif e tha t enable s them , a n etho s th e poet's transmissio n migh t in turn hel p to sustain . Renouncing th e nationalis m h e ascribe s t o hi s earlier work , Whitma n thus doe s not simpl y abando n th e public fo r th e private : You bards of ages hence! when you refer to me, mind not so much my poems, Nor spea k of me that I prophesied The States, and led them the way of their glories;

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But come , I will tak e yo u dow n underneat h thi s impassiv e exterior— I wil l tell you what to say of me: Publish my name and hang up my picture as that of the tenderest lover, The friend, the lover's portrait, of whom his friend, hi s lover, was fondest [••••]

Whose happies t day s wer e fa r away , throug h fields , i n woods , o n hills , he and another, wandering hand in hand, they twain, apart from othe r men, Who oft a s he sauntered th e streets, curved with hi s arm the shoulder of his friend—while th e ar m o f hi s frien d reste d upo n hi m also . ("Recorder s Ages Hence," i860, 356-57 ) While Whitma n close s her e b y poignantl y recallin g wha t feel s lik e a specially valued intimacy , he is careful t o situate this particular ti e withi n a networ k o f simila r relations . Th e poe m indee d convene s a grou p an d stipulates a commemorativ e ritual , centerin g o n a n ico n o f th e poet . Repeatedly offerin g thi s sor t o f generalize d inheritanc e i n Calamus, Whitman seem s les s concerne d t o memorializ e a particula r relationshi p than t o transmi t th e grou p practice s tha t mak e i t possibl e an d sustai n the community withi n whic h i t has its meaning. 36 This generalize d transmissio n ca n b e contraste d t o th e determinedl y personal mod e o f inheritanc e w e note d i n Wordsworth . I t i s possibl e to regar d thi s differenc e a s a defect : eve n i n Calamus, i t migh t b e argued, Whitman canno t quit e see the self a s fatally shape d b y its specifi c history. One appropriate respons e to such a criticism can b e made in historica l and politica l terms . A s the otherwis e variou s studie s b y Rober t K . Mar tin, Ev e Kosofsk y Sedgwick , M . Jimmi e Killingsworth , an d Charle y Shively have all shown, Whitman no t onl y wrote durin g the period whe n homosexuality wa s emergin g a s a cultura l categor y fo r identity , whe n homosexual act s were for th e first time taken t o define discret e homosex ual selves ; he was himsel f crucia l t o thi s histori c transformation. 37 Fro m this perspectiv e Calamus b y n o mean s mark s a n en d t o th e politica l commitments tha t hel p structur e Leaves of Grass: offerin g itsel f a s a vehicle fo r ritual s o f homosexua l self-recognitio n an d self-identification , the sequenc e als o make s homosexua l bondin g a mode l fo r politica l solidarity. 38 Whil e Calamus ca n b e said t o idealiz e th e demoti c potentia l of homosexuality , th e politica l implication s o f th e sequenc e ar e surel y no les s clear an d n o les s practical tha n thos e Whitman' s earlie r trop e o f presence is frequently sai d to possess. 39 If we take seriously the regressiv e

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and primaril y autoeroti c sexualit y whic h define s thi s presenc e wh o dis solves al l structure d relations , th e politica l possibilit y h e mos t nearl y figures i s Utopia n anarchism ; fro m thi s perspective , Calamus mark s a new willingnes s o n Whitman' s par t t o engag e practica l politic s i n a wa y that make s i t centra l t o th e imaginativ e energie s tha t organiz e Leaves of Grass. The movemen t i n Calamus fro m celebratio n o f individua l eroti c rela tions t o consideratio n o f th e institutiona l framewor k tha t migh t autho rize and sustai n the m i s admittedly sometime s ambivalent : I hear it is charged against me that I seek to destroy institutions; But really I am neither for nor against institutions, (What indeed have I in common wit h them?—O r wha t with th e destructio n of them?) Only I will establis h i n th e Mannahatta , an d i n ever y cit y o f Thes e States , inland and seaboard, And i n th e fields and woods, and abov e every keel littl e or large , that dent s the water, Without edifices, or rules, or trustees, or any argument, The institution of the dear love of comrades. ("I Hear It was Charged against Me," 1860367-68 )

These line s offer a n instanc e o f th e paradoxical anti-institutiona l institu tionalism Larso n finds centra l t o Whitman' s wor k (xviii-xxii) . Here , this ambivalen t stanc e migh t b e understood a s a particular respons e t o a particular predicament : Whitma n i s simultaneousl y seekin g t o establis h a traditio n o f homosexua l ritua l an d strugglin g t o distinguis h i t from th e entrenched more s an d ceremonie s o f th e dominan t heterosexua l culture . The strai n involve d i n thi s adversaria l stance , an d mor e especiall y i n th e attempt t o authoriz e i t b y romanticizin g it , show s u p i n th e oxymoroni c notion o f a n institutio n devoi d o f institutiona l paraphernalia . Yet Calamus a s a whol e display s fa r les s discomfor t wit h institution s and th e ritual s tha t recrui t u s t o the m tha n d o th e earlie r edition s o f Leaves of Grass, i n which th e institutionalism Larso n discern s remain s a surreptitious tendency . Calamus i s indee d committe d t o spellin g ou t a structure o f ritualize d relation s tha t bear s a strikin g resemblanc e t o th e heterosexual econom y fro m whic h Whitma n i s apparently seceding . Th e poet himsel f assume s th e plac e o f th e patriarch , mandatin g a rit e an d founding a lineage : There shall be from m e a new friendship—It shal l be called after m y name, It shall circulate through The States, indifferent o f place,

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It shall twist and intertwist them through an d around each other—Compac t shall they be, showing new signs, Affection shal l solve every one of the problems of freedom , Those who love each other shall be invincible, They shall finally mak e America completely victorious, in my name. One from Massachusett s shall be comrade to a Missourian, One fro m Main e o r Vermont , an d a Carolinian an d a n Oregonese , shall be friends triune , more precious to each other than all the riches of the earth. ("States!" i86 0 349-50 ) Whitman's edict s her e migh t wel l remin d u s o f th e provision s tha t according t o Levi-Straus s articulat e elementar y an d comple x structure s of kinship ; th e poe m goe s s o fa r a s to offe r it s ow n versio n o f th e inces t taboo tha t found s culture , detailin g th e exogam y thi s prohibitio n serve s to institute. 40 In readin g Calamus, w e ca n thu s legitimatel y stres s eithe r th e differ ence o r th e resemblanc e betwee n th e dominan t heterosexua l econom y and th e homosexua l on e Whitman i s intent o n founding . Th e importan t studies b y Martin, Shively , and Killingsworth , whic h ai m to establish th e facilitating rol e Whitma n playe d a t a crucia l junctur e o f homosexua l history an d politics , quit e appropriatel y focu s o n th e former . Ye t i n th e context o f Whitman's career , Calamus mark s no t onl y the poet's comin g out a s a homosexual, 41 bu t als o hi s relinquishin g o f th e archai c stanc e that organize s th e earlie r edition s o f Leaves of Grass. W e thu s nee d t o attend no t onl y t o Whitman' s oppositiona l politic s i n Calamus, bu t als o to th e comin g int o cultur e th e sequenc e facilitate s mor e tha n resists : though i t ma y b e adversaria l an d i s stil l surel y shape d b y th e fac t o f oppression, th e homosexua l cultur e Whitma n envision s allow s hi m t o take u p hi s place i n th e sor t o f symboli c econom y th e earlie r edition s o f Leaves of Grass adamantl y reject . No t onl y th e poet' s estimat e o f pre existing structures , bu t als o hi s sense of himsel f i s fundamentally altere d by thi s shift : i n Calamus Whitma n assume s wha t Laca n woul d cal l hi s castration, comin g t o term s wit h bot h th e curtailmen t an d th e gif t thi s assumption involves . Calamus thu s share s wit h "Tinter n Abbey " a sens e tha t transmissio n is centra l t o wh o w e are : lik e Wordsworth , th e poe t o f Whitman' s sequence paradoxicall y seem s t o com e int o hi s ow n i n th e momen t o f imagining hi s deat h an d transmittin g wha t wil l surviv e it ; i t i s a s i f

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identity itsel f wer e a produc t o f th e transmissibilit y th e poe t activates . Like th e poe t o f "Tinter n Abbey, " th e poe t o f "Recorder s Age s Hence " empties ou t th e presen t momen t i n whic h h e addresse s us , imaginativel y relinquishing hi s life i n order t o project th e poem forwar d t o a time afte r his death ; h e doe s s o no t t o pu t o n th e transfigure d bod y tha t preside s over Whitman' s first tw o editions , bu t i n orde r t o becom e "th e lover' s portrait," a n ico n whic h succeedin g generation s ca n pas s on . Lik e Wordsworth, tha t is , th e poe t o f Calamus turn s himsel f int o a sign , giving u p livin g presenc e fo r th e symboli c bond s tha t ca n b e sustaine d beyond it s loss. In "Tinter n Abbey, " w e saw , thi s transformatio n come s to see m compellin g i n par t becaus e th e poe t alread y inhabit s a univers e of representation s o r signs ; the symboli c statu s o f ou r object s i s likewis e a dominan t focu s o f Calamus. W e furthe r hypothesize d tha t th e poe t o f "Tintern Abbey " mus t als o hav e assume d th e statu s o f a sig n himself : he ca n perfor m th e dramati c self-reductio n o n whic h th e poe m pivots , we suggested , onl y becaus e i t ha s i n a sens e alread y occurred . "Tinter n Abbey" doe s not quit e put u s in a position t o spel l out ho w this transfor mation happens ; a s w e saw , Wordsworth' s determinatio n t o trea t i n intensely persona l term s transmissio n an d th e symboli c relatio n i t se cures ma y indee d obscur e som e o f wha t ou r dependenc e o n a circui t o f exchange implies . B y contrast , bot h th e generalizin g imaginatio n o f Calamus an d it s relate d preoccupatio n wit h sexua l exchange—wit h what migh t b e calle d a homosexua l structur e o f kinship—hel p t o mak e clear how thi s accessio n occurs , and wha t i t means . The benefit s o f Whitman' s focu s i n Calamus o n th e genera l cultura l structures tha t enabl e particula r possibilitie s ar e thu s no t solel y prag matic. I f th e sequenc e display s a practical , politica l concer n wit h ho w group practice s ca n facilitat e an d protec t individua l intimacies , i t als o suggests tha t cultura l structure s subten d particular s i n a mor e radica l way, no t simpl y fosterin g individua l behavio r bu t generatin g th e ver y possibility o f it s occurrenc e b y formin g th e subject s wh o wil l engag e i n it. Anachronistically, w e might call this attitude structuralist. This admit tedly pervers e designatio n a t leas t ha s th e virtu e o f suggestin g wit h particular sharpnes s th e sor t o f revolutio n Calamus represent s i n Whit man's career . I n th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass, w e hav e seen , the proleptic or pre-emptiv e powe r o f structure s tha t preced e the self no t only provoke s anti-institutiona l polemic s bu t sometime s occasion s out -

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right panic . In Calamus, Whitma n celebrate s structure s o f exchang e tha t pre-exist an d shap e us ; admittin g thei r powe r t o breac h ou r self-suffi ciency, he suggests tha t the y thereb y constitut e wha t w e properly are . 3. Th e chang e represente d b y thi s new-foun d willingnes s t o celebrat e symbolic compact s i s strikingl y suggeste d i n "Root s an d Leave s Them selves Alone. " Ther e Whitma n relinquishe s a magica l attitud e t o th e word, givin g u p th e self-sufficienc y wor d magi c implies . The poe t enter s a circui t o f symboli c exchange , define d b y th e parado x tha t hi s object s can hencefort h b e possesse d onl y a s the y ar e subjec t t o circulation ; th e objects th e poe t circulate s indee d com e int o existenc e b y virtu e o f thi s process o f transmission . The versio n o f th e poe m first printe d i n 186 7 gesture s a t th e identifi cation o f wor d an d thin g tha t constitute s wor d magic , a fusio n tha t would assur e self-sufficiency b y allowing th e poet to subsum e hi s object s simply b y namin g them . Ye t th e suggestio n o f fusio n i s tentative. Whit man's peculia r phrasin g indee d seem s t o cal l int o questio n th e ver y identity i t implies : "Root s an d leave s themselve s alon e ar e these " (CR E ; V 2:383) . I f "these " ca n refe r t o th e word s th e poe t utters , a s Whit man's earlie r poem s woul d lea d u s t o expect , i t migh t poin t instea d t o ordinary root s an d leaves , physica l object s lef t outsid e th e poet' s tex t rather tha n lodge d withi n i t a s words . The peculia r insistenc e o f "them selves alone" draws ou r attentio n t o thi s possibility . The i86 0 tex t subject s th e deicti c "these" to strange r disturbances : Calamus taste, (For I must change the strain—these ar e not to be pensive leaves, but leaves of joy,) Roots and leaves unlike any but themselves, Scents brought to men and women from th e wild woods, and from th e pondside. (i860 359) In th e secon d lin e here , "these " ar e "leaves, " i n contex t quit e clearl y the leave s o f th e poet' s text . Bu t "Root s an d leaves, " i n th e followin g line, adds a significant complication : Whitman' s enumeratio n i s presumably appositiv e to lin e two, yet is difficult t o understand a s a designatio n for th e poet' s words ; i t seem s instea d t o poin t t o natura l objects . Whil e this confusio n migh t impl y th e sor t o f blurrin g o f objec t an d wor d wit h which reader s o f Leaves of Grass ar e familiar , "unlik e an y bu t them -

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selves" seems to insis t not o n fusio n bu t o n difference , a difference mad e disconcerting b y th e circumstanc e tha t w e don' t kno w wher e w e stand i n relatio n t o th e distinctio n i t implies : i s i t word s o r thing s that ar e "unlik e an y bu t themselves, " an d whic h i s i t w e ar e bein g offered? Given thi s equivocation , th e pensivenes s th e poe t aim s t o pu t behin d him continue s t o haun t bot h thes e line s an d th e catalogu e tha t succeed s them: Roots and leaves unlike any but themselves, Scents brought to men and women from th e wild woods, and from th e pondside, Breast-sorrel and pinks of love—fingers tha t wind around tighter than vines, Gushes from th e throats of birds, hid in foliage of trees, as the sun is risen, Breezes of lan d an d love—Breeze s se t fro m livin g shores ou t t o yo u o n th e living sea—to you, O sailors! Frost-mellowed berries , and Third Mont h twigs , offered fres h t o young persons wandering out in the fieldswhen the winter breaks up. (i860 359 ) The poignanc y o f thi s lis t derive s i n par t fro m th e evanescenc e o f th e natural landscape s i t renders . Bu t i f a sens e o f nature' s mutabilit y suf fuses th e scene s th e poe t describes , suggestin g incipien t loss , th e cata logue i s als o haunte d b y los s o f anothe r sort . I f thi s lis t name s natura l objects "unlik e an y bu t themselves, " then i t points t o thing s tha t remai n aloof; th e poet's word s indicat e a reality the y canno t produce . If , o n th e other hand , th e object s "unlik e an y bu t themselves " ar e th e poet' s written "leaves, " the n w e ar e i n th e presenc e o f a differen t categor y o f thing—a verbal , symboli c objec t tha t double s an d thereb y distance s u s from th e natura l realit y wit h whic h w e ar e eage r t o conflat e it . Lik e th e elegiac landscap e description s o f "Tinter n Abbey, " thes e line s i n eithe r case commemorat e th e birt h o f a human , symboli c univers e bough t b y the fading o f the natural world . Par t of the delicate beauty o f the passag e derives fro m th e way natur e i s itself mad e t o figure thi s shift: th e evanes cence an d fragilit y tha t alread y characteriz e th e natura l scene s the poe m evokes, tha t is , imag e a relatio n t o th e natura l tha t ha s itsel f becom e tenuous. It i s importan t t o not e tha t thi s catalogue , unlik e man y o f th e extende d litanies o f Whitman' s firs t tw o editions , i s als o a ritua l o f transmission . Offering gift s "t o me n an d women, " "t o you , O sailors! " and "t o youn g

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persons wandering ou t i n the fields when th e winter break s up," the poe t who name s thing s her e i s intent o n enterin g a circui t o f exchang e rathe r than o n achievin g th e sor t o f cataclysmi c incorporatio n enacte d i n th e poems o f 185 5 an d 1856 . I t woul d b e difficul t t o separat e caus e fro m effect here : w e woul d d o bette r t o sugges t tha t th e poe t relinquishe s th e real fo r a univers e o f symboli c objects , an d take s u p hi s plac e i n a cultural transmission , i n a single gesture . While th e poem' s nex t line s a t leas t partl y resolv e th e ambiguit y of th e precedin g catalogue , suggestin g tha t th e object s th e poe m presents ar e indee d symbolic , bein g word s rathe r tha n natura l things , they thu s introduc e a ne w complication . Th e poe t insist s tha t th e symbolic object s h e proffer s wil l thriv e onl y i f w e ten d t o an d conserv e them: Love-buds, put before you and within you, whoever you are, Buds to be unfolded o n the old terms, If you bring the warmth o f the sun to them, they will open, and brin g form , color, perfume, t o you, If you becom e the aliment an d th e wet, they will become flowers, fruits , tal l branches and trees, (i860 359) The transmissio n thes e line s depic t i s admittedl y portraye d i n sentimen tal terms . The passag e i s nonetheless peculiarl y movin g i n the contex t o f Whitman's work : th e poet' s avowa l i s als o a n implici t relinquishin g o f self-sufficiency, an d o f th e magical powe r o f production suggeste d b y th e first two edition s o f Leaves of Grass. The followin g lin e offers a more radica l renunciatio n o f thi s drea m o f self-containment. I t suggests that no t simpl y the perdurance, bu t als o th e very existenc e o f th e object s th e poe t transmit s depend s o n us . The y exist no t a s thing s i n themselves , bu t a s element s withi n a locu s o f exchange: "The y ar e comprise d i n yo u jus t a s muc h a s i n themselves — perhaps mor e tha n i n themselves " (i86 0 360) . Thes e symboli c objects , that is , paradoxically com e int o bein g b y virtu e o f th e transmissio n tha t passes the m on : "The y ar e no t comprise d i n on e seaso n o r succession , but man y successions " (i86 0 360) . The poem' s poignanc y i s thus complex . I n a singl e gesture , Whitma n relinquishes wor d magi c an d imaginativel y enter s a cultura l circui t i n which hi s object s exis t fo r hi m onl y s o lon g a s the y ar e exchanged . Th e conjunctions implie d her e ar e centra l t o Calamus, an d t o th e shif t i t marks i n Whitman' s career . Takin g u p hi s plac e i n wha t amount s t o a

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structure o f extende d kinshi p affirme d b y bequest , th e poe t no w give s up no t onl y a regressive , fantasmati c relatio n t o things , bu t als o hi s distance fro m th e socia l structure s tha t restor e ou r object s t o us , bu t only i n mediate d an d symboli c form , an d onl y a s we subject ourselve s t o the rules of exchang e tha t gover n thei r circulation . "Roots an d Leaves " suggests that thi s bargain affect s u s more intimatel y than w e migh t suppose , governin g no t simpl y ou r transaction s wit h material good s bu t als o th e eroti c an d amorou s lif e w e ma y wan t t o think o f a s a n alternativ e t o it s demands . N o intimat e relatio n i s men tioned i n th e poem ; ye t th e whol e i s suffuse d wit h tendernes s an d longing. Whitman's catalogue , moreover , owe s it s peculiar poignanc y t o an impuls e w e commonl y associat e wit h love , th e impuls e t o giv e mor e than on e can , t o offe r u p t o th e belove d eve n wha t on e doe s no t have . Noting th e mute d presenc e o f thi s arden t aspect , on e migh t conceivabl y fault th e poe m fo r spendin g borrowe d capital : on e coul d argu e tha t "Roots an d Leaves " owe s it s hauntin g qualit y t o a n intimat e los s th e poet decline s t o mention , displacin g th e pai n o f thi s even t ont o th e sor t of generalize d scenari o o n whic h th e sequenc e s o ofte n focuses . Ye t th e poem ma y wel l deriv e it s powe r fro m a n insigh t tha t i s th e revers e o f this one : desir e itsel f ma y gro w ou t o f th e nexu s "Root s an d Leaves " portrays. A particularl y intens e experienc e o f love , suc h a s th e relatio n thought t o hav e precipitate d Calamus, ma y thu s brin g th e poe t t o a dramatic realizatio n o f wher e h e alread y is ; "Root s an d Leaves " seem s to mar k a recognitio n o f thi s order. 42 I t i s at leas t th e cas e that th e poe t embedded her e in a kind o f kinship structure , whose words ar e no longe r magical an d whos e object s ar e symbolic , existin g i n circulation , mus t o f necessity giv e wha t h e doe s no t have , excep t a s h e give s it , an d desir e from th e othe r wha t th e othe r doe s no t hav e an d canno t give , except a s the poe t receive s i t fro m him . Namin g object s tha t ar e an d ar e no t present, tha t d o an d d o no t belon g t o hi m t o dispose , th e poe t reache s longingly t o others . "Root s an d Leaves " implicitl y ground s desir e i n a sense o f lack , displayin g th e sourc e o f thi s lac k a s structura l rathe r tha n private. Making thi s connectio n clearer , th e poem' s final lin e suggests that w e have ourselve s bee n forme d b y th e proces s o f circulatio n int o whic h w e then ente r a s desiring subjects , s o that th e fadin g tha t haunt s ou r object s haunts u s a s well . Whitman' s concludin g imag e i s troublin g i n it s ow n

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right: "The y hav e com e slowl y u p ou t o f th e eart h an d me , an d ar e t o come slowl y u p ou t o f you " (i86 0 360) . A s ofte n i n Whitman' s work , the topolog y w e ar e invite d t o imagin e her e i s confusing . I f th e poem' s prior line s sugges t tha t th e object s th e poe t transmit s exis t onl y a s products o f exchange , an d onl y i n transit , her e Whitma n offer s anothe r myth o f thei r genesis , implyin g tha t the y com e fro m ou r interiors . Th e symbolic object s create d b y exchang e thu s see m paradoxicall y t o b e organic, nativ e growth s w e individuall y produce . A close r look , how ever, suggest s tha t the y produc e us : comin g "slowl y u p ou t o f th e eart h and me, " the y see m t o emerg e fro m a dept h belo w individua l identity , passing first throug h th e eart h an d the n throug h th e individual , assimi lating hi m o r he r t o thei r obscur e tropism . ( A passag e fro m "Scente d Herbage o f M y Breast, " w e wil l se e furthe r on , make s a simila r sugges tion mor e clearly. ) Whil e thi s reversa l o f priorit y i s not o f muc h hel p i n clarifying th e poem' s equivoca l topology , i t doe s mak e th e impor t o f Whitman's difficul t figure mor e intelligible . Thos e wh o tak e u p thei r places i n a circui t o f exchang e tur n ou t t o b e har d t o distinguis h fro m the object s the y transmit . I f thes e ar e peculia r objects , existin g onl y b y virtue o f th e circui t i n which the y ar e circulated , th e sam e can b e said of our selves . The fragility tha t haunts Whitman's catalogu e an d the object s it evoke s bu t canno t definitivel y produc e woul d thu s haun t th e poe t himself; th e sens e o f eleg y w e discerne d ther e mourn s no t onl y a relin quished relatio n t o th e objec t worl d bu t als o a n abandone d visio n o f th e self. Ye t th e poe m i s no t primaril y elegiac : i n "Root s an d Leaves " th e poet celebrate s a n identit y h e ca n sustai n onl y b y virtu e o f symboli c transactions, affirmin g a s well th e attendan t lac k o f self-completio n tha t precipitates desir e an d draw s hi m t o th e circui t i n which i t moves. Wha t he finds ther e wil l dra w hi m int o th e cycl e o f exchang e mor e firmly: receiving fro m th e othe r wha t h e does no t have , he migh t hop e t o attai n the completenes s an d self-sufficienc y tha t woul d finally satisf y desire , freeing hi m fro m th e roun d i n whic h i t moves ; ye t th e objec t tha t th e other migh t giv e is itself symbolic , existin g onl y b y virtue o f th e transac tions tha t pas s i t on . As Calamus describe s it , sexualit y acquire s it s valu e an d engage s u s with uniqu e intensit y b y bein g th e crucia l locu s o f thi s symboli c ex change an d th e fantasie s i t provokes. In the homosexual bu t stil l patriar chal econom y Whitma n explores , a s i n th e dominan t heterosexua l cul ture h e only equivocall y leave s behind , th e symboli c objec t on e doe s no t

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have bu t give s in sexuality i s the phallus. It circulates a s the absen t caus e and elusiv e satisfactio n o f desire , bindin g th e poet , betwee n origi n an d end, t o a law o f exchang e whic h Calamus alone , of al l Whitman's work , is content no t t o protest bu t t o celebrate . 4. Th e relatio n "Root s an d Leaves " suggest s betwee n a transmissio n o f symbolic object s an d a sexua l circulatio n o f selve s i s presente d mor e clearly i n "Thes e I Singing i n Spring, " whic h als o explore s th e rang e o f feeling thi s erotic exchange ca n provoke . If "Root s an d Leaves " implicitl y relinquishe s wor d magi c an d th e autonomy i t seem s to sustain , "Thes e I Singing i n Spring " takes leav e of the edenic space to which th e dream o f autonom y properl y belongs : These I, singing in spring, collect for lovers, (For who but I should understand lovers, and all their sorrow and joy? And who but I should be the poet of comrades?) Collecting, I traverse the garden, the world—but soo n I pass the gates, (i86 0 347) Entering that other , falle n worl d beyon d th e garden, the poet wanders i n a spac e mad e poignan t b y contingency . Whitman' s ensuin g descriptio n echoes the lovely scen e on whic h sectio n five of "Son g of Myself" come s delicately t o rest . "Thes e I Singin g i n Spring " evoke s th e patho s o f th e miniature o n whic h th e earlie r passag e als o relies ; bu t th e sens e o f wonder th e outsetting bar d o f "Son g of Myself" experiences, as he gazes tenderly o n wha t seem s to b e his own creation , finding i t good, i s shaded toward eleg y b y the ac t of leave-takin g th e olde r poet no w describes : Now along the pond-side—now wading in a little, fearing not the wet, Now b y the post-and-rail fences , wher e the old stone s thrown there , picked from th e fields, have accumulated, Wild-flowers an d vine s an d weed s com e u p throug h th e stones , an d partl y cover them—Beyond these I pass, (i860 347) This leave-takin g i s n o les s poignant tha n th e on e i t follow s i n quic k succession. Th e poe t no w abandon s a solitud e that , despit e th e fain t signs o f civilizatio n here , evokes a stat e o f natur e an d a natural attitude . He finds hi s plac e i n anothe r scene , t o whic h Whitma n lend s a peculia r twist: Far, far in the forest, before I think where I get, Solitary, smelling the earthy smell, stopping now and then in the silence,

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Alone I had thought—yet soon a silent troop gathers around me, Some wal k b y m y side , an d som e behind , an d som e embrac e m y arm s o r neck, They, the spirits of friends, dead or alive—thicker the y come, a great crowd, and I in the middle, Collecting, dispensing, singing in spring, there I wander with them, (i860 347) What i s odd her e i s the focu s o n "spirits, " togethe r wit h th e stipulatio n "dead o r alive. " W e ar e surel y t o understan d thes e term s a s sign s tha t the scen e i s imagined, henc e especiall y poignan t becaus e deepl y felt ; th e poet wh o leave s al l els e behin d i s stil l stirre d b y memorie s o f thos e h e loves. Ye t thi s persistenc e woul d hav e bee n mor e strikin g ha d th e poe t put behin d hi m a clearl y populate d space , i n whic h h e wa s surrounde d by livin g lover s o r fello w citizens , fo r a scen e o f suppose d solitude . I n fact, th e movemen t th e poe m trace s i s close r t o th e reverse : passin g beyond a solitud e tha t i s firs t edeni c an d the n natural , th e poe t finds himself i n a pastora l scen e tha t i s als o th e poem' s first communa l one , yet is at th e sam e time a region o f ghosts . It woul d b e pushin g thing s a bit , a t thi s poin t i n th e poem , t o insis t that wha t th e poe t encounter s her e ar e thus th e sign s of lovers , or lover s as signs. Yet it is signs that h e is next sai d to distribut e t o them : Collecting, dispensing, singing in spring, there I wander with them, Plucking something fo r tokens—somethin g fo r these , till I hit upon a name —tossing toward whoever is near me, Here! lilac, with a branch of pine, Here, out o f m y pocket, som e moss which I pulled of f a live-oak i n Florida, as it hung trailing down, Here, some pinks and laurel leaves, and a handful o f sage, (i860 347-48 ) We shoul d o f cours e understan d "tokens " a s love tokens, "signs " of th e poet's affections ; an d whe n w e speak o f token s o r sign s i n this sense , we don't i n commo n parlanc e mea n tha t the y aren' t rea l things . Ye t here i n the poe m th e token s th e poe t dispense s ar e struc k wit h a peculia r la tency, seemin g t o dissolv e towar d th e statu s o f sign s i n a mor e rigorou s sense. And i t is precisely Whitman's equivoca l "spirits " whose proximit y dissolves them . Whethe r w e wan t t o interpre t thes e familiar s a s ghosts , or a s image s th e poet' s memor y conjure s up , th e poe m ha s i n an y even t gone ou t o f it s wa y t o sugges t tha t the y ar e no t flesh-and-blood pres ences. Th e surrea l comed y tha t woul d atten d th e poet' s tossin g actua l branches, moss , an d leave s a t suc h vaporou s form s doesn' t see m t o b e

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one th e poe m i s intereste d i n mobilizing . Instead , th e "tokens " th e poe t tosses see m t o fad e int o th e ambiguou s regio n betwee n bein g an d non being, presenc e an d non-presence , whic h th e poet' s lover s inhabit : the y seem, a s i t were , t o dissolv e a s the y ar e tosse d towar d thos e wh o hav e themselves dissolved . This dissolutio n woul d b e rathe r surrea l i n it s ow n right , wer e i t no t for th e fac t that , i n th e contex t o f Calamus, suc h latenc y alread y haunt s the token s th e poe t names , b y th e ver y fac t tha t h e name s them : "Here ! lilac, wit h a branc h o f pine. " In Calamus th e deicti c tha t point s a t nothing w e ca n se e tend s t o b e poignan t rathe r tha n oracular , enactin g that fadin g o f thing s exacte d b y a languag e n o longe r though t o f a s magical. Whitman' s earlie r "spirit s o f friends " thu s giv e dramatic , ap prehensible for m t o a pervasiv e fallin g awa y fro m th e rea l whic h th e poem bot h register s an d explores . In context , thi s imag e serve s als o t o sugges t tha t th e fadin g t o whic h selves ar e subjec t ha s somethin g t o d o wit h th e circulatio n o f eroti c signs, an d wit h th e extende d networ k o f sexua l relation s th e poet' s exchange o f token s structures . A t thi s poin t i n th e poem , thi s gif t econ omy an d th e affectiona l networ k int o whic h i t draw s th e poet' s ghostl y lovers see m primaril y beneficent : Whitma n bestow s hi s token s wit h a prodigality tha t keeps the poem's elegia c implications in the background . Yet eve n her e ther e i s a sens e o f impendin g solemnities : "somethin g fo r these, til l I hi t upo n a nam e [ . . . . ] " I t i s har d t o kno w jus t wha t thi s phrase means , wha t th e "name " th e poe t stil l lack s migh t be ; thi s ver y doubt leave s a sor t o f lacun a i n th e ceremon y o f copiou s bestowin g th e poet meanwhil e performs . Thi s nam e migh t b e simpl y th e nam e o f th e ceremony itself . O r i t migh t b e the nam e o f th e cultura l progenito r wh o stands behin d it , in whose name thes e rite s ar e no w performed . I t migh t be a name that, i f found, th e poet coul d besto w o n hi s lovers—the nam e of th e missin g progenito r himself , perhaps . Thi s ceremon y woul d the n be a genealogical one , a rite in which on e not onl y exchange s token s bu t also take s u p one' s plac e i n a structure o f kinship ; th e poet wh o offer s a name woul d inser t u s i n a symboli c circui t b y mean s o f whic h cultura l identity i s bestowed . O r again : th e nam e migh t b e th e nam e o f a stil l missing gift, o f somethin g els e the poet coul d circulate , in the absenc e of which h e distributes his lesser tokens instead . If we understand " a name " this way , i t seem s t o clinc h th e sens e o f latenc y o r fadin g b y whic h th e poet's othe r token s ar e haunted : wha t th e poe t woul d besto w woul d b e

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not a thing itself, bu t it s linguistic sign. Yet "a name " i s a peculiar usag e here (w e migh t hav e expecte d " a word " instead) , an d i n Whitman' s work th e nam e i s als o a peculia r sor t o f sign ; Whitman' s foray s int o language theory , w e sa w i n chapte r 5 , often tur n o n thi s peculiarity . A s Whitman explain s it , a nam e i s a word, bu t a word reserve d fo r a singl e thing, and thereb y wedde d t o it ; the truly prope r name , we saw, sustain s the drea m o f a languag e i n whic h th e wor d doe s no t occul t th e thin g b y subsuming i t i n th e symboli c category , bu t instea d lift s i t up , i n it s uniqueness an d it s presence , int o language , an d int o a socia l spac e thereby mad e visionary . These possibl e sense s o f " a name, " contradictor y i n severa l respects , express contradictor y recognition s an d desire s b y n o mean s peculia r t o Whitman. Th e name s bestowe d upo n u s ar e th e marks , no t o f ou r sacrosanct individuality , bu t o f it s loss . No t trul y prope r name s bu t designations tha t inscrib e u s i n structure s o f kinship , the y plac e u s i n relation t o a progenitor , t o th e nam e o f th e fathe r an d hi s law. 43 Ou r objects, while their movement s an d relation s ar e less strictly codified , ar e struck b y a simila r latency . Ye t ther e shoul d be , somewhere , a proper name, th e nam e o f a bein g o r objec t stil l proper : someon e o r somethin g who stabilize s thi s structur e b y remainin g aloo f fro m th e derive d an d mediated identit y i t confers , someon e o r somethin g self-sustainin g an d self-contained.44 Perhaps suggestin g thi s completeness, a s well a s our ow n lac k o f it , in the riddl e o f " a name, " th e poe m goe s o n t o offe r u s a mor e tangibl e image o f suc h elusiv e self-containment , th e calamus-roo t o n whic h th e next fe w line s dwell . W e ca n bes t se e wha t thi s imag e implie s i f w e glance firs t a t th e symbo l that , accordin g t o Fredso n Bowers , it replace d in the cours e o f Whitman' s writin g o f th e Calamus cycle : the "live-oak " of " I Sa w i n Louisian a a Live-Oa k Growing, " a poe m Whitma n com posed befor e writin g "Thes e I Singing i n Spring." 45 On e o f th e line s i n the latte r poe m whic h w e looke d a t already , i n whic h th e poe t bestow s his tokens , allude s t o th e earlie r image : "Here , ou t o f my pocket , som e moss whic h I pulled of f a live-oa k i n Florida , a s it hung trailin g down. " We note d alread y tha t th e live-oa k come s t o symboliz e a completenes s the poet n o longe r ascribe s to himself, and tha t hi s own lac k of suc h self sufficiency i s relate d intimatel y t o hi s nee d fo r affectiona l partners . W e can ad d tha t th e live-oak , lik e th e self-sufficien t poe t o n who m Whit man's prio r edition s center , i s describe d i n term s tha t mak e i t see m

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conspicuously phallic , and that it s phallicism i s implicitly associate d wit h the sort of joyously self-contained eroti c delight that might now be called jouissance: I saw in Louisiana a live-oak growing, All alone stood it, and the moss hung down from th e branches, Without any companion it grew there, uttering joyous leaves of dark green, And its look, rude, unbending, lusty, made me think of myself, But I wondered ho w it could utter joyous leaves, standing alone there, without its friend, it s lover near—for I knew I could not. (i860 364-65 ) The poet' s respons e t o thi s differenc e i s t o carr y awa y wit h hi m a piece of th e tree : And I broke off a twig with a certain numbe r o f leave s upon it , and twine d around it a little moss, And brought it away—and I have placed it in sight in my room, (i860 365) This i s a comple x gesture . I f th e poe t keep s nea r hi m somethin g t o remind hi m o f a completenes s h e n o longe r attribute s t o himself , thi s reminder i s itself a broken-off part , suggesting as well his own separatio n and lack . I n th e contex t o f th e Calamus sequence , ther e i s furthe r iron y in the fac t tha t h e designates thi s twi g a s a sign: "Ye t i t remains t o m e a curious token— " (i86 0 365) . In Calamus, ou r lac k o f completenes s i s intimately connecte d t o our entr y into a universe of symbolic objects an d the circuit i n which the y ar e transmitted. Wha t th e poet possesses here is not th e completenes s h e canno t regain , bu t it s token—th e sig n o f wha t we hav e los t onc e w e tak e u p signs . The phrase s immediatel y followin g this designation o f th e twig as a "token" accordingl y g o on t o insist onc e more o n th e poet' s ow n lac k o f th e ver y completenes s i t symbolizes , a lack associate d onc e mor e with th e poet's eroti c life . In "Thes e I Singin g i n Spring, " th e conspicuousl y phalli c calamus root whic h substitute s fo r th e live-oa k (an operatio n itsel f possibl e onl y within a universe o f signs ) i s also designated a s a token : And here what I now draw from th e water, wading in the pond-side, (O here I last sa w hi m tha t tenderl y love s me—and return s again , neve r t o separate from me, And this , O thi s shal l hencefort h b e th e toke n o f comrades—thi s calamus root shall, Interchange it, youths, with each other! Let none render it back!) (i860 348) Here Whitman' s phalli c toke n i s explicitly associate d wit h a n operatio n of eroti c exchange . I t play s it s par t i n a solem n transmissio n whic h th e

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poem's concludin g line s explicitly contras t t o th e prodigality wit h whic h the poet' s othe r token s o f love—includin g no t th e phalli c live-oa k twi g but onl y th e surroundin g moss—continu e t o be bestowed : And twigs of maple, and a bunch of wild orange, and chestnut, And stems of currants, and plum-blows, and the aromatic cedar; These I, compassed around by a thick cloud of spirits, Wandering, point to, or touch as I pass, or throw them loosely from me, Indicating to each one what he shall have—giving something to each, But what I drew from th e water by the pond-side, that I reserve, I will give of it—but only to them that love, as I myself am capable of loving. (1860348)

If we tak e th e phalli c calamus-roo t a s a symboli c equivalen t fo r th e liveoak, we can sugges t that, i n the special ceremon y the poet institutes here , what i s formall y interchange d i s th e sig n o f a completenes s h e an d hi s partners lack . The y lac k i t a t leas t i n par t becaus e o f thei r insertio n i n the ver y circui t o f symboli c exchang e tha t no w proffer s them , i n th e guise o f th e phalli c calamus , a sig n o f th e self-sufficienc y the y hav e offered up . The phallus her e signified b y the calamus stalk , that is , plays in sexua l commerce a rol e analogou s t o tha t reserve d fo r th e elusiv e prope r nam e in th e kinshi p structure s wit h whic h huma n sexualit y intertwines . I f th e fantasy o f th e missin g prope r nam e compensate s u s fo r th e lac k o f psychic self-completenes s exacte d no t onl y b y ou r mediate d connectio n to object s bu t als o b y a similarly mediate d relatio n t o our ow n identities , the phallus signifie s th e erotic self-completion o r jouissance o f which ou r bodies ar e no w likewis e bereft . Ye t i t signifie s a s wel l th e plac e o f th e father, th e patriarcha l authorit y tha t withi n th e symboli c orde r bar s ou r access to the very jouissance fo r whic h th e phallus stands . The symboli c exchang e o f th e phallus i s thus b y no mean s peculia r t o the homosexua l rit e Whitma n mandate s here . Th e phallu s i s als o sym bolically transferre d i n th e heterosexua l marriag e ceremon y sanctione d by culture , i n th e for m o f th e fetishize d woma n passe d betwee n on e patriarchal lin e an d another . I n its solemnity an d it s implicit finality, th e rite Whitma n inaugurate s indee d resemble s a marriage ; i t i s somethin g very lik e a homosexua l structur e o f kinshi p tha t th e ritualize d exchang e of th e symboli c phallu s her e serve s t o sustain . "Thes e I Singin g i n Spring" thus suggest s bot h th e lac k intrinsi c to sexualit y onc e it assume s its rol e i n establishin g an d maintainin g th e symboli c relation s amon g

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persons tha t foun d culture , an d th e symboli c restitutio n sexualit y itsel f affords. Thi s signifyin g functio n o f sexua l commerce , an d th e lac k o r loss o f jouissance i t entails, 46 leave s it s mar k o n al l eroti c activity , whether explicitl y sanctione d an d regulate d a s a n ac t o f kinshi p ex change o r surreptitiou s an d apparentl y exemp t fro m control . Whitman' s poem suggest s a s much : eve n th e seemingl y casua l eroti c relation s de tailed earlie r i n th e poe m an d evoke d onc e mor e towar d it s close , w e saw, ar e shadowe d b y th e proble m o f " a name, " a ritua l an d genealogi cal imperativ e evidentl y fulfille d b y th e ceremonia l exchang e o f th e phallus tha t "Thes e I Singing in Spring " envisions. 47 If sexualit y i n Whitman' s first tw o edition s oscillate s betwee n a regres sive fantas y o f jouissance an d a correlativ e terro r o f dismemberment , i n Calamus i t is thus instea d typicall y caugh t u p int o th e realm o f masquer ade. Heterosexua l relation s withi n patriarchy , Jacques Laca n suggests, 48 possess jus t thi s character , sinc e the y to o ar e structure d aroun d a los t object, toke n o f a missin g completeness , tha t ca n b e mime d bu t neve r literally produced : Paradoxical a s this formulation migh t seem, I would say that it is in order to be the phallus, that is to say, the signifier of the desire of the Other, that the woman will rejec t a n essentia l par t o f he r femininity , notabl y al l it s attribute s throug h masquerade. (Lacan, Feminine Sexuality 84)49 It i s not onl y th e woman , Laca n suggest s i n radicalizin g Freud' s notion s of bot h fetishis m an d castration , whos e sexualit y i s defined b y lack . Th e penis i s als o a fetish , substitut e fo r th e los t phallu s th e ma n play s a t having just a s the woman play s a t being : It is for wha t sh e is not that sh e expects to be desired a s well as loved. But she finds the signifier of her own desire in the body of the one to whom she addresses her deman d fo r love . Certainl y w e shoul d no t forge t tha t th e orga n actuall y invested wit h thi s signifyin g functio n take s o n th e valu e o f a fetish . (Lacan , Feminine Sexuality 84) It follow s tha t heterosexualit y an d homosexualit y woul d b e equall y caught u p i n masquerade , whil e possessin g thei r ow n particula r rituals ; Lacan's notio n o f masquerad e i s not tie d t o an y fundamenta l distinctio n between thes e orientation s a s regard s castratio n o r th e willingnes s t o assume it . Thi s revisionar y stanc e i s crucia l fo r appraisin g Calamus i n

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anything lik e psychoanalytic terms , since Freud characteristicall y associ ates homosexuality wit h a disavowa l o f (maternal ) castration , a scotom izing o f whic h "normal " heterosexual s ar e supposedl y innocent . Th e first hal f o f thi s nea t distinctio n i s complicate d b y Freu d himself , i n hi s final, unfinishe d essa y "Splittin g o f th e Eg o i n th e Defensiv e Process" : disavowal o f castration , Freu d argue s there , doe s no t preclud e recogni tion o f it , th e tw o contrar y response s runnin g paralle l an d servin g t o split th e eg o (Collected Papers 5:372-75). 50 Acceptanc e o f castration , Lacan's work seem s to suggest, may be similarly partial and problematic , running alongsid e fantasie s o f restitutio n pervasiv e enoug h t o mak e fetishism o f on e sor t o r another , i n hi s account , virtuall y coextensiv e with sexualit y itself. 51 In Calamus, homosexua l exchang e i s thu s gov erned b y a fantasmati c structur e Laca n regard s a s normative : "Thes e I Singing i n Spring " mandate s th e ritua l transfe r o f a phallic toke n whic h the love r o f comrade s desires , bu t characteristicall y n o longe r claim s a s his own . It woul d accordingl y b e a mistak e t o interpre t th e poignan t gestur e with whic h th e poem end s as a sign of disavowa l o r a claim o n th e poet' s part t o b e exemp t fro m th e symboli c circui t throug h whic h th e sig n o f the phallus i s restored : But what I drew from th e water by the pond-side, that I reserve, I will give of it—but only to them that love, as I myself am capable of loving. (1860348)

As these line s mak e clear , th e poe t ca n "reserve " th e calamu s stalk , bu t not indefinitely : h e conclude s b y lookin g forward , wit h a solemnit y which implie s tha t hi s reticenc e simpl y measure s th e gravit y o f hi s gift, t o th e momen t i n whic h h e wil l besto w it . H e to o possesse s th e phallic sig n o f a n elusiv e completenes s onl y a s h e circulate s it , givin g i t up. 52 This i s admittedly no t a n attitud e towar d th e phallu s an d th e la w o f th e father Calamus uniforml y assumes . Bu t i f w e wan t t o isolat e wha t i s peculiar t o sexualit y a s Calamus portray s it , w e nee d t o abando n th e sort o f star k distinctio n betwee n homosexualit y an d heterosexualit y o n which Freud' s notio n o f disavowa l insists , attending instea d t o a subtle r aspect o f eroti c exchang e ambiguousl y bot h fantasmati c an d political . The poe t wh o retreat s t o th e margin s o f pond-side s t o stipulat e specia l

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rituals throug h whic h a phalli c toke n wil l circulat e step s outsid e th e structures o f kinshi p an d transmissio n a s currently constitute d an d sanc tioned b y patriarcha l law . Whil e th e eroti c hide-and-see k tha t mark s Whitman's sequence , lending i t a wonderfully flirtatious qualit y tha t ca n be eithe r playfu l o r grave , i s surel y i n par t a mean s o f seducin g th e appropriately incline d reade r withou t offendin g thos e differentl y dis posed, i t ca n als o b e understoo d a s a provocativ e displa y pu t o n fo r th e Other, who m th e poe t ambiguousl y eithe r woo s o r flouts. 53 Calamus thus continue s t o registe r a quotien t o f ambivalenc e wit h regar d t o th e dominant orde r tha t i s surel y i n larg e par t a functio n o f sexua l politics , but ha s comple x relation s nonetheles s t o th e more sweepin g suspicion o f symbolic compact s centra l t o Whitman' s firs t tw o editions . A s w e shal l see further on , a related thoug h no t identica l gestur e i n "A s I Ebb'd wit h the Ocea n o f Life, " i n whic h th e poe t trie s quit e simpl y t o seduc e th e Other, mark s a relatio n t o symboli c exchang e an d th e mediate d identit y it install s tha t ha s becom e no t simpl y ambivalen t bu t frankl y desperate . In Calamus too , the poet who solicit s a special, imaginary relatio n t o th e Other ambivalentl y seek s bot h t o accommodat e himsel f t o th e demand s of th e symbolic order an d t o wi n a partial exemptio n fro m them . While thi s provocativ e stanc e suggest s a n attitud e somewher e be tween th e avowal s o f "Thes e I Singing in Spring " an d th e archai c ambi tions o f Whitman' s first tw o editions , Calamus sometime s mor e closel y approaches th e latter . Th e poe t wh o aspire s t o occup y th e plac e o f a mythic progenito r wh o gives the rite s o f kinshi p t o hi s tribe seek s a rol e no sel f i n culture , whethe r hetero - o r homosexual , ca n assume : no t content merel y to woo o r provok e th e Other , h e wants, like the hoverin g presence o f 185 5 an d 1856 , t o becom e him . I n suc h moment s th e adversarial politics of Calamus ar e difficult indee d to separate from mor e regressive concerns . Yet i n Whitman' s sequenc e th e quotient s o f exhibitionis m an d mega lomania t o which w e have just bee n attendin g see m on th e whole fa r les s important tha n th e impuls e t o imagin e a structur e o f homosexua l ex change i n whic h th e poe t finds hi s satisfaction a s participant rathe r tha n eponymous ancestor ; i t i s mor e nearl y tru e o f Calamus tha n o f Whit man's othe r work , thoug h stil l no t entirel y so , that th e poe t assume s th e latter rol e in order t o creat e th e scen e in which h e might pla y the forme r one. I t i s a t leas t th e cas e tha t Calamus perform s wit h remarkabl e delicacy th e difficul t tas k o f imaginin g symboli c ritual s tha t simulta -

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neously shado w an d sugges t a n alternativ e t o th e dominant heterosexua l economy, envisionin g rite s i n whic h th e poe t migh t b e willin g an d abl e simply t o take u p hi s place. 5. Whitman' s celebratio n o f th e identit y institute d b y exchang e i s clear est in th e pieces tha t depic t th e poet enterin g int o eroti c ritua l o r assum ing hi s plac e i n a lineag e b y writin g hi s legac y down . Bu t th e cost s exacted b y subjectio n t o th e la w o f exchang e ar e registere d mor e dra matically i n poem s tha t displa y th e poe t a s himsel f traverse d b y inscrip tion. "Scente d Herbag e o f M y Breast " presents th e poet's ow n bod y a s a text, a writin g h e himsel f encounter s a s foreig n an d mus t struggl e t o decipher. Th e poe m doe s no t quit e depic t th e litera l engravin g o f bod y surfaces performe d i n primitiv e ritual s o f scarification . Growin g u p ou t of th e poet' s inne r bod y space s i n th e for m o f leaves , th e tex t th e poe t ponders instea d suggest s a tracin g o f hi s psychi c an d somati c terrai n b y laws whos e origi n an d purpos e remai n inaccessibl e o r unconscious ; th e interiority fro m whic h thi s inscriptio n emerge s ca n n o longe r easil y b e associated wit h suc h notion s a s essenc e o r self-presence . Suc h alienatio n also define s wha t th e poe t wants : th e writin g th e poe t struggle s t o rea d is also th e tex t o f hi s desire ; i t reveal s th e othernes s o f bot h identit y an d impulse whe n thes e ar e shape d b y a structur e tha t precede s them . Thoug h an organi c growt h figures thi s structur e an d it s result s i n th e poem , th e clear relatio n o f thi s "scente d herbage " t o desire , th e associatio n o f foliage wit h th e phalli c ter m throughou t Calamus, an d th e sequence' s pervasive interes t i n symboli c beques t al l allo w u s t o understan d th e writing tha t emerge s fro m th e poet' s interio r a t leas t i n par t a s a n instance o f th e cultura l inscriptio n tha t shape s th e bod y an d govern s erotic life— a tracing , throug h th e self , o f th e la w o f th e fathe r an d th e phallus, whic h write s th e poe t int o th e kinshi p network s Calamus de picts. From it s opening, "Scente d Herbage " portrays th e poet a s the condui t of a messag e tha t precede s hi m an d will persis t beyon d hi s death . Th e expressive speec h tha t characterize s Whitman' s first tw o edition s i s ac cordingly replace d b y writing , a writin g whos e task , moreover , i s t o transmit o r transcrib e rathe r tha n invent : Scented herbage of my breast, Leaves from yo u I yield, I write, to be perused best afterwards , Tomb-leaves, body-leaves, growing up above me, above death,

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Perennial roots, tall leaves—O the winter shall not freeze you, delicate leaves, Every yea r shal l yo u bloo m again—Ou t fro m wher e yo u retired , yo u shal l emerge again, (i860 342) The poet' s passiv e rol e i s stresse d her e i n a numbe r o f ways . I n th e second o f thes e lines , th e tex t h e convey s i s depicte d a s a kin d o f crop , an associatio n reinforce d b y th e extende d pla y o n "leaves. " Th e poe t himself apparentl y serve s thi s cro p a s soil : h e i s figured a s a plo t whic h will "yield " th e leaves we peruse. The notion o f surrende r whic h "yield " also momentaril y suggests , thoug h syntacticall y unsustainable , i s like wise appropriate no t onl y to the modest rol e the poet assign s himself bu t also t o th e sens e o f violatio n thes e openin g line s alread y imply . Th e association her e o f th e leave s whic h emerg e fro m th e poe t wit h deat h i s one t o whic h w e ca n bes t com e back , whe n w e encounte r a n extende d meditation o n i t late r i n th e poem . Bu t th e relate d contentio n tha t th e poet's tex t ca n b e "peruse d bes t afterwards, " i n hi s absence , dramati cally displace s hi s identit y fro m th e authoritative , originar y positio n Whitman accord s i t in the first two edition s o f Leaves of Grass. This displacemen t i s insiste d o n i n "Scente d Herbage " no t simpl y b y casting th e writin g poe t a s mer e amanuensis , rathe r tha n a s th e sor t o f progenitor o f a trib e an d a rit e wh o appears , fo r example , i n "Thes e I Singing i n Spring, " bu t als o b y depictin g hi s bod y a s written , re-shape d by o r int o a text . Thi s tex t b y n o mean s reflect s th e poet' s ow n author izing presence o r intention . Whil e Whitman' s prio r edition s characteris tically dissolv e tex t int o voice , an d voic e int o th e poet' s livin g presence , "Scented Herbage " suggest s a n invers e orde r o f operations : her e th e "leaves" whic h ar e bot h plan t an d tex t emerg e fro m a bod y the y enu cleate, breakin g dow n th e poet' s discrete , autonomou s for m int o wha t amount t o nutritiv e element s recycle d an d assimilate d b y thi s alie n or ganism i n th e proces s o f it s growth . Lik e th e Elizabet h Bisho p poe m "The Weed " (20—21) , whic h i s i n man y respect s a re-writin g o f it , "Scented Herbage " lend s thi s proces s a degre e o f grotesquenes s an d a suggestion o f violenc e tha t hin t a t th e darke r effect s o f manneris m o r surrealism: O slender leaves! O blossoms of my blood! I permit you to tell, in your own way, of the heart that is under you, O burning and throbbing—surely al l will one day be accomplished; O I do not know what you mean, there underneath yourselves—yo u ar e not happiness,

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You ar e ofte n mor e bitte r tha n I can bear—yo u bur n an d stin g me . (i86 0 342") These line s ar e disconcertin g no t simpl y becaus e a patterne d energ y that seem s foreig n enucleate s an d reconfigure s th e poe t here , bu t als o because th e sourc e o f thi s proces s prove s impossibl e t o locate . A s a result, bot h th e poet' s attemp t a t prosopopoei a an d th e comfortingl y anthropomorphic sens e o f agenc y i t woul d sustai n hav e troubl e attach ing themselve s t o th e obscur e tropis m the y see k t o brin g unde r control . Like th e slightl y fussy , oddl y punctiliou s phras e " I permi t you, " whic h suggests not s o much a gracious ceding of authorit y a s an uncomfortabl e attempt t o insis t tha t on e indee d possesse s it , the poet' s deferentia l offe r to allo w th e organis m whic h enucleate s hi m "t o tell , i n you r ow n way , of th e hear t tha t i s under you " provide s a moment o f nicel y understate d black comedy . No t onl y th e speec h ac t th e poe t pretend s t o authoriz e but als o th e agenc y h e apostrophize s an d invite s t o perfor m i t fail s t o materialize: th e supposedl y consciou s entit y th e poe t trie s t o addres s slides awa y disconcertingl y int o ramifyin g foliage , a tangl e o f intercon necting filiations withou t discernibl e origi n o r end . Whitman' s shifte r "you" register s thi s slide , dissipatin g th e ver y ac t o f identificatio n i t ought t o accomplis h o r confirm : " O I d o no t kno w wha t yo u mean , there underneat h yourselve s [ . . . . ] " 5 4 Given thi s slippag e an d th e dissolutio n o f persona l agenc y i t suggests , it i s al l th e mor e disconcertin g tha t thi s proliferatin g structure , a t onc e plant an d text , prove s indistinguishabl e fro m th e poe t wh o struggle s t o address it . Wha t ha s bee n assimilate d t o thi s elusiv e tropis m i s indee d not simpl y th e poet's bod y bu t als o his desire. Not onl y d o the leaves th e poet a t first trie s t o addres s emerg e fro m o r pas s throug h hi s heart: "th e heart" i s itself mad e t o see m alie n b y th e definit e articl e tha t introduce s it i n lie u o f a possessiv e pronou n ( a distancin g gestur e repeate d i n Bishop's text) . The leaves the poet addresse s ar e invited t o tell of a desir e that ha s thu s implicitl y bee n rendere d opaqu e t o th e poe t himself . Thi s implication i s born e ou t b y th e final tw o line s quote d above , i n whic h the meanin g o f th e growt h tha t traverse s th e hear t i s said bot h t o elud e the poet's understandin g an d t o frustrat e rathe r tha n affor d satisfaction . The passage' s curiousl y phrase d secon d lin e leave s i t a n ope n questio n what othe r purpos e migh t instea d b e served : "surel y al l wil l on e da y b e accomplished." Though th e desir e figured b y thes e leave s i s thus b y n o mean s reduc -

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ible t o simpl e enjoyment , furthe r o n i n "Scente d Herbage " th e poe t nonetheless implore s i t to emerg e les s hesitantly : Grow up taller, sweet leaves, that I may see! Grow up out of my breast! Spring away from th e concealed heart there! Do not fold yourselves so in your pink-tinged roots, timid leaves! Do not remain down there so ashamed, herbage of my breast! (i860 343) What i s moving here is the tenderness wit h whic h th e poet apostrophize s an eroticis m figured a s obscur e an d alien . Th e "swee t leaves " th e poe t addresses ar e object s a t onc e mysteriou s an d auto-erotic ; Whitman' s address suggest s a solicitude directe d les s at sexua l partner s tha n towar d his ow n desire . Mingle d wit h shyness , thi s solicitud e ca n b e understoo d in par t a s a respons e t o th e culture' s proscriptio n o f homosexuality . Ye t it registers a s well th e elusiveness of a desire governed b y laws no t o f th e poet's ow n making , law s th e Calamus sequenc e a s a whol e associate s not onl y wit h th e particula r predicament s tha t affec t homosexualit y bu t also wit h th e extende d structure s i n whic h eroticis m o f whateve r sor t finds its place. Accounting a t leas t i n par t fo r th e opacit y o f desire , thi s alienatio n ma y also underli e th e enigmati c connectio n "Scente d Herbage " make s be tween desir e an d death : th e Calamus sequenc e suggest s tha t deat h al ready inhabit s an d define s th e sel f wh o ha s take n u p a plac e mandate d by symboli c law s o f exchange . I f th e poe t o f Calamus, lik e th e poe t o f "Tintern Abbey, " i s inten t o n envisionin g hi s ow n absenc e s o a s t o secure th e transmissio n tha t wil l mak e u p fo r it , reducin g himsel f t o th e portrait o r sig n a s which h e will persist, thi s impuls e ma y thu s reflec t hi s sense that thi s reduction ha s i n effect alread y occurred . Like the vegeta l imager y wit h whic h i t intertwines, th e deat h th e poe t of "Scente d Herbage " contemplate s ca n b e understood i n more than on e way. Whitman' s extravagantl y botani c vehicl e surel y implie s tha t th e link betwee n sex an d deat h i s biologicall y grounded . Ye t a n extende d passage tha t dilate s o n thi s connectio n first detail s a n alienatio n o f meaning intrinsi c t o desire , a n expropriatio n th e sequenc e a s a whol e associates wit h symboli c mechanisms : O I do not know what you mean, there underneath yourselves—yo u ar e not happiness,

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You are often mor e bitter than I can bear—you bur n and sting me, Yet you are very beautiful t o me, you faint-tinged roots—yo u mak e me think of Death, Death i s beautifu l fro m you—(wha t indee d i s beautiful , excep t Deat h an d Love?) 0 I think i t is not fo r lif e I am chanting here my chant o f lovers— I thin k i t must be for Death, For how calm, how solemn it grows, to ascend to the atmosphere of lovers, Death or life I am then indifferent—my Sou l declines to prefer, 1 am not sure but the high Soul of lovers welcomes death most; Indeed, O Death , I think no w thes e leave s mea n precisel y th e sam e a s you mean, (i860 342-43 ) It migh t b e argue d tha t deat h itsel f i s responsibl e fo r separatin g desir e from individual , consciou s intention , a spli t Whitma n record s i n th e lines tha t preced e death' s explici t appearanc e here . Bu t deat h ma y wel l enter th e passag e a s a crucia l imag e fo r thi s fadin g rathe r tha n a s it s cause. Sexuality , inscribin g u s i n a symboli c orde r tha t precede s individ ual identit y an d desire , ma y itsel f precipitat e th e psychi c fadin g tha t prefigures litera l deat h an d hencefort h become s inseparabl e fro m ou r sense of it . In th e poem' s concludin g lines , deat h i s accordingl y associate d no t simply wit h dissolution , bu t mor e insistentl y wit h a los s o f self-presen t meaning. Whitma n indee d invoke s i t a s a n antithetica l correctiv e no t quite t o life , bu t t o "wha t I was callin g life. " W e ca n bes t understan d i t as a catachresi s o f th e transparen t self-presenc e tha t define s lif e i n Whit man's first tw o editions , a self-presenc e guarantee d i n tur n b y a notio n of wor d magi c incompatibl e wit h th e operation s o f linguisti c an d eroti c exchange tha t gover n Calamus: Nor will I allow you to balk me any more with what I was calling life, For now it is conveyed to me that you are the purports essential, That yo u hid e in these shifting form s o f life , for reasons—an d tha t the y are mainly for you, That you, beyond them, come forth, to remain, the real reality, That behind the mask of materials you patiently wait, no matter how long, That you will one day, perhaps, take control of all, That you will perhaps dissipate this entire show of appearance, That may be you are what it is all for—but i t does not last so very long, But you will last very long, (i860 344) These line s empt y ou t imager y crucia l t o Whitman' s 185 5 a n ^ I 8 5 ^ editions. There , w e saw , surfac e form s ar e characteristicall y regarde d a s

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representations o f a sequestere d essenc e o r presence . I f th e indicativ e surfaces o f thing s ar e typicall y opaqu e an d sometime s downrigh t decep tive, th e essence s the y hid e nee d onl y b e liberate d t o b e comprehended ; while surface s constitut e a complicate d networ k o f arbitrar y sign s ulti mately associate d wit h th e violenc e an d tricker y o f th e cultura l order , interiors ar e self-present , self-sufficient , an d self-contained . Voice , w e saw, both figures an d expresse s this pristine interiority . Her e in "Scente d Herbage," surface s ar e stil l signs ; ye t the y n o longe r signif y transparen t self-presence. Instead , lif e an d presenc e ar e themselve s no w mask s o r disguises: reversin g th e logi c o f Whitman' s earlie r editions , eac h appar ently discret e thin g no w play s it s part a s sign o f a pervasive schem e tha t negates it s autonomy ; wha t lurk s withi n thing s i s silenc e rathe r tha n voice, and th e appearanc e o f thi s insid e would no w involv e a disappear ance o r fadin g o f self-presenc e rathe r tha n it s triumphan t revela tion. We migh t understan d thi s silenc e a t th e hear t o f thing s i n par t a s a metaphysical void ; in the celebratory contex t of Calamus it s implication s would b e les s nihilisti c tha n mystical . Ye t th e deat h th e poe t addresse s here also suggests a fading o f a different order , one more amply explore d in th e sequenc e a s a whole : th e underlyin g silenc e "Scente d Herbage " ponders als o appear s i n th e sequence a s inscription, a s the ghostl y struc ture tha t individual s perpetuat e throug h th e sexua l an d familia l configu rations the y assume , deploye d b y a la w tha t negate s thei r self-contain ment an d th e notio n o f essenc e tha t govern s it . W e nee d no t den y tha t the fadin g th e poem meditate s ca n b e understood a s biological, o r meta physical, t o maintai n tha t i t i s also symbolic . Sexuality , Lacania n analy sis suggests , acquire s it s singula r plac e withi n cultur e precisel y becaus e of thi s sort o f overdetermine d significance : This i s the point o f insertio n o f sexualit y int o th e structure : th e los s t o whic h sexuality already testifies as a biological function come s to coincide with the lack inscribed in the signifying chain . (Feminine Sexuality 120)55 In "Scented Herbage " death ca n b e understood a s a name fo r thi s doubl e lack. "Of Hi m I Lov e Da y an d Night " give s thes e connection s amon g eros , death, an d cultura l transmissio n mor e extravagan t scope . B y it s ver y

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strangeness, th e poe m suggest s tha t th e deat h Whitma n meditate s i n Calamus i s not solel y biological : Of him I love day and night, I dreamed I heard he was dead, And I dreamed I went where they had burie d him I love—but h e was not in that place, And I dreamed I wandered, searching among burial-places, to find him, And I found tha t every place was a burial-place, The houses full of life were equally full of death, (This house is now,) The streets , th e shipping , th e place s o f amusement , th e Chicago , Boston , Philadelphia, the Mannahatta, were as full of the dead as of the living, And fuller, O vastly fuller, of the dead than of the living; —And what I dreamed I will henceforth tel l to every person and age, And I stand henceforth boun d to what I dreamed; And now I am willing to disregard burial-places, and dispense with them, And if the memorials of the dead were put up indifferently everywhere , even in the room where I eat or sleep, I should be satisfied, And if the corpse of any one I love, or if my own corpse, be duly rendered to powder, and poured in the sea, I shall be satisfied, Or if it be distributed to the winds, I shall be satisfied, (i86 0 362-63 ) Not conten t t o sho w tha t w e have bee n precede d b y myria d generation s now dead , an d tha t ou r tim e on eart h i s ultimately miniscule , the poem' s dream visio n insist s o n placin g th e livin g amon g th e dea d an d th e dea d among th e living . I n th e poet' s dream , th e on e t o who m hi s desir e ha s bound hi m take s u p hi s plac e amon g th e dead ; an d th e dead , o r th e memorials o r inscription s tha t surviv e them , hav e thei r plac e i n th e hearths o f th e living. The poem indee d suggest s that ou r prope r dwellin g is a hous e o f th e dead , tha t ou r mos t intimat e act s occu r beneat h th e gaze of inscription s writte n fo r o r b y them. Whitman' s first tw o edition s vigorously repudiat e suc h intimations , though th e presence who preside s over thes e volume s ma y illustrat e th e ver y la w h e come s t o refute . B y contrast, "O f Hi m I Love" i s remarkable fo r th e tendernes s wit h whic h imagery tha t migh t hav e seeme d grotesqu e i s se t int o th e cultura l land scape th e poe m imagines , provokin g a solem n recognitio n tha t feel s liberating rathe r tha n macabre . Rarely rendere d i n suc h globa l terms , this i s nonetheless th e imagina tive spac e i n whic h th e entir e sequenc e i s situated. Th e dream-vision s o f Calamus ar e characteristically populate d b y ghostly lovers ; they come t o define th e univers e o f symboli c exchang e Calamus adduces . Embracin g

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this ghostliness , Calamus call s u s to tak e u p willingl y th e place s tha t ar e ours. 6. "Ful l o f Lif e Now, " th e poe m tha t close s Whitman' s sequence , con denses som e o f th e centra l concern s t o whic h w e have bee n attending . I t also bot h recall s an d dramaticall y revise s th e paradigmati c encounte r o f Whitman's 185 5 an d 185 6 editions : Full of life, sweet-blooded, compact, visible, I, forty years old the Eighty-third Yea r of The States, To one a century hence, or any number of centuries hence, To you, yet unborn, these, seeking you. When you read these, I, that was visible, am become invisible; Now it is you, compact, visible, realizing my poems, seeking me, Fancying ho w happ y yo u were , i f I coul d b e wit h you , an d becom e you r lover; Be it as if I were with you. Be not too certain bu t I am now with you. (i86 0 378) Here severa l o f th e facet s o f exchang e whic h th e sequenc e ha s ex plored ar e combine d i n a singl e ritual . Lik e "Root s an d Leaves, " th e poem center s o n a n ac t o f transmissio n i n whic h a symboli c rathe r tha n real entit y i s bequeathed . Lik e "Thes e I Singing i n Spring, " i t associate s such symboli c transaction s wit h eroticism , suggestin g mor e dramaticall y the fadin g thi s connectio n exact s b y assignin g t o th e poe t himsel f th e ghostliness th e earlie r poe m attribute s t o hi s lovers . "Ful l o f Lif e Now " indeed goe s further , makin g th e poet' s seductiv e gestur e equivalen t t o a last bequest, the circuit of eroti c exchange indistinguishabl e fro m a circle of inheritors. Whitman thu s als o enacts a ceremony t o which "Recorder s Ages Hence " alludes , turning himsel f b y mean s o f hi s written wor d int o the "lover' s portrait " o r representatio n tha t ca n b e circulate d a s a typ e of manl y love , a kin d o f mythi c progenito r o f th e circl e o f eroti c ex change alon g which h e is passed. Th e poem indee d implie s no t onl y tha t the symboli c phallu s whos e simulacr a ar e circulate d i n eroti c exchang e properly belong s t o a mythi c progenitor , bu t als o tha t thi s progenito r i s properly dead : lik e th e phallus , th e nam e o f th e fathe r whic h th e poe t here assume s ca n b e put o n onl y i n death; th e being whose nam e secure s our sens e o f a prope r plac e exemp t fro m th e circulatio n o f sign s ca n come into bein g fo r u s only as a sign. 56

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In "Ful l o f Lif e Now " Whitma n thu s hover s betwee n th e tw o role s i n which th e serie s a s a whol e ambiguousl y cast s him . Seekin g u s ou t i n a conspicuously symboli c transaction , h e make s hi s wa y alon g a n eroti c circuit, appearin g a s a participant. Ye t in the ritua l hi s text mandates , h e also will s himsel f int o th e plac e o f th e dea d father , ico n o f th e los t phallus tha t migh t b e circulate d amon g us . Th e poe m manage s t o b e both disconcertin g an d movin g b y equivocatin g betwee n thes e incon gruous roles . I n "Ful l o f Lif e Now " th e poe t bot h envision s hi s apoth eosis to th e thron e o f th e Othe r an d pay s his debt t o thi s place, internal izing the deat h exacte d no t onl y b y an y accessio n t o a n eponymou s role , but als o b y participatio n i n th e rite s tha t requir e an d memorializ e thi s ritual sacrifice . Ther e i s certainl y a differenc e betwee n thes e guises : th e first migh t conceivabl y b e understood a s a compensation Whitma n award s himself fo r endurin g th e second . Ye t bot h role s acknowledg e a deat h inseparable fro m th e rul e o f signs , markin g i t a s th e poet' s prope r condition. Such recognition s ar e especiall y poignan t becaus e the y dramaticall y revise th e trop e o f livin g presenc e tha t organize s Whitman' s first tw o editions. Ther e th e poet' s adven t auger s th e deat h o f sign s i n quit e another sense : i n th e poem s o f 185 5 an d 1856 , th e poe t appear s t o pu t an en d t o symboli c transmissio n an d exchange , by-passin g inscriptio n and codifie d beques t an d dissolvin g thei r hol d ove r us . "Ful l o f Lif e Now" recall s thi s magica l transaction : th e entir e poe m consist s o f a n apostrophe, evokin g the figure of voic e Whitmanian addres s customaril y seems t o produce . Ye t a numbe r o f detail s vitiat e thi s appeal . Mor e lik e Wordsworth's "Tinter n Abbey " tha n Whitman' s "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry," "Ful l o f Lif e Now " provide s a datelin e tha t i s conspicuousl y local an d ephemeral : no t "sundown " bu t "th e Eighty-thir d Yea r o f th e States." In the third line , "a centur y hence, " and i n the fourth , "you , ye t unborn," insis t o n a distanc e th e poe m will onl y tentativel y clai m t o overcome. I n th e trop e o f "seeking, " th e poe t offer s a figure fo r desire ; in 185 5 an d 1856 , wher e seekin g i s finding, desir e ha s collapse d bac k into magica l powe r an d th e punctua l satisfactio n i t affords . Here , b y contrast, th e gap between poe t and reade r i s also stressed b y the repeate d deictic "these, " whic h put s th e materia l artifac t o f th e tex t betwee n writer an d reader , effectivel y blockin g th e poet' s magica l advent ; thi s gap bot h awaken s an d chasten s desire , making the poet's overture s see m simultaneously wistfu l an d brave .

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In "Ful l o f Lif e Now " th e distanc e tha t haunt s desir e i s marke d b y writing an d reading , an d i s i n tha t sens e contingent ; ye t th e Calamus sequence a s a whol e ascribe s thi s ga p les s t o chanc e tha n t o structura l necessity, associatin g i t wit h a los t object . Th e secon d stanza' s hopeful sounding "now i t i s you, " whic h momentaril y seem s t o effac e th e tem poral interva l tha t govern s th e poem , i s accordingl y embedde d i n a passage tha t insist s o n it . Her e a fadin g mad e t o see m inevitabl e struc tures th e encounte r betwee n th e poe t an d thos e hi s tex t seek s out ; th e lines exhibi t th e apparentl y inexorabl e workin g o f a sor t o f reciprocal action mechanism , drawin g on e livin g bein g bac k int o ghostlines s i n exchange fo r lettin g anothe r appear: 57 When you read these, I, that was visible, am become invisible; Now it is you, compact, visible, realizing my poems, seeking me. (i860 378) Here too , th e particular s o f thi s non-encounter , whic h substitute s a sig n for a living presence, ar e dictated b y writing an d reading ; yet as we hav e seen, textua l transmissio n emerge s a s paradigmatic i n Calamus precisel y because i t dramatize s a ghostlines s tha t haunt s eroti c exchang e an d identity throughou t th e sequence . The poem' s final line s thu s conclud e Calamus b y ponderin g on e o f the series ' centra l concerns . Her e Whitma n insist s o n th e non-coinci dence tha t govern s eroti c exchang e an d cultura l transmission , a s well a s on th e desir e thi s distanc e fuels . Th e penultimat e lin e emptie s ou t th e magical encounte r o f 185 5 an d 1856 , making th e meetin g betwee n poe t and audienc e conspicuousl y hypothetical : "Fancyin g ho w happ y yo u were, if I could b e with you , an d becom e your lover. " And if , i n the final line, Whitman's "now " evoke s briefl y th e power s o f performativ e utter ance, a s i f t o rais e th e poet' s actua l presenc e her e a t th e sequence' s ver y end, thi s gestur e i s rendere d poignan t b y th e equivocatin g phras e i n which i t appear s (itsel f se t i n parenthese s afte r 1871 ) a s wel l a s b y th e poet's renunciatio n o f th e magica l power s o f th e word i n what precedes : "Be it as if I were with you. (B e not to o certain bu t I am now with you.) " (V 2:408) . Suc h avowal s o f unfulfille d an d perhap s unfulfillabl e desir e are movin g i n themselves . Bu t lik e muc h o f Calamus, the y acquir e thei r peculiar resonanc e throug h contras t t o th e gran d imaginativ e myt h the y both allud e to an d disperse .

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"As I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " The ever-hooded, tragic-gesture d se a Was merely a place by which sh e walked to sing. Whose spirit is this? we said, because we kne w It was the spirit that we sough t and knew That we shoul d as k this often a s she sang. —Stevens, "The Idea of Orde r at Key West," Collected Poems 12 9 I throw myself upo n your breast, my father , I cling to you so that you cannot unloose me, I hold you s o firm, till you answer me something. —"As I Ebb'd with the Ocean of Life, " i86 0 19 8 "There wher e i t was " ("La ou c'etait"), I would lik e i t t o b e understood , "i t i s m y dut y that I should com e to being. " —Lacan, Ecrits 129 58

If th e Calamus sequenc e celebrate s poetr y a s testament, bot h meditatin g on th e symbolic bequests that shap e and fad e u s and offerin g Whitman' s own poem s a s instances o f them , "A s I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " i s instead a bitte r testamen t t o poetr y itself . I t turn s agains t verse , a t leas t as Whitma n ha s practice d an d understoo d it , an d agains t th e crucia l versions o f th e sel f hi s wor k ha s enshrined . Ye t th e poem' s ironie s ar e strangely divided : Whitma n seem s t o moc k no t onl y hi s myth s bu t als o the sel f wh o ha s faile d t o realiz e them ; th e poe m lament s th e vanishin g of th e ver y power s i t bitterl y redefines . Thi s ambivalenc e measure s th e intensity o f Whitman' s investmen t i n th e ver y fiction s h e her e put s behind him . The y prove d t o b e irreplaceable : a poe m o f leave-taking , "As I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " i s also arguabl y th e las t great poe m Whitman wrote . Whil e Whitma n himsel f seem s t o hav e weathere d th e impasse th e poe m records , h e emerge d fro m i t a mino r poet , hi s crucia l imaginative source s n o longe r accessible . If the skepticism o f Whitman's Sea-Drift poe m i s ambivalent, the poe t who judge s hi s enablin g myth s als o bein g judge d b y them , th e poem' s stance i s furthe r complicate d b y th e fac t tha t th e vision s o f identit y i t surveys ar e no t onl y plura l bu t ultimatel y antithetical . Thi s complexit y is registered mos t obviousl y i n the variety o f specter s the poet confronts . Always equivoca l i n thei r import , th e metamorphic character s wh o pop ulate th e ongoin g psychomachi a o f Leaves of Grass ar e particularl y elusive i n "A s I Ebb'd. " I f "Son g o f Myself " present s u s wit h "Wal t

Legacies 44 5 Whitman," th e "self, " th e "soul, " an d "th e M e myself, " Whitman' s i860 Sea-Drift poe m introduce s "th e eterna l sel f o f me " (metamor phosed b y the time o f the deathbed editio n int o "thi s electri c sel f ou t of the prid e o f whic h I utte r poems") , "th e spiri t tha t trail s i n th e line s underfoot," "th e rea l M E , " "thi s phantom , lookin g dow n wher e w e lead," an d "Yo u u p there , walkin g o r sitting , / Whoeve r yo u are." 5 9 These las t tw o character s migh t i n fac t b e guise s assume d no t b y the poet bu t by the father o r the Other. Tha t i s part o f the poem's comple x interrogation o f Whitman' s myth s o f self : "A s I Ebb'd " explore s th e connections betwee n th e poe t an d th e variou s externa l agencie s hi s earlier work characteristicall y seem s to dissolve. Faced with thi s bewildering array , we need to be on our guard agains t over-simplifying; suc h a crucial ico n a s "the real M E " possesse s a significance tha t ma y b e ultimatel y indeterminate . Bu t I wan t t o hazar d a schematic readin g o f th e lines tha t presen t th e first group o f Whitman' s personae, i n orde r t o ge t at a conflic t I take t o b e crucial t o th e poem . These figures appea r i n quick succession : I, musing, late in the autumn day, gazing off southward, Alone, held b y the eternal sel f o f me that threaten s t o get the better o f me, and stifle me, Was seized by the spirit that trails in the lines underfoot, (i86 0 195) Ignoring fo r a momen t th e " I " wh o bot h register s thi s visio n an d records his part in it, we encounter first a persona who now besets rathe r than aid s him . The designation o f thi s "self " a s "eternal " stipulate s a n identity no t begotten i n time; we can associate thi s figure wit h th e poethero o f Whitman' s first tw o editions, wh o generates himsel f a s a voic e materializing fro m th e void. Thi s readin g i s confirmed b y the for m th e "eternal self " assume s i n Whitman' s deathbe d edition , tha t o f "thi s electric sel f ou t o f th e prid e o f whic h I utte r poems " ( V 2:319 ; CR E 253). Thi s final incarnatio n i s the result o f Whitman's persisten t tinker ing wit h th e line , a gradua l modificatio n tha t suggest s no t a switc h o f characters s o muc h a s a clarifyin g o f wha t Whitma n ha d ha d i n min d from th e first. Thi s "electri c self " utterin g poem s ou t o f hi s "pride " surely ha s les s i n commo n wit h th e Calamus poe t tha n wit h th e self sufficient presenc e of 185 5 a nd 1856. If th e relation o f the " I" to this eterna l o r electric sel f b y whom h e is held i s now estrange d o r adversarial , s o too i s his connection wit h th e

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even mor e enigmati c ico n b y which h e is next seized . Befor e w e hazar d some guesse s concernin g thi s figure's possibl e affiliations , w e ca n not e the bitte r iron y hi s appearanc e i n an y cas e marks . Spirit , presen t i n the 1855 an d 185 6 edition s i n th e for m o f th e poet' s ow n breathin g pres ence, ought no t to appea r i n "line s underfoot, " i n the detritus Whitma n figures a s a kind o f writing. Her e a central trop e o f Whitman's first tw o editions is savagely emptie d out . We ca n thu s understan d Whitman' s secon d person a i n par t a s a catachresis o f hi s first. I f th e semanti c paralle l o f "held " an d "seized " suggests a relatio n betwee n thes e figures tha t migh t b e on e o f eithe r similarity o r antithesis , the dejecting t o which Whitman' s imag e of voice is subjected seem s to stres s th e latter possibility : her e th e mythic poet of the first two editions square s off agains t his degraded avatar . As we shall see i n a moment , thi s ironi c juxtapositio n migh t mar k a distinctio n between th e poet's earl y achievement s an d subsequent dereliction . Bu t it can als o operat e a s a bitte r deflatio n o f earlie r pretensions : "th e eterna l self," the poem bot h fear s an d hopes, may after al l be nothing bu t sheer wind, a figment reducibl e t o the writing tha t enable d Whitman' s fiction of voice—not a self-generating an d self-authorizing identit y bu t only the illusion o f one. This reductio n seem s i n part t o reflec t a natura l attitud e no w devoi d of sustainin g illusion ; her e Whitma n reject s wha t migh t b e calle d th e supernatural naturalis m o f hi s first tw o editions . Ther e th e poe t claim s both t o restor e u s to natur e an d t o restor e natur e t o itself , givin g voic e to th e unifying forc e o f natura naturans wit h whic h hi s own presence is identified. Her e natura naturans i s instead th e ocean, ambiguousl y eithe r mournful o r vengeful, tha t ha s cast u p an icon o f the poet a s a fragmen tary piec e o f natura naturata, desiccate d b y it s separatio n fro m thi s enigmatic source and left amon g kindred , equall y fragmente d forms . Confronting a natura l orde r no w seen a s antagonist, th e poet indee d turns, further o n in "As I Ebb'd," to "my father." I t would no t be wrong to interpret thi s figure, in part, a s an image of cultural authority . Beggin g for th e embrace o f a father fro m who m h e has so far bee n alienated , the poet plead s wit h hi m to translate an d render accessibl e the pre-symboli c murmur o f th e materna l ocea n tha t ha s cas t hi m up . I t i s temptin g t o read this as a gesture akin t o the reconciliations o f Calamus: abandonin g the magica l attitud e o f th e first tw o editions , whic h bot h appea l t o nature an d mak e i t ove r i n th e imag e o f th e poet' s ow n animatin g

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presence, "A s I Ebb'd" woul d embrac e th e symboli c univers e th e write r of 185 5 an d 185 6 struggle d t o subvert . The poem' s allegiances , however , ar e no t s o simple . A s w e shal l see , the fathe r fo r whos e intercessio n th e poe t plead s als o stand s betwee n him an d anothe r figur e o f th e father , a n ico n o f patriarchal powe r whic h the poe m depict s a s inaccessibl e an d forbidding . Th e final lin e i n th e passage w e hav e bee n considering—"Wa s seize d b y th e spiri t tha t trail s in th e line s underfoot"—seem s als o t o registe r th e cos t exacte d b y a symbolic orde r Whitma n consistentl y associate s wit h th e nam e o f th e father. Th e spiri t reduce d t o writin g migh t wel l remin d u s of th e poe t o f Calamus traverse d b y inscription ; encountere d no w amon g th e row s o f detritus o n th e beach , thi s spiri t woul d los e it s proper afflatu s b y takin g up th e sor t o f plac e i n a signifyin g chai n Calamus proudl y reserve s fo r it. Thi s connectio n wil l requir e demonstrating . Bu t I mea n t o sugges t that "th e spiri t tha t trail s i n th e line s underfoot " ca n b e understoo d no t only a s a hars h reductio n o f wha t ma y no w see m t o b e th e pretension s of Whitman' s first tw o editions , bu t als o a s a bitte r re-estimatio n o f th e symbolic identit y celebrate d i n Calamus an d th e allegiance s tha t hav e made i t wha t i t is. 60 Th e figuration o f "A s I Ebb'd" i s thus complicate d by th e fac t tha t th e poe m simultaneousl y recall s an d darkl y revise s tw o contrary myth s of th e self. It is made mor e comple x stil l b y the presenc e o f th e third figure i n th e passage quote d above , th e " I " confronte d b y thes e specter s o f identity . As th e bitter , reductiv e iron y w e hav e note d i n Whitman' s catachresti c tropes suggests , thi s " I " no w accuse s th e fictions b y whic h h e ha s hith erto bee n mesmerized . Th e insigh t tha t enable s thi s critiqu e ma y wel l result fro m th e juxtapositio n w e hav e bee n considering , th e poet' s sus taining myth s effectivel y cancelin g eac h othe r out . Ye t here , a s through out "A s I Ebb'd, " th e poe t i s als o accoste d an d accuse d b y th e ver y visions o f identit y fro m whic h h e no w feel s estranged . Hi s suppose d dereliction ma y als o hav e bee n brough t abou t b y th e clas h betwee n them. The recognitions o f Calamus ca n b e said to expose the pretension s of th e earlie r poetry ; ye t fro m a differen t perspective , th e poe t himsel f may hav e faile d th e myt h o f self-sufficien t identit y b y fallin g int o th e filiations celebrate d i n Calamus. 61 Conversely , a sel f stil l draw n t o th e archaic satisfactions o f th e first tw o edition s will have retreated fro m th e commitments o f Calamus; thi s can b e interprete d eithe r a s a recognitio n that th e compensation s th e i86 0 sequenc e offer s ar e unworth y o f th e

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poet, o r a s a sig n o f hi s inabilit y t o liv e wit h th e limitation s Calamus movingly accepts . "As I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " ma y mar k a n impass e i n Whit man's career precisely becaus e the author o f Leaves of Grass was himsel f caught amon g these conflicting evaluation s and attitudes . If "As I Ebb'd" leaves behin d contrar y myth s o f th e sel f whic h Whitma n perhap s n o longer sa w a s viable , an d t o whic h h e coul d n o longe r commi t himself , his distanc e fro m hi s antipoda l figuration s ma y als o hav e suggeste d hi s own unworthiness . Th e poem , i n an y event , offer s n o ne w visio n o f identity tha t migh t sustai n furthe r wor k o n th e orde r o f tha t Whitma n here put s behin d him . Ambiguousl y bot h abjec t an d bitter , th e sel f wit h whom th e poe t no w finds himsel f lef t i s indee d a remnant , a fragmen t cast u p b y a force eithe r distan t o r spent . i . Whil e perhap s reservin g it s sharpes t animu s fo r th e patriarcha l func tion celebrate d i n Calamus, Whitman' s Sea-Drift poe m i s fo r th e mos t part mor e overtl y concerne d wit h th e myth s tha t organiz e hi s firs t tw o editions. Dramaticall y confrontin g earlie r vision s o f th e sel f i n th e sor t of psychomachia t o which w e have been attending , "A s I Ebb'd" als o reevaluates the relation t o objects th e poet figure of 185 5 an d 185 6 seeme d to mak e possible . Whitman' s Sea-Drift poe m return s t o th e catalogu e technique enliste d t o sustai n th e poet' s incorporativ e capacities , an d t o the elementa l dram a tha t len t i t cosmic proportions, re-castin g th e latte r in such a way a s to turn namin g itsel f int o a n exercise in abjection rathe r than a display o f power . From it s opening , "A s I Ebb'd " present s u s wit h a litera l landscap e that i s a t onc e a condense d an d symbolicall y charge d versio n o f Whit man's characteristi c imaginativ e topography ; th e poe m i s largel y orga nized a s a n extende d catachresi s o f Whitman' s earlie r image s o f flood and voice , still associate d wit h th e mothe r an d natura naturans. Tramp ing along the Paumanok beac h i n a diminished hou r an d season , "lat e i n the autum n day, " th e poe t turn s first t o th e ocean . Now , however , th e natural powe r o f floo d ha s withdrawn , eithe r displease d o r spent ; no t merely th e periodi c ebbin g o f flood-tide depicte d i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry," thi s recessio n seem s cataclysmic . Th e animatin g voic e o f natura naturans i s likewise remote , and seem s angry o r exhausted : As I ebbed wit h a n eb b of th e ocean o f life , As I wended th e shores I know,

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As I walked where the sea-ripples wash you, Paumanok, Where they rustle up, hoarse and sibilant, Where the fierce old mother endlessly cries for her castaways, (i860 195 ) Nature's speec h ha s becom e a dirge , a keening , whethe r mournfu l o r bitter, fo r a worl d whos e incarnatio n a s discrete , embodie d shape s no w marks it s separation fro m th e very power tha t create d it . The poe t turn s nex t t o thes e abandone d forms . N o longe r filled an d animated b y flood , the y appea r a s row s o f iner t object s deposite d b y it s retreat: Was seized by the spirit that trails in the lines underfoot, In the rim, the sediment, that stand s fo r al l the water an d al l the land of the globe. Fascinated, m y eyes , revertin g fro m th e south , dropped , t o follo w thos e slender winrows, Chaff, straw, splinters of wood, weeds, and the sea-gluten, Scum, scales from shinin g rocks, leaves of self-lettuce, lef t b y the tide, (i86 0 195-96) These shapes stretched ou t in rows possess a kind o f emblematic fatality ; the poet' s fascinatio n her e amount s t o compulsion , a s i f hi s tracin g o f the wreckag e a t hi s fee t obeye d a dar k enchantment . Th e scen e th e poe t confronts i s indee d th e ver y on e hi s forme r power s allowe d hi m t o transfigure. Thes e separate , desiccate d shape s ar e "husks " rathe r tha n "kernels," a ro w o f detritu s o r disjecta membra deposite d b y th e now remote forc e whic h ough t t o have infused i t with life . As we noted, thes e lifeless row s scanne d b y th e poet' s ey e are als o a kind o f writing , a mut e and melanchol y tex t lef t behin d b y this vanished source : lik e the create d nature i n nee d o f redemptio n i n Whitman' s first tw o editions , the y ar e depicted a s inert , indicativ e sign s incapabl e o f expressin g th e life-forc e that shoul d hav e animate d them . Moreover , th e poe t "seize d b y th e spirit that trail s i n th e line s underfoot " glean s i n thes e remnant s bot h a n ironic emble m o f thi s vanishe d forc e an d a gri m indicatio n o f wha t h e himself amount s t o onc e i t withdraws. Rathe r tha n bein g a surrogate fo r flood, h e is now simpl y part o f th e rejectamenta i t tosses up . The mesmerized litan y i n the passage we have been considering make s the poet' s laps e o f powe r clear . Th e extraordinar y bitternes s o f thi s lis t

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of desiccation s stand s ou t full y onl y agains t th e backgroun d o f Whit man's earlie r catalogu e technique , whic h seeme d t o re-animat e al l i t named b y gatherin g i t into th e poet' s imperium . Her e thi s lis t of disjecta membra i s instea d introduce d b y th e poet' s notatio n tha t "m y eye s [. . . ] dropped , t o follo w thos e slende r winrows. " Th e catalogu e thu s presents itsel f no t a s a re-gatherin g an d a re-animating , bu t a s th e following o f a receding row , a tracing of traces . Naming i s here th e self dispersing repetitio n o f a n unredeeme d dispersion , th e enchante d recita tion o f a text . The poem' s final sectio n make s thi s los s o f powe r see m irremediable . The ironie s o f Whitman' s conclusio n ar e mercilessl y self-lacerating : ther e both th e poet' s presenc e an d hi s speec h ar e wholl y draine d o f thei r former resources . Th e dissolutio n o f th e poet' s magica l presenc e ca n b e traced i n th e fat e o f Whitman' s characteristicall y transfigurin g pronou n "we." Thi s "we " appear s onl y lat e i n th e centra l 185 6 tex t "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry, " bu t muc h o f th e poem ha s served to prepare it s advent . All Whitman' s addresse s t o hi s audienc e creat e th e endlessl y emanatin g presence tha t come s t o fill tim e an d space ; tim e an d space , conversely , are folde d bac k i n towar d th e intimat e plac e an d occasio n th e ton e o f these announcement s implies . Thes e transfiguration s ar e no t s o muc h negotiated a s tenderl y confirme d i n th e pronomina l gatherin g o f th e poem's eight h section : We understand, then, do we not? What I promised without mentioning it, have you not accepted? (1856 219) The transfigurin g visio n int o whic h th e poe t fold s u s her e i s magnifi cently self-centering : Whitman' s "we " attain s it s redemptiv e forc e fro m the omnipotent " I " into which i t gathers us , yet here names u s part of . This sphera l "we, " s o crucia l t o Whitman' s transfigurings , i s griml y unraveled i n th e conclusio n o f hi s Sea-Drift poem , a s i f a pronoun itsel f might b e subjected t o catachresis. In lines he added t o the poem i n 1871, Whitman's "we " has becom e a n incoheren t mumbl e o f contiguities : We murmu r alik e reproachfully , rollin g ou r sand s an d drift , knowin g no t why. ( V 2:320 )

Yet i n contex t thi s revisio n serve s to deflec t an d softe n th e impac t o f th e poem's final image , wher e th e spreadin g ou t o f thi s "we " int o rando m lines an d row s i s even mor e bitterl y accomplished . I n th e lin e just quoted ,

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the poe t i n a sens e gather s sand s an d drif t t o hi m b y addressin g the m directly—apostrophe typicall y ha s thi s functio n i n Whitman's work . A t the poem' s end , th e protagonis t instea d addresse s a remot e an d enig matic "you " wh o lurk s abov e hi m i n the sky : You, up there, walking or sitting, Whoever you are—we too lie in drifts a t your feet, (i86 0 199 ) No longe r addresse d bu t describe d instea d t o thi s "you, " th e drift s o n the beac h ar e no t onl y no t redeeme d b y bein g named—the y ar e bitterl y offered u p t o dispersion . The lis t tha t precede s thes e lines , lik e th e shor t catalogu e i n th e poem's openin g section , alread y enact s thi s relinquishing : Whitman' s most negativ e catalogue , i t i s a kin d o f sunderin g b y naming , a repeti tion, i n a languag e n o longe r performativ e bu t simpl y indicative , o f a desiccation th e wor d i s now powerles s t o redeem . Significantly , i t seem s to begi n a s a gathering , albei t bot h haunte d an d wistful—perhap s a catalogue o f consolations : I gather fo r myself , and for thi s phantom, looking down where we lead, and following me and mine, (i860 198) 62 Perhaps nowher e i n Whitman' s wor k i s there s o wholly bitte r a reversa l as i n wha t follows . Thi s tentativ e announcemen t o f possessio n become s immediately par t o f "th e bla b whos e echoe s recoi l upo n me " (i86 0 197), a n epithe t applie d earlie r i n th e poe m t o Whitman' s pas t produc tions. The declaratio n nee d onl y b e repeated, that is , to turn int o it s ow n bitter parody : "M e an d mine!" 63 Wha t follows , cue d b y a likewis e repeated an d ironize d "we, " i s lik e a catalogu e wit h a minu s sig n i n front o f it : Me and mine! We, loose winrows, little corpses, Froth, snowy white, and bubbles, (See! from m y dead lips the ooze exuding at last! See—the prismatic colors, glistening and rolling!) Tufts of straw, sands, fragments, Buoyed hither from man y moods, one contradicting another, (i86 0 199 ) Organized a s on e o f Whitman' s typica l appositiv e lists , thi s shor t cata logue nonetheles s wholl y desiccate s th e "we " i t enumerates , an d thu s everything i t names , b y emptyin g it s content s ou t int o th e dispersing , ironized spac e its opening repetition s establish .

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2. Turnin g agains t th e catalogu e techniqu e crucia l t o Whitman' s 185 5 and 185 6 edition s an d th e claim s t o incorporativ e master y th e poet' s litanies ther e sustain , thes e ironi c lists can als o b e understood a s a bitte r re-valuation o f th e univers e o f symboli c transmissio n celebrate d i n Calamus. A s w e shal l se e i n a moment , th e emblem s strew n o n th e beac h ironically re-figur e th e circui t o f eroti c exchang e i n whic h th e poe t o f Calamus discover s bot h th e sourc e o f hi s desire and hi s fate . This skeptica l re-examinatio n o f Calamus pervade s "A s I Ebb'd. " Whitman's broodin g ove r th e implication s o f th e earlie r sequenc e i s suggested b y a plethor a o f ironi c echoes . Thus , fo r example , th e mater nal ocea n o f "A s I Ebb'd," t o whos e animatin g power s th e poet o f 185 5 and 185 6 wa s t o giv e voice , i s depicte d i n forbiddin g term s tha t recal l and revers e no t onl y th e figuration o f Whitman' s earlie r editions , bu t also that o f Calamus: As I walked where the sea-ripples wash you, Paumanok, Where they rustle up, hoarse and sibilant, Where the fierce old mother endlessly cries for her castaways. ("As I Ebb'd," i860 195 ) Cease not your moaning, you fierceold mother, Endlessly cry for your castaways—but fea r not, deny not me, Rustle not up so hoarse and angry against my feet, a s I touch you, or gather from you. ("As I Ebb'd," i86 0 198 ) This rustling repeats with a difference th e sea's sounds in "When I Heard at th e Clos e o f Day, " a Calamus poe m Bower s (lxiv ) assign s t o th e period prio r t o the compositio n o f "A s I Ebb'd" : And that night , while all was still, I heard th e waters roll slowly continuall y up the shores, I heard th e hissing rustle of the liquid and sands, as directed to me, whispering, to congratulate me, For the one I love most lay sleeping by me under the same cover in the cool night, In the stillness, in the autumn moonbeams, his face was inclined toward me, And hi s ar m la y lightl y aroun d m y breast—An d tha t nigh t I wa s happy . (1860358)

While th e America n continent , face d wit h Calamus, ma y b e i n th e awkward positio n o f havin g t o find som e othe r poe t t o b e its singer, th e maternal ocea n i s her e evidentl y i n n o suc h predicamen t an d feel s n o

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corresponding pique . Ye t i n "A s I Ebb'd," th e ocean' s rustlin g suggest s estrangement an d ange r rathe r tha n congratulation . Th e Calamus poe t who immerse d himsel f i n eroti c exchang e perhap s thereb y abandone d the ver y charg e fro m natura naturans h e too k himsel f t o b e stil l pur suing. Some lines from th e next poem i n Calamus, "Ar e You the New Perso n Drawn towar d Me, " ar e als o echoe d i n th e abov e passag e fro m "A s I Ebb'd," thoug h les s overtly. These line s are ominous i n their ow n right : Do you suppose I am trusty and faithful ? Do you see no further tha n this facade—this smoot h an d tolerant manner of me?

[. . . . ]

O le t some past deceive d one hiss in your ears, how many have prest on the same as you are pressing now. (i860 358 , 359)

The "hiss " o f th e disabuse d love r her e ironicall y echoe s th e line s fro m "When I Hear d a t th e Clos e o f Day " concernin g "th e hissin g rustl e o f the liqui d an d sands" : wherea s th e ocean' s his s congratulate s th e poe t on hi s eroti c goo d fortune , th e lover' s his s condemn s hi m fo r betrayin g it. "A s I Ebb'd " manage s t o displac e thi s condemnatio n rathe r tha n simply repea t it . Lik e th e love r o f "Ar e Yo u th e Ne w Perso n Draw n toward Me, " th e wave s tha t "rustl e up , hoars e an d sibilant " hav e bee n deceived b y the poet . Ye t given th e panorami c vantag e o f "A s I Ebb'd, " it woul d b e les s a particula r eroti c deceptio n tha n th e poet' s ver y as sumption o f a lover' s rol e tha t violate s a prio r compact—hi s commit ment t o giv e voice, not t o particula r affections , bu t t o th e single animat ing force o f natura naturans tha t underlie s them . A thir d ech o o f Calamus i s awakene d b y th e enigmati c "rea l M E , " a figure whos e comple x resonanc e w e wil l tak e u p a bi t furthe r on . Thi s figure accost s the poe t With peal s of distan t ironica l laughte r a t every word I have written o r shal l write, Striking me with insults till I fall helpless upon the sand, (i860 197 ) These line s ar e preface d b y a dar k admissio n tha t immediatel y precede s the appearance o f "th e rea l M E " : Aware now, that, amid all the blab whose echoes recoil upon me, I have not once had the least idea who or what I am. (i860 197 )

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That "blab " i s at leas t i n par t th e discours e o f Calamus. Wha t "th e rea l M E " laugh s a t recall s and emptie s ou t a passionate phras e fro m "Trickl e Drops." Ther e th e poet , wit h a n od d mi x o f anguis h an d pride , call s upon th e "drops " o f bloo d o r seme n withi n hi m t o emerg e fro m hi s body an d stai n hi s page, marking i t as erotic confession: 64 Saturate them with yourself, all ashamed and wet, Glow upon all I have written or shall write, bleeding drops, (i860 361) In "A s I Ebb'd, " "ever y wor d I hav e writte n o r shal l write, " includin g the poetr y o f eroti c revelatio n t o whic h th e phras e alludes , ha s becom e simply anothe r evasio n o f self , falsifyin g a "rea l M E " that remain s unknown. Whitman's 186 7 re-castin g o f th e insul t offere d b y "th e rea l M E" suggests on e possible reaso n fo r thi s implicit judgmen t tha t Calamus ha s amounted t o self-betrayal : With peals of distant ironical laughter at every word I have written, Pointing in silence to all these songs, and then to the sand beneath. (V 2: 320) Here Whitma n ha s "th e rea l M E " equat e th e poet' s prio r writin g wit h the san d beneat h hi s feet, an d implicitl y with th e rows o f detritu s tha t li e there. While th e irony her e is complex, on e possible way t o interpre t th e gesture "th e rea l M E " perform s i s a s a bitte r critiqu e o f th e aspiration s and allegiance s o f Calamus: Whitman' s poem s ar e her e reduce d t o th e status o f iner t link s i n a chai n o f desiccate d signs . We nee d t o not e ho w this imag e i s itsel f a reductiv e re-writin g o f th e centra l figuration o f th e earlier sequence . We ca n bes t d o s o b y attendin g t o Whitman' s obsessiv e play , i n "A s I Ebb'd," wit h th e proble m o f signification . I t centers o n th e poet' s exam ination o f th e line s o f sedimen t tha t stre w th e beach , th e first mentio n o f which w e should loo k a t again : Was seized by the spirit that trails in the lines underfoot , In the rim, the sediment, that stands for al l the water and all the land of the globe, (i86 0 195 )

As w e noted , thi s imag e serve s simultaneousl y t o empt y ou t th e claim s of th e 185 5 an d 185 6 edition s an d t o re-evaluat e th e antithetica l alle giances o f Calamus. W e ca n ad d tha t bot h th e connectio n o f par t t o

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whole an d th e relatio n o f signifie r t o signifie d postulate d i n Whitman' s first tw o edition s ar e negate d here ; th e univers e o f symboli c circulatio n celebrated i n Calamus i s thereby re-create d bu t als o darkly re-cast . Harold Bloo m rightl y see s th e trop e o f synecdoch e i n thes e line s (A Map of Misreading 181): 65 epitomizin g th e abandone d an d exhauste d world o f create d nature , Whitman' s ri m o f sedimen t function s a s a symbolic gathering worke d b y the poet's imagination. 66 Ye t the effect o f Whitman's figure i s peculiar . Wha t Whitman' s synecdoch e ironicall y figures o r condense s i s dispersio n itself : thes e row s stan d fo r th e ex tended, disjunctiv e metonym y o f create d nature , o f whic h the y ar e sim ply a smal l bu t similarl y dispersed , metonymicall y organize d part. 67 Whitman's synecdochi c gatherin g negate s itsel f i n anothe r wa y a s well : the immanence tha t shoul d characteriz e romanti c synecdoch e i s emptie d out b y the implicit compariso n t o writing. I f Whitman's trop e condense s an otherwis e fragmente d create d natur e bac k int o thi s singl e symbo l i n which i t can b e rendered present , i t also reduce s i t to the statu s o f a text , an indicativ e sig n whic h substitute s fo r a n animatin g essenc e tha t ha s itself withdrawn . It i s partl y th e pretension s o f th e 185 5 an d 185 6 edition s tha t ar e deposed here . Whitman' s characteristi c catalogu e techniqu e operate s t o fold metonym y bac k towar d metaphor , makin g al l object s type s o f a presence ultimatel y identifiabl e wit h th e poet himself . Some lines furthe r on i n "A s I Ebb'd " accordingl y offe r th e ri m o f sedimen t a t th e poet' s feet a s the ironic fulfillmen t o f th e project o f th e "eterna l self" : Paumanok, there and then, as I thought the old thought of likenesses, These you presented to me, you fish-shapedisland, As I wended the shores I know, As I walked with that eternal self of me, seeking types, (i860 196 ) Given th e conspicuou s attentio n "A s I Ebb'd " devote s t o th e poet' s tracking o f a ro w o f emblem s tha t lead s hi m furthe r an d furthe r alon g the desolat e shore , this adversio n t o a search fo r "likenesses " or "types " is rathe r caustic . Th e husk s o n th e beac h ar e type s i n a faile d typology : devoid o f th e sor t o f meaningfu l patter n o r repetitio n i n whic h figure finds it s fulfillment , the y instea d sugges t a merel y mechanica l principl e of successio n fro m on e elemen t t o th e next . I f thes e husk s ar e "like nesses," the y ar e alik e precisel y i n violatin g th e sor t o f patterning , an d the sens e o f connectio n t o a dee p sourc e o r centra l organizin g principle , that Whitman's customar y catalogu e techniqu e serve s to adduce .

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It i s jus t thes e qualitie s tha t allo w th e row s o n th e beac h als o t o b e read a s an ironic reduction o f the symbolic circuit celebrated i n Calamus. While th e catalogue s o f 185 5 an< ^ 185 6 sugges t th e gatherin g o f dispa rate being s bac k int o thei r singl e livin g source , Calamus instea d trace s a movement o f exchang e no t guarantee d b y an y suc h ground . I n "A s I Ebb'd," thi s perpetua l circulatio n o f meanin g an d valu e seem s t o bank rupt rathe r tha n sustai n th e poet define d b y it . In Calamus, w e saw , th e selve s wh o ente r a kinshi p networ k struc tured b y erotic transmission ar e in a crucial sens e similar t o the symboli c objects offere d i n gif t exchange : identity , too , i s a product o f thi s circu lation rathe r tha n a groun d fo r it . Th e poe t o f "A s I Ebb'd, " whos e fascinated gaz e keep s revertin g t o th e chai n o f emblem s a t hi s feet , an d to th e "spirit " encountere d there , likewis e discover s hi s significanc e i n a chain o f emblem s amon g which h e is fated t o find hi s place: I, too, but signify, at the utmost, a little washed-up drift , A few sands and dead leaves to gather, Gather, and merge, myself as part of the sands and drift, (i86 0 196 ) Abandoning th e dream o f self-creation tha t organize s the 185 5 a n d 185 6 editions, thes e line s als o offe r a n ironi c re-estimatio n o f th e reconcilia tions effecte d i n Calamus. Havin g bee n generate d b y a sourc e h e n o longer claim s t o contai n o r comprehend , th e poe t mus t no w glea n wha t he is , rather tha n celebratin g hi s autonomou s selfhood ; lik e th e poe t o f Calamus, h e mus t infe r hi s ow n significance , encounterin g i t no t i n himself bu t i n hi s relatio n t o a signifyin g chain . Ye t i n "A s I Ebb'd," t o be define d i n thi s wa y i s to b e desiccate d rathe r tha n fulfilled . Wha t th e poet signifie s i s "washed-up drift" : a row o f husk s devoi d o f initiativ e o r animation, a series of empty , indicativ e signs . Like Calamus, "A s I Ebb'd " furthe r implie s tha t thi s los s o f self presence canno t b e mad e good ; unlik e th e earlie r sequence , i t evaluate s this impass e grimly . Th e poe t wil l encounter , i n th e line s o n th e beach , no autonomou s meanin g o r discret e identit y tha t migh t b e extracte d from th e networ k o f sign s h e traces : readin g wha t h e i s i n a ro w o f emblems tha t itsel f require s reading , h e discover s n o prope r terminu s t o this chain , an d n o prope r ter m withi n it . I n th e laps e o f animatin g floo d or informin g spirit— a laps e whic h th e allegiance s o f Calamus migh t seem t o hav e provoked o r invited—object s hav e no t onl y becom e signs . These sign s ca n n o longe r retur n u s t o thei r prope r referent s o r thei r

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animating source . Confrontin g th e sedimen t o n th e beach , th e poet doe s not rea d bac k fro m natura naturata t o natura naturans, bu t alon g a receding row , a metonymi c tex t o f object s whos e ironi c residu e o f like ness consist s i n th e share d absenc e o f a n animatin g spiri t o r tru e signi fied. Thes e washed-u p drift s ar e al l alik e an d ca n thu s al l signif y eac h other, tha t is , precisel y becaus e non e o f the m ca n poin t bac k t o th e informing energ y whic h thei r surfac e form s shoul d rightl y manifest . I f one shap e o n th e beac h signifie s a second , th e secon d i s no t it s organi c meaning o r essence , no t it s tru e signified , bu t merel y it s equall y dessi cated neighbor , a signifie r whos e ver y povert y allow s i t t o substitut e provisionally fo r th e first. 68 Since i t proceed s fro m n o prope r origi n an d arrive s a t n o telos , thi s signifying movemen t i s endlessl y reversible . I n a furthe r bitte r com pounding, Whitman thu s inverts the direction o f his first reading. Havin g perused himsel f an d determine d tha t h e signifie s n o mor e tha n " a littl e washed-up drift, " h e turns furthe r o n t o th e "littl e shreds " on th e beac h and discover s instea d tha t the y stan d fo r him , an d fo r th e shore-worl d of create d selve s he addresses : We murmur alike reproachfully, rollin g our sands and drift, knowin g not why, These little shreds indeed, standing for you and me and all. (V 2:32c)69 Brusquely reducin g th e circulatio n o f sign s t o a commutabl e relatio n that seem s t o cance l meanin g rathe r tha n sustai n it , Whitma n her e empties ou t on e o f th e crucia l organizin g figures o f Calamus. Celebrate d in th e earlie r sequenc e a s th e origi n o f suc h identit y a s w e ca n possess , and o f th e eroti c an d affectiona l tie s tha t bin d u s to on e anothe r an d t o the community o f which we are part, the signifying chai n in "As I Ebb'd" appears instea d t o decimat e us . The reversible movemen t o f significatio n Whitman griml y depict s here is thus oddly compatibl e wit h th e breakin g of th e circl e o f gif t exchang e whic h th e line s o f sedimen t trailin g of f toward th e horizo n als o suggest . I n "A s I Ebb'd, " wha t i s give n u p t o exchange—whether i t b e th e gift , th e phallus , o r th e self—i s no t ren dered back , sinc e th e sign s throug h whic h i t migh t retur n ar e no w see n as bankrupt, bu t los t without recompense . 3. Whitman's Sea-Drift poe m thu s mourn s th e vanishin g o f th e mod e o f identity celebrate d i n th e 185 5 an d 185 6 Leaves of Grass, whil e n o longer finding i t tenable ; i t lament s th e los s o f a self , perhap s alway s

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only figmentary, no t dependen t o n th e sor t o f symboli c transmissio n Calamus celebrates , whic h "A s I Ebb'd " harshl y assesses . I f th e poe m worries th e question o f where an d how an identity bot h sustainabl e and sustaining go t lost, Whitman seem s unwilling to assign blam e to a single source; "A s I Ebb'd" display s his disillusion withou t assuagin g it , giving vent t o mutuall y contradictor y an d ultimately self-cancellin g recrimina tions. The complex, self-laceratin g bitternes s tha t accompanie s thi s irre solution i s most dramaticall y eviden t i n what I earlier calle d Whitman' s psychomachia, i n whic h competin g persona e challeng e on e other . Al most al l th e scene s i n thi s psychi c dram a concer n th e poet' s fal l int o signs. Bu t a s w e shal l see , they graduall y shif t i n focus : beginnin g b y pitting enigmati c icon s of the poet himsel f agains t on e another, the y end by confrontin g equivoca l figurations o f the father. Th e scenes that mak e up th e poem' s psychomachi a thu s roughl y re-trac e th e trajector y o f Whitman's career ; the y suggest that it has issued ont o a dead end. Never resolving th e questio n o f whethe r a relianc e o n symboli c transmissio n that no w seems disastrous migh t have been avoided , "A s I Ebb'd" leave s the poe t caugh t i n an Oedipa l configuratio n fro m whic h ther e seem s no longer t o be any possible escape . We hav e alread y examine d th e first o f thes e encounters , i n whic h three equally suspec t versions of the poet squar e off. Bu t we should not e one furthe r iron y i n this scene , sinc e i t concerns th e relation o f voice t o writing an d probe s th e sourc e o f th e poet' s relianc e o n signs . I f th e "eternal self " give s way to or collapse s int o "th e spirit tha t trail s i n the lines underfoot, " thi s debacl e ma y simply mak e plai n wha t Whitman' s figure o f self-presenc e alway s was . W e note d tha t th e "eterna l self " confronts th e " I " no t t o inspir e bu t t o "stifle " him . Thi s threa t ma y perhaps sugges t th e intimidating powe r o f a n exalte d imag e o f identit y which th e poe t ca n n o longe r liv e u p to . Ye t the particula r for m thi s intimidation assume s ha s a history i n Whitman's work : i t is characteristically inscriptio n tha t choke s o r stifle s voice; 70 her e a n avata r o f Whit man's figure o f voic e exert s a disastrou s effec t customaril y ascribe d t o writing, exercisin g th e prolepti c powe r fro m whic h i t supposedl y free s us. Whitman' s enigmati c imag e her e implicitl y raise s th e proble m o f whether thi s icon of self-presence i s not already entangled i n the universe of signs—and thu s the question of whether this entanglement was avoid able and culpable. It may have been neither : i f Whitman's figure of voice was itself a function o f writing, it must bea r the blame of having seduce d

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the poe t wit h a figmentary prospect . Ye t th e poe m wil l neve r satisf y itself tha t thi s i s so. The poem' s nex t extende d confrontatio n likewis e bring s togethe r distinct version s o f th e poe t himself . Her e too , th e mor e primordia l o f these figures o f identit y seem s to accus e the current on e of havin g lapse d from self-sufficien t presenc e int o relianc e o n signs . Ye t her e again , th e poet's apparen t accuse r migh t himsel f b e accused—excep t tha t i n thi s passage relianc e o n sign s ma y n o longe r b e figured a s culpable . Thi s encounter betwee n th e poe t an d "th e rea l M E " is i f anythin g mor e enigmatic than th e one it succeeds : O baffled, balked , Bent to the very earth, here preceding what follows, Oppressed with myself that I have dared to open my mouth, Aware now, that, amid all the blab whose echoes recoil upon me, I have not once had the least idea who or what I am, But tha t befor e al l m y insolen t poem s th e rea l M E stil l stand s untouched , untold, altogether unreached, Withdrawn far, mocking me with mock-congratulatory sign s and bows, With peal s of distan t ironica l laughte r a t every word I have written o r shal l write, Striking me with insults till I fall helpless upon the sand, (i860 196-97 ) We hav e alread y broache d on e possibl e interpretatio n o f th e gestur e performed b y "th e rea l M E " here : perhaps equatin g th e poet's writing t o mere detritus , "th e rea l M E " ma y b e attributin g thi s presumed degrada tion t o th e poet's willingnes s t o regar d hi s ow n production s a s links i n a chain o f signs . Th e "bla b whos e echoe s recoi l upo n me " woul d o n thi s reading b e the discours e o f Calamus. Yet "th e rea l M E " itsel f make s us e o f sign s here ; i n th e contex t o f Whitman's work , th e fac t tha t thi s privilege d figure o f identit y shoul d do s o is indeed th e greates t iron y o f th e scene . Nor ar e these th e organi c signs Whitman' s earlie r writin g invoke s t o vanquis h sign s o f th e wron g kind: "Withdraw n far , mockin g m e with mock-congratulator y sign s an d bows," "th e rea l M E " hide s behin d signifier s tha t ar e ironic an d indirec t rather tha n transparen t an d expressive . Perhap s th e primordia l figure who confront s th e poe t her e i s givin g hi m n o wors e tha n h e deserves : the latter , havin g bee n seduce d b y th e symboli c transaction s celebrate d in Calamus int o relinquishin g a n innate , organi c identity , woul d o n thi s reading b e confronte d b y a figure o f livin g presenc e wh o ironicall y veil s

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himself i n th e ver y sign s fo r whic h th e poe t ha s foolishl y squandere d hi s birthright. Ye t th e passag e ma y instea d sugges t tha t "th e rea l M E , " a core o f identit y tha t fade s befor e ou r attempt s t o trac k it , i s itsel f a product o f signs . W e migh t understan d thi s elusiv e figure, tha t is , a s a subject i n somethin g lik e Lacan' s sense : a precipitate o f symboli c opera tions o f exchang e rathe r tha n a n autonomou s ego . I t woul d b e t o th e scene o f suc h operation s tha t "th e rea l M E " summon s th e poe t here . Pointing t o th e sand s an d row s o f sign s beneat h hi s feet , thi s figure would no t b e dismissin g Whitman' s song s fo r havin g falle n int o th e condition o f writing , bu t mockin g th e poe t fo r resistin g thi s reduction ; not displayin g what th e poet ha s foolishl y le t himself become , but show ing hi m wha t h e to o mus t be . " Ther e wher e i t was, ' " a s Laca n ha s it , " . . . 'i t i s m y dut y tha t I shoul d com e t o being ' " (Ecrits 129) . Th e "blab whos e echoe s recoi l upo n me " woul d o n thi s readin g b e no t th e Calamus sequenc e bu t th e poem s o f th e first tw o editions , whic h pi t themselves agains t thi s recognitio n an d th e altere d sens e o f subjectivit y it entails. I mean t o insis t no t o n thi s interpretatio n bu t onl y o n it s plausibility . Like th e nucleu s o f identit y calle d "th e rea l M E , " bot h th e significanc e of ou r fal l int o sign s an d th e questio n o f whethe r an y aspec t o f th e sel f has escape d it , o r migh t have , remain enigmati c t o th e ver y en d o f "A s I

Ebb'd."

As th e poe m progresses , however , th e sign s unde r whos e swa y th e poe t now finds himsel f ar e associate d mor e an d mor e firmly wit h th e la w o f the father ; th e problem o f identit y i s thus re-cas t i n terms o f th e Oedipa l configuration th e first tw o edition s o f Leaves of Grass resist , an d fro m which th e poet's self-generatin g presenc e was t o offer escape . This law is both registere d an d evade d i n th e nex t dramati c encounte r i n "A s I Ebb'd." A s "th e rea l M E , " arguabl y th e poem' s final figure fo r th e sor t of aborigina l identit y celebrate d i n "Son g o f Myself," fade s int o enigma , Whitman invoke s instea d a figure o f th e father , beggin g fo r th e ver y filiation hi s earlie r image s o f identit y ha d serve d t o annul . Her e th e patriarchal authorit y implici t i n Calamus i s returne d t o th e intimat e personal nexu s with which i t always intertwines. This stress on intimacy , however, register s tension s tha t mak e th e passag e a s profoundl y ambiv alent a s it is deeply affecting :

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I throw myself upon your breast, my father, I cling to you so that you cannot unloose me, I hold you so firm, till you answer me something. Kiss me, my father, Touch me with your lips, as I touch those I love, Breathe to me, while I hold you close, the secret of the wondrous murmurin g I envy, For I fear I shall becom e crazed , i f I cannot emulat e it , an d utte r mysel f a s well as it. (i860 198 ) We nee d t o acknowledg e ho w movin g thi s is . Here Whitma n return s to a scene an d a source fro m whic h hi s poetry ha s long been i n flight . A s Zweig suggest s Whitman call s upo n hi s father, kisse s an d implore s him . From th e scen e of his vanished strength , h e reaches out , i n a brotherhood o f failure , t o th e fathe r h e had buried . .. . her e no w i s hi s father , com e bac k fro m th e dead , a s psychopomp, o r spiri t guide , a companio n o f dar k moods . Th e fathe r Whitma n ha d fled in his 'gigantism' and his lusty assertions catches up with him. . . . Here, his hurt has enabled him to see his father a s if for the first time, and draw from hi m a kind of negative strength: the ability to endure and thrive in failure. (309) Harold Bloo m make s large r claims , suggesting that th e poet arrive s a t a covenan t here . Atypically , Bloo m argue s tha t poeti c los s shoul d thu s be understood a s human gain : As the covenan t wit h Emerso n tha t bega t th e poeti c sel f ebbs , s o th e rejecte d covenant wit h th e actua l fathe r i s accepted an d mad e whole. Emersonian Self Reliance free d Whitma n fro m th e totalizin g affliction s o f th e famil y romance . Now th e consequence s o f th e poeti c analogu e o f th e famil y romanc e allo w Whitman a reconciliation h e never found whil e his father wa s alive. Imaginative loss quite literally is transformed int o experiential gain, in a far more direct way than Wordsworth or Coleridge could have envisioned. (A Map of Misreading 182 ) This i s no t wrong . Bu t i n it s eagernes s t o embrac e a Whitma n wh o ha s become on e o f u s i t tend s t o sentimentalize , missin g somethin g impor tant. Lik e Zweig , Bloo m want s t o rea d th e scen e a s a reconciliation. Ye t however movin g th e passage' s avowal s are , thi s imagine d encounte r i s deeply evasive , an d i t i s partl y Whitman' s appea l t o th e persona l tha t makes i t so : thi s invocatio n o f th e fathe r i s paradoxically a n ambiguou s attempt t o revok e th e consequence s o f paterna l law . We ca n begi n t o se e how thi s i s so by queryin g Bloom' s notio n o f th e "actual father. " Whic h actua l fathe r i s it, we nee d t o ask , tha t Whitma n

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tries t o embrac e here ? Th e fathe r a s failure , Zwei g suggests , consolin g his faile d son . Thi s to o i s righ t i n it s way , bu t likewis e slide s of f th e aspects o f thi s encounte r tha t mak e i t strange . I have i n min d especiall y the son' s ple a fo r a kiss , which ough t no t t o b e understoo d a s simpl y a paternal benediction : "Kis s me , my father , / Touch m e with you r lips , as I touc h thos e I love. " I t isn' t th e implici t homosexualit y tha t i s strang e here: on e doesn' t be g one' s mothe r t o touc h on e o n th e lip s "a s I touc h those I love " an y mor e tha n on e doe s one' s father . O r rather : i t isn' t simply th e "actual " mothe r o r fathe r on e migh t interac t wit h i n thi s way, bu t a parenta l figur e urge d t o ste p ou t o f it s sanctionin g role . No r is i t simpl y th e fathe r a s failur e tha t need s t o b e lure d t o thi s scene , which woul d amoun t no t t o a reconciliatio n s o much a s a tryst. I t is less the actua l o r th e faile d fathe r tha n a peculiar fantas y o f wha t th e fathe r might b e an d do , coul d on e appea l t o hi m "personally " an d ge t hi m t o shuck of f hi s generi c function , wit h whic h w e ar e presente d here . Th e encounter fo r whic h Whitma n plead s i s charged wit h th e possibilitie s o f what on e migh t become , an d wha t on e migh t escape , i f on e manage d t o seduce the fathe r i n this way . Despite th e ple a fo r embrace , Whitman' s father-figur e indee d turn s out t o b e importan t her e les s fo r an y compac t th e poe t migh t conclud e with hi m tha n fo r hi s imagine d rol e a s facilitato r o r intercessor . Finally , as w e shal l see , i t i s indee d betwee n th e poe t an d paterna l la w tha t th e father i s paradoxicall y aske d t o intercede . Mor e immediately , th e poe t asks the fathe r t o restor e hi s relation t o th e mother, no w estranged . Here, a s i s ofte n th e cas e wit h Whitman' s evocatio n o f parenta l figures, th e plac e assigne d t o th e mothe r i s mor e traditiona l tha n Whit man's declare d sexua l politic s migh t lea d u s t o expect. 71 Th e mothe r with who m th e fathe r i s to interced e i s still th e generi c figure associate d with th e ocea n an d natura naturans; i t i s indee d a n unmediated , pre symbolic connectio n t o bot h th e mothe r an d th e word , relation s charac teristic o f wha t Kristev a call s the semioti c ckora, tha t th e fathe r i s aske d to restore. This can b e understood onl y in part a s a continued acceptanc e of th e paterna l metapho r celebrate d i n Calamus. True , th e poe t plead s for th e paternal intercessio n h e earlier claime d t o by-pass . Yet the fathe r is t o b e seduce d int o restorin g acces s t o th e mothe r rathe r tha n barrin g it; th e poet' s ple a bot h acknowledge s th e paterna l functio n an d seek s t o evade th e prohibitio n tha t i s it s consequence . Whitman' s concludin g words t o th e fathe r her e confir m tha t hi s ai m i s t o escap e rathe r tha n

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embrace th e paterna l compact : askin g no t fo r a name tha t woul d embe d him i n a structur e o f kinshi p bu t fo r a translatio n o f th e mother' s murmur an d th e abilit y t o "emulat e it , an d utte r mysel f a s wel l a s it, " the poe t plead s fo r a performativ e powe r o f self-productio n tha t woul d exempt hi m fro m symboli c exchange , a s i t ha d th e her o o f Whitman' s 1855 an d 185 6 editions . We shoul d note , though , tha t th e powe r whic h woul d allo w th e poe t to escap e th e rul e o f th e fathe r als o exceed s th e domai n o f th e mother . Here th e poet ask s fo r a word tha t woul d allo w him , no t quit e to retur n to th e pre-Oedipa l mother , bu t t o recove r th e self-completio n whic h a blissful fantas y o f ou r relatio n t o he r suggests : h e wants , no t t o subjec t himself to , but instea d t o "emulate " a maternal powe r that , whe n yoke d to a patriarchal , positiona l forc e likewis e bot h enliste d an d subverted , would amoun t t o a capacit y fo r self-creation . Wha t th e poe t plead s for , that is , i s th e powe r o f wor d magic , an d wha t i t shoul d sustai n i s th e sort o f self-sufficienc y th e first two edition s o f Leaves of Grass celebrate . There, however, th e commerce betwee n thi s charmed stat e an d th e mor e archaic real m o f th e chora i s typicall y relaxe d an d assured ; i n thi s passage, th e poe t no t onl y beg s th e fathe r t o restor e t o hi m th e unme diated presenc e o f th e mother' s lul l an d hum , bu t simultaneousl y seek s paternal protectio n agains t th e danger s no w glimpse d lurkin g i n th e superseded registe r associate d wit h her , danger s intuite d i n th e mother' s angry rustl e an d fierce moan . A passage tha t look s a t first lik e a desper ate ple a fo r restore d relation—alread y ambiguou s sinc e th e poe t seek s either a compact wit h th e fathe r o r a return t o th e mother—is i n fac t a n ambivalent attemp t bot h t o solici t thes e tie s an d t o kee p the m a t bay . Awkwardly negotiatin g it s wa y towar d th e threshol d betwee n thes e parental icons , a sit e Whitman' s first tw o edition s seeme d t o occup y effortlessly an d a t will , thi s scen e register s th e poet' s estrangemen t fro m both th e materna l real m wit h whic h th e poe t o f 185 5 an d 185 6 seeme d to b e on eas y terms an d th e paternal metapho r celebrate d i n Calamus. It i s th e latte r b y whic h th e closin g movement s o f "A s I Ebb'd " ar e increasingly troubled . Th e poet' s ple a fo r th e father' s embrac e migh t thus als o b e understoo d a s a n ambivalen t attemp t t o forestal l th e ver y reconciliation i t seem s t o invite . This parado x als o turn s o n th e intentl y personal focu s o f th e poet' s appeal . Whitman' s biographica l father , called t o i n th e passage , serve s i n par t a s a stand-i n fo r th e Othe r o r paternal law , actin g a s a surrogat e th e poe t migh t b e abl e t o seduce .

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Whitman thu s seek s t o wo o bac k fro m th e plac e o f th e fathe r a powe r that the author of th e 185 5 a n d 185 6 editions had refused to accord him in the first place; thi s gesture register s bot h involvemen t wit h an d resistance t o paterna l authority , a n ambivalen t mi x characteristi c o f neithe r Calamus no r th e wor k tha t precedes it . The particular for m thi s appar ent gestur e o f reconciliatio n take s i s als o intensel y ambivalent . Callin g the father u p out o f th e earth, Whitman no t only tries to commun e wit h his biographica l parent , no w dead , bu t als o paradoxicall y hint s a t au tochthonous generation . The poe t thu s seek s t o seduc e th e fathe r int o surrendering a powe r o f self-production , layin g clai m t o a positiona l force ordinaril y wielded , i n attenuate d form , onl y withi n th e symboli c structure from which the poet tries to steal it. The poet' s attention s wil l shortl y shif t fro m groun d t o sky , an d t o a series o f silen t bu t accusator y figures tha t hove r ther e abov e him . Hi s appeal t o th e fathe r migh t thu s als o amoun t t o seductio n i n anothe r sense. I n Whitman' s characteristicall y magica l transaction s wit h space , to dra w th e fathe r u p ou t o f th e groun d migh t amoun t t o drawin g this othe r figure dow n ou t o f th e air . I n thi s sens e too , communio n with th e fathe r migh t offe r th e poe t acces s t o th e Other , enablin g hi m to softe n th e enigmati c bu t exactin g gaz e b y whic h th e poem' s clos e i s darkened. As Zweig implies , however, th e biographical fathe r Whitman appeal s to i n these line s make s a rather unlikel y avata r of patriarcha l authority . We might thus prefer to think o f hi m as a shield against cultural author ity rathe r tha n a n instanc e o f it , a figure who migh t hid e th e poe t fro m the Othe r rathe r tha n grantin g specia l acces s t o him . I t i s partl y th e ambiguous statu s assigne d t o the father that makes the passage moving : this seductiv e evocatio n mingle s anxiet y wit h a n intensit y o f regre t virtually unprecedented i n Whitman's work . Whichever rol e w e cas t th e fathe r in , however, th e poet's appea l t o hi m seeks t o evad e th e star k confrontatio n towar d whic h "A s I Ebb'd " inexorably gathers . Th e impassione d addres s t o th e materna l ocea n which succeed s this scene already implies the failure o f th e poet's effort s to evok e th e father' s sympathy , suggestin g a heartbreakin g lac k o f re sponse: Ebb, ocean of life, (the flow will return,) Cease not your moaning, you fierceold mother,

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Endlessly cry for your castaways—but fea r not, deny not me, Rustle not up so hoarse and angr y against m y feet, as I touch you, or gather from you . I mean tenderly by you, I gather fo r myself, and for this phantom, looking down where we lead, and following me and mine, (i860 198 ) Though Whitman' s ton e her e seem s t o hove r betwee n desperatio n an d hope, the passage is most forced whe n mos t openly optative—"(the flo w will return,)"— a sig n tha t th e relation t o th e mothe r th e poet plead s fo r here ha s als o suffere d a n estrangemen t h e fear s i s definitive . Thi s final address t o th e mothe r i s indeed alread y shadowe d b y a n ominou s figure who seem s to hav e th e sor t o f pre-emptiv e clai m o n th e poet tha t woul d preclude othe r attachments . Gatherin g hi s sediment , o r tryin g to , th e poet i s watched b y an enigmati c "phantom " i n the sky, a spot associate d with paterna l agenc y a s early as "Song of Myself" and "Crossin g Brook lyn Ferry. " Thi s ghostl y figure i s les s person tha n function , a plac e i n a structure o r a n anxiou s fantas y o f it . Her e "A s I Ebb'd " reluctantl y draws towar d th e sor t o f schemati c confrontatio n th e precedin g appea l to th e poet's ow n fathe r wa s i n part structure d t o avoid . Under th e gaz e o f thi s phantom , th e poe t spell s ou t fo r himsel f a humbling o f hi s earlie r pretension s alread y indicate d t o hi m i n hi s en counter wit h "th e rea l M E , " a figure o f identit y likewis e lurkin g abov e him an d perhap s associate d wit h th e fadin g o f self-presenc e tha t inser tion i n a structur e o f exchang e exacts . Her e Whitman' s declaration s assume a n oddl y distan t perspective, as if the poet's own sens e of himsel f now passed throug h th e place of th e phantom, internalizin g it s detached , severe judgment : Me and mine! We, loose winrows, little corpses, Froth, snowy white, and bubbles, (i860 198 ) The bitternes s here , I suggeste d earlie r on , i s extreme ; bu t i t soo n grows eve n harsher . Echoin g a n earlie r passag e t o whic h w e devote d considerable attention , th e poe t wh o see s himsel f a s on e o f th e "littl e corpses" o n th e beac h goe s o n t o mak e explici t wha t thi s deat h implie s within th e universe o f Leaves of Grass: See! from m y dead lips the ooze exuding at last! See—the prismatic colors, glistening and rolling!) Tufts of straw, sands, fragments, (i86 0 199 )

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Splayed ou t beneat h a spectral gaz e emanating fro m th e sky , the detritu s on th e beac h no w explicitl y include s th e poet' s word . Whil e i n th e firs t two edition s o f Leaves of Grass th e poet' s vati c ambition s ofte n serve d to rais e hi m u p t o th e plac e o f thi s gaz e himself , her e voic e ooze s fro m the poet' s lip s t o joi n th e lifeles s husk s o n th e sand , dyin g finall y int o a writing tha t emerge s grotesquel y fro m th e poet' s mouth . Th e poe t take s up hi s place i n a n endless , remorseless inscriptio n organize d fo r th e gaz e and fo r th e Other . The extende d passag e o f whic h thes e line s ar e par t rob s th e poe t o f his speech i n another wa y a s well; less savage, it is more uncanny . As the lines tha t conclud e th e poe m finall y mak e clear , th e poet' s lon g closin g apostrophe drift s fro m on e addresse e t o another : We, capricious, brought hither, we know not whence, spread out before You, up there, walking or sitting, Whoever you are—we too lie in drifts a t your feet, (i86 0 199 ) A passage that begin s by apprehensively mentionin g a phantom hoverin g over th e poe t ha s b y it s en d turne d int o a n addres s mad e t o him ; Whitman's fina l appea l t o th e mothe r turn s wit h seemin g inexorabilit y into th e confrontatio n sh e migh t hav e forestalled . Her e a t th e poem' s end i t is the sky , th e father , an d th e Othe r tha t mak e inescapabl e claim s on th e poet , drawin g t o themselve s th e ver y utteranc e tha t shoul d hav e fended the m off . It is not onl y th e poet's voic e an d speec h bu t als o his identity tha t ha s been purloine d a t th e poem' s close . Thi s i s s o despit e th e fac t tha t th e poet himsel f end s u p prostrate d beneat h th e enigmati c ico n i n th e sky . The "You " th e poe t addresses , lodge d i n a domai n associate d wit h paternal power , seem s to hav e metamorphose d no t onl y fro m th e phan tom, bu t als o fro m "th e rea l M E " ; the poet' s ow n elusiv e identit y reappears t o confron t hi m fro m th e fiel d o f th e Other . On e nee d no t fix Whitman's eeril y metamorphi c persona e i n an y final relation . Bu t i t seems as if the poet who wanted t o draw the father u p out of the ground , in orde r t o dra w th e Othe r dow n ou t o f th e sky , o r t o find protectio n from him , ha s instea d ha d hi s ow n identit y rap t u p int o th e air . Wha t the figure lyin g o n th e san d divine s abov e him , a t least , i s a threatenin g congeries o f father , Other , phantom , an d hi s ow n elusiv e self , no t a presence an y longe r bu t a task. I t is at once a n ico n o f cultura l authorit y and a n alienate d identit y sequestere d b y i t tha t gaze s dow n an d accuse s

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the poet , an d befor e whic h h e prostrate s himsel f a t th e poem' s end. 72 This closin g confrontatio n thu s emptie s ou t bot h th e figure o f voic e tha t governs Whitman's first tw o editions , turning self-presenc e int o a remot e icon, an d th e benig n visio n o f th e Othe r tha t ha d permitte d th e reconcil iations o f Calamus. Like th e poe m a s a whole , however , thi s gri m catachresi s remain s enigmatic i n it s import . Th e endin g o f "A s I Ebb'd " ha s somethin g o f the forc e o f revelation , a s i f th e Othe r an d th e sel f lodge d wit h i t ha d finally disclose d th e forbiddin g aspect s the y alway s possessed . Ye t th e sense of muffle d outrag e here is mingled with a forlorn qualit y suggestiv e instead o f abandonment : depictin g a n estrangemen t betwee n th e poe t and hi s enabling idols that seem s definitive, "A s I Ebb'd" poise s betwee n blaming thes e figures fo r havin g bee n delusiv e fictions fro m th e first an d trying t o com e t o term s wit h wha t ma y instea d b e thei r altere d attitud e toward him , their forsaking o f a chosen vesse l now left empt y and bereft . Like th e res t o f th e poem , th e closin g line s o f "A s I Ebb'd " leav e equivocal whethe r thi s alternatio n towar d th e poet , i f tha t i s what i t is , has bee n cause d b y a mysterious chang e i n hi s idols o r wa s provoke d b y some failin g o f th e poe t himself . Th e poe m tha t mark s a n en d t o th e mythopoeic caree r o f Leaves of Grass thu s conclude s o n a not e tha t mingles bitternes s an d longing , humilit y an d self-laceration . Whitman' s final lin e starkl y dramatize s no t onl y th e change d relatio n betwee n th e poet an d hi s enablin g fictions, bu t als o th e shar p ambivalenc e thi s es trangement occasions : "Whoeve r yo u are—w e to o li e i n drift s a t you r feet." Addressin g th e distan t figure t o who m hi s forme r power s no w belong, th e poe t seem s a t onc e accusator y an d abject . Hi s distan t an d bitter "Whoeve r yo u are " repay s th e mocker y "th e rea l M E " ha d earlie r directed a t th e poet ; ye t th e poe t the n declare s hi s ow n abasement , i n a phrase tha t mingle s submissio n wit h a hin t o f scorn . Th e enigmati c figure i n th e sky , a t onc e th e Othe r wh o preside s ove r Calamus an d th e presence who govern s Whitman's first tw o editions, has now withdrawn , apparently betrayin g th e poe t h e shoul d hav e sustained . Ye t th e poe t behaves a s i f th e responsibilit y fo r thi s debacl e migh t b e hi s own . Whit man's unreconcile d leave-takin g thu s cling s t o th e ver y term s i t trie s t o lay t o rest ; th e poe t o f "A s I Ebb'd " i s stil l i n thral l t o th e myth s tha t mock him . If we assume th e sort of panoramic perspective th e poem's concludin g scenes invite , viewing "A s I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " a s the en d o f

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a lon g trajector y t h a t begin s wit h "Son g o f Myself, " i t i s especiall y th e transumptive visio n o f omnipoten t identit y t o whic h W h i t m a n bid s equivocal farewel l here , th e t r a m p recall s th e god , an d th e poe m re names th e power s o f poetry , acutes t a t thei r vanishing .

Notes i. Se e Erkkil a 267-7 3 fo r a discussio n o f Whitman' s lat e wor k a s a partia l evasion o f post-Civi l Wa r political , social, and economi c developments . 2. O n th e poem' s avoidanc e o f closur e se e Daya n 1054-5 5 an d Larso n 1 1 8 21.

3. Se e chapter 4 , 9 5 - 1 02 an d 129-32 , above . 4. Daya n discern s a "perpetual , liberate d sparagmos" (1055 ) i n sectio n four teen o f th e poe m (185 5 36) . I tak e u p th e passag e sh e discusses , fro m a different vantage , on 381 . 5. Fo r a discussion o f thes e passages, see chapter 4 , 149 , above. 6. O n thi s sens e o f th e bod y i n Whitman' s wor k se e Anderson , Imperial Self 102-18, especiall y 115 . 7. O n thi s poin t se e Larson , wh o note s a tensio n "Betwee n th e everythin g th e self vow s t o encompas s an d th e nothin g i t get s reduce d t o i n takin g o n a discernible shap e t o confir m tha t callin g . . ." (140) . Larso n goe s o n t o suggest tha t "th e momen t conceptio n i s delivere d ove r int o visible , realize d form i s als o th e momen t o f overburdening , hypertrophy , an d stoppage " (140).

8. On e ke y differenc e betwee n introjectio n an d fantasmati c incorporation , according t o Abraha m an d Torok , i s tha t th e forme r i s mediate d b y lan guage, wherea s th e latte r foreclose s linguisti c representation ; introjectio n i s thus properl y a symboli c operatio n (se e "Introjection—Incorporation " 5 6). Ye t th e imaginar y operation s o f th e Lacania n mirro r stag e alread y establish th e subject-objec t divisio n tha t namin g an d synta x wil l formalize . See Lacan, Ecrits 2 , and Kristeva, Revolution in Poetic Language 46 . 9. O n thi s mediate d o r specula r origi n o f one' s ow n stabilize d bod y image , see Lacan, "Th e mirro r stag e a s formative o f th e functio n o f th e I," Ecrits 1—7 . 10. O n Whitman' s genteel , conventional portraitur e se e Anderson, Imperial Self 103.

11. Anderso n describe s thi s dialecti c o f th e bod y i n Whitman's work : se e Imperial Self 1 3 9 - 5 2. 12. Se e fo r exampl e sectio n ninetee n o f "Son g o f Myself, " line s 372-7 6 (185542). 13. Se e fo r exampl e th e accoun t o f th e runawa y slav e wh o stop s a t th e poet' s house: sectio n ten , lines 183-9 2 (185 5 33-34) .

Legacies 46 9 14. Se e V 1:5 9 fo r subsequen t version s o f this passage . Erkkil a provide s a n illuminating accoun t o f th e lines that follow thos e I quote, clearing up some of thei r obscurities b y convincing appea l t o Hicksit e notion s o f th e incarna tion. See Whitman the Political Poet 111-12 . 15. Se e Thomas 16-30 , fo r a n excellent discussio n o f ho w Whitman' s portrait s of urba n lif e an d artisana l activit y bot h reflec t an d resis t th e effect s o f emergent capitalis m o n cit y an d work-place . Se e Erkkila , Whitman the Political Poet 10—24 , f° r a n analysi s o f Whitman' s root s i n th e artisa n republicanism o f Ne w Yor k City . Bot h Thoma s an d Erkkil a dra w o n Wil entz's monumenta l Chants Democratic; se e especiall y 107-42 , o n th e bas tardization of th e artisan workshop. 16. Anderso n locate s a similar quality eve n i n Whitman's portraits of th e poet' s body; see Imperial Self 104. 17. O n th e "accidenta l an d erratic " qualit y o f th e figures i n Wordsworth' s poems of fancy , see Ferguson 65-66 . 18. O n th e pragmatic s an d politic s o f figuration, se e th e Emersonia n titl e es say o f Kennet h Burke' s The Philosophy of Literary Form, especi ally 3 - 8 . 19. Inasmuc h a s Bakhtin allow s roo m fo r "novelized " poetry—Pushkin's wor k is hi s prim e example—"poeti c style " serve s a s somethin g o f a trop e here ; but Bakhti n surel y isolate s a stanc e towar d languag e intrinsi c t o th e lyric . On novelization i n poetry see Bakhtin 287 m 2; on Pushkin's Evgenij Onegin see 322—23 .

20. Se e especially P W 2:562-63 . 21. O n this aspec t o f Whitman' s idio m se e Jame s E . Miller , Walt Whitman 136-44; Matthiesse n 526-32 ; an d Asselineau 2:225-38 . 22. Whitman' s idiomati c pla y her e i s quit e clos e t o Pound' s i n th e latter' s fre e translations o f Propertius : compar e " I d o no t declin e t o b e th e poe t o f wickedness also " with "Wher e bol d hand s ma y d o violence t o m y person," or "Wh o s o indecorou s a s t o she d th e pur e gor e o f a suitor?! " (Personae 212). M y discussio n o f th e socia l implication s o f Whitman' s verba l wi t i s indebted to James E. Miller: see Walt Whitman 138—43 . 23. I derive thi s notion o f th e functio n o f th e sentimental fro m Lynd a Zwinger , Daughters, Fathers, and the Novel. 24. Suc h attempt s t o mak e th e poe m exhibi t structura l neatnes s ar e admittedl y not no w muc h i n fashion ; I follo w a numbe r o f recen t commentator s i n jettisoning this project. 25. O n this paradox se e Larson 47 . 26. I owe thi s point to Kenneth Koch , who suggeste d i t in a lecture at Columbia University som e year s ago ; m y discussio n o f thi s sectio n o f "Son g o f My self," a s wel l a s m y analysi s o f Whitman' s idiomati c wit , i s indebte d t o Koch's lectures. 27. W e might also recall Hartman's suggestion that apostrophe an d the vocative are attenuations o f ritua l performative powe r (Beyond Formalism 287-88) ;

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section si x temper s th e mor e forcefu l claim s o f th e first five section s o f "Song of Myself " i n this regard, a s in others . 2.8. Thi s poe m appeare d onl y i n th e i86 0 edition ; se e V 2:378 . Fo r thi s an d other Calamus poem s omitte d fro m th e deathbe d edition , I have employe d the titles given by the editors of the Variorum (taken , like the titles Whitma n gave th e poem s h e retained , fro m thei r openin g lines) ; I hav e omitte d th e brackets tha t surroun d thes e titles in the Variorum. 29. Furthe r o n i n Whitman the Political Poet, Erkkil a qualifie s thi s thesis. While she argue s tha t th e earliest-writte n poem s i n th e sequence , first groupe d a s "Live-Oak wit h Moss, " constitut e a retrea t fro m politics , sh e suggest s that , in th e Calamus sequenc e a s a whole , homosexua l comradeshi p itsel f be comes a figure fo r politica l possibility . A t th e sam e time , sh e als o modifie s her vie w o f Whitman' s homosexua l lov e poetry a s a displacemen t o f politi cal malaise , suggestin g tha t Calamus i s genuinel y motivate d b y "privat e homosexual feeling " (179) . Erkkil a nonetheles s suggest s eithe r tha t th e politics o f Calamus mark s a retreat, albei t strategic , from th e more inclusiv e democratic commitment s o f th e first tw o editions , o r tha t th e sequenc e i s itself spli t betwee n exclusiv e homosexua l an d inclusiv e democrati c ambi tions (152-54 , 178—83) . I shall b e arguin g fo r a n obvers e interpretatio n o f Calamus a s a significan t expansio n o f th e poet' s commitment s an d a n intensification o f hi s engagement wit h others . 30. Anderso n an d Zwei g bot h hypothesiz e tha t thi s shif t i n th e poetr y parallel s a shif t i n Whitman's life : se e Anderson, "Whitman' s Ne w Man " 3 3 an d 47 , and Zwei g 301 . While Shivel y argue s tha t Whitma n wa s alread y a n activ e homosexual a s earl y a s th e lat e 1830s , h e suggest s a n emotiona l break through simila r t o th e on e Anderso n an d Zwei g posit : "Whil e ther e i s considerable evidenc e o f Whitman' s homosexua l liaison s a s earl y a s 1836 , there were n o lover s until [Fred ] Vaughan" (30) . 31. I have regularize d th e tex t printe d b y Bowers , eliminatin g th e vertica l line s he inserts t o indicat e th e places withi n a single line of vers e where Whitma n switched fro m on e lin e o f hi s noteboo k t o th e succeedin g one . Thi s manu script passag e ha s draw n a goo d dea l o f attention : se e fo r exampl e Zwei g 296-97; Shivel y (190 ) restore s thes e line s t o th e tex t o f "I n Path s Untrod den" h e chooses to print . 32. Marti n (75 ) anticipate s Zweig' s argumen t here , a s doe s Anderso n ("Whit man's Ne w Man " 32-33) . 3 3. O n Whitman' s characteristi c aversio n t o narrative, and o n th e way Calamus departs fro m thi s stance, see Anderson, "Whitman' s Ne w Man " 24—2 7 an d 32.-3334. Afte r i860 , "States! " wa s revise d int o tw o separat e poems : th e Calamus poem "Fo r Yo u O Democracy " an d th e Drum-Taps piec e "Ove r th e Car nage Ros e Prophetic a Voice." Most o f th e lines I quote, however, appea r i n neither poem . Se e V 2:371-75 . 35. Thi s designation o f the poet's productions a s "carols" or songs is less typical

Legacies 47 1 of Calamus tha n of Whitman' s earlie r work; an d even here the poet's song s are legacies, not emanations of hi s living presence. 36. Followin g Bowers' s suggestio n tha t th e twelv e poem s whic h mak e u p th e manuscript sequenc e "Live-Oa k wit h Moss, " th e earliest-compose d o f the poem s late r include d i n Calamus, "appea r t o b e highl y unifie d an d to mak e u p a n artisticall y complet e stor y o f attachment , crisis , an d renun ciation" (lxvi) , critic s hav e tende d t o regar d Whitman' s origina l focu s a s personal an d private, an d t o conside r th e public-minded aspec t of Calamus as th e resul t o f a late r attemp t o n Whitman' s par t t o legitimat e suc h intimate concerns. See for example Kapla n 239, Zweig 301-06 , an d Erkkila 152—54 an d 179-83 . Bu t a preoccupatio n wit h grou p more s pervade s Calamus, surfacin g repeatedl y eve n i n "Live-Oa k wit h Moss" : "Recorder s Ages Hence " wa s par t o f thi s earl y group , a s wer e "Thi s Momen t Yearning an d Thoughtful " (i86 0 367) , "Wha t Thin k Yo u I Tak e M y Pen i n Hand? " (i86 0 372-73) , " I Dream'd i n a Dream" (i86 0 373) , an d "To a Wester n Boy " (i86 0 377 ) (Bower s lxiv) . Jame s E . Mille r treat s the hypothesi s o f progressiv e distantiatio n skepticall y (Critical Guide 59-60). 37. Se e especiall y Marti n 51-5 2 an d Killingswort h 97-102 . O n th e historica l production of discourse s of homosexualit y se e Foucault 101 . 38. Whitman' s judgmen t i s partially seconde d b y Freud : i n hi s speculation s o n the autobiograph y o f Dr . Schreber , Psycho-Analytic Notes Upon an Autobiographical Account of a Case of Paranoia (Dementia Paradoides), Freu d not only argue s that sublimated homosexua l impulse s ar e a crucial contrib utor t o "comradeship , t o esprit de corps an d t o th e lov e o f mankin d i n general" bu t als o suggest s tha t "i t i s precisel y manifes t homosexuals , an d among the m agai n precisel y thos e tha t struggl e agains t a n indulgenc e i n sensual acts, who distinguish themselves by taking a particularly active share in the general interest s o f humanity... " (Collected Papers 3:447) . Calamus foregoes Freud' s qualification . 39. Killingswort h (97—111 ) suggest s tha t Whitman' s "sentimental " treatmen t of homosexualit y i s strategic , thoug h h e ha s i n min d no t s o muc h th e sequence's politica l claim s a s it s yoking o f homosexua l act s wit h bourgeoi s idealizations of mal e friendship . 40. Se e Elementary Structures of Kinship 478—9 7 fo r Levi-Strauss' s crucia l reversal o f th e apparen t cause-effec t relatio n betwee n inces t an d exogamy : Levi-Strauss argue s that the incest taboo comes into being in order to insur e exogamy, whic h itsel f make s cultur e possibl e an d give s i t it s first grammar of relations . 41. Partl y unsuccessful , a s it turned out. Erkkil a (311 ) focuse s o n th e attendan t historical irony : while Children of Adam wa s vilified a s immoral becaus e of its portrayal o f femal e sexuality , Calamus provoke d littl e disapprova l i n an America inten t o n repressin g th e ver y existenc e o f homosexuality . Killing sworth (98-102 ) see s thi s oversigh t a s a consequenc e o f Whitman' s care -

47 2 Legacie s fully code d rhetoric , designe d t o spea k t o th e initiate d whil e speakin g pas t those who had no wish to hear. 42. Se e Shivel y 3 6 - 5 0 o n Whitman' s relatio n t o Fre d Vaughan , memorialize d in Calamus. 43. O n th e impropriet y o f th e so-calle d prope r name , see Derrida , Grammatology 107-18 . I n this critique of Tristes Tropiques a s throughout his extended reading of Levi-Strauss , Derrid a claim s t o b e drawing ou t the radical impli cations of Levi-Strauss' s own insights . 44. Accordin g t o Derrid a th e functio n o f th e posite d "center " of an y structur e is t o stan d fo r thi s impossibl e possibility ; se e "Structure , Sign , an d Play " 247-48. 45. " I Sa w i n Louisian a a Live-Oa k Growing " (Calamus 20 ) i s on e o f th e original "Live-Oa k wit h Moss " poem s (Bower s lxiv) ; "Thes e I Singing i n Spring" (Calamus 4 ) wa s compose d afte r Whitma n complete d "Live-Oa k with Moss " bu t befor e h e sen t th e partia l manuscrip t fo r th e i86 0 editio n to Rome Brothers (Bower s li). See Bowers lxvii o n the relation betwee n liveoak an d calamus-root. 46. Laca n suggest s tha t this barrin g o f jouissance whic h define s eroticis m once i t assume s it s signifyin g functio n alread y shadow s biologica l possi bility: beyon d th e pleasur e principle , itsel f organicall y unsustainable , there i s n o absolut e jouissance; se e Ecrits 319 . O n th e relatio n be tween thes e tw o source s o f lac k se e Four Fundamental Concepts 204-5. 47. Sinc e I hav e bee n drawin g heavil y o n Laca n here , i t ma y b e usefu l t o adumbrate th e pertinen t arguments , whic h cente r o n th e psychi c conse quences of the symbolic kinship structures Levi-Strauss describes, and of the Oedipal relation s whic h ar e thei r remainde r withi n th e bourgeoi s nuclea r family. Like Levi-Strauss, Lacan situates the requisitioning of the subject to serve as a signifie r i n kinshi p structure s a t a leve l anterio r t o ou r individua l assumption o f languag e an d the symbolic relation s to our objects i t installs. There is always, Lacan suggests, before any formation of the subject, of a subject who thinks, who situates himself in it—the level at which there is counting, things are counted, and in this counting he who counts is already included. It is only later that the subject has to recognize himself a s such, recognize himself a s he who counts. (Four Fundamental Concepts 2.0 ) The kinshi p structure s tha t tak e u s u p t o serv e a s signifier s ma y indee d be the origin of significatio n itself : It is at the level of matrimonial alliance, as opposed to natural generation, to biological linea l descent—a t th e leve l therefor e o f th e signifier—tha t th e fundamenta l exchanges take place and it is there that we findonce again that the most elementary structures of social functioning are inscribed in the terms of a combinatory.

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3

The integration of this combinatory into sexual reality raises the question of whether it is not i n this way tha t the signifier cam e into the world, into the world o f man. {Four Fundamental Concepts 150-51 ) As the Calamus sequenc e wil l als o suggest , th e expropriation o f identit y thereby initiated i s registere d no t onl y psychically , bu t als o o n ou r ver y bodies, mos t graphicall y i n th e scarificatio n an d tattooin g ritual s durin g which th e body' s surfac e i s quite literall y inscribed . A s in the variety o f les s violent an d explici t cultura l ritual s throug h whic h th e bod y i s structured , what i s proscribe d i n suc h rite s i s th e eroti c self-completio n o f jouissance. As the Lacanian journal Scilicit suggests: in so far as jouissance is auto-erotic, there is a limit or bar imposed on it. This is what is meant by saying that the Oedipus complex constitutes jouissance as forbidden by relying on paternal law.. . . {Feminine Sexuality 117 ) Sexuality, mos t especiall y bu t no t exclusivel y i n it s genita l manifestation , must b e structure d i n suc h a wa y tha t th e subjec t wil l hencefort h see k hi s erotic objects along the possible route s prescribed by kinship structures: the genita l driv e i s subjecte d t o th e circulatio n o f th e Oedipu s complex , t o th e elementary and other structures of kinship. {Four Fundamental Concepts 189 ) Genital mutilatio n thu s become s th e crucia l sig n o f th e body' s expropri ation. Circumcisio n serve s a s the ritual , symboli c mar k o f a n expropriatio n registered a t a fantasmatic leve l b y th e mor e drasti c trope of castration , th e lack o f th e phallus b y which th e image o f th e bod y i s haunted. Symbolizin g the la w o f th e fathe r whic h demand s thi s sacrific e withi n patriarchy , th e phallus comes als o to stand for a jouissance no w rendere d unattainable: Thus the erectile organ comes to symbolize the place of jouissance, no t in itself, or even in the form of a n image, but as a part lacking in the desired [maternal ] image. . . . {Ecrits 320) This moment of cu t is haunted b y the form of a bloody scrap—th e poun d of flesh that lif e pay s i n orde r t o tur n i t int o th e signifie r o f th e signifiers , whic h i t i s impossible t o restore , a s such , t o th e imaginar y body ; i t i s th e los t phallu s o f th e embalmed Osiris. {Ecrits 265) Not ours , thi s jouissance an d th e phallu s tha t signifie s i t mus t b e presen t somewhere, a kind of compensatio n fo r what we have given up: That there must somewhere be jouissance of the Other is the only possible check on the endless circulating of significations. . .. {Feminine Sexuality 117 ) The passage . .. o f the phallic image from one side to the other of the equation, from the imaginar y t o th e symbolic , render s i t positive. . . . th e symboli c phallu s tha t cannot be negated, the signifier of jouissance. {Ecrits 3 20) The sexua l relation s structure d b y thi s la w registe r bot h lac k an d th e elusive, strictly unattainable jouissance hel d out as the end of desire .

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48. O n masquerad e an d the fetishization o f wome n se e also Irigaray , Speculum 103, 114—15 , and 124 ; and This Sex Which Is Not One 170-91 . 49. Se e als o Ecrits 207 : "wome n i n th e rea l orde r serve , i f they'l l forgiv e m e saying so, as objects for the exchanges required by the elementary structure s of kinshi p an d whic h ar e sometime s perpetuate d i n th e imaginar y order , while wha t i s transmitte d i n a paralle l wa y i n th e symboli c orde r i s th e phallus." 50. O n disavowal se e Laplanche-Pontalis, Language of Psychoanalysis 118-21 ; on scotomization , se e also the entry o n th e Lacanian concep t o f foreclosur e (166-69). 51. Laca n thu s make s roo m fo r wha t migh t b e calle d mal e masquerade : "Th e fact tha t femininit y take s refug e i n thi s mask , becaus e o f th e Verdrangung inherent t o th e phalli c mar k o f desire , ha s th e strang e consequenc e that , i n the human being, virile display itself appear s as feminine" (Feminine Sexuality 85) . O n parade, Lacan' s ter m fo r thi s kin d o f display , se e Heath , espe cially 55-56 . 52. O n thi s poin t se e Larson : "h e underscore s th e truis m tha t fo r th e gif t t o retain its value it must remain in constant circulation, continuously availabl e for us e withou t bein g destroye d i n it s consumption " (165) . Larson , how ever, reads Calamus a s a lament for , rathe r than a celebration of , th e power of poetr y t o promote suc h circulation : "I n these songs o f 'adhesiveness ' . . . one detect s a mountin g despai r ove r th e efficac y o f writte n documents , poetry foremos t amon g them, to bond, mediate, or reconcile" (166). 53. Th e Lacania n analys t Jea n Clavreu l offer s som e observation s rathe r strik ingly applicabl e t o this provocative aspec t of th e poet's speech acts , though he implie s a muc h sharpe r distinctio n betwee n "normal " acceptanc e o f castration and "perverse" disavowal tha n I have been suggesting: The fact that these contracts are secret, that their terms and their practices are only known to those involved, does not in the least signify tha t the third party is absent. On the contrary: it is this absence of the third party, his being left out, that constitutes the major element of this strange contract. This third party, who is necessarily present to sign, or better, to countersign, the authenticity of a normal love relation, must here be excluded, or to be more precise, he is present but only insofar as he is blind or an accomplice or impotent. (218-19 ) 54. Thoug h i t intertwine s wit h a moving impuls e t o confess hi s homosexualit y more overtly , th e poet' s attemp t t o spea k for thi s patterne d energ y prove s equally comic : beginnin g histrionically—"Emblemati c an d capriciou s blades , I leave you—now yo u serv e m e not , / Away ! I will sa y wha t I have t o say , by itself " (i86 0 343)—i t soo n entangle s itsel f i n th e ramifyin g myster y i t claimed t o leav e behind . Th e manuscrip t versio n printe d b y Bower s i s les s bellicose, an d mor e limite d i n it s claims , focusin g o n confessio n bu t no t proclaiming the power of unmediate d self-expression : Do not any longer hide yourselves, you timid leaves, Do not remain down there, so ashamed, blossoms of my breast!

Legacies 47 5 Come I am determined t o unbare my breast—I hav e stifled an d choked too lon g I will escape fro m th e costume, th e play which wa s proposed t o me I will soun d mysel f an d love [ . . . .] (72 )

55. Se e also Four Fundamental Concepts 204—5 . 56. O n th e dea d fathe r se e Lacan , Ecrits 19 9 an d 237 ; o n th e relatio n o f th e dead father to the fading of the self, see Ecrits 300 . 57. Thi s mechanis m bot h resemble s an d effectively reverse s prosopopoeia a s de Man describe s it , sinc e Whitman her e dramatize s hi s ow n fadin g an d th e appearance of hi s inheritors, rather than the reverse. 58. Thi s i s Lacan' s translatio n o f an d commentar y o n Freud' s dictum , "W o e s war, soi l Ic h werden," translated i n New Introductory Lectures a s "Wher e id was , ther e shal l eg o be " (71) . Fo r Lacan' s discussio n o f th e difficultie s with th e standar d Frenc h an d Englis h rendering s o f Freud' s phrase , se e Ecrits 128-29 . Se e als o Ecrits 171 : "Th e en d tha t Freud' s discover y pro poses for man was defined b y him at the apex of his thought in these moving terms: Wo es war, soil Ich werden. I mus t com e t o th e plac e wher e tha t was." 59. Daya n (1056-57 ) map s Whitman's 185 5 vocabular y fo r identity agains t his i860 terms , though he r argument differs fro m mine. 60. "A s I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life " wa s compose d afte r Whitma n maile d the preliminary manuscrip t o f th e i86 0 editio n t o Rom e Brother s fo r type setting; onl y nin e o f th e forty-fiv e Calamus poem s wer e writte n durin g thi s period; see Bowers li. 61. Anderso n makes the latter point in his analysis of "As I Ebb'd" ("Whitman' s New Man " 32-33) . 62. Whitman' s synta x i s obliqu e here : I rea d "we " a s "m e an d mine" ; th e "phantom" is doing the "looking" and "following. " 63. Th e exclamatio n point , an d wit h i t somethin g o f th e bitternes s o f tone , disappears fro m th e first of these lines in 1881 . See V 2:321. 64. Whil e no t part of "Live-Oa k wit h Moss, " "Trickle Drops" pre-dates Whit man's delivery of cop y materia l to Rome Brothers (Bower s li and lxiv). 65. I a m indebte d a s wel l t o Bloom' s suggestio n tha t "th e entir e poe m i s remarkable a s a versio n o f kenosis, o f Whitman undoin g th e Whitmania n bardic self of Song ofMyself" (A Map of Misreading 180) . 66. O n Romantic , an d especiall y Coleridgean , synecdoche , se e Hodgson , espe cially 273-7 8 an d 282-88 . Her e Whitman emptie s ou t th e poetic s o f immanence with which suc h an understanding of synecdoch e intertwines . 6j. O n metonym y i n "A s I Ebb'd" se e Bloom , A Map of Misreading 180 ; bu t Bloom see s Whitman' s synecdoch e a s " a restitutin g representation " (181) , whereas I see it as undercut by dispersive metonymy . 68. Saussur e (114-22 ) suggest s tha t jus t thi s redefinitio n move s u s beyon d essentialism t o a proper understanding of th e constitutive powe r of the sign. See also Lacan , Ecrits 149-54 . 69. I quote th e 187 1 text , whic h i s mor e explici t an d emphati c i n it s inclusio n

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of th e poe t amon g th e thing s signifie d b y th e "littl e shreds. " I n plac e o f th e two lines quoted, th e i86 0 tex t has simply, "These little shreds shall, indeed , stand fo r all " (i86 0 197) . 70. Se e chapter 5 , 248, above. 71. Se e Killingswort h (62-73 ) an d Erkkil a (308-16 ) o n Whitman' s generall y anti-Victorian bu t decidedl y ambivalen t treatmen t o f femal e sexualit y an d maternity. 72. I follow Anderso n i n seein g the "You " th e poet addresse s her e a s a t leas t i n part a n imag e of hi s own estrange d identit y ("Whitman' s Ne w Man " 47) .

8. Vistas EPICTITUS

(Description o f a Wise Man ) [....] All hi s desire s depen d o n thing s withi n hi s power .

[....]

He observe s himsel f wit h th e nicet y o f a n enem y o r spy , an d look s o n hi s ow n wishe s a s betrayers. —UPP 2:9 4 the fea r o f conflictin g an d irreconcilabl e interiors , an d th e lac k o f a commo n skeleton , knitting al l close , continuall y haunt s me . —Democratic Vistas, P W 2:36 8

It is a truism o f Whitma n criticism , an d a useful one , that afte r i86 0 th e poet o f th e bod y graduall y give s wa y t o th e poe t o f th e soul . A s M . Jimmie Killingswort h notes , takin g u p a lon g lin e o f commentary , th e incendiary sexua l stanc e tha t energize s Whitman' s firs t thre e edition s metamorphoses int o th e griml y sublimate d ero s o f Drum-Taps an d Memoranda During the War, an d the n disappear s (131-54). 1 C . Carrol l Hollis offer s a differen t accoun t o f th e chang e tha t overtoo k Leaves of Grass afte r i860 : Whitman' s fascinatio n wit h performativ e utterance , and wit h poetr y a s speec h act , i s replace d b y a n increasingl y disablin g commitment t o a poetr y o f statement ; illocutionar y acts , i n Austin' s terms, giv e wa y t o locutionar y one s (Holli s 88-123). 2 Thes e change s can b e understood a s part o f a single shift, involvin g the poet's presence : the magica l bod y tha t redefine s ero s b y assumin g th e contour s voic e suggests, incarnatin g th e performativ e word , scarcel y make s a n appear ance in the poems Whitman wrot e afte r i860 . The mythology o f the bod y tha t shape s Whitman's earl y editions doe s resurface sporadicall y i n late r work ; i t appear s les s ofte n i n Whitman' s poems tha n i n hi s prose , whic h a s Bets y Erkkil a ha s recentl y argue d 477

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increasingly becam e the focus o f Whitman's creativ e energie s (Whitman the Political Poet 273 , 293) . A much-diminishe d avata r o f th e poet' s pneumatic bod y turn s up in Specimen Days? An d in Democratic Vistas, Whitman brood s ove r th e sor t of self-divided bod y tha t haunt s hi s earl y editions. Lik e muc h o f Whitman' s wor k afte r i860 , th e passages i n which thi s fragmented bod y imag e appears ar e concerned quit e explicitl y with politica l matters : Society, in these States, is canker'd, crude, superstitious and rotten [.... ] I sa y we had best loo k ou r times an d lands searchingl y i n the face, lik e a physician diagnosin g some deep disease [....] Th e underlying principles of the States are not honestl y believ' d in , (for all this hectic glow, and these melodra matic screamings,) no r is humanity itsel f believ' d in. What penetrating eye does not everywhere see through the mask? (Democratic Vistas PW 2:369) Here th e body clearl y become s wha t a number o f recent commentarie s on Whitman' s wor k sugges t tha t i t alread y i s in the early edition s of Leaves of Grass: a trope for the bod y politic . The "cankered " bod y wa s indeed a rathe r commonplac e image , durin g th e period, fo r social cor ruption. 4 It i s worth noting , however , tha t eve n i n the context o f Democratic Vistas Whitman' s figure i s by no means a transparent o r neutral vehicle . These passage s ar e filled with a strange intensity , lodge d precisel y i n the detail Whitma n lavishe s o n hi s metaphor . I n Democratic Vistas thi s vehicle no t quit e reducibl e t o it s teno r ma y serve t o impl y tha t th e massive economi c an d social transformation s currentl y re-shapin g the American republi c wil l hav e dir e consequence s fo r individual selve s and bodies. The essa y is a trenchant critiqu e of the political repercussion s of technological explosion ; th e dangers b y which th e body imag e i s plagued, which aris e fro m bot h unbridle d materialis m an d th e alienatio n o f labor that accompanie s industria l expansion , ar e accordingly thos e o f uncon trolled, monstrou s growt h an d grotesqu e self-division: 5 It i s as if we were someho w bein g endow' d wit h a vast an d more an d more thoroughly-appointed body , and then left with little or no soul. (PW 2:370) The fea r o f conflicting an d irreconcilable interiors , and the lac k o f a common skeleton, knitting all close, continually haunts me. (PW 2:368) The ideologica l wor k thes e passage s perfor m depend s partl y o n thi s parallel: Whitma n enlist s ou r energies t o comba t th e ills o f th e bod y

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politic b y awakin g primordia l anxietie s concernin g analogou s danger s that implicitly threate n our individual bodies . Yet in Whitman's work the dangers the body politic poses to the body are b y n o mean s confine d t o th e damagin g effect s o f th e particula r economic an d socia l change s lamente d i n Democratic Vistas; no r ar e they adequatel y describe d b y th e sor t o f homologica l relatio n w e hav e just noted. As we have seen, what provokes anxiety in Whitman's earlier writing i s no t simpl y th e prospec t tha t socia l patholog y wil l lea d t o analogous individual pathology , bu t the belief that socialization i s inherently threatenin g t o identity ; i f socia l malfunctio n destroy s ou r prope r autonomy, i n Leaves of Grass suc h malfunction emerge s as pervasive. In these passages fro m Democratic Vistas, thi s mor e inclusiv e threa t posed by socia l formation s i s registere d onl y indirectly . Whitman' s figure o f the body, which is still overdetermined, can also be interpreted accordin g to a peculiar logi c o f displacemen t w e hav e alread y see n a t work i n hi s language theory . I n The Primer of Words, w e noted , Whitma n ca n b e found obsessivel y protectin g word s themselve s agains t th e very violenc e words supposedl y d o t o person s an d things ; her e i n Democratic Vistas he struggle s t o defen d th e bod y politi c agains t aggression s tha t socia l mechanisms themselve s ar e elsewhere sai d to inflic t o n the body proper . At this level, Whitman's figure obeys the logic not of homolog y bu t of a slippage somewhat harder to track: what looks like analogy turns out to be ago n instead . The rap t attentio n Whitma n devote s t o hi s rhetorica l figure suggests tha t th e vehicle-teno r relatio n function s t o som e degre e as a screen: wha t i s i n par t a trope fo r th e bod y politi c i s als o a mean s for continuin g t o worr y th e disastrou s impac t socializatio n itsel f ha s o n individuals and their bodies. In Democratic Vistas suc h rhetorica l overdeterminatio n i s sporadi c rather than sustained; it disturbs bu t no longer controls the unfolding o r the significanc e o f a discourse tha t i s primarily political . W e ca n under stand Democratic Vistas well enough even if we disregard such complexity an d trea t Whitman' s image s o f th e bod y simpl y a s th e trope s the y claim t o be . I t i s precisel y t o th e degre e tha t thi s sor t o f allegorizin g ceases t o b e problematic , however , tha t w e hav e lef t behin d th e imagi native univers e o f th e first three edition s o f Leaves of Grass. Ther e th e poet's body exists as an entity in its own right; Whitman's overt attempts to allegoriz e thi s presenc e ar e onl y occasional . Moreover , t o th e exten t that th e bod y whic h dominate s Whitman' s earl y edition s doe s functio n

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as a trope fo r th e social body , i t serve s les s a s a mere analogy tha n a s a magically redemptiv e synecdoche : th e transfigure d bod y politi c th e poet' s body implie s woul d b e difficul t t o realiz e b y an y mean s excep t th e idiosyncratic one s tha t ar e made to figure it. Ye t the effect thi s image of presence ha s o n ou r conceptio n o f politica l unio n an d our relatio n t o i t is hardl y exhauste d b y eve n thi s magica l synecdochi c role . The laten t antagonism betwee n bod y politi c an d individua l bod y tha t w e note d i n Democratic Vistas is both more striking and more important in the early Leaves of Grass; th e body which supposedl y figures social cohesio n an d consensus ma y indee d perfor m th e contrar y functio n o f makin g the m seem expendable . Such slippag e i s crucia l t o th e 185 5 an d 185 6 editions . Whil e m y reading o f Whitman' s imag e o f voic e ha s prett y muc h brackete d th e cultural functio n o f the poet's presence, in order to attend to this figure's peculiar contour s an d th e transfigure d mod e o f identit y the y imply , I mean my analysis to have bearing on the question of Whitman's ideolog ical role . Mor e particularly , I hope t o counte r recen t suggestion s tha t this rol e depend s primaril y o n th e wa y th e poet's bod y trope s th e bod y politic, a figurative operatio n typicall y explicate d b y appea l t o homol ogy. The complex ideologica l wor k Whitman's poetry performs tend s t o disappear if we take this approach. We can best understand th e ambivalent labo r th e poet' s presenc e perform s o n behal f o f a n ideolog y o f consensus by attending not only to the partial congruence but also to the opposition betwee n hi s bod y an d th e polit y fo r whic h i t supposedl y stands. 1. Whitman himsel f sometime s declare s tha t th e poet's bod y serve s a s a double fo r th e bod y o f th e republic , an d w e ca n certainl y understan d part o f th e cultura l functio n o f Leaves of Grass b y interpretin g th e connection betwee n poe t an d natio n i n th e homologica l term s h e pro poses.6 Som e of th e peculiar trait s of th e poet's presence—but no t all — can b e adequatel y understoo d a s attempt s t o mode l particula r socia l values, a mobilizatio n o f th e bod y b y n o mean s confine d t o literar y representation. A carefu l loo k a t th e dominan t preoccupation s whic h members o f a cultur e exhibi t concernin g thei r bodies , anthropologis t Mary Dougla s suggests , ca n tel l u s a good dea l abou t th e socia l forma tion t o whic h the y belong . Dougla s argue s tha t the bod y i s enlisted a s a symbolic site , it s function s bein g regulate d s o a s t o mode l especiall y

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crucial o r precarious socia l values. Following thi s lead, Betsy Erkkila ha s begun t o perfor m th e sor t o f detaile d analysi s o f Whitman' s portrait s o f the bod y tha t migh t sugges t th e particula r socia l value s i t i s mean t t o incarnate. 7 Sh e attend s a s wel l t o th e fac t tha t socia l conflict s mak e th e body a conteste d sit e i n culture , s o tha t image s o f i t ca n b e deploye d polemically t o sugges t th e ascendanc y o f certai n cultura l value s ove r others, rathe r tha n merel y t o replicat e a n invarian t socia l structure. 8 Erkkila argues , fo r example , that th e indiscriminat e sexua l receptivit y o f the poet' s bod y shoul d b e understoo d a s representin g a socia l inclusive ness crucia l t o America' s ofte n ignore d o r vitiate d egalitaria n ideal s {Whitman the Political Poet 102-3) . It i s worth pursuin g thi s approac h i n a bi t mor e detai l here , i n orde r to ge t a fee l fo r bot h it s utilit y an d it s limits . The terminolog y Dougla s proposes i n Natural Symbols migh t hel p u s specif y th e socia l value s th e poet's bod y serve s i n par t t o exhibit. 9 Dougla s distinguishe s culture s according to the value they attac h t o determinant s o f socia l structur e sh e terms "group " an d "grid. " "Group, " sh e note s i n explanatio n o f he r terms, "i s obvious—th e experienc e o f a bounded socia l unit . Gri d refer s to rule s whic h relat e on e perso n t o others . . . . [Strong ] gri d an d grou p may b e foun d together . In thi s cas e th e qualit y o f relation s i s ordere d and clearl y bounded " (viii) . Suc h cultura l value s wil l b e mappe d ont o individuals. Discussin g th e "group " variable , Dougla s note s o f th e indi vidual body : Interest i n it s aperture s depend s o n th e preoccupatio n wit h socia l exit s an d entrances, escape routes an d invasions . If there is no concern t o preserve social boundaries, I would not expect to find concern with bodily boundaries. (Natural Symbols 70) Whitman, o f course , i s by n o mean s heedles s o f suc h boundaries—h e i s intensely preoccupie d wit h them . Bu t h e insist s tha t th e surface s o f th e poet's bod y ar e permeabl e rathe r tha n rigid ; thi s bod y i s indee d almos t infinitely receptive , a n omnivorou s mout h bein g one o f it s crucial synec doches. In thi s respec t i t figures on e importan t visio n o f th e bod y o f th e republic, th e boundarie s o f whic h wer e a nationa l obsessio n throughou t Whitman's life ; whil e Whitma n cam e t o hav e hi s doubt s abou t som e o f the implication s o f Manifes t Destiny , h e was o n th e whole a n enthusias tic champion o f America n expansion. 10 Like th e attitude s o f man y o f hi s contemporaries , Whitman' s re -

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sponses t o immigratio n wer e mor e ambivalent . A serie s o f newspape r editorials h e wrote i n 184 2 supposedl y helpe d precipitat e th e New Yor k No-Popery riot. 11 Ye t in th e aftermat h o f th e disturbanc e h e had helpe d cause, Whitma n announce d a commitmen t t o inclusivenes s h e after wards continue d t o affirm : "W e g o fo r th e wides t liberty—th e wides t extension o f immunitie s o f th e people, as well a s the blessing s of govern ment. Le t u s receiv e thes e foreigner s t o ou r shores , an d t o ou r goo d offices" {Walt Whitman of the New York Aurora 83). 12 Whitman' s omnivorous poe t embodie s thi s inclusiv e sens e o f America n citizenshi p as well a s of America n territoria l claims . On th e evidenc e o f Leaves of Grass, however , th e dange r agains t which Whitma n ha d inveighe d befor e th e No-Poper y rio t continue d t o preoccupy him . H e ha d writte n i n th e Ne w Yor k Auror a befor e th e clash: We have taken hig h America n groun d [... . ] There are a thousand dangerou s influences operatin g amon g us—influences whos e tendency i s to assimilat e this land i n thought , i n socia l customs , and , t o a degree , i n government , wit h th e moth eaten systems of the old world. Aurora i s imbued with a deadly hatred t o all thes e influences ; sh e wage s open , heavy , an d incessan t wa r agains t them . (Walt Whitman of the New York Aurora 117) If Americ a wa s goin g t o b e inclusive , th e immigrant s i t admitte d thu s had t o b e transforme d int o America n individuals , rathe r tha n bein g allowed t o tur n America' s bod y int o a foreig n one : "group, " tha t is , needed t o b e simultaneousl y ope n an d cohesive . Democratic Vistas sug gests tha t th e poe t ca n pla y a crucia l rol e i n developin g suc h ne w democratic allegiance s b y encouragin g fealt y t o ke y nationa l values . In Leaves of Grass thi s share d cultura l spac e depend s fo r it s realization o n what migh t b e thought o f somewha t crudel y a s th e poet' s gastri c juices : in Whitman's catalogue s th e poe t no t onl y seem s t o internaliz e bu t als o to blen d us , wearin g awa y enoug h o f ou r idiosyncrasie s t o tur n u s int o interfused America n selves . Thes e peculia r power s o f th e poet' s bod y might b e understoo d a s attempt s t o cal l u p analogou s resource s o f th e body politic . This digestiv e operatio n ha s th e adde d advantag e o f wearin g awa y what Dougla s term s "grid. " I f th e somaticize d spac e int o whic h th e poet's presenc e meld s u s i s conspicuousl y undifferentiated , Dougla s note s of suc h indistinctio n tha t

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at the level o f socia l philosoph y thi s image corresponds t o an optimism abou t the possibilit y o f societ y remainin g undifferentiated : injustic e ca n b e rectifie d merely by purging the system of interna l traitors allied with outside enemies. It produces political negativism. (Natural Symbols ix) 13 Here "negativism " mean s no t pessimis m bu t somethin g lik e th e "n o government" positio n importan t t o th e America n politica l rhetori c o f Whitman's day. 14 The poet' s bod y serve s i n par t t o figur e th e sor t o f extravagantly undifferentiate d polit y tha t seeme d al l th e mor e valuabl e to man y American s a s the prospects o f maintainin g an y semblanc e o f i t dwindled wit h progressiv e industrialization , politica l factionalism , an d sectional strife . I n the poet's inclusive body not only foreignness bu t also the invidiou s socia l differentiatio n tha t threatene d t o compromis e th e demotic indistinctio n o f th e bod y politi c ar e dissolved ; i n Leaves of Grass w e com e t o inhabi t th e sociall y flui d America n spac e th e poet' s somatic resources define . There i s somethin g inherentl y satisfyin g abou t suc h nea t ratios . The y hold ou t th e promise tha t whatever seem s overbearin g o r strange abou t the poet' s presenc e ultimatel y obey s a n over-archin g rationale , fitting into a politica l progra m neithe r idiosyncrati c no r undemocratic . Thi s pleasing symmetr y an d th e share d cultura l value s i t supposedl y illus trates, however , ar e b y n o mean s th e onl y source s o f th e poet' s appeal . The tenuou s qualit y o f th e politica l claim s th e poet' s presenc e ca n be take n t o figure, an d th e indispensabl e rol e playe d b y th e poet' s body i n displayin g them , alread y strai n thi s proportiona l logic ; othe r aspects o f th e poet' s presence , w e shal l se e i n a moment, flagrantl y vio late it. We nee d t o not e tha t the homolog y betwee n th e poet's bod y an d the American bod y politi c i s performativ e rathe r tha n constative . W e hav e to do , tha t is , not wit h a n achieved correspondenc e betwee n hegemoni c cultural value s an d individua l bodies , bu t wit h th e capacit y o f a n idio syncratic body image , made malleable b y individual imagination , to give form to , an d thu s mak e compelling , on e particula r socia l agenda—a n agenda tha t wa s i n Whitman' s da y increasingl y embattled , thoug h th e grammar o f Leaves of Grass make s it s realit y no t retrospectiv e bu t present o r prospective. 15 The poet' s bod y become s a talismani c sit e i n which otherwise elusiv e ideals are incarnated. If we ca n interpret th e salient characteristic s o f th e poet's presenc e i n

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part accordin g t o a syllogisti c logic—th e desirabl e trait s o f th e bod y politic determinin g wha t qualitie s th e poet' s presenc e shoul d possess — we thu s nee d t o atten d a s wel l t o th e operatio n o f wha t migh t b e calle d a logi c o f performativ e metaphor , i n whic h th e peculia r qualitie s o f Whitman's vehicle make conceivable the very tenor fo r whic h i t allegedl y stands. The polit y th e poet' s presenc e implie s migh t therefor e b e terme d Utopian, since it exceeds possible a s well as actual achievement : bot h th e absolute omnivorousnes s o f th e poet' s bod y an d it s perfec t interna l indistinction, fo r example , sugges t a bod y politi c tha t i s no t merel y unrealized bu t strictly unrealizable. But we should perhaps cal l the vision the poet' s presenc e figures apocalypti c instead : th e poet' s bod y suggest s not simpl y th e perfectin g bu t th e triumphan t self-immolatio n o f socia l forms, a limi t a t whic h polit y passe s ove r int o somethin g else . A s w e noted i n chapte r 7 , th e presenc e whic h bot h contain s an d inhabit s u s suggests no t jus t a perfectl y equitabl e circulatio n o f resources , bu t a magical glu t tha t woul d rende r exchang e itsel f superfluous . Her e th e social bod y appear s t o transcen d itself , puttin g a n en d t o th e law s o f exchange tha t accordin g t o Levi-Straus s defin e it . Whil e th e detail s o f Whitman's figuration ar e certainl y peculia r t o Leaves of Grass, i t i s b y no mean s unprecedente d tha t a n uncann y imag e o f th e individua l bod y should figure thi s apocalypse : wha t present s itsel f t o u s a s th e trium phant self-transcendenc e o f socialit y ma y necessaril y borro w it s image s from anothe r orde r o f experience , being generated a s a displaced versio n of archaic , fantasmatic material. 16 If the possible homology betwee n th e poet's body an d the body politi c thus ultimatel y implie s a passag e beyon d politics , it a t leas t suggest s th e consummation rathe r tha n th e subversio n o f socia l purposes : exchange , as i t were , passe s ou t o f existenc e b y assumin g a for m i n whic h it s function i s definitivel y fulfilled . Bu t eve n thi s sor t o f performativ e ho mology fail s t o explai n crucia l source s o f th e poet' s appeal . Othe r as pects of the poet's presence, to which we have already attende d a t length , suggest not th e apocalyptic fulfillmen t o f politics but a fantasy o f exemp tion fro m th e ver y polit y th e poe t supposedl y incarnates ; thes e implica tions aris e fro m th e antagonis m rathe r tha n th e possible correspondenc e between th e two term s whose relation w e have been tracing . We nee d no t belabo r th e way s i n whic h th e poet' s bod y render s hi m immune t o th e socia l imperative s h e i s ofte n sai d t o secure , sinc e the y have bee n a principa l focu s o f thi s study ; bu t thi s immunit y i s crucia l

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not jus t t o th e imaginativ e univers e o f Leaves of Grass bu t mor e espe cially to th e ideologica l wor k Whitman' s poem s perform . W e note d tha t the figure wh o supposedl y embodie s socia l exchange , a s i t wer e becom ing th e go d o r th e gif t th e res t o f u s circulate , ha s manage d t o excus e himself fro m th e rul e o f exchang e h e purportedly incarnates . W e shoul d also remembe r tha t hi s fluid bod y seem s t o elud e th e gaz e an d th e la w associated wit h it , enjoyin g a n archai c indistinctio n tha t subvert s th e very notio n o f organize d circulation . W e canno t adequatel y understan d these aspect s o f th e poet' s presenc e i n term s o f th e homologica l mode l with whic h w e hav e bee n dealing : i t wil l no t quit e do , fo r example , t o see thes e trait s a s figuring th e "n o government " positio n mentione d earlier, sinc e they permi t no t a redefinition o f socia l spac e bu t a n escap e from it . The appea l o f th e poet' s presenc e ma y wel l depen d largel y o n suc h regressive fantasies. Bu t the ideological wor k thi s figure performs inhere s more particularl y i n th e wa y i t manage s t o yok e archai c satisfaction s t o social allegiance s strictl y incompatibl e wit h them . Th e bod y tha t incar nates th e America n polit y i s als o a bod y whos e capacitie s sugges t a refusal o f socialization . A celebration o f America n communit y tha t cen ters o n th e ritua l manifestatio n o f th e poet' s presenc e ma y thu s b e equivocal i n it s import , sinc e w e ar e likel y t o b e revelin g i n a fantasize d immunity t o th e ver y solidarit y w e ar e bus y praising . Ye t i t i s jus t thi s equivocation tha t make s th e poet' s presenc e a powerfu l i f peculia r in strument o f America n consensus : channele d throug h th e bod y o f th e poet, a stratu m o f fantasie s potentiall y inimica l t o socia l bond s i s en listed i n a visio n o f communit y loosel y compatibl e wit h a millennia l interpretation o f th e America n errand . Imbuin g democrati c consensu s with satisfaction s i t canno t properl y provide , th e poet' s presenc e para doxically help s recrui t u s t o a politica l visio n i t bot h figures an d ex ceeds.17 Th e ideologica l wor k performe d b y Whitman' s imag e o f th e body thu s depend s les s o n th e homolog y tha n o n th e slippag e betwee n this figure an d th e bod y politi c fo r whic h i t i s mad e t o stand—o r mor e precisely, o n th e wa y thi s slippag e i s both suggeste d an d mad e t o disap pear. 2. A simila r slippage , likewis e illogicall y enliste d t o suppor t th e consen sus i t shoul d cal l int o question , i s crucial t o th e poet' s effort s o n behal f of an American ideolog y o f political an d social succession . Transmission ,

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we hav e seen , i s a centra l concer n o f Leaves of Grass; i t wa s als o a n obsessive preoccupation o f American politics and society, not only in the years leadin g u p t o th e Revolutio n bu t als o i n it s aftermath . The poet' s presence both appeals to and transgresses a vision of beneficent transmission precariousl y maintaine d b y th e politica l an d domesti c rhetori c o f Whitman's period . I t thereb y implie s bot h th e aggressiv e energie s thi s rhetoric wa s mobilize d t o contro l o r occlud e an d th e anxietie s tha t attended them—energie s Whitma n himsel f exhibite d an d anxietie s b y which he was conspicuously beset . Ye t the tensions evoked by this figur e serve paradoxically t o affir m rathe r tha n subver t th e idealize d mode l o f transmission pu t forwar d i n Whitman' s period , suggestin g tha t eve n violent socia l force s an d troublin g individua l desire s an d fear s ca n b e accommodated within a benign image of American succession, since they are alread y embodie d an d subsume d i n th e poet' s inclusiv e an d appar ently beneficent presence. 18 In Whitman's poem s a s i n contemporar y politica l discourse , familia l relations ar e a favorit e trop e fo r inheritanc e o f whateve r sor t an d a preferred model fo r conceptualizing it. Whitman's 185 5 " I Sing the Body Electric" accordingl y counter s th e extende d portrait s o f sociall y sanc tioned degradatio n an d enslavement i t presents wit h a vision o f familia l succession a s charmed as it is bucolic: I knew a man . . .. h e was a common farmer . . .. h e was the father of fiv e sons . . .. an d in them were the fathers of sons . . .. an d in them were the fathers of sons. This man was a wonderful vigor and calmness and beauty of person; The shap e o f hi s head , th e richnes s an d breadt h o f hi s manners , th e pal e yellow and white of his hair and beard, the immeasurable meaning of his black eyes, These I used to go and visit him to see . .. . He was wise also, He wa s si x fee t tal l . . . . h e wa s ove r eighty year s ol d . . . . hi s son s were massive clean bearded tanfaced and handsome, They and his daughters loved him . . .. al l who saw him loved him . . .. the y did no t lov e hi m b y allowanc e . . . the y love d hi m wit h persona l love . (1855 n8 ) This portrai t adhere s faithfull y t o wha t Jay Fliegelma n call s th e dis course o f sentimenta l paternity . A s Fliegelma n shows , i n Americ a thi s discourse playe d a crucial rol e in shaping not only familia l behavio r bu t also bot h Revolutionar y an d post-revolutionar y politica l rhetoric . As -

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similating th e colonia l situatio n t o a filial one , Revolutionist s argue d that England , b y actin g lik e a n unnatural , tyrannica l parent , ha d for feited it s clai m t o America n loyaltie s (Fliegelma n 93-106) . Base d o n Lockean premisse s a s wel l a s Rousseauis t variants , th e "natural " rela tion betwee n paren t an d chil d appeale d t o fo r contrastiv e forc e wa s essentially a sentimenta l one : "patriarcha l famil y authorit y wa s givin g way t o a ne w parenta l idea l characterize d b y a mor e affectionat e an d equalitarian relationshi p wit h children " (Fliegelma n 1) . Th e topi c o f inheritance, broadl y conceive d a s the transmission o f adul t prerogative s from on e generatio n t o th e next , figured prominentl y bot h i n wha t Fliegelman calls an anti-patriarchal familia l rhetori c and in the American political discours e it helped shape: The imposition of a protracted adolescence by one generation upon another was . . . [a ] pernicious violation of the laws of nature. Indeed, such an imposition of "perpetual guardianship " wa s . . . th e ultimat e tyranny , a blo w t o th e ver y process of history... . (Fliegelman 3) Having helpe d childre n develo p thei r prope r powers , th e sentimenta l parent supposedl y the n go t ou t o f thei r way . Suc h apparentl y self limiting authorit y woul d b e repai d b y filial affection represente d a s no t exacted bu t freely give n (Fliegelma n 9-35) . If Revolutionary rhetori c thus impugned English rule by associating it with parental power of the wrong sort, post-revolutionary discours e cast Washington i n th e rol e o f wha t Fliegelma n call s a n anti-patriarcha l father, deservin g o f affectionate , spontaneousl y grante d loyalt y (Fliegel man 199 , 215) . Ye t whil e sentimenta l portrait s o f Washingto n helpe d instill a culturally importan t visio n o f Americ a a s a family whos e cohe sion an d continuit y depende d o n freel y bestowe d affection , th e glos s they provide d perhap s di d no t s o muc h alte r a s occul t th e powe r rela tions endemi c t o transmission , relation s b y whic h America n post-revo lutionary politics and culture remained deeply troubled. 19 Though this is not the thrust of Fliegelman's account , h e notes in conclusion that : The pantheon of Revolutionary heroes, the godlike founding fathers, intimidated subsequent generations too young to remember the war and yet raised to reverence th e nation's saviors . Feeling s o f filial inferiority contribute d t o th e desire many felt to be free of th e demands of filiopietismand to find a stage for their own heroism. (267) George Forgi e describe s i n starke r term s thi s conflic t experience d b y America's post-revolutionary generations . Analyzing the eulogies offere d

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in 182 6 t o Adam s an d Jefferson , th e las t o f th e heroi c founder s t o die , he notes that the y contained a paradoxical doubl e message: on the one hand, the fathers ar e gone, and a new generation has succeeded them to power; on the other, the fathers are immortal an d the y wil l alway s rule... . som e peopl e bega n t o fea r tha t th e danger facin g th e Republi c was not tha t thes e cords would snap , but tha t the y would be used by the dead to strangle the living. (53) The rhetori c o f sentimenta l paternit y whic h persiste d i n the political an d familial argumentatio n o f th e post-revolutionar y perio d ca n thu s b e understood onl y i n par t a s a sig n o f continue d allegianc e t o a n intrinsi cally worthy ideal ; it was als o a kind o f scree n discourse , serving to fen d off mor e troubling intimations. 20 These concerne d no t onl y th e intimidatin g herois m o f th e founders , but als o th e changin g statu s o f politica l an d cultura l power , an d o f th e patriarchal authorit y wit h whic h i t intertwined . A s Michae l Rogi n sug gests, America's post-revolutionary generation s typicall y attribute d thes e ominous change s t o thei r ow n derelictions , preservin g a sacrosanc t im age o f th e generatio n o f th e foundin g fathers , a n imag e whos e contras tive forc e migh t hav e eithe r a regenerativ e o r a paralyzin g effec t ( 1 4 15). 21 Thi s contras t depende d fo r it s credibilit y o n another—th e sup posed distinctio n betwee n Englis h an d America n authorit y examine d b y Fliegelman. Rogi n draw s ou t th e problemati c natur e o f thi s enablin g dichotomy: Republican rhetori c rightl y pointe d t o a realit y o f Englis h domination . Bu t i t also reflecte d th e existenc e o f represse d interna l threat s t o th e colonia l house hold. "Th e innocen t Children " (Joh n Adams ) wer e al l to o fascinate d b y lust , sadistic power, and conspiracy. They loaded upon parental England a weight of grievance i t coul d no t bear . The y conjure d u p monstrou s parent s t o preserv e American innocence. (27) The American social order also generated disharmony.... Revolutionarie s blamed monarchical feudalism, hardly an American danger, for social inequality, love of money, and politica l domination . They averte d thei r eye s from th e internecine, personalized factional conflic t endemic to the colonies, and from th e commodity capitalism beginning to sprout from househol d soil. (28) As Rogi n notes , thos e coerciv e tendencie s ha d bee n produce d b y unprecedented economi c an d socia l change . Crucia l source s o f socia l anxiety i n post-revolutionar y Americ a thu s i n on e sens e ha d littl e t o d o

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with problem s o f lega l inheritanc e o r transmission . Th e familia l model , especially, migh t see m t o b e a n inappropriat e analog y fo r thes e difficul ties, sinc e th e nascen t commodit y capitalis m tha t produce d dislocatio n as well a s progress a t leas t appeare d t o loose n famil y bond s an d weake n patriarchal authority . Suc h change s ha d alread y begu n t o redefin e th e American famil y i n important way s befor e th e Revolution : Seventeenth-century America n fathers , controllin g th e disposition o f land , kep t grown sons under the paternal roof . By the beginning of the eighteenth centur y sons were marrying younger an d settlin g on thei r own homesteads . The supply of lan d an d th e absenc e o f a deepl y rooted , aristocrati c famil y undermine d absolute paternal power. (Rogin 20-21 ) This shif t i n familia l arrangement s wa s accelerate d i n th e earl y nine teenth centur y b y urbanizatio n an d industrialization . Ye t th e economi c and socia l change s whic h i n a sens e fulfille d wha t Fliegelma n call s a n anti-patriarchal revolutio n hardl y produce d th e liberation tha t sentimen tal rhetori c associate d wit h it : Revolution and rising capitalism weakened the authority of the leading families; ordinary father s als o faced a world i n which their households were less central. Desiring advancement an d enmeshe d wit h th e market, me n did not fee l a s fre e as thei r doctrine s tol d the m the y were . I t wa s a s i f th e ghost s o f th e roya l governors ha d entere d famil y an d society . Americans experience d a mysteriou s and punitive paternal authority. (Rogin 54) If Rogi n i s right, thi s ghostly persistenc e o f th e paternal ter m suggest s that sentimenta l rhetori c serve d a t leas t i n par t t o exten d patriarcha l authority i n th e fac e o f changin g circumstance s rathe r tha n simpl y cur tail or neutralize it: associate d b y the sentimental mode l with supposedl y benign supervisio n rathe r tha n direc t intervention, th e gaze of the father s might appea r t o persist everywhere . American society , of course , contin ued t o b e patriarcha l a t th e leve l o f th e sor t o f globa l symboli c opera tions t o whic h Levi-Straus s attends , i f no t a t th e leve l o f economi c functioning analyze d b y Rogin . A more immediat e sourc e o f thi s persis tent associatio n o f economicall y generate d anxietie s wit h th e paterna l term wa s th e deploymen t o f sentimenta l rhetori c a s a mean s o f allayin g the fear s whic h industria l rationalizatio n provoked . Ne w institution s o f social contro l wer e typicall y justifie d b y appea l t o th e ver y domesti c sphere an d paterna l supervisio n whos e litera l function s the y increasingl y supplanted:

49° Vista s An advocate of the new mental hospitals wrote, "The internal arrangements of the Asylum are nearly the same as those of a well-regulated family." . .. Bu t the asylums, David Rothman has shown, were more like armies than families. They classified their inmates, dressed them in uniforms, drilled them, regimented their behavior, and strictly arranged and regulated their time. The asylums, suggests Rothman, resembled the new factories. And the factories also claimed to act as family surrogates. Textile-mill owners promised the benefits o f paternal supervision to the young girls who left their farm families to live and work under closely regimented supervision in the New England mill towns. Like those who promoted asylums, mill-owners appealed to family to legitimize new bureaucratic forms of control. The Jacksonian era also witnessed the firstextended efforts to defend slavery on paternal grounds. (Rogin 274) This "new paternalism," Rogin notes , performed a n important ideologi cal functio n sinc e i t "disguise d exploitation " (275) . Ye t th e fear s lef t unassuaged b y sentimenta l rhetori c serve d paradoxicall y t o mak e th e paternal place an even more heavily freighted one: this rhetoric, after all, linked impersona l economi c coercio n an d diffus e bu t powerfu l socia l control t o a patriarcha l ter m mad e t o see m al l th e mor e ominou s an d unassailable becaus e i t transcende d th e powe r o f actua l father s an d possessed no tangible human embodiment . In combination with the mix of jealousy and guilt directed toward the founding fathers , thi s comple x intertwinin g o f institutiona l an d eco nomic coercion with sentimental rhetori c helped assure that generational transmission, figure d i n familia l term s an d centerin g o n th e patriarcha l role, would continu e to be a crucial imag e for American social anxieties . Appeal t o th e rhetori c o f sentimenta l paternit y thu s alway s riske d pro voking th e turmoi l i t wa s mean t t o allay . Ye t a s Forgi e notes , th e sentimentalization o f th e foundin g father s nonetheles s reache d ne w ex tremes i n th e 1850s , perhap s provoke d b y a n increasingl y desperat e nostalgia: The celebration of maternal values extended ultimately to the fathers themselves as, in the 1850s particularly, people began to comment on the feminine qualities in their characters. (188) In the case of Washington , som e accounts of th e father of hi s country seemed prepared t o transfor m hi m int o th e mother of hi s country. Putnam's Monthly suggested i n 185 4 tha t Washington' s countenanc e gre w mor e womanly a s he grew older. (189)

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Leaves of Grass participate s i n importan t way s i n thi s rhetorica l ground swell . Whitman' s portrait s o f sentimenta l paternit y includ e no t only the sort of bucoli c evocation o f a n anonymous patriarch we looke d at earlier , bu t als o scene s draw n fro m America n publi c life ; Whitma n shares hi s period' s tendenc y t o mak e sentimenta l paternit y a mode l fo r political authorit y an d it s transmission . Th e portrai t o f Washingto n i n "The Sleepers" is a conspicuous instance : Now of the old war-days .. th e defeat at Brooklyn; Washington stands inside the lines . . he stands on the entrenched hills amid a crowd of officers, His face is cold and damp . . .. h e cannot repress the weeping drops . . .. h e lifts th e glass perpetually t o his eyes . . . . th e color is blanched fro m his cheeks, He sees the slaughter of the southern braves confided to him by their parents. The same at last and at last when peace is declared, He stands in the room of the old tavern . . .. th e wellbeloved soldiers all pass through. The officers speechless and slow draw near in their turns, The chief encircles their necks with his arm and kisses them on the cheek, He kisses lightly the wet cheeks one after another . . .. h e shakes hands and bids goodbye to the army. (1855 n o ) Lincoln implicitl y play s a simila r rol e i n "Whe n Lilac s Las t i n th e Dooryard Bloom'd. " Lik e th e rhetori c o f th e poe m a s a whole , a brie f evocation o f Lincol n nea r it s en d i s clearl y shape d b y th e traditio n Fliegelman describes: With the lustrous and drooping star with the countenance full of woe, With the holders holding my hand nearing the call of the bird, Comrades mine and I in the midst, and their memory ever to keep , for the dead I loved so well, For the sweetest, wisest soul of all my days and lands—and this for his dear sake. (V 2:539, CRE337)22 Leaves of Grass i s nonetheles s trouble d b y th e les s happ y fantasie s Rogin describes : a s w e sa w i n earlie r chapters , image s o f sentimenta l transmission i n Whitman's poem s bot h occul t an d covertly registe r threats of coercio n tha t Whitman associate s wit h th e proleptic authorit y o f th e fathers. Thes e threat s sometime s emerg e mor e starkly . "Th e Sleepers, " of course , itself provide s a notable instanc e o f suc h fantasie s o f paterna l

492. Vista s authority, i n a passage we examined i n chapter 4 : the portrait o f Wash ington offer s a sentimenta l alternativ e t o th e visio n o f th e poe t a s a justified Lucife r oppresse d b y a n omnipoten t patriarcha l powe r Whit man present s a s openl y malig n (185 5 i n ) . 2 3 An d throughou t Whit man's earl y editions , w e have seen , th e poet i n his finite, unregenerate d guise is repeatedly oppresse d b y a disembodied gaz e we should associat e with bot h th e depersonalize d institutiona l powe r Rogi n describe s an d the paternal ter m wit h whic h h e links it. If th e sentimenta l portrait s Whitma n intercalate s i n Leaves of Grass both encod e an d assuage thes e anxieties , offerin g a n ostensibly softene d image of paternal authority , th e poet's transfigure d presenc e ca n instead suggest a mor e radica l cur e tha n sentimenta l rhetori c recommends : h e sometimes seem s t o abrogat e th e ver y transmissio n tha t occasion s th e fears sentimentalit y work s t o belie . H e doe s s o in part b y mean s o f his apparent power s o f evasion : i n hi s labile , elusiv e guise , whic h evoke s Kristeva's chora, th e poet seem s to be exempt fro m th e paternal la w and the gaze by which h e is elsewhere oppressed . As we noted i n chapte r 6 , however, Whitma n i s as fascinated b y the positional powe r o f th e father a s he is leery o f it . Leaves of Grass thu s also accord s th e poe t th e abilit y t o wiel d th e ver y forc e h e elsewher e escapes or annuls, and in extremest form : hi s power o f positing, we have seen, i s supposedl y magica l rathe r tha n merel y conventional . Th e poe t thus effectivel y return s t o th e scene o f th e fathers ' ac t of foundin g an d goes them on e better, bringin g no t just a nation bu t an entire worl d int o being ex nihilo; th e belatednes s tha t oppresse d Lincol n an d Whitman' s generation i s abruptly overcome. 24 Moreover , th e defects lurkin g i n the fathers' ac t of foundin g ar e apparently avoided ; bu t it is difficult t o say whether thi s i s du e t o th e purgin g o r th e intensifyin g o f th e coerciv e effects o f the political an d social transmissio n the y inaugurated . O n the one hand , th e poe t wh o ca n spea k thing s int o being , creatin g wha t i s natural rathe r tha n conventional , woul d see m t o avoi d th e aggression s by whic h th e patriarcha l ac t o f positin g i s plagued ; th e poet' s self contained presenc e seem s t o figure th e unmortgaged identit y hi s found ing ac t should gran t other s a s well. Ye t his power ca n have th e obverse effect o f seemin g t o constrai n u s i n perpetuity : i n contras t t o th e self limiting powe r whic h sentimenta l rhetori c a t leas t overtl y recommends , the poet' s self-renewin g speec h act s see m t o bin d u s t o a foundin g moment an d a foundationa l authorit y w e can never escap e o r outvie . It

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is hard to know whethe r to think o f thi s power a s liberating us from th e demands th e father s plac e upo n us—t o subjec t us , perhaps, t o power s of a different sort—o r a s imposing upo n u s a more absolute, autocrati c version of patriarchal socia l control . The poin t I want t o mak e her e i s tha t suc h possibilitie s ar e a t odd s with the stylized, indirect, an d ostensibly self-limitin g mod e of authorit y recommended by the sentimental mode l crucial to the American ideolog y of transmission . Ye t thi s i s a mode l Whitma n himsel f espouses . Th e poet, we have seen, is repeatedly imaged in just such sentimental terms : I lead no man to a dinner-table or library or exchange, But each man and each woman of you I lead upon a knoll, My left hand hooks you round the waist, My right hand points to landscapes of continents, and a plain public road. Not I, not any one else can travel that road for you, You must travel it for yourself. (185 5 80) The fac t tha t th e poet' s over t pronouncement s i n suc h sentimenta l scenes hardl y offe r a n adequat e accoun t o f hi s transaction s wit h u s b y no means makes them irrelevan t to understandin g his cultural role . Like the identificatio n o f th e poet' s bod y wit h th e bod y politic , th e assimila tion o f hi s act s o f transmissio n t o th e sentimenta l mode l enshrine d i n American political rhetori c performs valuabl e ideological wor k precisel y because o f th e contradiction s th e poet' s amorphous , inclusiv e presenc e accommodates. No t onl y makin g over t th e tremendou s powe r stil l co vertly residin g i n a sentimentalize d paterna l term , th e poe t i s als o no t averse t o wieldin g a versio n o f thi s powe r tha t exceed s th e stylize d proprieties sentimental rhetori c instills. Whether surreptitiously avoidin g transmission o r redefinin g i t in magica l terms , the expansiv e figur e wh o also appears in a sentimental guis e thus serves to shelter under the rubric of benig n consenu s a number o f feature s properl y incompatibl e wit h it . To ente r the polity whic h th e poet's bod y an d word impl y i s at one an d the same tim e to escap e fro m a fearful prolepti c power; to identif y wit h the agen t wh o wield s a n overt , extreme , bu t ambiguou s versio n o f it ; and t o celebrat e th e supposedl y wholl y beneficen t interpretatio n o f thi s power whic h sentimenta l discours e recommends . W e ar e permitted , i n effect, bot h to exempt ourselves fro m successio n an d inheritance and the anxieties the y provok e an d t o indulg e i n exercisin g th e sor t o f frankl y atavistic patriarcha l power s sentimenta l rhetori c proscribes , whil e pub -

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licly celebrating a political transmission supposedly exempt from all such recalcitrant material . This accommodation, o f course, is quintessentially American . In estimating th e cultura l functio n o f Whitman' s figur e o f presence , w e shoul d thus atten d no t onl y t o th e disturbanc e o f enlightene d socia l norm s thi s figure implies, bu t als o t o th e normativ e use s t o whic h suc h potentia l resistance i s put . I f w e wis h t o stres s Whitman' s Americanness , w e should indee d concentrat e o n thi s latte r function . I n Whitman' s wor k archaic imaginativ e resource s ver y muc h lik e th e incendiar y one s Kris teva describe s ar e paradoxically pu t t o th e cultura l use s Sacvan Bercov itch details: as in Emerson's work, a potentially anarchi c individuality i s deployed i n suc h a wa y a s t o reinforc e a figural America n individual ism.25 Thoug h crucia l feature s o f Whitman' s wor k migh t lea d u s t o group hi m wit h th e revolutionist s o f poeti c languag e whos e practic e Kristeva extols , hi s cultura l functio n migh t o n th e whol e bette r b e de scribed as a shoring up than as a subversion o f ideological consensus . But we shoul d remembe r that the offering Whitma n make s America n culture i s a s ambiguou s a s it is ambivalent. The desire s Leaves of Grass invites u s t o indulg e wil l alway s remai n irreducibl e t o th e socia l visio n to whic h Whitma n yoke s them ; thi s potentiall y disruptiv e remainde r lurks in the very figure of consensu s Whitman concocts . 3. Th e complex , overdetermine d etiolog y o f Whitman' s figure o f pres ence make s i t unsurprisin g tha t thi s shoul d b e so . I t woul d clearl y b e illegitimate t o trea t biographica l material , i n th e particula r for m o f Whitman's personal anxieties , as the exclusive determinants of the poet's presence. Bu t w e ca n poin t t o suc h materia l a s on e crucia l sourc e o f Leaves of Grass; i t i s particularl y usefu l t o d o s o i n a critica l climat e inclined t o privileg e th e sor t o f publi c concern s tha t ca n b e adduce d in suppor t o f th e clai m tha t th e poet' s bod y figures th e bod y politic . That bod y als o stave s of f fear s an d satisfie s desire s o f a mor e intimat e order. Those fear s an d desire s stil l cro p u p i n th e notebook s Whitma n kep t after th e Civi l War , a period durin g whic h hi s publishe d writing s wer e increasingly concerne d wit h public , politica l matters . A series o f entrie s from Whitman' s noteboo k fo r th e perio d 1868-1870 , fo r example , concludes wit h a passage tha t seem s lik e a belate d attemp t t o resurrec t

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the self-propagatin g an d self-containe d poe t o f th e 185 5 an d 185 6 edi tions, who b y the 1860 s had cease d t o dominat e Whitman' s poetry: 26 Outline sketch of a superb calm character his emotions &Cc are complete in himself irrespectiv e (indifferent ) o f whethe r his love, friendship, & c are returned, or not He grows, blooms, like some perfect tree or flower, in Nature [ . . . . ] His analog y th e eart h complet e i n itsel f enfoldin g i n itsel f al l processe s o f growth effusing lif e and power for hidden purposes. (UPP 2:96) This look s ver y muc h lik e th e sor t o f presenc e w e migh t b e aske d t o understand a s th e embodimen t o f America n polity : h e make s n o entan gling alliance s an d grow s throug h organi c absorptio n rathe r tha n me chanical annexation . Ye t Whitman' s noteboo k passag e suggest s tha t both thi s figure's provenanc e an d th e purpose s i t fulfill s ar e rathe r mor e intimate. The apparentl y cal m evocatio n o f thi s super b characte r modu lates abruptl y int o discours e o f a markedl y differen t sort : "Depres s th e adhesive nature " (UP P 2:96) . Th e shif t her e i s rather startling . Urgentl y admonitory despit e it s abstract-soundin g phrenologica l jargon , thi s phras e offers toug h practica l advic e t o someon e i n desperat e straits ; i t precipi tates a rhetorica l shif t tha t seem s lik e a ba d jok e a t th e expens e o f Whitman's interrupte d revery , abruptl y juxtaposin g incongruou s con texts an d self-conceptions . Wha t follow s i s too earnes t t o see m anythin g but sad : It is in excess—making life a torment All this diseased, feverish disproportionat e adhesiveness Remember Fred Vaughan Case of Jenny Bullard Sane Nature fit &: full rapport therewith Merlin strong & wise & beautiful a t 10 0 years old. (UPP 2:96—97)

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Wavering an d the n recoverin g a bi t wanly , Whitman' s evocatio n o f th e sort o f self-sufficien t figure whic h th e earl y edition s clai m t o incarnat e frames a passag e whos e poignanc y i s rathe r terrible . Th e tormen t con densed, fo r example , into a few elliptica l line s in section si x of "Crossin g Brooklyn Ferry, " describin g th e poet' s "past " experience , her e define s a life th e autho r o f tha t earlie r poe m i s stil l ver y muc h i n th e mids t of . Unconcerned wit h th e publi c possibilitie s Whitman' s super b cal m char acter ca n serv e t o embody , thes e noteboo k passage s revea l instead , wit h special sharpness, this figure's root s in the more agitated self-conception s he is meant t o eclipse . The entrie s tha t preced e Whitman' s "outlin e sketch " identif y th e immediate sourc e o f th e tormen t thi s idea l figure wa s invoked , i n 1870 , to assuage . In thi s earlie r passage , "she " take s th e plac e o f a "he " Whitman evidentl y rubbe d ou t an d wrot e over ; " 1 6 " an d "164 " ar e ciphers fo r " P " an d "PD, " Pete r Doyle , th e confederat e soldie r an d street-car drive r wit h who m Whitma n ha d falle n i n love: cheating, childish abandonment of myself, fancying what does not really exist in another, bu t i s al l th e tim e i n mysel f alone—utterl y delude d & cheate d b y myself, & my own weakness—REMEMBER WHER E I AM MOST WEAK, 8c most lacking. Yet always preserve a kind spirit & demeanor to 16 . But PURSUE HER NO MORE. (UPP 2:95) And a bit furthe r on : TO GIV E U P ABSOLUTEL Y S t for good, from this present hour [all ] thi s FEVERISH, FLUCTUATING , useless undignified pursuit of 164 —too long, much too long) persevered in,—s o humiliating— It must come at last &c ha d better come now—(It cannot possibly be a success) LET THERE FRO M THI S HOU R B E NO FALTERING , [or ] NO GETTIN G [word erased] at all henceforth, (NOT ONCE, under any circumstances)—avoid seeing her, or meeting her, or any talk or explanations—or AN Y MEETIN G WHATEVER, FROM THIS HOUR FORTH, FOR LIFE. (UPP 2:96) It use d t o b e th e fashio n t o quot e thes e passage s a s evidenc e tha t Whitman's homosexualit y involve d hi m i n preponderantl y unhappy , even doomed , relationships . I don't mea n t o pu t the m t o suc h use s here : intent o n puttin g a sto p t o thi s sor t o f appropriation , Charle y Shivel y has take n th e simpl e an d effectiv e expedien t o f quotin g anothe r lette r Whitman wrot e Doyl e a shor t tim e later , revelin g i n thei r intensel y shared affectio n (113-14) . Thes e entrie s d o show , however , tha t i n a

Vistas 49 7 moment o f persona l anxiet y an d despai r Whitman' s imaginatio n re verted t o fantasie s centerin g o n a self-sufficien t figure, immun e t o th e torments h e himself wa s in the midst of , wh o looks ver y muc h lik e the poet-hero o f Leaves of Grass —or lik e a toned-down , slightl y tire d avatar o f him . Thi s resemblanc e ca n remin d u s tha t Whitman' s self generating an d self-delightin g figure o f presenc e embodie s no t onl y na tional ideal s bu t also som e mor e intimat e concern s difficul t t o reconcil e with them . If he figures consensus, he also incarnates a n intransitive self containment; i t is marshaled agains t anxietie s b y no means reducibl e t o Whitman's politica l fears . This sam e noteboo k open s wit h anothe r evocatio n o f suc h a figure. We can close with it : not to deny th e poet's public , ideological function , but t o hel p qualif y ou r sense o f wher e i t might com e from , an d what i t might be: EPICTITUS

(Description of a Wise Man) [....]

All his desires depend on things within his power. [••••]

He observes himself with the nicety of an enemy or spy, and looks on his own wishes as betrayers. (UPP 2:94) The poe t wh o embodies America n politica l consensu s als o recall s u s to an orde r o f experienc e politic s wil l alway s b e unable t o satisfy . Leaves of Grass subdue s thi s tension ; bu t it als o awaken s it , pointing u s back , or beyond .

Notes 1. Erkkil a takes exception to this view, arguing for the continuing insurrectionary implications of homosexuality in Drum-Taps (rev. of Whitman's Poetry of the Body 196) . The gradual slippag e from "body " to "soul" is discussed at length by Asselineau; see especially 2:3-20 ; see also Edwin Miller 10-18 and 208-24 . Sexuality continues to absorb Whitman in his private life and intimate correspondence, as Shively amply documents (63-184); but it is no longer the exorbitant, archaic sexuality initiated by the poet's presence. 2. I t is true that locution and illocution, for Austin, are by no means mutually exclusive; indeed the y necessaril y co-exis t in any utterance: "To perform a locutionary ac t is in general, we may say, also an d eo ipso to perform a n

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illocutionary act " (98). But as Hollis shows, Whitman's emphasis in the first three edition s o f Leaves of Grass i s on illocutionar y force ; i n late r edition s this is no longer the case. 3. Se e for example P W 1:143 . 4. Jefferson , fo r example, employ s the figure in Notes on the State of Virginia: "It i s th e manner s an d spiri t o f th e peopl e whic h preserv e a republi c i n vigour.... A degeneracy i n these is a canker which soon eats to the heart of its law s an d constitution " (quote d i n Erkkila , Whitman the Political Poet 26). On Carlyle's use of a similar though not identical rhetoric of pathology , see Kaplan 336 . 5. Emerson , of course , employs th e fragmenting bod y a s a trope fo r the industrialized bod y politi c i n a well-known passag e i n "Th e American Scholar" : see 1:53 . Berlant (18-19) , citin g Fanon, suggests that threats to the integrity of th e nation-stat e commonl y generat e fantasie s o f psychi c an d bodil y dis persion. Se e als o Smith-Rosenber g 48 . Erkkil a (104-6 ) trace s a relate d dynamic in Whitman's work . 6. Suc h proclamation s ar e especiall y strikin g i n th e 185 5 Preface : se e fo r example 185 5 7 7. Erkkil a draw s o n th e wor k o f Smith-Rosenberg , hersel f indebte d t o Doug las; see Whitman the Political Poet 334m2 . 8. O n this point see also Douglas, Natural Symbols 156-6 7 an d Smith-Rosen berg 49. 9. Dougla s build s here on he r work i n Purity and Danger; se e especially 114 — 28. 10. O n Whitman' s response s t o Manifes t Destin y se e Erkkila , Whitman the Political Poet 39-4 0 an d Kapla n 128—31 . On the oral-incorporative rheto ric that accompanied United States territorial expansion see Rogin 9. 11. O n Whitman's rol e in the No-Popery rio t see Kaplan 102-4 , Rubi n 73-80 , Erkkila 28-29 , an d Pease, Visionary Compacts 114 . O n th e role played b y nativism in New Yor k City politics in the 1840s , see Wilentz 315-25 . 12. O n Whitman's championin g o f ope n immigration se e Erkkila, Whitman the Political Poet 34 . 13. Dougla s i s her e discussin g wea k "grid " combine d wit h stron g "group" : hence th e fea r o f "interna l traitor s allie d wit h outsid e enemies. " Whitman, by contrast , generall y champion s a cohesiv e grou p whos e boundarie s ar e porous. In his poetry, anxious depictions of the outside infiltrating the inside —as, fo r example , i n th e "headlands " passag e i n sectio n 2 8 o f "Son g o f Myself"—may thu s b e instances o f th e antagonism rathe r tha n th e homol ogy betwee n th e bod y an d th e bod y politic : rathe r tha n th e dange r o f outsiders invading th e socia l body , tha t is , suc h image s ma y instea d figure the threa t whic h socia l sanction s pos e t o a n individua l bod y tha t ough t t o have remained immune to them. 14. O n th e rol e playe d b y anti-institutionalis m an d "n o government " ideolog y in ante-bellu m America , se e Fredrickso n 7 - 1 0 an d Zif f 28-29 ; o n Whit -

Vistas 49 9 man's endorsemen t o f thi s vision , se e Fredrickso n 20-21 . O n hi s relate d espousal o f artisan-republica n anti-monopolis t ideology , whic h tende d t o view governmen t interventio n a s a conspiratorial attemp t t o foste r monop oly, an d o n th e wa y thi s ideolog y paradoxicall y facilitate d th e ver y eco nomic concentratio n i t aime d t o resist , se e Erkkila , Whitman the Political Poet 34-3 8 an d Thomas 72-79 . 15. O n Whitman's projectio n o f a n idealized pas t onto a n idealized presen t an d future, see Thomas 2-34 . 16. Freud , o f course , postulate s a simila r displacemen t a s th e origi n o f th e "oceanic feeling " associate d wit h religiou s mysticism ; se e Civilization and Its Discontents 11-16 . Kristev a suggests , though , tha t eve n thi s blis s i s borrowed: sh e argue s tha t th e archai c registe r o f primar y narcissis m owe s its charm to retrospective fantasizing : se e Desire in Language 63 . 17. I n thi s respec t th e functio n o f Calamus i s perhap s eve n mor e complex . While i n the 185 5 an d 185 6 edition s th e poet's presenc e figures an individ ual power and freedom i n excess of what even "no government" democrac y might tolerate , i t ca n a t leas t b e viewed a s a hyperbolic versio n o f th e sor t of politica l freedo m Whitman espoused . Calamus, b y contrast , embrace s a significant curtailmen t o f individua l liberty : ther e Whitman' s altere d sens e of sexuality , hi s fee l fo r th e wa y kinshi p structure s shap e bod y an d con sciousness, put s rea l pressur e o n th e millennialist , revolutionar y visio n o f identity h e ofte n champions . Throughou t Whitman' s career , hi s politic s o f the body meshe s with his politics o f th e state only by tolerating a significan t amount of slippage and strain. 18. I n thi s respec t Calamus i s les s evasive : fo r th e mos t part , th e sequenc e embraces transmissio n withou t clingin g t o th e savin g exceptionalis m tha t paradoxically allow s th e poet-her o o f 185 5 an d 185 6 bot h t o exemp t himself fro m paterna l la w an d to impose on others a patriarchal powe r that retains it s archai c privilege . An d whil e patriarcha l powe r i s beneficen t i n Calamus, i t has not been neutralized a s in sentimental rhetoric . 19. Lynd a Zwinge r argue s that this simultaneous mobilizatio n an d occulting of patriarchal powe r i s on e characteristi c cultura l tas k o f th e sentimental ; se e for exampl e 93 . M y treatmen t o f th e rhetori c o f sentimenta l paternit y i s indebted t o he r account , whic h i s bot h mor e war y tha n Fliegelman' s an d more attentiv e t o th e complex , ambivalen t resourcefulnes s o f th e sentimen tal mode . 20. O n this feature of sentimental rhetori c see Zwinger, especially 62—64. 21. I mean here both to evoke the tradition of the jeremiad as Sacvan Bercovitch describes i t an d t o suggest , a s Rogi n an d Forgi e do , tha t i n th e post revolutionary perio d th e rhetori c o f declensio n coul d hav e th e effec t o f stifling socia l energie s rathe r tha n renewin g them . O n th e potentially para lyzing effect of American figural rhetoric see also Pease, Visionary Compacts 248-56. 22. Whitman' s "drooping star" gives the entire scene here a maternal ambiance ;

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the phras e echoe s a mor e explici t imag e fro m "Ou t o f th e Cradl e Endlessl y Rocking": "Th e yello w half-moon , enlarged , saggin g down , drooping , th e face o f th e sea almos t touching " (i86 0 275) . 23. Se e chapter 4 , 104-5 , above . 24. A s Forgi e notes , a dar k vie w o f hi s generation' s belate d relatio n t o th e ac t of foundin g shape s Lincoln' s 183 8 Lyceu m speech : Disagreeing wit h optimist s wh o spok e o f a secon d ag e o f godlik e Washingtons , Lincoln concluded that in present circumstances immortality of the Republic not only made immortality of the self unlikely—it actually precluded it. For how could such a treasure be attained? By participating in the act of founding? The act was done. (65) 25. O n Emerson' s transformatio n o f a potentially anarchi c romanti c "individu ality" int o a n America n "individualism " compatibl e wit h th e typolog y o f America's mission , se e Bercovitch, "Emerson , Individualism , an d th e Ambi guities of Dissent." O n th e related co-optatio n o f dissenting energies effecte d by a n America n ideolog y o f consensus , se e American jeremiad, especiall y 132-210, an d "Th e Proble m o f Ideolog y i n America n Literar y History, " especially 636-48 . 26. O n th e dating o f thi s notebook se e UPP 2:94m .

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Poirier, Richard. A World Elsewhere: The Place of Style in American Literature. London: Oxfor d UP , 1966 . Pound, Ezra . Literary Essays of Ezra Pound. Ed . T . S . Eliot . Ne w York : Ne w Directions, 1935 . . Personae: The Collected Shorter Poems of Ezra Pound. Ne w York : Ne w Directions, 1971. Reed, Sampson . Observations on the Growth of the Mind; with Remarks on Some Other Subjects. 1827 . Boston: Oti s Clapp , 1838 . . "Oratio n o n Genius. " 1821 . Emerson the Essayist. Ed . Kennet h Walte r Cameron. Hartford : Transcendenta l Books , 1945 . 2.19—12. Rogin, Michae l Paul . Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian. Ne w York : Knopf, 1975 . Rousseau, Jean-Jacques . Essay on the Origin of Languages. On the Origin of Language. Trans . John H . Mora n an d Alexande r Gode . New York : Frederic k Ungar, 1966 . Rubin, Josep h Jay . The Historic Whitman. Universit y Park , Pa. : Pennsylvani a State UP, 1973. Saussure, Ferdinan d de . Course in General Linguistics. Ed . Charle s Ball y e t al . Trans. Wade Baskin. 1959 . New York : McGraw-Hill , 1966 . Scheie de Vere, M[aximilian]. Outlines of Comparative Philology, with a Sketch of the Languages of Europe; Arranged Upon Philologic Principles; and a Brief History of the Art of Writing. Ne w York : G . P. Putnam, 1853 . Schleicher, August . A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the IndoEuropean, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin Languages. Trans . Herber t Bendall . London: Triibner , 1874 . Schyberg, Frederik . Walt Whitman. Trans . Evi e Alliso n Allen . Ne w York : Co lumbia UP , 1951. Searle, Joh n R . "Reiteratin g th e Differences : A Repl y t o Derrida. " Glyph 1 {1977)' 198-2.09 . . Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. London : Cam bridge UP, 1969 . Sedgwick, Ev e Kosofsky . Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire. Ne w York : Columbi a UP , 1985 . Shively, Charley , ed . Calamus Lovers: Walt Whitman's Working-Class Camerados. Sa n Francisco : Ga y Sunshine , 1987 . Simpson, David . The Politics of American English. Ne w York : Oxfor d UP , 1986. Slater, Joseph , ed . The Correspondence of Emerson and Carlyle. Ne w York : Columbia UP , 1964 . Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll . Disorderly Conduct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America. Ne w York : Knopf , 1985 . Stevens, Wallace . The Collected Poems of Wallace Stevens. 1954 . Ne w York : Vintage-Random, 1982 . . Opus Posthumus. Ed . Samuel French Morse . 1957 . New York : Vintage Random, 1982 .

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Index

Aarsleff, Hans , 188 , 197-99 , 209-10 , 272 n35 , 273 n52 , 27 4 n59 , 27 4 nn66 , 69 Abjection, 101 , 400 Abraham, Nicolas , 143-45 , 16 0 n70 , 468 n 8 Abrams, M . H. , 27 5 n7 3 Adamicism, linguistic , 197-200 , 224 , 38 8 Adams, John, 48 8 Addressee, 370 , 436 ; ambiguou s statu s of , 87, 3 2 0 - 2 3 , 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; anonymit y of , 319-20, 3 2 2 - 2 3 , 328-29 , 356-57, 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; electio n of , 3 2 0 - 2 1 ; trans formed b y apostrophe , 3 2 1 - 2 3 . See also Audienc e Aggression: i n apostrophes , 347-59 , 364 n57 ; agains t dead , 332-34 , 3 3 9 40; o f dea d agains t living , 3 3 4 - 3 5 , 340-42 Althusser, Louis , 27 8 n9 7 Anaphora, 141 , 142 , 287 ; i n catalogues , 37 Anderson, Quentin , 20 , 2 5 nn5 , 8 , 2 7 n 2 1 , 2 8 n 3 1 , 5 1 , 53 nn2 , 4 , 54 nnlO , 13 , 63-64, 71 , 82 nn6, 7 , 8 , 12, 8 4 n27, 94 , 146 , 148 , 15 4 n n l, 4 , 155 n8, 15 6 n l 8, 15 7 n32, 15 9 nn49 , 55, 16 0 n71 , 163 , 269 n n l , 5 , 270 n n l l , 14 , 16 , 27 1 n23 , 36 4 n57 , 413, 46 8 nn6 , 10 , 11 , 469 n l 6 , 470 nn30 , 32 , 33 , 475 n61 , 476 n7 2 Anonymity: o f poet' s addressee , 319-20 , 3 2 2 - 2 3 , 328-29 , 356-57, 4 1 4 - 1 5 ; i n cultural compacts , 324 , 330 , 3 5 6 - 5 7 Anti-institutionalism, 184 , 290 ; Whit man's, 41 7 Anxiety, 283 , 292, 464 ; abou t body , 369 , 4 7 8 - 7 9 ; o f influence , 2 3 - 2 4 ; political ,

486, 4 8 8 - 9 0 ; abou t transmission , 3 2 9 46; Whitman' s personal , 49 4 Apostrophe: aggressio n in , 330 , 3 4 7 - 5 8 , 364 n57 ; apparen t generosit y of , 8 6 87; archai c spac e shape d by , 2 - 3 , 1 1 0 11, 282 , 347 ; a s defense , 237 ; eroti c surplus generate d by , 3 2 1 - 2 3 ; fadin g provoked by , 3 0 8 - 9 , 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; i n lyri c tradition, 10 ; mystificatio n an d demysti fication in , 279-84 , 292 ; poet' s pres ence fade d by , 3 0 8 - 9 ; poet' s presenc e produced by , 1-4 , 6 - 8 , 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 1 0 13, 114-15 , 120-21 , 147 , 2 8 0 - 8 1 , 305-16, 319-20 , 327-29 , 3 5 6 - 5 7 ; and politica l praxis , 36 5 n 5 7; power s of, attenuated , 3 0 6 - 2 3 , 3 2 8 - 2 9 , 4 0 2 3, 4 0 8 - 9 , 436 , 437 , 4 4 2 - 4 3 ; presenc e defined by , 1-6 , 110-15 ; priorit y in , 289-92, 3 2 5 - 2 8 , 3 4 8 - 5 8 ; purloined , 466; i n romanti c rhetoric , 22 ; a s seduc tive, 3 2 0 - 2 3 ; a s self-production , 1 2 0 21; symboli c authorit y exercise d by , 291-92, 307 , 3 0 8 - 9 , 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; transfor mations implie d by , 321—23 ; as Uto pian, 359 ; an d writing , 11-14 , 307 , 310, 313 , 414; an d wor d magic , 9-10 , 16, 35 , 114-15 , 3 0 7 - 8 , 3 1 0 - 1 1 , 326 , 463 Arbitrary sign . See Name : indicativ e Archaic body : occulte d b y signs , 311, 314, 316 ; poet's , 309 , 31 1 Archaic resonance : o f apostrophe , 2 - 3 , 282, 347 ; o f catalogues , 3 1 , 39, 4 6 - 4 8 , 344; o f imag e o f voice , 124-25 , 293 , 302, 325 ; o f Leaves of Grass, 293 , 298 , 325, 346 , 4 1 6 - 1 7 , 433 , 447; o f orality , 124; o f performativ e utterance , 6 - 7 ; o f poet's presence , 1-6 , 9 - 1 1 , 18 , 2 1 - 2 2 , 513

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Archaic resonanc e (Continued) 16 n8 , 28 n22 , 3 1 , 4 6 - 4 9, 96 , 125-33 , 145, 146-47 , 153 , 187 , 2 4 3 - 4 4, 309 , 311, 314 , 316 , 370 , 409-410 , 485 ; re linquished i n Calamus, 418 ; o f Utopia n content, 484 ; o f verba l rhythm , 126 ; i n Wordsworth, 344-4 6 Archive, Whitman's , 162-63 , 165-6 8 Artaud, Antonin , 15 8 nn43 , 4 5 Artisan republicanism , 184 , 19 3 Ashbery, John, 55 n23 , 15 9 n5 1 Aspiz, Harold , 69 , 70 , 8 2 n l 2, 108 , 156 nn23 , 3 1, 158 n46 , 27 7 n82 , 278 n9 6 Asselineau, Roger , 2 5 n6, 8 2 n l 2 , 271 n28 , 46 9 n21 , 497 n l Audience: aggressio n directe d against , 330, 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; dangerou s freedo m of , 3 2 6 - 2 8 ; letter s writte n b y Whitman's , 164-65; poet' s presenc e create d by , 85-89; priorit y o f poe t to , 2 9 0 - 9 2 , 325-28, 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; rendere d passive , 327-28, 357 ; selectivel y seduce d i n Calamus, 433 ; shaped b y apostrophe , 86-89, 316-2 3 Augustine, 8 8 Austin, J. L. , 6 , 2 6 n9 , 176 , 244, 27 1 n22 , 308, 477 , 49 7 n 2 Auto-eroticism, 9 3 - 9 8 , 417 ; an d voice , 130-31, 136-37 , 14 3 Autonomy, 291 ; loss of , 17 , 94 , 325-26 , 4 3 8 - 3 9 ; violate d b y inscription , 43 5 Bakhtin, M . M. , 8 1 n2, 35 9 n8 , 388-89 , 469 n l 9 Barrus, Clara , 5 3 n l Bataille, Georges , 15 6 n2 0 Bather, twenty-ninth , 149 , 37 1 Bauerlein, Mark , 2 8 n2 2 Bedient, Calvin , 2 5 n2 , 2 7 n l 9, 2 9 n3 4 Belatedness, 2 3 - 2 4 , 289 , 394 , 49 2 Bercovitch, Sacvan , 27 2 n32 , 27 3 nn47 , 49, 494 , 49 9 n21 , 50 0 n2 5 Berlant, Lauren , 49 8 n 5 Bishop, Elizabeth , 435 , 43 6 Black, Stephen , 2 6 n8 , 15 5 n8 , 15 9 n55 , 161 n71, Blockage: erotic , 9 1 - 9 3 , 237 ; a s fortunat e limitation o f poet' s power , 394 ; an d in -

corporation, 377 ; overcom e i n cata logues, 9 , 34 , 114 , 117 , 204 , 371 , 482; overcome b y poet' s presence , 40 , 58 ; signs as , 108 ; i n th e sublime , 343—44 ; sun a s origi n of , 77 ; surface s as , 30 , 32 , 5 9 - 6 0 , 65, 90 , 215 ; tex t as , 442; i n Wordsworth, 3 0 1 - 3 , 343-44 . See also Gap Bloom, Harold , 2 3 - 2 4 , 2 6 n l 3 , 2 9 n34 , 81 n l, 8 2 n4, 293 , 339, 35 9 n i l , 360 n l 5, 387, 406 , 4 6 1 - 6 2 , 47 5 nn65 , 67 Body: agglomerativ e power s of , 92 , 141 ; allegorizing of , problematize d i n earl y Leaves of Grass, 4 7 9 - 8 0 ; archaic , 96 ; and bod y politic , 4 7 8 - 8 5 , 49 8 n l 3 ; bounded, origi n of , 6 0 - 6 1 ; a s breath , 115; catalogue s defining , 125 ; excre mentitious, 69—70 , 112 ; focu s on , di minished afte r 186 0 edition , 477 ; gaz e breaching autonom y of , 101 ; lability of , 9, 92 , 96 , 130 ; a s magica l synecdoche , 480, 4 8 3 - 8 4 ; myt h of , resurrecte d i n Whitman's lat e prose , 4 7 7 - 7 9 ; a s nu minous, 112 ; o f poet , 109-47 ; rhyth mic, 370 ; self-divided , 8 , 6 8 - 7 0 , 85 , 369; an d self-presence , 109-10 ; self sufficiency of , 2 3 9 - 4 1 ; socia l value s mapped onto , 4 8 0 - 8 1 ; a s soul , 68 , 110; structure d b y culture , 8 , 90 , 93, 94, 101 ; structured b y language , 122 , 2 4 9 - 5 1 ; a s text , 4 3 4 - 3 5 ; translucent , 68; voic e definin g transfigured , 9 , 1 1 8 19, 369 ; Whitma n a s poe t of , 85 ; Whit man's dialecti c of , 94 ; a s word , 31 0 Boehme, Jacob, 213 , 2 2 2 - 2 3, 226 , 274 n6 9 Book: denial s tha t Leaves of Grass i s a , 12, 13 , 170 ; metamorphosin g int o voic e and presence , 13 , 262, 3 1 2 - 1 5 ; o f na ture, 6 5 - 6 7 , 2 1 3 - 1 5 , 2 2 2 - 2 3 , 224 ; spectral power s of , 17 9 Bopp, Franz , 18 5 Bove, Paul , 2 8 n2 3 Bowers, Fredson , 411 , 428, 452, 47 0 n31, 471 n36 , 47 2 n45 , 474 n54 , 47 5 nn60 , 64 Breitwieser, Mitchell , 2 5 n2 , 2 7 n22 , 270 n l 9 , 359 n2 , 36 2 n4 0

Index 5 1 Bricolage, 2 3 Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 3 1 Bucke, Maurice, 2 7 n21 , 269 n 7 Bunsen, Christian , 185 , 186 , 191 , 199 , 217-18, 27 2 n3 4 Burke, Edmund , 27 9 Burke, Kenneth , 8 2 nlO, 8 3 n21, 244 , 469 nl 8 Burroughs, John, 2 7 n 2 1 , 162 , 164 , 170 , 269 n 4 Byers, Thomas, 2 5 n2 , 5 5 nl 3

Calabrese, Steven , 15 4 n4, 26 9 n 2 Calamus root , 4 2 8 - 3 0 Camden, Whitma n in , 162—6 8 Cameron, Sharon , 2 7 nl5 , 2 8 n3 1 Capitalism, 384 , 489 ; an d rhetori c o f sen timental paternity , 4 8 9 - 9 0 Carlyle, Thomas , 284 , 49 8 n 4 Cassirer, Ernst , 2 6 nn9 , 12 , 43—4 4 Castration: disavowa l of , 431 , 432 , 473 n47 ; a s gift , 418 ; linguistic , 135 , 136; poet' s presenc e exemp t from , 121 , 346, 372 ; an d symboli c debt , 108-9 , 157 n32, 267 ; an d syntax , 137-43 ; a s trope i n "Faces, " 106—7 ; and wor d magic, 142 , 144 , 146 , 171 , 325-26 ; and writing, 133-35 , 171-7 2 Catachresis: o f catalogu e technique , 4 4 8 52, 455—56; of image s o f voic e an d flood, 4 4 8 - 5 1 ; o f poet' s presence , 4 3 8 39; o f pronouns , 450-5 1 Catalogues, 3 0 - 5 3 ; archai c resonanc e of , 31, 39 , 4 6 - 4 8 , 344 ; i n "A s I Ebb'd," 448-52, 455-56; bod y define d by , 125; blockag e overcom e in , 9 , 34 , 114 , 117, 204 , 371 , 482; i n Calamus, 4 2 1 24; i n "Crossin g Brookly n Ferry, " 3 0 41; idiosyncrati c detai l in , 385-87 ; in dication vitiatin g power s of , 284—89 , 451; iterativ e procedure s in , 16-17 , 36-37, 287 ; metapho r in , 368 , 3 8 5 87, 455 ; performativ e forc e in , 16 , 30 ; proleptic powe r of , 287-89 , 353 ; prolixity of , 16 ; semiotic chora recalle d by , 128, 129 , 139-42 ; syntacti c obligation s fulfilled in , 142 ; writing underminin g powers of , 28 7

5

Categorization, 28 2 Catel, Jean, 16 1 n7 6 Cave, Plato's , 6 2 Champollion, Jean-Francois , 21 3 Chase, Cynthia , 2 9 n35 , 35 9 nl , 35 9 n7 , 362 n43 , 36 3 n4 6 Chase, Richard , 20 , 41 , 15 6 n22 , 367-68 , 373 Chiasmus: o f livin g an d dead , 350 ; voic e as figure for, 266 ; o f word s an d things , 53, 59 , 72 , 79 , 26 0 Chiliad, 192 ; suggested b y floo d imagery , 73 Chora, 126-32 , 135-36 , 138 , 142 , 172 , 243-44, 313 , 370 , 463 . See also Semio tic (Kristevan ) Christological discourse , poe t describe d by, 2 7 n2 1 Circularity: a s sign o f unrecoverabl e ar chaic organization , 18 ; of Whitman' s language theory , 187 , 241-4 5 Circumcision, 10 9 Civil War , U.S. , 9 , 134 , 366 , 46 8 nl , 49 4 Class, social , 391-9 3 Clavreul, Jean, 474 n5 3 Closure, 368 ; evade d i n "Son g o f Myself, " 368, 394-40 6 Coffman, Stanley , 5 5 nl 3 Coleridge, Samue l Taylor , 38 6 Collins, Richard , 15 4 n 2 Collins, William , 63 , 8 2 n 4 Completeness, phallic , 369-70 , 3 7 2 - 7 3 , 3 7 5 - 8 1 , 38 4 Consensus, poet a s ambiguou s figure for , 480, 484-85 , 49 4 Constatives, 282 , 285 , 307 ; functio n of , effaced i n catalogues , 48 ; performative s versus, 174-82 ; i n Whitman's languag e theory, 17 3 Contingency, 325-2 8 Cosmic doctrine , 16 , 53 , 5 7 - 8 1 , 314 ; a s reification, 17 , 2 8 n27 ; rol e of , i n Leaves of Grass, 5 7 - 6 0 , 366 Covenant: paternal , 336-38 ; Whitman's , with hi s father , 461 . See also Nam e o f the Fathe r Creation myth , Whitman's , 6 0 - 6 1 , 63, 7 1 - 7 2 , 73 , 8 3 n l 6 Crystal Palac e exhibition , 5 2 - 5 3

516 Inde

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Culler, Jonathan , 2 7 n l 5, 35 , 279-80 , 282, 40 2 Dahlen, Beverly , 15 6 n l 8 Dante, 73 , 38 3 Dayan, Joan , 46 8 nn2 , 4 , 47 5 n5 9 Dead: harmon y o f livin g and , i n Words worth, 324—25 ; poet a s on e o f the , 348-50 Dead father , 358 ; poet as , 349 , 44 2 Death: o f father , i n Wordsworth , 3 4 0 - 4 1 ; internalized i n Calamus, 418—19 , 4 3 7 43; internalize d i n Wordsworth , 3 0 2 - 6 , 317, 335 , 3 4 1 - 4 2 ; a s limi t tha t define s poet's presence , 3 1 2 - 1 6 ; poet's , 3 4 - 3 5 ; text and , 465-66 Death drive , 36 4 n 5 6 Debt, symbolic , 442 . See also Castratio n Definite articles , 4 3 - 4 7 Deictics, 110 , 111 , 112 , 152 , 2 8 0 - 8 1 , 308, 310 , 357 , 4 2 0 - 2 1 , 427 , 44 2 de Man , Paul , 22 , 23 , 27 n l 5 , 2 8 n30 , 29 n33 , 209-10, 293-94 , 334 , 350 , 359 n n l , 7 , 36 0 n l 8 , 36 1 nn25-28 , 362 nn29 , 42 , 43 , 475 n5 7 Democracy, 36 5 n57 ; celebratio n of , 380 ; poet's presenc e a s figure for , 346 ; poet' s role i n promulgating , 48 2 Demotic politics , 190 , 191-95 , 196 , 273 n47 , 390-94 ; an d homosexuality , 416 Demystification, 298 , 329 ; pla y o f mystifi cation and , i n "Son g o f Myself, " 367 ; of poet' s presence , 15 ; resisted , 281-84 , 292; i n Wordsworth , 2 9 2 - 9 3 , 306 . See also Apostrophe : mystificatio n an d de mystification i n Derrida, Jacques , 22 , 23 , 26 n9 , 8 2 n9 , 113-17, 121-22 , 133 , 145 , 15 7 n40 , 158 nn41 , 4 3 - 4 5, 2 1 0 - 1 1 , 251 , 2 6 566, 27 0 n l 2 , 27 1 n25 , 274 n72 , 275 n76 , 27 7 n90, 27 8 nlOl , 36 2 nn31, 39, 47 2 nn43 , 4 4 De Selincourt , Basil , 5 4 n l 3 Designation, 244 , 288 , 42 8 Desire, 153 , 376, 380 , 381 , 411, 423, 424, 452 , 47 3 n47 ; circui t of , 415 , 423-34, 4 3 6 - 4 3 ; deat h associate d with, i n Calamus, 4 3 7 - 4 3 ; furtivenes s

of Whitman's , 310 ; poet' s opaque , 4 3 6 - 3 9 ; a s tex t i n Calamus, 4 3 4 - 3 5 , 439 deverbal nouns , 371 , 378; i n catalogues , 45-46, 4 8 Difference: overcom e i n catalogues , 36— 39; threa t of , 9 Disjecta membra, 92 , 28 8 Douglas, Mary , 480 , 481 , 4 8 2 - 8 3, 498 n n 7 - 9 , 49 8 n l 3 Doyle, Peter, 49 6 "Due emission, " 5 7 Durand, Regis , 2 5 n2 , 2 6 n l 4 , 2 8 n24 , 55 n26 , 15 7 n36, 16 1 n7 7 Echolalia, 9 , 127-29 , 130 , 238 . See also Semiotic (Kristevan ) Economy: apostroph e activatin g compen satory, 8 6 - 8 9 ; o f persons , i n Calamus, 19; poet' s presenc e a s functio n of , 14 , 134-35, 166-73 , 2 6 2 - 6 3 , 307 , 310 , 312-16; prosopopoei a as , 281; of rep resentation an d presence , 265—66; self sufficiency suggeste d by , 381 ; sexualit y as, 9 8 - 9 9 , 102-6 , 312 , 381 , 4 2 4 - 4 3; of voic e an d writing , 13 , 14 , 2 1 - 2 2 , 27n22 Egalitarianism, 38 2 Ego, theti c ac t producing , 137-3 8 Election, reader's , 3 , 320 , 321 , 35 7 Ellison, Julie, 27 2 n33 , 38 7 Emerson, Ralp h Waldo , 30 , 73 , 8 3 n n l 7 , 20, 85 , 134 , 177 , 185 , 212, 213 , 223, 224, 27 4 nn60 , 63 , 279, 284 , 391 , 494, 498 n5 , 500 n25 ; metapho r in , 38 7 Emblems: pierce d b y poet , 215 ; surface s as, 21 4 Epictitus, 49 7 Epitaph, 22 , 281 , 282, 339 , 350 , 35 9 n l ; aggression agains t dea d in , 332-34 ; aggression o f dea d agains t livin g in , 3 3 4 - 3 5 ; counterfei t sentimen t in , 332 ; poet's apostrophe s reduce d to , 307 ; i n Wordsworth, 302 , 303 , 3 0 4 - 6, 330-3 8 Eroticism: a s agon , 3 7 7 - 8 1 , 384 ; anx ious, 9 1 - 9 2 , 95—102 ; incendiary, subli mated i n Whitman' s late r work , 477 ; irresistible, initiate d b y voice , 328 ; oral , 132; regressive , 9 1 - 9 2 ; visionary , 8 6

Index 51 Erotic surplus , apostroph e generating , 321-23 Erkkila, Betsy , 5 4 n5 , 15 6 n30 , 193 , 269 nn9 , 10 , 27 2 n32 , 27 3 n48 , 4 0 7 - 8 , 468 n l , 46 9 n n l 4 , 15 , 470 n29 , 471 nn36 , 4 1 , 476 n71 , 4 7 7 - 7 8, 481, 497 n l, 49 8 nn4 , 5 , 7 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 499 n l 4 Eternal moment , 294 ; generate d b y poet' s presence, 169 ; produce d b y (good ) repe tition, 254-5 5 Eugenics, 108 , 27 7 n82, 27 8 n9 6 Exchange: circui t of , 137 , 144 , 317 ; cir cuit of , broken , 457 ; circui t of , cele brated i n Calamus, 411 , 414-34, 4 3 7 43; circui t o f homosexual , 411 , 4 1 7 18, 4 2 4 - 3 4 ; circui t of , repudiated , 419-20, 4 5 2 - 5 7 ; eroticis m structure d by law s of , 4 2 3 - 3 4 , 4 3 7 - 3 9 , 4 4 1 - 4 3 ; of eroti c token s i n Calamus, 4 2 6 - 2 7 ; magical glu t puttin g a n en d to , 410 , 484; o f name , 4 2 7 - 2 8 ; o f phallus , 381, 428-32; poe t rea d a s incarnatio n o f medium of , 410 ; poet' s ambiguou s rela tion to , 2 6 7 - 6 8 , 410 , 463 , 480, 4 8 4 85; prosopopoei a as , 35 0 Exhibitionism, 43 3 Exogamy, 418 , 471 n4 0 Expression, 17 , 8 2 n9, 201 , 282, 285 ; ver sus indication , 183 . See also Languag e theory, Whitman's : organi c o r expres sive name s in ; Name : organi c Fading: an d desire , 423-24 , 427 , 438 , 4 4 1 - 4 3 ; o f others , provoke d b y poet' s apostrophes, 319 , 320 , 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; o f oth ers, resiste d b y poet' s apostrophes , 122-23, 316 ; o f poet' s presence , 14 , 267, 311 , 3 1 2 - 1 3; o f self-presence , 439, 465 ; a s structura l necessity , 319 , 322-23, 36 4 n56 , 443 , 460; symboli c code precipitating , 318 , 421-22 , 427 , 475 n56 ; i n Wordsworth , 300 , 324 ; writing a s displa y of , 281 , 307, 31 2 Fancy, 38 6 Fanon, Frantz , 49 8 n 5 Fantasy, compensatory , 132 , 4 9 4 - 9 7 Father: changin g authorit y of , i n earl y U.S., 4 8 8 - 9 0 ; deat h of , i n Wordsworth ,

7

340—41; gaz e of , 489 ; intercessio n o f Whitman's, sough t i n "A s I Ebb'd, " 446-47, 458 , 4 6 0 - 6 4 ; la w of , 347 , 402, 434 , 460 , 47 3 n47 , 492 ; seductio n of, 462-64 . See also Dea d father ; Name o f th e Fathe r Feidelson, Charles , 8 3 n l 7, 27 1 n2 3 Fellatio, 13 2 Femininity: an d humanize d imaginatio n i n Wordsworth, 343-46 ; poet's , 38 1 Ferguson, Frances , 36 0 n 19, 36 1 nn25 , 27, 28 , 36 2 nn43 , 48 , 36 4 n54 , 469 n l 7 Fetish: peni s as , 431 ; woman as , i n heter osexual exchange , 4 3 0 - 3 2 Fetishism, sexualit y as , 43 2 Fish, Stanley , 2 6 n 9 Fletcher, Angus , 5 6 n3 0 Fliegelman, Jay, 4 8 6 - 8 7 , 488 , 489 , 491, 499 n l 9 Flirtation, 321-22 , 43 3 "Float foreve r hel d i n solution, " 57, 58 , 63,72 Flood imagery , 59 , 7 2 - 7 5 , 7 8 - 7 9 , 124 , 448-50 Forgie, George , 36 0 n l 3 , 4 8 7 - 8 8 , 490 , 499 n21 , 50 0 n2 4 Foucault, Michel , 47 1 n3 7 Fredrickson, George , 27 2 n32 , 36 4 n55 , 498 n l 4 Freud, Sigmund , 10 , 23 , 27 n n 17, 18 , 31, 47, 5 3 n3 , 56 n29 , 100 , 108-9 , 111 , 136, 145 , 15 5 n n l 3, 17 , 15 7 nn33, 37 , 159 n57, 16 0 n62, 16 1 n72, 27 6 n79 , 277 n92 , 348 , 36 4 n56 , 432 , 47 1 n38 , 475 n58 , 49 9 n l 6 Fried, Debra , 35 9 n l , 36 3 nn44 , 4 7 "Friendly an d flowin g savage, " 149 , 37 1 Fry, Paul , 2 7 n l 6 , 2 8 n30 , 5 4 n l 2 Fusion: o f poe t an d audience , 3 , 8 , 75 , 79, 116 , 119 ; o f sel f an d other , 130 ; i n Whitman's languag e theory , 243 ; o f word an d thing , 22 , 144 , 42 0 Gap: i n addresse e marke d b y writing , 415; afflictin g poet' s word , 153-54 ; af flicting wor d overcom e b y poet , 244 ; between natur e an d culture , 70 , 227 ; between poe t an d reader , 442 ; betwee n

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Gap {Continued) poet's presenc e an d ordinar y presence , 153; betwee n sel f an d other , 47 , 50 , 61 ; between signifie r an d signified , 135-37 , 142, 146 ; a s structura l necessity , 443 ; between subjec t an d objec t a s functio n of syntax , 137-41 ; betwee n subjec t an d object overcom e i n Whitman's cata logues, 140—42 ; between voca l effusio n and articulat e sound , 227 , 231-32 ; be tween voic e an d silenc e i n Wordsworth , 3 0 2 - 3 ; betwee n wor d an d body , 310 ; between wor d an d thing , 14 , 2 8 n25 , 47, 50 , 61 , 180 , 287 ; betwee n wor d magic an d representation , 1 4 Garments, Wordsworth' s trop e of , 3 3 1 32, 33 3 Gaze: an d code , 95 ; of th e dead , 440 ; disrupting self-presence , 100-101 , 102 ; of fathers, 489 ; an d industrialization , 492 ; of Other , 90 , 94 , 464 ; o f phantom , 465, 466 ; poe t raise d t o plac e of , 466 ; poet's presenc e immun e to , 121 , 485 , 492; poet' s presenc e transfiguring , 122 ; as source o f representation , 94-9 5 Generosity, poet's , 35 8 Gerunds. See Verbals Gesture, languag e of , 21 2 Gift: castratio n as , 418 ; circulatio n of , disrupted, 457 ; name as , 427; poet' s presence as , 48 5 Gilchrist, Anne , 165 , 26 9 nn9 , 1 0 Glossology, 186 , 2 1 8 - 2 0 Grammatical remarks , poet' s syntheti c judgments reducibl e to , 5 1 - 5 2 Gregory, Doroth y Manessi-Tsilibari , 26 n8 , 5 3 n2 , 15 9 n5 5 Grier, Edward , 27 2 n3 9 Grossman, Allen , 2 5 n2 , 28 n26 , 364 nn55 , 57 Gura, Philip , 211 , 27 4 nn60 , 61 , 63 , 67 Hamsen, Knut , 51 , 5 6 n2 7 Hartman, Geoffrey , 2 6 n l 3 , 2 8 n30 , 83 nl9 , 281-82 , 2 9 2 - 9 3 , 294 , 306 , 339-40, 342 , 343 , 344 , 35 9 n3 , 360 nl7, 36 1 nn20 , 22 , 25 , 28 , 362 nn29, 30 , 31 , 36 3 nn50-54 , 469 n2 7

Herder, Johann Gottfried , 27 2 n37 , 276 n7 8 Hertz, Neil , 8 1 nl , 27 7 n92 , 36 4 n5 4 Heteroglossia, 3 8 8 - 9 4 Hide-and-seek, erotic , 43 3 Hieroglyphs, 186 , 21 3 Hollis, C . Carroll , 2 5 n2 , 2 6 n i l , 2 8 n29 , 477, 49 8 n 2 Homology betwee n poet' s bod y an d bod y politic, 4 7 8 - 8 4 Homosexuality, 462 ; o f Calamus hidde n from th e reluctant , 47 2 n41 ; of Calamus represse d b y earl y readers , 471 n41 ; as model fo r politica l solidar ity, 416 , 47 1 n38 ; proscription s against , registered i n Calamus, 437 ; Whitman's , 100, 496 ; Whitman' s rol e i n historica l emergence of , 416-18 . See also Whit man, Walt: Calamus Humboldt, Wilhel m von , 185 , 186 , 1 8 7 88, 191 , 195 , 197-98 , 209-10 , 2 1 6 17, 27 2 n40, 27 4 n59 , 27 6 n7 6 Husserl, Edmund , 82-89 , 115-1 6 Hutchinson, George , 16 1 n7 3 Hyde, Lewis , 4 0 9 - 1 0 Ideality: o f bod y generate d b y image o f voice, 117-19 ; an d iterability , 113-14 ; of object s generate d b y catalogues , 4 2 45; an d poet's presence , 4 , 7 , 8 , 1 1 2 13, 114 , 115 , 308 ; o f poet' s presenc e intertwined wit h death , 312-16 ; an d voice, 114-1 7 Identification. See Introjectio n Identity: antithetica l vision s of , repudiate d in "A s I Ebb'd," 444, 447-48 , 458 ; ex propriation of , 47 3 n47 ; a s functio n o f sexual economy , 4 2 4 - 4 3 , 456 ; parado x of, i n "Son g o f Myself, " 368 ; purloined, 466 ; re-cas t i n Oedipa l terms , 458, 460-67 ; reduce d t o indicativ e signs, 308-9 ; sociall y structured , 17 , 89-90, 121 , 479; subverte d b y generi c compacts, 324 ; a s task, 4 6 6 - 6 7 Ideological work , poet' s presenc e perform ing, 21 , 2 9 0 - 9 1, 478-79, 480 , 4 8 5 86, 493-94 , 49 7 Ideology, 2 9 0 - 9 1 ; U.S. , 485 , 493-94 ; struggles over , playe d ou t vi a diction ,

Index 51 390-94; an d Whitman' s apostrophes , 365 n5 7 Idolatry, 246 , 257 , 29 1 Illocution, 477 , 49 7 n2 . See also Perfor mative utteranc e Image o f voice , 7 , 2 6 n l 3 , 317 ; archai c resonance of , 124-25 , 293 , 302, 325 ; as compensator y fantasy , 111 , 267, 383, 385 ; an d death , 312 , 3 1 5 - 1 6 ; dis appears afte r 186 0 edition , 366 ; emp tied ou t i n "A s I Ebb'd," 446 , 467 ; ero s defined by , 321 , 328; fadin g of , 281 , 311, 442 ; an d ideality , 115 , 117 ; ideo logical functio n o f Whitman's , 480 ; a s mystification, 2 9 1 - 9 2 ; poe t divide d from own , 376 ; poet' s presenc e as , 9 1; staged b y writing , 13 , 282, 283-84 , 287, 310 , 319 , 328-29 , 355 , 4 5 8 - 5 9 ; as trop e o f power , 327 , 346 , 355 ; visionary implication s of , 169-70 , 308 , 414; i n Whitman' s languag e theory , 224; i n Wordsworth , 299-302 , 324 Images: object s as , 6 0 - 6 4 ; powe r of , 290-91 Imagination, Wordsworthian : fanc y ver sus, 386 ; humanized , 292—306 , 325 , 339; linke d t o dangerou s socia l power , 339—43; linke d t o th e feminin e an d th e maternal, 3 4 3 - 4 6 ; an d perception , 298 , 300; sublime , 342-4 3 Impotence, poet's , 26 8 Incarnation: a s limitatio n o f voice , 369 ; "Song o f Myself " a s comed y of , 19 , 153, 3 6 6 - 8 1 , 385-8 6 Incest taboo , 418 , 47 1 n4 0 Incorporation: a s archai c fantasy , 124 ; i n catalogues, 52 , 285 ; comed y of , i n "Song o f Myself, " 376-77; emptie d out, i n "A s I Ebb'd," 452 ; o f objec t i n word, 117 , 121 ; resistance to , i n "Son g of Myself, " 3 6 7 - 6 8 , 393 ; an d vocaliza tion, 143—46 ; in Whitman' s languag e theory, 172 , 243 ; and wor d magic , 126 , 146, 147 . See also Introjectio n Indication: catalogue s a s mere , 288 ; an d classification, 201 ; created natur e as , 59, 6 4 - 6 5 , 354 , 455 , 456; expressio n versus, 17 , 8 2 n9, 183 , 282, 285 ; per -

9

formative utteranc e versus , 151 ; an d presence, 266 ; writin g as , 30 8 Individualism, American , 181 , 192 , 29 0 Individuality: poet' s curtailmen t o f fre e exercise o f our , 2 , 3 2 5 - 2 8 , 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; re sisting assimilatio n i n "Son g o f Myself, " 369, 377-79 , 385-87 , 3 9 1 - 9 3 ; sacro sanct, 320 , 322-2 3 Industrialization, 478 , 483 , 48 9 Infantile language , 124 , 126-32 , 135-47 . See also Chora; Semioti c (Kristivan ) Infantile sexuality , 4 7 Infelicity, 308 . See also Writin g Ingestion. See Incorporatio n Inscription, 401 ; eros as , 104 , 105-6 , 369; implication s of , suppresse d i n 1855 an d 185 6 editions , 282 , 406 ; poe t traversed by , 89-90 , 9 3 - 9 4 , 104 , 4 3 4 35; priorit y of , t o poe t i n 186 0 edition , 406; symboli c transaction s activate d by , 319-20; voic e as , fo r Other , 466 ; voic e hollowed ou t by , 281 , 283; in Words worth, 3 0 2 - 4 , 306 , 324 , 331 , 342. See also Book ; Writin g Intercourse, heterosexual , 9 4 Interjections, 217 , 22 1 Introjection: o f cultura l code , 94 , 95 , 106 , 240; o f gaze , 101 ; imagination and , 297, 300 , 340 ; incorporatio n versus , 31, 144-45 , 16 0 n70, 243 , 377, 381, 468 n8 ; o f "kni t o f identity, " 120 ; an d lack, 384 ; o f ligh t an d flood , 58 ; peril s of, 3 8 2 - 8 4 ; poet's , o f ou r future , 359 n i l ; o f word , 12 2 Invocation, 396 , 461 ; in romanti c rheto ric, 2 2 Irwin, John, 186 , 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 221 , 225, 274 nn55 , 6 4 Iterability: an d idea l presence , 112—14 , 266; an d poet' s presence , 79 ; proble m of, i n languag e theory , 227 ; o f word , 113-14, 2 3 1 - 3 4 . See also Ideality ; Representation; Writin g Jefferson, Thomas , 488 , 49 8 n 4 Jeffersonian agrarianism , 184 , 19 3 Jeremiad, 192 ; agains t writing , 257 ; American, 49 9 n2 1 Johnson, Barbara , 2 9 n3 2

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Jouissance, 136 , 314 , 429 , 430 , 47 2 n46 ; phallus a s symbo l o f lost , 4 3 0 - 3 1 , 473 n47 ; proscriptio n of , 47 3 n4 7 Juridical instruments , 318 , 320 , 33 8 Kaplan, Justin, 2 5 n3 , 162 , 163 , 164 , 167 , 223, 26 9 nn6 , 8 , 9 , 27 0 n l 3 , 47 1 n36 , 498 nn4 , 10 , 1 1 Keats, John, 36 1 n2 3 "Ode t o Psyche, " 2 9 6 - 9 7 "This Livin g Hand, " 2 8 0 - 8 1 , 31 0 Killingsworth, M . Jimmie , 146 , 15 4 n5, 155 n n l 2, 14 , 15 , 15 6 nn22, 27 , 30 , 416, 418 , 47 1 nn37 , 39 , 4 1 , 476 n71, 477 Kinnaird, John , 20 , 2 5 n4 , 8 2 n l 2, 3 6 7 68 Kinship, structure s of , 4 2 2 - 2 3 , 4 2 7 - 2 8 , 4 3 0 - 3 1 , 456 , 463 , 472 n47 ; Elemen tary, 418 ; Homosexual , 417-19 , 4 3 0 31 "Knot o f contrariety, " 119-2 1 Koch, Kenneth , 46 9 n2 6 Kraitsir, Charles , 186 , 2 1 8 - 2 0 , 221 , 224, 274 n6 7 Kristeva, Julia, 2 5 n2 , 2 8 n23 , 29 n33, 55 n25 , 8 1 n2, 124-29 , 132-33 , 1 3 5 43, 145-46 , 15 4 n2 , 15 6 n21, 159 nn53, 57, 60 , 16 0 nn62, 63 , 66, 111 nn83 , 93 , 344, 36 3 n54 , 462 , 468 n8 , 492 , 494 , 49 9 n l 6 Lacan, Jacques, 8 2 n3, 109 , 138 , 15 4 n6 , 155 n l 3, 15 6 n l 9, 15 7 nn34, 35 , 160 nn64, 65, 68 , 69 , 267 , 27 7 n92 , 335, 36 2 n34 , 36 3 n49 , 36 4 n56 , 418 , 431-32, 439 , 460 , 46 8 nn8 , 9 , 472 nn46 , 47 , 4 7 2 - 7 3 n47 , 47 4 nn49 , 51, 47 5 nn56 , 58 , 6 8 Lack: aggressio n and , 355 ; castratio n and , 108-9, 138 ; desir e provoke d by , 380 , 4 2 3 - 2 4 ; ero s structure d by , 95 , 9 8 - 9 9 , 4 3 0 - 3 1 ; gaz e precipitatin g sens e of , 90 ; introjected, 384 ; live-oa k a s compensa tion for , 4 2 8 - 2 9 ; phallu s a s compensa tion for , 430-32 , 47 3 n47 ; phallu s a s sign of , 411 ; symbolic subjec t consti tuted through , 94 , 10 1

Language: adamic , 186 ; castrated , 171 , 173; a s counter-spirit , 331 , 334; a s cur e for representation , 7 9 - 8 1 ; discursive , 177-78; an d fading , 2 5 1 - 5 2 ; fallen , 246-47; lost , 198-200 ; o f nature , 186 , 2 1 1 - 1 3 , 215 , 224 ; origi n of , 209-10 ; primordial, 17 ; a s repetition , 251 ; ritua l powers of , 368 ; socia l provenanc e of , 60, 368 ; symboli c versu s semiotic , 1 2 6 32, 135-47 . See also Languag e theory : Whitman's; Speech ; Symboli c language ; Writing Language theory , transcendentalist , 183 , 184, 185,21 1 Language theory , Whitman's , 17-18 , 153-54, 172-216 , 2 2 3 - 5 5 , 291 , 3 8 8 89, 479 ; adamicis m in , 199-200 ; apoc alyptic tim e schem e in , 196-97 ; archai c resonance of , 184 , 2 4 3 - 4 4 ; centrifuga l and centripeta l tendencie s in , 183 , 190 , 194; circularit y of , 187 , 2 4 1 - 4 5 ; classi fication excoriate d in , 2 0 1 - 1 1 ; collaps e of axia l distinction s in , 172—73 ; commutability in , 2 0 5 - 8 ; constative s in , 173; contingen t historica l chang e in , 188—90; demystification o f poet' s pow ers resiste d in , 2 8 2 - 8 3 ; exceptiona l in dividuals in , 184 , 194-97 , 236 ; expres sion in , 186 , 216 , 224 , 231 , 242; emasculation warde d of f in , 2 4 3 - 4 4 ; federalist postulate s ignore d in , 1 8 3 84; hermeti c traditio n in , 186 ; historica l philology i n relatio n to , 183 , 184-85 , 188, 191 , 194-99, 209-10 , 211 , 2 1 6 21, 228 ; inconsistencie s in , 173-74 ; in corporation in , 172 , 184 ; indicatio n in , 186, 231 ; indicative name s in , 173 , 228; languag e o f natur e a s ora l in , 2 2 3 - 2 6 ; millenialis m in , 184 , 192-93 ; motivation o f sig n in , 200 , 203 ; Nativ e American language s in , 189 , 2 0 2 - 3 , 228-29, 242 ; organi c o r expressiv e names in , 173 , 212, 2 2 8 - 3 0 ; phalli c power restricte d in , 2 3 6 - 3 8 ; poet' s spe cial plac e in , 183 , 187 , 197 , 231 , 238, 2 4 1 - 4 3 ; populis t aspect s of , 183 , 1 8 8 89, 196-97 ; prope r bod y in , 187 , 2 3 9 45; prope r name s in , 2 0 1 - 1 1 , 2 2 8 - 3 0 ; reform envisione d in , 189—90 , 2 0 3 - 4 ,

Index 52 207, 224 , 236 ; semanti c chang e in , 185 , 188-90; soun d an d interior s in , 225 ; sound a s meanin g in , 235 ; substantia l words in , 175-76, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 224 , 2 2 5 26, 227 , 229 , 232 , 242 ; synchroni c an d diachronic in , 185 , 200, 2 1 0 - 1 1 , 228 ; teleology in , 191-92 , 197 ; voca l effu sion in , 226—29 ; vocal powe r in , 186 , 223-24, 2 3 6 - 3 7 , 244 ; voic e versu s writing in , 172-74 , 178-79 , 182 , 1 8 6 87, 2 1 3 - 1 5 , 2 3 1 - 3 5 , 239 , 247-49 , 251-55, 266-67. See also Performativ e utterance Laplanche, Jean, 15 6 n25, 15 7 n37, 474 n5 0 Larson, Kerry , 2 5 nn2 , 7 , 2 6 nlO , 2 8 n28 , 154 n2, 15 6 nn22, 24 , 26 , 28 , 30 , 161 n77, 290 , 291 , 327, 35 9 n9 , 360 n n l 3 , 14 , 36 4 nn55 , 57 , 36 5 nn58 , 59, 383 , 396, 400 , 4 0 7 - 8 , 4 0 9 - 1 0 , 417, 46 8 nn2 , 7 , 46 9 n25 , 474 n5 2 Law, 341 , 401, 428; o f father , 133 , 342, 402; o f letter , 3 3 6 - 3 8 , 341-42 . See also Nam e o f th e Fathe r Lawrence, D . H. , 5 0 - 5 1 , 36 4 n57 , 365 n57 , 40 1 Levi-Strauss, Claude , 5 4 nlO , 15 8 n43 , 406, 418 , 47 1 n40 , 47 2 nn43 , 47 , 484 , 489 Lewis, R . W . B. , 55 n l 3 Light, real m rule d by , 32 6 Light imagery , 5 8 - 7 2 , 76 , 124 , 352 , 46 5 Lincoln, Abraham , 491 , 492, 50 0 n2 4 Linguistic reform , Whitman' s program s for, 189-90 , 2 0 3 - 4 , 207 , 224 , 23 6 Linguistic relativism , 20 9 Literalism, Leaves of Grass encouraging , 165 Living hand : Keats's , 2 8 0 - 8 1 ; Whitman's , 357-58. See also Keats , John: "Thi s Living Hand " Live-oak, 4 2 8 - 3 0 "Live words, " 180 , 263 , 271 n2 7 Locke, John, 184,48 7 Locution, 176 , 477 , 49 7 n 2 Logopoeia, 38 9 "Lull" (an d "hum") , 130 , 131 , 132 , 226 , 463. See also "Valve d voice " Lyric poetry , genr e of , 1 0

1

MacCannell, Juliet , 15 4 n 6 Manifest Destiny , 481 , 498 nl O Marki, Ivan , 20 , 2 7 n l 9 , 55 n n l 3 , 15 , 19 , 149, 15 6 n3 0 Martin, Robert , 416 , 418 , 47 0 n32 , 471 n3 7 Masquerade, 431-32 , 47 4 nn48 , 5 1 Masturbation. See Auto-eroticis m Matthiessen, F . O. , 50 , 8 2 n l 2, 128 , 148 , 159 n58, 16 1 n76, 27 1 n28 , 46 9 n2 1 Mediation, poet' s suppose d by-passin g of , 307, 3 1 6 - 2 3 , 326 , 3 4 6 - 4 7 "Merge," 369 ; resiste d b y heteroglossia , 391-94; resiste d b y kinestheti c energies , 371-72, 377-80 , 3 8 5 - 8 7 Metalepsis, 401 . See also Transumptio n Metaphor: comicall y obtrusive , 368 ; Emersonian, 185 , 387 ; nominalis t the ory of , 185 ; performative, 484 ; i n "Song o f Myself, " 368 , 3 8 5 - 8 7 Metonymy, 455 , 457, 47 5 n6 9 Middlebrook, Diane , 8 5 Millenialism, 184 , 192-9 3 Miller, Edwin , 4 , 12 , 26 n8 , 5 4 n7 , 149 , 154 n2, 15 5 nlO , 15 6 n30, 15 9 nn48 , 55, 16 0 n71 , 27 0 n l 6 , 49 7 n l Miller, James , 4 - 5 , 5 4 n8 , 57, 8 2 n8 , 154 n2, 46 9 nn21 , 22, 47 1 n3 6 Miltonic ghost , 29 6 Mirror stage , 16 0 n63, 468 n 8 Mobius strip , th e presen t as , 26 0 Monologue, interior , 116-18 , 121-2 2 Moon, Michael , 2 5 n 2 Moore, Marianne , 38 7 Mother, 47 6 n71 ; archaic relatio n to , 27 n l 8, 132 , 346 , 4 6 1 - 6 2 , 463 ; in "A s I Ebb'd, " 445 , 448, 4 6 4 - 6 6 ; bod y of , 47, 344 , 402 ; estrangemen t from , 465 ; as guaranto r o f language , 143-44 ; an d humanized imaginatio n i n Wordsworth , 343-46 Mystical vision , Leaves of Grass i n rela tion to , 5 8 Mystification. See Demystificatio n Mythopoeia, Whitman's , 368 , 396 , 397 ; repudiation of , 445 , 467-6 8 Name: exchang e of , i n Calamus, 427—28 ; expressive, 2 0 1 - 1 1 ; a s gift , 427 ; indica -

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Name (Continued) tive, 172 , 173 , 183 , 186-87 , 2 0 1 - 1 1 ; organic, 172 , 173 , 182 , 183 , 201 ; and phallus, 430 ; proper , 2 0 1 - 1 1 , 212 , 228-30, 244 , 282 , 428 , 430 , 441 , 472 n43 ; an d self-sufficiency , 428 ; sub mission to , 31 9 Name o f th e Father : i n "A s I Ebb'd," 447, 461-67 ; dea d poe t as , 441-42 ; femininity oppose d to , i n Wordsworth , 345; kinshi p structure s and , 428 , 430 ; poetry mobilizin g prolepti c powe r of , 338; i n th e sublime , 34 2 Naming: a s abjection , 448 ; ac t of , 30 ; doubled sens e of , 311 ; and ingestion , 143-45, 381 ; magical powe r of , 7 ; a s recitation o f text , 45 0 Natura naturans: a s flood , 73 , 74 , 83 nl7; imaginatio n and , 301 ; mothe r as, 446 , 462 ; poet divorce d from , 4 4 8 49, 453 , 457 ; poet' s ambiguou s relatio n to, 405 ; a s typ e o f poet' s power , 59 , 78; voic e and , 72 , 75 , 8 3 nl8 , 226 , 300, 39 7 Natura naturata: a s disjecta membra, 449-50; image s and , 59 ; a s metonymi c chain, 457 ; poe t associate d with , 405 ; as text , 67, 449-50 , 455 , 456-57 ; voice animating , 22 6 Native America n languages : vogu e for , 275 n73 , 27 6 n76 ; i n Whitman's lan guage theory , 189 , 2 0 2 - 3 , 228-29 , 24 2 "Necessary film, " 57, 65 Negative capability , 385 , 40 1 Nessus, coa t of , 331 , 334 , 335 , 33 6 Neume, 226 , 27 4 n7 2 Neurotic subject , 132—3 3 Newspaper pieces , Whitman's , 31 , 48 2 Nominalism, 64 , 185 ; i n Emerson , 38 7 No-Popery riot , 482 , 49 8 n i l Object, lost , 98 , 101 , 137 , 144 . See also Lack O'Connor, William , 2 7 n21 , 164 , 269 nn3 , 6 Oedipal structure : i n "A s I Ebb'd," 458 , 460-67; elementar y structure s o f kin ship and , 109 , 47 2 n47 ; poeti c authori -

ty's ambiguou s relatio n to , 339-47; o f the sublime , 339-40 , 342-44 , 36 1 n23 ; of Whitman' s creatio n myth , 6 3 - 6 4 Oegger, Guillaume , 212 , 221 , 224 , 274 n6 3 Olson, Charles , 2 8 n3 1 Omnipotence o f thought , 10 , 2 7 nl8 , 145 . See also Wor d magi c Ong, Walter , 115 , 15 8 n42 , 265 , 27 0 nl8 , 271 n30 , 27 4 n71 , 27 8 n98 , 28 7 Onomatopoeia, 216 , 217 , 221 , 228 , 229 , 235, 242 , 27 4 n65 , 27 6 n7 6 Optatives, 306 , 32 5 Organic name . See Name: Organi c Ostensive gesture , 11 0 Other: desir e of , 431 ; gaze of , 95 ; lac k precipitated by , 90 ; poet appearin g i n field of, 466-67 ; poe t as , 351-53 , 433 , 442; "rea l M E " an d "phantom " as, 445; seductio n of , 433 ; sel f marke d b y discourse of , 121 , 138 ; voice effacin g power of , 122 , 130 ; voice lapsin g int o inscription organize d by , 466 ; Whit man's fathe r a s intercesso r with , 4 6 3 64 Other scene , Whitman's , 87 , 42 5

Parade (la), 474 n5 1 Parentheses, Whitman' s us e of , 8 8 Parthenogenesis, 99 , 119 , 328 , 37 7 Participles. See Verbals Passivity, poet's , 237 , 3 8 0 - 8 1 , 398 , 43 5 Pastoral, 42 6 Paternal metaphor , 64 . See also Nam e o f the Fathe r Patriarchal function : barrin g jouissance, 430; inscriptio n emanatin g from , 401 ; poet commandeering , 346 , 417-18 ; poet escapin g surveillanc e of , 433 ; an d positional power , 147 ; prohibitio n im posed by , 105 ; i n Wordsworth, 3 3 9 44, 346 . See also Father ; Name o f th e Father Peabody, Elizabeth , 212 , 21 8 Pears, David , 51 , 5 5 n2 2 Pease, Donald , 2 5 n2 , 2 6 nlO , 2 8 n23 , 81 n2, 15 4 n2, 27 2 n33 , 36 2 n34 , 364 n55 , 49 8 n i l , 49 9 n2 1

Index 52 3 Penmanship, 23 4 Performative utterance : (bad ) repetitio n sapping power s of , 252-53 ; i n cata logues, 42 , 44 , 48 , 285 , 288 ; constativ e utterance versus , 13 , 17 , 151 , 174-82 , 282; conventiona l statu s of , 6 , 244 ; de fined, 6-7; equivoca l powe r o f poet's , 310; an d idea l presence , 113 ; livin g presence produce d by , 7 , 305 ; magica l efficacy of , 7 ; politica l implication s of , 21, 4 9 2 - 9 3 ; an d positional power , 142 ; relinquished i n Calamus, 413 , 443 ; replaced b y poetry o f statement afte r 1860 Leaves of Grass, 477; representa tions usurpin g proper powe r of , 259 ; resistance to , i n "Son g o f Myself, " 368 ; as self-production, 112 , 463 ; silen t presence define d by , 112 ; voice and , 7 - 8 , 114-15, 247 , 252 , 32 7 Perlocution, 176 , 247 , 258 , 28 5 Phallic body , 134-35 , 369-70, 3 7 2 - 7 3 , 375, 395 , 396 , 397 ; specula r origi n of , 376-81, 38 4 Phallus, 457; circulatio n of , 381 , 411, 424-25, 4 2 8 - 3 2 , 4 4 1 - 4 2 ; an d name , 430; poe t as , 146-47 , 441-42 ; poe t as , renounced i n Calamus, 411 ; a s symbo l of los t jouissance, 4 2 9 - 3 1 , 47 3 n4 7 "Phantom," 465-66; addres s to , 46 6 Philology, historical . See Language theory , Whitman's; historica l philolog y i n rela tion t o Plato. See Cave, Plato' s Pleasure principle , 3 1 Pneuma, 226 , 27 5 n7 2 Pneumatic prowess , poet's, 14 7 Poet: appearin g i n field of Other , 466-67; of "A s I Ebb'd" both accuse d an d ac cusing, 447-48 , 458-59 ; a s dea d fa ther, 349 , 442 ; i n discret e guise , 88 , 89-95, 379-80 ; power s o f th e dea d ex ercised by , 353-55 ; a s icon, 416 , 419 , 437, 441 ; a s Nam e o f th e Father , 4 4 1 42; a s Other , 3 5 1 - 5 3 , 433 , 442 ; passivity oi, 237 , 3 8 0 - 8 1 , 398 , 435 ; self divided, 93 ; supposedly innocen t o f writing, 310 ; a s text , 104 , 106 , 411 , 434-35, 439 ; vulnerability of , 383-84 . See also Presence , poet' s

Poirier, Richard , 39 2 Politics: Calamus rea d a s retrea t from , 4 0 7 - 9 , 47 0 n29 ; critiqu e o f poet' s ear lier claim s t o transfigure , i n Calamus, 4 0 8 - 1 1 ; homosexualit y and , 416 , 4 3 2 34; implie d b y poet's presence , 21 , 346 , 348, 36 5 n57 , 4 0 9 - 1 1 , 477-97 ; oppo sitional, i n Calamus, 418 ; post-revolu tionary, an d sentimenta l rhetoric , 4 8 6 90; rol e of , i n earl y edition s o f Leaves of Grass, 21 , 26 nlO , 15 9 n50 , 360 n l 3, 480-86 , 4 9 1 - 9 4 Polymorphous body , 309 , 313-14 ; audi ence sequestere d i n poet's , 317 ; oc culted b y signs , 31 1 Pontalis, J.-B., 15 6 n25 , 15 7 n37, 47 4 n5 0 Positional power , 141 ; of apostrophe , 30 , 142; i n catalogues , 3 9 - 4 0 , 49 , 285 ; a s patriarchal, 147 , 342 ; o f poe t a s magi cal rathe r tha n conventional , 346—47 , 492; thef t of , 46 4 Positing, ac t of , 147 ; suspende d i n Whit man's catalogues , 139—4 2 Pound, Ezra , 284, 389 , 46 9 n2 2 Pre-Oedipal material , 343-46 . See also Archaic resonance ; Chora; Semioti c (Kristevan) Presence: bequeathin g of , 318—19 ; as (good) repetition , 253—55; ideal, a s function o f writin g an d representation , 262, 264-67 ; an d ideality , 114 ; necessary passage of , throug h signs , 313 ; occulted b y indicativ e names , 172 ; relinquished i n Calamus, 419 , 4 4 2 - 4 3 ; relinquished i n Wordsworth, 303—6 ; silent, define d b y image o f voice , 150-53 , 315; transfiguratio n of , 16 ; Whitman' s actual, 163-64 Presence, poet's : adven t of , a s simulta neous dissolution , 314 ; agglomerativ e powers of , 6 , 9 , 130 , 242 , 243 , 482 ; apocalyptic implication s of , 484 ; apos trophe producing , 1-4 , 6 - 8 , 10-11 , 110-13, 114-15 , 120-21 , 147 , 2 8 0 81, 305-16 , 319-20 , 327-29 , 356-57 ; archaic resonanc e of , 1—6 , 9—11 , 18 , 2 1 - 2 2 , 2 6 n8 , 2 8 n22 , 31 , 4 6 - 4 9, 96 , 125-33, 145 , 146-47 , 153 , 187 , 2 4 3 44, 309 , 311 , 314 , 316 , 370 , 4 0 9 - 1 1 ,

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Presence {Continued) 485; belate d attempt s t o resurrect , 4 9 4 - 9 5 , 497 ; catachresi s of , i n "A s I Ebb'd," 450 , 4 5 9 - 6 0 , 4 6 7 - 6 8 ; deat h as paradoxica l conditio n of , 312-16 , 348-50; effec t o n audienc e of , 2 - 3 , 5 , 245, 291 , 3 1 6 - 2 3, 326 , 370 ; a s effus ing, 3 , 6 , 9 , 123 , 147 , 370 , 4 0 5 - 6 ; elu siveness of , 3 , 5 , 9 , 110 , 311 ; exceptional statu s of , 2 1 , 410, 480 , 4 8 4 - 8 5 , 492; an d exchange , 2 6 7 - 6 8 , 410 , 485 , 492; fadin g of , 14 , 267 , 311 , 3 1 2 - 1 3; as functio n o f wha t i t shoul d redeem , 2 4 0 - 4 5 ; fusin g wit h audience , 3 , 8 , 75, 79, 116 , 119 ; idealit y and , 4 , 7 , 8 , 112-13, 114 , 115 , 308 ; ideologica l work performe d by , 2 1 , 2 9 0 - 9 1, 4 7 8 79, 480 , 485-86 , 493-94 , 497 ; a s im age, 328-29 ; a s incarnatio n o f word , 7 , 10, 17 , 111 , 112 , 115 , 2 4 4 - 4 5, 308 ; infrequent appearanc e of , afte r 186 0 edition, 477 ; inviolabilit y of , 306 , 3 7 3 75; invisibilit y of , 7 - 8 , 110 , 112 , 308 , 370; labilit y of , 3 , 111 , 123 , 146-47 , 148, 311 , 313, 483; a s metamorphic , 370; metamorphose d int o ai r an d gras s at en d o f "Son g o f Myself, " 4 0 5 - 6 ; a s mystification, 291 ; naive response s to , 2, 164-65 ; occulte d b y signs , 3 0 7 - 1 1 , 316; politica l implication s of , 2 1 , 346, 348, 36 5 n57 , 4 0 9 - 1 1 , 4 7 7 - 9 5 , 483 , 485-86, 492 , 4 9 4 - 9 7 ; pre-emptiv e power exercise d by , 3 , 291-92 , 3 2 5 28, 3 4 7 - 5 8 ; presen t sustaine d by , 169 , 252; a s punctual , 123-24 , 133 , 142 , 146, 314 ; repetitio n defining , 7 , 8 , 2 5 2 - 5 5 ; representatio n and , 165-66, 167-68, 170-71 , 2 4 4 - 4 7 , 259-62 , 264-65, 267 , 348-49 , 352 , 3 5 7 - 5 8 ; and rhetori c o f sentimenta l paternity , 492-94; seductiv e powe r of , 4 ; a s self capitalization, 87 , 15 4 n4, 26 9 n2 ; a s self-contained, 123 ; as self-generating , 10, 1 2 0 - 2 1 ; a s super-eg o o r Other , 3 5 1 - 5 3 ; symboli c constraint s evade d by, 122 , 316-20 , 346-47 , 485 ; sym bolic powe r exercise d by , 171 , 246-47 , 268, 406 ; tenuou s statu s of , 15 , 16 , 153, 309 , 3 1 2 - 1 6 ; a s trace , 318 ; topol -

ogy of , 3 , 10 , 118 , 121 ; as transfigura tion o f ligh t an d flood , 75-79; a s trop e of power , 16 ; uncannines s of , 1 , 7 , 10 , 12, 16 , 110 , 123 , 151-53 , 167 , 170 , 349, 351 , 3 5 2 - 5 3; Utopia n implication s of, 484 ; voic e hypostatize d as , 243; Whitman's ambivalenc e toward , i n 1860 Leaves of Grass, 311 ; writin g and, 12-14 , 168-70 , 260-64 , 307 , 315-16, 460 . See also Voic e Present moment : emptie d ou t t o permi t transmission i n Calamus, 419 ; re-de fined b y apostrophe , 86 ; relinquishe d i n Wordsworth, 294—96 ; transfigured , 34-36 Primary processes , 3 1 , 47, 56 n29 . See also Semioti c (Kristevan ) Primitive cultures , nostalgi a for , 124-2 5 Priority: challenge d i n catalogues , 2 8 7 88; exercise d b y images , 291 ; exercise d by poe t ove r audience , 289-92 , 3 2 5 28, 3 4 8 - 5 8 ; multipl e myth s of , i n "Song o f Myself, " 394-406 ; poet' s be nign interpretatio n o f hi s own , 2 9 0 - 9 1 , 326-27, 347 , 351-55, 395-96 , 397 ; poet's struggl e for , a s battl e ove r words , 288-89. See also Prolepsi s Private life , Whitman's , 166-67 , 4 9 4 - 9 7 Proleptic power , 346 , 356 ; an d cultura l authority, 395 ; o f Keats' s "Thi s livin g hand," 281 ; of writin g mobilize d b y im age o f voice , 45 8 Prolepsis, 22 ; a s figure fo r America n polit ical dilemma , 290—91 ; suspende d i n "Song o f Myself, " 326 , 327 , 368 , 370 , 394-406; i n Wordsworth , 292 , 329 , 335-38. See also Priorit y Proper name . See Name : prope r Propertius, 408 , 46 9 n2 2 Prosopopoeia, 281 , 334, 350 , 35 9 n l , 4 0 2 - 3 , 436 , 443 , 475 n5 7 Psychomachia, 4 4 4 - 4 5 , 448 , 45 8 Psychosis, 13 3 "Real M E , " 445 , 453-54 , 459-60 , 465 , 467 Recruiting o f subjects , 356-5 7 Reed, Sampson , 2 1 1 - 1 3 , 224 , 225 , 274 nn60-6 2

Index 5 2 Repetition: ghostly , 248 ; goo d versu s bad , 253-54; a s idealizing power , 35-36 ; poet's adven t a s (good) , 253-55 ; writ ing a s (bad) , 231-34, 252-55 . See also Iterability; Presence , poet's : repetitio n defining; Representation ; Writin g Repetition compulsion , 106 , 2 4 9 - 5 1 , 348 , 364 n56 . See also Deat h drive ; Writin g Representation: a s (bad ) repetition , 254 ; begetting livin g presence , 258-59 ; a s blockage, 92 , 170 ; bod y traverse d by , 90, 93 , 107-8 ; a s degrade d linguisti c function, 173 , 282; econom y of , an d presence, 265 ; exorbitan t power s of , 255-60, 2 9 0 - 9 1 ; an d fetishism , 2 5 6 57, 27 7 n93 ; internalization of , warde d off b y voice, 122 ; objects constitute d by, 63-67 , 136 ; poet's presenc e and , 165-66, 167-68 , 170-71 , 244-47 , 259-62, 264-65 , 267 , 348-49 , 352 , 357-58; poet' s vulnerabilit y to , 89-96 , 257; power s of , resemblin g power s o f poet's word , 255 , 259-60 ; Leaves of Grass representin g liberatio n from , 307 ; seductive power s of , 172 , 246 , 256—57; social landscap e comprise d of , 108 , 146; su n a s inaccessible sourc e of , 71— 72; a s vampiric, 291 ; Whitman's di vided estimat e of , 255 ; Whitman' s nightmare concerning , 258—59 . See also Repetition; Writin g Reproduction, sexed , 119—2 1 Rhythm: kinesthetic , 9 , 126 ; vocal, 9 , 127. See also Semioti c (Kristevan ) Rogin, Michael , 488-90 , 491 , 49 8 nlO , 499 n2 1 Romantic dialectic , 282 , 29 3 Romantic rhetoric , 2 2 Romantic mythopoeia , 28 2 Roudiez, Leon , 15 9 n60, 27 7 n8 3 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 22 , 210 , 27 0 n l 2 , 271 n25 , 27 2 n37 , 27 5 n76 , 27 6 n78 , 362 n31, 48 7 Rubin, Joseph, 49 8 n i l Saussure, Ferdinan d de , 15 7 n40 , 160 nn61, 68 , 27 2 n36 , 27 4 nn65 , 68 , 475 n6 8

5

Scheie d e Vere, Maximilian , 185 , 186 , 188, 191 , 194 , 198 , 199 , 217 , 218 , 272nn34, 45 , 27 3 n5 1 Schizophrenic speech , 13 6 Schleicher, August , 186 , 198-9 9 Schyberg, Frederik , 5 3 nl , 55 nl 3 Searle, John, 2 6 n9 , 4 3 Secondary processes , 31 , 4 7 Sedgwick, Ev e Kosofsky , 16 1 n74 , 41 6 Seduction, apostroph e as , 320-2 3 Self-division, 9 , 93 , 13 1 Self-portrait, Whitman's , 16 3 Self-presence: breache d b y sexuality , 99 ; breached b y syntax , 138 ; breac h in , healed b y voice, 122 ; an d castration , 109; catachresi s of , i n Calamus, 4 3 8 39; fadin g of , 316 , 439 , 456 , 465 ; mag ical, 133 ; in romanticism , 22 ; subjecte d to relay , 90 , 95 , 102 , 465 ; subverte d b y inscription, 434—35 ; Whitman's trop e of, emptie d ou t i n "A s I Ebb'd," 467 ; writing hollowin g out , 247-5 1 Self-production: an d apostrophe , 120—21; dream of , abandoned , 380 , 456 ; fathe r begged t o provid e powe r of , 463-64 ; o f poet's presence , 119 , 311 ; and wor d magic, 8 - 9 , 146 , 46 3 Self-sufficiency, 132 , 241 , 325 , 329 , 3 7 1 84, 463 , 47 3 n47 ; apparent , produc t o f social structures , 381 ; belied b y text , 307, 328-29 ; compensator y fantas y of , 496-97; relinquishe d i n Calamus, 19 , 411-16, 4 1 8 - 4 3 ; relinquishe d i n Wordsworth, 30 5 Semiotic (Kristevan) , 126-32 , 135-47 , 172, 243-44 , 344 , 346 , 370 , 462 ; kinesthetic basi s of , 127 ; poe t exile d from , 446 Semiotic vocabular y (Saussurian) , Whit man's, 64-67 , 35 5 Sentimentality, 356 , 357; functio n of , 469 n23 , 49 9 nnl9 , 20 ; i n Leaves of Grass, 380 , 394 , 408 , 422 , 49 9 nl8 ; i n readings o f Whitman , 4 6 1 - 6 2 ; Whit man's, 47 1 n3 9 Sentimental paternity , rhetori c of , 4 8 6 - 9 4 Sexual difference , 12 0 Shaman, poe t as , 6 , 102 , 146 , 177 , 28 2 Shell game , Whitman's , 13 , 114-1 5

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Shively, Charley , 56 n32 , 416 , 418 , 470 nn30 , 3 1 , 472 n42 , 496 , 49 7 n l Sign: animate d b y speaker' s prowess , 172 ; body traverse d by , 1 0 7 - 8 ; changin g re lation of , t o wha t i t names , 135-47 ; death of , 442 ; ero s a s circulatio n of , 4 2 6 - 3 1 ; fadin g exacte d by , 3 0 8 - 9 , 312; meanin g of , a s functio n o f individ ual vocalism , 172 ; objec t as , 59, 6567; organic , 17 , 185 ; poet as , i n Calamus, 419 , 437 , 441 , 443; poet's pres ence fade d to , 307 ; poet' s relianc e on , 458; soun d as , 127 ; submissio n t o rul e of, 319 , 4 5 4 - 6 0 ; Wordsworthia n poe t as, 30 5 Signature, 318-20 , 36 2 n39 , 40 1 Signatures, doctrin e of , 21 3 Signification: deman d for , 126 ; endles s re versibility of , 457 ; foregrounde d b y light imagery , 6 4 Signifier: changin g relatio n t o signified , 143-45; idealize d i n interio r mono logue, 116 ; passion of , 33 5 Signifying chain , 454 , 4 5 6 - 5 7 , 4 5 9 - 6 0 Simpson, David , 183-85 , 188-89 , 193 , 199, 200 , 204 , 211 , 272 n32 , 27 2 n42 , 275 n73 , 276 n7 6 Simulacra: banishe d b y poet , 255 , 291; dead bewitchin g u s with , 353 ; falle n language producing , 245 , 246 ; object s as, 5 8 - 5 9 , 60 ; o f phallus , 441; poet's resemblanc e to , 260 ; text s as , 250 Slang, 368 , 385 , 3 8 9 - 9 0 Slavery, 105 , 38 4 Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll , 49 8 nn5 , 7 , 8 Smyser, Jane Worthington , 36 3 n4 5 "Solitary committer, " 93 . See also Auto eroticism Speech: creatin g objects , 492 ; a s fall , 2 1 2 - 1 3 ; poet's , restorin g organi c pres ence, 173 ; relinquished i n favo r o f in scription i n Calamus, 4 3 4 - 3 5 Speech acts , 477 ; failur e of , 308 ; occult ing fictive statu s o f poet's , 310 ; poet' s divided consciousnes s in , 283-84 , 292 , 3 0 6 - 2 3 , 328-29 , 353-54 , 356-57 . See also Performativ e utteranc e

Spelling, 232—3 3 Spirit a s writing , 445 , 446 , 447 , 456 , 458-59 Stevens, Wallace , 366 , 387 , 444 , 46 8 Stovall, Floyd , 212 , 27 2 n3 4 Strachey, James, 15 5 n l 7 Strauch, Carl , 27 4 n6 0 Strom, Susan , 8 4 n2 5 Structuralist, Whitma n as , 41 9 Subject: divided , 399 ; Lacanian , 460 . See also Fadin g Sublime: econom y o f the , i n Leaves of Grass, 58 ; momen t o f blockag e i n the , 343-44; a s Oedipal , 339-40 , 342-44 , 361 n23 ; poet's presenc e as , 349 ; i n Wordsworth, 325 , 339-4 6 Sublime solipsism , 293 , 33 9 Substantial words , 175-76 , 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 224 , 225-26, 227 , 229 , 232 , 24 2 Sun: a s alienatin g third , 6 2 - 6 4 ; a s inac cessible sourc e o f representation , 7 1 72; poe t as , 77 , 352 ; poet' s rivalr y with, 72 , 76-7 8 "Superb cal m character, " 4 9 5 - 9 7 Supreme fiction, Whitman's , 1 3 Surfaces. See Blockage : surface s a s Surveillance. See Gaz e Swedenborgianism, 211 , 212, 27 4 n6 4 Swinton, Willia m (Rambles Among Words), 187 , 19 0 Symbolic compacts : suspicio n of , 306 , 433; i n Wordsworth , 292 , 3 0 1 - 6 , 325 , 3 2 9 - 3 1 , 339-4 6 Symbolic debt , 109 , 111 . See also Castra tion Symbolic language , 172 , 244 ; coerciv e powers of , 181-82 , 18 7 Symbolic order , 139 ; cos t exacte d by , 447; sexualit y and , 43 8 Symbolic transmission : impersonalit y of, 318 ; unacknowledge d rol e of , i n Leaves of Grass, 3 2 8 - 2 9 , 3 4 7 - 4 8 , 350-58 Symons, Arthur , 27 3 n5 0 Synecdoche, 455 , 47 5 nn66 , 67 ; mout h as, 48 1 Syntax: a s castration , 137—43 ; suspended in catalogues , 3 7 - 3 9

Index 52 Tautology, 318 ; announcement s o f poet' s presence as , 8 , 114 ; deep , 5 1 - 5 2 ; intro jection as , 24 3 Taylor, Benjamin , 2 2 0 - 2 1 , 224 , 227 , 22 9 Testament, 356 ; "A s I Ebb'd" a s bitter , 444; poet's , i n Calamus, 4 1 5 - 1 6 , 4 1 8 20, 441—43 ; proleptic powe r of , tem pered i n Wordsworth , 325 ; "Souvenir s of Democracy " as , 317—1 9 Text: Leaves of Grass no t t o b e con sidered as , 12 ; natura naturata as , 67 , 449-50, 455 , 4 5 6 - 5 7; poe t as , 104 , 106, 411 , 4 3 4 - 3 5, 439 . See also Book ; Writing Thetic act , 137-3 8 Thomas, M . Wynn , 5 4 nn5 , 9 , 8 1 n2, 359 n5 , 469 n l 5 , 49 9 n n l 4 , 1 5 Thoreau, Henr y David , 218 , 37 2 Tocqueville, Alexi s de , 2 8 n3 1 Tone: i n catalogues , 289 ; mobilit y of , i n poet's speec h acts , 283-84 , 292 , 3 0 7 16, 3 2 1 - 2 3 , 328-29 , 353-54 , 3 5 6 - 5 7 Topography, Whitman' s symbolic , 66, 448-49 Topology: archaic , 22 , 123 , 125-26 ; o f body, 8 9 - 9 0 ; catachresi s o f Whitman's , 438-39, 449 ; o f catalogues , 40 ; confus ing, 424 ; floo d imager y and , 72—74 ; light imager y and , 6 0 - 6 1 ; o f objects , 92; synta x and , 138-39 ; voic e and , 147-48, 182 , 215 , 225, 22 8 Torok, Maria , 143-45 , 16 0 n70, 46 8 n 8 Transitive relations : avoide d b y poet , 241 ; bound t o cultura l gramma r o f persons , 326; efface d b y Whitman' s eroti c idiom , 92; efface d i n catalogues , 38 ; embrace d in Calamus; 41 1 Transmissibility: identit y a s functio n of , 419; i n Wordsworth , 301 , 303, 30 4 Transmission, symbolic : aggressivit y of , 304, 339 ; ambivalenc e provoke d by , 329-30, 3 5 8 - 5 9 ; i n America n politic s figured i n sentimenta l terms , 4 8 6 - 8 8 ; bitter re-evaluatio n of , i n "A s I Ebb'd, " 452, 456 ; celebrate d i n Calamus, 366 , 414-34, 4 3 7 - 3 8 , 4 4 1 - 4 3 ; a s morta l wound, 3 3 4 - 3 8 ; poet' s ambiguou s rela tion to , 355 , 368 , 4 9 1 - 9 4 ; poet' s pres -

7

ence escaping , 492 ; supposedl y rendere d unnecessary b y poet' s presence , 316— 20, 3 4 6 - 4 7 ; Whitman' s fascinatio n with power s of , 348 ; i n Wordsworth , 293, 3 0 1 - 6 , 323-26 , 3 2 9 - 4 7 , 355-56, 362 n29 ; writin g a s epitom e of , 3 1 6 20, 347-4 8 Transparency, 118 , 261—6 2 Transubstantiation, 13 , 308, 31 3 Transumption, 5 8 - 5 9 , 289 , 2 9 6 - 9 7 , 307 , 468. See also Metalepsi s Traubel, Horace , 53 , 134 , 162-63 , 166 , 167, 168 , 169 , 173 , 174 , 234 , 249 , 250, 26 9 n9 , 27 6 n7 7 Types, ligh t an d floo d as , 5 8 Typology, 45 5 Urbanization, 48 9 Utopianism: i n America n politica l rheto ric, 184 , 192-93 ; i n Leaves of Grass, 359 "Valved voice, " 9 , 116 , 130 , 132 , 226 . See also "Lull " (an d "hum" ) Van Doren , Mark , 2 0 Vaughan, Fred , 47 0 n30 , 47 2 n42 , 49 5 Verbals, 38 , 9 2 Vocalization, infantile , 126-32 . See also Semiotic (Kristevan) ; Chora Vocal prowess , poet's , 235 , 23 8 Vocatives, 141 , 147 , 285 ; i n catalogues , 30, 4 1 - 4 2 , 4 9 Voice: animatin g word , 10 , 182 , 225 , 2 3 4 - 3 8 , 247 ; archai c dimension s of , 9 , 126-32; breac h i n self-presenc e heale d by, 122 ; catachresi s o f imag e of , i n "A s I Ebb'd, " 4 4 8 - 5 1 ; emasculatio n o f word reverse d by , 232 , 234—38 ; eroti cism define d b y imag e of , 47—49 , 129— 32, 328 ; flirtatiousnes s of , emergin g from text , 3 2 1 - 2 2 ; a s flood, 7 8 - 7 9 ; hypostatization guaranteein g power s of , 243; a s (good ) repetition , 2 5 3 - 5 5 ; idealizing power s of , 8 , 115—17 ; an d interiority, 123 , 182 ; irresistibilit y of , 3 2 7 - 2 8 ; an d lability , 8 , 9 , 124 ; lapsin g into inscriptio n organize d fo r Other , 466; a s "lull " an d "hum, " 9 , 74 , 116 ; as mediatin g trope , 8 , 114-19 ; ordi -

528 Inde

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Voice (Continued) nary, 11 ; penetrative power s of , 77 , 328; an d phalli c power , 236—37 ; poet' s presence define d by , 7—8 , 114-23 , 3 0 7 - 8 ; productiv e power s of , 9 ; punc tual identit y generate d b y imag e of , 123-24, 133 ; resistance t o power s of , in "Son g o f Myself, " 3 6 7 - 6 8 , 371-72 , 377-80; an d self-production , 8 , 1 6 9 70; silent , 116-18 ; silen t presenc e de fined by , 315 ; tropin g of , 11 , 24, 321; "valved," 9 , 116 , 130 , 132 , 226 ; wor d magic activate d by , 114—15 , 262; i n Wordsworth, 3 0 4 - 6 , 324 , 3 3 0 - 3 1 . See also Languag e theory , Whitman's ; Pres ence, poet' s Warminski, Andrzej , 36 2 n43 , 364 n5 4 Warren, James , 44 , 45 , 54 n l 3 , 55 n n l 6 18, 20 , 24 , 185 , 191 , 272 nn31 , 34, 39 , 40, 45 , 27 3 nn46 , 5 1 - 5 3 , 27 4 n54 , 277 n8 5 Washington, George , 491 , 49 2 Webster, Noah , 199-200 , 21 9 Weiskel, Thomas , 8 1 n l, 339 , 340 , 342 , 343, 36 1 n23 , 363 n53 , 364 n5 4 Whitman, Walt : late r poetr y of , 20 , 366 , 477; notebook s of , 5 2 - 5 3 , 71 , 83 n l 6 , 118, 120-21 , 128 , 15 5 n7, 15 6 n n l 7 , 30, 15 9 n50 , 163 , 214, 252 , 257 , 4 9 4 97; notebook s of , o n language , 180-81 , 186, 187-92 , 194-96 , 199 , 2 0 2 - 3 , 206, 230 , 2 3 2 - 3 3 , 235-39 , 241-44 , 271 n26 , 27 2 n38 , 27 6 nn76 , 77 . Works: American Primer, An. See Whitman, Walt: notebook s of , o n languag e "America's Mighties t Inheritance, " 194 , 199, 23 6 "Are Yo u th e Ne w Perso n Draw n Toward Me? " 414 , 45 3 "As Ada m Earl y i n th e Morning, " 15 2 "As I Ebb'd wit h th e Ocea n o f Life, " 18, 20 , 311 , 366, 399 , 433 , 4 4 4 - 6 8 ; catachresis o f Calamus in , 444 , 4 4 7 48, 4 5 2 - 6 0 , 463-64 , 467 ; catach resis o f catalogu e techniqu e in , 448 , 455—56; catachresi s o f governin g tropes o f first tw o edition s in , 4 4 5 -

52, 454-60 , 463-64 , 467-68; a s dead end , 444 ; fathe r in , 4 4 6 - 4 7 , 458; mothe r in , 446 , 448 ; Oedipa l drama in , 458 , 4 6 0 - 6 7 ; poe t bot h accused an d accusin g in , 4 4 7 - 4 8 , 4 5 8 - 5 9 ; seductio n o f Othe r at tempted in , 433 ; Whitman's fathe r a s intercessor wit h Othe r in , 460—6 4 "Assurances," 69, 8 3 n l 4, 85 "By Blue Ontario' s Shore, " 39 , 67 , 94 , 250, 26 3 Calamus, 18 , 268, 27 1 n24 , 311 , 328, 4 0 6 - 4 3 , 446 , 49 9 n n l 7 , 18 ; catach resis of , i n "A s I Ebb'd," 444 , 4 4 7 48, 452-60 , 463-64 , 467 ; catach resis o f figure o f presenc e in , 438-39 , 4 4 2 - 4 3 ; catalogue s in , a s ritua l o f transmission, 4 2 1 - 2 2 ; circulatio n o f name in , 4 2 7 - 2 8 ; circulatio n o f phal lus in , 411 , 4 2 4 - 2 5, 428-32 , 4 4 1 42; contingen t relation s celebrate d in , 19, 4 1 1 - 1 4 ; debat e concernin g focu s of, 47 1 n36 ; desir e linke d t o deat h in , 418-19, 4 3 7 - 4 3 ; homosexua l circui t of exchang e in , 411 , 4 1 7 - 1 8, 4 2 4 34; homosexualit y of , represse d b y readers, 47 1 n41 ; living presenc e re linquished in , 419 , 442—43 ; poet a s icon o r sig n in , 416 , 419 , 437 , 441, 443; poe t a s tex t in , 19 , 411, 4 3 4 35, 439 ; poet' s bond s t o other s strengthened in , 4 0 8 - 9 , 4 1 1 - 1 6 ; poet's practic e o f writin g in , 411, 4 1 4 - 1 5 , 4 3 4 - 3 5 , 4 4 1 - 4 3 ; politica l implications o f first tw o edition s questioned in , 408—11 ; rea d a s re treat fro m politics , 4 0 7 - 9 , 47 0 n29 ; regressive feature s in , 433 ; a s ritua l of homosexua l self-recognition , 4 1 6 18; self-sufficienc y relinquishe d in , 19, 411-16 , 4 1 8 - 4 3 ; symboli c statu s of object s in , 4 1 9 - 2 3 , 441 ; symboli c transmission celebrate d in , 366 , 4 1 4 34, 4 3 7 - 4 3 ; writin g a s sig n o f con tingent relation s in r, 411, 414; writin g as trop e fo r circui t o f exchang e in , 411, 4 1 4 - 1 5 , 4 3 4 - 3 5 , 439 , 441-4 3 Children of Adam, 119 , 239 , 47 1 n4 1 "Crossing Brookly n Ferry" : antipoda l

Index 52 readings of , 4—5 ; audience's rol e in, 85-89, 328-29 ; apostroph e in , 1-3 , 327; catalogue s in , 3 0 - 4 1 , contraste d to Keats' s 'Thi s livin g hand, " 2 8 0 81"; cosmology in , 57, 58 ; creatio n myth in , 6 0 - 6 1 , 7 1 - 7 2 , 8 3 nl6 ; flood imager y in , 5 8 - 5 9 , 72-75; ga p between poet' s presenc e an d ordinar y presence in , 153 ; lack depicte d in , 94-95; ligh t imager y in , 5 8 - 6 5 , 67, 76, 465 ; line s delete d from , 11-12 , 168; a s Mobiu s strip , 260; performa tive utteranc e in , 6 ; poe t a s displace d person in , 86-89 ; poet' s finit e figure in, 88 , 89-95 , 496 ; poet' s presenc e in, 7 - 8 , 114 , 116 , 122 , 170 , 241 ; poet's presenc e a s transfiguration o f light an d flood in , 75-80 , 316 , 352 ; proleptic powe r in , 289-90 , 394-95 ; sexed reproductio n in , 119-21 ; a s specimen text , 20 ; writing exclude d from, 11 , 167 , 170 ; writing facilitat ing crucial transaction s in , 26 1 Democratic Vistas, 189 , 249 , 258 , 273 n49 , 478-80 , 48 2 Drum-Taps, 134 , 366 , 47 7 1855 Preface, 67 , 105-6 , 150 , 239 , 240, 258 , 263 , 27 9 "Faces," 66, 107-9 , 134 , 157nn31 , 3 2 "Full o f Lif e Now, " 441-4 3 "I Hear I t was Charge d Agains t Me, " 417 "In Paths Untrodden, " 4 1 1 - 1 2 "I Saw i n Louisian a a Live-Oak Grow ing," 412, 4 2 8 - 2 9 "I Sing the Bod y Electric, " 68-69 , 158 n46 , 288-89 , 48 6 Leaves of Grass: allegorica l portraitur e in, 383 ; a s boo k tha t i s not a book , 12-13, 262-63 ; comi c aspect s of , 14, 16 , 153 , 268 , 283 , 307 , 309 , 316, 367 , 389-94 , 436 ; elegia c aspects of , 16 , 34 , 86 , 153 , 268, 424 , 425; a s magical synecdoche , 170 ; myth o f poet' s presenc e calle d int o question i n 186 0 editio n of , 366; a s part o f cultura l syste m i t claim s t o contest, 15 , 267-68 , 347-48 , 350 , 355-58; patho s (non-Bloomian ) in ,

9

14, 268 , 283 , 289 , 292 , 307 , 3 0 9 16, 322-23 , 329 , 368 , 403 , 421 , 427, 442—43 ; pathos in , a s disguise , 347, 356 , 357-58 ; politica l claim s for first two edition s of , 4 0 9 - 1 1 ; priority o f inscriptio n t o poe t i n 186 0 edition of , 406 ; privat e concern s in , 20, 494-97 ; Utopia n aspect s of , 359 ; vehemence o f 185 6 editio n of , 40 6 "Leaves o f Grass : A Volum e o f Poem s Just Published, " 253, 26 1 "Letter t o Ralp h Wald o Emerson, " 24 8 "Live Oa k wit h Moss, " 471 n3 6 "Long I Thought Tha t Knowledg e Alone Woul d Suffic e Me, " 4 0 7 - 9 Memoranda During the War, 47 7 "Myself an d Mine, " 24 9 "Not Hea t Flame s U p an d Consumes, " 412 "No Labor-Savin g Machine, " 41 5 "Of Hi m I Love Nigh t an d Day, " 4 3 9 40 "Out o f th e Cradl e Endlessl y Rocking, " 500 n2 2 "Passage t o India, " 57, 72, 248 , 31 2 "Poem o f You , Whoeve r Yo u Are, " 351-53,357 "Poets t o Come, " 327, 349-5 0 Primer of Words, The. See Whitman, Walt: notebook s of , o n languag e "Proud Musi c o f th e Storm, " 74-7 5 Rambles Among Words. See Swinton, William: Rambles Among Words "Recorders Age s Hence, " 415-16, 419 , 441 "Respondez!," 257 , 25 8 "Roots an d Leave s Themselve s Alone, " 420-25, 44 1 "Salut a u Monde!, " 4 1 - 4 3, 5 1 - 5 2 "Says," 25 8 "Scented Herbag e o f M y Breast, " 424 , 434-39 "Slang i n America," 190 , 38 9 "The Sleepers, " 28 n28 , 102-5 , 49 1 "So Long!, " 13 , 152-53 , 313-16 , 34 9 "A Song fo r Occupations, " 66, 178 , 244, 252 , 256 , 27 0 n l 2 , 285-87 , 327 "A Son g o f Joys," 8 2 n! 3

5 3 0 Inde

x

Whitman, Wal t {Continued) "Song o f Myself, " 8 3 nl8 , 366-406 ; assimilative urg e in, 19 ; castration in , 133-34; catalogu e techniqu e in , 4 4 46; closur e evade d in , 368 , 394-406 ; as comed y o f incarnation , 19 , 153 , 3 6 6 - 8 1 , 385-86 ; floo d imager y in , 73; heteroglossi a in , 388-94 ; imag e of voic e in , 9 , 74 , 75 , 116 , 128 , 237 ; light imager y in , 76-77 , 465 ; meta phor in , 368 , 385-87 ; parado x o f identity in , 368—84 ; phallic bod y in , 369-70, 3 7 2 - 7 3 , 3 7 5 - 8 1 , 384 , 395 , 396, 397 ; poe t a s su n go d in , 77 ; poet's presenc e in , 3 , 8 , 68 , 110 , 111-13, 122-23 , 147-48 , 150-52 , 245, 254 , 307-10 , 321 , 329 ; prolepsis suspended in , 326 , 327 , 368 , 370 , 394-406; a s psychomachia, 444-45 ; representation warne d agains t in , 256; sectio n one , 369-70 , 396-97 ; section two , 4 7 - 4 9 , 125-26 , 1 7 8 79, 397 ; sectio n three , 177-78 , 3 9 2 93, 397-98 ; sectio n four , 371 , 3 9 8 99; sectio n five, 129-32 , 226 , 369 , 398-99, 425 ; sectio n six , 214 , 3 9 9 404; sectio n eight , 46 ; sectio n twelve , 377-80; sectio n thirteen , 378-80 ; section fifteen , 44 ; sectio n twenty five, 150-52 ; sectio n twenty-eight , 95-102, 130-32 , 369 , 49 8 n l 3 ; sec tion thirty-one , 4 6 - 4 7 ; sectio n thirty three, 45 , 385—86 ; sectio n fifty-two, 359 n i l , 405—6 ; sexed reproductio n in, 120 ; slan g in , 368 , 385 , 389-90 ; social violenc e in , 382-84 ; struggl e over voic e in , 285 , 368 , 385 , 3 8 8 94; transfigure d bodie s in , 149 ; valedictory to , i n "A s I Ebb'd," 468; word magi c in , 40, 367 , 372 , 375 , 377; writin g excoriate d in , 24 8 "Song o f th e Answerer, " 78 , 123 , 126 , 252-53 "Song o f th e Ope n Road, " 66, 147 , 166, 215 , 245 , 309 , 35 6 "A Son g o f th e Rollin g Earth, " 134 , 175-77, 2 1 2 - 1 3 , 224-28 , 23 2 "Souvenirs o f Democracy, " 317—2 0

Specimen Days, 8 3 n22 , 134 , 238 , 47 8 "Starting fro m Paumanok, " 3 , 7 , 72 , 83 n l 8, 110 , 229 , 289 , 312 , 321 , 35 0 "States!," 247, 417-1 8 "Sun-Down Poem, " 24 nl . See also "Crossing Brookly n Ferry " "These I Singing i n Spring, " 4 2 5 - 3 3 , 441 "To a Stranger," 41 3 "To On e Shortl y t o Die, " 6 9 "To Thin k o f Time, " 65, 354-5 5 "To You, " 4, 115,32 2 "Trickle Drops, " 45 4 "When I Heard a t the Clos e o f Day, " 412-13, 452 , 45 3 "When Lilac s Las t i n th e Dooryar d Bloom'd," 49 1 "Whoever Yo u Ar e Holdin g M e No w in Hand, " 178 , 41 4 Wilentz, Sean , 193 , 27 3 n48 , 46 9 nl5 , 498 n i l Wittgenstein, Ludwig , 40 , 44 , 51 , 55 n22 , 56 n2 8 Word: consubstantia l wit h thing , 180—81 , 196, 208 ; germina l powe r of , 181-82 ; motivated connectio n t o thing , 184 , 186, 197 , 211 ; poet's, a s detritus, 466 ; poet's, competin g wit h othe r representa tions, 260 ; renewa l of , dependen t o n poet's body , 238-45 ; ritua l powe r of , challenged i n "Son g o f Myself, " 385 , 388-94. See also Languag e theory , Whitman's Word magic : i n catalogues , 39 , 53 ; col lapsing int o symboli c power , 358 ; freeing poe t fro m dependenc e o n others , 326; a s limina l formation , 47 , 135 , 145, 147 , 243 ; an d incarnation , 10 ; and incorporation , 125 , 384 ; poet's , ex erting proleptic powe r ove r others , 326 , 347; an d punctua l self-presence , 1 2 3 24, 133 ; as rejectio n o f castration , 144 , 146, 171 , 325-26; a s rejectio n o f sym bolic debt , 142 ; relinquished i n Calamus, 420 , 4 2 2 - 2 3 , 425 , 438 ; repre sented rathe r tha n enacte d i n Leaves of Grass, 14 , 307 , 3 1 0 - 1 1 ; an d self-pro duction, 8—9 , 146 , 463 ; i n "Son g o f

Index 5 3 Myself," 40, 367 , 372 , 375 , 377 . See also Performativ e utterance ; Languag e theory, Whitman' s Wordsworth, William , 8 3 nl9 , 279 , 282 ; archaic materia l in , 344-46 ; deat h in ternalized in , 3 0 2 - 6, 317 , 335 , 3 4 1 42; deat h o f fathe r in , 3 4 0 - 4 1 ; demys tification in , 292—93, 306; enjambmen t in, 295 ; o n epitaphs , 302 , 303 , 3 0 4 - 6 , 330-38; th e feminin e an d th e materna l in, 343-46 ; garmen t a s figure in, 3 3 1 32, 333 ; humanized imaginatio n in , 292-306, 325 , 339 , 343-46 ; human ized transmissio n in , 329-30 , 336—38 , 339; imaginatio n linke d t o cultura l au thority in , 340 , 342-43 ; imag e o f voic e in, 299-302 , 324 ; landscape a s imag e in, 296 ; livin g presence relinquishe d in , 303-6; an d Miltoni c blindness , 361 n22 ; myth o f huma n continuit y in , 293-95, 301-6 , 3 2 9 - 3 1 , 343-46 ; Oedipal structur e in , 336—46 ; patriarchal powe r attenuate d in , 346 ; persona l ethos in , 3 0 5 - 6, 323-26 , 3 2 9 - 3 1 , 345-46, 416 , 418-19 ; pre-Oedipa l ma terial in , 343-46 ; prolepsi s in , 292 , 329, 335-38 ; recitatio n o r re-readin g in, 306 ; "spot s o f time " in, 340-42 ; o n the sublime , 339-46 ; sublim e imagina tion in , 3 4 2 - 4 3, 36 1 n23 ; sublim e power disavowe d by , 293 , 296-98 , 301, 339 , 343-46 ; symboli c compact s in, 292 , 301-6 , 323-26 , 3 2 9 - 3 1 , 3 3 9 46; temperin g o f powe r in , 325 ; trans mission in , 293, 301-6 , 329-47 , 3 5 5 56; writin g in , 292, 302 , 3 0 4 - 6 , 324 , 341-42 "The Brothers, " 324-2 5 Essays upon Epitaphs, 3 0 2 - 3 , 331-3 5 "Lines Compose d a Few Mile s abov e Tintern Abbey, " 3 3 - 3 4 , 86 , 2 9 2 300, 3 0 3 - 6 , 316 , 324-25 , 338 , 339 , 346, 36 1 n24 , 411 , 418-19 , 421 , 437 "Lines (Lef t upo n a Seat i n a Yew Tree)," 33 1 "Matthew," 335-3 6 "Michael," 336-38 , 35 8

1

"Ode: Intimation s o f Immortality, " 29 6 Prelude, The, 293 , 301 , 342-4 6 "There Wa s a Boy," 299-302, 330 , 361 nn27 , 2 9 Writing: acknowledge d i n 186 0 edition , 312-16; a s aggression , 17 ; antinom y o f voice and , 169 , 173 , 239 ; a s (bad ) repe tition, 231-34 , 252-55 ; an d castration , 171-72, 233-34 ; i n catalogues , 287 ; and classification , 232—33 ; and cultura l coercion, 15 , 17 , 330 ; daemoni c power s of, 2 4 7 - 5 1 ; an d death , 312-16 , 251 ; denial o f rol e playe d by , 12 , 16 , 1 6 7 68, 170 , 179 , 282 , 291 , 319 ; a s detri tus, 459 ; diatribe s against , 13 , 27 n22 , 253; a s discours e o f Other , 121 ; as disease, 2 4 9 - 5 1 ; emasculatin g bod y an d voice, 179 , 239 , 248-49 ; expressiv e repetition impossibl e in , 232-34; falle n language epitomize d by , 14 , 178-79 , 182, 187 , 216 , 233-35 , 246 ; illici t powers of , 17 ; a s image , 2 5 0 - 5 1 ; infel icity o f speec h act s registere d by , 308 ; intertwining o f poet' s voic e with , 17 , 170-73, 2 5 1 - 5 3 , 458 ; liabilitie s of , 13 ; metamorphosing int o speech , 321 ; perverse lineag e of , 250 ; poet' s practic e of , in Calamus, 411 , 414-15, 434-35 , 441-43; poet' s presenc e constitute d by , 12-14, 260—64 ; poet's presenc e vitiate d by, 14 , 168-70 , 262 , 307 , 460 ; poet' s special mod e of , 262—64 , 317-18 ; poet's voic e extricate d from , 170 ; a s repetition compulsion , 2 4 9 - 5 1 ; an d representation, 178 , 246 , 250 , 254-55 ; ritual containmen t o f ill s attribute d to , 178-79; an d self-division , 17-18 , 187 ; and self-reflexivity , 2 3 2 - 3 3 ; severin g word fro m livin g presence , 232-34 ; a s sign o f poet' s dependenc e o n audience , 328—29; as sig n o f poet' s relianc e o n symbolic transmission , 3 0 6 - 7 , 3 1 7 - 2 3 , 328-29, 347-48 , 355-57 ; a s sig n o f the sign , 266—67 ; speec h act s haunte d by awarenes s of , 283-84 , 3 0 6 - 2 3 , 328-29, 356-57 ; spiri t as , 445, 446 , 447, 456 , 458-59 ; an d substitution , 233; suppose d impotenc e of , 247 ; sur -

53* Inde x Writing {Continued) faces associate d with , 182 , 247 ; sym bolic transmissio n epitomize d by , 3 1 6 20, 347-48 ; a s trop e fo r circui t o f ex change i n Calamus, 411 , 414-15, 4 3 4 35, 439 , 441-43 ; a s trope fo r eroti c en coding, 102 , 104—6 ; as usurpation , 251, 252 ; a s vampiric, 2 4 7 - 5 1 , 291 , 335, 351 ; Whitman makin g hi s peac e with, 168 ; Whitman's complaint s about, 166 ; Whitman's fascinatio n wit h

powers of , 348 ; i n Wordsworth, 292 , 302, 304-6 , 324 , 341-42 . See also Book; Languag e theory , Whitman's ; Text Ziff, Larzar , 27 2 n32 , 49 8 n l 4 Zweig, Paul , 52 , 56 n32 , 15 9 n59 , 412, 4 6 1 - 6 2 , 464 , 47 0 nn30 32, 471 n36 Zwinger, Lynda, 469 n23, 499 nn!9, 20