What Makes a Balanced Leader?: An Islamic Perspective 9783110743395, 9783110743197

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What Makes a Balanced Leader?

Management, Spirituality and Religion

Series Editor Yochanan Altman

Volume 3

What Makes a Balanced Leader? An Islamic Perspective Edited by Noha El-Bassiouny, Ahmed Amin and Jonathan A. J. Wilson

ISBN 978-3-11-074319-7 e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-074339-5 e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-074349-4 ISSN 2700-7790 Library of Congress Control Number: 2022945394 Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data are available on the internet at http://dnb.dnb.de. © 2023 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston Cover image: Ion Jonas, based on an idea by Yochanan Altman Typesetting: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck www.degruyter.com

Contents Noha El-Bassiouny, Youmna El-Sherbiny, Ahmed Amin, Jonathan A. J. Wilson Introduction: Delineating the Concept of Islamic Balanced Leadership 1 Yusuf M. Sidani Chapter 1 Ethics and Leadership in Islam Between Universalist Principles and Utilitarian Ends 31 Eman S. ElKaleh Chapter 2 A Model of Balanced Leadership from an Islamic Perspective: What Makes a Balanced and Effective Muslim Leader 45 Dalia Abdelrahman Farrag, Rana Sobh Chapter 3 Balanced Leadership from an Islamic Perspective: Between Philosophy and Practice 63 Noha Farrag, Dina El Odessy, Noha Omaya Shabana Chapter 4 Prophet Muhammed as a Holistic Balanced Leader: Perspectives and Principles 81 Dina Abdelzaher, Zahir Latheef Chapter 5 Balanced Leadership: Challenges and Opportunities of Inclusion in American Muslim Nonprofits 105 Menatallah Darrag, Ahmed Amin Chapter 6 Constructing and Validating the Balanced Leadership Measure Elif Baykal Chapter 7 Ensuring Islamic Balanced Leadership Through Islamic Workplace Spirituality: A System Theory Approach 145

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Dina El Odessy Chapter 8 God-Centered and Human-Based Leadership in Islam: The Power of Spiritual Values – A Case Study of ELARABY Group 161 Noha El-Bassiouny, Ahmed Amin, Jonathan A. J. Wilson Concluding Remarks 181 List of Figures List of Tables

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Authors’ Biographies Index

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MSR Series: List of Published Volumes MSR Journal

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Introduction: Delineating the Concept of Islamic Balanced Leadership Abstract: While robust conceptualizations of Islamic leadership are covered in Islamic studies and the humanities, its nascence within Business and Management and the Social Sciences presents both arguments and opportunities for further investigation. In response, this paper explores the notion of balanced leadership. We aim to fill a gap in knowledge through delineating Islamic perspectives: first, delving into the origins of balance within the Western and Eastern traditions; second, examining how such concepts are understood within the field of psychology; and third, exploring the notion of balance within the field of management by going through character-centered leadership theories. Finally, a conceptualized Islamic perspective on balanced leadership is presented in detail. Keywords: Balanced Leadership, Islamic Leadership, Moderation, Prophet Mohammad, Spiritual Leadership, Transformational Leadership, Virtue

Introduction Global crises, such as the financial crisis of 2008 or the Coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), trigger questions related to global leadership in the world today. A recent article at the Financial Times entitled “World Health Organization (WHO) chief says lack of global leadership has prolonged pandemic” blamed global powers for not standing up to the needed leadership challenge in the COVID-19 pandemic which raises further questions about the leaders of the world powers (Wilson & Pilling, 2020). Issues that have to do with addressing the Sustainable Development Goals set by the United Nations or debates surrounding climate change all reflect a leadership crisis evident in the world today. Leadership is one of the most researched topics in the field of management. Early research on this phenomena has focused on identifying the traits and general styles of effective leaders. More recently, attention has focused on more principled and positive leadership styles. Examples of such styles include authentic (Gardner, Cogliser, Davis & Dickens, 2011), ethical (Lawton & Páez, 2014) and servant leadership (Parris & Peachey, 2013). In spite of the significant knowledge gained from such research during the last few decades, we still lack a full understanding of leadership processes in different

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-001

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contexts. Religion is a key contextual variable that has not been examined in the mostly secular literature. According to Egel and Fry (2017: 77), “western-based models dominate leadership research and practice, although a consensus is emerging that new theories and models are needed to foster cross-cultural understanding and rapprochement.” The authors note that Islamic leadership research (e.g. Abdulla & Al-Hamoud, 2001; Beekun, 2012 and others) rests upon secular (Western)-based models and conceptualizations that, although can have commonalities with Islamic tenets, yet lack the spiritual dimension which is an important aspect of Islam. They, therefore, draw on spiritual leadership theories and Islamic religious texts to conceptualize a model for Islamic leadership (Egel & Fry, 2017). Despite merit, a holistic and comprehensive theory based on the notion of “balance” that is core to God’s (Allah) creation is still lacking (see e.g. Holy Qur’an 28: 77, 2: 143). The model of the Prophet Muhammad, who exemplified balance and moderation in all his actions, is also not reflected in the nascent literature. From an Islamic perspective, balanced leaders are able to balance their rights and obligations, their hearts and minds, their spiritual and material well-being, and their constraints and capabilities. They are like a strong-rooted tree that uses divine guidance to produce more and more fruit. The question remains: If we were to envision those balanced leaders, what would their traits be? To date, no conceptual or empirical researches have addressed that question in an all-inclusive manner. A blurred “mechanical” definition for balanced leadership exists in prior literature. For example, Müller, Packendorff and Sankaran (2017) defined balanced leadership as a “balance” between horizontal and vertical leadership in the context of organizational project management. Prior research has also focused on the notion of balanced leadership of principals in the context of school achievements (Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003), yet had not answered the pertinent question of what makes a balanced leader. The purpose of this manuscript is to take a few steps toward delineating some of the conceptual foundations of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective. The manuscript is organized around four sections. In the first section, we review the history of the balance concept in Western and Eastern philosophical traditions. In the second section, we highlight balance theory in psychology. In the third section, we review the concepts of balanced leadership in management followed by character-centered leadership theories. In the final section, we review the Islamic perspective on balanced leadership and present our conceptualization of the concept.

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The History of “Balance” in Western and Eastern Traditions This section discusses the history of the concept of balance and moderation by tracing its roots in philosophical and theological theories and concepts.

Greek Origins of the Notion of Balance The philosophy of balance existed in ancient Greece where individuals aspired to achieve ultimate and comprehensive moderation. For instance, the need for power balance emerged within Greek culture due to the outbreak of conflicts, wars, and fights for prestige (Dinneen, 2018). Greeks have also aspired to achieve balance in ecology. While pre-Socratic philosophers have discussed whether nature is always in a state of change, the Greek scientists comprehended that nature exists in a constant and balanced state. Accordingly, they built theories about the Earth and nature that emphasizes balance (Egerton, 1973). In ancient Greece, education mainly aimed to develop personal virtue. In Athens, education was formally available in schools and informally available throughout daily civic life and people’s interactions with one another. Furthermore, several social gatherings in theatres, law courts, and choruses as well as the assembly were responsible for individuals’ general education. Generally, education in Greece accentuated the importance of attaining “arête” (also called “virtues”) and indicated the achievement of excellence in different aspects of life, which was Aristotle’s main matter of interest. The philosophy of virtue – arête – articulates that the basis of morality is manifested in the growth of positive character qualities and traits as virtues; an individual who has virtues is assumed to be a “good” person (Arjoon, 2000; Arneson, 2018). According to Aristotle, virtues are the art of being a good person. They are a set of traits that inhabits an individual’s character and makes her/him behave well as a human being and properly perform her/his tasks. The absence of virtues indicate the improper performance of one’s tasks. According to Aristotle, knowing merely how to perform a certain task does not suffice; rather, one must virtuously perform tasks or behave with excellence (Arjoon, 2000; Woodard, 1992). The essence of the virtue theory is the moderation concept; Aristotle delineates that virtues lie between two opposite vices: defect and excess. As Arjoon (2000: 163) explains, “we must respond to a particular situation in the right time, in the right way, in the right amount, and for the right reason.” Furthermore, the two utmost and extreme vices of every virtue are: “defect,” which could be easily determined most of the time, and “excess,” which closely resembles the virtue in question. For instance, the two extremes of the virtue of courage are cowardice and recklessness; and the

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virtue of generosity’s two extremes are stinginess and extravagance (Arjoon, 2000; Woodard, 1992). Several philosophers such as Socrates used philosophy to answer their inquiries about humans. Plato used philosophy to inquire about virtues. As for Aristotle, he looked at morals and ethics from a practical rather than merely philosophical or theoretical perspective. Aristotle believed that an individual should behave based on the right reasons and circumstances. Such belief has been considered vague by some, as Aristotle did not specifically define what constitutes “right behavior.” However, he explained that one is able to virtuously behave through habituation which means repeating the same behavior until it becomes a part of one’s character; and, only then, one can act in right reason (Arjoon, 2000; Arneson, 2018; Çetin, 2020). Moreover, Aristotle composed two philosophical treatises: The Eudemian Ethics and The Nicomachean Ethics. Both focus on how to live a “good life.” The Eudemian Ethics focuses on the context of civic life and accentuates individuals’ character qualities that allow them to lead a favorable life (Arneson, 2018). The Nicomachean Ethics aims to guide individuals to become good and lead good lives by understanding virtues which dispose individuals to noble acts. Two forms of virtue originate in noble deeds: intellectual and moral. Intellectual excellence or virtues include philosophy, prudence, and appreciation; and moral or character virtues include liberality and temperance. Intellectual virtues can be taught. However, moral virtues are developed by habituation and cannot be taught (Arjoon, 2000; Arneson, 2018).

Confucianism’s Chung Yung Confucianism originated in ancient Chinese and East Asian Cultures. During Confucius’ life, the Chinese nation was going through changes and instability. Accordingly, he introduced a balance theory that aims to achieve harmony within the society. As a result, the principles of Confucius’ theory were implanted and instilled in the nation, as they were suitable to the Chinese society. Consequently, the Chinese government made sure that societal harmony is at the essence of its political agenda (Hill, 2006; Li, 2008; Tsai, 2005; Zhang, Yao, Xu & Zhai, 2017). According to Confucius, a superior individual or leader should abide by the principle of balance in his/her actions. Accordingly, balanced virtues compose a leader’s benchmark for superior behavior and decision-making while leading a team; such theory is explicitly elaborated in Confucius’ The Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung). Greer and Lim (1998) break it down as follows: “Chung” corresponds to the state of neutrality or balance where individuals’ emotions are at ease; while “Yung” refers to regulated and controlled response to different situations. Furthermore, Chung Yung focuses mainly on reaching the balance between two extreme vices as Confucius refrained from extremes. This is similar to Aristotle’s golden mean theory, as it also

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calls for avoiding the extremes of defect and excess by guiding individuals to societal moderation as well as harmonious behaviors and morals so that they can eventually attain peace of mind (Cheng, 1972; Hill, 2006; Li, 2008; Tsai, 2005). Furthermore, Confucius mentions in his theory that a wise person should balance between different opinions and harmoniously work with others. On the same token as Confucianism, achieving harmony puts individuals on the right path toward heaven by balancing between the Yin and Yang which is believed to mean “the middle path” and demonstrates the philosophy of balance (Gao & HandleySchachler, 2003; Li, 2008). Based on Confucianism, balanced leaders are not constantly concerned and distressed; they are rather more at ease. Further, they also refrain from being concerned merely about their individual gains; rather, they think of the common good and what is suitable for others, as they prefer behaving based on morals and prioritizing what is best on a collective level. Moreover, balanced leaders are not biased toward one school of thought; rather, they follow what is right based on situational context. Additionally, Confucianism also highlights that balanced leaders attain consistency between their speeches and actions, and they would rather act before they speak. They also tend to be more down to earth when they speak and show what they are capable of through superior actions that exceed expectations (Greer & Lim, 1998; Li, 2008; Tsai, 2005). Confucianism balances individual and collective interests; as the world has become more interactive, individuals must learn how to live in harmony with each other – the essence of Confucianism – especially in today’s global village with diverse races, religions, and cultures. However, when a conflict is born between individual and collective gains, according to Confucius, one must prioritize what is most suitable for the common good (Li, 2008; Tsai, 2005). Another aspect of Confucianism is that it demonstrates the difference between leading people in accordance with regulations and punishments versus leading them based on virtues. That is, when people are led based on laws and punishments, they will refrain from wrong doings; however, they will not develop any sense of conscience or shame. On the other hand, leading people in accordance with virtues would enrich a sense of morality and shame which guide them into the right path, away from any wrong doings. Accordingly, it can be concluded that people are best led when their leaders set a good and virtuous example (Greer & Lim, 1998; Tsai, 2005; Zhang et al., 2017).

The Christian Notion of Moderation As previously mentioned, the philosophy of balance and virtue was first developed by Aristotle during the ancient Greek era. This philosophy was Christianized by Aquinas: the ultimate good union with God for Christians can be accomplished by the

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virtue of caritas which means self-sacrificing love and charity. It is also important to mention that virtues constitute the essence of the Christian beliefs. The Christian virtues call for the subordinates of Jesus to become like him by accordingly habituating their actions and daily behaviors, in other words, by doing what Jesus did. Moreover, imitating the actions of Christ does not necessarily mean embracing external values to one’s character. Rather, such values and behaviors are infused within the Christian character as Christians practice the concept of virtue through acts of love, faith, and charity (Kloppenberg, 1987; Lawler & Salzman, 2013; Meyer, 2010). On the other hand, Mattison III (2011) argued that according to Aquinas, individuals’ behaviors that are based on an infused habit or virtue within their character do not lead to a habit. They rather lead to strengthening the habits that already exist within their personalities. Accordingly, he concluded that infused habits are the ones that already exist. Moreover, according to Aquinas, infused virtues lead individuals to supernatural joy and happiness. Christian virtues are habituated within the Christian character through the repetition of the acts of love, charity, integrity, hope, and faith for the right events, the right individuals, the right time, and the right cause (Lawler & Salzman, 2013). Accordingly, a Christian individual will repeatedly act like Christ until he/she becomes more like him. As a result, one will achieve Christian excellence and supreme joy (Lawler & Salzman, 2013). On the other hand, psychologists mention that humans have their shadows, a sum of unpleasant qualities that individuals try to hide. According to the Christian principles, individuals must honor their shadows by being true to themselves, to achieve balance, authenticity, and honesty. Moreover, one’s shadow could be overpowered by embracing the Christian virtues and meditating on how to perform better, practicing self-control and integrating this virtue into various dimensions of one’s life (Lawler & Salzman, 2013; McGarry, 1996; Pike, 2019). Christianity agrees with Aristotle’s philosophy that moderation itself is a virtue. However, Aquinas argues that moderation is the cardinal virtue and calls for condoning the most seductive things, especially, earthly materialistic pleasures. That is, it is an ethical virtue that moderates one’s attraction to materialistic pleasures and offers the needed balance to be used for the created goods. Accordingly, Christianity also calls for embracing the moderated virtues between the two extremes: excess and defect (Lawler & Salzman, 2013).

The “Balance” Concept in Psychology Mental well-being is entrenched in a balanced means of living, nurtured by the development of mental equilibrium and the fruition of an individual’s experiences of wisdom and empathy. Accordingly, the pursuit of true well-being, wisdom, and

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morality is completely incorporated. Further, individuals seek to develop psychological balance through seeking true happiness and mental well-being which are not based on materialistic pleasures; and esthetic or intellectual stimulation. Moreover, mental well-being is categorized into four types of psychological balance: conative, attentional, cognitive, and affective (Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). Wallace and Shapiro (2006) illustrate that inner well-being can be achieved through various factors including the joy of building a family, creating works of art, and uncovering new scientific mysteries. However, other researchers argue that such factors are not enough to achieve mental well-being and psychological balance. Furthermore, imbalance in mind due to causes such as frustration, anxiety, and depression cause individuals to mentally suffer. The four types of mental balance are believed to be significant components that contribute to training the mind to achieve high levels of psychological balance. Although they are separately discussed, they are integrated, and whenever a change in balance occurs in any type, consequences are observed in the others. For instance, if one cultivates any kind of gain in affective balance, then, consequently, he/she will gain more wisdom that qualifies him/her in determining their goals (conative balance) and gain more attentive skills that enable him/her to better focus on goals (attentional balance), and finally, cognitive balance will also generate gains represented in more intellectual balance (Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). First, conative balance is the foundation of the other three types, as it allows individuals to determine intentions, priorities, and objectives. The consequence of achieving conative balance is a decline in interest in achieving excess materialistic pleasures and social status; it rather results in a growing dedication to leading a profoundly rewarding life, eligible by cultivating mental well-being, knowledge, and virtue. On the other hand, conative imbalances cause individuals to lose their way and deviate from their desires and volitions toward psychological imbalance and distress. Accordingly, the motivation to seek happiness as well as its causes decrease, followed by a lack in creativity, leading to conative deficit (De Silva, 2010; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). Second, attentional balance is necessary to form cognitive and affective mental balance. Attentional balance is achieved by conquering attentional deficit that hinders individuals from focusing on a certain objective and through attaining consistent, voluntary concentration which is a critical factor for mental health and top performance in any type of purposeful activity. Conversely, anxiety is one of the factors that lead to attentional imbalances, as one who suffers from anxiety will have a narrow span of attention toward his/her main objective. Further, anxiety deviates one’s attention to factors that are believed to create a form of threat or risk. Accordingly, attentional imbalances could be overcome through developing mindfulness as well as keeping one’s attention on a familiar object, without distractions. Additionally, one must remain relaxed and sustainably develop new psychological

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skills (Coombes, Higgins, Gamble, Cauraugh & Janelle, 2009; Eysenck, Derakshan, Santos & Calvo, 2007; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). Third, cognitive balance is achieved by overcoming attentional imbalances by embracing mindfulness and applying it to daily experiences. Individuals with a healthy cognitive balance acknowledge the needed mechanism to attend to what is presented to their senses while building inner awareness of their mental processes. On the contrary, individuals who suffer from cognitive imbalances, usually due to anxiety and depression, lose touch with reality. Moreover, they tend to have cognitive deficit; in other words, they are absent-minded and cannot differentiate between reality and their fantasies which is called “cognitive hyper-activity.” That is, such individuals get shortsighted in terms of their perceptions and expectations, leading them to fail in apprehending real events. Furthermore, they usually have thoughts that deviate from the tasks that they are performing, leading to ineffective performance (Derakshan & Eysenck, 2009; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006). Finally, affective balance is the result of achieving conative, attentional, and cognitive balance. It calls for overcoming excessive emotional fluctuations, emotional indifference, and improper emotions. In contrast, individuals who suffer from affective deficit have indications of emotional numbness and apathy. Furthermore, they are characterized by depression, narcissism, taking pleasure in the misery of others, and being irritated by others’ accomplishments and successes. Accordingly, one can overcome affective imbalance by embracing qualities such as kindness, compassion, joy, empathy, and serenity (Huitt & Cain, 2005; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006).

The “Balance” Concept in Management: Stakeholder Theory The term “stakeholder” was intended as a general term that refers the only party within organizations to whom managers respond. Sternberg (1997) defined the notion of stakeholders as “those groups without whose support the organization would cease to exist.” Thus, stakeholders within an organization were originally defined as the group of individuals who can influence or be influenced by the accomplishments of the organization’s goals. However, a change in the concept occurred, and today, stakeholders are most generally known as those who have shares in an organization. Consequently, the number of individuals who can be considered as stakeholders has significantly increased to include not only the financial creditors but also employees, consumers, government officials, communities, and suppliers (Jensen, 2001; Reynolds, Schultz & Hekman, 2006). As a result, managers have tried to resort to the stakeholder theory to balance the competing interests and benefits of stakeholders. The number of stakeholders whose interests need to be considered by managers has increased; consequently,

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balancing stakeholders’ interests has become an unattainable objective. Thus, to achieve balance, the number of stakeholders must be reduced. Furthermore, the stakeholder theory offers no guidance to managers on how to balance the competing interests of stakeholders (Jensen, 2001; Orts & Strudler, 2002, 2009; Reynolds et al., 2006; Sternberg, 1997). Competing interests of an unlimited number of stakeholders vary: customers demand affordable prices and good quality and service; employees demand high salaries, high-quality working environments, and marginal compensation that includes vacation, medical insurance, and retirement; communities demand abundant charitable donations, corporate social expenditures that support the society, expansion of local investments, and sustainable employment (Jensen, 2001). Jensen (2001) and Orts and Strudler (2009) argue that the stakeholder theory could eventually lead to organizational losses in value and welfare, especially if the organization’s competitors aspire to maximize their value in the market. The stakeholder theory does not provide any kind of criterion for managers on how to conduct tradeoffs between competing stakeholder interests. This eventually leads to vague and unclear organizational goals. Then, why do some managers still adopt the stakeholder theory? Orts and Strudler (2002) as well as Phillips, Freeman and Wicks (2003) illustrate that the stakeholder theory is a modernized conception of old business principles that acknowledge business activities to go beyond merely generating money. The principles of the stakeholder theory extend to corporate social responsibility, as it enriches the integration of ethics, and social and public contributions within organizational processes. Embracing such a concept widens business visions beyond the generation of profits, in addition to providing the needed support for serving non-stockholder individuals. Furthermore, the stakeholder theory aims to help managers balance between maximizing their corporation’s economic value and other non-economic aspects such as moral obligations imposed on the management (Orts & Strudler, 2002, 2009; Phillips et al., 2003). Managers aim to balance stakeholder interests, as the main objective of the stakeholder theory is to enable the management to take decisions to maximize the economic and non-economic value of an organization. Further, the stakeholder theory does not prioritize the interests of a certain stakeholder group at the expense of other stakeholders’ interests. It calls for balancing all stakeholders’ interests across the organization. However, for the stakeholder theory to be completely effective, guidelines must be provided for managers on how to achieve such balance. Yet, unfortunately, the mechanism of achieving balance has not been constructed (Orts & Strudler, 2002; Reynolds et al., 2006). As mentioned by Jensen (2001) and Reynolds et al. (2006), the stakeholder theory must be updated and developed to guide managers in determining tradeoffs between corporate stakeholders’ competing interests. Furthermore, Orts and Strudler (2002) mention that to compensate for the lack of such developments and criterion,

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managers have developed ways to fill out the gap to be able to make a range of decisions that aim to balance competing stakeholder interests. For instance, they have come up with the solution of negotiating contracts and arrangements with corporate staff, suppliers, and consumers. Additionally, they have agreed to terms of various credit and loan instruments as well as issuing shares and determining whether to pay dividends.

Character-Centered Leadership Theories Bontas (2012) illustrates that leadership today is deemed to create enduring passion and enthusiasm for shared good causes; to demonstrate innovative and creative solutions to critical problems; and to inspire change in individuals as well as basic values and attitudes. In general terms, leadership is classified as “good” or “effective” when other social groups’ priorities and interests are not negatively impacted. Accordingly, leaders concentrate on how to use the leverage they have to inspire the self-assumed participation of their subordinates. Put differently, Bontas (2012) states that an organization requires wise leadership that uses the power of its heads to realize the needed changes for the development of the organization. He also notes that a famous American professor, John Kotter, has identified three steps that a leader must follow to achieve constructive change: – Focus: Establish a long-term vision of the future and provide the methods and mechanisms by which this vision will be achieved; – Align Individuals: Communicate the orientation to individuals whose support is required to build coalitions to grasp the vision and the needed motivation to accomplish it; – Motivate Individuals: Keep individuals engaged in the right path, regardless of the obstacles that might hinder the desired change, while using the basic values, ideals, and fundamentals of human emotions. Zhang and Foo (2012) demonstrate the Sun and Yi aspects of balanced leadership. They tackle the balance between gaining and losing in the relationship between leaders and their subordinates in an organization and state that losing is the beginning of gaining. This concept is found in both governmental and non-governmental organizations where subordinates are willing to sacrifice by performing more tasks than required in order to support their leader and benefit the organization. On the other hand, the leader sacrifices by taking more time beyond his/her working hours to determine the suitable means to give credit to the subordinates. Such balanced and sustainable relationship between leaders and subordinates would eventually lead to balanced management systems in organizations.

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Furthermore, a leader should wholeheartedly works for the good of his followers who, in turn, give him complete support for his upright actions, as they are on the same boat working toward achieving the same goal. In other words, if a leader and his/her subordinates aim to cross a river, and the suitable instrument they need to cross the river is a wooden boat, then, they will work together in balance to build this instrument and cross the river to the other side (Zhang & Foo, 2012). As demonstrated by Zhang and Foo (2012), balanced leadership would lead to harmonized and sustainable development within an organization. The authors state that when balanced leadership is used to achieve collaborative and harmonized work among a leader and his/her subordinates, eventually, organizational objectives would be achieved in harmony and with minimized obstacles. By the same token, to describe the concept, they use the analogy of blending tone and sound that creates a balanced and harmonized melody. Thus, it can be concluded that harmony and balance in the relationship between leaders and their subordinates would lead to eventual success and achievement of common goals, just like the forerunner and the subordinates whose path is intertwined toward the same direction to achieve the same goal. Rather than taking advantage of the leader position to act like a superior, having close subordinates and engaging them in activities works in a leader’s favor (Zhang & Foo, 2012). Furthermore, a balanced leader can achieve a sense of balance from a managerial perspective if he/she can build a productive and united team with collaborative experiences and expertise. In such a balanced team setting, seniors would act as mentors to junior team members, and the team would collaborate by contributing conceptual and technical skills to efficiently add value to the organization. Moreover, balance can be achieved among team members themselves if their leader emphasizes teamwork and gives team members space to express their opinions to produce an outcome with the highest quality (Zhang & Foo, 2012). One can obtain balance in character by developing several aspects that affect one’s growth and development of personality. One such aspect is strength of heart. Research shows that strength of heart is strongly correlated with one’s satisfaction with life, as suggested by Haridas, Bhullar and Dunstan (2017). In addition to strength of heart, one must also develop mindfulness which is a type of awareness; developing mindfulness means developing a sense of curiosity leading one to deliberately direct attention to current experiences and events in an open, non-judgmental manner (Dolatyar & Walker, 2020; Magidson et al., 2020; Salazar & Khandelwal, 2021; Tobin & Dunkley, 2020). Moreover, balance in human development includes the principle of responsibility. Responsible leaders cause positive and meaningful change within their organization by creating relationships that are based on trust and the arrangement of the organizations’ processes and structures. They ethically behave and think beyond merely building wealth and generating profit. Accordingly, responsible leaders morally think and act to eventually add long-term value to the organization. Further,

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they are responsible for acting for the common good of their subordinates; therefore, as they make decisions, they must consider their followers’ needs and provide them with the needed support (Pless, Maak & Stahl, 2011; Stahl & de Luque, 2014). According to Nguyen, Tran, Dao and Dinh (2018) and Terzi, Gocen and Ahmet (2020) leaders must also include spirituality in their personal development; it is said that “spiritual leaders lead from within.” Additionally, spirituality is one of the means that leaders can use to create transcendental meaning and awareness, as it includes symbolic aspects as well as emotional and cognitive areas and unconscious facets. Spirituality is a significant and fundamental aspect in human development. Furthermore, Choudhury (2019) and Kavithanjali (2020) argue that the development of human beings mainly revolves around two fundamental pillars: spiritualism and materialism; for better personal development, one must find a balance between these pillars. Leaders develop cognitive abilities to implement new ideas to guide their subordinates in achieving their goals. Moreover, cognition influences all leader behaviors and enables them to boost their performance. Furthermore, a leader’s emotions could motivate that of his/her subordinates and therefore influence their performance, which, in turn, increases the effectiveness of the leadership system in an organization. As a result, balancing cognitive and emotional aspects help leaders in managing interpersonal relationships among their team members (Edelman & Van Knippenberg, 2017; Kafetsios, Nezlek & Vassilakou, 2012; Madrid, Niven & Vasquez, 2019; Marcy, 2015; Mumford, Watts & Partlow, 2015; Thomas, Martin, Epitropaki, Guillaume & Lee, 2013). On another note, leaders do not achieve balance merely by self-development; they rather make sure to benefit from their expertise and increment such development within their working environment with their subordinates. Hezlett (2016) as well as Javidan, Waldman, and Wang (2020) affirm that life experience of a leader is very important for his/her development journey. In the same context, leaders’ development opportunities are enhanced when they experience life challenges. Such challenges stimulate leaders’ knowledge, skills, and abilities that contribute to their overall development. By the same token, Molin, Hellman, and Svartengren (2020) and Raso, Fitzpatrick, and Masick (2020) argue that good and healthy working environments tend to be sources of joy and motivation, resulting in top performance within organizations. Accordingly, leaders seek to provide a supportive work environment, as it facilitates workflows, leading to higher job satisfaction, lower turnover rates, higher work engagement, and higher performance for both themselves and their subordinates. As a matter of fact, integrating religion into workplace theories is generally considered as taboo. However, religion is one of the factors that affect leaders’ development and therefore must be integrated into leadership theories. Moreover, several leaders embrace their religion as a guideline for their leadership behaviors and integrate it into their means of leadership, as it provides them with the needed insights

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to effectively and ethically lead their subordinates (Allen, Williams & Crowson, 2020; GÜmÜsay, 2019; Hage & Posner, 2015). Reviewing some of the conceptual underpinnings of the balanced leadership concept reveals that religious perspectives on balanced leadership, especially the Islamic perspective, is still scant in the literature. No prior efforts have been made to gather different views on the concept of “Islamic balanced leadership.” Below we briefly discuss the three main character-centered leadership types that have come closest, in our opinion, to the balanced leadership concept.

Ethical Leadership Ethical leaders integrate morals and ethics into their work as well as their personal lives. They justly engage with their followers and lead them into the path of achieving their goals rather than bossing them around or merely giving orders. They care for and respect their followers; and they optimize teamwork and benefit from their followers’ collective input (Çetin, 2020; Hsieh, Hsu, Kao & Wang, 2020; Men et al., 2018; Solinger, Jansen & Cornelissen, 2020). Waldman, Wang, Hannah, and Balthazard (2017: 2) define ethical leadership as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and the promotion of such conduct to followers through two-way communication, reinforcement, and decision-making.” Moreover, Den Hartog (2015) and Waldman et al. (2017) emphasize how organizations are pressured more than ever to ensure embracing ethical leaders to improve their ethical processes and promote their reputations. Researchers argue that ethical leaders not only integrate morals and ethics into their personalities through respect and care for others, honesty, and integrity but also promote ethics at work by following procedures, justly applying rewards and punishments, and avoiding favoritism (Den Hartog, 2015; Hsieh et al., 2020; Men et al., 2018; Solinger et al., 2020). Ethical leadership is defined as the optimization of behaviors that are perceived to be right by observers. That is, observers perceive a leader’s behavior to be either right or wrong, so leaders’ behavior set an example for what is morally acceptable or not, occasionally through positive moralization (Solinger et al., 2020). How should one decide whether a leader’s behavior is ethical and morally positive? Solinger et al. (2020) state that deciding on whether a behavior is considered ethical is based on culture- and institution-related ethics. What is perceived as morally positive in a leader’s culture determines his/her ethical standards. Furthermore, each occupation has its own set of values. Different occupations may have similar or different values. For example, the medical and military occupations have different values; medical professions call for its leaders to abide by the guidelines of the medical ethos by competently acting regardless of the circumstances they

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operate in. Accordingly, embracing ethical leadership behaviors generates significant outcomes for a leader and his/her subordinates (Solinger et al., 2020; Waldman et al., 2017). Thus, it can be concluded that as people interact with each other in a society or institution, they develop a set of accepted moral ethos to be applied in their interactions, which can be referred to as a “moral system.” Moreover, it has been observed that leaders who adopt ethical leadership induce their subordinates to refrain from unethical behaviors; rather, they embrace morals and ethics in several aspects of their lives, not merely at work (Den Hartog, 2015; Hsieh et al., 2020; Solinger et al., 2020).

Spiritual Leadership Spiritual leadership involves an intrinsic internal vision, faith, and motivation that leaders have for themselves and their followers. Accordingly, spiritual leadership builds a working environment where not only ethics but also employee motivation and high levels of satisfaction reside. In such environments, employee turnover rate is low, as employees are more committed to organizations led by spiritual leaders (Milliman & Ferguson, 2008; Nguyen et al., 2018; Tabor, Madison, Marler & Kellermanns, 2019). How should an organization decide whether to apply spiritual leadership? Organizations with spiritual leadership focus on not only the work lives but also the mental and physical well-being of their followers and employees. Such organizations do not incentivize employees by monetary compensation; they use different approaches to incentivize and motivate their followers (Nguyen et al., 2018). Spiritual leaders denounce the concept of self-interest; instead, they lead their followers with implicit motivation and spiritual values. They incorporate the concept of spiritual leadership among their followers by looking beyond their followers’ work requirements and considering them as individuals with a variety of knowledge, skills, and abilities (Nguyen et al., 2018). Spiritual leaders motivate their followers through a combination of behaviors, values, and attitudes as well as altruism, faith, vision, and hope. An organization that incorporates such values would harvest robust outcomes that could be observed as high degrees of employee productivity and commitment to the organization (Dinh et al., 2014; Nguyen et al., 2018; Tabor et al., 2019). Spiritual leaders also reinforce their subordinates’ sense of membership of and inclusion in the organization by appreciating and respecting them. Moreover, spiritual leaders highly focus on and inspire self-confidence in their followers to achieve the organization’s vision (Tabor et al., 2019).

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Transformational Leadership Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008) emphasize the overlap between the concepts of transformational and authentic leadership; both types of leadership include similar behavioral dimensions. Authentic leaders are distinguished by their self-awareness; they are determined on where they stand on crucial matters, ideals, and convictions. Moreover, they also communicate and lead their subordinates with transparency. Although there are several similarities between transformational and authentic leadership, their outcomes may not necessarily be the same. Transformational leaders are generally seen by their subordinates as charismatic role models. Moreover, such leaders intellectually inspire their subordinates, encourage them to believe in and work toward achieving their organizations’ mission while surpassing or putting aside their self-interest for the purpose of serving a common cause (Bass, 1999; Dinh et al., 2014; Rofcanin & Mehtap, 2010; Trmal, Bustamam & Mohamed, 2015). Furthermore, Rofcanin and Mehtap (2010) state that transformational leadership is ideal for institutions that are surrounded by external changes, as this leadership style contemplates adopting individuals who are qualified to adapt to such changes. Moreover, it allows leaders to leverage the potential talents of these individuals and to empower them instead of restricting their abilities. Moreover, transformational leaders strategically take decisions to adapt to internal and external changes through cognitively stimulating their employees to ensure the competitiveness of their organizations (Ahmad & Ogunsola, 2011; Bass, 1999; Senam, Rashid, Sarkawi & Zaini, 2014; Singh & Krishnan, 2005). Rofcanin and Mehtap (2010) and Walumbwa et al. (2008) state that transformational leadership contributes to employee motivation and enhanced performance. Furthermore, Bass (1999) and Lin, Scott, and Matta (2019) demonstrate that transformational leaders seek to empower their subordinates to overcome their own selfinterests for the aim of seeking collective objectives to achieve the greater good of the organization they belong to. Transformational leaders take initiative in addressing their subordinates’ needs as well as enhancing their morality, motivation, and empowerment. Moreover, they also inspire them to go beyond the tasks required from them, by stimulating their curiosity and potential. Further, transformational leaders behave as role models. Such leaders ensure to intellectually stimulate their subordinates and empower them to come up with innovative and creative ways of achieving their organizational objectives (Trmal et al., 2015). Thus, ethical leadership, spiritual leadership, or transformational leadership, in essence, lack a holistic perspective that is the core of “balanced leadership.”

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The Islamic Perspective on Balanced Leadership The final section of this paper provides an overview of Islam and conceptualizes and illustrates the perspective of Islam on balanced leadership.

A Conceptualization of Balanced Islamic Norms Wilson (2018: 103) argues that “Islam as a way of life, philosophy, a religion, and a belief system, rooted in culture, is both evolutionary and revolutionary. This means that it balances liberalist and conservative standpoints, which often leads to differences in opinion.”

Cultural Arabization

Nomadic Romanticism

Linguistic Arabization

Orthodoxy

Heterodoxy

Imported Islamicized Cultures

Compatible Abrahamic Faith Traditions

Islamic Norms

Urbanites

Rural Dwellers

Figure 1: A Conceptualization of Balanced Islamic Norms (redrawn from Wilson, 2018).

In further studies, Wilson and his co-authors spend considerable time discussing how this tension and duality between heterodoxy and orthodoxy, within a sociocultural

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and politicized context, leads to fertile grounds of discussion, social tension, and potential sources of innovation (Wilson, 2012; Wilson et al., 2013; Wilson & Liu, 2011). As a result, a strategic imperative for reclassifying, naming, claiming, and branding leadership that both considers and embraces Islam has emerged – to serve the interests of a range of stakeholders (Wilson & Grant, 2013). The following sections will explore in more detail what and how leadership within this context can be outlined, with balance and in a manner that can reconcile the identified different perspectives.

The Islamic Concept of Wassateya Hanapi (2014) as well as Islam and Khatun (2015) mention that wassateya is an Arabic word that originates from the term wasat, meaning moderation. This concept of moderation (wassateya) is greatly emphasized in Islam and can be found in the Quran and Hadith. It consists of comprehensive socioeconomic principles that prioritize morals and ethics to maintain balance between materialism and spirituality. Furthermore, moderation is considered a good position between two vices or extremes. Individuals who embrace wassateya in daily interactions would not have an extremist mindset manifesting at either end of the continuum. If they adhere to this ideology and adopt such beliefs, they would not merely pursue earthly matters while neglecting after-life matters or the other way around. Surah Al-Baqarah in Chapter 2, Verse 143 of the Quran states, “And thus we have made you a just community that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger will be a witness over you.” However, this does not mean that the principle of wassateya stands at 50:50, between black and white, such as rich and poor. According to wassateya, an individual can be rich and not ignore the unfortunate and continuously support them. Wassateya entails Muslims to practice the principles of Islam in a holistic and balanced manner while tackling all life and societal aspects. It calls for mutual respect regardless of race, ethnic group, and religion (Hanapi, 2014; Yanti & Witro, 2020). Another aspect that wassateya tackles is education whose objective is beyond the mere delivery of information and knowledge. It rather aims to help others achieve a balanced knowledge and awareness in various aspects of life, whether mental, physical, societal, or religious. Furthermore, Islam also calls for wassateya in akhlaq, or virtues, that manages Muslim behavior (Al Arkoubi, 2013). Islam calls for wholeness in human beings. Moreover, it recognizes that the emotional, intellectual, physical, and spiritual dimensions of their lives must be significantly integrated. Muslims must act based on the core Islamic ethics, principles, and values in their interactions with their families or colleagues, or in any other events, while maintaining balance between spirit, cognition, body, and heart. As a result, it is not easy to imagine individuals working without faith (Al Arkoubi, 2013; Yanti & Witro, 2020).

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Definition of Islamic Leadership Bhatti, Farooq, and Öztürk (2019) note that all the prayers and rituals of Islam aim to manifest the best in individuals and support each vicegerent khalifa to conduct their responsibilities in a manner that pleases and strengthens one’s relationship with Allah (Subhanahu wa ta’ala, hereafter SWT – meaning Glory be to Him). Additionally, Trmal et al. (2015) shed light on how history shows that Muslim communities and leaders look up to the Prophet’s behaviors and take him as their role model. Accordingly, Muslim leaders try to practice the Prophet’s actions and integrate Islamic ethical values, principles, and behaviors in their leadership; according to a verse from Surah Al-Ahzab, “There has certainly been for you in the Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern for anyone whose hope is in Allah and the Last Day and [who] remembers Allah often” (The Holy Qur’an 33:21). From an Islamic point of view, leadership is perceived to be a matter of duty and trust. The main responsibility of a leader is to act as his/her subordinates’ role model by justly treating them, directing them to conduct their prayers, taking care of their needs with righteousness, and running their affairs in a disciplined manner. Moreover, leaders in Islam devote themselves to the purpose of benefiting their subordinates and other members in their community, and they also urge them to refrain from all the forbidden deeds stated in the Holy Quran and Prophetic Traditions (Sunnah) (Ahmad & Ogunsola, 2011; Bhatti et al., 2019; Shah, 2006; Trmal et al., 2015). The leadership style adopted by organizations is critical in achieving their preset objectives, development, and high performance of subordinates and leaders themselves. Therefore, leadership is considered one of the most critical aspects that contribute to the success or failure of any organization. Accordingly, leadership principles in Islam are drawn from the Quran, the sayings and behaviors of Prophet Muhammed as well as the characteristics and behaviors of the righteous caliphs and various Muslim leaders that all Muslims look up to (Ahmad & Ogunsola, 2011; Senam et al., 2014; Trmal et al., 2015). Correspondingly, the two main sources of normative Islamic business ethics are: the Quran which Muslims consider as the words of God to the Prophet Muhammed and the Sunnah (or Hadith) which include the approvals, sayings, and behaviors of the Prophet Muhammed. Both sources include the needed guidelines and principles which are not liable to cancelation or alteration. Moreover, such guidelines support Muslims in leading Islamic lives (Ahmad & Ogunsola, 2011; Almoharby & Neal, 2013; Beekun & Badawi, 2005; Bhatti et al., 2019; Rahman, Hashim & Latif, 2013; Trmal et al., 2015). Project leadership and management from the Islamic perspective incorporates the conventional leadership theories with examples and precedents from the Quran and Sunnah as well as similar case studies that would allow leaders to efficiently and effectively serve humanity in general (Senam et al., 2014).

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Toward a Conceptualization of Islamic Balanced Leadership According to Beekun and Badawi (2005), Muslims have a global population of nearly 1.3 billion. However, business leaders must distinguish between Arab cultures and Muslims. Not all Arabs are Muslims, and not all Muslims are of Arab origins; the Muslim population is scattered worldwide. Therefore, leaders have been calling for the application of workplace diversity, especially when it comes to religion, because various religions are not grouped in one place, and one organization may have members of numerous religions and different cultural backgrounds. The implementation of Islamic principles and values are equally useful to any leader, whether Muslim or non-Muslim, since they override the limitations of time, ethnicity, and religion. Accordingly, attaining and using these principles open the door to achievement and development in any human endeavor. With this in mind, taking an example of the leadership style of the Prophet Muhammed, his caliphs and other successors present a noteworthy case of how they led their subordinates into the highest places and achievements in history (Trmal et al., 2015). Although different theories of balanced leadership such as authentic, servant, ethical, and transformational leadership have only recently been established, Islam has offered comprehensive insights into leadership through a highly ethical and modern leadership style that seeks guidance from the Holy Quran and Prophetic Sunnah (Afrin, Islam, Fontaine, Ali & Rahman, 2019; Bhatti et al., 2019; Senam et al., 2014). Moreover, Senam et al. (2014) mention that Islamic leadership urges leaders to behave as the vicegerents of Allah on Earth. That is, leaders must seek Allah’s blessing and mercy by promoting good deeds and integrating the principles of Islam in all aspects of life and work without causing any corruption or harmful deeds to others or to their surroundings. Malpractice or immoral conduct are forbidden in Islam, as stated in the verses of Surah al-A`raf: “And cause not corruption upon the earth after its reformation. And invoke Him in fear and aspiration. Indeed, the mercy of Allah is near to the doers of good” (7:56). Accordingly, from an Islamic perspective, a balanced leader must incorporate the Islamic virtues and principles in all aspects of his/her behaviors and leadership. Respectively, a balanced leader achieves balance from within, as depicted in Figure 2. Balance can be achieved by creating harmony between one’s heart, mind, spirituality, rights, responsibilities, and materialism.1 Heart: According to Marbun (2013) and Senam et al. (2014), Islamic leaders must set their intentions and good will from the beginning and before initiating any action. This is referred to as setting a niyyah to effectively and eventually reach one’s

 For the operationalization of the Islamic Balanced Leadership philosophical approach discussed in this chapter, please refer to Appendix (1) where we suggest a potential curriculum.

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Work

Life

Heart

Materialism

$

Rights

Balanced Leader

Responsibilities

Cognition

Religion

Spirituality

Mind

Emotions

Behavior

Figure 2: Conceptualization of Islamic Balanced Leadership.

ultimate goals, as demonstrated by the Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) and in the Quran in a verse of Surat Ar-Ra’d (13:11): “Indeed, Allah will not change the condition of a people until they change what is in themselves.” Mind: From an Islamic perspective, balanced leadership stems from the Islamic creed, ‘aqidah. Leaders who base their leadership style on ‘aqidah prioritize ethical and moral conduct over economic and tangible gains. Since their main goal is to do good to gain Allah’s blessing and love, they endorse Islamic values and qualities within their leadership. Thus, integrating ‘aqidah into one’s leadership style not only achieves balance within the mind but also attains balance and harmony among the heart, soul, and body. As a result, leaders who base their leadership style on ‘aqidah would harvest gains in life and the hereafter (Bhatti et al., 2019). Rights: Besirevic and Turiel (2020) declare that the principle of human rights has been significant in psychological and moral analysis, philosophy, and political science. Moreover, it focuses on civil rights including freedom of expression and speech, and faith and religion as well as assembly within the societal context. Accordingly, Ahmad and Ogunsola (2011), Almoharby and Neal (2013), and Marbun (2013) point out that, from an Islamic perspective, leaders must consider the rights of their subordinates as well as their own. That is why, for example, leaders could make sure to apply shura (consultation) among themselves and their subordinates, which means everyone’s opinions and points of view are involved while making plans and taking decisions, without any kind of discrimination.

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Responsibility: The mindset of Muslim leaders can be influenced by the Islamic values and principles which are integrated into their leadership styles. Moreover, this can be achieved when Muslim leaders admit their responsibilities. For instance, this can be done by making sure to recognize the rights of business owners to generate profit as long as it is not at the expense of other individuals. It is accordingly evident that Islamic leadership incorporates the moral and ethical essence of Islam as an act of faith to protect the rights of business partners rather than threaten them. Furthermore, Islam also urges leaders to take responsibility for their duties and conduct them with their absolute best efforts, which represents the concept of itqan. Moreover, Muslim leaders must reinforce justice among their subordinates, according to a hadith of Prophet Muhammed: “Every one of you is a guardian and is responsible for his charges . . ., ” which means that all people are caretakers, and each is responsible for what he/she is in custody of (Achour & Thaib, 2015; Beekun & Badawi, 2005; Rahman et al., 2013; Senam et al., 2014). Spirituality: Muslim leaders incorporate conscientiousness and taqwa (piety) into their leadership behaviors toward their subordinates as they should be aware of their duties toward Allah while leading others with the guidance of the Islamic morals and ethics. Additionally, taqwa falls under the category of Islamic spirituality; it is the persistent realization of Allah’s existence and seeking the shelter of Allah. Further, it is one of the most important features that must exist in messengers as well as their followers and believers; it has been mentioned around 258 times in the Holy Quran, which indicates its impotence (Bhatti et al., 2019; Marbun, 2013; Senam et al., 2014). Materialism: Beekun and Badawi (2005) and Senam et al. (2014) illustrate that ethical conduct of leadership in Islam supports organizations in achieving their business and economic goals as well as creating profits so long as they do not take advantage of other stakeholders or act at their expense. Such behavior, from an Islamic perspective, guides Muslim leaders to seek the pleasure and the blessing of Allah. That is why leaders are urged to consider each step of the way as they determine the means by which they generate their profits that Allah is overseeing their actions. Building on that, according to verses of Surah al-Baqarah in the Holy Quran, “And when it is said to him, ‘Fear Allah,’ pride in the sin takes hold of him. Sufficient for him is Hellfire, and how wretched is the resting place” (2:206). “And of the people is he who sells himself, seeking means to the approval of Allah. And Allah is kind to [His] servants.” (2:207). “And the example of those who spend their wealth seeking means to the approval of Allah and assuring [reward for] themselves is like a garden on high ground which is hit by a downpour – so it yields its fruits in double. And [even] if it is not hit by a downpour, then a drizzle [is sufficient]. And Allah, of what you do, is seeing” (2:265). Furthermore, Afrin et al. (2019) and Senam et al. (2014) acknowledge that, in Western cultures and organizations, religion is kept separate from business and

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leadership affairs. On the other hand, in Islamic cultures, religion is incorporated into all life and work aspects as well as leadership principles and guidelines. From the Islamic perspective, Islam is not merely a religion; it is a way of living. This is compatible with the contents of Figure 2, which shows that balanced leaders, from an Islamic perspective, acquire balance in their work, life, and religion. Furthermore, Marbun (2013) points out that leading and directing subordinates by means that are consistent with the Islamic principles and values will provide a leadership style that includes internal and external balance in technical, spiritual, and emotional aspects. As a result, balance can be achieved between cognition, emotions, and behavior, as depicted in Figure 2.

Conclusions There has been growing attention on leadership and the mechanism by which leaders can effectively lead their subordinates into serving a common cause. Accordingly, several psychological or character-centered theories of leadership have been developed. These form an understanding of several character-based aspects of being an effective leader, as in ethical, spiritual, and transformational leadership. The development of such theories started in ancient times when philosophers have developed and argued about various theories. Despite these efforts, a holistic understanding of “balance” in leadership literature needs further development, more so from a religious perspective. Leadership theories are not merely based on how to lead individuals; they have developed to include cognitive, affective, behavioral, and spiritual aspects within leadership, albeit distinctly and not comprehensively. Such theories have also flourished within the field of educational psychology. Moreover, several factors have been determined for leaders to develop themselves as humans, not just as leaders. The values and principles of Islam call for all the values that each leadership theory separately calls for. From an Islamic perspective, leaders have been cherished for 1400 years; Muslims have looked up to the leadership of Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) and the caliphs that led people after him. That is why Muslims count on the Quran which includes the words of Allah to the Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) and the Hadith that includes all the sayings, behaviors, and approvals of Prophet Muhammed (PBUH). This paper has attempted to trace the roots of the balanced leadership concept and position it within the leadership literature and the Islamic literature. Table 1 presents a potential curriculum for Islamic Balanced Leadership.

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Appendix Table 1: Suggested Curriculum for Islamic Balanced Leadership. Course

Recommended References

Lessons from the Qur’an

(Khan, ; Maḥmūd, ; Mirza, )

Balanced Leadership Course

(El-Bassiouny, Mohamed & Wilson, )

Prophetic Sayings (Hadith)

(Al-Zuhayre, ; Nawawi, Yusuf, Amin & Usamah, )

Jurisprudence of Priorities (Fiqh Al-Awlaweyyat)

English summary can be found here: (El-Bassiouny, Mohamed & Jamal, )

Islamic Jurisprudence (Fiqh) and Inheritence Laws (Fiqh Al-Mawareeth)

(Abd Al-Ati, ; Abdul-Azeem, ; Ayoub, a, Ayoub, b)

Lessons Learnt from Prophetic History (Fiqh-Us-Seerah)

Armstrong, ; Khan, ; Nadwi, 

Contemporary Issues

These include World Problems, Islamic Banking, Social Enterprise, Corporate Social Responsibility, Entrepreneurship, Parenting, Psychology, Sustainability, among others. Readings offered depending on instructor choice and availability. An example is “Psychology and Consumer Culture: The Struggle for a Good Life in a Materialistic World” (Kasser & Kanner, ).

Islamic History

(Abu-Aziz, ; As-Sibâ‘ee, ; Goldschmidt & Boum, )

Islam 

(Ibrahim & Abu-Harb, )

Spirituality (Tasawwuf)

(Yusuf, )

Introduction to the Qur’an (and proper reading/recitation/Tajweed)

For Qur’anic sciences: (Ahmed, ) For Tajweed: (Abdussalam, ; El-Bassiouny, )

Philosophy

(Aristotle, ; Ash-Shulhoob, ; Binnabi, ; Flew & Varghese, ; Tufail & Kruk, )

Islam in the World

(Doumato & Starett, ; Esposito & Mogahed, ; Küng & Bowden, ; Nielsen, ) Diverse published articles on Islamic Marketing, Islamic Banking, and Islamic Corporate Social Responsibility can also be included.

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Chapter 1 Ethics and Leadership in Islam Between Universalist Principles and Utilitarian Ends Abstract: Religious ethics in Islam capture both aspects of universalism and utilitarianism, yet they are not constrained by these two approaches. A balanced ethical and effective leader is the one who balances between two major approaches to ethical thinking, as an extreme attachment to either ethical perspective is bound to face problems. Balanced leaders act based on a set of values and principles, but they are cognizant that actions influence people. I explain how ethical and effective leaders are those whose decisions and actions minimize harm, who pursue justice in all their affairs, and who implement what carries benefit to public interest (maslaha). Balanced leaders are also those who are able to display ihsan or benevolence in the way they conduct leadership actions in relation not only to their employees and subordinates but also in relation to all relevant stakeholders in their contexts. Keywords: ethics, justice, utilitarianism, universalism, Prophet Muhammad, ethical knowledge, Qur’an

1.1 Introduction You are comfortably relaxing at home when you hear a violent knock on the door. A woman is crying frantically telling you that she wants to hide from her husband who wants to kill her. You invite her into your house, and you guide her to hide in the basement. Few minutes later, you hear another intense knock on the door. You open the door and see an angry man holding an ax in his hand. He asks you whether there is a woman hiding in your house. You immediately detect that this must be the women’s husband who wants to kill her. You decide to lie to that person and answer that you are all alone in the house. The man believes you and leaves.

Is it ethical to lie in this case? Most people would not hesitate to assert that lying in this case would be the ethical choice to pursue. Not if you are Immanuel Kant (b. 1724–1804). In this famous oft-repeated scenario presented by Kant (1797), his philosophy famously entails there should be no exceptions to telling the truth, even to save a human life. This is a direct application of Kant’s categorical imperative which identifies “an action as necessary of itself without reference to another end, i.e., as objectively necessary” (Kant, 2012). While this example reflects an extreme, perhaps unlikely, thought experiment, it does signal problems associated with absolute universalism. On the one hand, to https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-002

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its credit, a universalistic approach guards against exceptions to a principle that might lead to questioning the value of that principle itself. On the other hand, an extreme absolutist universalistic approach is bound to face problems such as the one presented in the case of the murderer at the door. Another equally famous approach in ethical thinking, a utilitarian one, would weigh the benefits of lying versus the underlying costs. A utilitarian would arrive at the conclusion that it is all right to lie to the potential murderer in order to save a human life. This is based on the concept of “utility” explained by Jeremy Bentham (b. 1748–1832) that argues that an ethical course of action is judged by the net utility, which means “benefit” or “pleasure” associated with it (Bentham, 1970). What one ought to do, argues Bentham, is an outcome of two masters, pain and pleasure. Elaborating on this topic, John Stuart Mill (b. 1806–1873) advanced the “Greatest Happiness Principle” defining right actions as those that are “right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness” (Mill, 1966). Universalism and utilitarianism represent two popular theories in ethics (Brady & Dunn, 1995). Universalist ethics, mostly associated with the philosopher Immanuel Kant, describes an approach to decision-making based on actions, duty-based, stemming from principles. Utilitarianism, associated with John Stuart Mill among other philosophers, judges the ethicality of actions based on their consequences. Leaders, in practice, might be inclined to use one of these two approaches, or both, or even an entirely different approach, not based on universal laws or on consequences, in arriving at what one ought to do. In addressing balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective, the point that I make here is that an extreme attachment to either perspective is bound to face problems. A balanced way, perhaps a more practical way, is to balance between the two approaches where a leader might sometimes implement aspects of universalism, while adopting a more utilitarian approach in other instances. I explain whether Islamic ethics bind the leader or the decision-maker to a set of fixed principles or rules that can never be violated. In doing that, I refer to the Qur’an (The Muslim holy book, which they believe, was revealed from God to Prophet Muhammad through Archangel Gabriel) and Sunna (the body of sayings and behaviors attributed to Prophet Muhammad, which is another integral source of Islamic law). I explain how those have been understood advancing the implications for a leader’s moral judgment and decision-making. Before I do that, it would be important to explain sources of ethical knowledge from an Islamic perspective. This would help position the ideas presented here in proper context.

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1.2 Sources of Ethical Knowledge There are many ethical traditions in Islam (Fakhri, 1991). While all such traditions adopt the Muslim religious texts as a starting point, they do approach ethics differently. Some offer a traditional perspective relying overwhelmingly on the Qur’an and the Sunna to reach ethical judgments. Others utilize the huge body of scholarly work embodied in Islamic fiqh or jurisprudence. Further, some synthesize Muslim religious traditions with the works of the early Greek philosophers. For the purposes of this book chapter, I am mostly going to refer to traditional Islamic ethics and thus will rely less on the works of Muslim philosophers. Three main sources of ethical knowledge are salient in the Islamic traditional perspective. These sources are used to guide the decision-maker when facing a situation with ethical underpinnings (Sidani, 2018). A decision-maker would refer to the moral code – as advanced by the Qur’an and the Sunna – in identifying the ethical course of action. A leader who takes Islam as a starting point understands that the Qur’an instructs people to consult “the Book” when they need guidance in their affairs: Surely, this Qur’an guides to what is most upright, and gives good news to the believers – who do good – that they will have a mighty reward. (The Qur’an; Chapter 17; Verse 9)

Thus, relying on revelation, on divine guidance, would be the starting point for any seeker of truth under this perspective: O ye who believe! Obey God and obey the Messenger and those charged with authority among you. If ye differ in anything among yourselves refer it to God and His Messenger if you do believe in God and the Last Day: This is the best [for you], and best in the end. (The Qur’an; Chapter 4; Verse 59)

A second source of ethical guidance, in addition to the religious texts, lies in the ability of the leader to use his or her own judgment. This becomes clear in those cases where no direct rulings exist in the holy books. A famous incident at the time of Prophet Muhammad illustrates this point. The Prophet asked one of his companions whom he sent to Yemen regarding the basis by which he would make a specific judicial ruling. The companion indicated that he would first refer to the Qur’an, then the Sunna. If he could not find guidance in either the Qur’an or the Sunna, he explained that he would rely on his own personal judgment to form an opinion. This answer met with strong approval from the Prophet. In this incident, the companion indicated that he would use his independent judgment, ijtihad, in reaching a conclusion. This suggests that another route to understand what is right versus what is wrong lies in the rational analysis of a given challenge. Rational analysis thus becomes another source of ethical knowledge; it is indeed prescribed and the Qur’an itself invites the believers to use their reason in reaching judgments:

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He [God] grants wisdom to whom He pleases; and he to whom wisdom is granted receives indeed a benefit overflowing; but none will grasp the message but men of understanding [people of reason]. (The Qur’an; Chapter 2; Verse 269)

There is yet a third level of ethical knowledge that has been advanced by some Sufis, or Muslim mystics. This relates to the role of spiritual experiences, or mystical intuition, as a bridge to moral wisdom (Quasem, 1978; Sidani & Al Ariss, 2015). People who strive hard to get closer to God will be granted wisdom and knowledge. One verse in the Qur’an explains the link between taqwa, or being conscious of God, and knowledge: “And remain conscious of God, since it is God who teaches you [herewith]” (The Qur’an; Chapter 2; Verse 282). In other words, God will grant His knowledge to, and bestow wisdom on, those who are conscious and mindful of Him.

1.3 Islamic Ethics: Universalist or Utilitarian? Religious ethics in Islam capture both aspects of universalism and utilitarianism, yet they are not constrained by these two approaches. Islam advocates that there are certain rules that should not be broken. Bribery is wrong, lying is wrong, and being unfaithful is wrong. In that, Islam advocates for a set of principles, universal principles, that need to apply anywhere on anybody. Yet, a good portion of Islamic ethics lies in the notion of doing no-harm. In that, acts often entail benefits and costs, and a cost–benefit analysis would help decide which route is the more ethical (or least harmful) one. In some respects, Islamic religious texts offer universal injunctions regarding issues of moral relevance. A decision-maker, for example, cannot utilize a utilitarian approach as to whether to lie or not. In one hadith (saying of the Prophet): The Messenger of God was asked, “Can a believer be a coward?” He said, “Yes.” He was asked, “Can a believer be a miser?” He said, “Yes.” He was asked, “Can the believer be a liar?” He said, “No.”1

This hadith notes that a believer might sometimes be a coward or a miser, though both of these are not advisable and do not represent good personality attributes. Yet, a believer can never be a liar. This indicates that lying is not a character trait that befits a believer. Telling the truth is a universal principle that should be upheld at all times. Does this mean that truth should be told irrespective of the consequences? Does a Muslim perspective meets that of Kant in the scenario of the “murderer at the door” where it is morally unacceptable to lie even to a murderer at the door

 https://sunnah.com/malik/56/19.

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who wants to take away an innocent human life? In other words, does Islam advance moral absolutism? The answer is no! A Muslim response to the above thought experiment would suggest that lying would be permitted in this specific instance, that is, to save a human life. If lying to the ax man would deter him from killing, then indeed straying away from the truth in this specific instance would be the right thing to do. What are the practical implications of this? While Islam adopts the notion of universal principles, it does not adopt a rigid adherence to a moral absolutist perspective that does not take into consideration the consequences of a certain behavior. While some universal principles need to be pursued in all cases, one rule in Islamic law advances the notion that the “necessities permit the prohibited.” Islamic law elaborates on the conditions when a certain problem facing a decisionmaker is indeed a “necessity.” These mainly revolve on harm done on the five grand necessities, namely religion, intellect, soul, money (or property), and offspring (or family). In that, a rigid approach to universalism is not something that would be pursued by the decision-maker, as one necessity would be violated, that of safeguarding an innocent human soul. Beyond the example of lying under an extreme contingency, the example of intoxicants also helps in further illumination on the matter. Drinking intoxicants is not permissible in Islam. The Qur’an is clear about this ruling: O believers! Intoxicants and gambling (games of chance), dedication to stones (paying tribute to idols) and division by arrows (lottery) are the filthy works of Satan. So shun them, so that you may prosper. (The Qur’an; Chapter 5; Verse 90)

Drinking intoxicants is thus categorically wrong. Yet the Qur’an brings forward some reasons for this: Satan’s plan is (but) to excite enmity and hatred between you with intoxicants and gambling and hinder you from the remembrance of God and from prayer: will you not then abstain? (The Qur’an; Chapter 5; Verse 91)

Moreover, the Qur’an offers a more elaborate reason for dis-allowing intoxicants that is based on a cost–benefit analysis. Intoxicants carry some benefits to those who drink and their communities; they provide entertainment and profitable business opportunities to some people. Yet all of this comes at a cost. Drinking leads to some people being incognizant of the decisions that they make and the actions they exhibit. This has the potential – from an Islamic perspective – to create a chaotic society, one in which people are immersed in conflicts and problems emanating from drinking behaviors. Overall, the costs on the individual and society from drinking outweigh those costs emanating from allowing it: They ask you concerning wine and gambling. Say: “In them is great sin and some profit for people; but the sin is greater than the profit.” (The Qur’an; Chapter 2; Verse 219)

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In this, a consequentialist reasoning is presented. Without this intoxicating feature, wine would not be fundamentally abhorrent. Actually, wine is one drink, in addition to water, milk, and honey that righteous people are rewarded with, in the Paradise of the hereafter: (Here is) a Parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised: in it are rivers of water incorruptible: rivers of milk of which the taste never changes; rivers of wine a joy to those who drink; and rivers of honey pure and clear. In it there are for them all kinds of fruits and Grace from their Lord . . . . (The Qur’an; Chapter 47; Verse 15)

On the other hand, seizing other people’s money unjustly is unethical; there is no workaround. The Qur’an notes, for example, that a custodian taking money unjustly from an orphan commits a grand sin, as this is a sign of unfaithfulness. There is no middle ground when it comes to fulfillment of promises and keeping trusts. The Qur’an, in this instance, does not elaborate on some of the consequences of the act of unjustly seizing other people’s money. This is an inherently and universally shameful act, and disallowing it perhaps requires no further elaboration: Come not nigh to the orphan’s property except to improve it until he attains the age of full strength; and fulfill (every) engagement for (every) engagement will be enquired into (on the Day of Reckoning). (The Qur’an; Chapter 17; Verse 34)

Interestingly, when mentioning other sins, the Qur’an refers to both the inherent evil nature of such acts, in addition to the grave consequences associated with them. Adultery, for example, is an example of a sin that is not only considered inherently unethical, but also one that leads to other negative consequences and a host of other evils: Nor come nigh to adultery: for it is a shameful (deed) and an evil opening the road (to other evils). (The Qur’an; Chapter 17; Verse 32)

Accordingly, the Qur’an sometimes does not elaborate much on the grave consequences of certain unethical acts, such as not keeping one’s covenants. In other cases, it refers to benefits and consequences indicating how the costs outweigh the benefits. Both the evil nature of those acts and the problematic consequences emanating from committing them are explained. In those cases, a degree of explanation helps in reinforcing why those actions are evil. The implications of this on a leader are immense. A leader, a balanced one, needs to come across as a moral agent explaining which course of action is justified and which one is not. A leader who wants to make decisions in a balanced way understands that there are certain things that are categorically wrong and can never be justified, irrespective of consequences. Being unfaithful is categorically and universally wrong. There could be no context where being unfaithful would be the right thing to do. A consequentialist approach to the issue of being faithful or not would not be the right approach.

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Does this mean that a person can never break a promise or be unfaithful even if threatened in one’s life? This would pose a dilemma that is more difficult than the one of the murderer at the door. A person breaking a certain commitment to faithfulness would not be blamed, if she is seriously threatened, and fears a credible risk on her life. Ethical judgment and behavior in practice suddenly become more difficult when one is really facing a serious dilemma, not only trying to sort out an answer to a theoretical thought experiment. Deviating from the right course of action (being faithful) would be justified under extreme duress. Contrary to Kant, this would not nullify the basic principle of the unethicality of not keeping promises. According to Islamic thinking, sticking out to principles is important. Moreover, in some respects, there are rules to which a Muslim has to adhere. This attachment to both aspects of “principles” versus “rules” raises the question of whether Islam is more dominantly a rule-based religion, or a principle-based religion. Fatahallah et al. (2020) noted how leaders in Muslim family firms, compared to Christian family firm leaders, utilized relatively higher levels of rule-based approaches in making decisions. Yet, this does not make Islam a mere-rule-based religion. Islam advances a set of principles such as an attachment to fairness and justice, but decisionmakers often find themselves involved in cost–benefit analyses as they try to reduce or eliminate harm stemming from their decisions. This makes the approach approximating a utilitarian one, where what is right depends on the net gain or loss emanating from a certain course of action. If one were to advance the notion that both universalism and utilitarianism are relevant to a decision-maker, then under which context or condition would a person follow a universalistic principle or a utilitarian one? This issue is thorny as allowing many exceptions to principles makes the Muslim ethical thinking drift gradually into a mostly utilitarian one with only few principles that stay in effect with no exceptions. The grand objectives of Islamic law delineate a typology, labeled the “five necessities,” revolving around the necessity of preserving the religion, the necessity of preserving one’s intellect ‘aql, the necessity of preserving one’s soul, the necessity of preserving one’s property, and the necessity of preserving the offspring (or the family). This helps in identifying the types of exceptions that could be made. Absence of a proper response to the five necessities will lead to imbalances at the individual and social level. A decision-maker facing an ethical challenge needs to address not only the possibility of a moral principle being violated by a certain course of action but also about the positive or negative impact of one’s decision on those “five necessities.” To sum, religious ethics are often perceived as those dogmatic unyielding modes of thinking that lead to inflexibility and rigidity. Aspects of current Islamic leadership in practice are, rightfully or wrongfully, associated with unbending thought patterns and ensuing behaviors. A different reading of Islamic normative ethics tells a different story, one of principled thinking coupled with a degree of pragmatism and attention to consequences of behaviors. This has implications on

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how leaders emerge and how they are selected and evaluated. The best leaders are not those who blindly follow a set of rules or principles while not being conscious of what is happening around them. Effective and ethical leaders are those attached to principles, based on a set of firm values, but they are also aware of the consequences that their actions and decisions have on others.

1.4 Balanced Leadership A balanced leader, from an Islamic perspective, would be the one who is able to balance between the spiritual and the material, between this world and the world to come, between attention to matters of religious and other-worldly significance and those related to matters of life and sustenance, and between the near needs of family and tribe and those of the larger community. For such a leader, it would be imperative to examine closely the life of the Prophet to detect how he behaved when facing ethical dilemmas. The Prophet’s sayings and behaviors are considered as an integral part of Islam. Next to the Qur’an, the Sunna outlines what Muslims consider ideal behaviors that every Muslim should emulate to the extent possible. Leaders who aspire to act in a balanced way, in accordance with their understanding of Islam, would look to the example of the Prophet as a role model and the epitome of ethical behavior: You have indeed in the Messenger of God a beautiful pattern of (conduct) for anyone whose hope is in God and the Final Day and who engages much in the remembrance of God. (The Qur’an; Chapter 33; Verse 21)

To a Muslim leader, the Prophet represents a great role model of a balanced leader, who displayed the highest moral order that any human being can attain. In that, Muslims often refer to his seera, or life story, quoting specific incidents that show how he behaved on different occasions. One example of a “balanced way” would be indicative. Books of hadith narrate a story of how three companions of the Prophet, recognizing that they can never match his devotion and spiritual elevation, each took it upon himself to adhere to a strict act of devotion. One took an oath to pray every night without interruption. The other expressed the intention to fast every day from dawn to dusk. The third took an oath never to marry or get near women. The Prophet, hearing what they intended to do said “By God, I am the one of you who fears and reverences God most, yet I fast and I break my fast; I pray and I sleep; and I marry women. He who is displeased with my Sunna [my way] has nothing to do with me.”2

 https://sunnah.com/mishkat:145.

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In the above incident, the Prophet sent the notion that a person who wants to behave as a good Muslim needs to conduct his life in a balanced way. Getting close to God does not mean that a person should abandon all the bounties of this life: But seek with the (wealth) which God has bestowed on you the Home of the Hereafter nor forget your portion in this world: but do good as God has been good to you and seek not (occasions for) mischief in the land: for God loves not those who do mischief. (The Qur’an; Chapter 28; Verse 77)

Leading a fulfilled life, and properly responding to ethical challenges, does not mean that a person puts all his or her energy in matters related to spiritual or religious affairs. Moreover, beyond a strict universalist or a utilitarian approach, Islam advocates a balanced way in building character. One notes that there is an attention to the importance of wasat, or proper balance, in conducting individual and communal affairs. This is similar to Aristotelian thinking, of the golden mean where a good virtue lies between two extremes: an extreme in relation to excess and another extreme related to deficiency (Al-Ghazali, 1989, 1993; Sidani & Al Ariss, 2015). Building a moderate personality, with a balanced character, is (and should be) one grand objective of Islamic educational development for leaders. As an example of moderate behavior, spending one’s money is an example from the Qur’an: You shall neither tie your hands to your neck (be miserly) nor stretch them forth to their utmost reach (be prodigal), lest you sit back, blameworthy, destitute. (The Qur’an; Chapter 17; Verse 29)

In essence, a person is advised not to be a miser nor to be a spendthrift. The middle way is the way. This does not only apply to Muslims at an individual level but also at a collective level. Muslims, as an Umma, or a community of believers, bonded by faith and purpose, are called as people of the middle way: And thus have We willed you to be a community of the middle way, so that [with your lives] you might bear witness to the truth before all mankind, and that the Messenger might bear witness to it before you.3 (The Qur’an; Chapter 2; Verse 143)

 Yusuf Ali, the famous interpreter of the Qur’an notes that this means that the Umma is justlybalanced: “The essence of Islam is to avoid all extravagances on either side. It is a sober, practical religion. But the Arabic word (wasat) also implies a touch of the literal meaning of Intermediacy. Geographically Arabia is in an intermediate position in the Old World, as was proved in history by the rapid expansion of Islam, north, south, west and east.”

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1.5 No-Harm There is an emphasis in Islam, demonstrated in many Qur’anic verses and in the Sunna, in regard to the necessity of elimination of harm. This is a primary rule in Islamic jurisprudence and a starting point in recognizing what is right from what is wrong. Every person has the duty to prevent harm from occurring even before it happens. Prophet Muhammad said, “There should be neither harming nor reciprocating harm.4” The impact of harm on people’s lives needs to be considered for every action a leader is involved in. Such an assessment would have to take into consideration how any decision impacts the “five necessities”; how it influences people’s religions, lives, minds, properties, or offspring (Rady & Verheijde, 2014). Islamic jurisprudence has provided many auxiliary rules regarding how to eliminate harm and reduce its potential negative influences. Some of the associated principles relate to the notion that, if total elimination of harm is not possible, then it needs to be lifted to the extent possible. A business leader, for example, would strive to limit pollution emitted from a factory he or she manages but would not be asked to eliminate it completely as this would not be possible. Decisions need to be made that would not lead to “undue and excessive harm to God-given resources and bounties created for the benefit of all man-kind” (Beekun & Badawi, 2005, p. 143). Another auxiliary rule stipulates that a harm should not be lifted by way of causing another harm. In that, a leader has to manage the harms expected from a certain business decision taking the needs of all relevant stakeholders into consideration. Business leaders cannot realistically make decisions that, in an effort to reduce harm on one set of stakeholders, cause undue harm on others. This would lead to the realization that certain types of harm need to be tolerated if they prevent an even greater harm. One also needs to balance between the harm caused on one individual versus the harm caused on a whole community. Lifting harm on the larger collective group and community takes precedence over lifting the harm on one individual.

1.6 Justice – A Universal Imperative In some respects, the Prophet’s behavior reveals an attachment to universalistic principles that can never be violated. One such principle reflects an attachment to justice which cannot be compromised based on the situation. An incident attesting to this from the Prophet’s is indicative. One of his companions asked him to make an exception to a woman in terms of a judicial judgment. It is reported that the Prophet became very angry about the request and delivered a speech in which he said:  https://sunnah.com/ibnmajah:2341.

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Indeed what destroyed the people before you was just that when a person of high rank among them committed a theft, they spared him; but if the same crime was done by a poor person they inflicted the prescribed punishment on him.5

Islam advances the notion that justice has to prevail in all cases, whether dealing with close relatives or with enemies. In one verse of the Qur’an, it is reported that the hatred of some people should not preclude dealing justly with them: O you who believe! stand out firmly for God as witnesses to fair dealing and let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve to wrong and depart from justice. Be just: that is next to Piety: and fear God for God is well-acquainted with all that you do. (The Qur’an; Chapter 5; Verse 8)

Linked to the universal principle of justice, favoritism in leadership interactions is something that is against Islamic principles. Nepotism, for example, is not tolerated. While Islam encourages kindness to relatives, this does not mean that kindness means favoritism in the realms of employment and talent attraction. Leaders need to be able to strike a delicate balance between being kind to relatives and between being faithful to institutions to ensure having an equitable organizational dynamic. This explains why some have advanced the notion of a hybrid form of nepotism, where one would pay attention to the various interests of stakeholders in a business, which can be used to resist pressures to hire unqualified relatives (Sidani & Thornberry, 2013, p. 70).

1.7 Maslaha – A Pillar of Islamic Legal Code One pillar of Islamic legal thought, termed maslaha, suggests that in some respects the ethical thing to do is the one that carries a benefit to public interest. This makes ethical choices closer to a utilitarian approach, one that involves the interests of multiple stakeholders. In Islamic jurisprudence, maslaha refers to anything that brings benefits, wellness, or goodness, or anything that prevents harm. In that, these are not connected to individual well-being but are more related to public interest and social welfare (Opwis, 2005). Maslaha is understood in terms of a certain action contributing towards achieving a great purpose of the Islamic law (maqasid al-Sharia). Al-Ghazali defined maslaha as: “preserving the intent of the Shariah in preserving five things: people’s religion, souls, minds, offspring and property. Everything that includes preserving these five principles is a maslaha, and everything that misses these principles is corruption, and repelling them is a benefit.” Likewise, Al-Bouti (1973) defined it as “the benefit that the wise legislator intended for His

 https://sunnah.com/riyadussalihin:650.

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servants, from preserving their religion, their souls, their minds, their offspring, and their money, according to a specific arrangement among them.” Al-Bouti indicates that attaining maslaha is an innate tendency of a human being. This concept comes close to the concept of utility as described by Bentham and Mill. The difference between the concept of utility as advanced by Western philosophers and the Islamic perspective is that the latter is concerned with utility that encompasses what is good in this life and the life to come. Mill, compared to Bentham, offered a more sophisticated understanding of pleasure or happiness which addressed both the quantity and the quality of “happiness.” Still, standard philosophical utilitarianism as advanced by philosophers understand utility as material benefit, which is different from maslaha, which has a broader material and spiritual perspectives.

1.8 Attention to Other Stakeholders Islam advances the notion of ihsan that translates as “benevolence or doing good” (Sidani & Al Ariss, 2015). Prophet Muhammad explained this concept: Ihsan is to worship God as if you see Him, and if you do not see him [that is, if you do not achieve this state of devotion], then (take it for granted that) He sees you.6

Out of this concept comes the realization that people have to reflect ihsan in their interactions and dealings with each other: “God ordered us to adopt good and just dealings and to do good to the people. God says: Show kindness as God has shown kindness on you . . . . Doing good means an act which does benefit to another. Though it is not compulsory, it brings rewards and ranks” (Al-Ghazali 1993, p. 55; Sidani & Al Ariss, 2015). Al-Ghazali outlined a multistep process that leaders need to implement if they want to act in a benevolent manner. A balanced leader does not take into consideration the interests of the owners only (profit maximization is not the ultimate or only end) but also the needs of various other stakeholders, including buyers who face hardships. Another way to attain ihsan is through directing the efforts of the company to make their products available to those who cannot pay. Moreover, attention needs to be paid to fulfilling societal needs in the way a business is conducted so that “one would not only be involved in business for personal interest, but also to fill a necessary societal gap.” This clearly hints to a form of early corporate social responsibility (Sidani & Al Ariss, 2015). This attention to stakeholders indicate that ethical and effective leaders need to be able to display the right balance

 https://sunnah.com/bukhari:4777.

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in their actions understanding how each decision or action influences positively or negatively other stakeholders in their contexts.

1.9 Concluding Remarks Ethical and effective leaders in Islamic thinking are those who implement principles of justice, trust, righteousness, promise-keeping, and self-improvement (Beekun & Badawi, 1999). Yet, one could also infer a certain degree of consequentialism in Islamic normative ethics and Prophetic behavior (Sunna). Accordingly, the Islamic perspective as to how a leader needs to act might be looked at as something more than just a synthesis between the two approaches. Balanced leaders are those who are able to display ihsan or benevolence in the way they conduct leadership actions in relation not only to their employees and subordinates but also in relation to all relevant stakeholders in their contexts. Thus, a balanced ethical and effective leader is the one who not only balances between universalism and utilitarianism but also strives to fulfill individual and social ends that take into consideration material and spiritual concerns. Those leaders act based on a set of values and principles; they are also cognizant that actions influence people, and one needs to care that those people are not harmed by their decisions. In one saying by Abu-Bakr Al-Siddiq, the First Caliph after Prophet Muhammad, he instructed one of his deputies to deal with people with care: “and be upon them like a kind, compassionate parent.” In that, there is a great insight related to the above discussion. Good parents aspire to raise kids who adopt a set of admirable values and principles, yet they are aware that actions have consequences and they only wish to have the best consequences for their children. In a certain way, a good leader is very much like a good, caring, loving, and considerate parent who deals with others with an eye toward what benefits them, not what harms them.

References Al-Bouti, M.S.R. (1973). Controls of maslaha in Islamic law. Beirut-Lebanon: Al-Resala Foundation. Al-Ghazali, A. (1989). Al-Mizan. Beirut: Dar Al Kotob Al Ilmiyah. Al-Ghazali, A. (1993). Revival of religious learnings. Ihya’ ‘ulum al-din (Translated by Fazl-Ul-Karim). Karachi: Darul-Ishaat. Beekun, R., & Badawi, J. (1999). The leadership process in Islam. Proteus-shippensburg-, 16, 33–38. Beekun, R.I., & Badawi, J.A. (2005). Balancing ethical responsibility among multiple organizational stakeholders: The Islamic perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 60(2), 131–145. Bentham, J. (1970). Burns, J.H., & Hart, H.L.A. ed. by, An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation (1789). London: The Athlone Press.

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Brady, F.N., & Dunn, C.P. (1995). Business meta-ethics: An analysis of two theories. Business Ethics Quarterly, 5(3), 385–398. Fakh̲ri, M. (1991). Ethical theories in Islam (Vol. 8). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. Fathallah, R., Sidani, Y., & Khalil, S. (2020). How religion shapes family business ethical behaviors: An institutional logics perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 163(4), 647–659. Kant, I. (1797). “On a supposed right to lie from altruistic motives” Prussian Academy volume viii; translation by Lewis White Beck in Immanuel Kant: Critique of practical reason and other writings in moral philosophy 1949. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Rpt: New York: Garland Publishing Company, 1976. Kant, I. (2012). Fundamental principles of the metaphysics of morals. Courier Corporation. Mill, J.S. (1966). Utilitarianism. In A Selection of his Works (pp. 149–228). London: Palgrave. Opwis, F. (2005). Maslaha in contemporary Islamic legal theory. Islamic Law and Society, 12(2), 182–223. Quasem, M.A. (1978). The ethics of Al-Ghazali: A composite ethics in Islam. Delmar: Caravan Books. Rady, M.Y., & Verheijde, J.L. (2014). The moral code in Islam and organ donation in Western countries: Reinterpreting religious scriptures to meet utilitarian medical objectives. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 9(1), 1–9. Sidani, Y. (2018). Business ethics in the Middle East. London: Routledge. Sidani, Y., & Al Ariss, A. (2015). New conceptual foundations for Islamic business ethics: The contributions of Abu-Hamid Al-Ghazali. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(4), 847–857. Sidani, Y.M., & Thornberry, J. (2013). Nepotism in the Arab world: An institutional theory perspective. Business Ethics Quarterly, 23(1), 69–96.

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Chapter 2 A Model of Balanced Leadership from an Islamic Perspective: What Makes a Balanced and Effective Muslim Leader Abstract: This chapter presents a critical review of leadership from an Islamic perspective and discusses how Islam offers a balanced and holistic approach to leadership that is different than the dominant secular ones. It starts with a discussion of balanced leadership as a recent approach to leadership that has been associated with higher levels of performance and/or economic growth in some fields such as education, psychology, and project management. This is followed by an overview of leadership research and how the concept of leadership has been developed over the years. The third section provides a critical and comprehensive review of leadership from an Islamic perspective and discusses how Islam includes some unique and universal principles that correspond with the Western traditions that take a moral orientation. This is followed by a discussion of charismatic, transformation, and servant approaches as they relate to the core principles and values of Islamic leadership. The final section proposes a model of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective (BLIP model). The model demonstrates the leadership pillars, roles and qualities that would lead to balanced, effective, and sustainable leadership from an Islamic perspective taking the leadership of Caliph Harun Al-Rashid as an example of its application. Keywords: Islamic leadership, balanced leadership, model of balanced leadership, charismatic leadership, servant leadership, transformational leadership, effective leadership

2.1 Introduction Balanced leadership is a recent approach to leadership that has received an increasing attention in education, psychology, and project management. This approach aims to achieve balance in leader’s knowledge, traits, behaviors, and skills in a manner that leads to higher levels of organizational performance and economic gains. Balanced leadership first emerged in the McREL’s meta-analysis research conducted by Walters, Marzano, and McNulty (2003) to investigate the impact of leadership styles and behaviors of school principals on student achievement. This research proposed a balanced framework of the leadership knowledge, practices, https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-003

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and skills that would lead to higher levels of student success. According to Waters and Cameron (2007), effective leaders can achieve an appropriate balance between: taking the lead and being in charge with delegating and empowering others; challenging and pushing followers with supporting and helping them; providing clear directions and guidelines with listening and seeking advice; and challenging the status quo with maintaining organizational core values. Bacon (2011) argues that effective leaders are balanced in their psychological constructs, while having high or low levels of these constructs will result in harming others and being an ineffective leader. For example, having a moderate amount of ego will provide the leader with the self-confidence needed for making critical and important decisions. However, high or low levels of ego may lead to narcissistic or weak leadership that eventually harms the organization. Balanced leadership has also been applied in project management research to investigate the balance between vertical and horizontal leadership practices (e.g. Müller, Packendorff & Sankaran, 2017). While balanced leadership emerged in education and was investigated further in other fields such as psychology and project management, none of the current literature investigated balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective and what makes a balanced and effective Muslim leader. This chapter presents a critical review of leadership from an Islamic perspective and discusses how Islam offers a balanced and comprehensive approach that is based on the Islamic principles of justice, Shura (consultation), competence, and ukhuwwa (building brotherly relations) and different than most secular approaches. It starts with a historical review of leadership research and how the concept of leadership was developed throughout the years. This is followed by a critical review of Islamic leadership, using the primary sources of the Qur’an and Sunnah and secondary sources from Islamic and management scholarship, and a discussion on how Islam takes a holistic and balanced approach to leadership that include some unique principles and other universal components that correspond with some Western traditions that are widely accepted. The third section discusses charismatic, transformational and servant leadership as they relate to the core principles of Islamic leadership. The final section offers a model of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective (BLIP model). The model comprises the leadership pillars, roles, and qualities that would lead to a balanced, effective, and sustainable leadership from an Islamic perspective taking the leadership of Caliph Harun Al-Rashid as an example of its application.

2.2 A Historical Review of Leadership Research The study of leadership and the different qualities of good leaders has existed since the emergence of the civilization. This can be seen in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the oldest complete extant text from Sumer in ancient Mesopotamia, and the Egyptian

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Hieroglyphics (more than 6,000 years ago) which show three qualities of leadership: authoritative, justice, and perception. It can also be seen in the Chinese classics that included many heroic stories about leaders and how they should act as role models and moral examples for their people. Similarly, the ancient Greeks admired qualities of justice, wisdom, intelligence, and courage in their leaders (Bass, 1995). Plato’s (427–347 BC) approach, which has greatly influenced Western management and leadership traditions, introduced the leader as a philosopher-king who is wise and benevolent. He believed that philosophers possess the knowledge that enables them to lead effectively and achieve harmony within oneself and the community, eventually leading to social justice. Subsequent philosophers who greatly shaped ideas about leadership in the Western tradition are Aristotle, Machiavelli, Kant, Hegel, Locke, and Hobbes who focused on political and social philosophy in their writings (see Hodgkinson, 1983; Johnson, 1996). Heilbrunn (1996) argues that the systematic academic study of leadership started in Max Weber’s work which suggests three types of leaders: rational-legal, traditional, and charismatic. Weber describes the charismatic leader as a gifted person who possesses extraordinary qualities that help him instill moral values and a sense of vision in his followers. Simmel (1950), a colleague of Weber, offers a similar type, the prestige leader who has unique qualities that make followers obey him. He argues that one can only understand the prestige leader through the intimate relationship between him and his followers. This suggests that Weber was the first sociologist to highlight the leader’s role in developing followers’ moral values and Simmel as the first sociologist to discuss leadership as a process that includes leader–follower relationship. In fact, their ideas have influenced and informed the study of leadership throughout its different developmental phases. However, earlier literature on leadership has dealt with those issues mostly from a philosophical, political, or religious perspective. A review of modern leadership research indicates that leadership research has gone through four main phases (Metcalfe & Murfin, 2011; Nohria & Khurana, 2010). The first preceded the Second World War and focused on the charismatic traits and personality of leaders. During this phase, leadership research was derived from a psychological perspective that views leaders as special individual who have unique attributes and extraordinary personality, therefore, the leader was perceived as a great man who has exceptional abilities or heroic power (Bryman, 1992; Grint, 2010). Stogdill (1948), in his review of over 120 trait studies, identified eight traits for effective leaders: intelligence, insight, alertness, persistence, self-confidence, responsibility, initiative, and sociability. The inconsistent results of these studies led him to conclude that there are no universal traits that can actually identify effective leadership and that leadership research should integrate the personal and situational characteristics. Consequently, the trait approach received limited success because the studies conducted at that time failed to identify the universal traits leading to effective leadership and were also not able to explain why many of the

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people who possessed those identified traits did not emerge as leaders (Chemers, 1995). However, in recent years, there has been a renewed interest in the trait approach with the emergence of charismatic and transformational theories with their focus on leader’s charisma and vision (Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Northouse, 2013). The growing interest in behaviorism, coupled with the failure of trait theories, shifted the focus away from leaders’ traits toward leader behaviors and whether leaders are task-oriented, emphasizing efficiency and achievement of organizational goals, or people-oriented, focusing on followers’ needs and building caring relationships with them. The behaviorism period lasted from the late 1940s to the late 1960s mostly in the US and included Katz and Kahn’s work that suggested two styles of leaders: production-oriented and employee-oriented. This school also included the work of Ohio State University scholars who identified two leadership behaviors: initiating structure and consideration. Despite its promising start, the behaviorist approach failed to find a leadership style that can be universally applicable. Therefore, leadership scholars started to look for more contextual theories of leadership (Chemers, 1995; Heilbrunn 1996). This led to the emergence of contingency theories, which lasted from late 1960s to late 1980s. Contingency theories of leadership assume that leadership is not universal and varies across situations, followers and contexts (Bryman, 1992). They focus on different aspects such as task complexity, followers’ expertise and the relationship between followers and leaders. This phase included Fiedler’s model of least preferred co-worker, Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership, leader-member exchange theory, and path goal theory. Most of them suggested that leaders adjust their behavior based on followers’ maturity and the complexity of the situation (Grint, 2010). However, contingency theories failed to provide an effective model of leadership that can deal with economic volatility and market changes (Metcalfe & Murfin, 2011). Finally, the fourth and current phase of leadership research includes new and critical perspectives. This phase, which evolved in the 1980s, views leaders as those who inspire people through their charisma, vision, values, and behaviors, ironically in a way returning to Weber’s and Simmel’s perspectives. It looks at leadership as a process that involves leaders, followers and the environment and focuses on the relationship and interactions between them (Heilbrunn, 1996). This critical perspective highlights power relations and the importance of culture and social interaction between leaders and followers (Metcalfe & Murfin, 2011).

2.3 Leadership in Islam Islam endorses a holistic and balanced approach to life where spiritual and secular aspects are blended in a manner that shapes and informs human knowledge, behavior and experiences. This holistic worldview is derived from the belief that God

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created man from clay and spirit and gave him the ability to think, reflect, and discover. Hence, humans have physical, spiritual, and intellectual needs and capabilities that shape their personality, knowledge, and behavior and through the complement and balanced use of these three aspects, one can live a purposeful and fulfilling life (ElKaleh, forthcoming; Shah, 2015). Ali (1975) confirms this holistic view by arguing that secular and religious spheres of life in Islam are intertwined and blended in a harmonious manner whereby Islamic principles and values guide and inform Muslims’ behavior and actions. Galanou and Farrag (2015) also regard Islam a holistic socio-economic system where ethics and morals come first and regulate both the spiritual and the materialistic matters of people. This harmony was also evident in the character and behavior of the Prophet Muhammad who was modeling the Qur’an, as stated by his wife Aisha when she was asked about his character (Ramadan, 2007). According to the Qur’an, leadership is a trust (amanah) that has started on earth since the creation of Adam who was sent as a successor of God “when your Lord said to the angels, I am going to place a successive human authority on earth” (2: 30). Since then, children of Adam (humans) have to carry on this successorship responsibility by establishing a just, moral and prosperous society where spiritual principles and moral values are observed and practiced (Faris & Abdalla, 2018). Thereby, leadership is considered an important mean for promoting Islamic teachings (Rafiki, 2020) and establishing a just and productive society. The Qur’an advises us to follow the leadership model of the Prophet Muhammad “in the Messenger of Allah you have an excellent example” (33:21) as well as other Prophets who were inspired and guided by God: “These prophets were rightly guided by Allah, so follow their guidance” (6:90). Therefore, spirituality, developing God consciousness, and disseminating Islamic message are critical components of Islamic leadership “And We made them leaders guiding by Our command. And We inspired to them the doing of good deeds, establishment of prayer, and giving of zakah; and they were worshippers of Us” (Qur’an 21:73). Ibn Taymiyyah (2005), a classical Islamic scholar (661–728), explains that leadership in Islam is a trust (amanah) that should be fulfilled to the best of our effort and knowledge. Leaders who do not strive for the advancement and betterment of their followers may experience disgrace and regret on the day of judgment (see ElKaleh, 2015, 2019). He argues that the just leader who claims his leadership duties in an honorable manner and strives to improve followers’ religious and life conditions will hold a noble place amongst those who worked for the sake of God and will also be one of the seven people sheltered by God “on a day when there is no other shelter than his” (Ibn Taymiyyah, 2005, 33). Islam places a great emphasis on the importance of leadership even within a small group of people. This can be seen in the Prophet’s advice to select a leader if three Muslims are going on a journey (Jabnoun, 2012; Ramadan, 2007), because putting someone in authority, according to Ibn Taymiyyah (2005), will enjoin good and prohibit evil. ElKaleh and Samier (2013) take a similar view by arguing that leadership in Islam is not a privilege or

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honor, it is a great responsibility and “a means to attain God’s love” through dedicating oneself to His service (196). It requires a great commitment and accountability to develop a just and productive society that is based on Islamic principles and values. Ibn Zafar (Kechichian & Dekmejian, 2003), an Islamic philosopher and scholar (1104–1170), discusses competence and justice as crucial attributes for effective leadership as leaders need the knowledge and technical skills to lead effectively while the moral values allow them to establish a just and fair society. He argues that this combination of ability and morality would be a good strategy for leaders to follow to secure their realm on earth while achieving salvation in the hereafter. Ibn Zafar introduces five maxims or rules for leaders to follow: Trust in God (unshakable faith), fortitude (bravery and endurance), patience (that combines firmness, moderation, and perseverance), contentment (submission to God’s will), and selfdenial (abandonment of one’s power and devotion to serving God). He identifies four leadership roles for Muslim leaders: a) as a virtuous leader who strives for the general good; b) as a servant leader who serves followers with both mind and body; c) as a graceful leader who has been graced by God with charismatic or gifted qualities to serve His purpose; and d) as a pragmatic leader who is proactive in identifying and solving problems that may cause discord or sedition. Finally, Ibn Zafar puts a great emphasis on appointing good and competent counselors who are honest, wise, knowledgeable, and faithful. He warns leaders about advisors who seduce leaders with flattery and complimentary words. He argues that “Counsel is the mirror of the intellect. If, therefore, you would like to know the capacity of anyone, ask him for advice” (Kechichian & Dekmejian, 2003, 94). Ibn Khaldun (1967), a medieval Islamic sociologist and scholar (1332–1406), also regarded leadership as inevitable because the leader acts as a mediator who keeps harmony among group members. He argues that effective leadership “is equivalent to mildness” (153). A mild leader who forgives and tolerates followers’ mistakes will be trusted, protected, and loved by his followers and they will be willing to sacrifice their lives for him. On the other hand, followers will fear and lie to a harsh leader who is eager to catch and count their mistakes. They would most likely abandon him on the field because “The decay of sincere intentions causes the decay of protection” (153). Ibn Khaldun also suggests, based on the Prophet’s advice to “follow the pace of the weakest among you” (153), that the leader should not be too shrewd imposing tasks on followers that are too challenging and go beyond their abilities. He concludes that building brotherly relations (asabiya) supported by Islamic principles are the major factors in developing effective leadership. However, sustaining this leadership is contingent to possessing certain qualities such as generosity, forgiveness, tolerance, hospitality, support of dependents, patience, faithful, commitment, liberality with money, respect for Islamic law and scholars, respect for old people and teachers, fairness and care, humility, fulfillment of duties, and avoidance of fraud. Sidani (2008) recommends using Ibn Khaldun’s contributions in

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developing Islamic leadership models that are more relevant to Muslim and nonWestern societies. Shah (2006) argues that Muslim leaders have three overlapping roles: as educators who teach with knowledge and principles; as leaders or prophets who guide with wisdom and moral values; and as parents who care with responsibility and commitment. Other scholars place more emphasis on the consultative aspect (shura) of Islamic leadership and the active role followers play in the leadership process by identifying Islamic leadership as a “social exchange” (Beekun & Badawi, 2009, 7) and a “shared influence” (Ali, 2009, 163) process where leaders involve followers in decision making and seek sincere advice and insights from them through Shura. Beekun and Badawi (2009) argue that Islamic leadership involves servant and guardian roles. In fulfilling the servant role, Muslim leaders ensure that people’s basic needs are met, work with passion and dedication for the welfare of followers and society and help followers to grow as individuals and professionals. The Prophet emphasized the servant aspect of Islamic leadership, which is similar to Greenleaf’s servant leadership theory, by advising that “A ruler who, having obtained control over the affairs of the Muslims, does not strive for their betterment and does not serve them sincerely shall not enter Paradise with them” (Sahih Muslim, Book 20, Hadith, 4502). In pursuing the guardian role, a dimension not included in Greenleaf, but evident in Islamic and some other Western models, Muslim leaders protect followers from oppression and tyranny, promote justice, and encourage God-consciousness by helping followers develop their faith and moral values. The leader in this role is like a shepherd or a mentor who guards, protects, cares, develops and guides followers (Aabed, 2006; Beekun & Badawi, 2009). The Prophet emphasized the guardian aspect of leadership, which is similar to Burns’ transforming approach, by preaching that “Everyone of you is a guardian and everyone of you is responsible for his wards” (Al-Bukhari and Muslim, Book 1, Hadith 283). In this Hadith, the Prophet advises that each Muslim is a leader in his own capacity, and an ideal society will be established when everyone tackles his/her leadership role well. This perspective is also similar to Plato’s social theory in The Republic. Plato regards people as social creatures who possess different talents that enable them to perform different tasks. When they live together and each one devotes his talent to perfect his task and contributes to the welfare of others, an ideal and productive society will be developed. The only difference between the Prophet’s and Plato’s societies is that Plato divided society into three classes in a hierarchical order: the working class (artisans) who possess the virtue of moderation; the soldiers (auxiliaries) who possess the virtue of courage; and the guardians at the top of the hierarchy who possess the virtue of wisdom. Plato claims that justice in society will be achieved when these classes work together in a harmony and respect each other (Johnson, 1996). So, Plato limited leadership to a small group of elite wise individuals who are located at the top of the social structure while the Prophet believed that everyone in society has a potential for leadership and all of them, regardless of their status, are equal. A Muslim may even pursue several leadership roles at

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the same time such as being a parent, a teacher or a school principal, a sports coach, and/or a prayer leader. With this conception of leadership, the argument of whether leaders are born or made does not exist in Islam because every Muslim has the capacity to be a leader and will be questioned by God about his followers and therefore should learn whatever it takes to fulfill his leadership roles to the best of his ability and knowledge. When every Muslim performs his leadership responsibilities in a perfect manner, an ideal society will emerge which was the case in the first six centuries of Islam when Muslims were leading the world. Ali (1975) argues that when Muslims were firmly committed to Islamic principles and values, they became “torch-bearers of civilization in every land they inhabited” but when they deviated from Qur’anic teachings, “their civilization collapsed like a house of cards” (47). Similarly, Ali (1995) explains that when Arabs stuck to the principles and practical meaning of Islam, they made remarkable achievements, while they dramatically failed when they became uncritically receptive to other ideas and abandoned their basic values of courage, pride, honesty, generosity, endurance, and tolerance and replaced them with dependency, submission, apathy, and obedience. However, according to Jabnoun (2012), some people may have higher leadership capabilities than others, which was evident in the Prophet’s prayers to strengthen Islam with one of the two “Umars,” Umar Ibn Al Hakam or Umar Ibn Al Khatab and in his Hadith “People are like mines; the best among them in Jahiliyah (the age of spiritual darkness before Islam) are the best after Islam” (236). The Qur’an indicates that preference in leadership should be given to those who have abundance of knowledge, strength, and prowess “Allah has chosen him over you and blessed him with knowledge and stature. Allah grants kingship to whoever He wills” (2:247; Rafiki, 2020). Therefore, those who are more knowledgeable, wiser, stronger, and experienced would have more leadership potential than others and should be selected to lead the group, which was also evident in the Prophet’s selection of different leaders for different tasks or situations based on the appropriateness of the leader’s abilities, knowledge, and experience to the characteristics of the situation or task. This implies that the effectiveness of leadership in Islam depends on the right match between leader’s competencies, followers’ needs, and the requirements of the situation (Jabnoun, 2012). It is worth noting that in both social structures (the Prophet’s Hadith and Plato’s Republic), justice is the cornerstone for developing an ideal society. This is also evident in Ibn Zafar’s writings where he argues that a leader can win followers’ hearts by “administering justice impartially” (92–93). In Islam, shura is another cornerstone for effective leadership. The Qur’an describes Muslims as those “whose affair is [determined by] consultation among themselves” (42:38). Shura is also a means to practice critical thinking and strengthen one’s capabilities. According to Jabnoun (2012), Umar Ibn Al Khatab, the second successor of the Prophet who was well-known of his strong character, effective leadership, and justice did not send senior companions as his governors in other countries, he wanted them close to

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him for advice and to correct him when he made any mistakes. The Prophet is the first leader in Islam and the Qur’an advises Muslims to look at him as an excellent role model to follow (33:21). He used public forums, in response to God’s request to him to “consult them [followers] in the matter” (3: 159), to practice Shura and seek advice from his companions. Ramadan (2007) describes how the Prophet used critical pedagogies to develop his companions’ intellectual capabilities by asking them questions or by making controversial statements that encourage them to actively engage in the discussion. For example, he once said, “Help your brother, whether he is just or unjust!” This statement made his followers wonder and question how this could happen. After giving them time to discuss this among themselves, he answered “prevent him from acting unjustly!” (102). Ramadan (2007) argues that this critical pedagogy developed followers’ intellectual capacity, which is needed for effective Shura. He further explains that in order to give useful advice, one needs to be intellectually competent and knowledgeable. This example also shows how critical thinking is an Islamic intellectual tradition (Ali, 1975). It also gives an indication of the difference between shura and democracy. First, in democratic practices the leader goes with the decision of the majority while in shura the leader makes the final decision after seeking genuine advice from followers. Second, in democratic practices everyone has an equal opportunity to influence the decision whether he has the knowledge and expertise or not while in Shura knowledge and intellectual competency is a pre-requisite for conducting effective Shura (Ramadan, 2007). Muslim leaders should seek advice from everyone but eventually will be more influenced by those who are experts in the field. However, democracy is not inconsistent with Islamic principles and beliefs as the Qur’an did not specify which type of political government to follow (Asad, 1980; Kelsay, 2002). It was left to Muslims to select the leader and the political system they want to implement provided that it follows the fundamental principles of Islam.

2.4 Islamic Versus Western Approaches of Leadership This discussion illustrates that Islamic leadership, while offering a unique approach to leadership where the leader has a moral responsibility of promoting God consciousness and spirituality of followers, provides a number of universal principles that are common with the charismatic, transformational, and servant approaches (ElKaleh, 2015), which have proved to be universally applicable (Faris & Abdalla, 2018; Sidani, 2008). According to Almoharby and Neal (2013), Islamic leadership is rooted in referent and charismatic authority which were exemplified in the character and behavior of the Prophet. Charismatic leadership has been known for its positive impact on followers’ motivation and performance as well as the remarkable

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positive changes that it may bring to an organization. For example, Klein and House (1995) claim that “charisma is a fire that ignites followers’ energy, commitment, and performance” (183). Also, Conger et al. (2000) point out that there is a strong relation between charismatic leadership and followers’ reverence and sense of collective identity (building brotherly relations in Islam). Max Weber (1947), a German sociologist, was the first to identify and analyze charismatic leadership. Weber introduces the charismatic leader as an extraordinary individual who possesses heroic qualities that enable him to influence and inspire followers. He points out that the charismatic leader derives his referent power from followers’ perception of him as an extraordinary person. He claims that charisma is one of the most important characteristics of effective leaders who are most likely to emerge during times of crisis or turbulence (Bryman, 1992; Grint, 2010). House (1976) further developed this theory and explained that charismatic leaders have a strong influence on others, are committed to their ideals and beliefs, have strong character and selfconfidence, act as role models, communicate high expectations, and show great confidence in followers’ abilities to meet them. However, House’s theory was criticized for its dyadic orientation (leader–follower) as well as the absence of important components such as self-sacrifice (Northouse, 2013) which is an important component of Islamic leadership. Shamir, House, and Arthur (1993) argue that human beings are constantly looking for a sense of identity or self-concept and what charismatic leaders do is cultivate a sense of collective identity by aligning followers’ self-concepts with organizational goals and by developing collective rituals, ceremonies, symbols and stories that further enhance group identity (e.g. leading followers to pilgrimage and other religious rituals). Charismatic leaders help followers reach high levels of motivation by making work appear more heroic and meaningful and through the communication of high-performance expectations that help them build their self-esteem. All of these behaviors are critical components of Islamic leadership. Transformational leadership is one of the most popular theories that has been widely investigated and accepted. It is an approach to leadership that combines charismatic and visionary behaviors and places a great emphasis on emotions, values, ethics, and long-term goals. Burns (1978) was the first to define and discuss the concepts of transforming and transactional leadership. He argues that transforming leadership is the process where “leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of morality and motivation” (20), which is very similar to the Islamic principles of developing followers’ spirituality and viewing leadership as a “shared influence process” (Ali, 2009, 163). Burns (1978) argues that while charisma is important for aligning followers with the leader’s vision, not all charismatic leaders are transformational, as charismatic leaders may take advantage of followers’ commitment to satisfy their own interests (Grint, 2010). Bass (1985; 1999) argues that charisma, while an important component of transformational leadership, is not sufficient by itself (Northouse, 2013). Bass (1985, 1999) and Bass and Avolio (1994) took this further

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by developing a model for transformational leadership that suggests four behaviors for transformational leaders: charismatic or idealized influence, individualized consideration, inspirational motivation, and intellectual stimulation. In charismatic influence leaders act as role models, put group’s interest ahead of theirs, and instill a sense of pride and faith in their subordinates. Using charismatic influence, leaders can influence employee motivation by setting challenging tasks and communicating high expectations. Through individualized consideration, the leader helps followers build self-confidence by focusing on subordinates’ individual development needs and delegating responsibilities in a manner that supports follower growth. Finally, through intellectual stimulation leaders encourage subordinates to take risks, challenge the conventional ways of doing things, and become creative and innovative by seeking novel ideas and new approached for solving problems. The research studies conducted by Bennis and Nanus (1985) and Kouzes and Posner (2002) further enhanced our understanding of transformational leadership. For example, Bennis and Nanus (1985) found that transformational leaders use four strategies to inspire and motivate subordinates: communicating a clear, attractive, and achievable vision for the organization, developing shared meanings and group identity among subordinates, creating a trusting working environment where followers feel safe to share new ideas and innovations, and showing high commitment to learning and relearning. Similarly, Kouzes and Posner (1995) suggested five practices of transformational leaders through which they motivate followers to achieve extraordinary outcomes: modeling the way by acting as role models and showing high commitment to their values; developing and communicating a compelling vision that guides employees’ behavior; challenging the process by encouraging innovation and creativity; enabling others to act by building trust and promoting teamwork; and encouraging the heart by celebrating and appreciating followers’ accomplishments. Greenleaf’s (1970) servant leadership model is an approach that starts with an analysis of a leader’s motives, which is not the case in many other theories (Northouse, 2013). He claims that servant leadership starts with a natural desire to serve others, then the “conscious choice brings one to aspire to lead” (Greenleaf, 2002, p. 27). For him, servant-leaders find their wholeness through their positive contributions to making a good society. They show the way for others, respond to problems by listening first, take unusual approaches to solve problems, and make sure that their people’s high priority needs are met. They put followers’ interest ahead of theirs and help unqualified members to grow and reach their full potential. Servant leaders are also great dreamers who live for higher goals and dedicate their lives to achieve them. The effectiveness of a servant leader can be examined if followers became healthier, wiser, and servants themselves (Spears & Lawrence, 2004). It is worth mentioning that Greenleaf’s approach takes its root from Christianity. Jesus advised that “If anyone wants to be first, he must be the very last, and the servant of all” (Mark 9:35 in Spears, 1998, 27). Therefore, servant leadership offers an effective model that is moral and inspirational. It helps people live for higher goals and achieve higher

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levels of outcomes. Graham (1991) argues that servant leadership, through its emphasis on moral values, has a transforming potential. He further explains that the moral principles that were emphasized in Burns’ transforming model were absent from Bass’ transformational theory and servant leadership is bringing back those moral values thus tends to be transforming rather than transformational. Servant leadership assumes an equality between the leader and followers and places the good of the served over leader’s self-interest, which are the same principles of Islamic leadership that is built on concern for others, integrity, role modeling, altruism, and equity (Galanou & Farrag, 2015, 887). In Islam all people are equal and most successful Muslim leaders were humble, compassion, consultative, and just. Islam encourages lowpower distance between leader and follower and bans oppression and dictatorship (Almoharby & Neal, 2013). Finally, in both approaches, servant and Islamic leadership, the focus is not only on achieving organizational and personal goals but also on building a moral responsibility of serving all stakeholders. This underlying service motivation creates a unique culture at the workplace.

2.5 A Model of Balanced Leadership from an Islamic Perspective This review demonstrates that Islam provides a holistic and balanced approach to leadership that is based on four pillars: justice, competence, shura (consultation and active involvement of followers and advisors), and ukhuwwa (building brotherly relations and a sense of collective identity). It is suggested here that a balanced and effective Muslim leader is expected to fulfill four overlapping roles: 1. As a graceful charismatic leader who has a strength of character and an attractive compelling vision, acts as a role model, leads with integrity and dedication, creates brotherly relations and a sense of collective identity, makes work heroic, meaningful and a form of worship, and communicates with eloquence and clarity. 2. As a consultative pragmatic leader who applies shura and appoints competent advisors, establishes a just and safe environment where followers feel safe to speak the truth, practices and promotes moral courage where opposing ideas are encouraged and welcomed, develops followers’ intellectual capabilities through shura, empowerment and delegation of responsibilities, acknowledges one’s mistakes and limits, shows high commitment to learning and re-learning, and is proactive in identifying and solving problems. 3. As a guardian virtuous leader who promotes God consciousness and spiritual development of followers, protects and defends followers and has a strong sense of responsibility towards followers’ wellbeing, communicates high expectations

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and shows confidence in followers’ abilities, and encourages novel ideas, creativity, and risk taking. 4. As a servant leader who has a strong intention to serve followers and ensures that their physical, emotional, intellectual needs are met, acts as a sincere advisor, coach and mentor, establishes caring and trusting relationships with followers, listens and guides with wisdom and moral values, and has a high commitment to self-reflection and self-improvement. Finally, a balanced and effective leader would possess the following qualities: forgiveness, tolerance, wisdom, justice, moral courage, generosity, humility, compassion, honesty, faithfulness, empathy, kindness, consultative approach, and knowledge competency. Figure 2.1 proposes a model of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective (BLIP Model). It includes a) the four pillars of Islamic leadership: justice, competence, shura, and ukhuwwa; b) the four leadership roles: charismatic graceful, consultative pragmatic, guardian virtuous, and servant; c) the leadership qualities that a Muslim leader should have. The BLIP model was reflected in the character and behavior of the Prophet, the four rightly guided Caliphs (Al-Rashidun), and other pioneer leading figures such as Umar Ibn Abdal Aziz and Harun Al Rashid. According to Ali (2005) and Al-Tabari (1989), the most just and ideal periods in Islamic history occurred during the early years of Islam (622–661CE), the era of Umar Ibn Abdal Aziz (717–720 CE), and the era of Harun Al-Rashid (786–809 CE). Since the leadership style of Harun Al-Rashid received little attention in the management and leadership literature, his leadership will be discussed here as a perfect example of a balanced and effective Muslim leader who dedicated his life to the service of God and the wellbeing of his followers. Harun belongs to the Abbasid Caliphate that drives its roots from the Prophet’s Hashemite family: his uncle Al-Abbas (Ali, 2005). A review of medieval Islamic literature shows that Harun Al-Rashid was a graceful charismatic leader who had a vision of reviving the leadership style of the Prophet and Al-Rashidun Caliphs (El-Hibri, 2004) by bringing the teachings of Qur’an and Sunnah back to practice. He was an excellent example of the guardian virtuous leader as he spent his life in leading Muslims to the religious rituals and defending them in the times of war. He spent his reign alternating between leading the army against the Byzantine Empire in one year and leading Muslims to the pilgrimage in the other. Harun was a courageous warier and the first Abbasid Caliph to give attention to naval warfare (Kennedy, 2016). According to Al-Tabari (839–923) (1989)), he used to take one hundred jurists with him to the pilgrimage trips, paying their expenses from his own money. And when he was not going on pilgrimage, he was sending three hundred men on his own cost. Both practices, leading the army and the pilgrimage trips, allowed him to build a sense of collective identity/brotherly relations among his followers. Al-Rashid was also known for his passion for poetry and generosity to scholars. He acted as a patron of scientific research, intellectual thought, literacy, religious debate, and talent (El-Hibri, 2021).

Has a sincere intention to serve followers SERVANT Acts as an advisor and mentor Establishes caring and trusting relationships High commitment to self-reflection/selfimprovement

JUSTICE

GUARDIAN

COMPETENCE

– – – –

SHURA

CHARISMATIC

CONSULTATIVE

Figure 2.1: Balanced Leadership: An Islamic Perspective. BLIP Model.

– – – –

Competency

Generosity Empathy

Honesty

Justice

Forgiveness

Faithfulness

Kindness

– Promotes God consciousness – Protects and defends followers – Communicates high expectations – Shows confidence in followers’ abilities – Encourages novel ideas & risk taking

[BLIP Model] UKHUWWA

Wisdom Tolerance

Moral courage

Compassion

Self-confidence

Humility

Eloquence

Integrity

Has a strong vision and character Acts as a role model Creates brotherly relations Communicates with eloquence Makes work heroic and meaningful

Applies shura & appoints competent advisors Creates a safe environment needed for shura Empowers followers/delegates responsibilities Admits one’s mistakes and limits

– – – – –

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He was a just, conscientious, and devout leader who prayed 100 raka (prayer) every day and donated one thousand dirhams from his own money to charity daily. His era was a period of peace and known as the Golden Age of medieval Islamic civilization (El-Hibri, 2004). As a servant leader, Harun dedicated his life to the wellbeing of his followers. He used to make disguised tours in Baghdad with his Wazir Ja’far to check the welfare of people and make direct contact with them, which was according to El-Hibri (2004), an imitation of the leadership style of Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khatab. His reign was an era of excessive prosperity and intellectual discovery. He left a huge surplus in the Muslim treasury when he died (Kennedy, 2016). As a consultative pragmatic leader, Harun welcomed Islamic scholars at his court and graciously accepted their ideas and criticisms. He held a high respect for scholars and was very sensitive to their advice. He was a genuine orthodox believer who used the teachings of Qur’an and Sunnah as the major sources for legal, spiritual, and public administration (Al-Tabari, 1989; El-Hibri, 2004). Al-Rashid was also a pious lifelong learner who was willing to travel in search of Hadith. The public trust of his reign (El-Hibri, 2004) demonstrates his just, wise, and competent leadership. Also, the glamours and wealth of his court as well as the active involvement of scholars in its practices reflect a successful practice of shura. In conclusion, the just and flourishing state that Harun was able to establish reflects a balanced and effective leadership that is based on the four pillars of the BLIP model: justice, shura, competence and ukhuwwa.

2.6 Conclusion Balanced leadership is a recent promising approach to leadership that has been associated with high levels of performance and economic growth. It aims to achieve balance in leader’s traits, knowledge, behaviors, and skills. It suggests that effective leaders have balanced psychological constructs and can achieve balance between leading and delegating, supporting and challenging, directing and consulting, seeking transformation, and maintaining core values. It is argued here that Islam offers a balanced and holistic approach to leadership that includes some unique and other universal components which correspond with the morally oriented Western theories that have proved to be universally effective. The unique aspects of Islamic leadership reflect the Islamic holistic worldview where spirituality and developing a just and moral society that is based on Islamic principles are critical components of leadership. They include the virtuous role of developing followers’ spirituality and God consciousness, ukhuwwa or building brotherly relations among followers, and the genuine application of shura. Whereas, the universal components contain servant, charismatic, and guardian roles that are common with the servant, charismatic, and transformational approaches.

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The BLIP Model that is introduced in this chapter suggests that Islamic leadership is based on four main pillars of justice, shura, competence, and ukhuwwa through which Muslim leaders are expected to fulfill four overlapping roles: a) as a graceful charismatic leader who has an appealing inspirational personality and acts as a role model; b) as a consultative pragmatic leader who applies shura, anticipates problems, and finds innovative solutions; c) as a guardian virtuous leader who fosters justice, protects followers and promotes God consciousness; and d) as a servant leader who strives for the wellbeing of followers and ensures people’s basic needs are met. Finally, Muslim leaders are expected to possess the qualities of forgiveness, generosity, wisdom, patience, compassion, humility, honesty, empathy, and faithfulness.

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Chemers, M. (1995). Contemporary Leadership Theory. In Wren, J. (eds), Leader’s companion: Insights on leadership through the ages (83–99). New York: The Free Press. Conger, J., & Kanungo, R. (1998). Charismatic leadership in organizations. California: Sage Publications. Conger, J., Kanungo, R. & Menon, S. (2000). Charismatic leadership and follower effects. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21(7), 747–767. El-Hibri, T. (2004). Reinterpreting Islamic historiography: Harun al-Rashid and the narrative of the Abbasid caliphate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. El-Hibri, T. (2021). The abbasid caliphate: A history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ElKaleh, E. (2015). Teaching leadership in UAE business and education programmes: A Habermasean analysis within an Islamic context. Ph.D. Thesis. The British University in Dubai. ElKaleh, E. (2019). Leadership curricula in UAE business and education management programs: a habermasean analysis within an Islamic context. International Journal of Educational Management, 33(6), 1118–1147. ElKaleh, E. (forthcoming). Research Traditions of Local Populations: Toward an Islamic Research Paradigm for Muslim Communities. In Samier, E., & ElKaleh, E. (Eds), Culturally sensitive and indigenous research methodology for education administration and leadership: Theory, practices and international issues. London: Routledge. ElKaleh, E., & Samier, E. (2013). The ethics of islamic leadership: A cross-cultural approach for public administration. Journal of Administrative Culture, 14(2), 188–211. Faris, N., & Abdalla, M. (2018). Leadership in Islam: Thoughts, processes and solutions in Australian organizations. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. Galanou, A., & Farrag, D.A. (2015). Towards the distinctive Islamic mode of leadership in business. Journal of Management Development, 34(8), 882–900. Graham, J. (1991). Servant leadership in organizations: Inspirational and moral. Leadership Quarterly, 2(2), 105–119. Greenleaf, R. (2002). Servant leadership: A journey into the nature of legitimate power and greatness (25th ed ed.). New York: Paulist Press. Greenleaf, R. (1970). The servant as leader. Westfield, IN: The Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership Grint, K. (2010). Leadership: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Heilbrunn, J. (1996). Can Leadership Be Studied?. In Temes, P. (eds), Teaching Leadership (1–13). New York: Peter Lang. Hodgkinson, C. (1983). The philosophy of leadership. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. House, R. (1976). A 1976 theory of charismatic leadership. Toronto: University of Toronto, Faculty of Management Studies. Ibn Khaldun, A. (1967). The Muqaddimah: An introduction to history. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Ibn Taymiyyah, T. (2005). The political Shariyah on reforming the ruler and the ruled. UK: Dar ul Fiqh. ISBN: 9782987467779 Jabnoun, N. (2012). Islam and management: Your ultimate guide to running a business from an Islamic perspective. Riyadh: International Islamic Publishing House. Johnson, P. (1996). Plato’s Republic as Leadership Text. In Temes, P. (eds), Teaching leadership: Essays in theory and practice (83–105). New York: Peter Lang. Kechichian, J., & Dekmejian, R. (2003). The just prince: A manual of leadership. Including an authoritative english translation of the Sulwan Al-Mutaʻ Fi ʻUdwan Al-Atba by Muhammad Ibn Zafar Al-Siqilli (consolation for the ruler during the hostility of subjects). London: Saqi Books. Kelsay, J. (2002). Civil Society and Government in Islam. In Hashmi, H. (eds.), Islamic Political Ethics: Civil Society, Pluralism and Conflict. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 3–37.

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Kennedy, H. (2016). The early abbasid caliphate: A political history. Abingdon: Routledge. Klein, K., & House, R. (1995). On fire: Charismatic leadership and levels of analysis. The Leadership Quarterly, 6(2), 183–198. Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (1995). The leadership challenge: How to keep getting extraordinary things done in organizations. California: Jossey-Bass. Kouzes, J. & Posner, B. (2002). The leadership challenge. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Metcalfe, B., & Murfin, T. (2011). Leadership, Social Development and Political Economy in the Middle East: An Introduction. In Metcalfe, B., & Mimouni, F. (eds), Leadership development in the Middle East (pp. 1–60). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Müller, R., Packendorff, J., & Sankaran, S. (2017). Balanced leadership: A new perspective for leadership in organizational project management. Available online at https://opus.lib.uts. edu.au/bitstream/10453/123681/3/OCC-115268_AM.pdf (Accessed Jan 6, 2022). Nohria, N., & Khurana, R. (2010). Handbook of leadership theory and practice. Watertown, MA: Harvard Business Press. Northouse, P. (2013). Leadership theory and practice (6th ed ed.). California: Sage Publications. Rafiki, A. (2020). Islamic Leadership: Comparisons and Qualities. In Franco, M. (eds.), Digital Leadership-A New Leadership Style for the 21st Century (pp. 1–16). London: IntechOpen. Available online at https://www.intechopen.com/chapters/70045. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen. 90151, Accessed Jan 6, 2022. Ramadan, T. (2007). In the footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the life of Muhammad. New York: Oxford University Press. Shah, S. (2006). Educational leadership: An Islamic perspective. British Educational Research Journal, 32(3), 363–385. Shah, S. (2015). Education, leadership and Islam: Theories, discourses and practices from an Islamic perspective. Abingdon: Routledge. Shamir, B., House, R.J., & Arthur, M.B. (1993). The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self-concept based theory. Organization Science, 4(4), 577–594. Sidani, Y. (2008). Ibn Khaldun of North Africa: An AD 1377 theory of leadership. Journal of Management History, 14(1), 73–86. Simmel, G. (1950). The sociology of Gorg Simmel. New York: Free Press. Spears, L. (1998). Insights on leadership: Service, stewardship, spirit, and servant-leadership. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Spears, L., & Lawrence, M. (2004). Practicing servant leadership: Succeeding through trust, bravery and forgiveness. San Francisco: Jossy-Bass. Stogdill, R.M. (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership: A survey of the literature. The Journal of Psychology, 25(1), 35–71. Walters, T., Marzano, R., & McNulty, B. (2003). “Balanced Leadership: What 30 Years of Research Tells Us about the Effect of Leadership on Student Achievement”. Available online at http://crss.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/McRel-Study.pdf (Accessed Jan 6, 2022). Waters, T., & Cameron, G. (2007). The balanced leadership framework: Connecting vision with action. Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL). Available online at https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544245.pdf (Accessed Jan 6, 2022). Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. New York: Oxford University Press.

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Chapter 3 Balanced Leadership from an Islamic Perspective: Between Philosophy and Practice Abstract: Research about balanced leadership has received increasing attention among academics and practitioners in an attempt to guide the practice of effective leadership. However, the concept of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective has not been examined yet. While we concede that research about leadership should transcend cultures and contexts, we believe that an Islamic perspective to balanced leadership can make valuable contributions to the theory and practice of leadership in different contexts. We propose a conceptual framework for balanced leadership grounded in the concept of balance in Islam. Evidence from Quran and Sunna (ahadith) are used to define the main characteristics of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective. We illustrate how the characteristics of balanced leaders, as proposed by our framework, are embraced and enacted by one of the most revered leaders in Islamic history Umar Ibn Al-Khattab. We conclude by highlighting the managerial implications of our framework and stressing the need to test and extend the proposed framework to inspire more balanced contemporary leadership styles and practices. Keywords: Balanced Leadership, Effective Leadership, Islamic Leadership, Contemporary Leadership Styles, Islam, Leadership

3.1 Introduction Research about balanced leadership has received increasing attention among academics and practitioners in an attempt to guide the practice of effective leadership (e.g., Müller, Packendorff & Sankaran, 2017; Pilkienė, Alonderienė, Chmieliauskas, Šimkonis & Müller, 2018; Waters, Marzano & McNulty, 2003; Zang & Fou, 2012). The concept of balance in leadership has been defined and approached differently by different scholars. Müller and Turner (2010) and Pilkienė et al. (2018) investigated balance in the context of organizational project management and defined it as the empowerment of employees that should be influenced by three criteria: the leadership situation, the attitude of leaders toward their team members, and the level of trust that team members shall contribute to the success of the job. Waters et al. (2003) explored the concept of balance in the context of education leadership and https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-004

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defined it as the ability to implement positive change without jeopardizing positive aspects of the organization culture to promote an environment conducive of learning and growth. Zang and Fou (2012) studied balance in the context of organizational change using the traditional Chinese perspective of harmony as elucidated in the principles of Wu Xing, I Ching, and Tao Te Ching. However, the concept of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective has not been examined yet (Brooks & Mutohar, 2018). Leadership has been given a paramount significance in Islam as it is the foundation for sustaining the Muslim Nation (Ummah). The philosophy and practice of leadership in Islam are grounded in the Islamic values and teachings and can be significantly different from a western approach to leadership that tends to be primarily based on a secular worldview (Galanou & Farrag, 2015). Islam expects leaders to follow Islamic teachings in their practice of leadership and lead for the common good (Brooks & Mutohar, 2018; Striepe, 2016). Islamic leaderss are expected to embody core Islamic values such as piety (Taqwa), morality (Akhlaq), and excellence (Itqan) (Ahamd, 2008; Nuruddin, 2011) and possess a number of qualities such as having good intentions (Niyya), being mindful of God in all his actions (Taqwa), treats everyone with justice (Adl), being trustworthy (Sidq and Amana), being sincere (Ikhlas), consults followers (Shura), and be patient (Sabr) (Adnan, 2006; Striepe, 2016). Other traits include knowledge, wisdom, courage, determination, superior communication, compassion, resilience, and lifelong endeavor. Most of these traits have been extracted primarily from the Qur’an and the biography of the Prophet Muhammad and his companions. While we concede that research about leadership should transcend cultures and contexts, we believe that an Islamic perspective to balanced leadership can make valuable contributions to the theory and practice of leadership in different contexts. We propose a conceptual framework for balanced leadership grounded in the concept of balance in Islam. Evidence from Quran and Sunna (ahadith) are used to define the main characteristics of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective. We illustrate how the characteristics of balanced leaders, as proposed by our framework, are embraced and enacted by one of the most revered leaders in Islamic history Umar Ibn Al-Khattab. We begin with an overview of previous research about Islamic leadership. We then advance the underpinnings of the framework we propose to define the concept of balanced leadership as presented in the Qur’an (the Holy Book and sacred text revealed by Allah SWT to Muhammad that offers the complete guidance for humanity to live a life in accordance to the will of Allah) and the ahadith (the collection of Prophet Muhammad’s words, actions, and deeds viewed as a major source of guidance for Muslims). Next, we show how the characteristics and traits of a balance leader as defined in our framework are illustrated by Umar Ibn Al-Khattab leadership style. We conclude by emphasizing the need to test, extend, and refine the

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proposed framework to inspire more balanced contemporary leadership styles and practices among Muslims and non-Muslims.

3.2 Islamic Leadership and the Notion of Balance in Islam: A Guiding Framework Islam is a religion that advocates for a balanced way of life and requires people to be balanced and moderate. As Allah the All Mighty said: Thus, We have made you a justly balanced community that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger will be a witness over you. (Surat Al-Baqarah 2:143)

Several authors explained that moderation (wassateya in Arabic) is closely related to balance (tawazun) and justice (‘adl), as justice implies balancing rights and duties and setting everything in its rightful place (Hanapi, 2014; Yanti & Witro, 2020). The moderate, just, and correct action in any given situation often involve the balancing of various concerns and seeking the middle ground between them. Prophet Mohammed PBUH exemplified the idea of balance in an incident that occurred with the Companions: Narrated `Abdullah bin `Amr bin Al-`As: Allah’s Messenger PBUH said, “O `Abdullah! Have I not been formed that you fast all the day and stand in prayer all night?” I said, “Yes, O Allah’s Messenger PBUH!” (He said, “Do not do that! Observe the fast sometimes and also leave them [the fast] at other times; stand up for the prayer at night and also sleep at night. Your body has a right over you, your eyes have a right over you and your wife has a right over you.” (Albukhari, No 4903)

As previously stated, the essence of Islam is about balance and moderation. Moderation and balance are even more critical for a ruler or leader. Leaders should be moderate when it comes to balancing the duties of religion and the duties of worldly life. This can be evidenced by Allah’s words: Indeed We have sent Our Messengers with clear proofs, and revealed with them the Scripture and the balance (justice) that mankind may keep up justice. And We brought forth iron wherein is mighty power (in matters of war), as well as many benefits for mankind, that Allah may test who it is that will help Him (His religion) and His Messengers in the unseen. Verily, Allah is All-Strong, All-Mighty. (Al Hadeed: 57:25)

The essence of Islam is to achieve balance and harmony in all aspects of life. Islam has set the guidelines for leadership as an important social process that influences our daily lives. Prophet Mohammed PBUH described the leader as a caretaker and guardian when he used the metaphor “shepherd” for those who occupy any position of leadership (Alsweedan & Bashraheel, 2004; Faris & Parry, 2011). Ibn ‘Umar reported that the Messenger of Allah PBUH, had said:

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All of you are shepherds and each of you is responsible for his flock. The Amir (leader) of a people is a shepherd and he is responsible for his flock. (Sahih Al-Albani; AlAdab Al-Mufrad 206)

Contemporary scholars have also contributed to the notion of moderation or Wasatiyya. Muṣṭafā Kamāl al-Tarīzī al-Tūnisī made the observation that wasatiyya related to all aspects of life; from beliefs and practicing rituals, to social relations. Kamali (2008). Furthermore, Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī manifested Wasatiyya as the balance between rights and obligations, materialism, and spiritualism as well as forgiveness and resistance. These values shape the relations amongst Muslims as well as with other communities and nations. Indeed Wasatiyya has become one of the pillars for Islamic civilization (Wahbah al-Zuḥaylī & Al-Taṭarruf fī’l-islām, 2005). Al Sweedan in defining Islamic leadership stressed on the balance between the mind, heart, emotions, and soul. Furthermore, in an attempt to bring together the Islamic virtues and principles related to leadership from a balanced perspective, ElBassiouny, El-Sherbiny, Mohamed, and Wilson (Forthcoming) proposed a model conceptualizing Islamic balanced leadership. Their model develops a harmony between the heart, mind, spirituality, materialism rights, and responsibility. This study has adopted this model; however, family and work have been added to the model based on previous studies related to Islamic leadership traits as highlighted in Table 3.1 and also as Allah SWT ordered us: Seek the home of the Hereafter by that which Allah has given you, but do not forget your share of the world. (Surat Al-Qasas 28:77)

3.2.1 Faith and Competencies Two important guiding principles have been proposed to the framework; Faith and competencies. Faith represents the level of Iman. Iman is faith in Allah SWT and implies belief in the Oneness of Allah SWT and the prophet hood of Muhammed PHUH. Leadership in Islam is rooted in the belief and willingness to submit to Allah SWT. A Muslim leader should act in commands with Allah SWT and teachings of his Prophet PBUH. Indeed Islamic leaders should keep the teachings of Islam as a priority as Allah SWT stated his holy book: O ye who believe! take not for friends and protectors those who take your religion for a mockery or sport, – whether among those who received the Scripture before you, or among those who reject Faith; but fear ye Allah, if ye have faith (indeed). (Surat Al-Maaidah 5: 57) But the faithful, men and women, are comrades of one another: they bid what is right and forbid what is wrong and maintain the prayer, give the zakāt, and obey Allah and His Messenger. It is they to whom Allah will soon grant His mercy. Indeed Allah is all-mighty, all-wise. (Surat At-Taubah 9:71)

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In a verse of the Qur’an, Allah explicitly identifies right faith (Iman) as a key attribute of leadership: And We appointed from among them Leaders giving guidance under Our command so long as they persevered with patience and continued to have faith in Our signs. (Sajdah, 32:24)

Another important guiding principle for balanced Islamic leadership is the competencies possessed by the leader. An Islamic leader should be competent. It is usually difficult to assess anyone’s Iman since this is entirely a matter between that person and Allah SWT. Therefore, it is important to find someone who has the necessary skills and is at the same time a strong Muslim. The importance of competence in Islamic leadership has been emphasized by the Prophet’s words (Hadith): transmitted by Al-Hakim and cited in Ibn Taymiyyah in his great work, Al Siyasatus Shariah Fi Islaahir Raaie war Raiiyyah, our Prophet (s) said: Whosoever delegates a position to someone whereas he sees someone else is more competent (for the position), verily he has cheated Allah and His Apostle and all the Muslims.

Several studies have also asserted the important influence of the quality of Islamic leadership in achieving high levels of satisfaction, motivation, and attitudes for followers. (Aabed, 2005; Kasturi, 2006). One of the important competencies for Islamic leaders is to possess the appropriate knowledge and skills to be able to take balanced decisions. For example, Islamic leaders should be authentic. In other words, being transparent, ethical, and genuine. Showing yourself whilst giving room for and empowering others. Leaders must refer to Al-Qur’an and Hadith as guidance before making any decisions. Below are the instructions from the Quran verses: O you who believe! Obey Allah, and obey the Messenger and those charged with authority among you. If you differ in anything among yourselves, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you have believed in Allah and the Last Day. That is best, and most suitable for final determination. (An-Nisaa’ 4:59) Their Prophet said to them: “Allah hath appointed Talut as king over you.” They said: “How can he exercise authority over us when we are better fitted than he to exercise authority, and he is not even gifted, with wealth in abundance?” He said: “Allah hath Chosen him above you, and hath gifted him abundantly with knowledge and bodily prowess: Allah Granteth His authority to whom He pleases. Allah cares for all, and He knows all things.” (al-Baqarah 2: 247)

As depicted in Figure 3.1, an Islamic leader should try to achieve balance between: heart and mind, materialism and spiritualism, rights and responsibilities, and last between family and work. The key for the success of the proposed framework is to find the balance between the two extremes for each principle.

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FAITH Heart

Mind

Spirituality

Materialism

Rights

Responsibilities

Family

Work

Figure 3.1: Proposed Conceptual Framework: Balanced Islamic Leadership.

3.2.2 Heart and Mind Behavior in Islam is usually based on intention, referred to as the niyyah. It is important for Islamic leaders to have the right intentions before planning, delegating, taking decisions, and ultimately reaching their goals. The place of the niyyah is the heart. Marbun (2013) and Senam et al. (2014) stressed that Islamic leaders should initially possess the right intentions and good will before performing any action. This has been explicitly expressed by Prophet Muhammed PHUP in the Nawwawi hadith: Actions are according to intentions, and everyone will get what was intended. Whoever migrates with an intention for Allah and His messenger, the migration will be for the sake of Allah and his Messenger. And whoever migrates for worldly gain or to marry a woman, then his migration will be for the sake of whatever he migrated for. (Narrated by Bukhari and Muslim)

Islamic leaders should also balance the heart with the mind. This balance can be achieved by having a strong aqidah (Islamic creed). The main difference between western and Islamic leadership is based on the aqidah. All actions by Islamic leaders should be revolving around the idea of pleasing Allah AWT. O you who believe! Answer Allah (by obeying Him) and (His) Messenger when he (SAW) calls you to that which will give you life, and know that Allah comes in between a person and his heart (i.e. He prevents an evil person to decide anything). And verily to Him you shall (all) be gathered (8:24)

It can be observed from the above Quran verse that Allah SWT drew the attention of believing Muslims on the need to remain on the straight path and to follow the legislations as brought by His Messenger at all circumstances.

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3.2.3 Spirituality and Materialism Islam balances the two extreme notions of the material aspect as well as the spiritual aspect of human well-being. Materialism in this context refers to maximizing life’s economic and social benefits. However, this should not deter Muslim leaders from seeking the blessing of Allah SWT as well as giving the poor. The Holy Quran confirmed that in the following verses: O you who have attained to faith! Let not your worldly goods or your children make you oblivious of the remembrance of God: for if any behave thus – it is they, they who are the losers! (AlMunafeqoon: 9) And spend on others out of what We have provided for you as sustenance, ere there come a time when death approaches any of you, and he then says, “O my Sustainer! If only Thou wouldst grant me a delay for a short while, so that I could give in charity and be among the righteous! (AlMunafeqoon: 10)

It is spirituality; Taqwa or Rabbaniyat (piety) that reminds Islamic leaders of the existence of Allah SWT. A Muslim leader should always seek the satisfaction of Allah SWT. Humility, submission, and trust should be demonstrated in all of his actions. Thus, his relationship with Allah is the focal point of his Islamic spirituality. In his book recently, Khalid Hussain (2020) mentioned that there are three main concepts in Islamic spirituality: love, thankfulness, and humbleness. Islamic leaders should seek to develop these qualities as they can be practically awarding. On the other hand, Islamic leaders should seek the welfare of their people, build this world, and seek prosperity. The Holy Quran emphasizes the balance between materialism and spiritualism in the following verses: [Are] men whom neither commerce nor sale distracts from the remembrance of Allah and performance of prayer and giving of zakah. They fear a Day in which the hearts and eyes will [fearfully] turn about. (AlNour: 37) And when the prayer has been concluded, disperse within the land and seek from the bounty of Allah, (Al Jumma: 10)

3.2.4 Rights and Responsibilities Human rights and responsibilities in Islam are derived from natural rights and responsibilities. They are also inseparable; one cannot be assigned a right without accepting some responsibilities. Right (Haq) is a term that revolves around freedom, equity, and moral values. It is also one of the Allah’s SWT glorious names. Islamic leaders should preserve their followers’ rights whilst assuming their responsibilities. Human rights of individuals, family, social, civil, national, international,

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economic, cultural, educational, and industrial even recreational life are ensured and established by Islamic law as it is stated in the Quran and Hadith. And indeed, each [of the believers and disbelievers] – your Lord will fully compensate them for their deeds. Indeed, He is Acquainted with what they do. (Hud:111). So whoever wills – let him believe; and whoever wills – let him disbelieve. (Al-Kahf: 29)

Furthermore, Muslims have the right to express themselves and leaders via the consultation (Shura) can implement this. Allah has stated in the Quran: And those who have responded to their lord and established prayer and whose affair is [determined by] consultation among themselves, and from what We have provided them, they spend. (Shura: 38) So pardon them and ask forgiveness for them and consult them in the matter. (Al-Imran: 159)

As also mentioned by Prophet Muhammad PBUH in his Final Speech: No wonder, Allah declared your life, your wealth, and your dignity sacred to each other such as the sacredness of this day of yours, in this month of yours, in this town of yours, until the day you reach your Creator. (Sahih Bukhari)

Islamic leaders are accountable for their decisions and actions. They should balance between granting people their full rights across the different social, cultural, and political aspects and assuming their responsibilities to ensure that Allah’s orders are being implemented. For example, they should oppose the oppressors and the unjust and generally try to build a strong society. Allah has stated in the Quran: Surely Allah commands justice and the doing of good (to others), and giving to the kindred, and He forbids indecency and evil and rebellion. He admonishes you that you may be mindful. And fulfill the covenant of Allah, when you have made a covenant and break not your oaths after confirming them; and you have indeed made Allah your surety. Surely Allah knows what you do. (16:90–91)

Islamic leaders should also perform their duties in the best way possible (Itqan). The Prophet PBUH is a role model in attempting to perform his responsibilities with precision (Itqan). As he said “Allah loves to see one’s job done at the level of itqan” and he mentioned in one of his speeches “The best of deeds is that which is most beneficial.” Furthermore, one of the main responsibilities of Islamic leaders is to deliver the mandate (amanah) to those who should receive it through reinforcing justice and law (Ahmad, 2010; Rafiki, 2020). This can be highlighted from the below Quran verse: Indeed Allah commands you to deliver the trusts to their [rightful] owners, and, when you judge between people, to judge with fairness. Excellent indeed is what Allah advises you. Indeed Allah is all-hearing, all-seeing. (An-Nisaa’ 4: 58)

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Overall, Muslims in general must balance everything in their life, fulfilling the rights of Allah SWT, themselves, and others at the same time, whilst never neglecting one obligation in order to fulfil the other.

3.2.5 Family and Work It is important for an Islamic leader to develop harmony between family obligations and work responsibilities. As mentioned in the hadith: Always adopt a middle, moderate, regular course, whereby you will reach your target (of paradise) (Bukhari)

Islam adopts a family first policy and it stresses on the importance of fostering love and peace to build a strong Muslim family. As the Prophet PBUH said, “The best of you is the best of you to his family” The Prophet is a true role model in balancing family and the Daawa (work). This can be witnessed when Aisha, the wife of the Prophet PBUH, was asked: “What did the Prophet use to do at home?” She said, “He used to work for his family, and when he heard the Adhan (call for the prayer), he would go out.” (Narrated by Al-Aswad bin Yazid)

Balancing family and work can also be witnessed amongst leading women in Islam like Aisha, Maryam Bint Omran, Asiya the wife of Pharoah, and Khadijah mother of the believers. These amazing women are role models for modern Muslim women in balancing between family and their relationship with Allah SWT (deen). For example, Khadija was a very successful and wealthy businesswomen, but also a caring wife and the first one to believe and support the Prophet Muhammad PBUH. There is no doubt that Prophet Mohammed PBUH is considered by Muslims as the greatest leader in human history. He is the focus of another chapter in this book. In this chapter, we decided to apply our proposed framework to one of His companions and a prominent figure and leader in Islamic history: Umar Ibn-ALKhatib. Next, we explain in detail how our proposed principles for balanced leadership are enacted and illustrated in his leadership style.

3.3 The Practice of Balanced Leadership: Umar Ibn Al-Khattab Umar Ibn Al-Khattab is the second Caliphate “successor” and one of the four “rightly guided caliphs” in Islam. In addition to embodying moral values other caliphs and Muslims leaders are expected to possess such as piety, trustworthiness,

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and sincerity, Umar was much known for his courage, justice, and humbleness. Although Uthman Bin Affan ruled more years than Umar, however, Umar’s era was the most stable as compared to Uthman’s reign that was characterized by increased opposition surrounded by Ali who briefly succeeded him. Umar Ibn Al-Khattab is revered by Muslims as one of the most capable and wise leaders and statesman in Islam. Umar has been described as the architect of the Islamic State who managed to extend Islam and the message of Prophet Muhammed PBUH from East to West (Ashfaq et al., 2019). He established the political structure of the Islamic state that expanded under his leadership to include Syria, Persia, and Egypt. He did break down the Islamic state into provinces and appointed governors to each province whom he did not allow to stay in power for more than two years to prevent them from becoming corrupt as a result of their roles in power (Khan, 2020). He had many achievements under his rule such as establishing the first financial institution in the Islamic state that manages the money of zakat (collected taxes from Muslims) and distributes it to the poor including Jews and Christians living in the Islamic state (Ashfaq et al., 2019). Next, we outline in detail how the different dimensions proposed in our framework are enacted by one of the most revered leaders in Islam.

3.3.1 Faith and Competencies Umar quickly established himself as one of the main figures of Islam with a powerful and just personality that never shied away from standing for what is right at all costs. Due to his personality, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) called him “AL Farouk” (distinguisher between right and wrong). He was educated and knowledgeable, as he had learned to read and write while still a child, which was a very rare thing in Makkah at the time. During his tenure, he was the first to be called “commander of the faithful” (amīr al-muʾminīn). Umar Ibn Al-Khattab was one of the greatest conquerors. His reign saw the transformation of the Islamic state from an Arabian principality to a world power. Being a just ruler, wise administrator and knowledgeable believer resembled his main competencies. Umar was known to be one of the strongest and most fearless men, before and after he embraced Islam. He encouraged his people to learn and develop their skills, as it is clear from the following quote: Acquire knowledge, and learn tranquility and dignity. (Umar Ibn Al Khatttab)

He was also a man of piety that worshiped and proudly loved Allah SWT as it is clear from his below quote: We were the most humiliated people on earth and God gave us honor through Islam. If we ever seek honor through anything else, God will humiliate us again. (Umar Ibn Al Khatttab)

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Umar used to cry in his prayer (Salah) and in one occasion, the Prophet PBUH said to Umar (R) “By Allah, Satan will never tread the way you pass through.” This is how strong his faith was. Furthermore, Table 3.1 articulates Umar Ibn Al-Khattab’s balanced leadership that can be witnessed throughout his time as Caliphate. This has been mapped to the different dimensions introduced in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: Umar Ibn Al-Khattab Balanced Leadership. Balance Dimension

Personal Traits and Life Situations

Evidence Form Quran and Sunna

Heart and Mind

Umar always said that the best action is to have sincere intention for Allah. However, Umar translates the good intentions into action and implementing the teachings of Islam and the Shari’ah (Divine Islamic Law). One incident happened with Amr Ibn AlAas (RA) who was the governor of Egypt during Umar Ibn Al-Khattab’s (RA) caliphate. One day, a citizen of Egypt approached Umar (RA) complaining: “I have come to you to seek shelter from cruelty as I raced against Amr Ibn Al-Aas’s (RA) son. When I won, he whipped me saying: ‘I am the son of the nobles.’” Immediately, Umar (RA) wrote to Amr Ibn Al-Aas (RA) and summoned him along with his son. When Amr Ibn Al-Aas (RA) and his son appeared before him he commanded the Egyptian: “Take this whip and Whip the son of the nobles.” Afterward, Umar (RA) addressed Amr Ibn Al-Aas (RA): “when did you enslave people as they were born free by their mothers?” This is how justice was served. Even against the son of a governor, from a noble family, his father was a beloved governor and a narrator of  Hadeeths, and still Umar’s (RA) heart and never interfered on doing the right and just thing to do.

“O you who have believed, be constantly upright with equity (with others), witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or (your) parents and nearest kin. In case (the person) is rich or poor, then Allah is the Best Patron for both. So do not ever follow prejudice, so as to do justice; and in case you twist or veer away, then surely Allah has been Ever-Cognizant of whatever you do.”(Al Nisa’a 4:135) Ibn Rajab reported: Umar ibn Al Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, said, “The best deeds are to fulfill the obligations of Allah, to be cautious of the prohibitions of Allah, and to have an honest intention before Allah Almighty.” Narrated `Aisha: Usama approached the Prophet on behalf of a woman (who had committed theft). The Prophet ( ) said, “The people before you were destroyed because they used to inflict the legal punishments on the poor and forgive the rich. By Him in Whose Hand my soul is! If Fatima (the daughter of the Prophet ( ) did that (i.e. stole), I would cut off her hand.”

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Table 3.1 (continued) Balance Dimension

Personal Traits and Life Situations

Evidence Form Quran and Sunna

Materialism and Spiritualism

From the materialistic point of view, during his time, Umar managed to build a strong Islamic State on the economic, political, and social levels. On the other hand, he managed to achieve the right spiritual balance through following the footstep of the Prophet PBUH. He demonstrated humbleness and humility in his actions and at the same time showed moderation by asking his followers not to burden people with long prayers and lectures. When Muslims took over Jerusalem and Umar R.A the people of Jerusalem demanded that Umar (RA) comes himself for a peace treaty and to hand him the key for the city. During this long journey Umar (RA) and his servant took equal turns on a single camel setting a marvelous example for equality and human dignity. Upon entering the city it was the servant’s turn to ride on the camel. He offered his turn to Umar (RA) as it was an honorable occasion, Umar (RA) declined stating: “The honor of Islam is sufficient.” Then Umar (RA) entered Jerusalem guiding the camel in with his servant on top of it. Amazed by his humbleness people of Jerusalem were assured that they gave the key of the city for someone that would never oppress them. Umar feared Allah SWT even in the most trivial matters. He is known for saying that “if a lamb were to die on the banks of Euphrates, I would fear Allah might call ‘Umar to account for it’.”

Ubaydullah ibn ‘Adi reported: Umar Ibn Al Khattab, may Allah be pleased with him, said, “O people, do not make Allah hateful to his servants.” They said, “How is that? Allah correct you!” Umar said, “One of you is an Imam and he prolongs the prayer for people until what is in it becomes hateful to them. And one of you sits to lecture and he prolongs it for people until what is in it becomes hateful to them.” On the authority of Abu al-‘Abbas Sahl bin Sa’d al-Sa’idi, radiyallahu ‘anhu, who said: A man came to the Prophet, PBUH and said: “O Messenger of Allah, direct me to an act which if I do it, [will cause] Allah to love me and people to love me.” He, sallallahu ‘alayhi wasallam, answered: “Be indifferent to the world and Allah will love you; be indifferent to what people possess and they will love you.” It is narrated that ‘Urwah ibn az-Zubayr said: “I saw ‘Umar Ibn Al-Khattab carrying a vessel of water on his shoulder, and I said, ‘O Ameer al-Mumineen, you should not have to do this.’ He said, ‘When delegations came to me listening and obeying, I felt a little proud, and I wanted to put a stop to that.”

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Table 3.1 (continued) Balance Dimension

Personal Traits and Life Situations

Rights and Although originally from a wealthy Responsibilities family, Umar (RA) became very ascetic and overly spiritual and extremely conscious of his responsibilities putting others’ needs before his as the burden and responsibility of his position out weighted all the benefits that came with it. One very notable incident took place during the days of famine, which shows his approach to the authoritative position he held. When it was the year of the famine, Umar (RA) took all measures necessary to ensure that adequate relief reached all people. He used to tour the city every night and one night as he turned a corner he saw a cottage, and from there he heard the sound of weeping children. Umar (RA) knocked at the gate and asked the lady of the house why were the children crying. She said they were hungry. “And what are you cooking,” he asked . She replied that the kettle had only water and stones that she was boiling hoping that exhausted the children would fall asleep. Not telling her who he was Umar (RA) went to the Baitul Mal (house of funds). There he put the necessary provisions in a bag and insisted to carry it himself to the cottage. Upon his arrival Umar (RA) sat by the hearth and cooked the meals himself. The lady then told him that he should be a better Calipha then Umar (RA) as she didn’t know who he was, never thinking that the man who was in charge of all Muslims will do that himself.

Evidence Form Quran and Sunna “Only through the Divine Mercy have you (Muhammad) been able to deal with your followers so gently. If you had been stern and hardhearted, they would all have deserted you a long time ago. (:)” ‘Abdullāh ibn ‘Amr (may Allah be pleased with him) reported that the Prophet (may Allah’s peace and blessings be upon him) said: “Those who are merciful will be shown mercy by the Most Merciful. Be merciful to those on the earth and the One in the heaven will be merciful to you.”

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Table 3.1 (continued) Balance Dimension

Personal Traits and Life Situations

Evidence Form Quran and Sunna

Umar delegated tasks and duties to different rulers and messengers across the different Islamic governorates (countries). He believed in consultation (Shura) and preserving people’s rights to express themselves. However, he was very cautious in choosing rulers and governors to make sure that they are good in their ruling and that their people would love and support them. Family and Work

One aspect about Umar (RA) fascinating personalities is that people always thought this righteous strong man would be very strict and maybe aggressive with his family which is exactly the opposite, as he was a loving tender family man although very firm not forgiving for any member of his family wrongdoing. One very interesting story Umar (RA) was at his house when a man came to him seeking his advice about how to deal with his wife’s aggressiveness. When the man approached Umar (RA) house, he heard Umar’s (RA) wife screaming at him. Shocked, he decided to leave thinking that how would Umar (RA) assist him while suffering from the same problem himself? Umar (RA) saw the man walking away so he rushed after him and asked him what he need. Hesitantly, he told that he wanted to complain about his wife, but felt awkward seeing Unar (RA) the caliph, Amir Al Mu’umenin “commander of the faithful” in the same position. Umar (RA) replied, “Doesn’t she prepares food for me, wash my clothes and care for my children, remember there is nothing that says she has to do any of these things? Isn’t it only fair to tolerate what would be considered minor issues for everything she is doing?”

“And serve Allah. Ascribe no thing as partner unto Him. (Show) kindness unto parents, and unto near kindred, and orphans, and the needy, and unto the neighbor who is of kin (unto you) and the neighbor who is not of kin, and the fellow-traveler and the wayfarer and (the slaves) whom your right hands possess. Lo! Allah loveth not such as are proud and boastful.” (Surah anNisa: ) Aisha reported: The Messenger of Allah, peace and blessings be upon him, said, “Verily, the most complete of believers in faith are those with the best character and who are most kind to their families.”

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Table 3.1 (continued) Balance Dimension

Personal Traits and Life Situations

Evidence Form Quran and Sunna

That was Umar (RA) attitude with his family, never letting the pressure of his position impact how he deals with them. On a separate not and to avoid misuse of power, “Umar would never choose any of his relatives or family members to government positions, even if they were qualified to do the job.”

The above findings indicate that Umar Ibn Al Khattab is the perfect model for a balanced leader. Through moderation and balance in his leadership style, he succeeded to build a strong Islamic state. Based on the findings of this study the authors propose an operational definition for Islamic balanced leadership: The process of designing a productive work environment through harmonizing and balancing different aspects of work, life and personal traits guided by strong faith and competencies in order to empower organizational members to take sound decisions.

3.4 Discussion and Recommendations The Islamic perspective to balanced leadership proposed in this chapter contributes to the body of work that looked at leadership from an Islamic perspective and to balanced leadership in general. This study attempted to propose a more operational and practical definition for balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective. The era of Umar Ibn Al Khattab as Caliphate is considered the golden age of Islam. He managed to achieve this through the balance between the different aspects of his leadership skills and capabilities as evident in this chapter. Umar is considered a role model for leaders and rulers in general through managing to balance the different aspects proposed in the framework across political, economic, and social issues. It might be easy to demonstrate how our proposed model applies to one of the greatest and unique leaders through Islamic history. Hence, future research should empirically test this framework among contemporary leaders and extend its validity to the practice of leadership in different contexts to inspire balanced leadership styles and practices among Muslims and non-Muslims. For instance, future research can attempt to examine how the proposed framework is illustrated and enacted by a prominent contemporary Muslim leaders such as Mahathir Bin Muhammad, Malaysia’s

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longest-serving Prime Ministers (1981–2003), and one of the most remarkable Muslim political leaders in the contemporary history. Mahathir has an elevated status among Muslims who perceive him as a role model for other Muslim leaders (Kee Beng, 2006). He succeeded to position Malaysia as a source of hope and a model for Muslim countries to imitate and presented an alternative model of progress for Third World countries (Kee Beng, 2006). The concept of balanced leadership from Islamic perspective as proposed in our framework might be well illustrated in Mahathir words: When it is properly understood, and its true precepts are followed, Islam offers a path to enlightenment, to harmony, to stable and responsible government, to progress and to prosperity. We believe that the way we adhere to the essential or fundamental teachings and practice of Islam in Malaysia has contributed to our success as a nation (Mahathir Mohamad, 2002).

3.4.1 Managerial Implications From a managerial perspective, Umar Ibn Al-Khattab did not really reinvent the wheel. He only applied principles and rulings derived from the Quran and the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH. The moderation that he used in applying such principles as illustrated in Table 3.1, made him a genius leader. No wonder why Michael Hart considered him as one of the greatest leaders of all time in his famous book The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History (Hart, 1978). He practiced participative management, total quality management, and equality amongst his followers. He never sympathized with anyone with disputes, even if this person was his closest companion or friend. If today’s politicians, rulers, and managers followed the same path as Umar, we would live in a much less corrupted world. When his personal traits, evidenced wisdom, and unmatchable leadership skills are mapped to the different narrated situations, they provide a reference for academics and practitioners to develop strategies for all levels of organizations in managing various stakeholders; at operational, tactical, and strategic levels. The proposed framework is applicable for Muslim as well as Non-Muslim leaders. A good example is Steve Jobs of Apple who managed to apply several dimensions of the balanced leadership framework proposed. Jobs’ leadership style was authentic and truly balanced. He was honest to himself and to others and managed to empower and motivate his people although he was tough on them on different occasions. Muslim leaders and rulers should act as role models in implanting the teachings and learnings of balanced leadership and avoid extremism amongst their organizations and people. The values and guidelines proposed in this study are not just the concern to Muslims and Islam but to other societies, civilizations, and humanity at large.

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References Aabed, A. (2005). A study of Islamic leadership theory and practice in K–12 Islamic schools in Michigan. Brigham Young University: USA. Adnan, A. (2006). A study of Islamic leadership theory and practice in K-12 Islamic school in Michigan. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Brigham Young University,United States of America. Ahmad, A. (2008). Work-family conflict among junior physicians: Its mediating role in the Relationship between role overload and emotional exhaustion. Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2), 265–271. Ahmad, K. (2010) Workplace leadership, principles from an islamic perspective. In International Conference of Da’wah and Islamic Management. Palace of Golden Horses Hotel: Kuala Lumpur. ALSWEEDAN, T. & BASHRAHEEL, F. O. 2004. Making the leadear Saudi Arabia Jareer Bookstore. al-Zuḥaylī, W. Al-Taṭarruf Fī’l-islām. In Mu’assasat Āl al-Bayt, Mustaqbal al-islām fī’l-qarn al-hijrī al-khāmis al-‘ashar. Amman: n.p 1425/2005 (pp. 223–224). Ashfaq, N., Salamon, H.B., Abu Hussin, M.F.B., Nor Muhamad, N.H.B., Mohd, S.S.B., & Ruskam, A.B. (2019). Technical aspects of official letters from Caliph Umar Ibn Al-Khattab. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, 8(5C), 2249–8958. Balanced leadership: A new. (2017). Müller, R., Packendorff, J., & Sankaran, S perspective for leadership in organizational project management. Cambridge. handbook of organizational project management. Brooks, M.C., & Mutohar, A. (2018). Islamic school leadership: A conceptual framework. Journal of Educational Administration and History, 50(2), 54–56. El-Bassiouny, N., El-Sherbiny, Y., Mohamed, A.A., & Wilson, J.A.J. (Forthcoming). Delineating the Concept of Islamic Balanced Leadership. In What makes a balanced leader? An islamic perspective. DeGruyter. Faris, N., & Parry, K. (2011). Islamic organizational leadership within a Western society: The problematic role of external context. The leadership quarterly, 22(1), 132–151 Galanou, E., & Farrag, D. (2015). Towards the distinctive Islamic mode of Leadership in business. Journal of Management Development, 34(8), 882–900. Hart, M.H. (1978). The 100: A ranking of the most influential persons in history. Citadel press: USA. Hanapi, M. S. (2014). The wasatiyyah (moderation) concept in Islamic epistemology: a case study of its implementation in Malaysia. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4(9), 1. Kamali, M.H. (2008). The middle ground of Islamic civilization: The Qur’ānic Principle of Wasaṭiyyah. IAIS Journal of Civilization Studies, 1(1), 7–41. Kasturi, R. (2006). Performance management in insurance corporation. Journal of Business Administration Online, 5(1), 1–15. Kee Beng, O. (2006). Mahathir as Muslim Leader. Southeast Asian Affairs, 172–180. Khan, N. 2020. Umar Ibn al-Khattab: A World Leader. History https://www.islamicity.org/21889/ umar-ibn-al-khattab-a-world-leader. Retrieved 30 November 20221. “Malaysia’s Mahathir: A moderate voice for Islam.” New York Times, December 6, 2002.Accessed December 17, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/06/opinion/06iht-edback_ed3_.html. Marbun, D. S. (2013). Attributions and requirements of Islamic leadership. Management Research Review. Müller, R., & Turner, R. (2010). Leadership competency profiles of successful project managers. International Journal of project management, 28(5), 437–448.

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Nuruddin, A. (2011), “Sumber Daya Syariah”, paper presented at the Medan: forum riset perbankan Syariah, Bank Indonesia, Medan., 29–30. Pilkienė, A., Alonderienė, P., Chmieliauskas, C., Šimkonis, A., & Müller, R. (2018). The governance of horizontal leadership in projects. International Journal of Project Management, 36(7), 913–924. Rafiki, A. (2020). Islamic leadership: Comparisons and qualities. Digital Leadership-A New Leadership Style for the 21st Century, 1–16. Senam, M. R., Rashid, K. A., Sarkawi, A. A., & Zaini, R. M. (2014). Construction project leadership from the perspective of Islam. International Journal of Islamic Thought, 6, 46. Striepe, M. (2016). The influence of faith and values on Islamic school leaders’ perspectives of leadership. Leading and Managing, 22, 19–35. Waters, T., Marzano, R., & McNulty, B. (2003). Balanced Leadership™: What 30 years of research tells us about the effect of leadership on student achievement, working paper. Zhang, Y., & Fong Foo, S. (2012). Balanced leadership: Perspectives, principles and practices. Chinese Management Studies, 6(2), 245–256.

Noha Farrag, Dina El Odessy, Noha Omaya Shabana

Chapter 4 Prophet Muhammed as a Holistic Balanced Leader: Perspectives and Principles Abstract: Balance is essential to effective leadership, yet studies on balanced leadership are scarce and incoherent. This theoretical study uses incidents from Prophet Muhammad’s life to demonstrate the concept of balanced leadership utilizing a situational approach. It provides a survey of the perspectives on balanced leadership in the Eastern, Islamic, and Western literature. It highlights different leadership styles and exhibits Muhammad as a versatile leader. The study establishes a balanced leadership framework by identifying seven principles of balanced leadership that were extrapolated from Muhammad’s biography and synthesized from the literature. It introduces a new perspective on balanced leadership that emanates from holistic leadership. The principles offer insights for leaders to practice leadership on a level more balanced than current leadership conventions. Future research can excerpt from the rich prophetic biography further principles to propose a comprehensive framework for balanced leadership. Keywords: Horizontal Leadership, Vertical Leadership, Character-Centered Leadership, Balanced Disposition, Servant Leadership, Prophet Muhammad

4.1 Introduction Thus, have We made of you an Umma (nation) justly balanced, that ye might be witnesses over the nations, and the Messenger a witness over yourselves (Quran, 2: 143).

Leadership has been recognized as the most crucial factor to deal with the global economy in the twenty-first century (Chen, 2009). Moreover, since the beginning of the coronavirus pandemic in 2020, leaders around the world have been challenged to deal with the unprecedented predicament. Extraordinary demands have been placed on leaders in health, business, and beyond (D’Auria & De Smet, 2020). However, the lack of a unified stance from global leaders has prolonged the pandemic as the WHO chief claims (Wilson & Pilling, 2020). Thus, people everywhere should accept the challenge of leadership to make a positive impact in such dire times (Granville-Chapman & Bidston, 2020). Many researchers such as Swidan (2008) have argued that leadership is the ability of a leader to move followers to achieve a certain objective, while others such as Warren Buffet defined a leader as “someone who can get things done through other https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-005

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people” (Rath & Conchie, 2008:79). Leadership has been extensively studied for centuries; yet, it remains an elusive phenomenon to understand and develop (Calwson, 1989). Clawson argues leadership theories can be categorized according to the research approaches that characterize them into six categories which are: trait, behavioral, situational, charismatic, power and influence, and transformational versus transactional approaches. Developments in leadership theories led to the establishment of other different leadership approaches such as the authentic leader (Avolio & Gardner, 2005), the servant leader (Parris & Peachey, 2013), the ethical leader theory (Lawton & Paez, 2015), and the horizontal and vertical leadership by Müller et al. (2018). Leadership research has progressed immensely since Kurt Lewin (1935) started the first systematic study on leadership styles and behavior. Douglas McGregor (1960) further develops Lewin’s work through Theory X and Theory Y on how managers motivate people. Notwithstanding the significant expansion in leadership knowledge, a holistic leadership theory based on the notion of “balance” that is core to God’s creation is still overlooked (El-Bassiouny, Amin & Wilson, 2021). Despite balance being critical to good leadership and effective organizations (Levy, 2015), studies on balanced leadership are scarce and fail to introduce a clear definition of balanced leadership or a general framework with comprehensive principles and practices (Müller et al., 2018). Moreover, the literature is dominated by Western models despite the need for a cross-cultural perspective on balanced leadership (Egel and Fry, 2017). Thus, this chapter aims to contribute to the literature by exploring the concept and principles of balanced leadership from an Islamic perspective. Moreover, it examines the concept of balanced leadership in the hybrid literature and presents an exhaustive review of Eastern, Islamic, and Western literature. This chapter gives an account of different styles of leadership and exhibits how Muhammad’s (P)1 leadership is a versatile one. A versatile leader who avoids lopsidedness in developing leadership strengths is a balanced effective leader (Kaplan & Kaiser, 2003). The study’s approach is to demonstrate Muhammad’s (P) balanced leadership in a situational context rather than in recounted sayings of the Prophet. This approach provides accessible insights on balanced leadership practice. The main contribution of the study is introducing a new perspective on balanced leadership where a balanced leader is one who embraces a holistic framework to leadership. Moreover, it presents a theoretical framework for balanced leadership based on seven principles that were extrapolated from Muhammad’s (P) leadership and synthesized from the literature. This framework to balanced leadership shows that application of balanced leadership has existed historically has existed historically in the holistic leadership practices of Prophet Muhammad (P) and can be reactivated in modern times. The principles of balanced leadership, extrapolated from the biographical account of the most prominent leader in Islamic history, should inspire

 P stands for peace be upon him.

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leadership practitioners to use a more balanced and holistic leadership style than the mainstream conventions on leadership.

4.2 Literature Review Despite the absence of a comprehensive theory of balanced leadership, recent years witnessed resurgence in related literature. Kaplan and Kaiser (2003) were pioneers in drawing attention to versatility in leadership which is the absence of imbalance. They argued that leadership consists of opposite strengths, and most leaders are inclined to overdevelop one over of its counterpart. Leaders who avoid such lopsidedness can increase their versatility and their influence. Waters, Marzano and McNulty (2003) analyzed a balanced leadership framework, based on a meta-analysis of nearly all studies that scrutinized the impact of leadership practices on student achievement. Their findings yielded 21 specific leadership responsibilities that correlated with student achievement. Wilderom, Wouters, and Brussel (2007) conducted a four-year study and gathered four sets of quantitative survey data, involving a panel of 42 Logistics employees. Their regression results showed a significant positive impact of balanced team leader behaviors, professionalism, and team trust on employee performance. Chen (2009) created a seven-step process to develop balanced leadership teams. He advocated the principle of acknowledging individual uniqueness. He claims albeit this principle is not new to management, it has not been activated by leaders due to lack of pre-requisite for it. Zhang and Foo (2012) examined the classic Chinese perspectives and Western perspectives to develop a hybrid model of five principles on balanced leadership. Hein, Goodwin and Cameron (2015) developed a framework for balanced leadership for successful school education to help school leaders implement their responsibilities, synthesized from Waters et al. (2003), and their associated practices as well as to connect their vision with a plan of action. They claim that contrary to conventional believe great leadership is not associated with a certain kind of personality but to specific behaviors and actions that have positive effects on student achievement. El-Bassiouny (2017) used the trait approach to leadership to identify 17 traits a balanced leader should possess from an Islamic perspective. She explained that balanced leaders essentially possess traits of heart and mind that make them unique as they can balance their hearts and minds, rights and duties, and limitations and abilities. Heflich (2018) argues that the root cause behind failed businesses and governments is usually either a lack of leadership or the presence of destructive or ineffective leadership. In his collection of dissertations on topics relevant to effective leadership, he claims since the world is always changing, the state

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of balance is changing as well. Accordingly, leaders need to constantly monitor and adjust their decisions and behavior. Müller et al. (2018) defined balanced leadership as a balance between vertical and horizontal leadership. This balance is enabled through vertical leaders that make way for one or more horizontal leaders to partake in leading. The development of this balanced leadership approach overcomes the dichotomy of vertical (person-centered) and horizontal (team-centered) leadership (Yu, Vaagaasar, Müller, Wang & Zhu, 2018). Pretorius, Steyn, and Bond-Barnard (2018) conduct a theoretical study to pinpoint the difference between leadership and management. They claim that given the fast change organizational environment the conventional view of leadership as a vertical relationship (top-down influence) should be revised into vertical, shared, and balanced leadership in project management. Müller, Drouin and Sankaran (2021) add new perspectives to the leadership literature by emphasizing the empowerment of horizontal leadership. Furthermore, they accentuate balanced leadership as the dynamic and timely shift of leadership authority between project managers and team members to ensure the best possible leader at any point in time in the project. They present a framework for balanced leadership using three case studies based on five events and their coordination mechanisms which they call the socio-cognitive space.

4.3 Muhammad (P) as a Versatile Leader: Striking Balanced Leadership According to Hersey and Blanchard’s (1988) situational leadership theory, a leader should change his leadership style to adopt either a transactional or a transformational style based on the type of task and maturity of followers. Kaplan and Kaiser (2003) argue that a versatile balanced leader is the leader who lacks imbalance and can adopt several leadership strengths. This section gives account of how Muhammad’s (P) leadership exhibited versatility that redeems him a balanced leader through narratives. However, it is problematic according to current leadership literature to pinpoint a holistic leader that possesses an all-encompassing leadership style. Because current leadership literature suffers from a lack of consensus on leadership styles, in fact, Anderson and Sun (2017) claim to have identified an extensive overlap among leadership styles. Nevertheless, according to Beekun (2012) leadership styles repeatedly cited in the literature are transactional, transformational, servant, and responsible leadership styles. Beekun (2012) renovated the latter style to the Character Center Moral style; since he argued that responsibility is a necessary but not sufficient condition for ethical leadership. In the next sections, we attempt to identify each leadership style and elaborate how Muhammad (P) applied each style with an anecdote. These

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excerpts from the prophetic biography help portray how Muhammad (P) mastered versatile styles of leadership such as transactional, transformational, servant, and character centered leadership, which renders him (P) a balanced leader. Muhammad (P) has acted as a transactional leader who motivates people by either materialistic, moral, or mystic reward (Farrag, Ghoneim & Mahmoud, 2015). The incident on the day of the battle of Hunayn (8 A.H.) shows Muhammad (P) as a transactional leader who motivates followers materialistically with reward, when the Prophet (P) gave the Meccans a higher portion of the bounty from the share that was dedicated to him (one-fifth); and some of his followers AlAnsar felt that he was favoring his own tribe (he (P) was of Meccan descent). The Prophet (P) asked AlAnsar if they would rather have more bounty or the Prophet return to live and die with them at Madinah. They chose the Prophet and he reassured them that this portion of the bounty was not out of favoritism to a tribe but to engage the hearts of the Meccans who newly converted to Islam (El Mosleh, 2015). This incident shows how Muhammad (P) used materialistic rewards to motivate followers. The Prophet (P) also used transactional reward in two innovative ways using moral and mystic incentives. The moral incentive as in (5 AH) when Muhammad (P) had a revelation that Constantinople will be conquered in the future by a Muslim commander whom he praised to be the best commander having the best army of their time.2 For years to come every Muslim commander wanted to be the conqueror praised. Almost 800 years later from the prophecy, Mehmed II commonly known as Mohamed the Conqueror driven by the moral incentive to be the best commander realized the tiding by conquering Constantinople (857 AH, 1453 CE). Muhammad (P) also used mystic (related to the here-after) transactional incentives such as promising a place in paradise for the person who ends the water scarcity problem at northern part of Madinah by buying a well located there and bestowing it to common benefit. Othman Ibn Afan, one of the wealthy companions, bequeathed a lot of his wealth for purchasing this well still known today as Rummah Well. As a transformational leader who can inspire positive changes in those who follow, the flow from Prophet’s biography can extend to infinite encounters. In an age when slaves were humiliated and abused, he established among his followers that all men are equal before God and that the degree of piousness is the only discrepancy, despite the different race, colour, or gender. This is evident in taking Belal Ibn Rabah, a previous black slave, as one of Muhammad’s (P) closest companions and the one who calls for prayers. In the trench battle, the opinion of Salman was the one adopted for the battle defensive strategy despite being a Persian, not an Arab (El Mosleh, 2015). In an era when women were belittled and even some killed nascent daughters, the Prophet asked for women’s voting which is a pledge of alliance and this oath stipulated the conditions of Islamic citizenship in gender equal

 Narrated from Bishr al-Khath`ami or al-Ghanawi by: Ahmad, al-Musnad 14:331 #18859.

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terms (Badawi, 1980; Moghissi, 2005; Stowasser, 1983). He continually preached kind treatment of women. In a dire situation during the truce of Hudaybiah (6 AH, 627 CE), it was the advice of his wife (Um Salama) that he followed (El Mosleh, 2015). Muhammad (P) transformed all his followers to commit to a bond of brotherhood. This is evident when he first came to Madinah, where the two major Arab tribes of AlAws and AlKhazraj were in continuous civil wars. The Prophet assured peace prevailed between them and that no tribal disputes will disrupt their harmony. He (P) collectively called both tribes AlAnsar as a symbol of their unity based on their standing up for Islam and receiving him and his companions when they migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (later called Madinah) (El Mosleh, 2015). In the Madinah constitution, the Prophet stipulated freedoms including freedom of ideology and trade to ensure that the Jews living in Madinah were not coerced into embracing Islam (Jani, Harun, Mansor & Zen, 2015). The constitution also was transformational as it ended decades of vengeance. It confined retribution on the transgressor, not his entire tribe. It encouraged the acceptance of blood money for retribution and encouraged amnesty to end conflicts (Jani et al., 2015). Prophets by nature are servant leaders. The study by Bass (2000) claimed that servant leadership surpasses transformational leadership in that it sets the needs of others and the message of a servant leader as his highest priority. This dichotomy of setting both the message and the recipients as the servant leader’s highest priority is evident in numerous excerpts of Mohamed’s (P) biography. For example, the day of conquering Mecca (8 AH, 629 CE), whose occupants had for years tortured the Prophet and his companions and forced them to flee to Madinah for their safety, the Meccans thought that the Prophet will revenge for their mischievous treatment, but the Prophet prioritizes his message, so he (P) gave them all sanctuary. In another excerpt, Muhammad’s (P) share of the spoils of war in all his battles were divided on needy people or those who have newly converted to Islam, which shows his heart was free from greed. Also, in this attribute in the early days of Muhammad’s (P) call, the pagans of Mecca promised him riches and governorship to abstain from his message, but the Prophet refused all temptations. Muhammad (P) as all prophets had a prayer that is instantaneously granted by God, but he chose to delay his prayer till doom day to ask mercy for all his followers, to that extent Muhammad (P) was keen on his followers (El Mosleh, 2015). The character-centered leadership style is virtue-centric, and both virtues and character can be imparted according to Beeuken (2012). He based his framework by modeling the Prophetic character as several Quranic verses (33:21; 68:4) explicitly affirming the exalted standard character of Muhammad (P) and that he (P) is the perfect model for mankind to emulate. One distinguishing character to elaborate his (P) CCM style is that his acts never diverged from his sayings as emphasized in the following incident. In one of the critical battles of Islam, the Prophet (P) was rearranging his companions and he accidentally poked one of them, Sawad Ibn Ghaziya, with a stick that touched his belly. In response, Sawad told him “Oh Messenger of Allah you have

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hurt me, and Allah has sent you with rights and justice. Let me retaliate.” Immediately, the Prophet uncovered his belly and said: “Avenge yourself.” Instead of retaliating, Sawad suddenly embraced him and kissed his belly. Surprised, the Prophet asked him: “What urged you to do so Sawad?” He replied, “O Messenger of Allah, you see what is before us and I may not survive the battle and as this may be my last moments with you. I wanted my skin to touch yours . . .” (Sunan Abi Dawud 5224). The moral extrapolated from this story could be the leader’s (P) justice or the followers’ absolute love to their leader; but with a closer look the insights about the leader’s consistency prevails. The main reason that gave one of the followers the audacity to demand retribution to himself from his great commander in front of an entire army, moments before war, is the complete trust in the perfect congruence between Muhammad’s (P) actions and words. Excerpts from Muhammad’s (P) practice of different leadership styles show him as a distinctive leader who mastered versatile leadership styles. Muhammad’s (P) demeanor as a worshiper, prophet, governor, mentor, preacher, commander, husband, (grand) father, friend, counselor, and his different roles in life exhibited balance. A versatile leader who can adopt various leadership styles, according to situation and follower’s context, is the balanced leader. Accordingly, principles of balanced leadership can be deduced from the life of this holistic leader.

4.4 Muhammad (P) as a Holistic Leader: Principles and Findings Seven principles governing balanced leadership were extrapolated from excerpts of the life of Muhammad (P) as a holistic balanced leader. The principles also integrate propositions of balanced leadership that were deduced from the work by Waters et al. (2003), Leithwood (2005), Chen (2009), some aspects of Zhang and Foo (2012) hybrid model, El-Bassiouny (2017), and Müller et al. (2018). The seventh and the final principle is the one that unifies and catalyzes all previous principles. The parallelism and distinction between the principles extrapolated from Muhammad’s (P) biography and those synthesized from balanced leadership literature are shown in Table 4.1. Each principle is followed by an anecdote exemplifying, in the journey of Muhammad (P) as a leader, and how this principle has been implemented. This situational approach attempts to construe the concept of balanced leadership and to exhibit its applicability in modern lives.

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4.4.1 The Seven Principles The First Principle: Possess a Balanced Disposition “A little body thyself thou deem, while the great universe in thee dwells,” so wrote Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib in one of his heart-rending poems in which he eloquently captured the overwhelming interrelationship between the self and cosmos. It is often speculated that the life within dictates and delineates the nature of the outer existence such that our realities often mirror our internal state of being. Accordingly, to lead others in the public realm with a balanced approach, a leader should first lead a balanced life in the private realm which typically includes daily routines, practices, traits, and attitudes. A leader should possess a balanced disposition, which is a mixture of a state of inner and outer balance. The key to inner balance is to purify oneself from heart diseases and it is a state of balance from within the individual. The outer balance is to maintain balance in one’s relationship with others, which occurs by embracing a harmonious and holistic way of life. Emerging from this conviction, we thus propose that the first principle of balanced leadership in the Islamic paradigm is the personification of harmony in a balanced disposition such as to embrace an inner and outer state of balance. Balanced Disposition as a State of Inner Balance A state of inner balance is paramount to balanced leadership; it is through sustaining such a desired state of equilibrium between the emotions of the heart, desires of the ego, and dictates of the mind that leaders selflessly lead. One illustrative example of such equipoise is crystallized in the Islamic redefinition of the dynamics of power and strength. As narrated by Abu Huraira: the Prophet (P) said, “The strong is not the one who overcomes the people by his strength, but the strong is the one who controls himself while in anger” (Sahih al-Bukhari 6114). The power of self-restrain and emotional regulation is manifested in the Prophet’s biography as a leader who persistently practiced what he preached. In 8 AH (629 CE), Muhammad (P) and his companions conquered Mecca, whose tribes had tortured, killed, starved, and forced many Muslims into exile (Yilmaz, 2014). Thus, they expected no mercy from Muhammad (P) as a leader. Keeping in mind his mission as a Prophet, he behaved magnanimously toward his former enemies, saying to them: I speak to you in the same words as Yusuf (Joseph P) spoke unto his brothers: He said: “You will hear no reproaches today” (Quranic verse 12:92); go your way, for you are free. Taking revenge would have been contradictory to his higher purpose and intention (Beekun, 2012). One relevant moral from this anecdote is related to the power of internal balance in achieving long-term and strategic targets. Conceptualizing strength as an internal state of restraint that supersedes the blinding power-driven lusts of the ego, leaders would be empowered to transgress

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the self to achieve the common good. Accordingly, leaders should possess a sound heart that is free from the diseases of the heart, continue to strive to be purpose-driven, and steadily maintain a balance between their hearts and minds (El-Bassiouny, 2017). Another aspect of the balanced disposition is related to the increasing paradoxical predicament of work–life balance and the ironic capitalist focus on “work” as a countering element in the face of life, notwithstanding the once-commonsensical assumption that work is a means to an end, and a breadwinning vehicle to provide life and sustenance. Islam emphasizes a balanced model of holistic well-being and existence that respects and wholesomely fulfils the interrelated spiritual, physical, intellectual, emotional, and social dimensions of human beings. The Prophet’s life regimen encapsulated the ideal Qur’anic model of a balanced life. The Prophet (P) said, “O `Abdullah! Have I not been informed that you fast all day and stand in prayer all night?” I said, “Yes, O Allah’s Messenger (P)!” He said, “Do not do that! Observe the fast sometimes and leave them (the fast) at other times; stand up for the prayer at night and sleep at night. Your body has a right over you, your eyes have a right over you and your wife has a right over you” (Sahih al-Bukhari 5199)

Balanced Disposition as a State of Outer Balance Muhammad’s (P) key to balancing all his roles was by being present and mindful on every occasion and giving quality time to all whom he interacted with insofar as each of his companions thought he was the most favored and the closest to the Prophet (Faris, 2016). Further attesting to his balanced model of leadership, Aisha, Muhammad’s (P) wife, reported that he (P) was indeed at the service of his family; he sewed his clothes, amended his shoes, did house chores, milked his goat, and served himself (Al-Sheha, 2019). Private and public spaces of morality, ethics, and leadership are not separated in Islam. As the Prophet repeatedly confirmed, the best of people are those who are best to their families. Being a shepherd entailed not only doing the duty at hand but also giving each task his full attention and scrupulously attending to the individuality of each human interaction. By recognizing he is all in one, a messenger from God, a leader, a husband, a father, a friend, a relative, and a servant for God and humanity, the Prophet embraced his all-inclusive identity to strike an outer balance. Essentially, balanced leaders espouse the paradigm of balanced rights in their private and public spheres, in their attempts to escape today’s rapid-paced focus on work–life balance that subtly reverses the norm by presupposing a competing opposition and duality between the whole and its part. Such leaders model – and encourage their employees to implement – the Islamic framework which proclaims that leading a balanced life necessitates fulfilling rights to (1) Allah through worship, abeyance, and remembrance, (2) the self through holistic care of wellbeing, (3) parents, spouses, children, and cherishing the ties of kinship, and (4) society and fellow human beings through implementing the comprehensive system of ethics and virtues.

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The Second Principle: Foster Mutual Respect and Acknowledge Uniqueness Mutual respect is essential for mutual understanding and for recognizing other’s rights, duties, cultures, religions, and similarities and contrasts (Alalwani and Islam, 2021). Mutual respect fosters harmony and peace among all peoples and states and combats racial discrimination in all its manifestations (Maikudi & Ramadan, 2019). Leaders who respect the individuality, talents, and respective distinctions and shortcomings of their colleagues and employees are balanced torchbearers who empower others and, thus, earn their trust and devotion in congruence with Chen’s (2009) concept of balanced leadership. Muhammad (P) navigated the complex and conflicting dynamics, that often occurs in any human community, by means of fostering relations based on respect. He maintained an equilibrium between the individual and the collective by being mindful of the respective rights of each and every individual. If someone spoke to him, he turns to him with his face and body, paying full attention and never diverting his gaze or attention. He sat with all individuals, visited the sick, helped the poor, and prayed for the absent. Muhammad(P) not only showed respect and compassion in all his dealings, but he also acknowledged and commemorated the individuality of his companions, disciples, and followers. It is narrated from Anas bin Malik that Muhammad (P) said: The most merciful of my Ummah towards my Ummah is Abu Bakr; the one who adheres most sternly to religion of Allah is ‘Umar; the most sincere of them in shyness and modesty is ‘Uthman; the best judge is ‘Ali bin Abu Talib; (Sunan Ibn Majah 154).

Such a perceptive and inciteful demarcation of his companions’ idiosyncrasies underpins the Prophet’s characteristic leadership ability to recognize individual differences and to assign the suitable person in the suitable appointment. By way of example, Khalid Ibn El Walid, being one of the first generals to make effective use of psychological warfare, he rescued the Muslim army from an eminent defeat in Mutah battle (8 AH, 629 CE). Hence, upon his return to Madinah, Muhammad (P) appointed Khalid a commander of that army based on his military prowess and bestowed him the title “the Sword of God” (Medievalists, 2020). Being always respectful of individual capabilities, the Prophet consistently assigned the fittest for the mission regardless of seniority, status, or affiliation. Amr Ibn el Ass, a couple of month after embracing Islam, was tasked by Muhammad (P) to be the commander in chief of the troops leading the raid on Dhat al-Salasil (8 AH, 629 CE) (Hayward, 2020). The troops included companions who were senior to Amr in age and piety insofar as, one of the companions, Omar Ibn El Khatab questioned his leadership to the troops. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr replied that if the Prophet has chosen Amr for the command, then he must be the most well-suited to command this raid (Swidan, 2019).

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The Third Principle: Create Environments of Harmony Islam is an Arabic word derived from the roots s-l-m which carry the connotations of peace, and which means submission to Allah “therefore, the Islamic way of life entails living in peace and harmony” (Ansari, 1994:394). These linguistic nuances underpin the pivotal role of peace and balance in the holistic Islamic framework which cannot by any means be achieved except by creating environments that foster harmony. Sustaining a harmonious balance between human beings will become an easier encounter if the distinctive uniqueness and diversity of humanity is respected and conceptualized as a natural phenomenon of life. The concept of diversity is embedded in the Islamic framework as a primordial state of being and a divine law of the nature and universe as detailed in the Qur’an: {O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous of you . . . } (49:13). In this sense, reciprocal dialog and exchanging knowledge become an integral constituent in the inherent interdependency of creation. Maintaining equilibrium amidst this natural diversity is the true test seeing that humans are created not to assert superiority over any particular group, but to instead vie one with another in good deeds. Creating and sustaining environment of harmony is believed to be the prerequisite to stability and growth (Denis, Lamothe & Langley, 2001; Lau, Nguyen, Pham & Cernas-Ortiz, 2021). Balanced leaders are thus entrusted with the challenging task of creating a harmonious ambience. Being such an ageless mission, Muhammad (P) in the seventh century was adamant on creating an environment of harmony in his newly founded state of Madinah by first reconciling its two major tribes, namely AlAws and AlKhazraj, who were renowned in their times for harboring longstanding feelings of animosity, sharing a long history of civil wars. Furthermore, the emigrants (AlMohajerin) were united by Muhammad (P) in a brotherhood bond with the indigenous residents (AlAnsar). These brotherhood bonds created environments of harmony with an ideology that does not differentiate between individuals based on color, tribe, race, gender, social status, or other aspects of discrimination. Muhammad (P) was particularly keen on sustaining harmony among nonMuslim citizens of his state as evident in El Madinah Constitution, which is often considered “the first written constitution in the world drafted by the Muhammad (P) as a guide to the plural society in Madinah” (Embong, Muslim, Musa, Mohamed & Jusoh, 2021:385). Emerging from the cornerstone values of justice and respect for diversity in Islam, this constitution affirmed common obligations, conserved the rights of the whole community, and stipulated a range of freedoms including rights of worship, ownership, trade, and safety to all subjects in the Madinah state. Indeed, such a “justice implemented by Prophet P succeeded in creating the socio-political

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stability of Medinah” (Embong et al., 2021, p. 389) and created an environment of balanced harmony in which Muslims and non-Muslims could co-exist (Jani et al., 2015). As a balanced leader, Muhammad (P) consistently propagated traits that enforced brotherhood bonds. In one renowned hadith, he cautioned against the vile hazards that often breach the bonds of human harmony: Do not envy one another, and do not inflate prices for one another, and do not hate one another, and do not turn away from one another, and do not undercut one another in trade, but [rather] be slaves of Allah and brothers [amongst yourselves]. A Muslim is the brother of a Muslim: he does not oppress him, nor does he fail him, nor does he lie to him, nor does he hold him in contempt. Piety is right here [and he pointed to his chest three times]. It is evil enough for a man to hold his brother Muslim in contempt. The whole of a Muslim is inviolable for another Muslim: his blood, his property, and his honour. (Muslim 35).

In his last farewell sermon, he (P) emphatically preached the final reminder: “there is no superiority for an Arab over a non-Arab, nor for a non-Arab over an Arab. Neither is the white superior over the black, nor is the black superior over the white except by piety and good action.” Emanating from his sermon is the concept of inclusive diversity and interdependence. In this respect, leaders will only be able to become balanced leaders if they preserve that reciprocity through creating environments of harmony conducive to growth and progress. Only by steadfastly adhering to mandates that are grounded in freedom, equality, brotherhood, and rejection of favoritism will they then be able to confirm their status as authentic leaders (Michie & Gooty, 2005). The Fourth Principle: Align Contradictions A balanced leader should learn to see advantages in disadvantages; as the way to success is to ignore the problem and avail the opportunity (Khan, 1999). This is consistent with the Quranic verse “with every hardship there is ease” (94:5). The alignment of seemingly opposing paradoxes toward ostensible positive or negative happenings one encounters in life appears also in: “But it may be that you dislike something while it is good for you, and it may be that you like something while it is bad for you. God knows, and you do not know” (Quran, 2:216). Prophetic saying that conveys an analogous nuance is: “How wonderful is the case of a believer; there is good for him in everything, and this applies only to a believer. If prosperity attends him, he expresses gratitude to Allah and that is good for him; and if adversity befalls him, he endures it patiently and that is better for him” (Riyad as-Salihin, 27). The following anecdote conveys how Muhammad (P) as a leader implanted this principle. Muhammad (P) signed the truce of Hudaybiah (6 AH, 627 CE) with the chiefs of Mecca. The treaty consisted of six clauses that were mostly biased to the Meccan side. It further stipulated the deferment of the companions’ pilgrimage which made them more distressed with the truce (Halim, 2018). As a leader who harbored

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profound insights about aligning paradoxes and had foresight into the benefits of the treaty,3 he was steadfast in his decision, being afterward comforted by the revelation of the Quranic verse that announced this truce a great victory. Such an anecdote reflects one of the practices of the balanced leader who should persistently align contradictions, espousing the belief that, in every dire situation, relief comes hand-inhand with distress. Islamic principles are replete with teachings that embed in the hearts and minds the conviction that blessings may come in disguise and adversities may be enclothed in the cloak of bounties. This is a principle that balanced leaders could abide by in their respective contexts through being resilient and malleable in perceiving the fluctuating fortunes and adversities of life as expressed in one defining Quranic verse that calls for moderation: {In order that ye may not despair over matters that pass you by, nor exult over favors bestowed upon you. For Allah loveth not any vainglorious boaster} (57:23). Yielding to the conviction that the Lord of goodness does not bring anything but good; a leader should view paradoxes in this context seeing that there will always be inducing and controlling factors (Zhang & Foo, 2012), competent and incompetent workforce, opportunities and threats, weaknesses and strengths, factors that nudge toward achieving, and those that nudge away from the goal. All these contradicting factors should be viewed with a perception of complementing one another in harmony. In the unceasing endeavor to achieve balance, a leader will reach the credence that all these paradoxes are aligned to his good and that their alignment is paramount to individual and institutional growth. Smith and Tushman (2005:533) argue “that balanced strategic decision making in the context of contradiction is rooted in paradoxical cognition – cognitive frames and processes that allow teams to effectively embrace, rather than avoid, contradictions.” Essentially, sustaining such a moderation during conflicting emotions and throughout the vicissitudes of life is deeply rooted in an adaptive mindset that embraces challenges. We argue that the unification of contradictions is one of the integral principles that not only influence leaders’ mindsets, attitudes, and practices but also contribute to creating malleable and agile working environments. The Fifth Principle: Balance Change and Conformity Aisha reported “if there were two alternatives the prophet would adopt the easiest, provided there was no sin in it . . .” (Sahih al-Bukhari 3560). The principle of balancing change and conformity is adopted from 30 years of research conducted by Waters et al. (2003) about the effect of leadership on student achievement that

 The paper by Halim (2018) discusses at length how Hudaybiah treaty led Muslims to manifest a victory.

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resulted in McREL’s balanced leadership framework. It was developed based on the notion that effective leadership means more than simply knowing what to do. It also means knowing the when, how, and why of doing it. Moreover, effective leaders understand how to balance pushing for change simultaneously with preserving elements of values and culture. They know how and which policies and practices align with their priorities. Finally, they understand the value of people. Leithwood (2005) adds to this notion that effective principals need to know how to balance pushing for change with conforming to structures or practices that have worked. According to Khan (1999), Muhammad’s (P) opting for the easiest alternative means to begin from the possible, as one who begins from the possible will surely reach his goal. Moreover, a leader sees in every difficult situation the opportunity; but one might need to change the place of action to a better accommodating working environment like the prophet had to migrate from Mecca to Madinah. These are the principles he (P) conformed to as a leader in terms of what to do. But as an effective leader when did he conform and when did he opt to change? The analysis of two incidents clearly depicts his course of action as a versatile leader: In El Hudaybiah (6 AH, 627 CE), Muhammad (P) and his companions were heading for Mecca for pilgrimage and Meccans denied them their lawful right to the later. The unbelievers who were in an advantageous position were determined to engage Muslims in fighting (Khan, 1999). Muhammad (P) and his companions had three options to return home, sign a treaty (but treaty terms were biased to Meccan side), or fight the Meccans. Because the How and why in this situation mattered, it was time to change from warfare to diplomacy (the why?). The reason is Muhammad (P) had insights that signing the treaty will accomplish his mission far better than warfare with Mecca. Two years later his mission in Mecca will be established in more amicable terms and with astounding victory. In Uhud battle (3 AH, 624 CE), at first, the enemy endured defeat. Nevertheless, it all changed when a group of Muslim archers made the mistake of relinquishing their position against the strict command of Muhammad (P). Muhammad (P) never panicked and showed great resilience even when the enemy attacked from all sides and his (P) army began retreating in confusion and disorder. He called his men and encouraged his followers. Thus, they fought courageously until they could withdraw from the battlefield (Sarif, Hadzran, Amurdeen, Sharmeen & Nur, 2016). However, the army had very low morale on their way home as their disobedience had led them to the shame and burden of the loss of lives and several members of the army endured wounds. The leader and his companions had the option to await the enemy to regather and attack or to follow the enemy and meet them where they were stationed at Hamraa El Assad. Muhammad (P) choose to meet the enemy where they were stationed (why?). Davis (2016:100) calls this “leading at the edge,” the best crises managers strive to get their teams away from that adrenalinecharged borderland to a land where learning can occur with no finger pointing. How was the change brought about? By moving from the crisis zone (Uhud) to the

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learning zone4 (Hamraa ElAssad). Muhammad’s (P), the leader accentuated unity and agility. He helped his followers resolve the difficulties and move forward as one unit. Indeed, the followers returned to Madinah from Hamraa el Asaad with higher morals. The Sixth Principle: Balance Power Dynamics through Consultation, Empowerment of Horizontal leaders, and Assertiveness Leadership is essentially a practice of power whereby processes of empowerment or disempowerment may take place. Balanced leadership could be defined as an equilibrium between vertical (VLS) and horizontal (HLS) leadership enabled through vertical leaders (project managers) that make way for one or more horizontal leaders to partake in leadership responsibilities (Müller et al., 2018). There are various anecdotes in the Prophet’s sira (biography) that shed light on this concept of balanced leadership whereby the vertical leader has consulted and empowered horizontal leadership for example: An anecdote demonstrating Muhammad (P) consulted is when he (P) was informed about a confederation of enemies that will siege the state from all directions in a matter of days (Battle of the confederates, 5 AH/626 CE). He called for a meeting to design a defence strategy and he consulted the chief tribes of AlAnsar, the original occupants of Madinah, Saad bin Muaad, and Saad bin Obada, if they agree to align Ghaftan. Ghaftan was a neighboring tribe to Madinah who was invited to join the war against Madinah. To align this tribe Muhammad (P) suggested that Madinah bestowed Ghaftan half its date harvest. The chiefs disagreed and the Prophet consented to their decision (Saani, 2019). In line with creating future leaders and horizontal empowerment, this narrative shows he (P) consulted his companions as to what would be the best plan of action to defend Madinah against the upcoming hostile attack. Many opinions were expressed but finally, Salman Al-Farisi, a Persian, suggested the idea of digging a trench. Strategically, the northern part of Madinah was the most vulnerable, as no geographical barriers immunized it. The key problem was the implementation of the idea and again the Prophet consulted his companions to settle upon the strategic position of the trench which would hinder their enemy from crossing it and prevent them from launching a united attack (Saani, 2019). Essentially, the Prophet consented with Salman’s idea because it was a novel defence tactic. He (P) ordered the followers to follow Salman’s lead and adhere to his directions in executing the trench which exemplifies how vertical leadership empowers horizontal leaders once ingenuity in the horizontal leader has been exhibited (El Mosleh, 2015).

 For the term learning zone refer to (Davis, 2016): 102.

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In balancing power dynamics, there are situations the leader might need to be assertive despite the advice of his counsellors if for example swiftness of action is demanded or he has a deeper insight. This can be seen in Muhammad’s (P) biography in the narrative of the Hudaybiah truce mentioned earlier. The Seventh Principle: Embrace a God-Centered Approach The central key to poise the previous six principles is to embrace a God-centered approach because it is the fountainhead from which they emerge. It is the originator concept of oneness, harmony, and balance. Balance by nature is a very fragile state which can be easily disrupted (Lipworth, Hooker, and Carter, 2011). The idea of maintaining balance as problematic as it seems is as simply resolved according to Prophetic guidance by giving everyone/thing its due right (Faris, 2016) and adopting a God-centered approach. The God-centered paradigm in Islam presupposes that there is one Creator and Divine will around which human beings should metaphorically gyrate in their private and public spheres (Ismail & Sarif, 2011). The difference between conventional and Islamic leadership lies mainly on adopting this paradigm (Rafiki, 2020; Salamun & Ab Rahman, 2022). Leaders who follow a God-centered approach with Muhammad (P) as their mentor will possess a poised grace that will influence their behavior and will be endowed with an inherent balance to rise above vanity and trivialities. They will thus remain focused on the higher purpose which is not merely the direct objective of the individual, family, institution, society, country, and globe, but the higher objective which is to pursue in every endeavor God’s contentment. Accordingly, following a God-centered approach aligns in a seamless way all previous principles. Thus, the seventh and final principle is the one which propels all principles in a harmonious and balanced set. Finally, the balanced leadership principles govern a leader’s thoughts, words, and actions and, consequently, influence his/her habits, characters, and destiny5 which are all aligned in harmony under a God-centered approach. To sum up, maintaining balanced leadership is akin to navigating an infinity loop;6 sometimes agreeable, often contentious, but always persistent. One of the Muhammad’s (P) secrets7 to successfully navigating this loop is his mindful presence in every encounter and interaction with God at heart.

 This stream of thinking is inspired by one of Margret Thatcher quotes -which the authors belief does not contradict to Islamic philosophy.  This analogy is borrowed from (Davis, 2016) on managing dilemma.  Refer to three Prophetic lessons for achieving work life balance by (Faris, 2016).

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4.4.2 Findings A new perspective of balanced leadership has been deduced from the analysis of the seven principles of leadership that has been mainly extrapolated from Muhammad’s (P) leadership and synthesized from literature on the topic as shown in Table 4.1. The chapter postulates a holistic leader is a balanced leader. Holistic leadership means to be a versatile leader in accordance with Kaplan and Kaiser (2003) who employs different leadership styles in different contexts in line with Hersey and Blanchard (1988). Moreover, a holistic leader is the one who acknowledges uniqueness in himself and his followers in congruence with Chen (2009); also, along the lines of Zhang and Foo (2012) a holistic leader aligns contradictions to see advantages in disadvantages. In addition, a holistic leader balances change and conformity in parallelism with Waters et al. (2003); besides, balancing vertical and horizontal leadership in congruence with Müller et al. (2018) and creating future leaders. Furthermore, a holistic leader is the one who possesses a balanced disposition, fosters mutual respect, creates environments of harmony, balances power Table 4.1: Balanced Leadership Perspectives and Principles in Literature and in the Current Study. Study

Perspective/Principle

Current Study

Principle

In Congruence With

Waters, Marzano, and McNulty ()

Balanced leadership is viewed in First Possess a light of conformity versus change. Principle Balanced Built a balanced leadership Disposition framework based on the notion that effective leadership means more than simply knowing what to do, it also means knowing the when, how, and why of doing it.

Zhang and Foo () First Principle

Leithwood ()

Effective principals need to know how to balance pushing for change with keeping structures or practices in place that have worked.

Second Foster Mutual Principle Respect and Acknowledge Uniqueness.

Chen () and Zhang and Foo () Third Principle

Chen ()

Acknowledge Individual Uniqueness.

Third Create Principle Environments of Harmony

In name only aligned with Zhang and Foo’s () Second principle but current study offers different perspective.

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Table 4.1 (continued) Study

Perspective/Principle

Current Study

Zhang and Foo ()

The concept of balanced leadership is captured in a hybrid model of five principles namely:

Fourth Align Principle Contradictions

Principle 

Balanced dispositions

Principle 

Balancing to reach harmony for leaders to create environments “seeking for the great harmony.”

Principle 

Balancing to maintain mutual benefits. The leader demonstrates authenticity for the benefits of his people who in return wholeheartedly support him for his virtuous conduct.

Principle 

Balancing to reach sustainable development through balancing opposites.

Principle  Balancing the Extracted from orders of change Western for improvement. literature (Waters et al. () and Leithwood ()).

Principle

In Congruence With In name similar to Zhang and Foo’s () fourth principle but current study offers different perspective. Similarity to El-Bassiouny () study.

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Table 4.1 (continued) Study

Perspective/Principle

Current Study

Principle

In Congruence With

El-Bassiouny ()

Balanced leaders essentially possess traits of heart and mind that make them unique as they can balance their hearts and minds, rights and duties, and limitations and abilities.

Fifth Balance Change Principle and Conformity

Concept in line with Waters et al. () and Zhang and Foo’s () Fifth principle (which they also extracted from Waters). Current study adds more dimensions to the principle as Davis (:) perspective on crises leadership.

Müller et al. ()

Balanced leadership is a balance between vertical and horizontal leadership. This balance is enabled through vertical leaders that make way for one or more horizontal leaders to partake in leading.

Sixth Balance Power Principle Dynamics: Consultation, Empowerment of Horizontal leaders (Create Future Leaders) and Assertiveness. Seventh Embrace a GodPrinciple cenetred Approach.

Principle is more holistic but similar to Müller et al. ()

Unique to this study.

dynamics between assertiveness and consultation/delegation, gives everyone/thing its due presence, and embraces a God-centered approach to leadership in line with Muhammad’s (P) biography. Accordingly, a holistic leader is one who follows this principle-based framework which realizes balanced leadership. Finally, these principles form a framework that demonstrates that balanced leadership has been practiced in the past and can be practiced in modern times.

4.5 Conclusion This chapter proposes a new perspective on balanced leadership indicating that a holistic leader is a balanced leader. It presents an exhaustive review of the literature on balanced leadership. The chapter gives an account of different styles of

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leadership and exhibits how Muhammad’s (P) leadership was a versatile one. The main contribution of the study is that it introduces a theoretical framework of seven principles of balanced leadership which have been deduced from the life of Muhammad (P) as a leader. The chapter employs a situational approach to elaborate on the principles through narratives and practices from the life of Muhammad (P) and an amalgamation of the balanced leadership perspectives surveyed in Eastern, Islamic, and Western literature that do not conflict with Islamic principles. The first principle accentuates that a balanced leader should possess a balanced disposition, the second is to advocate mutual respect and foster uniqueness, the third is to create and sustain environments of harmony, and the fourth is to align paradoxes. The fifth principle is to balance change and conformity, the sixth is to consult and build future leaders, and the final principle is to maintain a Godcentered approach to be able to sustain balance and navigate through the previous principles. Future research on leadership should focus more on developing a comprehensive framework for balanced leadership. Despite the rich prophetic biography which exhibits the leadership of a holistic-balanced leader, no rigorous academic study – to the knowledge of the researchers – prior to this one has analyzed Muhammad (P) balanced leadership.8 The limitation of this study is it extrapolates only seven principles, so further research is required to investigate and unleash the exquisite balance in the prophetic leadership. The proposed principles and new perspective on balanced leadership offer accessible insights for aspiring leaders to learn great leadership practices and to be inspired to take leadership to a level more balanced and holistic than the mainstream conventions on leadership.

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 A restricted access youtube by Siraj El Mounir Program presents a sound analysis on the Prophet’s balanced leadership by Sheikh Mohamed Khairy but the authors were not granted access to it.

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Chapter 5 Balanced Leadership: Challenges and Opportunities of Inclusion in American Muslim Nonprofits Abstract: Islamic teachings highlight the concept of balance as a core tenet of the religion. Balance is in the way we worship, live, work, and interact with one another and all of God’s creation. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of adopting a balanced leadership approach for nonprofit Islamic organizations to succeed. We focus on the notion of diversity and inclusion within American Muslim nonprofits and highlight the impact of these organizations implementing or neglecting these tenets. Then, we propose practical solutions compatible with both Islamic principles and the level of diversity that characterizes today’s American Muslim community. Keywords: leadership, non profits, American Muslim, diversity, balanced leadership, inclusion, Islam

5.1 Introduction Islamic teachings highlight balance as a core tenet of the religion. In the Holy Qur’an, God describes the Muslim community as “Ummattan wasata” – a justly balanced nation (Ali, 2015). Researchers examining the persona of Prophet Muhammad point to balance and moderation as essential characteristics of his leadership (Adair, 2010). Muslim scholars have long viewed the concept of balance as a value that encompasses many aspects of individual and community life (Kriger & Seng, 2005; Yaakub & Othman, 2017). This includes balance in our worship of God, in our daily affairs, in how we manage/use resources, and in how we interact with His creation, be it a fellow man or nature as a whole (Abdelzaher & Abdelzaher, 2017). Given the significance of balance in Islam, a balanced leadership approach is especially critical in driving organizational success for Muslim organizations. In this chapter, we focus on inclusion as a key element of a balanced leadership model in American Muslim nonprofits. Drawing upon Islamic teachings as well as diversity and inclusion management research, we discuss current challenges arising from the lack of inclusion and provide potential avenues for improving it in American Muslim nonprofits. In doing so, we aim to inform organizational leaders and members of the value of inclusion and its relevance to a more balanced leadership approach. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-006

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5.2 Diversity and Inclusion The terms “diversity” and “inclusion” and how they are used in the literature as well as popular press have evolved over the years. Diversity and inclusion are often used together and sometimes interchangeably, and because of this lack of consistency, researchers have sought to clarify the distinction between these terms (Roberson, 2006; Shore et al., 2011; Winters, 2014). Ferdman (2014) refers to diversity as “a fact of life” while inclusion is “what we do with that diversity when we value and appreciate people” because of those differences. Put more simply, Tapia (2009) notes, “Diversity is the mix, inclusion is making the mix work” (p. 12). This distinction is important given that the research is mixed on whether diversity improves team or organizational performance (Mannix & Neale, 2005; Van Knippenberg & Schippers, 2007). Others note that organizational context and group processes impact whether positive outcomes are realized from diversity (Kochan et al., 2003; Singh, Winkel & Selvarajan, 2013). Examining this research further, a number of articles have highlighted the idea that diversity on its own will not improve teams or organizations (Holvino, Ferdman & Merrill-Sands, 2004; Nishii & Mayer, 2009; Thomas & Ely, 1996) – it must be coupled with inclusive practices. A meta-analysis of two decades of diversity research provides strong evidence for this – although diversity on its own was linked to positive and negative outcomes, a climate of inclusion was consistently linked to positive outcomes (Mor Barak et al., 2016). As Ferdman and Deane (2014) explain: Diversity can provide advantages only when it is combined with fundamental changes in individual behaviors and attitudes, group norms, and approaches, and organizational policies, procedures, and practices that result in people feeling appreciated, values, safe, respected, listened to, and engaged. (p. xxiv)

Some organizations fall short of an inclusive climate as they (a) equate diversity with aspects of legal compliance, or (b) believe that simply measuring numerical representation of demographics within an organization’s leadership achieves the goal of diversity (Gallegos, 2013; Ely & Thomas, 2002). Rather, inclusion requires an organizationwide initiative where employees and volunteers are allowed to have organizational voice, defined as “voluntary expression of people’s views to influence organizational actions” (Banerjee & Somanathan, 2001; Bowen & Blackmon, 2003). Mor Barak (2016) describes three elements required for organizations to be inclusive: (a) decisionmaking – being involved in decision-making processes; (b) information networks – staying regularly informed about organizational happenings through announcements and internal information networks; and (c) participation – broad participation in organizational meetings and events. In sum, an inclusive approach by organizations results in a balanced leadership model, but this requires a mindset that views diversity as a key resource that organizations can leverage. Thus, leaders must aim to harness the benefits of diversity as

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opposed to viewing it as an obstacle to overcome. We now take a closer look at the American Muslim nonprofit sector and discuss the criticality of diversity and inclusion initiatives for these organizations.

5.3 American Muslim Nonprofits The Muslim community has been described as one of the fastest growing demographics in the United States, projected to be the second largest faith group in the country by 2040 (Pew, 2018). American Muslims have established a host of nonprofit institutions that serve both the Muslim community and the broader society. These nonprofit organizations (NPOs) have grown tremendously over the past two decades with a recent census of American mosques counting more than 2700 mosques (Bagby, 2021) and others noting estimates of nearly 7000 Muslim nonprofits in the United States (Schwarb, 2019). Recent research has sought to explore this burgeoning sector and provide insights on the sector’s challenges and contributions to society (Bagby, 2017; Khan & Siddiqui, 2017; Yaghi, 2009). Nonprofits are a unique context to examine balance, as these organizations are “embedded in an interconnected network of stakeholders” (p. 311, Balser & McClusky, 2005). Stakeholders of nonprofits include but are not limited to funders, beneficiaries, strategic partners, government, media, volunteers, as well as the leadership team including board and staff. While NPOs already face the challenge of diverse stakeholders, Muslim NPOs add another layer of complexity given the increasingly diverse membership of the American Muslim community (AMC). Broadly speaking, the AMC consists of immigrants, those born in the United States, and converts (Haddad & Harb, 2014). Within each of these categories, cultural, gender, and generational diversity also come into play. Prior research has shown Muslim nonprofits’ ability to harness the benefits of this diversity to be a difficult endeavor (Sayeed, Al-Adawiya & Bagby, 2013). Navigating this successfully requires a balanced and inclusive approach.

5.4 Rich Diversity of the American Muslim Community Diversity researchers have categorized components of diversity into (a), observable attributes such as race or age, and (b) less salient attributes such as personality and values (Harrison, Price & Bell, 1998; McGrath, Berdahl & Arrow, 1995). When examining the American Muslim community, one finds an abundance of both types of diversity, including ideology and personality. For our purposes, we concentrate on differences arising from demographics, specifically race, ethnicity, gender, and age.

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Contrary to common myths about American Muslims, “there is no single racial or ethnic majority within the Muslim community” (Pew, 2017a). In fact, American Muslims are America’s most ethnically diverse faith community (Mogahed & Chouhoud, 2017). Additionally, immigrant Muslims (born outside the United States) come from a wide array of countries, and no single region or country of origin accounts for a majority of them. In total, immigrant respondents in Pew Research Center’s 2017 survey of US Muslims named 75 different countries of origin. Another way research has categorized American Muslims’ demographic characteristics is by immigrant generation (i.e., when did someone come to America?). While the terms first- and second-generation Americans have been defined in an inconsistent way, for this chapter we use the terms as defined by the Pew Research Center. Accordingly, we use the terms as outlined: – First generation: born outside the U.S. – Second generation: born in the U.S. with at least one parent born outside the U.S. – Third generation: born in the U.S. to parents born in the U.S. It should be noted that the third generation includes the grandchildren of firstgeneration immigrants as well as Black or other indigenous Muslims who also fit the definition of “born in the U.S. to parents born in the U.S.” but have well beyond three generations of history in America. Before the growth of immigration from Muslim majority countries, the history and legacy of Black Muslims in America has been well established (Gomez & Gomez, 2005). When examining American Muslims through the lens of generations, the population is 58% first generation, 18% second generation, and 24% as third generation. A closer look at first-generation Muslims shows that 17% migrated to the United States after 2010 and 15% migrated between 2000 and 2009 (Pew Research Center, 2018). This indicates that the American Muslim population is growing due to birth rate (first- and second-generation Muslims having children in America) as well as continued immigration. Generation is a relevant characteristic for organizations to consider as research has shown that immigrants and those born in America are distinct in several ways such as leadership styles (Baumeister, 2005), beliefs on identity (Pew, 2017b), as well as experiences of and attitudes toward discrimination (Pew Research Center, 2018). These and other factors have the potential to create divergent views on a range of strategic and operational matters such as mission/vision, organizational strategy, and stakeholder management.

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5.5 What Islam Teaches About Diversity and Inclusion Islam is an inclusive religion in many ways. At the most basic level, it acknowledges the existence of all previous holy books and messengers of all monotheistic beliefs (Judaism and Christianity). Islam also upholds the greatest respect for Prophet Jesus, his honorable mother Mary, and Prophet Abraham, who is referred to as the father of all prophets. This envelope of love, respect, and followership includes all prophets from Adam to Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon them). All prophets are evidenced to come from the same family lineage which is another aspect of the interrelationships between them. Nevertheless, each of these prophets was unique in geographic background, ethnicity, physical features, languages, social status, and so on. The Qur’an describes the God-conscious as those who acknowledge the Qur’an and the scriptures before it, communicating inclusiveness along the dimensions of time. It is important to note that the Qur’an could have easily instructed Muslims to only believe in the Qur’an and nothing before it. The fact that the religion mandates the equal respect of all prophets and belief in their holy books and regards them as being sent to all humanity with a single message is an indicator of the level of inclusiveness that this faith is based upon. The implication is that any person belonging to either Christianity or Judaism can feel included in this faith because of the level of respect and admiration assigned to their prophets (Jesus and Abraham) and the holy scriptures they were sent with. Dr. Wills, author of the recent book What the Qur’an Meant: And Why It Matters (2018), was asked what struck him most as a Catholic reading the Qur’an – his response, “Its inclusiveness.” From another angle of inclusion, anyone regardless of race, culture, or background can become a Muslim through submission to the one God and belief in all the mentioned prophets, including the last as Prophet Muhammad. Today, Muslims are spread across the world, representing different skin tones, physical features, social strata, and cultural backgrounds. It is this diversity that Malcolm X witnessed on his pilgrimage to Makkah, an experience that moved him so deeply that he shared powerful descriptions in his autobiography: There are Muslims of all colors and ranks here in Mecca from all parts of this earth . . . During the past seven days of this holy pilgrimage, while undergoing the rituals of the hajj [pilgrimage], I have eaten from the same plate, drank from the same glass, slept on the same bed or rug, while praying to the same God – not only with some of this earth’s most powerful kings, cabinet members, potentates and other forms of political and religious rulers – but also with fellow‐Muslims whose skin was the whitest of white, whose eyes were the bluest of blue, and whose hair was the blondest of blond. (Malcolm & Haley, 1965)

The Qur’an celebrates the diversity of humans and recognizes differences in colors and nations as a sign of God’s greatness. As examples, Verse 22 of Chapter 30 (Surah

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Al-Rum) states, “From among His signs is the creation of the heavens and earth, and the diversity of your languages and colors. There truly are signs in this for those who know.” God says in Chapter 49 (Surah Al-Hujurat), verse 13: “O humanity! We created you all from a single man and a single woman, and made you into races and tribes so that you should recognize one another. In God’s eyes, the most honored of you are the ones most mindful of Him: God is all knowing, all aware” (Haleem, 2005). Here, God emphasizes that there shall be no discriminating factor for piety except the individual’s actions, and in this aspect of accountability and potential for spiritual growth and elevation, men and women are equally accountable. In both these verses, racial and cultural differences are valued and framed as opportunities rather than challenges. Prophet Muhammad reiterated these teachings in his sermons and daily actions. In his final sermon, he emphasized, “There is no superiority of an Arab over a non-Arab, or of a non-Arab over an Arab, and no superiority of a white person over a black person or of a black person over a white person, except on the basis of personal piety and righteousness” (Yusuf & Ishola, 2018). Moreover, Prophet Muhammad described his mission as being “sent to perfect good character.” God describes him in the Qur’an as one “on an exalted standard of moral character” and an “excellent model” to follow (Surah Al-Qalam 68:4; Surah Al-Ahzab 33:21). Therefore, Muslims are instructed to lovingly follow in his footsteps in both acts of worship and interactions with others. By further exploring the Sunnah, the actions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, we find multiple occasions where inclusion is exemplified. Prophet Muhammad was sent as a mercy to all of humankind, and thus, his actions embodied inclusion within the Muslim community as well as with other faith/community groups. For example, with regard to other faiths, from the time of Prophet Muhammad’s migration to Madinah as well as during the years of conquests outside Makkah, Muslims were instructed to honor all religious groups by preserving their places of worship. Within the Muslim community, one of the hallmarks of Prophet Muhammad’s character was his ability to make everyone feel valued and respected, regardless of their background. While the examples are too numerous to mention, we share a few noteworthy instances and highlight lessons from them. The most cited example with regard to race is the famous companion Sayyiduna Bilal, an African slave granted the noble position of making the call to prayers. The timing of this appointment is noteworthy, as Bilal was viewed by the Arab tribes as an inferior slave. The Prophet was establishing a new paradigm for evaluating one’s honor and status in the eyes of God, and in so doing, began to break the foundations of racism and prejudice. While the story of Bilal from slave to a well-respected and prominent leader is perhaps the most famous illustration of racial inclusion, there are numerous examples of Black and ethnic minority Muslims taking prominent roles in the community (see Mustafa Briggs’ work on Beyond Bilal).

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The Prophet Muhammad also ensured women were involved and had voice in the community, regularly taking their counsel. Al-Raysuni (2013) notes that the “Companions of the Prophet, men and women alike, would express their opinions, reservations and objections to the Messenger of God without fear, and without hearing a word of rebuke or censure of any kind” (p. 34). The inclusion of women is further elucidated by renowned Islamic scholar Ibn Hazm: We know for a certainty that the Messenger of God was sent to women just as he was sent to men and that the divinely inspired law which is Islam is binding for women just as it is for men. The only exceptions to this rule are those precepts for which there is evidence that they apply exclusively to women or to men. What this means is that men may not enjoy anything to the exclusion of women unless an explicit text [from the Qur’an or the Sunnah] or a consensus of qualified scholars indicates otherwise (translated by Al-Raysuni).

The Prophet’s companions would follow in his footsteps manifesting this principle in their leadership. For example, the second caliph Umar appointed two women, AlShifa and Samra, as controllers of commerce in Madinah and Makkah, respectively, charging them with the important role of ensuring merchants engaged in ethical business practices. Further, the role of female religious scholars teaching both men and women for centuries after the Prophet Muhammad is also well-documented (Nadwi, 2007), confirming women’s involvement in various aspects of community leadership and development. There are also accounts in which younger individuals took leadership over elders due to their skillsets, indicating the notion of everyone having a chance to contribute. As one example, Usama bin Zayd was appointed by the Prophet to serve as a military commander despite being less than 20 years old. This decision was met with resistance from community members, but the Prophet Muhammad stood firm and highlighted Usama’s competence to his critics. This example is of particular importance in that it demonstrates how a leader upholds the values of inclusion in the face of disapproval from some members. All in all, when one examines the life of the Prophet Muhammad, it is clear that he included and uplifted groups marginalized due to race, ethnicity, gender, physical disability, and so on. Nonetheless, as faith-based communities, it is important to note that the boundaries of inclusion are specified by what is defined as permissible (Halal) and forbidden (Haram) by Muslim jurisprudence as per the higher purposes of Islamic law (Maqasid al-Sharia). These include preservation of life, faith/religion, intellect, lineage/offspring, and wealth (Al-Ghazali (1998, cited in Jalil 2006:3; Abdelzaher et al., 2019). This preservation is regarded as being aligned with the principle of the pursuit of public good (Maslahah) and the non-preservation of those elements regarded as harming society (Mafsadah) (Ibrahim, 2000). As indicated by a statement from a collection of leading American Muslim scholars: We must remain vigilant against allowing our opposition to external injustice to make us forget about the danger of internal transgressions against the Creator’s laws. Before our efforts

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are to be given prophetic sanction, our advocacy must pass the test of prophetic scrutiny and/ or imperative (Counsel to Muslim Social Justice Activists, https://lamppostedu.org/counsel-tomuslim-social-justice-activists).

5.6 Lack of Inclusion in American Muslim NPOs Despite the value of diversity in Islamic teachings, member engagement and leadership of American Muslim nonprofits often does not reflect the diversity of the community. A lack of inclusive practices with regard to race has received greater attention in recent years. Part of this effort has been to look inward and examine racism within the Muslim community itself. In a study of intra-Muslim ethnic relations using an ethnically diverse sample of American Muslims, researchers found that 59% of respondents experienced discrimination from fellow Muslims (Hill, Kocak, Muhammad, Ahmed, and Islam, 2015). Notably, nearly 80% or more of Black/African/Caribbean, Latino/Indigenous, as well as mixed-race Muslims reported discrimination from within the community. This clearly suggests that the Islamic ideals on equality of races is not always manifested in the community. This is a problem that a host of Muslim organizations are struggling with, including those predominantly led by immigrants (e.g., mosques) as well as those led by second- and third-generation Americans such as Muslim Student Associations on college campuses (Hill et al., 2015; Karim, 2008). Hashtags such as #BeingBlackandMuslim and #BlackinMSA sparked nationwide and, in some cases, global attention to the lack of inclusive practices in the Muslim community and led to the creation of new organizations focused on overcoming this challenge, such as the Muslim Anti-Racism Collaborative (MuslimARC). Others have pointed out exclusionary practices in leadership roles, whether related to board positions or serving as speakers in Islamic programs (Chouhoud & Abdullah, 2020). In some communities, the lack of an inclusive climate has created fragmentation, leading to the formation of separate mosques for each ethnic group, straying away from the Prophetic model of different races and ethnicities standing together in worship. Muslim women and their connection to Islamic institutions have received notable attention in both academic and practitioner circles (Karim, 2008; Nawaz & MacDonald, 2005). Some research has explored Muslim women’s leadership and their role on the boards of American mosques. In 20 years, women’s presence on the board has increased, with two-thirds of mosques having women on the board today, compared to only half in 2000 (Bagby, 2021). Part of this increase could be attributed to changing attitudes on women’s role in leadership. For example, in 2000, 31% of mosques did not allow women to serve on the board, compared to 7% in 2020. This data certainly indicates an evolving mosque board with regard to gender. However, in 2020, 27% of mosques allow women on the board yet no women

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serve in those positions. This is similar to data from a decade earlier in 2010, when 28% of mosque boards allowed women but did not have any serving on them. The causes of this phenomenon require further examination. A simple change to the nonprofit’s bylaws is not sufficient to create an inclusive culture. An analogy can be drawn to how some organizations address disability, focusing on compliance with laws such as the Americans for Disabilities Act (ADA). While the ADA has helped reduce discrimination in the workplace, a systematic review of the ADA’s impact over 25 years found that the “law itself is not enough to change broader attitudes, values, and culture” (Gould, Parker Harris & Caldwell, 2018). Thus, now that an overwhelming majority of mosques allow women on the board, the goal shifts from allowing to a culture of valuing, recruiting, and developing women. The chief leader or leadership team has a critical role to play in creating an inclusive climate for women through ensuring members feel respected and valued, creating a psychologically safe environment, and including diverse voices in key decisions (Shore, Cleveland & Sanchez, 2018). As Buse, Bernstein, and Bilimoria (2016) write: “Boards seeking to improve their governance effectiveness should include diverse board members but must be certain that there are diversity policies and practices in place to allow the diverse members to have a positive impact.” Further research is needed on the experience of Muslim women who have served on boards and whether negative experiences are leading to an unwillingness to continue serving in leadership roles. Anecdotal evidence suggests this may be a contributing factor. In addition to racial and gender diversity, age diversity is also an important element of inclusive organizations. In some cases, the transition from original founders to the next generation has not occurred. As an example, Bagby (2018) notes that the founding generation of mosques is still in power but growing old, and the younger generation remains outside the circle of leadership. Brinckerhoff (2007) discusses how organizations that exclude younger voices from leadership roles run the risk of not being able to adapt to rapid changes in the world. Research by Faith communities today (2020) note how “appropriate distribution of diverse ages within a religious community correlates with vitality and flourishing” (p. 19). It should be noted that there have been efforts to improve racial, gender, and age diversity on the boards of American Muslim nonprofits. However, these efforts often resemble tokenism rather than a deep commitment to creating an organization-wide inclusive culture. Tokenism is defined as “symbolic inclusion of numerical minorities within a group, usually for the sake of appearances rather than for inclusiveness or true diversity” (Hirshfield, 2015). As diversity researchers point out, organizations must shift from tokenism to a critical mass approach to improve the demographics of the leadership team (Erkut, Kramer & Konrad, 2008; Fredette & Bernstein, 2019). For example, in studying how team dynamics change when more of a particular minority group is added to the team, prior research suggests that one woman on the board could be a token, two indicates presence, and three serves as a tipping point (i.e., critical mass) at which that demographic has real voice on the board.

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5.7 Implications of Inclusive Practices The lack of diversity in leadership roles presents a key challenge to the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of these organizations. In the nonprofit sector, great value is placed on leadership including the board reflecting the community the organization serves. This is not just a diversity mantra or slogan for nonprofits to adopt. Rather, there are specific benefits nonprofits accrue from an inclusive approach to leadership. First, diversity on nonprofit boards has been linked with higher creativity and decision-making quality (Fredette & Bernstein, 2019). When organizations need to make critical decisions, diverse boards benefit from tapping into the various backgrounds and lived experiences of board members. When the leadership team is more homogeneous, that opportunity does not exist. Additionally, one of the primary pitfalls of teams is that they often engage in groupthink, defined by Janis (1972) as “a mode of thinking people engage in when they are deeply involved in a cohesive in-group, when the members striving for unanimity override their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action” (p. 9). Groupthink has been cited as a reason for some of the most disastrous decisions in our nation’s history, such as the explosion of NASA’s Challenger Shuttle (Janis, 2008). In teams where groupthink occurs, members engage in self-censorship and avoid expressing disagreements with an apparent group consensus. This ultimately leads to lower decision quality and some research has found that greater demographic diversity can reduce the risk of groupthink in boards (Kamalnath, 2017). Examining several research studies, Rock and Grant (2016) highlighted how heterogeneous groups achieve positive outcomes, particularly with regard to gender and ethnic diversity. The authors conclude that inclusive practices boost an organizations’ “joint intellectual potential” as diverse teams are more likely to be objective, as they constantly reexamine facts, question assumptions, thereby reducing biases. Second, diverse leaders aid in recruiting and retaining diverse members to the organization, including staff and volunteers. The literature has demonstrated positive staff outcomes stemming from inclusive organizational practices in both for-profit and nonprofit sectors. For example, in discussing the leaders’ role in creating a climate of inclusion, Brimhall (2019) discusses how inclusive practices are linked to higher employee commitment and retention (Hwang & Hopkins, 2012), job satisfaction (Bortree & Waters, 2008), as well as performance (Mitchell et al., 2015). Nonprofits often rely heavily on volunteers to carry out their mission, and therefore it is no surprise that strategies to engage volunteers is one of the most common topics among nonprofit practitioners. A primary aspect of volunteer retention is to ensure volunteers feel included in the organization (Cuskelly, 2006). When volunteers feel included, this enhances their satisfaction with the organization, often leading them to identify with the organization in a meaningful way (Senses-Ozyurt & Villicana-Reyna, 2016). This in turn results in greater commitment

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to the organization creating a healthy cycle where volunteers are recruited, retained, and then become advocates for the organization by helping to engage more volunteers. In a study of teenage volunteers, Waters and Bortree (2010) found that inclusive behaviors by leaders improved feelings of acceptance and commitment to the organization. This study is particularly relevant, given the American Muslim community’s challenge in engaging younger populations. A model of sustained volunteerism by Penner (2002) provides additional insights. He notes that individual factors (e.g., prosocial personality, demographics, and values) as well as organizational attributes and practices impact an individual’s initial decision to volunteer and their commitment to sustained volunteerism. Among the organizational variables to consider, Penner’s model includes, “1) an individual member’s perceptions of and feelings about the way he or she is treated by the organization and 2) the organization’s reputation and personnel practices” (p. 458). An organization’s commitment to inclusive practices would enhance both of these factors, thereby increasing volunteer retention in American Muslim nonprofits. While a climate of inclusion is linked with improved outcomes for staff and volunteers, the opposite is also true, such that exclusionary practices are likely to lead to negative outcomes. Research by Bortree and Waters (2014) studied the volunteer experiences of different racial groups and found that minority groups reported significantly lower levels of inclusion. Members of these groups felt “less included in decision making, less likely to receive important information, and less likely to be invited to participate throughout the organization” (p. 228). This ultimately impacted the relationships these minority groups had with the nonprofit, as they were less likely to trust the organization, less likely to voice their opinion, and therefore less likely to intend to volunteer in the future. This description parallels the experience of different segments of the American Muslim community, namely, Blacks, women, and younger populations. This phenomenon creates a dangerous cycle impacting the success of Muslim nonprofits (see Figure 5.1). When organizational leaders engage in exclusionary practices, members feel excluded and begin to withdraw from the organization, ranging from apathy to leaving the organization altogether. When members are disengaged, this leads to a poor pipeline of diverse future volunteers and leaders. Without new volunteers to pass leadership onto, current volunteers experience frustration and burnout as they must shoulder more responsibility. Feelings of being overburdened is one of the reasons volunteers leave organizations (Locke, Ellis & Smith, 2003). The leadership team becomes more homogeneous and stagnant, reducing creativity and decision-making quality. These series of events can be seen in American mosques where Bagby (2016) concludes, “Most young adults will not be attracted to a mosque if they are not present as active members and leaders.” This adverse cycle demonstrates the multiple consequences of exclusionary practices in organizations.

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1) Leaders exhibit exclusionary practices

5) Leadership becomes more homogeneous and stagnant

4) Leaders experience frustration and burnout

2) Members feel excluded and withdraw from organization

3) Pipeline of future leaders negatively impacted

Figure 5.1: Adverse cycle of exclusion.

5.8 Breaking the Cycle: What Are the Solutions? American Muslim nonprofits are not unique in their struggles to advance diversity at the leadership level of organizations. Ferdman and Deane (2014) acknowledge that the practice of inclusion for both individuals and organizations “remains an elusive goal” (p. xxii). While this establishes that the problem of diverse leadership is pervasive, it also provides an opportunity as a wide range of experts and researchers are focusing on the issue. American Muslim nonprofits would be wise to explore these further and potentially adopt some of the solutions emanating from the corporate and broader nonprofit sectors. In thinking about the path forward, it is important to recognize that a surfacelevel approach to addressing inclusion will be insufficient. For example, inclusion is not just about focusing on seemingly superficial demographic categories, but rather about the “identities, cultures, and the varied meaning and ways of thinking about and approaching situations these [categories] represent” (Ferdman, 2014, p. 6). In the following section, we outline steps organizations can take to move toward a more inclusive climate.

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5.8.1 Assess and Quantify Your Current State Our understanding of management informs us that when organizations care about a specific issue and want to see it corrected, they first start by measuring it to quantify its prevalence and impact. Measuring the extent to which an organization is inclusive is a core step toward getting it to move in that direction (Barnard-Brak, Schmidt & Sheffield, 2014). If you do not know where you are at in terms of degree of inclusion, then you would not know how to progress toward incremental improvements on that platform (Walker, 2019). Measuring will give a realistic picture of the extent of substantial inclusion which is often quite different than the level that top leadership may like to think or perceive they have. The perception of inclusivity can only be assessed by asking feedback from a diverse group of people about organizational components and actors (Ohemeng & McGrandle, 2021). Several approaches can be taken to evaluate the current state of your organization with regard to inclusion. It is important to study the profile of the organizations’ leaders, volunteers, and participants, broken down by a variety of demographic categories. This analysis can be used to identify: a) gaps in the organizations’ ability to serve diverse constituents, and b) barriers or “glass ceilings” in the leadership pipeline where a particular demographic is, for example, successfully moving from participant to volunteer but not to leader. Additional forms of assessment could include a cultural audit, organizational climate survey, and needs assessment or specific evaluation of inclusivity using a measure such as the Gartner Inclusion Index which measures components such as decision-making, psychological safety, trust, and belonging (Romansky, Garrod, Brown & Deo, 2021).

5.8.2 Qualitative Research to Build Understanding Conducting qualitative research through focus groups or in-depth interviews can reveal key insights into barriers that different groups of people may encounter or perceive that prevent their involvement with the organization (Ohemeng & McGrandle, 2021). From another angle, including leaders as participants in this data collection process would lead to a better understanding of the barriers that some current decision-makers may have in improving inclusivity. Very often unconscious biases exist which are driven by one’s own stereotypes and personal experience, which causes them to alienate or connect more with one group of the community over another (Lutchman, Mahlangu & Lentsoane, 2020). Once you have identified the degree of the issue and the barriers to inclusivity via both qualitative and quantitative techniques, it is important to build a continuous education-based program that aims to combat these biases (Walker, 2019). This includes but is not limited to educating stakeholders about the benefits of inclusivity in organizations but also its relevancy in Islamic teachings. This builds upon our

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earlier discussion on the definition, criteria, and boundaries of inclusion as per the teachings of the Qur’an and Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad (Peace and Blessings be upon him).

5.8.3 Embed the Value of Inclusion in Communications Our understanding from strategic management dictates that the first step toward the achievement of a strategy is to first communicate it widely through your mission/vision statement and organizational values. Therefore, if inclusion is core to the organization, it must be communicated. “Diversity and inclusivity statements should help attract people from diverse backgrounds and include language that stresses the value of their experiences, thoughts, and contributions” (Pitts, Hudson, Reeves, Christenbery & Johnson, 2020: 199). Anecdotal evidence indicates that few Islamic organizations highlight their verbal commitment to inclusivity. Defining inclusion, talking about why it is important, and communicating these ideas to multiple stakeholders through different communication platforms are key steps in implementing it (Pitts et al., 2020). Policies and procedures for implementation of inclusion are then derived from the firm’s verbal commitment. While it is recommended that organizational values be derived from its members and leaders through a systematic process, Yaghi (2009) provides a starting point for the conversation by offering insights on values already held by American Muslim nonprofit leaders. Values such as shura (consultation), empowerment, fairness, and inclusion were all highlighted through his interviews, which are all connected to our subject of helping people feel valued, respected, and involved in decision-making.

5.8.4 Secure a Diverse Volunteer Pool To lay the foundations for developing leadership from diverse groups, we must first have a pool of diverse individuals serving as volunteers or participants in the organization. Leaders do not emerge overnight and their development often starts by initial participatory involvement in service work or volunteering with the organization. If we can guarantee a pool of diverse volunteers, then we are more likely to have a pool of potential leaders that can be available to take the organization forward down the line. It is critical to focus on a member’s first volunteer experience as it will often establish the relationship and depth of engagement a member may have with the organization over the long term. The more volunteers learn to work with diverse members in a healthy inclusive climate, the more likely they will succeed when working with them in leadership roles. In other words, it is not sufficient to only focus on inclusive behaviors at the board level, they must start with positive member and volunteer

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experiences. Given this, it would be wise to evaluate current recruiting processes, as the typical avenues for volunteer recruitment may not be effective in reaching demographics who have historically been excluded by the organization. An entry point for these volunteers may often be committees focused on diversity-related matters or specific segments of the community (e.g., women and convertcare). However, it is important that organizations do not “typecast” volunteers – for example, involving Black community members on issues of race but not in broader organizational initiatives. At the leadership level, efforts should be made such that leaders are rotated to reduce stagnation, produce fresh ideas, and provide opportunities for volunteers to progress through the leadership pipeline. For many American Muslim nonprofits, this rotation is not as systematic as it could be. This can possibly be driven by the lack of interest from individuals to step up into leadership roles.

5.8.5 Develop the Skills of Current Leaders Many American Muslim nonprofits may select or elect individuals for leadership positions without much training. Yet leadership theories demonstrate that leaders are not born, they are made. This underscores the need for organizations to develop training that focuses on the enhancement of leadership qualities relevant to diverse contexts, specifically inclusive leadership. We propose that in addition to training on nonprofit board functions and duties, these leaders must also receive guidance on inclusive leadership methods, especially how to enhance the sense of belonging of minorities without undermining the sense of uniqueness of each actor (Randel et al., 2018). For example, one helpful step could be to highlight the need for a contingency approach to leadership, which cautions leaders to avoid a “one-size-fits-all” leadership style. Rather, leaders should adapt to the context, displaying a level of flexibility in accordance with the followers’ diverse skillsets, demographic characteristics, and cultural norms. Diversity and inclusion training often address specific competencies that can enhance inclusive behaviors. These include but are not limited to humility, empathy, bias, communication, cultural intelligence, emotional intelligence, psychological safety, and team decision-making. Hands-on or on-the-job training can also be a valuable method to develop inclusive leaders in the pipeline. For example, time-bound projects for volunteers to engage in leadership roles provides a learning opportunity for inclusive behaviors. In these “learning by doing” projects, inclusive leadership skills can be developed, monitored, and evaluated, creating a beneficial training ground before they enter more formal leadership roles (e.g., board of directors). Assigning a coach/mentor to these teams who can guide and most importantly model inclusive behaviors can also enhance the development process.

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Whether training occurs through workshops, onboarding processes, mentorship, or hands-on projects, we emphasize the incorporation of Islamic principles as foundational aspects of leadership development. Training is not only about developing competencies but also instilling values, mindsets, and norms of behavior (Booysen, 2014). As highlighted earlier, there are many lessons on inclusion to be gleaned from the Qur’an and Sunnah, and these leaders are more likely to accept and implement religious-based guidance.

5.9 Conclusion It is clear from the above discussion that improving inclusion is vital for the sustainability of American Muslim nonprofits. We contend that the lack of inclusionary practices in these organizations has created an imbalance, particularly in the composition of leadership, and this has resulted in negative individual and organizational outcomes. While one might assume that these organizations are naturally inclusive because the teachings of Islam encourage inclusion, it has become evident that a gap exists in the translation of these teachings. Our chapter has called attention to inclusion as a central aspect of balanced leadership for several reasons. First, for Muslim nonprofits, inclusion is an ethical and moral imperative as it aligns the organization with deeply held Islamic values in order for organizations to live up to the Prophetic model of community. Second, the strength of the Muslim Ummah can be found in its diversity, demographic and otherwise. Thus, tapping into diverse elements of the community would greatly improve the effectiveness of our organizations, benefiting the Muslim community as well as the broader society. Finally, inclusion is a matter of survival. As the community grows, the demographics, as supported by the data, indicate that the community is only getting more diverse. Thus, exclusionary practices that aim to ignore or tokenize diversity will result in organizations that are disconnected from their community which ultimately threatens their existence as they can no longer serve their diverse constituent base. Given this, it is imperative that boards and leaders of American Muslim nonprofits start to role model inclusionary practices. By doing so, they would be implementing evidence-based best practices of NPOs as well as the principles of our faith. As Yaghi (2009) notes, board members of Muslim nonprofits carry the same responsibilities as those of the broader nonprofit sector, except that they also have “the addition of religious obligation and commitment to upholding the values of their own faith” (p. 237). We emphasize that the Islamic principles of inclusion are not only applicable to traditional religious organizations such as mosques. Prior research has shown that “although not all American Muslim nonprofit institutions are centers of worship, their dominant organizational culture is religious” (Yaghi,

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2009: 247). Even in nonprofits providing secular services, religious values of board members helped to create an Islamic culture. This suggests that the broader Muslim nonprofit sector would be receptive to and benefit from Islamically based motivation to adopt inclusive practices. In closing, we acknowledge that building diverse and inclusive organizations is no small task. In their discussion of how faith-based organizations adopt inclusionary practices, diversity experts consistently recognize that inclusion is a learning process. It is worth noting that complaining about the lack of inclusive leadership in American Muslim nonprofits is insufficient. American Muslims must take a more proactive role to address the gaps. As highlighted by Dr. Ingrid Mattson (2005), The reality is that many American Muslims are unhappy with their religious leadership, but they have not taken the responsibility to reshape their institutions and do what is needed to cultivate better leadership. According to the Qur’an, this is not a responsibility we can avoid.

In Islam, God teaches believers to focus on their efforts and leave the final outcome to Him. In this spirit, we have outlined a number of specific efforts organizations and Muslim leadership can adopt to begin the path toward inclusion. Embarking on these efforts with Ikhlas (sincerity), Ihsan (excelling in work), and striving for continuous improvement will help American Muslim nonprofits maximize the potential of its diverse constituents.

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Menatallah Darrag, Ahmed Amin

Chapter 6 Constructing and Validating the Balanced Leadership Measure Abstract: This chapter presents an attempt to present a new scale to measure balanced leadership in a predominantly Muslim country: Egypt. We defined balanced leadership as the leader’s tendency to be guided by the virtue of moderation when thinking, feeling, and acting in relation to followers. To assess the psychometric properties of the new scale, data was collected from 136 managers. Exploratory factor analysis indicated that the new 20-item Balanced Leadership Measure (BLM) represented a latent construct formed of three factors, namely “tolerance,” “restraint,” and “compromise.” Divergent, convergent, and predictive validities came to satisfy the distinction of the BLM from psychopathy, preference for moderation, and happiness, respectively. Further research directions to fully test the proposed model and relate it to other leadership styles are presented. Keywords: Balanced Leadership, Balanced Leadership Measure, Islam, tolerance, restraint, compromise, Egypt

6.1 Introduction Leadership is one of the oldest and most examined topics by management scholars. The richness of the field of leadership is reflected in the diversity of approaches and conceptualizations that have been used to study it. Since leadership is a valueneutral term, it has been studied from both a dark and bright perspectives. The dark forms of leadership were sparked by fiascos and leadership failures. Aasland, Skogstad, Notelaers, Nielsen, and Einarsen (2010) have estimated that up to 50% of leaders experience failure. Management scholars have studied this form of leadership failure under different labels such as destructive leadership (Krasikova, Green & LeBreton, 2013; Thoroughgood, Sawyer, Padilla & Lunsford, 2018) and abusive leadership (Liu, Liao & Loi, 2012). The main cause of much of this failure is the inability of the leader to manage his/her behavior (Hogan, Hogan & Kaiser, 2010). On the bright side of leadership, scholars have concentrated on positive or moral leadership styles. Examples of such styles include ethical (Brown & Treviño, 2006), servant (Parris & Peachey, 2013), and authentic leadership (Gardner, Cogliser, Davis & Dickens, 2011). These styles have been linked to a variety of important outcomes (e.g., Shin, Sung, Choi, Kim & 2015), which clearly demonstrate the importance of positive leadership. More recently, researchers have begun to study the https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110743395-007

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situational variables that influence the effectiveness of these styles (Mostafa, Farley & Zaharie, 2021; Zhang et al., 2021). The focus on positive or moral leadership nevertheless has been criticized for focusing less on virtues ethics and more on deontological and teleological ethics (Lemoine, Hartnell & Leroy, 2019). In response to this criticism, some scholars have shifted their attention to character-based styles or virtues. Newstead and her colleagues (2018: 449) defined virtues as “the human inclination to feel, think, and act in ways that express moral excellence and contribute to the common good.” Virtues represent a meaningful understanding of effective leadership. Indeed, a number of scholars have contributed to leadership models that are based on several virtues (Pearce, Waldman & Csikszentmihaly, 2006) or have focused on specific discrete virtues such as leadership humbleness and compassion (Shuck, Alagaraja, Immekus, Cumberland & Honeycutt‐Elliott, 2019). Although the current virtues research has contributed significantly to our knowledge of leadership, it remains mostly theoretical. Empirical studies that focus on testing the conceptual and theoretical models are rare. A possible reason for this is the relatively limited availability of properly validated scales to measure leadership virtues (Wang & Hacket, 2015). Without such scales, empirical research would not be possible. Thus, constructing and validating scales to measure virtue-based leadership is critical for the progress of the field. In addition, because leadership represents a highly contextualized phenomenon, it is important that measurement scales are sensitive to culture and religion (House, Dorfman, Javidan, Hanges & Sully de Luque, 2014). This suggests that we need to create scales that reflect these sensitives. The purpose of this study is twofold. First, we wish to contribute to the literature on virtuous leadership by presenting the concept of Balanced Leadership (BL), which we define as “the leader’s tendency to be guided by the virtue of moderation when thinking, feeling and acting in relation to followers.” Second, we construct and validate a new measure for BL that we call the Balanced Leadership Measure (BLM). This is a beneficial endeavor, because without a scientifically developed and validated scale, measurement for scientific or professional purposes would be difficult. Hence, constructing such a scale will be highly useful. This study is conducted in Egypt, which is a predominantly Muslim country. As such, we expect our findings to reflect a Muslim view.

6.2 Literature Review In this section, we will cover two streams of research. The first focuses on the leadership literature that has attempted to portray leadership as an act of balance between contradicting objectives or tasks. The second focuses on the use of the concept of moderation in management.

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6.2.1 Models of Balance in Leadership One of the earliest models of leadership that have examined balance was the managerial grid (Blake & Mouton, 1985). In this model, leadership behaviors were conceptualized as two orthogonal dimensions: concern for people and concern for production. The grid identifies five main leadership styles, including the “middle of the road” or “balanced style,” which is characterized by medium concern for both people and production. Although research has not shown that any of the five suggested styles is always best (Vroom & Jago, 2007), we consider this model’s presentation of the balanced style a useful perspective on the often conflicting work of leaders. Another model focused on the androgynous leadership style. The concept of androgyny was introduced by Bem (1974) to describe individuals that displayed both masculine and feminine traits. Traditionally, leaders were viewed as those possessing agentic or masculine trait such as determination more than community or feminist traits such as compassion. However, this emphasis on masculinity has been declining in favor of femininity (Powel et al., 2021). Kark, Waismel-Manor, and Shamir (2012) showed that androgynous leaders were perceived as more effective than purely masculine or feminine leaders. In the area of school administration, Waters and Cameron (2007) conducted a meta-analysis of school principals’ leadership styles and student achievement. The results of this analysis showed that school leaders are required to perform many important but not essential tasks that are related to student achievement. In addition, some of the tasks prompted the status quo while others challenged the status quo and promoted change. Waters and Cameron (2007) concluded that effective leadership required balancing the tasks. Kaiser and Overfield (2010) introduced the concept of mastery of opposites to refer to leadership behaviors that move between opposite or contradictory directions to improve organizational performance. They identified two specific contradictions: (1) direction versus collaboration and (2) strategy versus execution. Focusing on innovation, the concept of ambidexterity explains leaders’ styles that promote innovation. Ambidextrous leadership was introduced by Rosing et al. (2011: 957) and is defined as “the ability to foster both explorative and exploitative behaviors in followers by increasing or reducing variance in their behavior and flexibly switching between those behaviors.” Ambidextrous leadership has three dimensions: (1) opening leadership behaviors, (2) closing leadership behaviors, and (3) temporal flexibility (Rosing et al., 2011). Opening leader behaviors are those behaviors that increase variance in follower behaviors by encouraging them to experiment and to take risks. Closing leadership behaviors, in contrast, reduce variance in follower behaviors by taking corrective actions, sanctioning errors, setting specific guidelines, and monitoring goal achievement. Finally, flexibility refers to the leader’s ability to switch between the behaviors (Rosing et al., 2011). Ambidextrous leadership

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has been measured by a 13-item scale measuring opening and closing behaviors. It has also been measured by the Leader Versatility Index (Kaiser & Overfield, 2010). Baškarada, Watsonand, and Cromarty (2017) conducted an empirical study that focused on identifying the external and internal factors that affect leadership ambidexterity, which they conceptualized as the balance between transformational and transactional leadership styles in Australia. They concluded that perceived risk, urgency, and experience were key contingency variables that affect the balance between styles. Citing increasingly complex and contradictory work environments, Zhang, Waldman, Han, and Li (2014) introduced the concept of paradoxical leadership, which attempts to achieve the needs of structure and employees simultaneously. Zhang and his colleagues (2014) developed this concept around the Yin and Yang philosophy, stating that all universal things exist as a balance of contradictory opposites. To measure their construct, they developed and validated multidimensional scale that consisted of five bipolar dimensions: (1) self-centeredness/other-centeredness; (2) distance/closeness; (3) uniformly/individualization; (4) enforcement/flexibility; and (5) decision control/ autonomy (Zhang et al., 2014).

6.2.2 Moderation in Management Research: Temperance Versus Moderation In the tradition of positive psychology, Peterson and Seligman (2004) developed a classification composed of six core virtues that they suggested were the key to character strength. One of these virtues is temperance, which they defined as moderation. They further suggested that psychologists have studied temperance under the label of self-regulation of motivation, emotions, and behavior. According to their model, temperance is composed of four subvirtues: (1) forgiveness and mercy, (2) humility and modesty, (3) prudence, and (4) self-regulation. To facilitate empirical research on their classification, they developed the self-report Virtues In Action (VIA) scale. Validation studies however, have not supported the underlying factor structure they proposed (Macdonald & Bore, 2008; Shryack, Steger, Krueger & Kallie, 2010). We live in a world where extreme, outrages, and risky behaviors are sometimes encouraged and rewarded (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). In this environment, moderation and self-restraint are sometimes viewed as signs of weakness and poor character. However, the popular quote “Everything in moderation” indicates that it is better to refrain from extremes and to seek the middle ground. Aristotle calls this the golden mean. While many things in life such as prejudice or hate should not be tolerated even in moderation, many other things such as consumption or sacrifice are better conducted in moderation.

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Sanz and Fontrodona (2019) examined temperance or moderation from the perspective of morality, positive psychology, and competency-based management. They concluded that the three perspectives might be integrated by conceptualizing moderation, as a moral competence, which is central to professional performance. Accordingly, Sanz and Fontrodona (2019, p. 989) defined temperance as “the capacity to exert moderation and balance in the most appealing appetites and pleasures that have a direct impact on professional performance for the sake of a moral purpose.” They suggested that this capacity may be manifested in five behaviors: (1) consumption of food, (2) emotional relationships, (3) the use of physical and financial resources, (4) management of time, and (5) management of knowledge and information. In marketing, Simonson, Sela, and Sood (2017) presented evidence that some consumers develop habits to prefer moderation and avoid extremism. They suggested that these habits were partially genetic and developed in childhood. On the same line, Drolet and her colleagues (2021) suggested that moderation might be conceptualized as a stable individual difference in consumer preferences and decision-making. This preference causes consumers to choose or value options near the middle of the range and avoid extremes. To enable empirical research, Drolet and her colleagues (2021) developed the Preference for Moderation (PFM) scale to measure consumers’ beliefs about the value of moderation. Results showed that the eight-item scale was unidimensional. Temperance and moderation are often used interchangeably in the literature (Peterson & Seligman, 2004; Sanz & Fontrodona, 2019). However, we suggest two key differences between them. First, while temperance is reserved for the control of pleasant appetites such as food and sex (Peterson & Seligman, 2004), moderation is more generally related to the control of action. This suggests that moderation subsumes temperance. Second, we suggest that moderation refers to a stable character trait, while temperance refers only to temporal or situational states. In other words, an individual may demonstrate temperance in one situation but not in another. Moderate individuals, on the other hand, tend to act with moderation in most situations.

6.3 Construct Definition As the previous section demonstrates, the leadership literature has already developed several approaches that depict effective leaders as continuously striving to adjust between extremes or conflicting demands. In these approaches, balance is conceptualized as the ability to change or move between contradictions based on the circumstances. In other words, balanced leaders are not rigid, statistic, or dogmatic. The different approaches focused on identifying the specific leadership

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dimension that was proposed as critical for management. For example, ambidexterity stresses the balance and movement between opening and closing behaviors depending on the situation (Rosing et al., 2011). This suggests that these approaches are purely situational or contingency based. Indeed, the ambidexterity leadership model explicitly identified a dimension defined as flexibility (Rosing et al., 2011). This flexibility allows leaders to change and move between styles based on the requirements dictated by the situation and in search of effectiveness. This implies that balance under this perspective is not a specific middle choice but rather the mathematical mean or average of all choices made by the leader over time. Yet, in the moderation literature, we see much less emphasis on flexibility and more emphasis on habit and stability in preferences (Drolet et al., 2021). This is important because moderation is a desirable outcome that is pursued in its own right (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). In other words, moderation is not subject to flexibility between situations, where a leader may be moderate in one situation but not in another. Moderation in this tradition is a stable preference for a specific relative value that shuns extremeness (Simonson et al., 2017), irrespective of the situation. In other words, moderation is a way of life and not simply the mathematical mean of choices. In this study, we conceptualize BL as the extent to which a leader has a tendency to intentionally behave (think, feel, and act) with moderation when interacting with followers. This suggests that BL is cognitive schemata that drive leaders to habitually seek the middle ground. This tendency or habit is not subject to the particularity of the situation.

6.4 The Cultural Context of the Study Egypt is one of the oldest nations with a history of over 7000 years. The country’s rich cultural heritage has roots in Arab, African, Islamic, and Mediterranean traditions. Gamal Hamdan (1980), one of Egypt’s most influential historians, has stated that Egypt’s geography and history has produced a national character that is mainly characterized by moderation and equilibrium seeking. Specifically, we believe that there are two cultural factors that contribute to Egyptians’ PFM. First, studies show that Egyptians are highly religious and conservative (Inglehart & Welzel, 2005). Accordingly, we expect religion to strongly influence their thinking and behaviors. Islam, the religion professed by about 90% of the population, encourages moderation or Wasaṭiyah in all manners of behavior. Kamali (2008) states that moderation is a principle of Islam and it means choosing the middle between extremes. In the Quran (2: 143), we read “And thus We have made you a median [i.e., just] community that you will be witnesses over the people and the Messenger will be a witness over you . . .” (Quran.com, n.d.).

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Second, Hofstede (1997) has also indicated that Egyptians score relatively high on uncertainty avoidance. Uncertainty avoidance is a national cultural dimension that is related to the amount of tolerance for ambiguity (Hofstede, 1997). High uncertainty avoidance may imply that Egyptians in general dislike extreme options and prefer moderation because they offer more certainty about outcomes.

6.5 Scale Construction 6.5.1 Item Generation To generate items for the new BLM, we used the inductive approach. This approach is suitable when the theoretical foundation cannot provide enough information to generate the initial set of items needed for the construct understudy. An inductive approach to generate items starts with an understanding and a definition of the construct investigated, and from such understanding, a set of items addressing it is generated (Hinkin, 1998). The authors generated 59 items over a period of 8 weeks. All of the items were positively worded. Although the national language of Egypt is Arabic, the authors decided to write the items in English to facilitate the international publication of the scale and avoid any translation issues.

6.5.2 Content Validity To check the validity of the 59 items, the Delphi technique was used. This approach depends on group dynamics in reaching a consensus, rather than group size interpretation that would traditionally be taken into account to reach a statistical power. This approach requires several runs by iteration until the participants are satisfied with the questionnaire items they are reviewing. Okoli and Pawlowski (2004, p. 20) highlight that “the Delphi method can employ further construct validation by asking experts to validate the researcher’s interpretation and categorization of the variables.” Accordingly, the initial 59-item pool was reviewed and refined by subject matter experts, who were in our case three PhD students attending a private university in Cairo, Egypt. The language of the instruction at this university is English. To avoid bias, the experts were not informed of the purpose and hypotheses of the study. The experts were given the following two definitions of moderation, and were asked to rate each of the items as either “Strongly fits the definition,” “Somewhat fits the definition,” or “Does not fit the definition.” The first definition was that “Moderation is the avoidance of excess or extremes, especially in one’s behavior or political opinions” (Oxford Learner Definition, 2021). The second definition

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was that “Moderation implies a tendency to monitor contexts, make trade-offs among various considerations, and combine sources of information about alternatives” (Drolet et al., 2021, p. 834). The main concerns expressed were related to the redundancy of items and their wordiness. After two Delphi iterations, the experts arrived at a consensus to remove 30 items and keep 29 items.

6.5.3 Pilot Testing A group of five graduate students were used to test the new 29-item BLM scale. The purpose of the pilot test is to examine the length, flow, clarity, and acceptability of the instrument to the respondents (Collins, 2003). The response scale was a sevenpoint interval scale that ranged from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The respondents completed the survey in about 30 minutes. The respondents did not identify any problems in the scale, although one of them stated that it was relatively lengthy to complete. This led to the general conclusion that the items were relevant to the aim of the study with no further suggestions to exclude, add, or modify any of the items.

6.6 Scale Construct Validity 6.6.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis We used exploratory factor structure (EFA) to assess the underlying factor structure of the BL construct, as operationalized by our scale (Hurley et al., 1997). Moreover, Levine (2005) suggested that EFA is used when the researchers do not have a priori idea of which items compose a construct and the dimensionality of that construct. To conduct this analysis, data was collected from a non-probability, convenience sample of 137 middle-level Egyptian managers attending a Master of Business Administration program in Cairo, Egypt. This program is taught in English and all students are required to be fluent in that language. Data was collected between September and November 2021. The survey did not require the participants to provide their names or any identification information. Furthermore, all participants were assured of confidentiality and anonymity. The sample was composed of females (53.5%) and males (46.7%). About 51.8% of the respondents were between 21 and 30 years, 34.3% between 30 and 40 years, and 13.9% above 40 years. Table 6.1 shows the sample’s descriptive statistics.

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Table 6.1: Sample’s descriptive statistics.

Tolerance: BLM factor  Restraint: BLM factor  Compromise: BLM factor  Balanced Leadership Measurement (BLM) Preference for Moderation (PFM) Psychopathy Scale (PS) Oxford Happiness Scale (OHS)

Mean

Std. deviation

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . .

N = 137.

To test for data sampling adequacy to run EFA, we used the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test of sampling adequacy and the Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity. Both the KMO test (overall MSA = 0.744; N = 137) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity were highly significant (p < 0.0001), indicating the data’s appropriateness for running EFA analysis. The first step in our analysis was determining the number of factors to retain through analyzing the scree plot. The scree plot indicated that there were three factors with eigenvalues greater than or equal to 1. The second step in the analysis used principal axis method for factor extraction (PAF) and oblique rotation allowing the latent factors to correlate with one another. Throughout all the different runs of EFA, any item that failed to load significantly (