Water for the City, Fountains for the People: Monumental Fountains in the Roman East: an Archaeological Study of Water Management 250353449X, 9782503534497

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Studies in Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology

IX Edited by M. Waelkens

SAGALASSOS ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH PROJECT KULEUVEN

WATERFOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS FOR THE PEOPLE MONUMENTAL

FOUNTAINS IN THE ROMAN EAST

An Archaeological Study of Water Management

Julian Richard

~

BREPOLS

This research was made possible thanks to a grant of the Research Foundation - Flanders (FWO) Cover illustration: the Antonine Nymphaeum at Sagalassos, AD 160-180 (photo Bruno Vandermeulen © Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project) © 2012, Brepols Publishers n.v., Turnhout, Belgium

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.

D/2012/0095/116 ISBN 978-2-503-53449-7 Printed in the E.U. on acid-free paper

FOREWORD

In 1996, at the initiative of Brepols Publishers, a new series was launched, titled Studies in Eastern MediterraneanArchaeology(SEMA), of which the first volume was The ArchitecturalDecorationin Roman Asia Minor. Sagalassos:a Case-study.This title reflected perfectly the dual aim of the series: firstly, the publication of high-quality doctoral dissertations covering various aspects of the multidisciplinary research in both Sagalassos and in its 1,200 km 2 large territory. Secondly, only topics with an impact reaching far beyond Sagalassos itself were considered for publication. The second volume (1999) was a comprehensive study of the typology and chronology of a newly discovered type of eastern sigillata.The third volume (2000) became a handbook on coarse wares in Imperial Anatolia. Volume IV (2001) dealt with the faunal remains at Sagalassos. By combining the results of archaeological, geological, geomorphological and vegetation surveys, the fifth volume (2003) allowed for the reconstruction of 12,000 years of human presence and settlement patterns in the vast territory of Sagalassos. Volume VI (2004) was a palynological reconstruction of the Holocene vegetation history within this territory. However, by incorporating the results of all palynological research in Southwest Anatolia, its geographical value and applicability were extended to that region as a whole. The seventh volume (2005) published the results of two international symposia on the reliability of surface material and the possibilities of contextual analysis, respectively. Finally, volume VIII (2008) dealt with funeral practices and sepulchral monuments at Sagalassos. As a result of its comparative character, this volume too became a comprehensive study, in this case of burial practices and sepulchral monuments in all of Pisidia and some adjoining regions during the Hellenistic and Imperial periods. With volume IX, published by Julian Richard, the geographical scope of the series is now extended even further by giving an overview of water management and monumental public fountains in the whole Roman East. This widely anticipated volume first reflects on the concept of 'monumental fountain' and subsequently gives an overview of the typology of public fountains in this area in Greco-Roman times It investigates the functional relationship between monumental fountains and urban water networks, and it focuses on the hydraulic apparatus of monumental fountains (provision, display, storage, use and drainage of water) before analyzing the conclusions of the last two topics to establish the utilitarian spectrum of monumental fountains as a 'functional system.' Finally, the functional distribution of fountains in the urban fabric, the alterations affecting monumental fountains from the mid-3rc1century AD onwards and the representative character of monumental fountains are discussed. This new volume gives renewed impetus to a more regular appearance of the series, as it will be followed soon by a study on Cult in Pisidia.ReligiousPracticein SouthwesternAsia Minor from Alexander the Great to the Rise of Christianity (Peter Talloen) and by another one on The Urban Development of Sagalassos.Town planning and Settlement Evolution (Femke Martens). These will be followed by a third volume by Semra Magele on the sculpture of Sagalassos. In the meantime, a peer-review editorial board has been established, which beside the current editor, is composed of Prof. Jeroen Poblome (KU Leuven), Dr. Lutgarde Vandeput (Director of The British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara) and Prof. Felix Pirson (director of the Deutsches Archaologisches Institut, Zweigstelle Istanbul). Professor Sir Marc Waelkens Oud-Heverlee, October 21, 2012

CONTENTS

List of Illustrations

1

xi

BACK TO BASICS: TOWARDS A FUNCTIONAL

DEFINITION

OF ROMAN MONUMENTAL

1

FOUNTAINS

I. A brief historiography of the Roman monumental fountain a. The time of artistic and architectural curiosity b. Early scientific studies of monumental fountains: an interest for etymology and architectural typology c. The concern for architectural typology and terminological criticism d. Regional and chronological gazetteers: an interest for diachronic architectural developments e. The recent awareness for functionality and context f. The contribution of the field of the 'aqueduct studies' II. The study of Roman monumental fountains: remaining problems and

1 2 4 7 9 10 11 12

unexplored aspects III. An attempt of definition: nymphaeum vs. monumental fountain? a. Is the word nymphaeum suitable to define Roman Imperial monumental fountains? b. Evaluation of ancient and modern terminology: a good base for a definition?

IV. Towards an architectural and functional definition of monumental fountains a. The validity of architectural typology b. Towards a 'functional definition' of the Roman monumental fountain

V. Brief evaluation of the available documentation 2

A BRIEF OVERVIEW

OF FouNTAIN

ARCHITECTURE

27 27 28

31 IN THE GREEK AND RoMAN

EAsT

35

I. Archaic and Classical periods a. Plainly designed spring basins and captures b. Plainly designed isolated uncovered fountains c. Stoa-type fountain-house II. Hellenistic period

35 35 36 37 39

III. Roman Imperial period

41

a. Curved monumental fountain b. Fa\'.ade-nymphaeum c. Circular fountain

3

14 14 24

FOUNTAINS

AND URBAN WATER NETWORKS

I. The Roman aqueduct: utilitarian revolution or superfluous luxury? a. Status, perception and function of Roman aqueducts: some recent reappraisals b. Modern research trends in the study of aqueducts

41 43 45 47

49 49 51

WATER

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

II. Unified programs of waterworks? The chronological affiliation between monumental fountains and aqueducts a. Some methodological issues b. Building programs involving the joint construction of an aqueduct and a monumental fountain c. Newly built monumental fountains, public baths and aqueducts as a unified building program d. Integration of monumental fountains into pre-existing distribution networks e. The importance of reflecting on the chronological relationship between fountains and aqueducts

III. The spatial and functional affiliation between aqueducts and monumental

52 52 53 55 57 58 60

fountains a. Urban water supply systems in the Roman period: an increase in complexity and hierarchy? b. The application of the 'system approach' to water supply systems c. The spatial and functional affiliation between monumental fountains and aqueducts: definition and models

IV. The chronological and spatial affiliation between aqueducts and monumental fountains: concluding remarks a. Technological/ functional / utilitarian aspects b. Status and perception a. Early public fountains in the Roman West b. A 'Roman' fountain culture in Asia Minor? The re-nucleation of water drawing points c. The Levant: a smarter distribution of water resources? d. Greece: a greater reliance on local traditions?

VI. Monumental fountains and aqueducts: concluding remarks FLOWING WATERS: THE HYDRAULIC

APPARATUS

OF MONUMENTAL

FOUNTAINS

I. The size of monumental fountains: a meaningful criterion for evaluating their functional spectrum? II. The hydraulic apparatus: evidence for water management, shortage and surplus a. The means of supply b. 'Reservoirs' and basins: buffers against unsteady water supplies? c. Parapets, spouts and water drawing d. Drainage facilities, water evacuation and recycling e. Superfluous elements of the hydraulic apparatus: cascades, optical effects and spouting statues

III. In a diachronic perspective: alterations of the hydraulic apparatus a. Modifications that did not drastically affect the function as public fountain b. Extensive modifications leading to drastic functional changes

5

HYDRAULIC

IMPACT AND WATER QUALITY

I. Spatial and functional affiliation - hydraulic apparatus: first insights on the function and status of monumental fountains in urban distribution networks a. Theoretical reflections on the spatial and functional affiliation between monumental fountains and aqueducts

viii

63 68 80 80 82

V. East and West

4

61

83 83 86 90

91 92 93

94 98 98 103 118 130 136

141 142 149 155 155 155

CONTENTS

b. Theoretical reflections on the hydraulic apparatus II. The rise and fall of water: on the rate of flow and hydraulic impact a. Theoretical modelling b. Examination of the archaeological material - Asia Minor and mainland Greece c. Examination of the archaeological material - the Levant d. Concluding remarks on the rate of flow III. The hydraulic impact of monumental fountains: a comparison with water management in public baths a. Water provisioning b. Water utilization c. Discard d. The different periodicity of water management in public baths e. Comparison between baths and monumental fountains IV. A Levantine exception? V. On hygiene and water quality a. Ancient criteria of hygiene and water quality b. Archaeological evidence: hydraulic apparatus and water quality c. Concluding remarks: the place of public fountains in the qualitative offer of water in antique cities VI. Some final remarks on sources and methodology

6

WATER IN THE CITY: THE FUNCTIONAL

GEOGRAPHY

OF ROMAN MONUMENTAL

157 159 159 160 164 165 167 167 168 169 169 170 172 176 176 177 180 182

185

FOUNTAINS

I. The urban insertion of monumental fountains: general trends a. Peculiar public and semi-public contexts: sanctuaries, baths, theatres and aqueducts b. Streets and agoras: the favourite location of fountain commissioners? c. Interpretation of the material evidence and concluding remarks II. The preferential location of monumental fountains: some reflections a. The spatial distribution of pre-Roman public fountains b. The functional interplay between monumental fountains and public spaces

7

MONUMENTAL

FOUNTAINS

IN LATE ANTIQUITY:

A NEW 'WATER

CULTURE'

IN

185

186 189 203 205 205 208 215

PUBLIC SPACES?

I. Functional modifications and their meaning for water management at the scale of the city a. Examination of the archaeological evidence: structural modifications of fountains b. The issue of water shortage vs. new strategies of water management in Late Antiquity II. Newly built fountains in Late Antiquity: 'nymphaea' vs. fountain-houses? a. Water basins and sheltered fountain-houses: a new architectural tradition? b. The twilight of monumental fountains? 111.Maintenance, restoration and abandonment: the fate of High Imperial monumental fountains

IV. Concluding remarks: a new 'fountain

culture' in Late Antiquity?

216 216 218 224 224 229 231 235

ix

WATER

8

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

UTILITY vs. REPRESENTATION? MAN MONUMENTAL

FOR THE PEOPLE

RECENTERING

THE FUNCTIONAL

SPECTRUM OF Ro-

237

FOUNTAINS

I. The representative dimensions of Roman monumental fountains a. An ideal combination of 'concrete' and 'abstract' functions b. Nature and extent of the representative function of monumental fountains

II. Monumental fountains as a sign of technical progress? a. Nucleated drawing point/ spatial flexibility b. The hydraulic apparatus: running water, buffer capacity, rate of flow and parapets c. Water quality

III. Concluding remarks: bridging the gap between utility and representation

237 237 239

252 254 254 255 256

Catalogue Bibliography

259

Index

305

281

*

*

*

ILLUSTRATIONS

1.

The Roman Septizodium by Antonio Lafreri (University of Chicago, Special Collections Research Center)

3

2.

Rome, Fontana dell' Acqua Paola by Piranesi (public domain)

4

3.

Pompeii, fountain of the lacus type (photo Ine Jacobs)

5

4.

Example of typological classification proposed by P. Aupert for North African nymphaea (Aupert 1974: 84. © Ecole Frarn;aise de Rome)

8

5.

Fountain of the type meta at Djemila (Schmolder-Veit 2009: Taf. 6, Abb. 1. Permission Andrea Schmolder-Veit, photo Valentin Kockel)

24

6.

Example of domestic fountain of Pompeii with a labrumin the foreground (Jansen 2002: 49. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

24

7.

Comparative overview of the architectural structure of Hellenistic and Roman monumental fountains (a) Sagalassos, Doric Fountain (b) Ephesos, Hydrekdocheion of C. Laecanius Bassus (photo Julian Richard; reconstruction drawing Klaus Jung)

29

8.

Coin from Hadrianoupolis with depiction of a nymphaeum (Sieveking 1906: fig. 3)

32

9.

Coin from Pella in Syria with depiction of a nymphaeum (Price & Trell 1977: fig. 72)

32

10. Detail of the border of the Yaqto Mosaic: the waterworks of Daphne (Lassus 1969: pl. LXIV)

32

11. Delos, Minoe Fountain (Courby 1912: fig. 141. © Ecole Fran~aise d' Athenes)

32

12. Pergamon, fountain in the Asklepieion (photo Julian Richard)

34

13. Athens, so-called Klepsydra (Travlos 1971: fig. 430. © Archaeological Society at Athens)

34

14. Carian spring basins (Dorl-Klingenschrnid 2001: 23, Abb. 5a-b. Permission Claudia DorlKlingenschmid)

34

15. Olympia, lion-shaped fountain (Glaser 1983: Abb. 178. © Osterreichische Akademie der Wissenchaften)

34

16. Priene, Stockbrunnen (photo Henning Fahlbusch)

36

17. Priene, spouting fountain along the Weststrafse (Krischen 1938: Ta£. 11)

36

18. Gerasa, street fountain (photo Julian Richard)

36

19. Perachora (Corinth): fountain-house (Tomlinson 1969: fig. 19; 22. © British School at Athens)

37

20. Athens, Southeast Fountain of the Athenian Agora (Travlos 1971: fig. 269. © Archaeological Society at Athens)

38

21. Ialysos, fountain-house (Glaser 1983: Abb. 91-92. © Osterreichische Akadernie der Wissenchaften)

38

22. Kos, niche-fountain at the Asklepieion (Schazmann & Herzog 1932: Taf. 29)

39

23. Sagalassos, niche-fountain at the north-east entrance of the Lower Agora (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

39

24. Miletos, Laodike Fountain (Knackfuss 1924: Abb. 278. © Miletos Excavations, permission Volkmar von Graeve)

40

25. Sagalassos, Doric Fountain (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

40

26. Tenos, fountain-house (Etienne & Braun 1986: pl. 8. © Ecole Frarn,aise d' Athenes)

40

27. Samothrake, Fountain of the Victory (Glaser 2000: 438, fig. 18. Permission Franz Glaser)

41

WATER

FOR THE

Cn'Y,

FouNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

28. Ephesos, Hydreion (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001: Abb. 122a. Permission Claudia DorlKlingenschmid)

41

29. Pergamon, fountain in the Demeter Sanctuary (Bohtz 1981: Abb. 44. © Pergamon Excavations, permission Felix Pirson)

42

30. Alexandria Troas, nymphaeum (Oztaner 1999: fig. 2. Permission Hakan Oztaner)

42

31. Gerasa, Severan fountain (photo Julian Richard)

43

32. Sagalassos, Trajanic fountain on the Lower Agora (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

44

33. Miletos, Flavian fountain (Kleiner 1968: Abb. 86. © Miletos Excavations, permission Volkmar vonGraeve)

44

34. Side, Antonine fountain at the city gate (Mansel 1963: Abb. 37. © Mansel archive, University of Istanbul, permission inci Delemen)

44

35. Argos, monopteros on the agora (Marchetti & Kolokotsas 1995: plan 5. © Ecole Franc;aise d' Athenes, permission Patrick Marchetti)

44

36. Romantic view of the aqueduct of Segovia (Casado 1972)

49

37. Map showing the distribution of wells and cisterns in the city centre of Herculaneum (Jansen 2002: 99. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

50

38. Ephesos, ground plan of the State Agora area (Scherrer 2001: 70. © Osterreichisches Archaologisches Institut)

54

39. Pompeii, castellumdivisorium at the Porta Vesuviana (photo lne Jacobs)

61

40. Pompeii, pressure tower (photo Ine Jacobs)

61

41. Priene, secondary water repartition box in the western domestic quarter (photo Julian Richard)

62

42. General model of water management in the city of Herculaneum (Jansen 2002: bijl. 5.7. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

65

43. Pompeii, tripartite division of water in the castellum aquae (photo Christoph Ohlig)

67

44. Ground plan and cross-section of castellum aquae of Tebourba, Tunisia (Hodge 1992: fig. 201. © Bloomsbury Publishing PLC)

67

45. Miletos, functional diagram of the terminal reservoirs and the Flavian fountain (after Tuttahs 1997: Abb. 51)

73

46. Perge, Nymphaeum F3 and euripus (photo Julian Richard)

73

47. Miletos, last arches of the aqueduct and terminal reservoir (photo Julian Richard)

74

48. Perge, Nymphaeum F3: statue of the river Kestros (photo Julian Richard)

74

49. Schematic illustration of the loss of height provoked by the use of a reservoir (Peleg 2006: 346. Permission Yehuda Peleg)

81

50. Ostia, spatial distribution of the four main types of public fountains (Schmolder 2000: 258. Permission Andrea Schmolder-Veit)

84

51. Djemila, fountain to the south of the Grands Thermes (Schmolder-Veit 2009: Taf. 3, Abb. 2. Permission Andrea Schmolder-Veit, photo Valentin Kockel)

85

52. Ephesos, 'Nymphaeum' in taberna T II (Thiir 2006: 66. © Osterreichisches Archaologisches Institut, rekonstruktion A. Pyszkowski-Wyzykowski nach H. Thur, permission Hilke Thur)

87

53. Ephesos, Hellenistic fountain-house near the Theatre (photo Julian Richard)

87

54. Theoretical schematic illustration of nucleated and hierarchised patterns of water installations (Julian Richard, Rick Bonnie)

89

55. Gerasa, street fountain at the north tetrapylon (photo Julian Richard)

90

xii

ILLUSTRATIONS

56. Perge, Nymphaeum F3: restitution of the ground plan (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2011: Abb. 158. Permission Claudia Dorl-Klingenschmid)

94

57. Hierapolis, reconstructed elevation of the Tritons' Nymphaeum (© Archive of the Italian Archaeological Mission at Hierapolis of Phrygia, drawing F. Ghio)

95

58. Gortyn, ground plan of Nymphaeum F25 (Ortega 1986-1987: fig. 14)

97

59. Cross-section of a gravity channel (Hodge 1992: fig. 156 © Bloomsbury Publishing PLC)

99

60. Head or water column (Hodge 1992: fig. 165. © Bloomsbury Publishing PLC)

100

61. Illustration of the principle of the pressure tower (Hodge 1992: fig. 166. © Bloomsbury Publishing PLC)

100

62. Supply channels of the Antonine Nymphaeum at Sagalassos, of the fountain at the Demeter Temple at Pergamon and of the Severan fountain at Ariassos (photos Julian Richard)

101

63. Palmyra, ground plan of the West Nymphaeum (after Bounni & Saliby 1965: pl. 4)

102

64. Priene, frontal view of a Stockbrunnen(photo Henning Fahlbusch)

104

65. Miletos, longitudinal and transversal cross-sections of the castellumI fountain ensemble (after Tuttahs 2007: Abb. 184)

108

66. Butrint, ground plan of the fountain and of the two containers at the back (Ugolini 1942: fig. 83)

109

67. Keramos, Bak.leak: ground plan and view of the standing remains (drawing and reconstruction Marcello Spanu)

110

68. Rome, ornamental fountain in the so-called 'Baths of Livia', Palatine (after Meschini 1955: fig. 654)

111

69. Rome, ground plan of the modified terrace wall of the Claudianum (after Meschini 1955: fig. 653)

111

70. Ephesos, basin of the Pollio-Bau(photo Julian Richard)

112

71. Ephesos, frontal view of the Hydrekdocheion of C. Laecanius Bassus (photo Julian Richard)

113

72. Apamaea, ground plan of the South Nymphaeum (Schmidt-Colinet, forthcoming. Permission Andreas Schmidt-Colinet)

116

73. Side, ground plan of the Monument of Vespasian (Mansel 1964: Abb. 3. © Mansel archive, University of Istanbul, permission inci Delemen)

117

74. Pompeii, lacus with stone placed at the edge to facilitate the drawing of water (Jansen 2002: 46. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

118

75. Laodikeia, decorated parapet pillar from the Fountain of Caracalla (Des Gagniers 1969: planche LXX.1.© Presses de l'Universite Laval)

119

76. Ephesos, relief plates lining the basin in front of the Celsus Library (Heberdey 1902-1903 Beibl.: 49. © 6sterreichisches Archaologisches Institut)

119

77. Magnesia-on-the-Maeander, evocation of the Hellenistic fountain-house (von Hesberg 1994: Abb. 56. Permession Henner von Hesberg)

123

78. Side, detail of the parapet attributed to the Fountain hh. Side Arkeoloji Miizesi (photo Julian Richard)

123

79. Kaunos, so-called 'Fountain of Vespasian': modem restitution of the marble blocks lining the parapet (photo Julian Richard)

123

80. Delphi, Kastalia: pierced stone blocks used to hold water vessels below the waterspouts (Glaser 1983: Abb. 196. © 6sterreichische Akademie der Wissenchaften)

123

81. Gerasa: drawing emplacement along the parapet of the Severan fountain (photo Julian Richard)

123

82. Painted vase figuring women drawing water from a fountain-house (Athens, NM. Akr. 732, after Tolle-Kastenbein 1990: Abb. 82)

124

83. Byblos, Severan nymphaeum (after Lauffray 1940: planche II)

125

xiii

WATER

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

84. Corinth, Peirene: detailed view on the central section of the fai;ade (after Hodge-Hill 1964: plate XI. © American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Corinth Excavations)

125

85. Phaselis, Hadrianic fountain: parapet of the lower draw basin (photo Julian Richard)

125

86. Wear traces left by draw vessels on the parapet of the Doric Fountain at Sagalassos and by ropes on a well at Butrint (Photos Julian Richard, Philip Bes)

126

87. Ura/Olba, ground plan of the Severan fountain (Dorl-Klingenschmid 2001: Abb. 178. Permission Claudia Dorl-Klingenschmid)

128

88. Examples of secondary draw vessels. Hierapolis, Tritons' Nymphaeum. Perge, Nymphaeum F2 (photos Julian Richard)

128

89. Cross-section of a lacuswith evacuation devices (Jansen 2002: 44. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

130

90. Sagalassos, Hadrianic Nymphaeum: drainage hole at the lower front edge of the basin (photo Julian Richard)

132

91. Sagalassos, Trajanic fountain. Cleaning hole seen from the inside. Frontal view of the basin's western extremity with the two alleged cleaning holes (photos Julian Richard)

132

92. Samos, Hellenistic cistern with sunken zone to collect sediments (after Tolle-Kastenbein 1990: Abb. 68)

133

93. Sagalassos, Trajanic fountain: drainage gutter (photo Julian Richard)

134

94. Gerasa, Severan fountain: decorated drainage hole (photo Julian Richard)

134

95. Pompeii, Casadei Vetii: garden spouting statue (Jansen 2002: 54. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

137

96. Gerasa, Severan fountain: cavities for supply pipes in the niches of the ground floor (photo Julian Richard)

139

97. Pergamon, fountain in the Demeter Sanctuary: ground plan (Bohtz 1981: 44. © Pergamon Excavations, permission Felix Pirson)

139

98. Miletos, Flavian fountain: double row of cascades (after Kleiner 1968: Abb. 85. © Miletos Excavations, permission Volkmar von Graeve)

140

99. Ar 9os, monopteros: cross-section of the fountain (Marchetti & Kolokotsas 1995: planche 5. © Ecole Frani;aise d' Athenes, permission Patrick Marchetti)

140

100. Laodikeia, Fountain of Caracalla: ground plan (Des Gagniers 1969: planche hors texte. © Presses de l'Universite Laval)

143

101. Pergamon, fountain on the Sacred Way to the Asklepieion: detailed views of the parapet (photos Julian Richard)

145

102. Sagalassos, Antonine Nymphaeum: limestone division box (photo Julian Richard)

146

103. Sagalassos, Antonine Nymphaeum: test sounding carried out in 2007 along the parapet (photo Inge Uytterhoeven)

146

104. Sagalassos, Antonine Nymphaeum: holes and other marks made in the parapet (photo Julian Richard)

147

105. Stratonikeia, Severan fountain: general view of the two basins (photo Julian Richard)

148

106. Stratonikeia, Severan fountain: cuttings on top of the parapet slabs (photo Julian Richard)

148

107. Argos, Larissa Nymphaeum: general ground plan and detail (Vollgraff 1958: fig. 1. © Ecole Fram;aise d' Athenes, drawing W. van der Pluijm)

149

108. Gortyn, Nymphaeum F25: cross-section view (Ortega 1986-1987, table XII)

150

109. Perge, Nymphaeum F3: wall blocking a lateral access to the basin (photo Julian Richard)

152

110. Perge, Nymphaeum F3: series of terracotta pipes inserted in the frontal parapet (photo Julian Richard)

152

xiv

ILLUSTRATIONS

111. Perge, euripus in the middle of the colonnaded street (photos Julian Richard)

152

112. Sagalassos, Doric Fountain: later terracotta pipeline running through the abandoned western basin (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

153

113. Ephesos, Nymphaeum Traiani: central inlet (photo Julian Richard)

161

114. Megara, Fountain ofTheagenes (Glaser 1983: Abb. 127, after ArchDelt 19, 1940: 40, plan 1)

166

115. Modes and periodicity of water utilization in public baths (Manderscheid 2000: fig. 6. Permission Hubertus Manderscheid)

168

116. Continuously running fountain in the Baths of Vilbel (Manderscheid 1988: Abb. 20. Permission Hubertus Manderscheid, drawing M. Shregle)

170

117. Gadara, Severan fountain (photo Julian Richard)

172

118. Dendara, fountains along the dromos of the Hathor temple (Castel, Daumas & Golvin 1984: plan 2. © Institut Fran~ais d' Archeologie Orientale, Cairo)

187

119. Perge, Nymphaeum Fl: ground plan and architectural recording of the standing remains (Mansel 1975: Ta£.70.2. © Mansel archive, University of Istanbul, permission inci Delemen)

188

120. Philippi, Basilica A: monumental fountain in the atrium (Lemerle 1949: pl. XXII. © Ecole Fran~aise d' Athenes)

189

121. Corinth, general plan of the agora in the period 146-144 BC (Romano 2003: fig. 17.2. © American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Corinth Excavations)

190

122. Corinth, general plan of the agora around AD 150 (Romano 2003: fig. 17.7. © American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Corinth Excavations)

191

123. Saga lassos, view of the north side of the Lower Agora (photo Julian Richard)

193

124. Constantinople, reconstructed ground plan of the Forum of Constantine (Bauer 1996: 174. Permission Franz Alto Bauer)

194

125. Stratonikeia: frontal view of the ensemble North Gate/ Severan Fountain (photo Julian Richard)

195

126. Miletos, detailed plan of the urban centre in the late 2nd c. AD (© Miletos Excavations, permission Volkmar von Graeve)

196

127. Laodikeia: general ground plan with location of the Fountain of Caracalla (after Traversari 2000: Tav. XXI)

199

128. Scythopolis, location of the 4th c. AD fountain in the urban infrastructure (after Foerster & Tasfrir 2002: Abb. 106)

202

129. Athens, central part of the Archaic water distribution network (Jansen 2000: 107. Permission Gemma C.M. Jansen)

206

130. Priene, gymnasium: washing basins (photo Julian Richard)

207

131. Sardis, 'Byzantine shops': example of vertical water evacuation pipe (photo Julian Richard)

211

132. Sagalassos, tholos of the late 2nd c. AD macellum (photo Julian Richard)

213

133. Gerasa, central fountain of the macellum (photo Julian Richard)

213

134. Map of Gortyn with indication of the water network and fountains (after Giorgi 2007: 289)

219

135. Gortyn, general ground plan of the city showing the clusters of late-antique cistern fountains (after Giorgi 2007: 309)

220

136. Sagalassos, general ground plan with indication of fountains and basins (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

221

137. Water collection tank to the west of the NW Heroon (Bruno Vandermeulen© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

222

138. Ephesos, ground plan of the lower city with location of the discussed monumental fountains, converted monuments and basins (© Osterreichisches Archiiologisches Institut, Christian

225

Kurtze)

xv

WATER

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

139. Ephesos, Gate of Hadrian: negative traces of a water basin (photo Julian Richard)

226

140. Ephesos, water basin along the road to the stadium (photo Ine Jacobs)

226

141. Side, detailed ground plan of the colonnaded street/ late-antique city gate area (Mansel 1963. © Mansel archive, University of Istanbul, permission inci Delemen)

227

142. Side, fountain-house in Building gg (Mansel 1963, Abb. 49. © Mansel archive, University of Istanbul, permission inci Delemen)

228

143. Side, covered water basins inside of the late-antique city gate (photo Julian Richard)

228

144. Sagalassos, late-antique fountain-house(s) to the east of the NW Heroon (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

228

145. Ephesos, fountain in the atrium of the Basilica of St John (photo Julian Richard)

229

146. Side, Drei-Becken-Brunnen:reconstruction drawing (Mansel 1963: Abb. 49. © Mansel archive, University of Istanbul, permission inci Delemen)

230

147. Sagalassos: water conduit running over the debris of the Roman Baths' west wall (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

234

148. Sagalassos, Hadrianic Nymphaeum: fragments of the Satyr statue on the basin's floor (© Sagalassos Archaeological Research Project)

234

149. Ephesos, Celsus Library: reconstitution of the original elevation (Wilberg 1953: Taf. 1. © Osterreichisches Archaologisches Jnstitut)

240

150. Reconstitution drawing of the Marmorsaalof the Harbour Baths (Keil 1957: Abb. 40. © Osterreichisches Archaologisches Institut)

250

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xvi

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1

BACK TO BASICS

Towardsa FunctionalDefinitionof RomanMonumental Fountains

In the Roman Imperial period, monumental fountains-frequently called 'nymphaea' in ancient sources and modern literaturebecame a common amenity in public and private life. From the 1st c. AD onwards, monumental public fountains reached a scale and a complexity never seen before, partirularly in the eastern and southern provinces of the Empire. As part of the water supply networks-and hence, at large, of the subsistence strategy of human settlements-but also as a means of expression of an urban, aesthetic, social, political and religious context, they stand at the junction of several fields of archaeological and historical research: ancient water technology and engineering, social, religious and political history, the study of architecture and srulptural decoration, epigraphy, etc. The richness of their utilitarian and decorative dimensions undoubtedly explains their stunning success and endurance in Antiquity, as well as the continuation of their popularity later on, from the Renaissance to the triumph of the Baroque, Rococo and Romantic currents.

mensions have so far been widely neglected. Indeed, despite the recent attempts of taking a contextual approach to Roman fountains, no study has hitherto focused sufficiently on their technical properties and their rich functional spectrum. Our study intends to palliate this lack.

Archaeological research has brought to light dozens of monumental fountains and closely related constructions. This material has been the subject of countless studies since a renewed interest for them arose during the Renaissance, triggered by the artistic taste for the ruins of ancient Rome. As a matter of fact, the study of Roman fountains has until now often been limited to an art-historical perspective, despite recent attempts to look at them within a wider context.

The problems inherent in the study of Roman monumental fountains are illustrated by the type, content and extent of the available publications. Compared to other categories of public, utilitarian and/or decorative amenities found in Roman cities, monumental fountains are paradoxically one of the least studied types of building. Two reasons can be invoked: in contrast with other water-related installations such as aqueducts or bathing complexes, monumental public fountains do not always count among the best preserved ruins of ancient cities, except perhaps in the eastern Mediterranean. With the exception of the numerous small lacus lining the streets of Pompeii, 1 almost no remains of large public

Considering the number of existing studies, Roman fountains may at first glance appear as a traditional research topic, especially compared to the newest fields of the so-called 'Classical' archaeology. This is precisely the reason to propose an innovative study on this type of monument, whose purely practical di-

I. A

BRIEF HISTORIOGRAPHY

MONUMENTAL

OF THE ROMAN

FOUNTAIN

In the first section of this chapter, a series of definitions and approaches of Roman monumental fountains will be reviewed. These definitions cover multiple domains, such as architecture and hydraulic engineering, statuary studies, philology and epigraphy. Instead of separating the definitions according to these different fields, we preferred a division in time periods, in order to closely reflect the evolution of the different perspectives on the topic. Our purpose is not to provide an exhaustive overview of all the existing literature, but rather to draw milestones reflecting the evolution of the artistic and scientific approach to Roman monumental fountains.

1 The term lacus refers to plainly designed street fountains equipped with a basin. See infra.

WATER

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

fountains were found in the first cities where the interest for classical ruins reappeared during the late Renaissance and the following centuries. The romantic ruins of the Baths of Caracalla or the arches of the Aqua Claudia in the Roman campagnastruck their contemporaries much more than the ruined yet much more numerous fountains of Rome. Consequently, the interest for fountains and water supply networks as a whole seems to have appeared later. It is not surprising that Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) ranked aqueduct bridges amongst the testimonies of Rome's past glory in his work The Declineand Fall of the Roman Empire (1776-1789) without mentioning any other type of water infrastructure. 2 The publications treating the topic can be divided into four main categories: 1. Excavation reports and site syntheses represent by far the main source of the evidence at hand. Unfortunately, the absence of a global, consistent terminology and the variable degree of accuracy of the available publications remain important obstacles. For instance, the general lack of interest for the late-antique evolution of fountains-in terms of aesthetic maintenance, refurbishment, spoliation, graffiti or more simply, the dating of the later phases and processes of abandonment- is a recurrent problem of older excavation reports. Data on the integration of public fountains within the urban fabric and their evolution within that context is not always present either, although it is a prerequisite to any global understanding of their role as utilitarian and decorative amenities in Roman urban centres.

2. Regional gazetteers will be discussed in greater detail in this first section. It is striking Among the innumerable monuments of architectureconstructed by the Romans, how many have escapedthe notice of history, howfew have resisted the ravagesof time and barbarism! [... ] The boldnessof the enterprise,the solidity of the execution,and the uses to which they were subservient rank the aqueductsamongthe noblestmonuments of Romangenius and power. [... ] The solitudes of Asia and Africa were once coveredwithflourishing cities,whosepopulousness,and even whoseexistence,was derivedfrom such artificialsupplies of a perennialstream offresh water. E. Gibbon, Declineand Fall of the Roman EmpireII, 11.

2

2

that some regions, such as Asia Minor, Greece and North Africa, have attracted more attention than others. Monumental fountains from the Balkans, the Levant, Cyprus, Egypt or Spain were never as exhaustively examined within the framework of a regional study. 3. More generalist publications on Roman town planning and architecture usually contain a chapter entitled 'water supply, fountains and nymphaea', including sometimes spring sanctuaries and other installations related to water cults. Generally, these studies take urban aesthetics and/or public architecture in general as their main line of approach, without examining the further impact of fountains on water supply networks. 4. As underscored below, the fields of water technology and hydraulic engineering offer much potential in the study of monumental fountains. Nevertheless, as in many other studies, fountains are generally left aside to the detriment of aqueducts, intra-urban supply networks and purely hydro-technical aspects. In the following pages, a diachronic overview of the different perspectives followed in the study of Roman monumental fountains will be presented.

a. The time of artistic and architectural curiosity The Renaissance marked the return of the ancient concept of 'nymphaeum' within scientific and artistic interests. At that time, the meaning given to the word followed its etymology closely. It refers to a location provided with a spring that was placed under the patronage of Nymphs or other water deities. From the 16th c. onwards, the fashion of natural and artificial grottoes, part of a wider cultural interest for the Classical period, became popular in Italian villas. 3 Interestingly, this fashion of recreating antique nymphaea went back to the primitive examples of cult caves and grottoes typical of the Classical, Hellenistic and Republican periods, rather In particular, the rediscovery of the Domus Aurea in Rome in the late 15th c. inspired the well-known fashion of ancient grottoes and grotesquemotifs.

3

BACK TO BASICS

than to the Roman Imperial nymphaeum or monumental public fountain. During the 17th and 18th c., the renewed popularity of these primitive nymphaea was further fostered by the rediscovery of Roman Republican private dining rooms and decorative grottoes in the excavations of the great Campanian villas. This rediscovery led to the increasing popularity-first inltaly, followed by the rest of Europe-of garden amenities taking the shape of decorative grottoes, outdoor dining rooms and ornamental theatres meant to reflect the cultural interests of their aristocratic owners, through the creation of a mostly artificial ancient heritage. This explains why the word 'nymphaeum' has long remained associated with private grottoes and water displays, leaving aside the much more common urban fountains. Unfortunately, this etymological definition was extended later-and without proper evaluation of its relevance-to practically all monumental fountains. This marked the beginning of a long-living but erroneous scholarly tradition that in many respects is still vivid now.

Fig.1 - The Roman Septizodiumby Antonio Lafreri(1846)

In the same period, the tradition of large-size public fountains saw a revival in a few Italian cities. As was the case for private dining rooms and grottoes, this trend was fostered by the curiosity of the time for archaeological remains. The ruins of Rome in particular prompted the admiration of such artists as Martin Van Heemskerk (1498-1574), Antonio Lafreri (1512-1577), both known for their drawings of the Severan Septizodium (Fig. 1), and Giovanni Battista Piranesi (1720-1778), who sketched the Trofeo di Mario. 4 This interest for ancient fountains found a brilliant expression in the mostred'acquabuilt as decorative termini of the renovated aqueducts of Rome.

successors of Roman monumental public fountains, despite the fact that they were primarily built for decorative purposes. They were intended to celebrate the achievements of the wealthy families who had restored the aqueduct network of the city, which had been dismantled at the beginning of the Middle Ages, causing problems of hygiene and epidemics due to the decay of the very efficient Roman water distribution and drainage network of the old city. 5

The Fontana dell' Acqua Paola (Fig. 2) and the Fontana di Trevi, built in 1611 and 1762 respectively, can be considered the legitimate

Griechische Quell- und Brunneninschriften (1859) and Die Plastik der Hellenen an Quellen und Brunnen (1876).6 Curtius followed an

The two fountains were later destroyed or partly dismantled. These drawings are the only known depictions of the standing remains having survived the Middle Ages. On the Septizodium, see infra p. 95 n. 6. On the Trofeo di Mario, see Letzner 1990: 459-461, cat. no 337, with an abundant bibliography. 4

The study of monumental fountains eventually entered the field of scholarly archaeological research with the German scholar E. Curtius (1814-1896), who published Die stiidtischen Wasserbautender Hellenen (1847),

archaeological and philological line of apOn the later history of Rome's water supply, see CoatesStephens 1988; Rinne 1996; 2005; Taylor 2000.

5

' Collected in the GesammelteAbhandlungen von Ernst Curtius published in Berlin in 1894.

3

WATER

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

Fig.2 - Rome,Fontanadell'AcquaPaolaby Piranesi(1756-1757)

proach: his analysis, although strictly limited to Greek fountains, was characterized by a confrontation between recently explored buildings and literary sources. Yet fountains were still considered in their primitivism and purely 'Classical' dimension, i.e. in relation with the alleged cultic properties of water. Compared to his predecessors however, Curtius clearly went beyond a study of architectural and sculptural motifs with the sole purpose of re-interpreting them as works of art. The archaeological focus of his research is obvious, as he included recent fieldwork undertaken in Greece. In that sense, Curtius marked the transition between the art historical interests for a 'Classical' cultural universe and the advent of archaeological encyclopedias, inventories and studies of the late 19th and early 20th c.

b. Early scientific studies of monumental fountains: an interest for etymology and architectural typology The entry 'nymphaeum' in the Dictionnaire des Antiquites Grecques et Romaines showed

4

for the first time an interest for Roman installations other than the various types of buildings called 'nymphaea'. 7 Yet the approach followed by P. Monceaux was still strictly based on etymology: the section entitled 'nymphaeum' is indeed separated from that dealing with smaller fountains, grouped under the heading 'fons'. 8 The equivalence between the Latin word nymphaeum and its Greek predecessor vuµq>cx.1ov is taken as an argument to support the idea that the religious properties associated with the primitive nymphaea survived in the Roman period. An even more problematic implication of this arbitrary etymological definition is the confusion it creates concerning the architectural kinship between the primitive grotto-like cultic installations and the Roman public fountains. Such an argumentation shows how uncertain a definition based on etymology is: all buildings once called 'vuµq>cxtov'and 'nymphaeum' are put in a sequence that is 7

Monceaux 1877-1919: 129-132.

8

Michon 1877-1919: 1227-1239.

BACK TO BASICS

supposed to reflect a formal linear evolution, simply because the name was transferred from one building category to the other. Titis way of thinking-owing much to the interest for cultic grottoes since the Renaissancewas to be followed in most subsequent definitions of Greek and Roman nymphaea. By contrast, the large majority of plainer water installations-the antique name of which often remains unknown-formed a mute reality totally left out of the discussion. The next milestone in the study of Roman monumental fountains was the Manuel d'ArcheologieRomaine edited in 1906 by R. Cagnat and V. Chapot. 9 For the first time, fountains were examined as part of urban water supply systems without attempting to classify them according to their antique denomination. In the chapter 'Distribution d'eau-fontaines', the stamps found on lead water conduits are examined for the first time. Fountains are then classified according to their size and type, from the smaller basins-including the typical lacus lining the streets of Italian cities (Fig. 3)-to the more monumental fountains comprising a large water basin adorned with statuary and waterfalls. A distinction, however, remains between the so-called 'saliens'-a fountain provided with springing water effects-and nymphaea.The latter are defined as fontaines [... ] transformeesen ch.iteauxd'eau de grandes dimensions, somptueusement decores. On applique aces edificesla denominationde nymphee, du nom de ces monuments eleves en pays grec au-dessus d'une fontaine jaillissante consacree aux Nymphes. Titis definition clearly shows that the transfer of terminology from Greek nymphaea to the monuments of the Roman Imperial period was widely accepted. Yet in the two scholars' opinion, it did not necessaril! imply a transmission of the original relig10us properties to the later public fountains. A division was also made between the public and private contexts in which these monuments can be found. ~fter Curtius, the German scholarly tradition followed a similar orientation towards

Fig.3 - Pompeii,fountain of the lacustype

architectural typology and etymology. In the publication of the architecture and sculpture of the nymphaeum of Miletos, 10 a separate section dealt with the developmentof antique fountain architecture.11 The first sentence of this detailed contribution refers to Curtius' pioneering work, but also stresses the necessity of a well-ordered summary of the building ~pes according to their architectural properties: the way towards a more material-oriented approach was open. The review made by Th. Wiegand covers the evolution of fountain architecture from the first manifestations of the phenomenon in the Archaic period down to Roman Imperial nymphaea. The classification is clearly functional-and intended so-at least as far as Greek fountains are concerned. By contrast, the section on Roman monumental fountains was obviously limited to one particular building type, the 'fa~adenymphaeum', which in Wiegand's opinion was meant to extend within the city the cul tic properties of natural springs. The water supplied via the aqueduct was supposed to have kept its religious dimension until the fountain was built as the terminus of the conduit. Apart from this assessment clearly following the old scholarly tradition, the architectural components of nymphaea are described in a 10 Hiilsen 11

9

Cagnat & Chapot 1916: 104-107.

1919.

Zurn Entwicklungder antiken Brunnenarchitekturby Th.

Wiegand, in: Hiilsen 1919: 73-88.

5

WATER

FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

very coherent way: connection to the urban supply network, eventual presence of a reservoir, of an ornamental far;ade, of (an) openair water basin(s) and of statuary decoration. The aesthetic impact of fountain far;ades upon urban spaces was recognized for the first time. The proper architectural classification was based on the ground plan: Wiegand made a distinction between far;ades provided with a single central niche, those articulated around three niches, those taking the shape of a sigma and finally, the multi-storied flat tabernacle far;ades, more typical for Asia Minor. The contribution of Wiegand, through a closer analysis of both the architectural and technical components of monumental fountains, marked a step forward towards a more material-based study of Roman Imperial fountains. In 1937, 0. Reuther developed a long analysis of the word vuµa'i.oue\.c;1tCXA. :·· ·::.........

0

5

l=t::::::t==t=======t

tom

Fig. 20 - Athens, SoutheastFountain of the Athenian Agora, late 611' c. BC

Fig. 21 - Ialysos, fountain-house,4th c. BC

38

A BRIEF OVERVIEW

OF FOUNTAIN

ARCHITECTURE

IN THE GREEK AND ROMAN

EAST

-T~ _l I

Fig. 22 - Kos, niche1ountain at the Asklepieion,Roman period(?)

Fig.23 - Sagalassos,niche-fountainat the north-eastentrance of the LowerAgora,2"d c. AD

II. HELLENISTIC

PERIOD

Niche-fountain

Nischenbrunnen Niche-fontaine Fig. 22-23

Appeared in Greece in the Hellenistic period Popular in all regions until Late Antiquity

Evolution of the isolated stoatype fountain-house

Changes observable from the Hellenistic period onwards

Brunnenhausin Hallenform

Greece and Asia Minor, until the early 1'1 c. AD

Schopfbrunnenhausmit Laufhahn Fontaineaportique + conventional terminology:

Fig. 24-26

Fig. 27

Semi-circular plan attested from the 1•1 c. AD onwards, possibly an Italian influence Elongation of the fac;ade Basin occupying the whole interior space Appearance of the Ionic/ Corinthian orders besides the Doric order Marked central accent (exedra) or pi-shaped ground plan

Kp'fivrJ

Ornamental public fountains

Rectangular niche provided with a single spout and a drawing basin

!!! Not all present at once!!!

New development of the Hellenistic period

Use of water landscaping and decorative effects Spouting or 'dry' statues for ornamental purposes

39

WATER FOR THE CITY, FOUNTAINS

FOR THE PEOPLE

Fig.24 - Miletos,Laodike Fountain,mid. 3rd c. BC

i

1---.-~-r,

__L1--

-·-··-L ___ 1 _L___ _l..---1 ---------! ........ ···-····· -· r....r--·-•!u••~---

-..L-····!---L ____ ,-·_J_.l .. ---··-__ L_)_ - __f

'

' Fig. 25 - Sagalassos,pi-shapedDoricFountain,late 1" c. BC

------.