We Were Not the Savages : A Micmac Perspective on the Collision of European and Aboriginal Civilizations (Micmac, Miꞌkmaq, Miꞌkmaw) [1 ed.] 1551090562, 9781551090566

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We Were Not the Savages A Micinac Perspective on the Collision of European and Aboriginal Civilizations

Daniel N. Paul Research assistants: Donald M. Julien and Timothy J. Bernard Illustrations: Vernon Gloade

Nimbus m PUBLISHING LTD

Copyright © Daniel N. Paul, 1993 94 95 96 97 98

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/\11 rights reserved. No part of this book covered by the copyrights hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical— without the prior written permission of the publisher. Any request for photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems of any part of this book shall be directed in writing to the Canadian Reprography Collective, 379 Adelaide Street West, Suite Ml, Toronto, M5V 1S5. Nimbus Publishing Limited P.O. Box 9301, Station A Halifax, NS B3K 5N5 (902)455-4286 Design: Kathy Kaulbach, Halifax Copy Editor: Douglas Beall Cover: Close-up of aMicmac Quillwork box, from Micmac Qitillwork, published by the NS Museum. Photo by Bob Brooks, courtesy of the Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax. Nimbus acknowledges the support of the Department of Communications, Canada Council, and the Nova Scotia Department of Education. Printed & bound by Best Gagne Book Manufacturers Ltd. Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data Paul, Daniel N. We were not the savages Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-55109-056-2 1. Micmac Indians—Government relations. 2. Indians of North America—Maritime Provinces—Government relations. 3. Micmac Indians—First contact with Europeans. I. Title. E99.M6P38 1993

971.5'004973

C93-098666-0

Contents List of Illustrations Foreword Chapter I

Civilization, Democracy, and Government

CD

Chapter II

Micmac Social Values and Economy

13

Chapter III

European Settlement and Micmac Decline -

38

Chapter IV

Persecution, War, and Alliance

53

Chapter V

Treaties, Proclamations, and Terrorism

68

Chapter VI

The Treaty of 1725

76

Chapter VII

Flawed Peace and the Treaty of 1749

86

Chapter VIII

More Bounties for Human Scalps and the Treaty of 1752

107

Chapter IX

The Vain Search for a Just Peace, 1752-1761

120

Chapter X

Oppression and Despair

148

Chapter XI

The Royal Proclamation of 1763

159

Chapter XII

The Imposition of Poverty

163

[JChapter XIII

Dispossessed and Landless

173

^Chaptei/XIV

The Edge of Extinction

182

Chaptef XV

Confederation and the Indian Act

206

Chapter XVI

The Twentieth Century and the Failure of Centralization

264

Chapter XVII

The Struggle for Freedom

299

Notes

341

Select Bibliography

348

Index

354

List of Illustrations To welcome a stranger

3

The land of the Micmac

6

Mother Earth provides

15

Preparing tomorrow’s provider

17

The storyteller

29

An ocean unsafe

40

The boy and the beast

52

The salmon harvest

57

The death of an innocent

74

A journey for hope

84

The slaughter of innocents

103

The bounty hunters

110

The treaty signing (1752)

118

The boarding

125

The transport of Casteel

127

Micmac land offer for peace

140

Starvation and death

164

Begging for alms

174

A nation dying

188

No wood for the Micmac

193

Four stories up and terrified

270

Forced feeding of waste

271

Eking out a living

301

Dedication To the memory of my ancestors, who managed to ensure the survival of the Micmac people by their awe-inspiring valour in the face of insurmountable odds! The Micmac of today are the children of a truly dignified, noble, courageous, and heroic people. For more than four centuries these people displayed a determination to survive the various hells on Earth created for them by Europeans with a tenacity that is unrivalled in the history of mankind. I, and all Micmac, take immense pride in their virtues! May their bravery inspire us to meet the challenges we face today.

Acknowledgements I want to thank my wife Patricia, and my daughters Cerena and Lenore, who put up with me during the sixteen months it took to write this book. During that period all my spare time every day went into writing this history. If our dog Barney could talk, he would complain about all the walks he had to forgo! I also want to thank Donald M. Julien. Without his support and assistance, this book would have taken twice as long to complete. Don’s knowledge and the research material he has collected over the years were invaluable to me in crafting this history. Tim Bernard, although not yet as seasoned as Don in the field of Micmac studies, provided much help in locating research material when I needed it. I want to thank Vernon Gloade for providing the drawings for this book, which aptly describe situations the Micmac have faced in their struggle for survival. Douglas Beall went the extra mile in helping me to prepare this manuscript for publication. His expertise and dedication helped me to put the finishing touches on this tribute to the Micmac. Finally, I would like to thank all those who provided their support and encouragement!

Foreword Writing this book was one of the hardest things I have ever done. I suffered excruciating mental anguish while researching the continual torment of my people. There can be no real peace in Canada until the nation assumes responsibility for its past crimes against humanity and makes amends to the Micmac and other Canadian Tribes for the indescribable horrors it subjected them to. The physical and psychological torment the Micmac suffered started shortly after significant European intrusions began in approximately 1598 and has continued to a certain degree right up to the present time. Prior to 1492, North American Aboriginals had had innumerable encounters with Whites who had come mainly from what is today called Scandinavia. Apparently, these Whites were well received, and early reports indicate that blue-eyed and light-skinned Aboriginals were not uncommon. In fact, some of the French and English wondered whether the Micmac were not possibly a White race, because some Micmac were able to dress up in French or English uniforms and mingle with their soldiers while gathering information for tribal war councils. The term pre-European contact will not be used in this history. In its place the term pre-colonization will be found, because in my opinion no one can say with certainty when the first contact took place. Any qualms the Europeans may have had regarding their racist attitudes toward the Micmac were soon obscured by their drive to satisfy one of their societies’ worst traits: greed. The plundering of the Americas for gold and other riches soon became their top priority. To justify the horrors that would soon commence, they conveniently branded the Micmac “coloured and heathen savages,” so no conscience need be disturbed when the slaughter of the Tribe and the theft of its property began. The atrocities recounted in this book have not been placed here to engender pity. They have been retold to persuade people of the dominant society to use whatever power they have to see that Canada makes meaningful amends for the horrifying wrongs of the past.

The Micmac were, arid are, a great people. To be a descendent of this noble race, who displayed an indomitable will to survive in spite of the incredible odds against them, fills me with pride. I am in awe whenever I think of their tremendous courage in overcoming the daunting obstacles placed in their path!

Daniel N. Paul

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WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

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I CIVILIZATION, DEMOCRACY, AND GOVERNMENT

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B

asil H. Johnston’s short story ‘The Prophecy” begins with the fictional storyteller Daebau-

djimoot saying: “Tonight I’m going to tell you a very different kind of story. It’s not really a story because it has not yet taken place; but it will take place just as the events in the past have occurred.... And even though what I’m about to tell you has not yet come to pass, it is as true as if it has already happened, because the Auttissookaunuk told me in a dream.” Daebaudjimoot tells of a strange people who are white and hairy and wear strange clothes they practically never take off. He says they have round eyes that are black, brown, blue, or green, and fine hair that is black, brown, blond, and red. He tells of how they will arrive from the East in canoes that are five times the length of regular canoes. These big canoes will have sailed using blankets to catch the wind and propel them from a land across a great body of salt water. These ideas are greeted by his audience with laughter and disbelief. He continues: “You laugh because you cannot picture men and women with white skins or hair upon their faces; and you think it funny that a canoe would be moved by the wind across great open seas. But it won’t be funny to our grandchildren and their great¬ grandchildren.” “In the beginning the first few to arrive will appear to be weak by virtue of their numbers, and they will look as if they are no more than harmless passers-by on their way to visit another people in another land, who need a little rest and direction before resuming their journey. But in reality they will be spies for those in quest for lands. After them will come countless others like flocks of geese in their migratory flights.

Flock after flock they will arrive. There will be no turning them back.” “Some of our grandchildren will stand up to these strangers, but when they do, it will have been too late and their bows and arrows, war-clubs and medicines will be as nothing against the weapons of these white people, whose warriors will be armed with sticks that burst like thunderclaps. A warrior has to do no more than point a fire stick at another warrior and that man will fall dead the instant the bolt strikes him.” “It is with weapons such as these that the white people will drive our people from their homes and hunting grounds to desolate territories where game can scarce find food for their own needs and where corn can bare take root. The white people will take possession of all the rest, and they will build immense villages upon them. Over the years the white people will prosper, and though the Anishinaubaeg may forsake their own traditions to adopt the ways of the white people, it will do them little good. It will not be until our grandchildren and their grandchildren return to the ways of their ancestors that they will regain strength of spirit and heart.” “There! I have told you my dream in its entirety. I have nothing more to say.” “Daebaudjimoot! Are these white people manitous or are they Beings like us?” “I don’t know.”1 What the future actually held in store for the Micmac makes this fictional prophecy seem mild. Over the course of the next five hundred years, the Micmac would suffer every kind of indignity humans can inflict upon one another. Yet, in spite of the brutal persecution that soon became part of their daily lives, they were somehow able to persevere and survive!

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Micmac and

Prior to European settlement, the Micmac lived in countries

European

whose culture was based upon two principles: people power

Civilizations

and respect for “Mother Earth.” A harmonious relationship with nature was considered to be essential for survival.

Micmac societies were well structured, and democratic principles were an established component. For instance, leaders were appointed by the people and served at their pleasure. The citizens of the Micmac “Nation” enjoyed the benefits of living in a relatively peaceful, healthy, and harmonious social environment. Disagreements among the Micmac were settled in a civilized manner. Disputing parties were brought together for mediation and reconciliation, and the leaders of the country or community would encourage and assist the antagonists to reach an agreement. Justice and fairness were prime considerations, and the final agreement would address all the major concerns of the individuals, groups, or governments involved. When the contending parties accepted an

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CIVILIZATION, DEMOCRACY, AND GOVERNMENT

agreement, it was with the understanding that they were thereafter required to live by its provisions, and this understanding was supported by the will of their fellow citizens. In contrast, up until recent times, European civilizations, with some notable exceptions such as the Swiss, were governed by a titled elite who declared themselves to be the ruling class and allowed no interference with what they considered to be their divine right to rule. Average citizens within these autocratically governed domains were routinely denied basic rights and freedoms. They were treated as property and in most cases were held in human bondage from cradle to grave. When disputes arose within these despotic societies, settlements were devised and imposed by the ruling class, with little consideration being given to democratic principles. Reviewing the history of this period, it is difficult to conclude which European nation was the most arrogant in insisting upon a blind acceptance of their cultural conventions and doctrines, which often showed little regard for human and civil rights. It seems the European powers were, in general, intolerant and disrespectful of the ways of non-European civilizations. Making an honest attempt to rate the major powers of the day according to their extremely presumptuous picture of themselves as superior human beings, the nod goes to the British, followed closely by the Spanish and Portuguese, with the French a distant fourth. Freedom, or the right of the individual to make as many personal choices as possible, was a fully recognized component of American Aboriginal civilizations. The wide recognition and acceptance of individual rights by these civilizations was far in advance of similar developments in Europe. This feature, and other aspects of Aboriginal society which distinguished them from European societies,

To welcome a stranger.

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

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were probably the reasons why early contacts, well before the so-called discovery of the continents by Columbus, promoted stories in Europe about a strange people inhabiting a far-off land. These early contacts produced all kinds of imaginative stories about the American native people. In them, the people who inhabited this land were even depicted as non-humans, hairy monsters, or subhumans. Not much consideration was given to the fact that these people were intelligent and civilized human beings. During this period, the European intelligentsia equated civilization with European conventions; Christianity was its cornerstone. According to this perception, if a land was not Christian it was not civilized. This attitude led the Europeans to attempt to Christianize the Middle East and Asia. Their failures in these regards were monumental, primarily because these regions had their own religions, which in some cases predated Christianity by thousands of years. Yet many of these civilizations also had something in common with the Europeans: they, too, could unleash unspeakable horrors upon friend and foe alike. The absence of biases among the majority of the Aboriginal peoples towards those of a different race, creed, or colour is one of the best indicators of how far advanced the human relations of their civilization were. A stage where people of every race, creed, and colour are accepted as equals is an ideal that modern society is still working towards. Most Aboriginal civilizations had already reached that stage by the time of European colonization. If, in 1492, the Aboriginal peoples had possessed the same racial, religious, political, and colour prejudices as the Europeans, colonization would never have occurred. Instead, the Europeans, with their white faces and strange religions, would not have been permitted to establish a foothold in the Americas as brothers and sisters but would have been repulsed immediately. The political and territorial relationships of Micmac civilization were well developed, defined, and regulated. Probably after much trial and error, they had developed a society that was functional, colourful, and meaningful, and balanced its tenets of personal freedom with responsibility to the state—a fact totally ignored by the Europeans in their drive for real estate and other assets. The suppression and wanton destruction of these civilizations by European civilizations was in many ways a case of inferior civilizations overcoming superior ones. This is especially true in the area of human and civil rights. Many Whites have written articles and books about Micmac history based on early descriptions of Micmac civilization made by European historians. Many of these efforts have been undertaken with sincerity and honesty, but most, if not all, are lacking in one regard: they fail to judge events from a Micmac perspective. It is essential to understand that the values of the two cultures were in most cases completely opposite. Even more contemporary authors who have written about Aboriginal history, have to some extent used European standards to evaluate the relative merits of

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CIVILIZATION, DEMOCRACY, AND GOVERNMENT

these civilizations. But one must understand that the ability to read or write a European language does not necessarily create a superior person; and the ability to point exploding sticks that cause instantaneous death or injury, or the capability to blow the world apart are hardly the basis for declaring one’s culture civilized. The question to ask when judging the values and merits of a civilization must always be: “How does the civilization respond to the human needs of its population?” By this standard, most Aboriginal civilizations must be given very high marks, because they endeavoured to create for their peoples social and political systems that ensured both personal liberty and social responsibility.

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Micniac Government

The Micmac Jiavc lived-in northeastern North America for approximately 10,000 years. Although not as technologically advanced as Europeans, down through the ages they developed

one of the most democratic political systems that has ever existed. At this point in history they had few peers, if any, in the field of equitable democratic political practices. The Tribe lived within seven distinct “Districts.” Each District had its own territory and a government made up of a “District Chief’ and a “Council” comprised of “Elders,” “Band or Village Chiefs,” and other distinguished members of the community. A District government had all the powers that are vested in our modem governments. It had the conditional power to make war or peace, settle disputes, and apportion hunting and fishing areas to families, and so on. Thus each District may be likened to what we call a “country” today./ The names of the seven Micmac Districts were: Kespukwitk, Sipekne'katik, Eskikewa’kikx, Unama’kik, Epekwitk Aqq Piktuk, Sikmkt, and Kespek. The approximate boundaries of th,e vast territory governed by the Districts is showiy on page 6. As one can see[ Micmac territory covered most of what is today

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Canada’s Maritime Provinces and a good part of eastern Quebec; and there is/ evidence that the boundary line may have included northern Maine. The English

S

translations of the Micmac names for the Districts are shown adjacent to the L-'-

Districts’ names on the map. These translations are as close as one can come to conveying their true meaning. The citizens of these Districts lived in small villages that contained fifty to five hundred people. Although thejrumber oDvillages within the Districts, is. subject to conjecture, the total population of the combined NationsjJtabahjy— exceeded-TOGTlOOr-1^ In addition to District Councils, there was a “Grand Council” whose membership was composed of the seven District Chiefs. From among their number the District Chiefs chose a “Grand Chief.” The Grand Council did not have— beyond friendly persuasion and the esteem in which the Chiefs were held—any special powers other than those assigned to it by the Districts. Its main functions were to act as a dispute mediator of last resort when requested by a District

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

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Kespukwitk Land Ends

The Land of the

Council and as a means to move the agendas of several Districts forward in concert. At sittings of these Councils, all men and women who wanted to speak were heard. Their opinions were always given respectful consideration in the decision-making process. Grand Chiefs, District Chiefs, and local Chiefs were generally very well respected members of their communities. An ambition to become Chief, so we are told in certain European accounts of Micmac history, was helped by being a member of a large family. The truth is that the entire community considered tltemselvusTo he«5ombars-of:€me-e*ten4ed-famiiy-and, fired by the strength ot the i iod who brought xou to this land and for some special purpose ga\c you dominion ov er this land and oxer the red man. That destiny is a ntxslerx to us, for we do not understand when the buffalo are all slaughtered, the xx tld horses are tamed, the secret corners of the forest hea\ x w ith the scent ot many men. and the view of the ripe hills blotted out bx talking w ires \\ here is the thicker? Gone. Where is the eagle.' Gone.0 The w isdom contained w ithin Chief Seattle' s letter is astounding 1 le appears to have had a w indow on the future w hen he w rote this prophetic response tv' President Pierce's offer. The Whites have, to their peril and tv' the peril ot the world's other tribes, polluted Mother Earth, perhaps tv' the point of no return Forests are perishing, lakes are dying, many are already dead l he land is so poisonous in some locations that life cannot exist Humankind, in the name ot greed and profit, has fouled its oxx n bed

Mindless exploitation of esourceshas.ht ait

\ci
e

}.i~. MuLss-i v

Qu--:~.

White Supremacist actinides prevails at British Columbia land claims trial!

^ Bit

STRUGGLE POP FREEDOM

functional sovereign non-White civilization did in fact exist and orosoer in the province prior to White settlement. This civilization, of course. was not identical to the European. Asian, or African models: itw as unique unto itself, with its own political and social orders. It had systems and values that were adopted by a society that was very advanced in the field of human and civil rights. Those narrow-minded individuals, being descendants from civilizations of European persuasion, w ho refuse to expand their global vision to me extent w here they can accept the fact that laws and tenets from o±er cultures and civilizations did and still exist and. as a matter of fact, in many eases are possibly superior to those of their own cultures, are the curse of Native .American Peoples. People of this persuasion far too often manage to occupy positions of power, w hich permits mem to sit in judgement upon issues that are of the greatest importance to progressively moving forw arc me aspirations of me First Nations. They do not have the intellectual capacity to see beyond their noses, let alone to undertake to w eigh all the factors and e\ idence mat will enable them to produce an enlightened and proactive decision in cases w hich involve the validity of other cultures and civilizations. When sitting in judgement on this type of case, to exclusively apply me tenets of British Common Law as it existed at the time when British intrusion onto the territory of a sovereign Firs: Nation occurred—w ithout grv mg any consideration whatsoever to the value system of the society mat the British system was intruding into—is the ultimate of arrogant White Supremacist thinking. The laws of the people who were being displaced and dispossessed must receive full consideration and be weighed accordingly when sitting in judgement upon the less than honourable methods employed by the invaders in achieving their goal of total possession and unlawful occupation of a sovereign people's lands and assets. The dominant sorter; in :hiscountry has been engaged in seif-exoneration for far too long. It seems to be so enmeshed in this activity that it refuses to

acknowledge the undisputed fact that fully functional civilizations were badly damaged or destroyed by the intrusion, and that the lands and other assets of these civilizations w ere appropriated by their ancestors without conscience, compassion or compensation. It is hard for an individual to accept the fact that bus or her ancestors mashave been less than honourable people. However, the fact remains that the White sealers did in fact engage in ar. activity that had as its final result the total degradation and humiliation of an innocent and almost defenceless people. To continue the charade in modem times of pretending that the theft of another's life is acceptable, because the dispossessed people did not meet with your standards is insane and indefensible before God and before humanity.

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

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In the case at hand, the Chief Justice even goes to the extreme of attempting to justify the outrage by making the indefensible statement that, because the Native American only resided upon small parcels of land, they would therefore as a consequence see their aboriginal rights restricted to these small parcels. This outrageous position defies logic and common sense. After all, the British, for instance only reside upon small portions of the British Isles; does this mean that they only have jurisdiction over those small occupied portions, and that the rest of their land is up for grabs? Of course, it doesn’t. Without question, the British have jurisdiction over their ancestral territory, just as the First Nation Peoples had complete jurisdiction over theirs. Each and every tribe in Europe had clearly defined territorial boundaries over which they exercised complete and unrestricted jurisdiction and control. The same scenario applies to the Tribes of the Americas. To promote otherwise defies the reason and the sense of justice and fairness of “civilized humanity.” The time has overdue for the dominant society to abandon its attitude of superiority and to replace it with a more enlightened, reasonable and civilized policy that will assist in the finding of solutions to the long outstanding disputes created by its past unfair treatment of its Native American Peoples. To continue with the present approach, which attempts to deny responsibility for the outrages and excesses of one’s ancestors, shows a complete bankruptcy of ethical principles. The world rightly demands that the German nation atone for the sins and the despicable excesses of its ancestors. The horrors which they atrociously inflicted upon the people of the Jewish nation before and during the Second World War were without cause or reason and as such are unforgivable. The world has also justifiably required the Germans to pay reparations to the Jewish people for the outrages committed in the name of Nazism. However, it does seem somewhat of a double standard when the world does not demand the same treatment for the Native peoples of the Americas. The Native American has been made to suffer, since the Americas came under European domination, every conceivable indignity that can be visited upon man by man. Physical and cultural genocide has been inflicted upon innocent human beings without care or conscience. Without any apparent pity or remorse being demonstrated by the invaders, fully functioning and viable civilizations that were well advanced in the humanities were maliciously destroyed. How much longer must the Native peoples of the Americas suffer for the sins of the Europeans? Must it be eternal? Perhaps God in His infinite mercy and wisdom will one day say enough is enough and cause the White man to develop a conscience and began to atone for the sins of his ancestors. The Native Americans have suffered on an ongoing basis for five hundred years

338

THE STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM

what seems to be a never ending and horrifying nightmare. In the name of all that is holy, it’s time for it to stop.27 What really confused European leaders during their first exchanges with the Native American Nations was that these peoples lived in freedom and equality. There was no such thing as leadership by force. As mentioned, if First Nations’ leaders wanted the people to follow their lead, they had to persuade them to their point of view. If any leader tried to impose his will by force, his leadership was quickly and unceremoniously ended. Europeans were stunned and fascinated by the personal liberty of the peoples of the Americas. They were especially struck by the absence of dictators and social classes based upon ownership of property. Through the writings of several prominent men of the day, Europeans became aware of the possibility of a free society without despotic rulers. Eminent thinkers such as Sir Thomas Moore were drawn into the exciting examination of civilizations where the people ruled instead of the aristocrats. The Micmac prospered in this kind of free and just civilization. They were less technologically advanced than Europeans, but as civilized havens for human expression they were among the most advanced. Europeans have tended to equate civilization with the tools of technology rather than with human values. The ability to invent a tool that can efficiently kill and disable came to be seen as the mark of civilization. This notion is in dire need of re-examination. Barbarians such as Hitler, Stalin, and others too numerous to mention lived and ruled in countries that claimed to be civilized. Under the leadership of these purveyors of horror were these countries really civilized? If honesty is to prevail, the answer must be a resounding no. In a chapter entitled “Liberty, Anarchism, and the Noble Savage,” Jack Weatherford wrote: During this era [the 1700s] the thinkers of Europe forged the ideas that n became known as the European Enlightenment, and much of its light came from the torch of Indian liberty that still burned brightly in the brief interregnum between their first contact with the Europeans and their decimation by the Europeans. While a few Europeans chose the path of Violette and left the corrupt world of Europe for America, others began working on ideas and plans to change Europe by incorporating some of the ideas of liberty into their own world. Almost all the plans involved revolutionary changes to overthrow the monarchy, the aristocracy, or the Church, and in some cases even to abolish money and private property. The greatest political radical to follow the example of the Indians was probably Thomas Paine (1737-1809), the English Quaker and former crafts¬ man who arrived in Philadelphia to visit Benjamin Franklin just in time for Christmas of 1774.

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When the American Revolution started, Paine served as Secretary to the Commissioners sent to negotiate with the Iroquois. Through this and subsequent encounters with the Indians, Paine sought to learn their language and throughout the remainder of his political and writing career he used the Indians as models of how society might be organized. In his writings, Paine castigated Britain for her abusive treatment of the Indians, and he became the first American to call for the abolition of slavery.28 One can cite many references to the values of democracy and freedom enshrined in Native American civilizations. These values are precisely those the ruling class of Europe reacted so violently against in their persecution of these civilizations. Yet the Native Americans, by their example, sowed the seeds for the long movement towards democracy by the people of Europe, seeds the European aristocracy could not suppress through its attempted extermination of the American peoples. You have now read a history of one of the Native American Peoples, a people who gave their all to defend their home and country and fought courageously for survival. Based on what you now know, what is your honest judgment about who were the barbarian savages when the Europeans and Native Americans col¬ lided? Micmac civilization was a classic example of a free and independent people forming a society based upon the principle of mutual support and respect. This successful and productive civilization valued individual liberty above all else. It can be repaired and rebuilt. Won’t you assist the Micmac to do it?

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THE STRUGGLE FOR FREEDOM

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1. Basil H. Johnston, “The Prophecy,” Canadian Literature 124-125 (Spring/ Summer). 2. Bernard Gilbert Hoffman, "The Historical Ethnography of the Micmac of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” Thesis, University of California, 1955. 3. Original minutes of His Majesty’s Council at Annapolis Royal, 1710-1739, edited by Archibald M. MacMechan, PANS, Nova Scotia Archives III. 4. Hoffman, p. 298. 5. Ibid., p. 283. 6. Ibid., p. 332. 7. Ibid., p. 283. 8. Ibid., p. 332.

Chapter II 1. Hoffman, p. 190. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid., p. 146.

4. Ibid., p. 281. 5. Cornelius J. Jaenen, “The French Relation¬ ship with the Native Peoples of New France and Acadia” (Ottawa: Canada, Indian Affairs, 1984). 6. Hoffman, p. 274. 7. Ibid., p. 181. 8. Ibid., p. 181. 9. Jaenen, p. 55. 10. Ibid., p. 99. 11. Hoffman, p. 527. 12. Ibid., p. 530. 13. Ibid.

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14. Both of these quotes are taken from the “Souvenir of the Micmac Tercentenary Celebration, 1610-1910” (Restigouche, N.B.: Fr&res Mineurs Capuchins, 1910).

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15. Ibid.

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16. Hoffman, p. 591.

17. Ibid., p. 593. 18. Ibid., p. 595. 19. Ibid. 20. New World Dictionary of the American Language, Second College Edition (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986). 21. Jaenen, p. 110. 22. Ibid., p. 123.

8. Wayne E. Daugherty, “Maritime Indian Treaties in Historical Perspective” (Ottawa: Canada, Indian Affairs, Treaties and Historical Research Centre, 1983), p. 19.

Chapter V 1. Jaenen, p. 40. 2. Calendar, p. 5. Emphasis added.

Chapter III 1. Hoffman, p. 604. 2. Ibid., p. 605. 3. Ibid., p. 38.

3. Ibid., p. 72. Emphasis added 4. Original Minutes of His Majesty’s Council at Annapolis Royal, 1710-1739, p. 56. Emphasis added.

4. Ibid., p. 94. 5. Ibid., p. 58. 6. “Chief Seattle Speaks,” University of New Brunswick Student Union newspaper, Fall 1990.

Chapter VI 1. Original Minutes, p. 100. 2. Ibid., p. 78. 3. Treaty of 1725, PANS, RGl, Vol.

Chapter IV 1. A Calendar of Two Letter-Books and One Commission-Book in the Possession of the Government of Nova Scotia, 1713-1741, edited by Archibald M. MacMechan, Public Archives of Nova Scotia (PANS), Nova Scotia Archives II, p. 69.

12. Emphasis added. 4. Treaty No. 239, 1725, PANS, RGl,

Vol. 12. Emphasis added. 5. Ibid., p. 110. 6. Ibid., p. 111. 7. Ibid., p. 115. Emphasis added.

Chapter VII

2. Hoffman, p. 97.

1. Original Minutes, p. 106-7.

3. Ibid., p. 98.

2. Ibid.

4. Ibid., p. 609.

3. Ibid., p. 113. Emphasis added.

5. Jaenen, p. 19.

4. Ibid., p. 100. Emphasis added.

6. Ibid., p. 12.

5. Calendar, p. 88.

7. Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, in Thomas Brodick, Complete History of the Late War in the Netherlands together with an abstract of the Treaty of Utrecht. (London: Thomas Ward, 1713),

6. Ibid., p. 100.

PANS.

◄ 342

NOTES

7. Ibid., p. 102. 8. Ibid., p. 111. 9. Ibid., p. 120. 10. Ibid., p. 128. 11. Ibid., p. 124.

12. Ibid., p. 125. 13. Ibid., p. 126. 14. Ibid., p. 128. 15. Daugherty, p. 39. 16. Governor Shirley’s declaration of war against the Micmac and scalping proclamation, October 19, 1744, in Charles Henry Lincoln, Correspondence of Governor Shirley New York: MacMillan, 1912). Emphasis added. 17. Daugherty, p. 81.

Chapter VIII 1. Daugherty, p. 47. Emphasis added. 2. Scalping Proclamation, Lord Cornwallis, 1749, CO 217/9/118 (F100); microfilm at PANS. Emphasis added. 3. Daugherty, p. 48. Emphasis added. 4. Ibid., p. 48. 5. Proclamation of Lord Cornwallis, July 17, 1752, Council minutes, Nova Scotia colonial government, PANS, RG1, Vol. 186-89, p. 18589. Emphasis added. 6. Prevost to Minister, May 12, 1753, Public Archives of Canada (PAC), MG1.C11B, Vol. 33, p. 159. 7. Treaty of 1752, CO 217/40/209; microfilm at PANS.

8. Proclamation of Treaty of 1752, PANS, RGl, Vol. 186.

Chapter IX 1. Le Canada-Francois—Documents Sur L'Acadie, PANS, F5400, Cl6, Vol. 2, No. 3, July 18, 1889, p. 111-13. 2. Documents Sur L’Acadie, p. 11326. Emphasis added.

3. Council Minutes—Cape Sables Indians, November 16, 1753, PANS, RGl, Vol. 187. 4. Daugherty, p. 51. 5. Ibid. 6. Governor Charles Lawrence’s response to a Micmac request for land, February 13, 1755, Executive Council Minutes, PANS, RGl, Vol. 187, p. 187-89. 7. Jaenen, p. 182. 8. Ibid., p. 185. 9. Scalping Proclamation, Governor Charles Lawrence, 1756, CO 217/ 16/308; PANS, RGl, Vol. 187, No. 117. Emphasis added. 10. Isaiah W. Wilson, “The Bounty Hunters,” in Geography and History of Digby County, 1st edition, 1900 (Belleville, Ont.: MIKA, 1972). Emphasis added. 11. Treaty of Peace, Chief Paul Laurent and Governor Charles Lawrence, March 10, 1760, British Museum, Andrew Brown’s Manuscripts, No. 19071, p. 174; microfilm at PANS.

Chapter X 1. Burying of the Hatchet Ceremony, Governor’s Farm, Halifax, June 25, 1761, PANS, RGl, Vol. 165, p. 162-65. Emphasis added. 2. Ibid. 3. Royal Instructions to Governors, December 9, 1761, PANS, RGl, Vol. 30, No. 58. Emphasis added. 4. Belcher’s Proclamation, 1762, CO 217/19/27-28; PANS, RGl, Vol. 11, No. 14. Emphasis added. 5. Letter Book—P.T. Hopson, PANS, RGl, Vol. 38a, p. 1-16.

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Chapter XI 1. Royal Proclamation, 1763, Revised Statutes of Canada,

1970, Appendices, p. 127-29.

2, No.3 (1982): 107-20; PANS, VF Vol. 280, No. 7, p. 11. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid.

Chapter XII 1. General Jeffrey Amherst to Colonel Bouquet, July 1763, in Alexander Chisholm, Church History of Nova Scotia, PANS, VFVol. 11, No. 14, p. 68-75. 2. Watertown Treaty, July 17, 1776, CO 217/52/267. 3. Treaty of 1779, September 22, 1779, CO 217/54/219-22.

Chapter XIII 1. Licenses of Occupation, Given to the Micmac by the British colonial government, December 17, 1783, PANS, RGI, Vol. 430, p. 23.5 and 27.5. 2. Jaenen, p. 203. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid.

6. Treaty of 1794, author’s files. 7. Jaenen, p. 203-5. 8. Jay Treaty, November 19, 1794, in Samuel Flag, The Jay Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy (New York: Macmillan, 1925).

9. Executive Council Minutes, 1819-1825. 10. Ibid.

Chapter XIV 1. Virginia P. Miller, “The Decline of the Nova Scotia Micmac Population, 1600-1850,” Culture

◄ 344

NOTES

5. Ibid. 6. Report by Commissioner of Indian Affairs Abraham Gesner, 1847, PANS, RGl, Vol. 431 and 432, No. 43. 7. Letter from Lord Glenelg, August 22, 1838, Journal of Assembly Papers, 1838, Appendix 80, p. 154. 8. Chief Benjamin Porminout to Queen Victoria, January 25, 1841, CO 217/179/406; microfilm at PANS.

9. An Act to provide for the instruction and permanent settlement of Indians, March 9, 1842, Statutes of Nova Scotia. Emphasis added. 10. Indian Commissioner Joseph Howe’s Report, Journal of Assembly Papers, January 25, 1843, Appendix 1, p. 3; microfilm at PANS.

11. Samuel Fairbanks to Governor of Nova Scotia, November 9, 1866, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S. Emphasis added. 12. Fairbanks to Governor (Joseph Paul’s grant, registered at provincial Lands Registry Office, Halifax, N.S., 1868).

Chapter XV 1. British North America Act, 1867. 30 & 31 Victoria, Chapter 3, Section 91(24). 2. Hector L. Langevin to Samuel Fairbanks, September 28, 1868,

(Ottawa: Canada, Secretary of State, 1868). 3. Indian Act, 1876, Statutes of Canada, Chapter 98.

21

Daniel N. Paul to Reg Graves, November 12, 1986, author’s files.

6. Indian Act, September 1989.

22. Canada, Privy Council, Order-inCouncil No. P.C. 1990-1904, “Afton Band of Indians, New Reserve, Summerside Indian Reserve No. 38,” August 28, 1990.

7. Indian Act, 1989.

23. Ibid.

8. Guerin v. the Queen, Supreme Court Reports, 1984, Vol. 2, p. 335.

24. Indian Act, 1989.

4. Author’s personal knowledge. 5. Indian Act, 1876. Emphasis added.

9. Surrender documents for the surrender of Sambro, Ingram River and Ship Harbour Indian Reserves, 1919 (Ottawa: Canada, Indian Affairs, Lands Division, 1919). 10. Surrender documents. 11. Indian Act, 1989. Emphasis added. 12. Ibid. 13. Ibid. 14. Simon v. the Queen, Dominion Law Reports (4th), 1986, Vol. 24, p. 390.

25. E.A. “Tony” Ross, “Boat Harbour: One Lawyer’s Perspective,” written statement to author, April 17, 1992. 26. Ross. 27. Green Ingersol, speech to the State Bar Assoc., Albany, N.Y., January 1980. 28. The Indian Act, 1989. 29. Donald M. Julien, written statement to author, February 22, 1992. 30. Indian Act, 1989. 31. Ibid. 32. Indian Act, 1927.

15. Ibid.

33. Indian Act, 1989.

16. SIbid.

34. Ibid.

17. Ibid.

35. Ibid.

18. Canada, Indian Affairs, “Criteria Governing Additions to Indian Reserves” (Ottawa, 1982).

36. Ibid.

19. Canada, Indian Affairs, Communique, Minister McKnight announces policy on new Indian Bands, Reserves, and communities, December 22, 1987 (Ottawa). Emphasis added. 20. Afton Band of Indians v. the Queen, (Nova Scotia), 1978, Dominion Law Reports (3rd), Vol. 85, p. 454.

37. Ibid. 38. Indian Band Council Borrowing Regulations, C.R.C. 1978, Chapter 949. 39. Indian Act, 1989. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid. 42. Canada, Indian Affairs, By-Law Registry, Band By-Laws, 1970, Ottawa. 43. Indian Act, 1989.

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

345

45. Ibid.

14. Indian Act, 1927. Emphasis added.

46. Ibid.

15. Ibid., 1930.

44. Ibid.

16. Ibid.

Chapter XVI

17. Canada, Indian Affairs, Shubenacadie Indian Agency, Centralization correspondence, 1938-1952, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S.

1. Marilyn Millward, “Clean Behind the Ears? Micmac Parents, Micmac Children, and the Shubenacadie Residential School,” New Maritimes (March/ April 1992). Emphasis added.

18. Centralization correspondence, Atlantic Region.

2. Ibid.

19. Ibid.

3. Ibid.

20. Ibid.

4. Ibid.

21. Ibid.

5. Ibid.

22. Indian Act, 1930.

6. Canada, Indian Affairs, Shubenacadie Indian Agency, centralization correspondence, 1938-1952, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S.

23. Centralization correspondence, Atlantic Region.

7. Cape Breton and Pictou Micmacs, Land for Pictou, Nova Scotia Assembly Journals, February 1, 1864, Appendix 37—Indian Affairs, p. 1-7. 8. Canada, Indian Affairs, Atlantic Region, Centralization and other correspondence, 1936-1952, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S. 9. The Canada Census is the source for population figures of 18711921; the figures after 1921 are derived from Band lists. 10. Centralization correspondence, Atlantic Region. Emphasis added. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 13. Canada, Indian Affairs, Circular Letter (forbidding dancing), December 15, 1921, Ottawa.

◄ 346

NOTES

24. Ibid. 25. Indian Affairs, Eskasoni Indian Agency, Centralization correspondence, 1938-1952, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S. Emphasis added. 26. Centralization correspondence, Eskasoni. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Centralization correspondence, Shubenacadie. Emphasis added. 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid.

Chapter XVII 1. An Act to amend the Canadian Citizenship Act, June 7, 1956, Statutes of Canada, 1956, Chapter 6. 2. Centralization correspondence, Atlantic Region.

3. Canada, Indian Affairs, Land Division, “Division of Indian Bands and Assets, Province of Nova Scotia,” December 4, 1956, Ottawa. 4. “Division of Indian Bands and Assets.” 5. Canada Elections Act. 6. An Act to amend the Canada Elections Act, March 31, 1960, 8-9 Elizabeth II, Chapter 7. 7. Canada, Indian Affairs, “Indian Policy, 1969” (White Paper), Ottawa. 8. White Paper. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 11. Daniel N. Paul, “Accountability and Responsibility: Indian Affairs vs. the Bands,” paper submitted to the House of Commons Committee on Aboriginal Affairs, February 20, 1992, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S. 12. Robert Pinney to Daniel Paul, January 14, 1987, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S. 13. Statement to author, March 1988. 14. Globe and Mail, September 10, 1990. 15. Ibid. 16. Canada, Indian Affairs, Policy statement on claims of Indians

and Inuit peoples by Minister Jean Chretien, August 8, 1973, Ottawa. 17. J.W. Beaver, “To Have What Is One’s Own” (Beaver Report), submitted to the House of Commons and the National Indian Brotherhood, October 16, 1979 (Ottawa: National Indian Socio-Economic Development Committee, 1979), Hansard and author’s files. 18. Beaver Report. Emphasis added. 19. Ibid. 20. Canada, Indian Affairs, “In All Fairness: A Native Claims Policy, Comprehensive Claims,” Ottawa 21. Canada, Indian Affairs, “Outstanding Business: A Native Claim Policy, Specific Claims,” Ottawa. 22. Canada, Indian Affairs, Land claim settlement, Wagmatcook Band (Ottawa: Lands Registry Office, 1982). Emphasis added. 23. Land claim settlement, Wagmatcook Band. Emphasis added. 24. Ibid. 25. The Queen v. Sparrow, Supreme Court Reports, 1990, Vol. 1, p. 1075. 26. Author’s files. 27. Jack Weatherford, Indian Givers (New York: Crown, 1988).

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

347 ►

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Proclamation of Treaty of 1752. PANS, RGl, Vol. 186. Proclamation of Governor Cornwallis, July 17, 1752, Council minutes, Nova Scotia colonial government. PANS,RGl, Vol. 18689, p. 185-89. Letter to the Lords of Trade, October 1752. Letter Book—P.T. Hopson, pans, RG1, Vol. 38a, p. 1-16. Prevost to Minister, May 12, 1753. PAC and Louisbourg Archives, MGl, Cl IB, Vol. 33, p. 159.

Council Minutes—Cape Sables Indians, November 16, 1753. PANS, RGl, Vol. 187. Governor Charles Lawrence’s response to a Micmac request for land, February 13, 1755. Executive Council Minutes. PANS, RGlt Vol. 187, p. 187-89. Scalping proclamation, Governor Charles Lawrence, 1756. CO 217/16/308; PANS, RGl, Vol. 187, No. 117. Treaty of Peace, Chief Paul Laurent and Governor Charles Lawrence, 1760, British Museum, Andrew Brown’s Manuscripts, No. 19071, p. 174; PANS, RGl, Vol. 36, No. 2. Royal Instructions to Governors, December 9, 1761. PANS, RGl, Vol. 30, No. 58. Burying of the Hatchet Ceremony, Governor’s Farm, Halifax, June 25, 1761. PANS, RGl, Vol. 165, p. 162-65. Treaty of Merimichi, Jediach, Pogmouch and Cape Breton, June 25, 1761. CO 217/ 8/276-284. Microfilm at PANS. Belcher’s Proclamation, 1762. CO 217/19/27-28; PANS, RGl, Vol. 11, No. 14. Royal Proclamation, 1763. Revised Statutes of Canada, 1970. Appendices, p. 127— 29. General Amherst to Colonel Bouquet, July 1763. In Alexander Chisholm, Church History of Nova Scotia\ PANS, VF Vol. 11, No. 14, p. 68-75. Watertown Treaty, July 17, 1776. CO 217/52/267. Microfilm at PANS. Treaty of 1779, September 22, 1779. CO 217/54/219-222. Microfilm at PANS. Licenses of Occupation given to the Micmac by the British colonial government, December 17, 1783. PANS, RGl, Vol. 430, p. 23.5 and 27.5. Jay Treaty, November 19, 1794. In Samuel Flag, The Jay Treaty: A Study in Commerce and Diplomacy. New York: Macmillan, 1925, PANS. Indian Reserves, March 1801. PANS, RGl, Vol. 430, p. 54. Official Allotment, Indian Reserves, May 8, 1820. Executive Council Minutes, 1819-1825. PANS, RGl, Vol. 214.5A, p. 136-43. Chief Benjamin Porminout, Letter to the Queen, January 25, 1841. CO 217/179/406. Microfilm at PANS. Report by [Nova Scotia] Commissioner of Indian Affairs Abraham Gesner, 1847. PANS, RGl, Vol. 431 and 432, No. 43.

Public Documents Canada. House of Commons. 1983. Indian Self-Government in Canada: Report of the Special Committee (Penner Report). Issue No. 40. Ottawa. -. 1990. Standing Committee on Aboriginal Affairs. Fifth Report, (re. Kanesatake and Kahnawake [Oka]), October 22, 1990. Ottawa. Canada. Indian Affairs. Reserve General Registry. Reserve Register sheet for Port Hood Indian Reserve (Whycocomagh Band). W10773/02/3. No Date. Ottawa. -. 1715-1983. Lands Registry. Summerside property, Antigonish County, N.S., 1715-1983. Ottawa. ——. 1919. Lands Division. Surrender documents for surrender of Sambro, Ingram River, and Ship Harbour Indian Reserves, 1919. Ottawa.

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-. 1921. Circular letter (forbidding dancing). December 15, 1921. Ottawa. -. 1940. Welfare Rates List, May 22, 1940. Ottawa. -. 1956. Lands Division. “Division of Indian Bands and Assets, Province of Nova Scotia.” December 4, 1956. Ottawa. -. 1965-1992. Correspondence and other documents, Boat Harbour law suit, Pictou Landing Band. Ottawa. -. 1969. “Indian Policy, 1969” (White Paper). Ottawa. -. 1970. Band by-laws, 1970. By-law registry. Ottawa. -. 1972. “Chiefs Past and Present.” August 9, 1972. Ottawa. -. 1973. Policy statement on claims of Indian and Inuit peoples by Minister Jean Chretien, August 8, 1973. Ottawa. -. 1978. Treaties and Historical Research Centre. “The Historical Development of the Indian Act.” Ottawa, August 1978. -. 1981. “In All Fairness: A Native Claims Policy, Comprehensive Claims.” Ottawa. - . 1981-1986. Lands Registry. Correspondence re. Summerside property, 1981-1986. Ottawa. -. 1982. “Criteria Governing Additions to Indian Reserves.” Ottawa. -. 1982. Lands Registry Office. Land Claim Settlement, Wagmatcook Band. Ottawa. -. 1982. “Outstanding Business: A Native Claims Policy, Specific Claims.” Ottawa. -. c. 1985. Atlantic Region. “Land Acquisition—Reserve Status.” Regional Directive issued by W.R. Cooke, Director General. No. 5005-5. Ottawa, no date. -. 1987. Communique, December 22, 1987. Minister McKnight announces policy on new Indian Bands, Reserves, and communities. Ottawa. Canada. Privy Council. 1990. Order-in-Council No. P.C. 1990-1904. “Afton Band of Indians, New Reserve, Summerside Indian Reserve No. 38.” August 28,1990. -. 1991. Order-in-Council No.P.C. 1991-185. “Acadia Band of Indians, Land Addition, Yarmouth Indian Reserve No. 33, in the Province of Nova Scotia.” January 31, 1991. Canada. Secretary of State. 1868, Hector L. Langevin to Samuel Fairbanks, September 28, 1868. Appointment of first federal Indian Commissioner for Nova Scotia. Ottawa, 1868. Nova Scotia. 1838. Letter from Lord Glenelg, August 22,1838. Journal of Assembly Papers, Appendix 80, p. 154. -. 1843. Indian Commissioner Joseph Howe’s Report. Journal of Assembly Papers, January 25, 1843. Appendix 1, p. 3. Halifax. Microfilm at PANS. - . 1864. Cape Breton and Pictou Micmacs, Land for Pictou. Nova Scotia Assembly Journals, February 1, 1864. Appendix 37—Indian Affairs, p. 1-7. Halifax. Microfilm at PANS. -. 1989. Royal Commission on the Donald Marshall, Jr., Prosecution: Digest of Findings and Recommendations. December 1989. Halifax. ◄ 350

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

United States of America. 1988. Congressional Record. October 3,1988. Washington, D.C. Acknowledgement of the contribution of Aboriginal Americans to the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights.

Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs and Author’s Files Beaver, J.W. 1979. “To Have What Is Ones’s Own” (Beaver Report). Submitted to the House of Commons and the National Indian Brotherhood, October 16, 1979. Ottawa: National Indian Socio-Economic Development Committee, 1979. Author’s files. Canada, Indian Affairs. 1866. Samuel Fairbanks to Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, November 9,1866. “Petitions—Joseph Paul—Indian” [land lease], Ottawa, Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files, Truro, N.S. Also available at the Nova Scotia Land Registry; lease was granted in 1868. -. 1936-1952. Atlantic Region. Centralization and other correspondence, 193652. CMM files, Truro N.S. -. 1938-1952. Eskasoni Indian Agency. Centralization correspondence, 1938— 52. CMM files, Truro, N.S. -. 1938-1952. Shubenacadie Indian Agency. Centralization correspondence, 1938-52. CMM files, Truro, N.S. - . 1948. Frank T. Stanfield to R.A. Hoey, April 29, 1948. Centralization correspondence, 1938-52. CMM files, Truro, N.S. -. 1987. Robert Pinney to Daniel Paul, January 14, 1987, re. education takeover. CMM files, Truro N.S. -. Julien, Donald M. 1974. “Sequence of Historical Events: Afton and Pomquet Indian Reserve No. 23.” CMM files, Truro, N.S. -. 1992. Written statement to author, February 22, 1992. Lazier, Christina. 1988. “Contesting the Rules of the Game: The Significance of Simon v. the Queen for Micmac Hunting Rights and Game Management in Nova Scotia.” Paper for P. Saunders, Dalhousie University, May 1988. CMM files, Truro, N.S. Paul, Daniel N. 1986. Letter to Reg Graves, Regional Director of Lands, Revenues, and Trusts, Indian Affairs, Atlantic Region, November 12, 1986. Author’s files. -. 1988. Presentation to the House of Commons Committee for Indian Affairs, April 1988. CMM files, Truro, N.S. -. 1990. Letter to Minister of Indian Affairs, September 13, 1990, concerning racism in the Department during the “Oka crisis.” Attached news clippings from Globe and Mail, September 10, 1990. CMM files, Truro, N.S. -. 1992. “Accountability and Responsibility: Indian Affairs vs. the Bands.” Paper submitted to the House of Commons Committee on Aboriginal Affairs, February 20, 1992. CMM files, Truro, N.S. Ross, E.A. “Tony.” 1992. “Boat Harbour: One Lawyer’s Perspective.” Treaty of 1794, Author’s files. Written statement to author, April 17, 1992. Treaty of 1794. Author’s files.

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►

Statutes An Act to Provide for the Instruction and Permanent Settlement of the Indians. March 19, 1842. Statutes of Nova Scotia. British North America Act, 1867. 30 & 31 Victoria, Chapter 3. Indian Act, 1876. Statutes of Canada, 1876, Chapter 98. Indian Act, 1876-1992. Statues of Canada. An Act to amend the Canadian Citizenship Act, June 7, 1956. Statutes of Canada, 1956, Chapter 6. Aboriginals are made citizens of Canada. An Act to amend the Canada Election Act. Statutes of Canada, March 31, 1960, 8— 9 Elizabeth II, Chapter 7. Registered “Indians” are given the right to vote. Indian Band Council Borrowing Regulations. 1978, Chapter 949. Regulations made pursuant to the provisions of Section 73 Of the Indian Act. Indian Reserve Traffic Regulations. 1978, Chapter 959. Regulations made pursuant to the provisions of Section 73 of the Indian Act. Constitution Act, 1982. Revised Statutes of Canada, 1985, Appendix II, No. 44.

Court Cases Afton Band of Indians v. the Queen (Nova Scotia) (1978). Dominion Law Reports (3rd), Vol. 85, p. 454. Guerin [Musqueam Band] v. the Queen. Supreme Court Reports, 1984, Vol. 2, p. 335. The Queen v. Sparrow. Supreme Court Reports, 1990, Vol. 1, p. 1075. Simon v. the Queen. Dominion Law Reports (4th), 1986, Vol. 24, p. 390. St. Catherine’s Milling and Lumber Co. v. the Queen (1888). 14 App. Cas. 46 (Prov. Ct.).

II. Secondary Sources “1492-1992: 500 Years of Resistance.” 1992. Pamphlet. Halifax: OXFAM-Canada/ Deveric. Allen, C.R. 1879. Illustrated Historical Atlas of Pictou County, Nova Scotia. Philadelphia: J.H. Meacham. Bartlett, Richard H. 1986. Indian Reserves in the Atlantic Provinces of Canada. Studies in Aboriginal Rights No. 9. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan Native Law Centre. “Chief Seattle Speaks.” 1990. University of New Brunswick student union newspaper, Fall 1990. Christmas, Peter. 1977. Wejkwapniaq. Sydney, N.S.: Micmac Association of Cultural Studies. Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs Newsletter (today the Micmac/Maliseet Nations News). 1988-. Truro, N.S. Daugherty, Wayne E. 1983. “Maritime Indian Treaties in Historical Perspective.” 2nd ed. Ottawa: Canada, Indian Affairs, Treaties and Historical Research Centre.

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hoffman, Bernard Gilbert. 1955. "The Historical Ethnography of the Micmac of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.” Thesis, University of California. “The Indian Residential School.” 1990. Micmac News, Sydney, N.S., September 1990. Jaenen, Cornelius J. 1984. “The French Relationship with the Native People of New France and Acadia.” Ottawa: Canada, Indian Affairs. Jerry, Mander. 1991. "What You Don’t Know About Indians.” Utne Reader (November/ December 1991). Johnston, Basil H. 1990. "The Prophecy.” Canadian Literature 124-125 (Spring/ Summer 1990). McBride, Bunny, and Harald Prins. 1982. Micmac Redbook: Resources Manual for the Micmac Recognition Effort. Preliminary draft manuscript, Maine, April 1982. Boston: Association of Aroostock Indians. Miller, Virginia P. 1982. “The Decline of the Nova Scotia Micmac Population, 16001850.” Culture 2, No. 3 (1982): 107-20. PANS, VF Vol. 280, No. 7. Millwood, Marilyn. 1992. “Clean Behind the Ears? Micmac Parents, Micmac Children, and the Shubenacadie Residential School.” New Maritimes, March/ April 1992. Morrison, Kenneth M. 1975. “People of the Dawn: Abnaki and Their Relations with New England and France, 1600-1727.” Thesis, University of Maine, Orono, August 1975. “Nova Scotia Micmac Aboriginal Rights Position Paper.” 1976. Presented to the Government of Canada by the Union of Nova Scotia Indians. Micmac News, Sydney, N.S., December 1976. Paul, Daniel N. 1990. Confrontation: Micmac and European Civilizations. Truro, N.S.: Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs. Rand, Silas T. 1894. Legends of the Micmacs. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. “Souvenir of the Micmac Tercentenary Celebration, 1618-1910." 1910. Restigouche, N.B.: Freres Mineurs Capuchins. Upton,L.F.S. 1979. Micmacs and the Colonists, 1713-1867. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Weatherford, Jack. 1988. Indian Givers. New York: Crown. Wilson, Isaiah W. 1900. “The Bounty Hunters.” In Geography and History ofDigby County. 1st edition. Belleville, Ont.: MIKA, 1972. World Council of Indigenous Peoples Newsletter. 1989. Ottawa, October 1989.

Copies, in full or in part, of all the documents in this bibliography are also located in the Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs files in Truro, N.S., or in the author’s personal files.

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INDEX

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◄ ◄ ◄ ◄

Abercrombie, 237 Aboriginal Affairs Committee, 233 Acadia Band, 304 Acadia Band Council, 230 Act of 1842, 192-194, 204 Act to amend the Canadian Citizenship Act, 302 Actaudin, 25 Adams, John, 83, 97 Afton Band, 231,232, 233, 234, 235, 293, 294, 304 Alexander, Sir William, 45 Alexander VI (Pope), 12 Algamono, Chief, 139 American Revolution, 167, 170 American War of Independence, 167, 173 Amherst (N.S.), 315 Amherst, Jeffery (General), 164, 165 Amhurst, Edward, 94, 95 Andre, Peter, 168, 169 Annabury, Richard Robert, 144 Annapolis Royal, 73, 74, 78, 82, 87, 89, 98, 99, 101, 102, 136, 144 Annapolis County, 295 Annapolis Valley Band, 304 Antigonish, 186, 187 Antigonish County, 230, 231,294 Antrane, Mattahu, 168 “Apostle to the Micmac” see Maillard, AntoineSimon Arexus, Loran (see Sanguaaram), 80, 81, 104— 105 Argali, Samuel, 45, 46 Armouchiquois, 27 Armstrong, Lawrence (Honourable), 84, 89, 90, 91,92, 94, 95-96, 97 Armstrong, Stewart, 241 Arneil, W.S., 290, 291 Aronson, Stephen J., 232 Arueau, Antoine, 171 Aruiph, Francis Joseph, 171 Atlantic Regional Office, 315 Aulnay, Charles d’, 48 Aurodowish, Francois, 105 Auttissookaunuk, 1 Babour, Alexander Poupart de, 87, 88 Baltimore (brigantine), 91, 92 Bastille, 87 Batard, Anthony, 125 Bates, Dr., 242 Battis, John, 168

Baunerman, Captain, 122-125, 134 Bay De Chaleurs, 171 Bay of All Islands, 138 Bay of Fundy, 16, 55 Baye Verte, 128, 129, 132, 138 Bear River, 188, 200, 202, 293, 295 Bear River Band, 304 Beaubassin, 88 Beaver, J.W., 328-329 Beaver Report, 328-329, 330 Beothuk, 38, 39, 64 Beresheat Baru, 26 Belcher, Jonathan, 90, 149, 156-157, 158, 161 Biard, Pierre, 9, 18, 26, 27, 28, 30, 34, 45 Bill C-31, 221, 330 Boat Harbour, 237-242 Borgne, Emmanuel le, 48 Boston, 63, 79, 83, 89, 129, 130, 167, 297 Boston Tea Party, 167 Bouquet, Colonel, 164, 165 Bourg, Abram, 84 British Colonial Council, 73, 89 British North America Act, 206, 220, 232 Buckler (Mrs.), 91,92 Buckler (Mr.), 92 “Burying of the Hatchet Ceremony”, 147, 148, 149-154, 166 Cabot, John, 38, 39 Cambridge Reserve, 267, 293, 295 Cameron, Donald, 306 Campbell, Colin (Colonel), 231,232, 234 Campbell, Danny, 240 Canada Act, 329 Canada Elections Act, 305 Canadian Constitution; Section 91(24), 206; Charter of Rights and Freedoms, 236, 329 Canso, 83, 95-96, 98, 108, 138 Cape Breton, 38, 39, 44, 87, 1 12, 166, 181, 186, 187,197,199,323 Cape Breton Micmac, 273 Cape Breton Tribe, 149 Cape Sable Band (Micmac), 90, 91,92, 99, 100,136, 137, 143 Cape Tormentine, 171

“Captain” [Micmac Spies for the French], 93, 94 Capucins, 148 Caribou (Pictou County), 58 Cartier, Jacques, 39 Caskaron, 128 Casteel, Anthony, 120, 122, 134, 135, 136 Champlain, Samuel de, 44 Chapel Island, 291, 293 Chapel Island Band, 304 Chebucto, 48, 94, 95, 124, 125, 126, 128, 130, 132, 133 Chebucto Harbour, 104 Chester, 199 Chief, Michael, 171 Chignecto, 83, 102, 108, 128, 129, 130, 132, 133, 142 Chisholm, John A., 232 Chretien, Jean, 228, 307, 328, 331 Christmas, Ben, 291,292, 298 Cleaveland, Samuel, 122, 123, 124 Clifford, John Charles, 232 Cobaquit, 83, 126, 138, 139 Cobaise, Louis Augustine, 171 Cogswell, Henry H. (Honourable), 231, 232 Colchester County, 198, 217, 294 Cole Harbour, 291,293 Colony of Massachusetts Bay, 62-63, 98, 112, 113 Columbus, Christopher, 4, 12, 22, 5354, 85 Confederacy of Mainland MicmacSs 322 Conner, John, 121 Continental Congress, 167 Cook’s Cove, 294 Cope, Issac, 217 Cope, Joseph, 291,298 Cope, Sachem Jean Baptiste (Micmac Chief), 114-115, 117, 120, 122, 123, 124,125,126, 130, 132, 134, 135,136 Cornwallis, Lord Edward, 104, 105, 107, 108, 109, 110, Ill, 112, 113, 114,132,134,142,147,165,183184 Cort, William John, 171 Cosby, Major [Lieutenant-Governor of the Garrison], 97

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

355 ►

Crapper, Mr., 241 Crerar, T.A., 289-290 Cromwell, Oliver, 48 Crowley’s Point, 144 Crown v. Syliboy, 222, 223, 226 Cumberland County, 203, 294

Fairbanks, Samuel, 205, 207-208, 232 Fairy Lake, 200, 201 Fisher, Hugo, 241 Fort Beausejour, 55, 137 Fort Cumberland, 55 Fort Gasparaux, 132 Fort Lawrence, 138 Fox,177 Francis, Raymond, 239 Francis, Roderick (Chief), 240, 241, 242 Franklin, Michael, 171 Fredericton, 315 French Revolution, 175, 178

d’Estaing, Jean-Baptiste-Charles, 170 Daebaudjimoot, 1-2 Daley, M.B., 272 Dartmouth, 112, 188, 199,201-202 De Monts, 44 Debtor’s Act, 157 Declaration of Independence, 167 Delgamuukw (Ken Muldoe) v. the Queen, 336 Denequarra, Joseph, 168, 169 Dentremonts, 91 Denys, Nicholas, 11, 13,21, 27, 30, 34, 47 Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, 207, 226, 231, 233, 237, 238-242, 244, 245, 265, 273,315-323, 324-327 Department of Justice, 238, 241, 242 Department of the Attorney General for Nova Scotia, 234 “Dependent Nations”, 179 Dewagonside, Thomas, 171 Digby,187 Digby County, 295 Dort’s Cove, 294 Doucett, John (Lt.-Governor,), 73, 77, 83, 87, 165 Dummer, William (Lt.-Governor of New England), 78-80 Dunbar, Surveyor General Col., 94

Gabalier, Antoines, 171 Gabalier, Guiassance, 171 Geary, Rev. Mr., 201 George III (English King), 176 Gervey, Augustus (Captain), 171 Gisolg, 26 Glenelg, Lord, 190 Glooscap, 16, 26 Goesomaligeg see Fort Cumberland or Fort Beausejour Gold River, 200, 202, 294 Gorham, Captain, 101, 112, 133, 142 Gorham’s New England Rangers, 101, 109, 112 Grace, James, 121 Grand Lake Indian Reserve, 244, 282283, 290 Grand Pre, 142 Graves, Reg, 234 Guerin decision, 162, 212, 214, 334, 336 Guysborough County, 198, 294

Economy Mountain, 16 Edward How Esquire and Company, 94-96 Elliott, Duncan, 279-280 Eneas, 88 Epekwitk Agg Piktuk, 5 Epp, Jack, 328 Eskasoni, 250, 274, 282, 284, 286, 290, 291, 292, 297, 300, 315 Eskasoni Band, 252, 305 Eskikewa’kik, 5 Evangeline, 141

Halfway River, 294 Halifax, 104, 107, 111, 114, 121, 122, 128, 129, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 143, 147, 183, 186, 199, 315 Halifax, Lord, 103, 104 Halifax County, 196, 197, 217, 272, 291, 294 Hants County, 197, 198, 294, 295 Hants Reserve, 200 Harbour Tiboque, 91 Heatherton, 231,294 Henri IV (King of France), 24

◄ 356

INDEX

Henry yjj (King of England;, 38 Hoey, R.A., 286. 291,299, 300 Hoffman. Bernard Gilbert. 20. -1 Hopson, Peregnne Thomas. 114. 115. 132 Horton Band, 293, 304 Hov.. Captain. 104, 106 Hov.e, Joseph, 186, 187. 1 94-203. 204-205, 265 Hudson's Bay Compare.. 160. P8 Hussey, Captain. 138 Indian Act (1876 . 161-162. 208. 209. 210, 211, 212, 232. 243. 263. 280. 281-282, 303.311,313 Indian Act (1927 . 24" Indian Brook Reserve, 282. 294, 297 Indian Point. 199 Indian Register. 221.29" Indian Reserves Nova Scotia : 1 *01 Sc 1820), 180-181: Policy Statement. 226-231 “Indian Wars”, 179 Ingram Rr. er. 216-218 Inuit. 38. 64. 163 Iroquois. 55-58. 63. 177 Isabella. Queen of Spain. 85 Jaenen, Cornelius J . 175. 1 Jamestown (Virginia . 45 Jay Treaty. 178-1 ”9 Jediack Tribe. 149 Jedore. 121, 122, 134 Jephson Lieutenant . 5—55 Jeremiah. Francis. 115 Jeremy. Francis. 122. 130 Johnston. Basil H.. 1 Jones. Mordecha:. 233 Joyly, Mr., 88 Juiien. Donald. M.. 233. 2-5 Juiien. Francis. 1"1. 176 Juiien. John. 171. 176 Juiien. Joseph. 291. 298 KeNational Par*. 142 Kempt. James Sir . 231 Kennedy . Mr., 306 Kespek. 5 Kesp.l*. -:tic. 5. 2King's Cc.nty. 196. 295 Kingsclear Indian Reser* e. 293

1 "8

Kmr.J Ralph. 286 Kwedecbes tee Iroquois La Ha-e fort 4" 48 La Ha *e Band. .45 La Tour, Charles de. 4" a- 5; Lailement. Father. 15 Lange', in. Hector L . 208 Laurent. Pa.l 130. 131. 133 145-146 Lav.rer.ce, Charles Colonel 122.15". 138, 139, 141. 142, 143. 145, 146, 154. 165 LeBianc. Rene. 9-3 Le Qercq. Chresv.er. 12 11 20-21 27, 30. 34.40 Le Loutre. Jean-Louis. 98. 110, 133. 137, 138, 139 Le Maine's Memo 1 "1" .36 Lec .i.le Reser*e. 295 Lescarboc Marc. 9. 24 25. 2". 2-4. nc 59.60 Licenses of occupati on 1 "85 "4 Lr-emool. 202 Longfellow. Henry '•••ac- - 0nr. .4; Lords of Trade (British), 110, 111, 157, 158.190 Lose. Thomas Tanros. 171 Louis xn 'King of France . 24 Lomsboorg. 35,71. 93.98. 101, 102, lOt. 109. 110. 111. 115. 120. 131. 132, 134. 144.183.189 Lunenburg. 13". Lunenburg County. 294 MacDonald. Lours N 217 • e • - •: 22: McKinnon. 3a.m. 303 Maco rr m Fred. 5.6 Mac Lean. J.A.. 291 MacMillan. A S.. 289. 290 McEacbem. Allan tCtier Justice 336 Maddouanhook. Jean Bar me 1 95 Maean.wrr.be. ■ 1 .4- 5 Mail lard. Antoine-Sintr. 4 ore 145. 154.158 Mail lard. Pierre Father 1 ;3 Maine. 153. 15Mai.gash. 129. 132 Mahseet. 98. 99, 101. 104. 106. 137. 138. 139. 284 Mandela. Nelson. 35 .

WE WERE NOT THE SaYaGES

Mante, Thomas, 177 Margaret’s, 202 Marin, Lieutenant, 101 Marshall, Donald, (Jr.), 226, 276, 327 Marshall, Noel, 291,298 Martin, Andrew Hadley, 115 Martin, Calvin, 20 Martin, Gabriel, 115 Mascarene, Paul (Governor), 82, 93, 97, 98, 99, 101, 102 Massachusetts, 46 Masse;. Ennemond, 45 Meany, William, 60 Meductuck, 88 Meganumoe, 80, 81 Mejelabegadasich (chief), 58 Membertou, Grand Chief, 7, 10, 24-25, 39-40, 60 Membertou Band, 291,293, 304 Membertou Reserve, 287 Membertousoichis, 24 Merimichi Tribe, 149 Micmac (N.S.), 295, 296, 300 Micmac Tribe of Indians, 168 Middle River Band see Wagmatcook Band Milan, William (Governor), 176 Millbrook Band, 304, 323 Millbrook Reserve, 272, 291,293, 294 Miller, Virginia (Dr.), 185, 187, 190 Millward, Marilyn, 266-271 Minas, 83, 88, 89, 90, 98, 102, 138, 142 Mitford, Captain [Commanding Officer at Canso], 96 Mohawks, 58, 101 Monckton, Robert (Colonel), 142 Monk, George, 185 Montreal, 55 Morrice, James, 130, 131, 133 Morrice, Joseph, 128 Morris, Edmund (Honourable), 233, 234, 235 Munroe, John, 331, 332 Mushaboom, 138 Musqueam Indian Reserve No. 2, 214 Musquodoboit, 122, 125 Musquodobit River, 138 Nataoa-nsen, 26 Netobcobwit, Sebattis, 168, 169

◄ 358

INDEX

New Brunswick, 175, 181,238, 273, 284,293 New Germany Indian Reserve, 218 New Glasgow, 187 New Scotland, 45 Newfoundland, 38-39, 44, 62, 64 Nicholas, Robert Nisgarn, 26 Nisgam, 26 Nogami, 26 Northumberland Strait, 231 Nova Scotia, 175 Nova Scotia’s Human Rights Act, 306 Nyanza, 293 “Oka Crisis”, 251, 326 Pardeithan, Saint Joyly de, 87, 88 Parkman, Francis, 61 Passage of Fronsac, 1 38 Passamaquoddy, 170 Patterson, Judge, 224, 225, 226 Paul, John D., 217, 218 Paul, Joseph, 205 Paul, Margaret, 262 Paul, William, 217, 218, 277 Paul III (Pope), 12 Pedousaghtigh, Joannes, 105 Pemmeenauweet, Pausauhmigh, Grand Chief, 190, 191 Penner, Mr., 330 Penner Report, 330 Perisse, Francois Jean de, 136, 137 Perro, Peter (Chief), 233, 235 Perro, Sofie, 235 Petgotgoiag see Petitcodiac River Petitcodiac River, 55 Philadelphia, 167 Phillips, Margaret, 291,298 Philipps, Richard, 54, 67, 77, 92 Phips, Sir William, 63 Pictou, 186, 187 Pictou County, 58, 196, 197, 198, 237 Pictou Landing Band, 238-242, 256, 273,293,294,304 Pictou Landing Indian Reserve, 237, 294 Pierce, Franklin (President), 49-51 Pinney, Robert, 323 Piquet, 132 Pobomcoup, 91 Pogmouch Tribe, 149

Pomket (Pomquet), 199 Porminout, Louis Benjamin see Pemmeenauweet, Grand Chief Port Hood Indian Reserve, 244 Port Medway, 202 Port-Royal, 18, 24, 44-45, 47, 48, 63, 148 Poutrincourt, Jean de, 24, 28, 44 Poutrincourt, Saint Just, 44 Prince Edward Island, 284 Proclamation of 1756, 144, 154, 184 Proclamation of 1762, 156-157 Proclamation of War, October 19, 1744,99-101 Quebec, 45, 68, 69, 87, 88, 166 Queens County, 294 Quieting Titles Act, 233 Rand, Silas T„ 55 Rawdon, 186 Razilly, Isaac de, 47, 48 Remsheag, 127, 128 Renforth (N.B.), 242 Restigouche, 55, 57 Rice, H.C., 293-297, 299, 300 Richelieu, Cardinal, 148 Robertson, Thomas (Dr.), 273, 274276,277-279 Robichau, Prudane, 77-78, 84 Rogers, Samuel (Major), 144 Ross, E.A. “Tony”, 240-242 Rouen (France), 38 Rouse’s Cove, 122 “Royal Instructions of 1761”, 70, 154— 156, 158, 159 Royal Proclamation of 1763; 36, 159— 161, 162, 167, 204, 211,212, 219, 232, 237, 289 Sack, Martin, 217 Sackville, 55 Sactawino, Simon, 105 Saint Anne’s Mission Church, 232 St. Catherine's Milling and Lumber Co. v. the Queen, 212, 335, 336 Saint John (N.B.), 241 Saint John (fort), 48 Saint John Harbour, 63 Saint John River, 48, 88, 104, 106 St. John’s Tribe, 99, 100, 105, 110, 168

St. Lawrence, 57 St. Margaret’s Bay, 187, 202 Saint Mary’s Bay, 138 St. Mary’s Seminary, 202 St. Ovide, Governor, 71 Saint Peters, 132 St. Pierre and Miquelon, 166 St.-Croix (Maine), 45 Sambro, 216-218 Sanguaaram see Arexus, Loran Sapier, Councillor, 242 Scott, Colonel, 144 Scott, Duncan C., 266 Scott Paper, 237 Seattle, Chief, 49-51 Second Continental Congress, 167 Secoumart, Paul, 90, 91 Segipt, Chief (Sagamo), 47 Seville (Spain), 53 Shaughnessy Heights Golf Club, 214 Sheet Harbour, 293, 294 Shelburne, 187 Shelburne Couny, 294 Sherbrooke, John Cope (Sir), 191 Ship Harbour, 216-218 Shirley, William, 99, 101, 184 Shirreff, William, 83, 94-96 Shubenacadie, 125, 138, 250, 265, 282, 283,297,299,315 Shubenacadie Band, 219, 222, 244, 290,304 Shubenacadie Indian Reserve, 282, 283,284,286,291,292,299,300 Shubenacadie Indian Residential School, 266-271, 292 Shubenacadie Micmac District, 1 14, 272 Shubenacadie River, 125 Siknikt, 5 Simon v. the Queen, 222, 225, 259 Simon, James, 222, 223 Sipeke’katik, 5 Sitting Bull, 180 South River, 294 Stanfield, Frank T., 299-300 Stanfield, Robert L., 306 Starblanket, Noel, 328 Streatch, Ken (Honourable), 234 Sublimus Deus (papal bull), 12 Summerside Indian Reserve No. 38, 235,294

WE WERE NOT THE SAVAGES

359 ►

693031 Summerside Property, 230, 231-235 Supreme Court of British Columbia, 336 Supreme Court of Canada, 117, 224, 259,335 Supreme Court of Nova Scotia, 232 Sutherland, Colonel, 136 Sutton, John, 232 Sydney (N.S.), 287, 289 Sydney Band see Membertou Band Tabusintac, 58 Taino Tribe (Caribbean), 54 Tantama’ see Sackville Tatamalg see Sackville Tatamgouche, 127, 187 Taylor, Robert, 217 Tedeumart, Antoine, 91,92 Temperance Pledge, 196 Thomas, Baptiste, 136, 137 Torbay, 121 Treaty No. 239, 81, 85, 90 Treaty of Aix-La-Chappelle, 102, 109, 112 Treaty of Paris (1763), 148, 166 Treaty of Ryswick, 63 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, 45 Treaty of 1725, 69, 70, 75, 76, 79-80, 87,104,106,109,110 Treaty of 1749, 104-106, 184 Treaty of 1752, 114, 115-117, 118, 134, 135, 136, 145, 222, 224,259 Treaty of 1779, 170-172 Treaty of Utrecht, 64-66, 68, 70, 71, 97,109,115,173 Treaty of 1794, 176-177 Treaty of Whitehall, 48 Trout Cove, 144 Trudeau, Pierre Elliott, 307 Truro, 217, 299 Truro Reserve see Millbrook Reserve

◄ 360

INDEX

Ulgimoo, 55 Unama’kik, 5 Union of Nova Scotia Indians, 232, 239 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 299, 301, 302 Utrecht, 64 Vancouver, 214 Var, Ambrius, 168 Veillein, Paul Francois Dupont de, 87 Victoria, Queen, 190-191 Viper (sloop), 171 Wabanaki Confederacy, 8, 98 Wagmatcook Band, 304, 333 Wagmatcook Development Corporation, 334 Wallis, Newell, 168 War of Austrian Succession, 98 War of 1812, 179 War of Independence (American), 30, 167, 170, 173 Washington, George, 169 Washington, State, 49 Watertown Treaty (1776), 168-170 Wentworth, Lieutenant Governor, 176 Wesauguaaram see Arexus, Loran Wigglesworth, Armand, 242 Wildcat Reserve, 294 Wimniett, William, 89 Windsor, 176, 186 Winslow, John (Colonel), 142 Wiswell, Judge, 200 Wohooneh (chief), 58 Whycocomagh Band, 293, 304 Xavier, Francois, 80, 81, 104-105 Yarmouth County, 198, 295 Yarmouth Indian Reserve, 230, 231, 293,295

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Although the history of the “discovery” of America and its colonization by Europeans has been well documented and consistently taught in schools across the continent, one side of that story has never been told. That is its impact on the Peoples who inhabited North America for some ten thousand years before the arrival of the White man, and whose civilizations have barely survived the onslaught of European colonization. We Were Not the Savages, the first history of the confrontation between the Micmac and the Europeans written from the Micmac point of view, attempts to right this wrong. It is an uncompromising narrative of how a democratic and peaceful people were brought to the edge of extinction by an arrogant and brutal enemy. In the telling, author Daniel N. Paul presents a new interpretation of the past, calling into question our very understanding of civilization. His re-examination of original historical records casts doubts on early military and political figures we honour as heros, and brings us face to face with the question of who were really the savages. I/aniel N. Paul was bom on the Micmac Reserve near the village of Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia. An ardent spokesperson and activist for human rights, \

Paul is currently the executive director of the Confederacy of Mainland Micmacs, a commis¬ sioner on the Nova Scotia Human Rights Com¬ mission, chief executive officer of the Mainland Micmacs Development Corporation and president of the Micmac Heritage Gallery. From 1971 to

1986 he was employed by the Department of Indian Affairs—the last five of which was as District Superintendent of Lands, Revenues, Trusts, and Statutory Requirements. “A tale of deception, greed, brutality, bigotry, and humiliation. Ultimately though, it is a study in perseverance and survival.” —Sunday Daily News, Dartmouth “Want an eye-opening “New World” vision through Indian eyes?” —The Bookwatch, San Francisco

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