Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management 3031262700, 9783031262708

Citation preview

SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology Joan Nyika · Megersa Olumana Dinka

Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management

SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology

SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology present concise summaries of cutting-edge research and practical applications. The series focuses on interdisciplinary research bridging between science, engineering applications and management aspects of water. Featuring compact volumes of 50 to 125 pages (approx. 20,000–70,000 words), the series covers a wide range of content from professional to academic such as: . . . .

Literature reviews In-depth case studies Bridges between new research results Snapshots of hot and/or emerging topics

Topics covered are for example the movement, distribution and quality of freshwater; water resources; the quality and pollution of water and its influence on health; and the water industry including drinking water, wastewater, and desalination services and technologies. Both solicited and unsolicited manuscripts are considered for publication in this series.

Joan Nyika · Megersa Olumana Dinka

Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management

Joan Nyika Department of Geoscience and the Environment Technical University of Kenya Nairobi, Kenya

Megersa Olumana Dinka Department of Civil Engineering Science University of Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa

Department of Civil Engineering Science University of Johannesburg Johannesburg, South Africa

ISSN 2194-7244 ISSN 2194-7252 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology ISBN 978-3-031-26270-8 ISBN 978-3-031-26271-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5 © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface

Water management remains one of the most pressing issues of the twenty-first century due to the importance of the commodity in various industrial, economic and environmental processes in addition to its essentiality to the life and wellbeing of the biosphere. Globally, water resources are under threat due to rising pollution and urbanization as countries strive to grow economically and from the effects of climate variation and change. Poor developing nations of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are the most affected by the water crises due to their high vulnerability to pollution and climate change despite limited preparedness to deal with their resultant effects. In this book, the surface- and ground-water resources of SSA region were populated along with their productive capacities and ways in which the population accessed them. Furthermore, the challenges of managing the water resources in rural and urban settings of SSA were discussed. Corrective measures to the challenges were suggested, and the progress of the region towards realizing Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6 on universal water access was assessed and reported using the most recent data. Case examples using pre-existent studies on water issues in SSA were used to explain the concepts discussed throughout the book. In Chap. 1, surface- and ground-water resources found in SSA region were explored, and ways in which the population gets access to the water especially for drinking and sanitation purposes were discussed. In Chap. 2, the water management issues of urban SSA were discussed in details. In Chap. 3, water challenges experienced by rural SSA were explored. In Chap. 4, corrective measures to deal with the water management challenges of rural and urban SSA were detailed. Chapter 5 evaluated the progress of SSA region towards realization of SDG 6 based on the eleven indicators of the goal. Chapter 6 made recommendations useful to improve water management in SSA region holistically and towards sustainable development of the region. Nairobi, Kenya/Johannesburg, South Africa Johannesburg, South Africa

Joan Nyika Megersa Olumana Dinka

v

Contents

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Water Sources in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Surface Water Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Groundwater Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Access to Surface and Ground-Water Resources to SSA Users . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Status of Water Access in Urban SSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Water Challenges in Cities of SSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Unplanned Development in Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Infrastructural Gap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Impact of Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.4 Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.5 Financial Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.6 Socioeconomic Disparities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.7 Lack of Skilled Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.8 Inadequate Water Policies and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.9 Individual Behaviors and Attitudes of Urban Residents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.10 Costs of Water Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.11 Paucity of Water Resources Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 3 3 5 8 13 13 17 17 19 21 21 22 24 25 26 27 28 28 30 31 31 32 32

vii

viii

Contents

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Status of Water Access in Rural SSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Challenges of Water Access in Rural SSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Environmental Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Systemic Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Individual Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

39 39 41 43 44 46 49 50 51

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Water Scarcity of SSA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Management of Water Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Improving Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation to Manage Water Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Good Governance to Manage Water Challenges . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 System Improvements to Manage Water Resources . . . . . . 4.3.4 Financial Investment in the Water Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.5 Deconstructing Gendered Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

57 57 59 60

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean Water in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Components of SDG 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Progress of SDG 6 in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Proportion of Population Using Safely Managed Drinking Water Services (6.1.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Proportion of Population Using Safely Management Sanitation Services (6.2.1a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Proportion of the Population with a Hand Washing Facility with Soap and Water Available at Home (6.2.1b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.4 Proportion of Domestic and Industrial Wastewater Flow that is Safely Treated (6.3.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.5 Proportion of Bodies of Water with Good Ambient Water Quality (6.3.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.6 Change in Water Use Efficiency Over Time (6.4.1) . . . . . . . 5.3.7 Level of Water Stress (6.4.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.8 Degree of IWRM Implementation (6.5.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.9 Proportion of Transboundary Basin Area with an Operational Arrangement for Water Cooperation (6.5.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

61 63 67 69 70 70 71 77 77 79 86 87 89

89 90 91 91 91 93

95

Contents

5.3.10 Change in the Extent of Water-Related Ecosystems Over Time (6.6.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.11 Amount of Water and Sanitation Related Official Assistance that is Part of Government Coordinated Spending Plan (6.a.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.12 Participation of Local Communities in Water and Sanitation Management (6.b.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Recommendations to Improve Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Recommendations to Improve the Management of Water Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Safeguarding Water Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Managing the Risk to Water Investments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Smart and Innovative Water Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 Establish Working Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.5 Enhancing Coherence Decision Making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.6 Managing Water Through Working Partnerships . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

95

96 97 98 99 103 103 104 105 106 107 107 108 109 110 110

Chapter 1

Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa Joan Nyika and Megersa Olumana Dinka

Abstract This chapter explored the sources of water used by sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) for drinking and ways in which users access it. The total amount of renewable water in SSA was reported to be more than 8, 200 cubic kilometers annually (km3 /year) mainly sourced from the western and central areas of the region near the Gulf of Guinea. Surface- and ground-water were the main sources of water. The region was endowed with some of the largest surface water sources globally, which covered more than 100 km2 of its land area. Groundwater water sources were estimated at 660,000 km2 , which is 100 times more compared to the surface waters of the region. Compared to surface water, groundwater was underexploited except in Djibouti and Mauritania. Access to water was through improved and unimproved water services. Improved services were common in urban areas unlike the unimproved services in rural SSA. To improve water access in the region, the need to invest more finances in infrastructure to develop, harness, store, supply and distribute the commodity to users was recommended. Keywords Groundwater · Lakes · Rivers · Sub-Saharan Africa · Surface water · Water access

1.1 Introduction Water is imperative in the sustenance and transformation of living and non-livings things and hence a key component of ecosystems. It is one of the basic indicators of health and well-being of a society and development in a country (Dinka 2018). The importance of water is however valid if it is available in secure and safe levels (Falkenmark 2020). Without meeting the pre-conditions, the resource could be disastrous to human and environmental health. Poor quality water is a potential threat to human health and productivity (Mpenyana-Monyatsi and Momba 2012). For instance, water borne diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, typhoid, hepatitis, giardiasis, amebiasis, scabies, campylobacteriosis, gastroenteritis, and worm infections are linked to lack of safe and secure water access. Africa and mainly sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has the majority share of waterborne disease cases globally at 53%, which stems from transmissions through contaminated and unsafe drinking water (Mutono et al. 2020). The © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka, Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management, SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_1

1

2

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

diseases have a high capacity to cause mortalities and re-channel finances meant for other economic benefits to the health sector. Fuente et al. (2020) reported that more than 2 million children die in the SSA region due to consumption of unsafe drinking water resulting to waterborne diseases. In the region, only 46% of the populace has got access to safe drinking water (Dinka 2018). Therefore, provision of adequate supply of safe and quality water sustainably is a key determinant, which life depends on. In addition to the health effects of lack of adequate water supply to human health, negative economic effects emanating from lost working and learning time to look for safe water are incurred. Projections up to 2050 showed that SSA region will continue to experience the economic losses of time spent for water collection unless remedial measures on sustainable water management are put in place (Fuente et al. 2020). Consequently, the global goal to avail water to all populations sustainably remains a top priority with concern being raised in regions threatened by unsafe, unreliable and short-term water availability. The sustainable development goals (SDGs), whose foundation is the millennium development goals (MDGs) also emphasize the need for universal access to water. The quantities of the water should be adequate to meet population needs and its quality should be high to ensure enhanced health effects. In particular, SDG 6 is aimed at ensuring, “availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” towards universal access to safe water by 2030 (Chitonge et al. 2020, p. 189). Similarly, water has been recognized as a basic right that every human being should have access to by the 1997 Mar Del Plata Action Plan, which was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly as noted by Weinthal (2020). The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) argued that water “is a prerequisite for the realization of other human rights”, which was because, “human right to water is indispensable for leading a life in human dignity” (2002, p.1). In constitutions of many SSA countries such as South Africa, the access to water for all is recognized as a basic human right (Dinka 2018). The population getting access to clean and safe water and the proximity of the water source to their residence are the important indicators of access to the resource. According to the World Water Assessment Program of the United Nations (2006), adequate access to water should be at least 20 L daily in a maximum proximity of 1 km. The World Health Organization (2003) recommended 50–100 L of water per person daily as the adequate amount to meet basic hygiene needs without any health concerns. Similarly, the WHO stipulated that water costs should be < 10% of the sum of household income and it should be availed free of extreme efforts (WHO 2017). To quantify these indicators of quality and safe water access, it is important to make an account of available resources of water, the population that has access to them and their production capacity. These undertakings are especially essential in the SSA region where the population is growing, its vulnerability to waterborne diseases is high and climate change is taking its toll on natural resources including water resources. This chapter provided an account of water sources available in SSA region and ways in which the population accesses them for drinking purposes.

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa

3

1.2 Water Sources in Sub-Saharan Africa The total amount of renewable water sources in SSA are approximately 8204 cubic kilometers annually (km3 /y), which is equivalent to 14% of the world’s total (FAOAquastat 2018). Of the total amount of water in the region, 72% is from the western regions that traverse the Gulf of Guinea and the central region, where only 34% of the total population reside (McClain 2012). The SSA region is well-water endowed owing to the available groundwater and surface water systems. However, climate variations influence rainfall distribution in the region and ultimately, available water sources (Eludoyin and Olanrewaju 2021). For instance, countries experiencing monsoon and equatorial climates in SSA have at least 50% of the regions surface water compared to other climatic regions. In this chapter, we discuss water sources of SSA under two categories: (1) surface water and (2) groundwater.

1.2.1 Surface Water Sources Africa, which mainly includes SSA (the area below the Sahara) is endowed with many surface water bodies and rives, some that are transboundary in nature. Table 1.1 showed some of the largest surface water bodies, the area they cover in 1000 km2 and the countries they share water with (Matondo 2010). The river basins including Lake Chad cover a drainage area of more than 14.8 million km2 and service 36 SSA countries and Egypt (in the Sahara Desert). The water bodies also include the Congo and Nile River basins, which are the largest and longest in the region, respectively in reference to their drainage and discharge areas (Laraque et al. 2020). There are 61 other international rivers in the SSA region shared by two or more countries. These river basins are also shown in Fig. 1.1. In addition to river basins, SSA region is host to three of the ten largest freshwater lakes of the world with respect to volume and ratio. These include lakes Malawi, Tanganyika and Victoria (Herrnegger et al. 2021). Lake Victoria although shallow, covers an area of 68,800 km2 and is rated as the second largest freshwater lake globally. Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi rank as the second and third deepest lakes in the world, respectively (Southern Africa Development Community, SADC 2022). The region also has at least 160 lakes covering a surface area of more than 27 km2 . Among these is Lake Chad, which is the largest endorheic basin in the planet and covers an area of 2.5 million km2 (Goudie 2002). The distribution of some of the lakes is as shown in Fig. 1.1. The discharge from the river and lakes basins varies temporally and spatially due to the contribution of climatic changes in the region. However, being freshwater sources, a considerable proportion of water used for consumptive uses especially drinking, is abstracted from the surface water bodies. To supply the surface water, countries with large surface waters construct dams and reservoirs to store and treat the water before its distribution. Apart from storing water for drinking, the reservoirs are used for hydropower generation and to supply

4

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Table 1.1 Some of the largest river and lake basins in SSA region (Matondo 2010) Basin name

Area covered (1000 km2 )

Number of countries sharing the basin

Name of the countries

Congo

3720

10

Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Rwanda, Burundi, Cameroon, Tanzania, Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon

Nile

3031

11

Eritrea, Democratic Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia

Niger

2200

9

Chad, Ivory Coast, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Guinea, Niger, Nigeria, Mali

Lake Chad

1910

6

Cameroon, Sudan, Nigeria, Central African Republic, Niger, Chad

Zambezi

1385

8

Namibia, Tanzania, Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Angola

Orange

950

4

Lesotho, Botswana, Namibia, South Africa

Juba- Shebelle

804

3

Somalia, Kenya, Ethiopia

Okavango

529

4

Zimbabwe, Namibia, Angola, Botswana

Limpopo

385

4

Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa

Volta

379

6

Mali, Benin, Ivory Coast, Togo, Burkina Faso, Ghana

Senegal

353

4

Guinea, Senegal, Mauritania, Mali

Lake Turkana

208

4

South Sudan, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia

Cuvelai-Etosha

160

2

Angola, Namibia

Major River Basins

Minor River Basins

(continued)

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa

5

Table 1.1 (continued) Basin name

Area covered (1000 km2 )

Number of countries sharing the basin

Name of the countries

Awash

155

3

Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti

Ruvuma

152

2

Mozambique, Malawi

Kunene

110

2

Namibia, Angola

Maputo

77

3

South Africa, Mozambique, Swaziland

Gambia

70

3

Senegal, Guinea, Gambia

Komati

45

3

South Africa, Eswatini, Mozambique

water for agricultural irrigation. The SSA region has great hydropower generation potential globally owing to its many surface water resources and many of its countries including Ethiopia, Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya and Sudan rely on it for electricity (International Hydropower Association, IHA 2022). Additionally, the countries have already installed power capacity of more than 1900 megawatts from hydropower (IHA 2022). According to Pena Ramos et al. (2022), SSA has constructed more than 2000 dams and construction is underway for another 200. Although the dams are much smaller compared to the region’s lakes, they are some of the largest artificial water resources globally. Table 1.2 shows some of the largest dams in SSA and their characteristics.

1.2.2 Groundwater Sources Human settlement exclusive of riparian zones in SSA is determined by groundwater resources availability (Lapworth et al. 2017). The water is accessed through springs and hand-dug wells. In contemporary society, groundwater is a more preferred water resource in both rural and urban areas of the region. The trend is associated with 3 main advantages of groundwater, which include: i. The capacity stored in natural aquifers is high ii. The quality of the water in most cases is high due to the climate and pollution resilience associated with groundwater systems and iii. The infrastructure to develop groundwater resources is slowly becoming more affordable even to the poor. According to Pavelic et al. (2012), more than 100 million people in SSA rural and urban areas use groundwater for consumptive uses especially in drier south eastern, eastern and western regions that receive rainfall levels < 100 mm annually. Closas and Molle (2016) noted that more than 30% of urban poor population depend on groundwater through public vendors or taps, boreholes and shared wells. A study

6

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 1.1 Lakes and River basins found in Africa and mostly the SSA region (Papa et al. 2022) (obtained for free under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 international license)

by Schultes et al. (2022) highlighted that 45% of the 59% rural population of SSA relies on borehole water for consumptive uses. In Africa, groundwater resources are estimated at 660,000 km2 , a figure that is 100 times more compared to the region’s surface water (Calatayud and Benito 2012). In SSA alone, more than 1400 km3 /y of renewable groundwater is approximated (Leader and Wijnen 2019). The figure can be equated to 15 years of the mean total flow of the Nile River, which is the longest in the region. The groundwater resources of the region are the main suppliers of water in major cities such as Cape Town and Lagos (Sperling and Sami 2019). Due to seepage of contaminated surface water to

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa

7

Table 1.2 Largest dams in SSA and their characteristics (Pena-Ramos et al. 2022) Name of the dam

Country

Area covered (km2 )

Volume (km3 )

Maximum depth (m)

Akosombo

Ghana

8502

150

70

Kariba

Zambia

5400

180

100

Cahora Bassa

Mozambique

2730

52

100

Grand Renaissance Dam

Ethiopia

8502

150

70

Gilgel Gibbe III

Ethiopia

210

14.7

244

Kainji

Nigeria

1300

16.8

65

Tekeze

Ethiopia

105

9.3

188

Gariep

South Africa

374

5.5

88

the aquifers, their sustainability is a growing concern (Masindi and Foteinis 2021). In some cases, water from the aquifers is also being abstracted more than the recharge rates, which is a threat to water accessibility in the future (MacDonald et al. 2021). The concern with such tendencies is that depletion or exploitation of groundwater is realized at a speedier rate compared to rate of recharge and discharge of the resource, which compromises the sustainability of the resource (Nigate et al. 2020). Groundwater is unevenly distributed in SSA such that thick unconsolidated and poorly consolidated sedimentary fossil aquifers located to the northern parts of the region are highly productive (>20 l/s) while smaller aquifers of crystalline basement rocks at lower regions of SSA have low yields of 1.0–0.3 l/s (MacDonald et al. 2012). Both the high and low yields aquifers can be supported by handpump abstraction and their recharge variations are inter-annual. The variations in aquifer productivity across SSA and the rest of Africa was surveyed by the British Geological Survey and is as shown in Fig. 1.2 (Closas and Molle 2016; Herrnegger et al. 2021). The access to groundwater resources in SSA is highly dependent on the water table depth and aquifer type. In depths < 50 m, water is accessible easily via handpumps while the abstraction costs increase significantly at depths > 100 m making access sophisticated and difficult among the poor. The storage just as the yields vary spatially and temporally. Estimates showing groundwater stored in SSA region are summarized in Table 1.3 based on a study by Cobbing and Hiller (2019). The sum of stored groundwater was estimated at 60 km2 by Scanlon et al. (2021) compared to 0.66 million km3 by Closas and Molle (2016). In another study, SSA region water recharge was estimated at 1,400 km3 annually with only about 1.4% (20 km3 ) being abstracted for consumptive uses annually (Cobbing and Hiller 2019). The proportions of groundwater used was compared to the storage levels (Table 1.3) and only Mauritania and Djibouti had surplus use of the resource while others had excess groundwater levels. Variations in storage estimates are a result of time and space changes in recharge of aquifer system, differences in the models used to estimate groundwater productivity in various studies and the scanty data on productivity of groundwater resources in SSA (Cobbing 2020; Herrnegger et al. 2021). However,

8

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 1.2 Aquifer productivity in Africa including the sub-Saharan Africa (Closas and Molle 2016) (obtained for free from the British Geological Survey website: https://www.bgs.ac.uk/geology-pro jects/africa-groundwater-atlas/)

groundwater storage was reported as higher compared to surface water in all the studies assessed, which makes it a potential and sustainable water source in the region.

1.3 Access to Surface and Ground-Water Resources to SSA Users The aforementioned sources of surface- and ground-water available in SSA must be accessed by the population for use. Two options of access are available: (1) improved and (2) unimproved services (Armah et al. 2018). The latter describes the drawing of water directly from ponds, lakes, dams, rivers, unprotected dug wells, unprotected springs, irrigation and stream canals. Improved services define water available in protected springs and dug wells, tube-wells, boreholes, pipes, rainwater and package water. The Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) by WHO/UNICEF (2017) defined improved sources of surface- or ground-water as those designed and

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa Table 1.3 Groundwater storage and percentage consumption in SSA countries (Cobbing and Hiller 2019)

Country

Groundwater storage (km3 )

9 Groundwater consumption rate (%)

Angola

58

0.7

Benin

1.8

9.4

Botswana

1.7

8.2

Burkina Faso

9.5

4.1

Burundi

7.5

2.1

Cameroon

100

0.4

Central African Republic

56

0.1

Chad

11.5

3.9

Congo Democratic Republic

421

0.3

Congo Brazzaville

122

0.0

Cote d’Ivoire

37.8

1.0

Djibouti

0.02

133.3

Equatorial Guinea

10

0.1

Eritrea

0.5

18

Ethiopia

20

7.5

Gabon

62

0.0

Gambia

0.5

6.0

Ghana

26.3

1.9

Guinea

38

0.2

Guinea Bissau

14

0.2

Kenya

3.5

17.7

Lesotho

0.5

4.0

Liberia

45

0.2

Madagascar

55

0.7

Malawi

2.5

11.2

Mali

20

1.7

Mauritania

0.3

253.3

Mozambique

17

2.6

Namibia

2.1

7.1

Niger

2.5

5.6

Nigeria

87

4.0

Rwanda

7

2.9

Senegal

3.5

21.1

Sierre Leone

25

0.4 (continued)

10 Table 1.3 (continued)

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka Country

Groundwater storage (km3 )

Groundwater consumption rate (%)

Somalia

3.3

8.5

South Africa

4.8

65.4

Sudan and South Sudan

7

8.4

Swaziland

0.66

6.1

Tanzania

30

3.3

Togo

5.7

1.9

Uganda

29

2.1

Zambia

47

0.6

Zimbabwe

6

7.2

constructed to provide safe drinking water, are availed to a specified premises, are contamination/pollution-free and available when needed. As reported by Fuente et al. (2020), there has been notable progress since the 1990s to provide improved water services (Fig. 1.3). The MDGs Report by the UN (2015) noted that access to safe water increased in the region to 68% in 2015 from 49% in 1990. The report also noted that the progress was not sufficient to meet the MDG on reducing the population without safe access to water by 50%. The trend was a result of discrepancies in access to improved water by the urban and rural population of the region. In another study examining the progress in access to improved water services in 15 countries of SSA region, the number of people using improved water services rose from 47 to 60 and 74% in the periods between 1990–1995, 200–2005 and 2010– 2015, respectively (Armah et al. 2018). The disparities in access to improved and unimproved services in named SSA countries are specified in Table 1.4. Similarly, the population sourcing water from unimproved sources reduced from 53 to 40 and to 26%, respectively in the same periods. However, access was highly varied among rural and urban residents with the latter being favored as shown in Table 1.4. Variations in water access are because of the temporal and spatial differences in water distribution in the region. Some areas have excess water resources while other are water stressed. In addition, some regions experience economic water stress, where water is physically available but, its quality has been compromised and infrastructure to treat it is limited. Fuente et al. (2020) also reported tremendous progress in coverage of the SSA population with improved water services. In their study, the authors reported improved access to water through piping into houses, installation of standpipes/ public taps, use of boreholes, protected springs and dug well and through water harvesting. Figure 1.3 shows the changing trend in a period of 25 years. Evidently, the access to improved water services rose from 33 to 55% by 2015 while the preference to unimproved water services reduced to 10 from 24% in 1990. The access to piped water reduced despite the rise in access to other improved water services. The

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa

11

Fig. 1.3 The changing trends in access to water in SSA region from 1990 to 2015 (Fuente et al. 2020) (obtained for free under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 international license) Table 1.4 Trends in access to improved and unimproved water in specified SSA countries (Armah et al. 2018) Country

1990–1995 Unimproved (%)

Senegal

2000–2005 Improved (%)

Unimproved (%)

2010–2015 Improved (%)

Unimproved (%)

Improved (%)

41

59

26

74

56

44

Cote d’Ivoire 41

59

33

67

55

45

Ghana

31

69

29

71

32

68

Kenya

16

84

17

83

52

48

Madagascar

56

44

33

67

85

15

Mali

23

77

16

84

17

83

Namibia

64

36

47

53

50

50

Rwanda

7

93

4

96

28

72

Burkina Faso 56

44

69

31

67

33

Tanzania

17

83

18

82

62

38

Uganda

16

84

13

87

48

52

Zambia

33

67

31

69

58

42

Zimbabwe

38

62

32

68

30

70

Mean Rural Access

68

32

53

47

35

65

Mean Urban Access

14

86

13

87

8

92

12

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

trend is attributable to rural–urban migration whereby in the rural villages, unimproved water services are preferred while in the urban setting, piped water is the only option to access water (Fuente et al. 2020). Country data from Burkina Faso, Uganda, Kenya, Zambia and Tanzania showed that 89, 71, 59, 83 and 50% of their urban population had access to piped water in 2015 (Eberhard 2019). In a 2020 report, 57, 42.8, 57.7, 56.9 and 65.9% of people in the countries had access to piped water in their premises in respective order (World Economic Forum 2022). In the latest evaluation, more than 54% urbanites and 13% rural residents of SSA had access to safely managed drinking water services by 2019 (WHO and UNICEF 2022). Those with the safely managed drinking water services in their premises were 56 and 13% in urban and rural areas, respectively while those with water services free of contamination were 54 and 23% in respective order (WHO and UNICEF 2022). Only 16 and 7% used unimproved water services and surface water for drinking in 2019, which was a significant drop from 19 and 10% in 2014 (WHO and UNICEF 2022). The new urbanites with access to piped water increased though the coverage reduced as a result of rapid urbanization and population increase in many towns. In a study by Pavelic et al. (2012) assessing the availability and use of groundwater in fifteen SSA countries, the authors noted that there is a steady rise in the drilling of boreholes and protected wells in all countries to solicit water for consumptive uses especially drinking purposes. Evidently, the access to improved surface- and ground-water in SSA is rising compared to the statistics of the last two decades. Although the developments are steady, they lag behind compared to other developed regions that have made tremendous progress in providing safe and secure water. The Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) of the World Bank (2018) agreed that progress has been made in improving water services in the SSA but such measures must be reinforced with appropriate frameworks to coordinate and sustain them. The program also suggested the need to channel more finances to building the water infrastructure from unimproved water resources to transform them to improved ones through public and private partnerships of countries of SSA. There are also apparent differences in the access to safe water among nations of SSA. In South Africa for instance, 91% have access to safe water compared to 38% of the population in Ethiopia (World Bank 2019). The differences stem from the financial investments by individual countries towards enhancing water infrastructure and its safety before consumption. In the SSA region, water access coverage for the rural (at 47%) population is half that of urban (at 83%) areas (Roche et al. 2017). In the latter, investment to improve water services is higher though the demographic growth is exceedingly higher. For this reason, rural areas that have lesser population pressure develop safe water access faster compared to urban areas. To ensure holistic development and access to improved water services, SSA must invest in identifying the challenges hindering universal access to water in the region and ways to manage them sustainably.

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa

13

1.4 Conclusions SSA region is endowed with many surface water sources including rivers, lakes and dams. Examples include the Congo River, Nile River, Lakes Malawi, Tanganyika and Victoria as well as the Akosombo and Kariba dams. The region is also endowed with aquifers that are highly productive and with high potential if developed. The two sources of water are temporally and spatially variable in the region. Temporal variations stem from fluctuations in climate especially precipitation while spatial variation is a natural phenomenon. The water can be accessed via both improved and unimproved services. Improved services are found within a premise, they are free of contamination and available when needed while unimproved services are unprotected and vulnerable to pollution. The rural population with access to improved drinking water services in SSA was lower compared to the urbanites with similar privileges due to infrastructural and financial investment disparities in the water sector, where the latter is favored. However, the urban water sector has to withstand the pressures of the growing population and urbanization trends, where many in towns remain underserved with water services. Rural residents have to endure, neglect in their water services infrastructure and a high preference to unimproved water services. To ensure water access is increased in rural and urban SSA, more investments are needed in improving water infrastructure through better financing to the utility providers to prevent economic water scarcity.

References Armah F, Ekumah B, Yawson D, Odoi J, Afitiri A, Nyieku F (2018) Access to improved water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa in a quarter century. Heliyon 4:e00931. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00931 Calatayud J, Benito E (2012) Un océano bajo las arenas de África. El País. Available at: https://elp ais.com/sociedad/2012/07/29/actualidad/1343581582_694591.html Chitonge H, Mokoena A, Kongo M (2020) Water and sanitation inequality in Africa: challenges for SDG 6. In: Africa and the sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham, pp 207–218. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14857-7_20 Closas A, Molle F (2016) Groundwater governance in sub-Saharan Africa. IWMI Project Report No. 2 Cobbing J, Hiller B (2019) Waking a sleeping giant: realizing the potential of groundwater in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Dev 122:597–613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.06.024 Cobbing J (2020) Groundwater and the discourse of shortage in sub-Saharan Africa. Hydrogeol J 28:1143–1154. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-020-02147-5 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) (2002) General comment no. 15. United Nations, Geneva Dinka MO (2018) Safe drinking water: concepts, benefits, principles and standards. In: Glavan M (ed) Water challenges of an urbanizing world. IntechOpen, London. https://doi.org/10.5772/int echopen.71352 Eberhard R (2019) Access to water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Bonn, Germany

14

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Eludoyin A, Olanrewaju O (2021) Water supply and quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Lange Salvia A, Wall T (eds) Clean water and sanitation. encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31970061-8_166-1 Falkenmark M (2020) Water resilience and human life support- global outlook for the next half century. Water Resour Dev 36(2–3):377–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2019.1693983 FAO-AQUASTAT (2018) FAO’s global information system on water and agriculture. Available at: https://www.fao.org/aquastat/es/ Fuente D, Allaire M, Jeuland M, Whittington D (2020) Forecasts of mortality and economic losses from poor water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS ONE 15(3):e0227611. https://doi. org/10.1371/journal.pone.0227611 Goudie A (2002) Great warm deserts of the world: landscapes and evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford, New York Herrnegger M, Stecher G, Schwatke C, Olang L (2021) Hydroclimatic analysis of rising water levels in the Great rift Valley lakes of Kenya. J Hydrol Reg Stud 36:100857. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.ejrh.2021.100857 International Hydropower Association (2022) Region profile: Africa. Available at: https://www.hyd ropower.org/region-profiles/africa#:~:text=Africa%20has%20among%20the%20largest,its% 20economy%20using%20renewable%20energy Laraque A, N’kaya G, Orange D, Tshimanga R, Tshitenge JM, Mahé G, Nguimalet CR, Trigg MA, Yepez S, Gulemvuga G, (2020) Recent budget of hydroclimatology and hydrosedimentology of the Congo River in central Africa. Water 12:2613. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12092613 Lapworth D, Nkhuwa D, Okotto J, Pedley S, Stuart M, Tijani M, Wright J (2017) Urban groundwater quality in sub-Saharan Africa: current status and implications for water security and public health. Hydrogeol J 25:1093–1116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-016-1516-6 Leader T, Wijnen M (2019) Assessment of groundwater challenges & opportunities in support of sustainable development in Sub-Saharan Africa. World Bank, Washington DC, USA. MacDonald A, Bonsor H, Dochartaigh B, Taylor R (2012) Quantitative maps of groundwater resources in Africa. Environ Res Lett 7:024009. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/7/2/024009 Macdonald A, Lark R, Taylor R, Abiye T, Fallas H, Favreau G et al (2021) Mapping groundwater recharge in Africa from ground observations and implications for water security. Environ Res Lett 16:034012. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abd661 Masindi V, Foteinis S (2021) Groundwater contamination in sub-Saharan Africa: implications for groundwater protection in developing countries. Clean Eng Technol 2:100038. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.clet.2020.100038 Matondo J (2010) Adaptation options to climate change and variability on the water resources in Africa. Proceedings of the Second Science with Africa Conference 201–216 McClain M (2012) Balancing water resources development and environmental sustainability in Africa: a review of recent research findings and applications. AMBIO J Hum Environ 42:549– 565. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-012-0359-1 Mpenyana-Monyatsi L, Momba M (2012) Assessment of groundwater quality in the rural areas of the North West Province, South Africa. Sci Res Essays 7(8):903–914. https://doi.org/10.5897/ SRE11.906 Mutono N, Wright J, Mutembei H, Muema J, Thomas M, Mutunga M, Thumbi S (2020) The nexus between improved water supply and water-borne diseases in urban areas in Africa: a scoping revies protocol. AAS Open Res 3(12):1–7. https://doi.org/10.12688/aasopenres.13063.2 Nigate F, Camp M, Yenehun A, Belay A, Walraevens K (2020) Recharge-discharge relations of groundwater in volcanic terrain of semi-humid tropical highlands of Ethiopia: the case of Infranz Springs, in the Upper Blue Nile. Water 12(3):853. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12030853 Papa F, Cretaux J, Grippa M, Robert E, Trigg M, Tshimanga R et al (2022) Water resources in Africa under global change: monitoring surface waters from space. Surv Geophys. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9

1 Introduction to Water Resources of Sub-Saharan Africa

15

Pavelic P, Giordano M, Keraita B, Ramesh V, Rao T (2012) Groundwater availability and use in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of 15 countries. Int Water Manag Inst, Sri Lanka. https://doi.org/ 10.5337/2012.213 Pena-Ramos J, Bedmar R, Sastre F, Martinez A (2022) Water conflicts in sub-Saharan Africa. Front Environ Sci, 19. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.863903 Roche R, Bain R, Cumming O (2017) A long way to go—estimates of combined water, sanitation and hygiene coverage for 25 sub-Saharan African countries. PLoS ONE 12(2):e0171783. https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0171783 Southern African Development Community (2022) In Southern Africa environment outlook Harare: Nairobi, Kenya: SADC; SARDC: IUCN-The world conservation union (Gaborone, Botswana: IUCN–The World Conservation Union, and United Nations Environment Program United Nations Environment Program). Southern African Research and Documentation Centre. Scanlon B, Rateb A, Anyamba A, Kebede S, MacDonald A, Shamsudduha M et al (2021) Linkages between GRACE water storage, hydrologic extremes and climate teleconnections in major African aquifers. Environ Res Lett 17:014046. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac3bfc Schultes O, Sikder M, Agyapong E, Sodipo M, Naumova E, Kosinski K, Kulinkina A (2022) Longitudinal borehole functionality in 15 rural Ghanaian towns from three groundwater quality clusters. BMC Res Notes 15:114. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13104-022-05998-1 Sperling J, Sarni W (2019) Sustainable and resilient water and energy futures: from new ethics and choices to urban nexus strategies. Intech Open, London. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen. 82825 United Nations, World Water Assessment Program (2006) Water: a shared responsibility, vol 2. Berghahn Books, New York United Nations (2015) The millennium development goals report 2015. Berghahn Books, New York Weinthal E (2020) Water as a human right. J Hum Rights 19(3). https://doi.org/10.1080/14754835. 2020.1752161 Water and Sanitation Program (2018) Key to Africa’s progress in water and sanitation. World Bank, Washington DC, USA World Bank (2019) Improves water source (% of population with access. Washington DC, USA World Economic Forum (2022) Low water accessibility in sub-Saharan Africa means children are having to go to wells instead of to school. How big is the problem? WEF, Geneva, Switzerland World Health Organization (WHO) (2003) Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE), Water Aid, Centre on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The right to water. http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/ Right_to_Water.pdf World Health Organization (2017) Guidelines for drinking-water quality: fourth edition incorporating the first addendum. WHO, Geneva. License: CC BY-NC-SA3.0 IGO World Health Organization (WHO) & United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and SDG baselines WHO & UNICEF (2022) UN-water SDG 6 data portal. https://www.sdg6data.org/

Chapter 2

Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa Joan Nyika and Megersa Olumana Dinka

Abstract Improved water access, supply and hygiene is one of the priorities defined in the sustainable development goals to be realized by 2030. However, sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has had challenges making progress towards the realization. This chapter examined the impediments experienced by SSA countries towards universal water access. Findings showed that issues such as the unprecedented growth in population due to rural–urban migration, infrastructural gaps, financial and human capacity limitations, poor governance, disparities in water provision among urbanites based on socioeconomic status and negative attitudes towards hygiene and sanitation leading to water pollution challenge access to safe and adequate water in the region. Overall, the challenges are exacerbated by climate change and the effects of the phenomenon. Moving forward, an overhaul of management by water utility providers in conjunction with the private sector, improved funding for the water sector and behavioral adjustments among urban water users are keys in reversing the current situation. Keywords Challenges · Cities · Climate change · Sub-Saharan Africa · Urbanization · Water scarcity

2.1 Introduction Urbanization, which describes the increase in persons dwelling in cities and the expansion of the size and area occupied by urban settlements is on a growing trend globally (United Nations, UN 2021). Projections show that the global urban population will grow by 2.5 billion people by 2050 as a result of migration from rural areas and natural increase pushing the people dwelling in urban regions from 3.9 billion in 2014 to more than 6.3 billion by 2050 (UN-Department of Economic and Social Affairs, DESA 2015). In particular, the urban population of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region will triple to 1.1 billion from 346 million by 2020 and further increase to 2.0 billion by 2050. A study by Plecher (2020) noted that the urban population of SSA was approximately 869 million in 2010 but it increased to 1.1 billion by 2019 (UN 2019). Compared to the global statistics, 8 of the top 10 most urbanizing countries are in the SSA region and include Mali, Eritrea, Niger, Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka, Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management, SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_2

17

18

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Table 2.1 Estimates of population growth dynamics in named SSA cities (UN/DESA 2015) City

Country

Population

Percentage population change/year

2000

2030

2016

2000–2016

2016–2030

Ouagadougou

Burkina Faso

921

2923

5854

7.2

5.0

Onitsha

Nigeria

533

1165

2147

4.9

4.4

7281

13,661

24,239

3.9

4.1

Lagos

833

2586

4913

7.1

4.6

Niamey

Niger

696

1125

2363

3.0

5.3

N’Djamena

Chad

703

1310

2347

3.9

4.2

Abuja

Mogadishu

Samalia

1201

2265

4176

4.0

4.4

Lusaka

Zambia

1073

2285

4365

4.7

4.6

Kampala

Uganda

1097

2012

3939

3.8

4.8

Huambo

Angola

578

1337

2537

5.2

4.6

Dar es Salam

Tanzania

2272

5409

10,760

5.4

4.9

Bamako

Mali

1142

2651

5231

5.3

4.9

Antananarivo

Madagascar

1361

2739

5073

4.4

4.4

Addis Ababa

Ethiopia

2377

3316

5851

2.1

4.1

Burkina Faso and Rwanda in ascending order of mean yearly rate of change in total urban population (UN/DESA 2015). Changes in the urban population growth was rated at 4–5% yearly as shown in Table 2.1 such that the urban populace of the region will supersede the rural population at 55% by 2050. The consequences of the rapid urban population growth are the emergence of secondary cities and the areal expansion of metropolitan areas. Dos Santos et al. (2017) noted that population growth in SSA cities is characteristic of unplanned or informal settlements where provision of basic services including access to safe water and sanitation is inadequate. According to the UN-Habitat (2014), 62% of the urban population in the region live in slums and in some cities such as Nairobi in Kenya, informal settlers consist of 75% of total urban residents. Although urban population increased from 30 to 45% between 1990 and 2014, the number of people living in slums rose from 689 to 881 million in the same period with SSA region having more that 55% of its population dwelling in such unplanned settlements (UN-Habitat 2016). With these tendencies, majority of the urban population is deprived off basic services including safe housing, electricity, water and sanitation services. Bishoge (2021) agreed with these suggestions noting that SSA cities such as Kigali, Pretoria, Nairobi, Dar es Salaam and Lagos are growing way faster than their capacity to provide basic services to the population. The situation is prompted by the development of slums at city borders and on squatter land that is not fitted with appropriate infrastructure to offer basic services. The consequence of lacking basic services is a negative impact on human health and quality of life among the city dwellers as noted by Pariente (2017).

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

19

In the water sector, rapid urbanization coupled with informal settlements overwhelms the infrastructure and regulatory institutions mandated with provision of water services as they attempt to respond to the demand. In addition to slum dwellers, most SSA cities are experiencing the emergence of the middle class stemming from economic growth and whose water demands are rising (Lappeman et al. 2021). For these reasons, McDonald et al. (2011) projected that urban dwellers suffering from long-term water shortage around the globe will rise to 162 million by 2050 from 24 million in 2000. In SSA, cities such as Lagos in Nigeria, Ouagadougou in Burkina Faso, Niamey in Niger, Kampala in Uganda and Bamako in Mali are at high etiology of being water stressed (UN/DESA 2015). Cities such as Gaborone of Botswana and Windhoek of Namibia, Ibadan of Nigeria and Nairobi of Kenya also experience water shortages due to rapid urbanization and growth of informal settlers (Guneralp et al. 2018). This chapter explores the state of water access in urban areas of SSA and particularly, the challenges that hinder universal access of the commodity among city dwellers. Universal access to water is sustainable development goal (SDG) 6 of the 17 SDGs that should be realized by 2030.

2.2 Status of Water Access in Urban SSA The global population has been growing steadily. Statistics by the UN (2019) project the growth of population to 10.9, 9.7 and 8.5 billion by 2100, 2050 and 2030 up from 5.7, 6.7 and 7.7 billion in 2019, 2007 and 1994, respectively. Similarly, urbanization trends since 1950 have been growing from 30 to 55% in 2018. The trend has resulted to a larger urban population compared to rural population (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). In 2050, developing nations of the world including SSA will host 83% of the global urban population with low-income and low-middle income countries forecasted to experience more significant urbanization rates compared to the rest of the world. In SSA, the urban population will triple and low-income countries such as Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Niger, Malawi, Comoros and Chad will record the highest urbanization rates (UN/DESA 2018). Nigeria alone is projected to double its current urban population to 189 million by 2050 (UN/DESA 2018). Cities in Tanzania and the Democratic Republic of Congo will follow the same trend. With the urban population explosion, cities of SSA will have unprecedented strain on the infrastructure and human needs compromising sustainable development in the region (Tutino 2019). Cities of SSA are already experiencing strain in water security due to a rising demand compared to available supplies. Although, there are limitations of available data, in several SSA countries, the access to water in urban areas has been on a declining trend as shown in Table 2.2 (Genneken et al. 2012). Statistics by the sustainable development goals center for Africa (SDGC/A) and sustainable development solutions network (SDSN) (2020) aimed at monitoring the access to clean water and sanitation in SSA countries show that major challenges impeding universal access to safe and secure water (SDG 6) remain unaddressed with exception of Botswana. According to WHO/UNICEF (2015), the number of people in urban SSA

20

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Table 2.2 Urban access to drinking water between 2000 and 2008 in named SSA countries in percentage of the population covered (Genneken et al. 2012) Country

2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Mean yearly change

Togo Tanzania

39 90

81.7

Sierra Leone Mozambique

83

Central African Republic

−1.7

71

Cote d’Ivoire

90

Congo Republic Congo Democratic

−1.3

80

54 60

52

52

46 37

45

46

45

−1.3

38

−2.4

28

accessing improved services increased from 83 to 87% in 1990 to 2015 while those who accessed piped water decreased from 43 to 33% in the same period. Although UNICEF/WHO (2019) reported that SSA had at least 25% of its population with access to basic drinking water, they also noted that the region will fall short of the goal to provide universal access to water based on the fact that only 6.8 million had access to a basic drinking service in 2017 and only 96% coverage will be realized by 2030. Although strides are being made to make water accessible, large cities of SSA remain vulnerable to water deficit marked by a wide gap between supply and demand for the resource (Niasse and Varis 2020). The most notable case was in South Africa’s Cape Town city ‘Day Zero’ in 2018 when regulatory authorities had planned to disconnect water supply throughout the city as a result of significant reductions in supply and higher demand for the commodity (Burls et al. 2019). Water demand in urban SSA was projected to increase by 283% between 2005 and 2030 meaning that other sectors using the commodity such as agriculture will have to be deprived off about 93 billion m3 of water supply to meet the demand (Jacobsen et al. 2012). The drivers to this demand arise from urbanization and population growth trends. Mekonnen and Hoekstra (2016) noted that SSA countries such as Somalia and Nigeria have majority of their population at (about 100 million people) 80–90% and 50–55% of total populace, respectively experiencing water scarcity especially in urban areas. A number of challenges are associated with the apparent crisis of the commodity in urban SSA as discussed in the following section.

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

21

2.3 Water Challenges in Cities of SSA The challenges associated with water access in urban areas are discussed in this section under eleven sub-sections. These include: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi.

Unplanned development in cities Infrastructural gap Impact of climate change Pollution Lack of finances Socioeconomic disparities Lack of skilled staff Inadequate water policies and strategies Individual behaviors and attitudes of urban residents Costs of water access Paucity of water resources data.

2.3.1 Unplanned Development in Cities Urban sprawl in SSA is ineffective and costly in terms of sustainability (Lall et al. 2017). The cities are crowded by people living in packed slums without adequate infrastructure to access or supply drainage, sewerage services and/ or piped water (UN-Habitat 2014; Dos Santos et al. 2017). Consequently, majority of the population in the cities have no household water connections and instead, they access water via wells, boreholes, water kiosks that are vendor-operated, public standpipes, tanker trucks and carts (Rebelo and Matos 2021). The access from such small providers is intermittent, most often illegal and characterized by long queues waiting to be served, quality-compromised water, carrying of heavy water containers (sometimes to long distances) and insufficient and sometimes homemade treated of suspected contaminated water through boiling (Dagdeviren and Robertson 2011). In Nairobi’s Mathare slums, unplanned growth of the informal settlers has resulted to poor water networks and commodification of water through water vending in kiosks (Sarkar 2020). Consequently, a large proportion of the population has no access to the essential commodity. The spatial dispersion of cities to small neighborhoods impedes water service delivery and disconnects the towns to adequate sanitation, healthcare, education and housing facilities. In Ethiopia’s capital city, Addis Ababa, urban areas are expanding horizontally to farmlands and consequently, the demand for water is growing even though infrastructure to supply the commodity is lacking in such areas (Gebeyehu et al. 2022). A similar trend is evident in many SSA towns. Rebelo and Matos (2021) explained these challenges as the causatives of low quality of life and health in urban informal settlements. The spatial distribution and concentration of most SSA urban residents in slums is also attributable to high insecurity, difficulty and unwillingness

22

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

of service providers to bring water and other services in such regions. According to Bahri et al. (2016), spatial concentration of slum dwellers in water outlets not only complicates the urban waterscape but also makes water supply systems fragile and compromises on the quality delivered by service providers. In South Africa’s City of Johannesburg, overcrowding especially in Riverlea and Braamfischerville suburban areas resulted to poor access to water and other services (Nkosi et al. 2019). Crowding and unplanned settlements induce technical challenges during expansion of standard network utilities such as water networks (Dagdeviren and Robertson 2011). These challenges have been reported in Kibera and Khayelitsha slums of Nairobi (Kenya) and Cape Town (South Africa) where water infrastructure construction, refurbishment or repair is impossible due to overcrowding and provision of water services by utility providers is difficult (Habitat for Humanity 2017). For instance, in slum areas, retrofitting infrastructure such as water supply networks and sewer lines is impossible due to lack of adequate space (Jacobsen et al. 2012). Installing water taps and pipes is nearly impossible due to the low-quality houses constructed in slums and the low-quality materials used (houses are made of plaster boards, tins, plant stems and leaves and mud) (UN/DESA 2018). Additionally, provision of sanitation facilities is challenging due to unplanned slums and ultimately, open defecation, which has a negative effect on freshwater resources is encouraged in slum areas. These challenges were evident in slum areas of Lagos, Nigeria, where more than half of the population had no access to water, sanitation and hygiene services (Akoteyon et al. 2021). Therefore, they relied on unimproved water sources such as sachet water, open dug/ unprotected wells and water vendors. In addition, they had no connection to sewer or septic systems and mostly used unimproved sanitation facilities such as bucket latrines, open-pit and shared latrines that were a threat to freshwater resources and general health of the population (Akoteyon et al. 2021).

2.3.2 Infrastructural Gap Water infrastructure refers to access to sewer systems, water and wastewater treatment systems, water storage facilities, boreholes, protected wells and water transfer schemes. Limited infrastructure is negatively affecting the ability of providers to meet the water demand in SSA cities (Besada and Werner 2014; Mkandawire 2015). As evident in Table 2.3, the access to piped water, which is an indicator of access to improved water services is on a downward trend in many SSA cities due to strains by informal settlers and its poor infrastructural refurbishment in response to the demand for the commodity (WHO/UNICEF 2019). Available infrastructure discriminately covers certain urban hotspots while neglecting the informal settlements (Jacobsen et al. 2012; Niasse and Varis 2020). Even in areas where infrastructure in available in informal settlements, it is poorly developed (Mentan 2014). In Cameroon, the lack of holistic infrastructure that covers both the urban rich and urban poor is hinderance to water access in the country’s urban and peri-urban areas (Fonjong and Fokum 2017). Slum dwellers at Lomé in Togo, which hosts 54% of the country’s 60% of the

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

23

urban residents could not access water services due to poor infrastructural plans and an unprecedented increase in informal settlers (Ahiablame et al. 2012). Even though utilities provided water services for a minimum of 6 and a maximum of 24 h, only 80% of their samples were validated using chemical tests in South Africa’s Johannesburg and Central African Republic’s Bangui cities as a result of limited infrastructural development to assess water quality and treat it. (Jacobsen et al. 2012). The reliability of the services also varied widely. In Addis Ababa of Ethiopia, the use of 50-year-old water distribution and transmission lines hindered effective supply of water from the service reservoirs and water treatment systems (Worku 2017). The outdated systems were designed to serve the population of the time, which had few people. However, with the growing population and economy, it has been necessary to extend pipes to serve more individuals and this has exerted pressure on the water utility providers. Similar result showing a strained water infrastructure due to increased urban populace has been reported in Maputo, Accra and Yamaoussoukro cities of Mozambique, Ghana and Cote d’Ivoire, respectively (Vinay et al. 2017). With the rise in urban sprawl in SSA, land allotted for flood plains, swamps and wetlands especially at city boundaries has been used for infrastructure and real estate development (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). The persons in such dwellings cannot access improved or piped water connections such as tube wells, protected springs, boreholes, protected wells and standpipes. Instead, they have to source water from private providers (UN-Habitat 2014). In Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, home owners Table 2.3 Access to improved piped water in urban areas of SSA in 2000 and 2017 (WHO/UNICEF 2019)

Country

City

2000 (%)

2017 (%)

Zambia

Lusaka

82

68

Uganda

Kampala

61

53

Togo

Lomé

74

45

South Africa

Johannesburg

99

98

Senegal

Dakar

85

86

Nigeria

Abuja

37

15

Niger

Niamey

86

83

Mozambique

Maputo

55

75

Mauritania

Nouakchott

44

66

Madagascar

Antananarivo

59

70

Liberia

Monrovia

25

9

Cote d’Ivoire

Yamoussoukro

72

62

Ghana

Accra

80

40

Gambia

Banjul

85

84

Republic of Congo

Brazzaville

85

73

Cameroon

Yaoundé

71

61

Burkina Faso

Ouagadougou

82

74

Benin

Porto-Novo

67

54

24

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

who lived in such dwellings were forced to move to areas equipped with water infrastructure to access the resource (Dos Santos and Le Grand 2013). Infrastructure developments have to be responsive to the rising demand for water in most SSA cities. Such developments translate to more networks and distribution lines to treat, transport, store and capture safe water (Muller et al. 2015). However, the data on Table 2.3 shows that regulatory authorities have not prioritized infrastructure modifications that correspond with rising urbanization trends and the growing water demand. Consequently, investment gaps exist with regards to aging infrastructure and storage inefficiencies. In SSA cities of Lusaka (Zambia), Cape Town (South Africa), Kampala (Uganda), Golf 3 (Togo), Saint Louis (Senegal), Brazzaville (Republic of Congo), Vogan (Togo) and Bangangte (Cameroon), lack of water infrastructure, its aging or obsoleteness with urbanization trends was reported to be a growing concern that impeded water access especially to informal settlers (OECD 2021). Additionally, poor infrastructure leads to intermittent water supply, water wastage through leakages, contamination of water using lead-based pipes, release of municipal and industrial effluents to living environments resulting to pollution (UNESCO/UN-Water 2020). Ultimately, the water problem in cities translates to an economic problem worsening the already critical water systems (Woetzel et al. 2016).

2.3.3 Impact of Climate Change With global warming, climate variation and change, the world’s water cycle is changing with regions that were dry becoming drier and those that were wet becoming wetter (Burek et al. 2016). Consequently, regions susceptible to extreme weather events including heatwaves, floods, droughts will suffer of water scarcity. Urban dwellers are particularly at risk of water scarcity due to climate changes. According to UNESCO/UN-Water (2020), more than 685 million people from over 570 cities globally will access freshwater at declined levels (by > 10%) by 2050 as a result of climate variation and change. Effects of climate change such as high rainfall intensity and flooding, high temperatures and severe droughts due to extended dry periods compromise water access and infrastructural maintenance (UNESCO/UNWater 2020). In Kampala, Uganda (Douglas 2017) and Ibadan, Nigeria (Etuonovbe 2011), making pavements and informal settlements that impede rain water permeation are associated with flood events. In cities of Lusaka in Zambia, Port Elizabeth and Johannesburg of South Africa, slum areas constructed on flood-prone areas have been severely affected by extreme weather events leading fatalities, damage of property and etiology to waterborne diseases due to compromised freshwater quality (Pharoah 2014; Tiepolo 2014). In SSA cities at the coast, which have low elevation, the changes in precipitation coupled with severe heat are worsening preexistent vulnerability to sea level rise, topsoil losses, flooding and drought (UN-Habitat 2014). The trends have been documented in coastal towns of west Africa including Lagos, Cotonou, Lomé, Accra,

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

25

Abidjan and Dakar (Almar et al. 2022) and in Saint Francis Bay and Cape Town cities of South Africa (Fitchett et al. 2016). In urban areas of Lusaka, Cape Town and Bangui, drought associated with climate variation and change is a growing impediment to access to water (OECD 2021). Due to climate change induced precipitation variability, Congo basin regions are becoming more vulnerable to floods while on the extreme Southern Africa and Sudan’s arid and semi-arid regions are becoming drier due to high and low rainfall, respectively (Jacobsen et al. 2012). Consequently, cities that are found in naturally water scarce areas such as Nairobi (Kenya), Johannesburg (South Africa) and all cities of Southern African region are experiencing even severer water shortages, which has forced them to search for the resource in long distances in addition abstract the commodity from artisan aquifer systems, which is threat to water sustainability (Rebelo and Matos 2021). Coastal cities such as Praia of Cape Verde and Dar es Salaam of Tanzania have resulted to desalinating sea water, which is cost and energy intensive due to climate-induced water shortages (Jacobsen et al. 2012).

2.3.4 Pollution Growing global urbanization contributes to water quality deterioration since many towns are strained in their attempts to provide sanitation facilities and wastewater infrastructure to the dwellers particularly those in crowded informal settlements. Industrial release of wastewater effluents also does not incorporate treatment and result to contamination and pollution of freshwater systems. Statistics of SSA show that about 20% of the people in urban areas have access to safely managed sanitation and only 25% have access basic sanitation (WHO/UNICEF 2019). Consequently, clean water and sanitation facilities are limited and about 842, 000 deaths annually are associated with the trend. In 2016, the region suffered more than half a billion deaths due to diarrheal diseases associated with consumption of contaminated water in urban areas (Mutono et al. 2020). In Maputo, Mozambique (Rusca et al. 2021), Lilongwe, Malawi (Boakye-Ansah et al. 2016), Lagos, Nigeria (Abioye and Perera 2019) and Harare, Zimbabwe (Juru et al. 2019), deaths and diseases associated with consumption of polluted water have been reported. Major pathogens associated with the diseases are microbes such as cryptosporidium, Escherichia coli, aeromonas spp., entamoeba and shigella associated with typhoid, cholera and dysentery diseases. Other SSA cities that have raised concerns on water pollution as an impediment to SDG 6 include Vogan and Lomé (Togo), Cotonou (Benin), Nouakchott (Mauritania), Kampala (Uganda), Cape Town (South Africa) and Lusaka (Zambia) (OECD 2021). The water pollution situation is complicated by the fact that a large proportion of wastewater goes untreated, is released in freshwater systems and that most water bodies in urban areas lack good quality water. Furthermore, most countries have supportive environmental policies to discharge the wastewater to natural systems

26

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Table 2.4 Data on wastewater treatment and water quality from some SSA countries (UN-Water n.d) Country

% of water bodies with good ambient water quality, 2017

% of wastewater from households that is safely treated, 2015

Tanzania

0

–

Lesotho

16.7

–

Rwanda

30.0

–

Kenya

35.5

–

South Africa

46.9

–

Botswana

50

–

Nigeria

52.5

–

Zimbabwe

76.5

–

Madagascar

90.9

–

Somalia

–

0.7

Niger

–

3.5

Uganda

–

3.8

Senegal

–

14.6

but implementation and enforcement of such policies is slow and sometimes nonexistent (Ijoma et al. 2022). Table 2.4 shows available data on the percentage proportion of water bodies that are of good quality and the proportion of safely treated wastewater from households (UN n.d). The untreated wastewater once introduced to water freshwater bodies results to extensive contamination and limited access to safe water for the population. In addition, it increases the wastewater management costs and needs by the already strained urban utilities. The risks of water overflows, the need to improve combined sewers and sanitation systems and concerns on emerging contaminants present in contaminated water and wastewater and the management of resultant sludge after waste and wastewater treatment are also impediments to access safe water, which result to pollution of such resources (Mutono et al. 2020; Rusca et al. 2021).

2.3.5 Financial Constraints Financial resources are required to set up and construct water infrastructure, hygiene and sanitation facilities and services in any region of the world. However, the access to these funds still remains an impediment to water access, sanitation and hygiene in developing countries particularly those of SSA (Taal 2020). The funds set aside to tackle water issues are insufficient. For Africa to realize SDG 6 on safe and secure water by 2030, it requires more than 16 billion US$ of investment to the water sector (UN 2019) but only 0.9% of gross domestic product (GDP) in SSA is spent on

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

27

building new water allocation infrastructure, maintaining existing infrastructure and other operations and maintenance (Bishoge 2021). The low investment forces utility providers to use the old insufficient infrastructure to supply water. Similarly, the high costs associated with replacing and rehabilitating old pipe systems makes it difficult to make substantive infrastructural improvements. In Monrovia city of Liberia, the old water infrastructure built in 1824 is still being used to supply 1.5 million residents with the commodity because the initially used underground distribution lines made of lead or wooden pipes are difficult to map (Runde and Metzger 2019). In Mohale Hoek city of Lesotho, utility providers attributed budgetary constraints to incomplete projects on water sanitation and hygiene (WHO 2013). Low financial investments on water services, cost recovery and sanitation and hygiene improvement in cities of Abuja (Nigeria), Kampala (Uganda) and Nairobi (Kenya) especially in slum areas were reported (Van Dijk et al. 2014). The champions of water sanitation and hygiene and investors in SSA were found not to cooperate in their common endeavors to enhance water access. In particular, private investors were hesitant to invest or partner with the public sector in various water projects due to its associated low returns on investment. The results of poor partnership were unsuccessful and incomplete projects worsening the apparent challenges of water access (Cross and Coombes 2013). The situation was exacerbated by lack of transparency on how funds set aside for enhancing water access, sanitation and hygiene services were spent. In most SSA countries, no data on government expenditure in the water sector was availed and in 24 of the countries of Southern and Eastern Africa, only 2% of total available funds were allotted for refurbishing old and building new water infrastructure (UNICEF 2019). The ramifications of unaccountability in the use of the funds have resulted to GDP losses of about 5% in the SSA region (Coombes et al. 2015). To reverse the current situation, strategic planning on the use of available finances, evaluation and monitoring should be devised to improve urban water infrastructure (Bishoge 2021). Government and service providers should streamline their water tariffs as sources of financial flow along with partnerships with private institutions and donors to source for more funds to finance infrastructure in the sector in form of aids and/or grants.

2.3.6 Socioeconomic Disparities Urban settings around the globe accommodate persons of different social status. These are categorized as high and low classes of households. According to Seetharam (2015) and in the case of Nairobi city, Kenya, urban informal settlements are mainly formed of the low-class people. These individuals are deprived off water, sanitation and hygiene access in favor of the high class that are the affluent in the city (Mulenga et al. 2017; Roche et al. 2017). In the two studies, provision of improved water services was directly proportional to increases in wealth quintile in urban areas of many SSA countries. Unlike the poor who used open defecation and pit latrines, the urban effluent had flush toilets equipped with adequate water. Additionally, the

28

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

rich urban inhabitants had handwashing facilities equipped with adequate water and soap, which was a privilege in slum households (Ohwo 2019). In urban settings of Madagascar and Malawi, the disabled, women and girls endured the most hygiene and sanitation burden, which had grave effects on both socioeconomic development and their health (World Bank Group 2017). In addition to monetary status, education level also determined the preference to hygiene and sanitation facilities. Among persons with high level of education in environmental and hygiene awareness, improved services were used compared to illiterate households (Bishoge 2021). Persons with low education were found to avoid sewer systems (Abubakar 2017) and practice open defecation in urban settings (Ohwo 2019). The practices polluted freshwater systems and impeded it access to users in good quality.

2.3.7 Lack of Skilled Personnel Adequate human capacity in the water sanitation and hygiene sector is important for infrastructure refurbishment, installation and maintenance in the sector (OduroKwarteng et al. 2015). Lack of such expertise delayed sustainable water supply in aspects of expansion, repairs and improvements (Kumwenda 2016). In SSA region, such personnel are limited according to Armah et al. (2018) and where available their expertise is inadequate to deal with the complex water infrastructure of growing urban areas (Oduro-Kwarteng et al. 2015). This was evident in Ghana and is replicated in all SSA countries particularly in urban areas where utility providers are overwhelmed by the ever-rising population (Bishoge 2021). In the training institutions, there is a shortage of personnel trained to train on water infrastructure, access, sanitation and hygiene provision, which worsens the already existent human capacity gap. Learners also prefer to study programs related to sanitation and hygiene rather than specializing the areas. In countries such as South Africa, most universities do not offer exclusive programs to train on water management separately and such disciplines are part of training in other courses such as civil engineering. Ultimately, specialized training on handling water problems is suboptimal. It is therefore imperative for educational sectors of SSA to train personnel specializing in water, sanitation and hygiene management and invest in providing the latest technologies to deal with the complex water issues in urban areas of the region.

2.3.8 Inadequate Water Policies and Strategies To achieve SDG 6, policies and strategies, which refer to a set of protocols on allocation techniques and rules that are the foundation for service delivery are important tools (Glass and Newig 2019). In the delivery of water, sanitation and hygiene services, instruments such as rights and responsibility assignment, economic incentives, regulations and laws are vital. In Tanzania the Water Supply and Sanitation act

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

29

of 2019 defines the charges, fees and other economic incentives to improve water access, sanitation and hygiene in the country. In Ghana, the ministry of sanitation and water resources is in charge (Terpstra 2017) while the department of water services and sanitation in South Africa and the department of environmental and occupational health in Liberia (Abrampah et al. 2017) oversee improved access to the commodity among other services. Many other SSA countries have similar branches of the main government that foresee enhanced water supply and access services to meet SDG 6. The water regulating authorities should cooperate with other sectors due to the influence of water use to other sectors to enable the success of SDG 6 and also promote cooperative water governance. However, the challenge remains in enforcing the policies and strategies for them to have a positive effect. International organizations also play a role in enacting strategies, action plans, laws and policies on universal access to water by proving human and financial resources as well as technical support (Bishoge 2021). The UNICEF for instance, collaborated with the Tanzanian government to improve access, develop and ensure equity and sustainability in the water access, sanitation and hygiene sector of the country in addition to responding to waterborne disease emergence associated with consumption of contaminated water in the country (UNICEF 2017). Similar endeavors to monitor SDG 6 in SSA countries of eastern and southern Africa by the organization are also underway (UNICEF 2021). This vision is under the UNICEFWASH 2016–2030 strategy that is aimed at continuous adapting, doing better and learning towards realization of improved water access in the region. Similarly, WHO (2018) and water and sanitation program, WSP (2017) partner with the private sector, governments, civil society, academia and donors in providing guidelines on securing safe, affordable and sustainable access to water by the poor especially in informal settlements or in marginalized areas of SSA. The challenge in such partnerships remains in being accountable and transparent about the management of funds compared to action plans implemented towards better water access. Although government institutions and international organizations attempt to help streamline policies on water, sanitation and hygiene, implementation and enforcement of the policies is poor (Bishoge 2021). In addition, the policies and strategies employed by some SSA countries are fragmented, ineffective and inadequate to make any significant changes (Kumwenda 2019). This observation stems from poor governance where countries lack strong institutions to steer up SDG 6 in addition to lacking developmental planning. In other countries, the SDG is not aligned to existent developmental policies and if it is, blueprints are still at the nascent stages of implementation and hence not convincing to attract implementation funds from donor and/or international organizations. Some SSA countries such as Senegal, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo have concentrated more on the water aspect while neglecting sanitation and hygiene, which results to non-holistic development in the water sector (Bahuguna and Rodella 2017). The urban informal settlers in many SSA countries have also been alienated in the policies and strategies. To the extreme, countries like Zimbabwe regard such informal settlers as illegal and do not involve them in national policies including those associated with water, sanitation

30

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

and hygiene facilities access (Matamanda et al. 2020). Consequently, the access to safe water is limited.

2.3.9 Individual Behaviors and Attitudes of Urban Residents Culture defines people’s actions, levels of awareness and behavior. In the water sector, such predispositions influence water access, sanitation and hygiene significantly at national, local, household and individual levels (Fagbemiro et al. 2016). Culture is therefore imperative in optimizing both the public and economic good of water at societal level. With respect to public good, areas endowed with water resources have healthier societies than those without and their economic activities that tend to consume the resources thrive better. Cross and Coombes (2013) noted that understanding individual behaviors of people is imperative and key to water utility providers and programs in preventing waterborne diseases. In another study, it was noted that modifying some self-efficacies, beliefs and attitudes is a vital tool in instilling sustainable sanitation and hygiene interventions (Ginja et al. 2019). Consuming treated water or treating it prior to consumption, using sanitation facilities such as latrines and toilets, observing body/hand hygiene are some common determinants of improved water safety, hygiene and sanitation. Cross and Coombes (2013) observed that some societies had water but never washed hands while some had toilets but only partially used them. Consequently, such societies predisposed themselves to public health related diseases by spreading pathogens to the environment. Human habits such as cleaning surfaces, disposing off wastes and cleaning toilets also reduce the etiology to waterborne diseases. In SSA region and the globe, such behaviors and attitudes influence access to clean water, sanitation and hygiene facilities. However, it must be noted that behavior change is difficult and hence an impediment in universal water access. Among the Maasai people of Kenya, children feces are perceived to be harmless and hence a key transmission line to waterborne diseases (Mecca and Ayala 2018). This is because handlers of such feces do not practice hygiene (eg. washing hands before and after handling it). However, with community awareness on the negative effects of handling the feces unhygienically, use of microflush toilet systems is growing among the community and is progress towards improved sanitation and reduced vulnerability to water pollution and waterborne diseases. Suboptimal knowledge on sanitation and hygiene importance was associated with poor handwashing, defecating in bushes and use of plant leaves to clean hands after defecation in suburban areas of SSA countries (Bishoge 2021). Ultimately, these behaviors if not changed cause more pollution to water resources and make communities vulnerable to diseases in addition to increasing the cost of water treatment to make it safe for consumption.

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

31

2.3.10 Costs of Water Access Both urban and rural SSA are underfunded with respect to water supply, sanitation and hygiene. Urban utility providers in SSA have not responded to growing population rise and urbanization trends in terms of improved investment in water infrastructure expansion and maintenance. Consequently, the gap between water supply and demand in such urban areas is growing (Bishoge 2021). Genneken et al. (2012) also noted that the gap has grown resulting to reductions in water access in urban SSA since utility providers are underfunded, underperforming and corruption has mulled such institutions such that they cannot even cover their operations and maintenance costs. Consequently, budgetary allocations in most SSA regions only cater for maintenance rather than expansion of current coverage (Armah et al. 2018). In this case, the poor urban residents living in slums are disfavored in that even if the water is available, cost is the prohibiting factor. Utility providers prioritize on subsidized connections to high income earners who can pay them to recover the costs incurred when offering water services instead of setting up standpipes in informal settlements (Genneken et al. 2012). Consequently, the rich overuse and/or misuse water as long as they can afford it while the poor are deprived off the resource. Such prevailing tendencies in urban areas undermine the value of water and necessitate the revision of water tariffs to be all inclusive in accessing, supplying and paying for the commodity based on individual financial capability in SSA. Urban residents incur costs charged by utility providers if they access piped water and also prices for communal water supply. In a study by Mitlin and Walnycki (2016), which assessed the costs of water access in slum areas of cities of Windhoek (Namibia), Harare (Zimbabwe), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania) and Blantyre (Malawi), costs impeded access. Urban residents accessing piped water incurred costs of the commodity per unit, standing charges and local council service charges every month, which was unaffordable especially in Harare. In households of six individuals in all the cities, total monthly cost on water was 11% of the household’s income (Mitlin and Walnycki 2016). In Blantyre and Dar es Salaam, monthly costs of water were more than 13% of the household’s total income. In all towns, costs of water and sanitation were more than 5% of household income and exceeded the United Nations limits. Therefore, water in SSA is a costly affair, which is only accessible to individuals who can afford the commodity.

2.3.11 Paucity of Water Resources Data Data on water resources is imperative in planning and policy making at local, regional and global contexts. The data assists in building inventories on the sources of water (ground- or surface-water) and the available quantities that are safe and unsafe for consumption. The inventory is used by regulatory authorities to plan for uncertainties due to climate change or due to demand changes. Additionally, the data is key in

32

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

management of water infrastructure especially to the underserved and in setting up realistic allocation plans to ensure fair and equitable access to the commodity. In a study evaluating the quality and supply of water in SSA region, inadequacies in the water resources data were reported as hindrances to better planning on access (Eludoyin and Olanrewaju 2021). Rutten (2012) as well as Banerjee and Morella (2011) also pointed out that poor collection, archiving, analysis and dissemination of data on water resources is attributable to failed water projects in SSA region. Hughes (2019) highlighted that most water management decisions in SSA nations are made without any data and if present, it is inaccurate and unreliable to make informed action plans. Such undertakings have ramifications not only in planning for water access improvement and distribution networks but also in coverage of the most water deserving now and in the future. Without data, sustainable water management in the region is under threat.

2.4 Conclusions This chapter showed that the water demand and supply gap in urban areas of SSA is growing. This is a result of urbanization and unprecedented growth in population on one hand straining the water demand and effects of climate change on water resources and an increased vulnerability to water pollution in freshwater systems straining the supply for the commodity on the other hand. In addition, infrastructural modifications to enable the harnessing, storage, supply and distribution of water are limited due to low financing of the water sector. These water issues were further complicated by poor governance of water resources, sub-optimal institutions, nonenforcement of existent policies on water management and poor planning on climate change uncertainties on the water sector. The disparities in water access between the urban rich and poor were also apparent with the latter being disfavored due to their inability to pay for water services. Using case studies in SSA cities, this chapter reported that the realization of SDG 6 in the region is doubtful based on the highlighted challenges and the sluggish progress realized so far. Therefore, the chapter emphasized the need and provided suggestions to address the challenges for the region to remain on track with the goal’s realization.

References Abioye S, Perera E (2019) Public health effects due to insufficient groundwater quality monitoring in Igando and Agbowo regions in Nigeria: a review. Sustain Water Resour Manag 5:1711–1721. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-019-00330-5 Ahiablame L, Engel B, Venort T (2012) Improving water supply systems for domestic uses in urban Togo: the case of a suburb in Lome. Water 4:123–134. https://doi.org/10.3390/w4010123

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

33

Akoteyon I, Aliu I, Salodoye O (2021) Household levels of deprivation to WaSH and residential conditions in slum settlements of Lagos Nigeria. J Water Sanit Hyg 11(1):60–74. https://doi. org/10.2166/washdev.2020.157 Almar R, Stieglitz T, Addo K, Ba A, Ondoa G, Bergsma E et al (2022) Coastal zone changes in West Africa: challenges and opportunities for satellite Earth observations. Surv Geophys. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10712-022-09721-4 Abrampah N, Mensah M, Montgomery A, Ndivo F, Gasasira A, Cooper C, Frescas R, Babar S (2017) Lessons from the field improving water, sanitation and hygiene in health-care facilities Liberia. Bull World Health Organ 95(7):526–530. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.16.175802 Abubakar I (2017) Access to sanitation facilities among Nigerian households: determinants and sustainability implications. Sustainability, 9(4):547. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9040547 Armah A, Ekumah B, Yawson D, Odoi J, Afitiri A, Nyieku F (2018) Access to improved water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa in a quarter century. Heliyon 4(11):1–32. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00931 Bahri F, Brikke F, Vairavamoorthy K (2016) Managing change to implement integrated urban water management in African cities. Aquat Procedia 6:3–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2016. 06.002 Bahuguna A, Rodella A (2017) The biggest bang for our limited water and sanitation buck: can investing in small towns lead the way? World Bank Blog. Available at: https://blogs.worldbank.org/water/biggest-bang-our-limited-water-and-sanitation-buck-caninvesting-small-towns-lead-way Banerjee SG, Morella E (2011) Africa’s water and sanitation infrastructure: access, affordability, and alternatives. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA Besada H, Werner K (2014) An assessment of the effects of Africa’s water crisis on food security and management. Int J Water Resour Dev 31(1):120–133. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627. 2014.905124 Bishoge O (2021) Challenges facing sustainable water supply, sanitation and hygiene achievement in urban areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Local Environ 26(7):893–907. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13549839.2021.1931074 Boakye-Ansah A, Ferrero G, Rusca M, Zaag P (2016) Inequalities in microbial contamination of drinking water supplies in urban areas: the case of Lilongwe Malawi. J Water Health 14(5):851– 863. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2016.258 Burek P, Satoh Y, Fischer G, Kahil MT, Scherzer A, Tramberend S, Nava LF, Wada Y, Eisner S, Flörke M, Hanasaki N, Magnuszewski P, Cosgrove B, Wiberg D (2016) Water futures and solution: fast track initiative (Final Report). IIASA working paper. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg Burls N, Blamey R, Cash B, Swenson E, Fahad A, Bopape M, Straus D, Reason C (2019) The Cape Town “day zero” drought and Hadley cell expansion. NPJ Clim Atmos Sci 2:27. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41612-019-0084-6 Coombes Y, Sophie H, Mark R (2015) Investment in sanitation to support economic growth in Africa: recommendations to the African Ministers’ Council on Water (AMCOW) and Ministers of Finance. Cross P, Coombes Y (2013) Sanitation and hygiene in Africa: where do we stand? analysis from the AfricaSan conference, Kigali, Rwanda. Vol. 12. Water Intelligence Online. https://doi.org/ 10.2166/9781780405421 Dagdeviren H, Robertson S (2011) Access to water in the slums of Sub-Saharan Africa. Dev Policy Rev 29(4):485–505. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2011.00543.x Dos Santos S, Le Grand T (2013) Is the tap locked? an event history analysis of piped water access in Ouagadougou—Burkina Faso. Geogr Urban Stud Plann 50:1262–1280. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0042098012462613 Dos Santos S, Adams E, Neville G, Wada Y, Sherbinin A, Bernhardt E, Adamo S (2017) Urban growth and water access in sub-Saharan Africa: progress, challenges and emerging research directions. Sci Total Environ 607–608:497–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.157

34

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Douglas I (2017) Flooding in African cities, scales of causes, teleconnections, risks, vulnerability and impacts. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 26:34–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.09.024 Eludoyin A, Olanrewaju O (2021) Water supply and quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Lange Salvia A, Wall T (eds) Clean water and sanitation. encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31970061-8_166-1 Etuonovbe A (2011) The devastating effect of flooding in Nigeria. FIG Working Week, Bridging the gap between cultures, Marrakech, Morocco 18–22 May. Fagbemiro O, Iyabo A, Opeyemi S, Adedamola O (2016) Factors determining sanitation information-seeking behavior: a literature review. Trop J Med Res 19(2):81. https://doi.org/ 10.4103/1119-0388.185424 Fitchett M, Grant, B, Hoogendoorn, G (2016) Climate change threats to two low-lying South African coastal towns: risks and perceptions. S Afr J Sci 112(5–6):1–9. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs. 2016/20150262 Fonjong L, Fokum V (2017) Water crisis and options for effective water provision in urban and peri-urban areas in Cameroon. Soc Nat Resour:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/08941920.2016. 1273414 Gebeyehu Z, Haji J, Berihun T, Molla A (2022) Urban expansion impact on peri-urban farm households welfare in metropolitan cities of Amhara national regional state, Ethiopia. Ecol Environ Conserv 28(1):33–44. https://doi.org/10.53550/EEC.2022.v28i01.005 Genneken M, Netterstrom U, Bennett A (2012) More, better or different spending: trends in public expenditure on water sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa. Water Partnership Program, The World Bank, Washington DC, USA Ginja S, Stephen G, Mickey K (2019) Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) behavior change research: why an analysis of contingencies of reinforcement is needed. Int J Environ Health Res:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2019.1682127 Glass L, Newig J (2019) Governance for achieving the sustainable development goals: how important are participation, policy coherence, reflexivity, adaptation and democratic institutions? Earth Syst Gov 2:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esg.2019.100031 Guneralp B, Lwasa S, Masundire H, Parnell S, Seto K (2018) Urbanization in Africa: challenges and opportunities for conservation. Environ Res Letters 13:015002. https://doi.org/10.1088/17489326/aa94fe Habitat for Humanity (2017) The world’s largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha and Neza. Habitat for humanity. Great Britain. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/ 2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/ Hughes D (2019) Facing a future water resources management crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. J Hydrol Reg Stud 23:100600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100600 Ijoma G, Mutungwazi A, Mannie T, Nurmahomed W, Matambo T, Hildebrandt D (2022) Addressing the water-energy nexus: a focus on the barriers and potentials of harnessing wastewater treatment processes for biogas production in sub–Saharan Africa. Heliyon 8(5):e09385. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e09385 Jacobsen M, Webster M, Vairavamoorthy K (eds) (2012) The future of water in African cities: why waste water? directions in development. World Bank, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/ 978-0-8213-9721-3 Juru T, Kagodora T, Tambanemoto C, Chipendo T, Dhliwayo T, Mapfumo M et al (2019) An assessment of the availability of water sources and hygiene practices in response to the cholera outbreak in Harare city, Zimbabwe, 2018. J Interv Epidemiol Public Health 2(1):7. https://doi. org/10.37432/JIEPH.2019.2.1.18 Kumwenda S (2016) Challenges to hygiene improvement in developing countries. Intech I (Tourism):13. https://doi.org/10.5772/57353. Kumwenda S (2019) Challenges to hygiene improvement in developing countries. IntechOpen i:1–19. https://doi.org/10.5772/57353

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

35

Lall S, Henderson JV, Venables AJ (2017) Africa’s cities: opening doors to the world. World Bank, Washington, DC Lappeman J, Plessis L, Ho E, Low E, Egan P (2021) Africa’s heterogenous middle class: a 10-city study of consumer lifestyle indicators. Int J Market Res 63(1):58–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 1470785320939038 Matamanda R, Shamiso H, Mangara F (2020) Informal settlement upgrading strategies: the Zimbabwean experience. In: Filho W, Azul A, Brandli P, Wall T (eds) Sustainable cities and communities. encyclopedia of the unsustainable development goals. Springer, Cham, pp 1–12. https:// doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71061-7-8-1 McDonald R, Green P, Balk D, Fekete M, Revenga C, Todd M et al (2011) Urban growth, climate change, and freshwater availability. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 108:6312–6317. https://doi.org/10. 1073/pnas.1011615108 Mecca S, Ayala A (2018) Empowerment versus charity in bringing microflush toilets to the poor: sustainable local economies for the common good. Int J Sustain Dev Plan 13(3):373–381. https:// doi.org/10.2495/SDP-V13-N3-373-381 Mentan T (2014) Africa: facing human security challenges in the 21st century. African Books Collective, 2014. Project MUSE.muse.jhu.edu/book/32745 Mekonnen M, Hoekstra A (2016) Four billion people facing severe water scarcity. Sci Adv 2(1– 6):e1500323–e1500323. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323 Mitlin D, Walnycki A (2016) Why is water still unaffordable for sub-Saharan Africa’s urban poor? International Institute for Environment and Development, IIED, London, United Kingdom. Mkandawire T (2015) Africa: beyond recovery. African Books Collective, 2015. Project MUSE.muse.jhu.edu/book/40679. Mulenga N, Bupe B, Kunda K (2017) Determinants and inequalities in access to improved water sources and sanitation among the Zambian households. Int J Dev Sustain 6(8):746–762. Available at: https://www.isdsnet.com/ijds Muller M, Biswas A, Martin-Hurtado M, Tortajada C (2015) Built infrastructure is essential. Science 349(6248):585–586. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac7606 Mutono N, Wright J, Mutembei H, Muema J, Thomas M, Mutunga M, Thumbi S (2020) The nexus between improved water supply and waterborne diseases in urban areas in Africa: a coping review protocol. AAS Open Res 3(12):1–17. https://doi.org/10.12688/aasopenres.13063.2 Niasse M, Varis O (2020) Quenching the thirst of rapidly growing and water-insecure cities in sub-Saharan urban Water deficit in Sub-Saharan African cities 9 Africa. Int J Water Resour Dev 36(2–3):505–527. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2019.1707073 Nkosi V, Haman T, Naicker N, Mathee A (2019) Overcrowding and health in two impoverished suburbs of Johannesburg. South Africa. BMC Public Health 19:1358. https://doi.org/10.1186/ s12889-019-7665-5 Oduro-Kwarteng S, Monney I, Braimah I (2015) Human resources capacity in Ghana’s water, sanitation and hygiene sector: analysis of capacity gaps and policy implications. Water Policy 17(3):502–519. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2014.293 OECD, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (2021) OECD survey on water governance in African cities. OECD, Paris Ohwo O (2019) Dimensions of inequality in urban and rural water, sanitation and hygiene services in sub-Saharan Africa. Eur Sci J 15(8):1–20. https://doi.org/10.19044/esj.2019.v15n8p144 Pariente W (2017) Urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa and the challenge of access to basic services. J Demo Econ 83:31–39. https://doi.org/10.1017/dem.2017.3 Pharoah R (2014) Built-in risk: linking housing concerns and flood risk in subsidized housing settlements in Cape Town, South Africa. Int J Disaster Risk Sci 5:313–322. https://doi.org/10. 1007/s13753-014-0032-3 Plecher, H (2020) Sub-Saharan Africa—total population 2008–2018. Statista. Available at: https:// www.statista.com/statistics/805605/total-population-sub-saharan-africa/ Rebelo M, Matos J (2021) Urban water deficit in Sub-Saharan African cities. In: Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Lange Salvia A, Wall T (eds) Clean water and sanitation. encyclopedia of the UN

36

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70061-8_1 46-1 Roche R, Bain R, Cumming O (2017) A long way to go—estimates of combined water, sanitation and hygiene coverage for 25 Sub-Saharan African countries. PLoS ONE 12(2):1–24. https:// doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.01717 Runde D, Metzger C (2019) Channeling financial flows for urban water and sanitation. Center for Strategic & International Studies, Washington DC, USA Rusca M, Gulamussen N, Weststrate J, Nguluve E, Salvador E, Paron P, Ferrero G (2021) The urban metabolism of waterborne diseases variegated citizenship, (waste) water flows and climate variability in Maputo, Mozambique. Ann Am Assoc Geogr 112(4):1159–1178. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/24694452.2021.1956875 Rutten M (2012) Water in Africa. Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands Sarkar A (2020) Informal water vendors and the urban poor: evidence from a Nairobi slum. Water Int 445(5):443–457. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2020.1768022 SDGC/A and SDSN (2020) Africa SDG index and dashboards report 2020, Sustainable Development Goals Center for Africa and Sustainable Development Solutions Network Seetharam K (2015) Challenges and opportunities for sanitation in developing countries. J Sci Policy Gov 7(1):1–12. Available at: https://www.sciencepolicyjournal.org Taal B (2020) Africa and the challenge of achieving access to clean water and sanitation. Africa Policy Rev. Available at: http://africapolicyreview.com/africa-and-the-challenge-of-achievingaccess-to-clean-water-and-sanitation/ Terpstra J (2017) Ghana’s new minister for sanitation and water resources says making accra the cleanest city is doable. Available at: https://www.ircwash.org/news/ghana’s-new-minister-san itation-and-water-resources-says-making-accra-cleanest-city-doable Tiepolo M (2014) Flood risk reduction and climate change in large cities south of the Sahara. In Macchi S, Tiepolo M (eds) Climate change vulnerability in Southern African cities. Springer, Switzerland Tutino J (2019) Introduction: urbanizing history in globalizing times. In: Tutino J, Melosi MV (eds) New world cities: challenges of urbanization and globalization in the Americas. The University of North Carolina Press UN-Water (n.d) Decade program on advocacy and communication and water supply and sanitation collaborative council. The human right to water and sanitation. Media brief. Available at: http:// www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/human_right_to_water_and_sanitation_media_brief.pdf United Nations (2019) World population prospects 2019: data booklet. Department of Economic and Social Affairs Population Division, 1–25, New York United Nations (2021) The United Nations world water development report 2021: valuing water. UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme. Perugia, Italy UNICEF (2017) Water, sanitation and hygiene fact sheet. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/tan zania/reports/water-sanitationand-hygiene-fact-sheet United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF (2019) The state of WASH financing in Eastern and Southern Africa. Regional Level Assessment. Available at: https://www.unicef.org/esa/media/ 5061/file UNICEF (2021) Understanding monitoring for SDG 6 across Eastern and Southern Africa. WASH Technical Paper, Tp/17/2021 UNICEF/WHO (2019) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2017. Special focus on inequalities. United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World Health Organization, New York United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (UN/DESA) (2015) World urbanization prospects: the 2014 revision. ST/ESA/SER.A/366. United Nations, Population Division, New York UN/DESA (2018) The world’s cities in 2018—data booklet (ST/ESA/ SER.A/417) UN-Water (n.d.) Indicator 6.3.1—wastewater treatment. Available at: https://www.sdg6data.org/ indicator/6.3.1

2 Water Challenges in Urban Sub-Saharan Africa

37

UNESCO, UN-Water (2020) United Nations World Water Development Report 2020: water and climate change. UNESCO, Paris UN-Habitat (2014) The state of African cities: re-imagining sustainable urban transitions. Nairobi, Kenya UN-Habitat (2016) Urbanization and development: emerging futures. World Cities Report 2016. Nairobi, Kenya Van Dijk M, Etajak S, Mwalwega B, Ssempebwa J (2014) Financing sanitation and cost recovery in the slums of Dar Es Salaam and Kampala. Habitat Int 43:206–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. habitatint.2014.02.003 Vinay S, Henderson J, Venables A (2017) Africa’s cities: opening doors to the world overview. The World Bank, Washington DC, USA WHO (2013) A multisectoral response to water sanitation and hygiene issues in Lesotho: The Mohale’s Hoek experience. Available at: https://www.afro.who.int/sites/default/files/2018-02/ lesothocasestudy.pdf WHO (2018) WHO water, sanitation and hygiene strategy 2018–2025. Geneva. Available at: https:// apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/274273/WHO-CED-PHE-WSH-18.03-eng.pdf WHO/UNICEF (2015) Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment. WHO/UNICEF, Geneva, Switzerland. WHO/UNICEF (2019) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–17. Special focus on inequalities. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, New York. Woetzel J, Garemo N, Mischke J, Hjerpe M, Palter R (2016) Bridging global infrastructure gaps. McKinsey Global Institute, Brussels Worku H (2017) Rethinking urban water management in Addis Ababa in the face of climate change: an urgent need to transform from traditional to sustainable system. Environ Qual Manage 27(1):103–119. https://doi.org/10.1002/tqem.21512 World Bank Group (2017) Reducing inequalities in water supply, sanitation, and hygiene in the era of the sustainable development goals. Synthesis Report of the WASH Poverty Diagnostic Initiative. World Bank Group. https://doi.org/10.1596/27831 WSP (2017) Water and Sanitation Program. End of year report, fiscal year 2017. Global problems smart solutions: costs and benefits

Chapter 3

Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa Joan Nyika and Megersa Olumana Dinka

Abstract The focus of this chapter was to explore the challenges that prevent rural sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from realizing universal water access. Findings showed that many waterpoints to acquire groundwater using handpumps had been installed in the region over the last two decades to provide access to improved water services. However, the waterpoints have had unsafe water based on its smell, taste and odor over time and in some cases, other waterpoints have had reduced levels of water or even dried up. The trend was attributable to poor water infrastructural development and maintenance, poor financing of the rural water sector due to the area’s spatial and disperse nature as well as climate change effects of extended drought and seasonal variations. Consequently, the waterpoints are not useful to water users who seek for other alternative but unsafe water sources. The gendered water system where women and girls spend majority of educational and working time fetching water from waterpoints at long distances and in harsh topographies impended water access in the region. Moving forward, policy and cultural modifications are essential in deconstructing gendered water roles and in enhancing water funding in rural SSA for bettered access to the commodity. Keywords Gendered water · Infrastructure · Pollution · Rural areas · Sub-Saharan Africa · Water challenges

3.1 Introduction Access to clean, safe and enough water quantity globally is a precondition for poverty eradication. This is because access to the commodity is directly proportional to better economic prospects, improved health, enhanced food security and more productive and educational hours for the marginalized communities, women and girls (Liddle and Fenner 2017). Due to the benefits affiliated with water access, the commodity is recognized internationally as a right and the key to better living standards in the globe second from air (Mvongo and Defo 2021). Other authors also noted that reliable access to clean and safe water empowered women, built resilient communities in addition to enhancing public health and food security (Butler et al. 2017; Krishnan 2019; Schuster et al. 2020) Wise use of water is also imperative in accessing enough © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka, Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management, SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_3

39

40

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

of the resource especially in an era of water scarcity, which is complicated by climate change (Tadesse et al. 2013; Nyika 2020; Nyika and Dinka 2022). In the last three decades, substantial progress to improve water access particularly for drinking purposes has been made around the world. According to the United Nations (UN 2018), access to safe water around the globe rose from 76 to 91% between 1990 and 2015. The World Bank (2017a) also noted that the global population with access to drinking water rose from 44 to 58% between 1990 and 2008. This was after more than 50 billion US$ worth of investment was used to construct new and improve existing water infrastructure in the period (Carter and Lockwood 2011). Although the progress was worth noting, it was not sufficient to meet the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) of 2015 aimed at reducing the people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 50%. In sentiments made by Mulenga et al. (2017) and also by the WHO and UNICEF (2017), the MDG on providing improved water sources in developed countries was met as early as 2010 with 91% of the population having access to such facilities up from 76% in 1990. However, regions such as sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Oceania, North Africa, Central Asia and the Caucasus did not meet their individual targets in favor of more developed regions of the world (WHO and UNICEF 2017). In SSA, only 56% of the population had access to improved drinking water sources by 2015 compared to 34% in the 1990 (WHO and UNICEF 2015). The apparent regional disparities in water access of SSA compared to other regions around the globe are a growing concern since they deter socioeconomic development in the affected populations. In more recent statistics, more than 144 and 435 million people around the globe use direct surface water and unimproved water sources, respectively (WHO and UNICEF 2019). In every ten, eight have no access to basic water services. In this context, basic water service refers to access to a safe and improved water source within a 30-minute round trip including the time spent queuing (WHO and UNICEF 2021). Even with access to basic water services, the commodity could be unaffordable, inaccessible, scarce, unreliable or unsafe and it is therefore, not a guarantee to water security (Brewis et al. 2019; Luker and Harris 2019). Similar suggestions were made by Molinos-Senante et al. (2019) who highlighted that the presence of a rural drinking water supply system is not an indicator that area people have water access due to the limited financial flow and its inadequate management as well as poor maintenance operations of such systems. As such, accessed water should be of good quality, enough quantity and affordable to translate to sustainability as defined by sustainable development goal (SDG) 6 (Young et al. 2019). Majority of persons lacking basic water services worldwide live in rural settings and approximately 50% live in developing countries of SSA. In 2020, more than 350 million people of SSA region had no access to drinking water and majority of this number was drawn from rural settings owing to the neglect and apparent disparity of access to basic services in rural and urban areas (WHO and UNICEF 2021). Statistics also showed that eight of the nine countries whose basic water access was < 50% came from SSA in 2020 and only 30% of the populace in the region accessed safely management water in the same period (WHO and UNICEF 2021). Liddle and Fenner (2017) noted that majority of rural SSA (184 million) population depended mainly

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

41

on groundwater that was accessed through the construction of hand-dug boreholes or hand-pump-equipped boreholes at waterpoints. However, just installing water points does not qualify as safe access since their sustainability is not guaranteed. Water access in rural SSA is also complicated by the dispersed and sparse nature of rural population requiring more ground to cover during supply and distribution of the commodity. This chapter therefore examines the state of water access for drinking purposes in rural SSA and the challenges that deter universal coverage in the areas.

3.2 Status of Water Access in Rural SSA In regions of the world such as SSA, where realizing MDGs was difficult, meeting the SDGs particularly SDG 6 will be even harder. For SDG 6 realization, the countries will have to sustain, expand and improve water services at the same time, which is cost and policy intensive. In rural SSA areas that are currently underserved and neglected even more improvements and expansion will be required. According to Van Ginneken et al. (2012), rural water supply in named SSA countries rose marginally between 2000–2008 with exception of Tanzania (Table 3.1). In most cases however, coverage was below 50%, which alluded to limited water access. The data on water access in SSA though scarce and fragmented were lower compared to the Sahel region. Although an initial glimpse showed that progress was made in improving access to piped water from 1990 to 2015 and as shown in Figure 3.1, sustenance of such milestones is in jeopardy (World Bank 2017a). Evidence of high hardware failure, reduced service levels and unsatisfactory performance by water utility providers is proof of the concern (Moriarty et al. 2013). A similar trend was reported by Van Ginneken et al. (2012) who noted that more than 25% of all rural water facilities were not functional. Several authors across rural SSA have also reported of failed waterpoints that did not meet conditions of universal water access in aspects of quality, quantity and safety of the water they provided as shown in Table 3.2. Due to the challenges, many rural residents who accessed the commodity at waterpoints under the MDGs have abandoned them for other unimproved and unsafe water services. Furthermore, the rural dwellers were unwilling to use the waterpoints once their water levels reduced significantly and their water safety and taste became questionable (Liddle and Fenner 2017). In other empirical studies, it was shown that 30–40% of the predominant water infrastructure in rural SSA (handpumps) were no longer functional (World Bank 2017a). In extreme cases, 20–25% of the handpumps were reported to have failed within the first year after installation while data on piped water is limited since the functioning of this improved water service was inadequate to report data on service delivery (Duti 2012). A survey in rural Nigeria in 2015, showed that more than 50% of water schemes and points had failed due to lack of maintenance (World Bank 2017b). Similarly, in Tanzania more than 40% of communal waterpoints supplying rural residents with piped water were not working (World Bank 2017a). The sluggish

42

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Table 3.1 Rural access to drinking water in percentage of population covered between 2000 and 2008 in named SSA countries (Van Ginneken et al. 2012) Country

2000 001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Mean increment/ Year

Togo

–

Tanzania

56

Sierra Leone

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

35.2

–

Niger

–

–

55

57

59

59

58

62

–

1.2

Mozambique

24

–

–

–

–

–

26

–

30

0.7

Mali

–

45

45.5

46.2

47.9

49.4

50.3

–

–

0.9

Madagascar

22.2

24

25.3

27.2

29.5

30.1

Ghana

–

–

–

–

–

–

53

–

–

2.0

Cote d’Ivoire

–

–

–

–

–

–

65

–

–

–

Congo Republic

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

15

–

Congo Democratic

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

17

1.3

Central African – Republic

–

17.7

17.6

17.3

17

16.8

16.9

32

9.4

Cameroon

–

–

32

34

36

39

40

45

–

2.2

Burkina Faso

–

46

60

–

–

–

2.8

–

–

–

–

–

–

29

–

42

64.2

– 1.8

1.3

Fig. 3.1 Changes in access to improved and piped water services around the globe between 1990 and 2015 (World Bank 2017a). (Accessed for free at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/han dle/10986/27988 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO)

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

43

Table 3.2 Data reported on the water access concerns of SSA region from handpump-equipped boreholes from selected studies Reference

Water supply concerns

Country

Failed water points (%)

Adank et al. 2014

Dry with very low yields

Ghana

39

Bey et al. 2014

Drying up during dry seasons

Uganda

50

Presence of sediments that make the water turbid

42.3

High salinity

8.6

Foul smell

5.1

Hoko et al. (2009)

Drying up

Zimbabwe

38

Fisher et al. (2015)

Drying up

Ghana

21.6

Gleitsmann et al. (2007)

Reduced yields

Mali

22

Anscombe (2011)

Low yields

Malawi

12

Foster (2013)

Salty taste

3

High water turbidity due to the presence of sediments

7

Drying up

Uganda

19.1

Sierra Leone

17.9

Liberia

18.2

nature to improve water access in rural SSA compared to urban areas (Fig. 3.1) is also a failure to the associated governments, which do not plan strategically and allocate enough funds to develop water infrastructure in the areas. In addition, the governments do not coordinate with utility providers to monitor already set up infrastructure for continuous efficiency. Whaley and Cleaver (2017) attributed these inadequacies to poor prioritizing on sustainability for governments in reference to rural water supply in SSA.

3.3 Challenges of Water Access in Rural SSA Apart from mass infrastructural failure, the focus on water access in rural SSA shows a number of challenges. These challenges are discussed in this chapter under three categories: i. Environmental challenges ii. Systemic challenges iii. Individual challenges.

44

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

3.3.1 Environmental Challenges A number of environmental challenges impede water access in rural SSA. These include climate change and its associated effects of droughts and flood events, pollution, geography or the terrain of such regions, seasonality and distance/location of waterpoints with respect to the users of the commodity. Climate variation and change influences water availability and subsequently, its access in rural SSA. The phenomenon modifies the timing and frequency of weather events, which in turn has both short- and long-term effects on the quantity and quality of available water (Hosea and Khalema 2020; Sanchez and Rylance 2018; Olayiwola 2021). In some cases, the effects could be positive if enough water is harvested during wet seasons for use during dry spells but in most cases, climate change results to high intensity rainfall and most of the water ends up as runoff since capturing it is difficult. Africa including SSA is vulnerable to climate change particularly because there is low preparedness to deal with the effects of the phenomenon despite the region’s high vulnerability to climate change effects (Inte-governmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC 2021; Nyika 2020). With climate change and variation, global surface temperatures have risen everywhere but varied regions experience different impacts of the phenomenon on their water bodies. In southern, eastern and central Africa where some SSA countries lie, some regions are projected to experience reduced precipitation while in others, flooding due to the expected climate changes (Apatinga et al. 2022). In the western regions of SSA, extended dry periods are expected. Specific countries such as Nigeria, Cote d’Ivoire and Ghana have had 10–30% reductions in their yearly runoff as a result of low precipitation (Apatinga et al. 2022) while East African countries in 2019 experienced landslides and flooding due to rainfall levels above average (Wainwright et al. 2021). Extreme weather resulting from climate change has an effect in the quality and access of both surface and groundwater resources. In rural Limpopo, South Africa, it was reported that residents received declined and unsustainable water supply from the piped system whose water was fed by a community borehole and Mutale River (Rankoana 2020). The reduced and intermittent supply was attributable to extended drought instigated by climate change. A forecasting study by Niang et al. (2014) showed that climate change and associated effects on precipitation variability will result to shortages and reduced water access to users in Lake Tana Basin (Ethiopia), Nile basin (Uganda), Okavango Delta (South Africa) and Rozva reservoir (Zimbabwe) while increased supplies will occur at Tana, Nyando and Mara Rivers of Eastern Africa. In Volta and Niger river basins of West Africa, climate change will induce additional levels of water unlike the case in Bani River basin of Mali where levels will reduce due to varied rainfall levels (Niang et al. 2014). The extremes of climate change compromise on water access and sanitation by interfering with the commodity’s infrastructure and treatment processes. Floods induce economic water scarcity in rural SSA, which lacks appropriate infrastructure to distribute water and the management of the resource under climate change

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

45

uncertainties is wanting (Egbinola 2017). Ultimately, the people suffer from inaccessibility to the commodity. Additionally, low quality infrastructure increases the vulnerability to extreme weather events. A failed water infrastructure, floods and drought make water accessibility difficult by increasing the time spent searching for safe and adequate levels of water in rural Kenya, Ghana and Zambia (Kelly et al. 2018). Eludoyin and Olanrewaju (2021) noted that in rural SSA challenges resulting from extreme weather and poor infrastructure forced children and women to walk for more than 15 minutes to access safe water. Similar evidence was reported in Ghana where women traveled far distances to access safe water after floods compromised water infrastructure and sanitation facilities (Alhassan and Hadwen 2017). In rural Limpopo and Mpumalanga areas of South Africa, a similar trend where women walked long distances in search of safe water after extreme weather events destroyed existent weather infrastructure was reported (Abrams et al. 2021). Prolonged dry spells serve a role in deterring water access in that they compromise availability in addition to enhancing the concentration of contaminants in water bodies. In Amhara region, Ethiopia groundwater had higher levels of contaminants during the dry season compared to the wet season, which was attributable to the dilution effect in the latter following recharge in wet seasons and its lack when it was dry (MacDonald et al. 2019). Apart from climate factors, seasonality influenced water access and availability in rural SSA. Some seasons favor or disfavor travelling long distances to search for water and improved water access through harvesting (Kelly et al. 2018). During wet seasons, rainwater harvesting in Mt. Elgon region of Kenya and Uganda (Bernard and Joyfred 2020), in East Africa using sand dams (Ritchie et al. 2021) and in Wami River basin of Tanzania (Twisa and Buchroithner 2019) resulted to improved access to water in the rural areas. Prolonged dry spells that are common in SSA enhance water inaccessibility since water sources such as wells, springs and streams dry up. In Mozambique, rural residents traveled long distances in search of water since nearby wells and streams had dried up due to extended drought periods (Van Houweling 2016). In Ghana (Adank et al. 2014), Uganda (Bey et al. 2014), Sierra Leone and Liberia (Foster 2013), groundwater systems had dried up due to a long dry spells and rural residents could not access the commodity at waterpoints. Seasonal inaccessibility to water was also reported in rural areas of Kisumu (Kenya), Kahemba (Congo), Amhara (Ethiopia) and Arua (Uganda) all in SSA (Brewis et al. 2019). Due to extreme weather that compromises water sanitation and agricultural activities (use of agrochemicals), water pollution is a growing concern in rural SSA, which is negatively affecting accessibility to the resource (Cronk et al. 2021). The trend was reported in rural Uganda, Sierra Leone and Liberia, which forced women and children to walk for long distances in search of uncontaminated water (Foster 2013). Many water bodies in rural Ghana were polluted, which made it difficult for affected households to access the commodity (Yeleliere et al. 2018). Pollution in rural SSA was also reported as a result of deforestation, which makes soils vulnerable to erosion and decreases infiltration while increasing runoff. Consequently, eroded sediments that are deposited in water make it turbid and increase costs of treatment especially in poor households as reported in rural Malawi (Mapulanga and Naito 2019) and

46

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Burkina Faso (Zongo et al. 2017). In the absence of sanitation (wastewater treatment) facilities, which is common in rural SSA, flooding and runoff moves chemical and microbial contaminants to water resources, which pollutes them and complicates access to safe water. The scenario is evident after rainfall events that come after a dry spell when there is dry and cracked overburden. Studies by Rankoana (2020) and Neufeld et al. (2021) reported such cases in rural Limpopo (South Africa) and Kitui (Kenya), respectively. In cases when water is located distances from the users, local geography can impede the commodity’s access (Foster 2013). Access in such cases is influenced by the distance traveled from households to waterpoints and the region’s terrain. In Tatale-Sanguli (Ghana), rural residents used motorbikes, tricycles and bicycles to access waterpoints, which were in far proximity from their households (Jeil et al. 2020). Muddy paths, steep slopes and long distances to water points can be difficult to navigate during water access by vulnerable groups such as the sick, pregnant, elderly, disabled and young (Apatinga et al. 2022). In rural Uganda (Mushavi et al. 2020), South Africa (Wrisdale et al. 2017) and Ghana (Jeil et al. 2020), vulnerable residents in rural areas had difficulty accessing water points. Ephemeral lakes and rivers can bring water access nearer or impede access if they are contaminated or otherwise as was reported in the Mara River basin, Kenya (Wekesa et al. 2020).

3.3.2 Systemic Challenges A number of systemic challenges also influence water access and delivery in rural SSA. Political challenges emanating from autocratic leadership systems, transparency deficiency, ineffective decision-making, bureaucratic procedures that are corrupt in government institutions and offices during water resources management and development are common. The ramifications of the systemic issues are incomplete programs and projects, inappropriate technologies and poor construction of infrastructure to provide access to water and sanitation facilities (Wrisdale et al. 2017; Debela et al. 2020). Ultimately, the rural poor suffer of water stress due to neglect from governing systems whose priority in most cases is in advancing own-political agendas rather than advancing the water sector. In Hopley farm of Zimbabwe, rural residents were denied access to potable water due to bad politics, inadequate funding and lack of accountability on used funds by utility providers (Matamanda et al. 2015). In South Africa, government officials and local politicians transferred the roles of setting up, operating, improving and maintaining water infrastructure to rural residents due to the failures of public service delivery and lack of good leadership (Hofstetter et al. 2008). The residents of the region had minimal human and financial capacity to fulfil these roles, which compromised water access and delivery. A similar trend was reported among residents of Central Kalahari game reserve, Botswana (Morinville and Rodina 2013). Poor governance characterized by weak policies and institutional frameworks encourages unemployment and poverty in many SSA countries. Consequently, the

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

47

poor rural residents cannot access water services since they cannot afford them and as such, they resolve to use cheap and unsafe alternative water sources. The trend was evident in South Africa and Burundi where in the latter only, 3.8% of rural residents had water access in December 2019 while in the former, the gap of water access between the rich and rural poor was 63.7% (Jiwani and Antiporta 2020). Poor governance in SSA countries was associated with low water security in that accessibility, quality, safety and management of the commodity in rural areas was not guaranteed (Monteith et al. 2020). Policy gaps in Rwanda disfavored water access to rural residents despite the fact that the country had adequate water resources (Osei et al. 2015). In addition to poor politics and governance, socio-cultural practices, norms and different power plays are attributable to negligence of pro-poor rural water initiatives and involvement of such individuals in decisions on water access. Providing rural residents with services is not a priority because their contribution to the economy is perceived to be minimal compared to urban residents in most SSA countries. In Uganda, rural residents were deprived off water access and this led to their poor quality of life (Mushavi et al. 2020). Economic losses associated with time spent walking to a water point, queuing to fetch water and returning home especially by women are a growing concern. By travelling long distances in search of water, rural residents of SSA have reduced capacity to participate in economic, educational and social activities (Winter et al. 2021). The economic losses are in the form of opportunities and time losses especially when there are water scarcity concerns (during dry spells). In rural Uganda (Cooper-Vince et al. 2017) and Ethiopia (Stevenson et al. 2012), school tardiness and absenteeism was associated with the quest for water. In rural Zambia, lack of access and long hours seeking for water had counter effects in time invested for entrepreneurship, self-care, caregiving and educational activities among women and hence, negative effects to the economy (Winter et al. 2021). With climate change effects, it is expected that the economic losses will soar. Stevenson et al. (2012) associated direct and indirect economic losses of water inaccessibility and time spend looking for safe resources to gender inequities, poverty feminization and a vicious poverty cycle. In SSA countries, the economic losses are further worsened by gendered water management, poor governance and land tenure rights where men are primary participants in water decisions while women are left out despite their crucial role in searching and managing water especially at domestic level (Apatinga et al. 2022). Community conflicts and violence is another challenge that impedes water access in rural SSA. In water points, violence and fights were witnessed as users grew impatient on queues and as they walked back home after collecting water in rural Eastern Cape (Asoba et al. 2019). The violence according to Pearson et al. (2021) emanated from water fetchers who felt that they had a right to the commodity over others or in situations where water was perceived to get exhausted before everyone got a fair share. Conflicts are also exacerbated by climate change effects such as drought that force water users to compete for the precious resource. In rural areas of Kenya, Uganda, Malawi, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Ghana, DRC and Nigeria, water access was linked to conflicts within households and among neighbors as they scrambled for the limited commodity (Pearson et al. 2021). Within households, family members

48

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

blamed women for failure to collect enough water even in cases where the commodity was not readily available (Mushavi et al. 2020). Some of the fights resulted to water spillage, which were losses of the already precious commodity. Due to reducing amounts of water in rural SSA, some fetchers have been attacked by animals seeking the same commodity (Van Houweling 2016; Abrahms 2021). The animals in this case change their territories as they search for water due to climate change effects such as droughts and floods. Water conflicts can escalate to water wars as communities/clans/countries claim ownership of water bodies. Apart from this challenge leading to inaccessibility of water by the weaker parties, it can even result to property losses and deaths. The wars are usually steered up by politicians and community leaders after concerns on diminishing water resources or unfair sharing of the commodity whereby, the most water-deprived and aridest regions are under threat of such wars (Pena-Ramos et al. 2022). In SSA, governments that are mostly authoritarian do not cooperate in making workable legislations and conditions on sharing transboundary water resources. In addition, they neglect negotiations on water use agreements and do not honor such cooperation terms claiming favoritism of one party over another or due to egocentric tendencies (Filin et al. 2021). Consequently, involved parties fight for the commodity and complicate the access to safe water in addition to risking the security of users. Notable water conflicts that have occurred in SSA region are shown in Table 3.3 (Pacific Institute Water Conflict Chronology 2021). The frequency of such conflicts is expected to increase due to climate change effects that worsen the existent water inaccessibility in SSA (Ngoran et al. 2015). The costs affiliated with access to, development and delivery of water in both rural and urban areas is a growing impediment to water access. In many SSA countries, the water sector is underfunded, which translates to inability to construct and improve Table 3.3 Some of the water conflicts due to diminishing water resources in SSA (Pacific Institute Water Conflict Chronology 2021) Year

Water conflict

Type of conflict

2019

Water conflict between farmers and herders over water at the Kenya-Ethiopia border

Transboundary

2012

Mali-Burkina Faso water conflict

2012

Water conflict between Kenyan-Ugandan herders

2012

Water dispute in Waraq, Somalia over new water wells

Local

2006

Water conflicts between Kenyans and Ethiopians from Marsabit and Oromo, respectively

Transboundary

2006

Conflict at Somalia-Ethiopia border over water located at Yamarug, Ethiopia

2000

Conflicts over water between herder communities of Oromo and Wajir in Ethiopia and Kenya, respectively

1999–2000 The clash between Botswana and Namibia over Chobe River’s Sedudu Island

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

49

infrastructure to store, treat and distribute the commodity as well as purchase the appropriate technology to access water (Joshua 2022). Rural expenditure on water supply and sanitation for some SSA nations increased steadily between 2000 and 2008 and accounted for 0.26% of the region’s gross domestic product (Van Ginneken et al. 2012). Countries such as Niger, Mali, Madagascar, Ghana, Ethiopia, Cote d’Ivoire, Cameroon and Burkina Faso recorded mean increments of 0.57, 0.38, 0.12, 0.33, 0.26, 0.03, 0.1 and 0.28 %, respectively in the period. The expenditure per capita associated with water access also increased consistently and was reported to be US$ 1.21 million for rural areas in 2008 (Van Ginneken et al. 2012). The budgetary investment for the water sector in respective government budgets of the countries was a mean of 2% but varied widely with some countries such as Cameroon receiving as low as 0.1% budgetary allocation. Such trends create an imbalance between available funds and projected expenditure and ultimately, quality of water service delivery is lowered. Mitlin and Walnycki (2016) noted the trend as one of the reasons why water is inaccessible in SSA. With low budgetary allocations, utility providers raise the cost of the commodity to cater for their capital and recurrent expenditures, which reduces affordability. UNICEF (2020) attributed high costs of water in SSA as an impediment to water access and limited sanitation coverage such that the commodity is not affordable to the poor who live in rural areas. Xenarios and Pavelic (2013) also noted that the costs of developing groundwater (the preferred source of water) in rural SSA was high and hence residents resolved to use unimproved water sources (such as hand dug/ unprotected wells or surface water) that were not safe or easily accessible but they were affordable to them.

3.3.3 Individual Challenges Individual challenges related to gender/sex, age, health status, social capital and power challenge water access in rural SSA. In the region, men and women have different social status and power where the former are household heads and the latter are the subordinates. The superior and political position held by men at household level results to varied water use, rights, access and management compared to women (Apatinga et al. 2022). Women do most of the house chores while men have powerful positions associated with their paid livelihoods outside the domestic environment. Even with pressures to erode this patriarchal system and due to socio-economic pressures of contemporary society and advances towards gender equity, men participate in domestic chores passively compared to women to maintain their social-cultural acceptance while avoiding social stressors. It is for these reasons that most SSA studies report the sole involvement of women and/or girls in fetching, treating and distributing water at household level while the participation of men in such activities is uncommon (Ferron et al. 2015; Van Houweling 2016; Jeil et al. 2020). The patriarchal nature of many African cultures is to blame for the trend where men fetching water is perceived to be unethical, degrading and shameful (Asaba 2013).

50

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

The lack of holistic participation in searching for water makes the capacity to access it suboptimal. With the apparent inaccessibility of safe water in rural SSA due to the aforementioned environmental and systemic challenges, leaving the responsibility to draw, collect and access water to the female gender only worsens the current situation. It makes the individuals susceptible to socio-economic challenges, psychosocial complications, security threats and physical injuries while acquiring water (CooperVince et al. 2017). In rural SSA regions including Kisumu (Kenya), Accra (Ghana), Lagos (Nigeria), Kahemba (Democratic Republic of Congo), Kampala (Uganda), Bahir Dar (Ethiopia) and Singida (Tanzania) injuries in the form of dislocations and fractures associated with falls while collecting water were reported as a public health concern and a burden in accessing distant water resources (Venkataramanan et al. 2020). Women were mostly affected compared to men due to the gender imparity in responsibilities of accessing water. A similar trend was established by Geere et al. (2018) in Ghana and South Africa where women and children who were involved in collecting water complained of musculoskeletal disorders such as hand, upper back and chest pains. The disorders were associated with collecting water from waterpoints using jerricans. A gendered risk to depression among other psychological dysfunctions in Mbarara, rural Uganda was associated with the quest for water access where women were at a higher risk compared to men (Cooper-Vince et al. 2018). In this case, the pressures to travel long distances to water points and return to do domestic chores were overwhelming to the women. Among the female gender in rural South Africa, the vulnerabilities resulting from water inaccessibility are worsened by limited control of water they searched for and inadequate economic resources needed to acquire water, failures of the water infrastructure, poverty and climate change effects (Wrisdale et al. 2017). Brewis et al. (2019) attributed these reasons for challenging trends in acquiring water in rural areas of Arua (Uganda), Amhara (Ethiopia), Kahemba (Democratic Republic of Congo) and Kisumu (Kenya).

3.4 Conclusions This chapter showed that rural SSA is not on track in providing safe and adequate water access to its population. The situation is attributable to a neglect of the region by water utility providers who find it expensive to cover all residents that are sparsely populated over a large spatial area, have low potential to pay for the service and due to the limited finances allotted to the providers. Infrastructural neglect was shown to be the cause of waterpoint failures whereby, some of them were polluted while others were suffering of water over-abstraction and lack of recharge due to extended drought. The situation was exacerbated by climate change uncertainties and rural dwellers traveled far distances in search of alternative water sources, which had negative health and economic implications. Women, whose role is to fetch and collect the water were the most affected by the implications compared to men. To regain the focus on realizing SDG 6 in rural SSA by 2030, there is need to fund the water sector

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

51

more and improve water governance to incorporate all genders in water sourcing and decision-making process on the commodity’s allocation, planning and management.

References Abrahms B (2021) Human-wildlife conflict under climate change. Science 373(6554):484–485. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abj4216 Abrams A, Carden K, Teta C, Wagsaether K (2021) Water, sanitation, and hygiene vulnerability among rural areas and small towns in South Africa: exploring the role of climate change, marginalization, and inequality. Water 13:2810. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13202810 Adank M, Kumasi T, Chimbar T, Atengdem J, Agbemor B, Dickinson N, Abbey E (2014) The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts. 37th WEDC International Conference, 2014, Hanoi, Vietnam. Alhassan S, Hadwen W (2017) Challenges and opportunities for mainstreaming climate change adaptation into WaSH development planning in Ghana. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(7):749. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070749 Anscombe J (2011) Consultancy services: quality assurance of UNICEF drilling programs for boreholes in Malawi. Government of the Republic of Malawi, Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Water Development Apatinga G, Wallace C, Anderson S (2022) A conceptual framework for gender and climate mainstreaming to mitigate water inaccessibility in rural sub-Saharan. Africa 9(4):e1591. https://doi. org/10.1002/wat2.1591 Asaba R (2013) Gender, power and local water governance in rural Uganda. PhD Thesis, National University of Ireland Maynooth Asoba S, Fiko M, Makiwane B, Mefi N (2019) Water and sanitation challenges: the case of a rural South African Municipality. Acad Entrep J 26:1–9 Bernard B, Joyfred A (2020) Contribution of rainfall on rooftop rainwater harvesting and saving on the slopes of Mt. Elgon, East Africa. Sci World J:7196342. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/719 6342 Bey V, Magara P, Abisa J (2014) Assessment of the performance of the service delivery model for point sources in Uganda, IRC, Triple-S Final Research Report Brewis A, Piperata B, Thompson A, Wutich A (2019) Localizing resource insecurities: A biocultural perspective on water and wellbeing. Wiley Interdiscip Rev Water 7(4):e1440. https://doi.org/10. 1002/wat2.1440 Butler D, Ward S, Sweetapple C, Astaraie-Imani M, Diao K, Farmani R, Fu G (2017) Reliable, resilient and sustainable water management: the safe & SuRe approach. Global Chall 1(1):63–77. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.1010 Carter R, Lockwood H (2011) A vision for achieving sustainable rural water services for all. RWSN Field Note, RWSN Executive Steering Committee, RWSN, St Gallen, Switzerland. Cooper-Vince C, Arachy H, Kakuhikire B, Vorechovska D, Mushavi R, Baguma C et al (2018) Water insecurity and gendered risk for depression in rural Uganda: a hotspot analysis. BMC Public Health 18(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-6043-z Cooper-Vince E, Kakuhikire B, Vorechovska D, McDonough A, Perkins J, Venkataramani A et al (2017) Household water insecurity, missed schooling, and the mediating role of caregiver depression in rural Uganda. Global Mental Health 4(e15):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1017/gmh. 2017.14 Cronk R, Guo A, Fleming L, Bartram J (2021) Factors associated with water quality, sanitation, and hygiene in rural schools in 14 low-and middle-income countries. Sci Total Environ 761:144226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144226

52

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Debela B, Bouckaert G, Troupin S (2020) Access to drinking water in sub-Saharan Africa: does the developmental state doctrine matter? Int Rev Adm Sci:1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/002085 2320930060 Duti V (2012) Theme paper: tracking functionality for sustainability. Paper presented at the annual review conference of the community water and sanitation agency, 2011. Accra, Ghana, Ghana IRC Water and Sanitation Centre, pp 1–11. Egbinola C (2017) Trend in access to safe water supply in Nigeria. J Environ Earth Sci 7(8):89–96 Eludoyin A, Olanrewaju O (2021) Water supply and quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Lange Salvia A, Wall T (eds) Clean water and sanitation. encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31970061-8_166-1 Ferron V, Ruiz J, Mandojana N (2015) How much would environmental issues cost? The internationalisation of environmental costs in European transport industry. Environ Eng Manage J 14(9):1–33 Filin S, Semenov I, Filina-Dawidowicz L (2021) Multi-agent simulation of iceberg mass loss during its energy-efficient towing for freshwater supply. Energies 14:4031. https://doi.org/10.3390/en1 4134031 Fisher M, Shields K, Chan T, Christenson E, Cronk R, Leker H, Samani D, Apoya P, Lutz A, Bartram J (2015) Understanding handpump sustainability: determinants of rural water source functionality in the Greater Afram plains region of Ghana. Water Resour Res 51:1–19. https:// doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016770 Foster T (2013) Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda. Environ Sci Technol 47(21):12037– 12046. https://doi.org/10.1021/es402086n Geere J, Bartram J, Bates L, Danquah L, Evans B, Fisher M, Groce N et al (2018) Carrying water may be a major contributor to disability from musculoskeletal disorders in low-income countries: A cross-sectional survey in South Africa, Ghana and Vietnam. J Global Health 8(1):1–14. https:// doi.org/10.7189/jogh.08.010406 Gleitsmann B, Kroma M, Steenhuis T (2007) Analysis of a rural water supply project in three communities in Mali: participation and sustainability. Nat Resour Forum 31:142. 10.llll/j.14778947.2007.00144 Hofstetter M, van Koppen B, Bolding A (2008) The emergence of collectively owned self-supply water supply systems in rural South Africa–what can we learn from the Tshakhuma case in Limpopo? Water SA 47(2):253–263. https://doi.org/10.17159/wsa/2021.v47.i2.10921 Hoko Z, Demberere T, Siwadi K (2009) An evaluation of the sustainability of a water supply project in Mt Darwin district: Zimbabwe. J Sustain Dev Africa 11(2):98–11 Hosea P, Khalema E (2020) Scoping the nexus between climate change and water-security realities in rural South Africa. Town Reg Plan 77:18–30. https://doi.org/10.18820/2415-0495/trp77i1.2 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2021). Climate change 2021: the physical science basis. Cambridge University Press Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In Press. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Jeil E, Abass K, Ganle J (2020) We are free when water is available: gendered livelihood implications of sporadic water supply in northern Ghana. Local Environ 25(4):320–335. https://doi.org/10. 1080/13549839.2020.1744118 Jiwani S, Antiporta D (2020) Inequalities in access to water and soap matter for the COVID-19 response in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Equity Health 19:1–3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939020-01199-z Joshua W (2022) Access to water and the SARs-Cov-2 pandemic: opportunities and threats in a post-pandemic era for sub-Saharan Africa. J Environ 7(8):18–25. https://doi.org/10.22135/sje. 2022.7.1.18-25 Kelly E, Lee K, Shields K, Cronk R, Behnke N, Klug T, Bartram J (2018) The role of social capital and sense of ownership in rural community-managed water systems: qualitative evidence from

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

53

Ghana, Kenya, and Zambia. J Rural Stud 56:156–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017. 08.021 Krishnan S (2019) Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and disaster recovery for community resilience: a mixed methods study from Odisha. India. Int J Disaster Risk Reduct 35:101061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2018.12.023 Luker E, Harris L (2019) Developing new urban water supplies: Investigating motivations and barriers to groundwater use in Cape Town. Int J Water Resour Dev 35(6):917–937. https://doi. org/10.1080/07900627.2018.1509787 Liddle E, Fenner R (2017) Water point failure in sub-Saharan Africa: the value of a systems thinking approach. Waterlines 36(2):140–166. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26600775 MacDonald A, Bell R, Kebede S, Azagegn T, Yehualaeshet T, Pichon F, Young M et al (2019) Groundwater and resilience to drought in the Ethiopian highlands. Environ Res Lett 14(9):095003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab282f Mapulanga A, Naito H (2019) Effect of deforestation on access to clean drinking water. Proc Natl Acad Sci 116(17):8249–8254. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1814970116 Matamanda A, Mphambukeli T, Chirisa I (2015) Applied systems analysis in water access for emerging human settlements: a case study of Hopley Farm, Harare, Zimbabwe. Urban Water J 17(9):763–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062X.2020.1811882 Mitlin D, Walnycki A (2016) Why is water still unaffordable for sub-Saharan Africa’s urban poor? International Institute for Environment and Development, IIED, London, United Kingdom. Molinos-Senante M, Muñoz S, Chamorro A (2019) Assessing the quality of service for drinking water supplies in rural settings: a synthetic index approach. J Environ Manage 247:613–623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.06.112 Monteith H, Ahmadi D, Sinclair K, Ebadi N, Melgar-Quinonez H (2020) Women’s water access is associated with measures of empowerment and social support: a cross-sectional study in sub-Saharan Africa. J Rural Community Dev 15(3):1–21 Moriarty P, Smits S, Butterworth J, Franceys R (2013) Trends in rural water supply: towards a service delivery approach. Water Altern 6(3):329–349 Morinville C, Rodina L (2013) Rethinking the human right to water: Water access and dispossession in Botswana’s central Kalahari game reserve. Geoforum 49:150–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. geoforum.2013.06.012 Mulenga N, Bwalya B, Kaliba-Chishimba K (2017) Determinants and inequalities in access to improved water sources and sanitation among the Zambian households. Int J Dev Sustain 6:746– 762 Mvongo V, Defo C (2021) Assessing water service performance in rural sub-Saharan Africa environment: the cases studies of two councils of the southern and Eastern regions of the Republic of Cameroon (Central Africa). J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 11(1):37–50. https://doi.org/10.2166/was hdev.2020.164 Mushavi R, Burns B, Kakuhikire B, Owembabazi M, Voˇrechovska D, McDonough A et al (2020) When you have no water, it means you have no peace: a mixed-methods, wholepopulation study of water insecurity and depression in rural Uganda. Soc Sci Med 245:112561. 10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2019.112561 Neufeld D, Muli J, Muendo B, Kanyari J (2021) Assessment of water presence and use at sand dams in Kenya. J Arid Environ 188:104472. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaridenv.2021.104472 Niang I, Ruppel O, Abdrabo M, Essel A, Lennard C, Padgham J et al (2014) Africa. Climate change 2014: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability: part B: Regional aspects: Working Group II Contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, pp 1199–1266. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415386.002 Ngoran S, Dogah K, Xue X (2015) Assessing the impacts of climate change on water resources: the sub-Saharan Africa perspective. J Econ Sustain Dev 6(1):185–194 Nyika J (2020) Climate change situation in Kenya and measures towards adaptive management in the water sector. Int J Environ Sustain Green Technol 11(2):34–47. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJE SGT.2020070103

54

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Nyika J. & Dinka MO (2022) Urban resilience to the challenges of climate change: the case of Africa. In: Udday C, Arindam B, Jenia M, Mahata D (eds) Sustainable urbanism in developing countries. CRC Press, Florida, USA. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003131922-17 Olayiwola P (2021). Climate change and water insecurity in rural uMkhanyakude district municipality: an assessment of coping strategies for rural South Africa. H2Open J 4(1):29–46. https:// doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2021.009 Osei L, Amoyaw J, Boateng G, Boamah S, Luginaah I (2015) The paradox of water accessibility: understanding the temporal and spatial dimensions of access to improved water sources in Rwanda. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 5(4):553–564. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.029 Pacific Institute Water Conflict Chronology (2021) Pacific institute. Water conflict chronology. Available at: https://www.worldwater.org/waterconflict/ Pearson A, Mack E, Ross A, Marcantonio R, Zimmer A, Bunting E et al (2021) Interpersonal conflict over water is associated with household demographics, domains of water insecurity, and regional conflict: evidence from nine sites across eight Sub-Saharan African countries. Water 13:1150. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13091150 Pena-Ramos J, Jose R, Sastre F, Martínez A (2022) Water conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa. Front Environ Sci 10:863903. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.863903 Rankoana S (2020) Climate change impacts on water resources in a rural community in Limpopo province, South Africa: a community-based adaptation to water insecurity. Int J Clim Chang Strateg Manag 12(5):587–598. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-04-2020-0033 Ritchie H, Eisma J, Parker A (2021) Sand dams as a potential solution to rural water security in drylands: Existing research and future opportunities. Front Water 3:31. https://doi.org/10.3389/ frwa.2021.651954 Sanchez A, Rylance G (2018) When the taps run dry: water stress and social unrest revisited. Revista UNISCI / UNISCI J 47:65–83 Schuster R, Butler S, Wutich, A, Miller J, Young L, Household Water Insecurity ExperiencesResearch Coordination Net-work (HWISE-RCN) (2020) If there is no water, we cannot feed our children: the far-reaching consequences of water insecurity on infant feeding practices and infant health across 16 low-and middle-income countries. Am J Hum Biol 32(1):e23357. https:// doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.23357 Stevenson E, Greene L, Maes K, Ambelu A, Tesfaye Y, Rheingans R, Hadley C (2012) Water insecurity in 3 dimensions: an anthropological perspective on water and women’s psychosocial distress in Ethiopia. Soc Sci Med 270:113599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113599 Tadesse A, Bosona T, Gebresenbet G (2013) Rural water supply management and sustainability: the case of Adama area, Ethiopia. J Water Resour Protect 5:208–221. https://doi.org/10.4236/ jwarp.2013.52022 Twisa S, Buchroithner M (2019) Seasonal and annual rainfall variability and their impact on rural water supply services in the Wami River Basin, Tanzania. Water 11(10):2055. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/w11102055 United Nations (2018) Sustainable development goals (Goal 6). Available at: https://www.un.org/ sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/ United Nations Children’s Fund, UNICEF (2020) Global and regional costs of achieving universal access to sanitation to meet SDG target 6.2. New York, USA. Van Houweling E (2016) A good wife brings her husband bath water: gender roles and water practices in Nampula, Mozambique. Soc Nat Resour 29(9):1065–1078. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08941920.2015.1095377 Van Ginneken M, Netterstrom U, Bennett A (2012) More, better or different spending: trends in public expenditure on water sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa. Water Partnership Program, The World Bank, Washington DC, USA Venkataramanan V, Geere J, Thomae B, Stoler J, Hunter P, Young S (2020) In pursuit of “safe” water: the burden of personal injury from water fetching in 21 low-income and middle-income countries. BMJ Glob Health 5(10):e003328. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003328

3 Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa

55

Wainwright C, Finney D, Kilavi M, Black E, Marsham J (2021) Extreme rainfall in East Africa, October 2019–January 2020 and context under future climate change. Weather 76(1):26–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/wea.3824 Wekesa S, Stigter T, Olang L, Oloo F, Fouchy K, McClain M (2020) Water flow behavior and storage potential of the semi-arid ephemeral river system in the Mara Basin of Kenya. Front Environ Sci 8:95. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2020.00095 Whaley L, Cleaver F (2017) Can ‘functionality’ save the community management model of rural water supply? Water Resour Rural Dev 9:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wrr.2017.04.001 WHO & UNICEF (2017) Progress on drinking water, sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and SDG baselines. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Geneva, Switzerland WHO & UNICEF (2021) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene 2000– 2020: five years into the SDGs. World Health Organization & United Nations Children’s Fund, New York WHO/UNICEF (2015) Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment. WHO/UNICEF, Geneva, Switzerland WHO/UNICEF (2019) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–17. Special focus on inequalities. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, New York Winter J, Darmstadt G, Davis J (2021) The role of piped water supplies in advancing health, economic development, and gender equality in rural communities. Soc Sci Med 270:113599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113599 World Bank (2017a) Sustainability assessment of rural water service delivery models: findings of a multi-country review. World Bank Group, Washington, DC, USA World Bank (2017b) A wake up call: Nigeria water supply, sanitation, and hygiene poverty diagnostic. WASH Poverty Diagnostic. World Bank, Washington, DC, USA Wrisdale L, Mokoena M, Mudau L, Geere J (2017) Factors that impact on access to water and sanitation for older adults and people with disability in rural South Africa: an occupational justice perspective. J Occup Sci 24(3):259–279. https://doi.org/10.1080/14427591.2017.1338190 Xenarios S, Pavelic P (2013) Assessing and forecasting groundwater development costs in subSaharan Africa. WATER SA 39(4):529–538. https://doi.org/10.4314/wsa.v39i4.12 Yeleliere E, Cobbina S, Duwiejuah A (2018) Review of Ghana’s water resources: the quality and management with particular focus on freshwater resources. Appl Water Sci 8:93. https://doi. org/10.1007/s13201-018-0736-4 Young S, Boateng G, Jamaluddine Z, Miller J, Frongillo A, Neilands T, Collins S, Wutich A et al (2019) The household water insecurity experiences (HWISE) scale: development and validation of a household water insecurity measure for low-income and middle-income countries. BMJ Glob Health 4(5):e001750. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.108 Zongo B, Zongo F, Toguyeni A, Boussim J (2017) Water quality in forest and village ponds in Burkina Faso (Western Africa). J For Res 28:1039–1048. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11676-0170369-8

Chapter 4

Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa Joan Nyika and Megersa Olumana Dinka

Abstract This chapter focused on the management measures that can be applied to reverse the water issues of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) region. Findings showed that water challenges of the region emanate from institutional, policy and regulatory weaknesses in addition to physical and economic water scarcity. Therefore, measures geared to improved governance on the use, allocation, sharing and planning for water resources were recommended based on the elements of integrated and sustainable water resources management. The measures were pegged on better policies, involvement of all stakeholders in decision-making on water management, better financing of the water sector, preservation of the integrity of freshwater ecosystems and modifying of cultural norms to involve both men and women in water sourcing and management, holistically. Additionally, all corrective measures on water management required adequate and reliable data to enable evidence-based forecasting on changes in water resources and support decisions on their use and allocation in the region even with climate change uncertainties. Keywords Climate change adaptation · Good governance · IWRM · Sub-Saharan Africa · Water quality · Water stress

4.1 Introduction The apparent water demand and supply imbalance is a growing concern in contemporary societies globally as economies strife to develop. Water scarcity and inaccessibility has ranked as a more fatal challenge compared to social instability, food insecurity, climate change and its associated extreme weather events (Dos Santos et al. 2017). In another study, water scarcity is identified as the greatest human rights, environmental, ecological and health challenge of today (Kanyerere et al. 2018). Africa and particularly sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), is at the epicenter of this crisis with its groundwater resources steadily depleting compared to the growing demand due to population rise, industrialization and urbanization trends. Similarly, surface waters of the region are declining in quality due to pollution, which translates to a pervasive threat to humans and biodiversity. Apart from drinking, other water uses including agricultural irrigation, manufacturing and energy compete for © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka, Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management, SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_4

57

58

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

the already inadequate resource, which is required in high quantities and superior quality (Van Vliet et al. 2021). Historically, water scarcity in SSA was perceived as a rural problem due to the neglect of water infrastructure and the disperse nature of the rural residents (Eludoyin and Olanrewaju 2021). However, new trends are emerging where urban residents are also suffering of water access due to inadequate supplies, suboptimal infrastructure and poor quality. The drivers to limited water access are land use/cover changes and climate variation and change effects, which influence supply of the commodity, a growing demand for water owing to urban sprawl, inadequate water treatment technologies and infrastructure, which compromise the resource’s safety and mismanagement that affects the entire water system (Muller 2016; Romero-Lankao and Gnatz 2016). In SSA, poor urban residents who can barely meet their daily water needs especially at informal settlements are the worst affected by the challenges (Bishoge 2021; Zerbo et al. 2020). Other sectors requiring water such as industries and agriculture scramble for the available supplies. With the water access challenge in SSA exacerbated by climate change effects, there are concerns on the widening supply–demand gap, the disproportionate access of water among the urban poor and rich and the preferential improvement of urban water infrastructure while disfavoring rural water development. The concerns are due to the public health, quality of life, food production, livelihood and gender disparity implications associated with water inaccessibility. Waterpoints in rural SSA are often suffering of neglected infrastructural maintenance resulting to their failures (Adam et al. 2018; Zerbo et al. 2020) while urban SSA is straining to respond to the growing demand for water due to rural–urban migration (Mvongo and Defo 2021). Although notable progress has been realized in improving water access to rural and urban populace of SSA (Genneken et al. 2012; Dos Santos et al. 2017), the pace is slow and it is likely that the sustainable development goal 6 (to provide clean water and sanitation) will not be met by 2030. The sluggish pace leading to the inability of water systems to support diverse needs of the population is most often a decision making, management and planning failure (Loucks and van Beek 2017). Cosgrove and Loucks (2015) who supported the ideology claimed that water management is a policy issue of international concern whose lack of attention has serious ramifications to both the global security and economic development, SSA included. It also demotes milestones made in improving sanitation and hygiene since the success of these aspects is dependent on water management. In another study, expeditious management of water resources was reported to enhance the resilience of economic, environmental and social systems in the era of uncertainty resulting from climate change and modified socio-economic patterns (El-Nwsany et al. 2019). One of the prerequisites of proper development, planning and management of water resources towards sustainable and sufficient supplies, bettered quality and enhanced affordability, is in understanding the challenges ailing the water sector in SSA in order to device solutions to manage them. In this way, opportunities can be seized to enhance merits of changing water management and other natural resources (Loucks and van Beek 2017). This was the focus of this chapter, which is aimed at identifying

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

59

the challenges hindering universal access of water in SSA and proposing management approaches to deal with them.

4.2 Water Scarcity of SSA The lack of enough water quantities of high quality coupled with a demand increase is described as water scarcity (Kumari et al. 2021). Four dimensions to describe water scarcity exist. These include: i.

The first order, which describes insufficient water supplies to satisfy current and future demands ii. The second order, which describes financial limitations to distribute and supply available improved water resources to target users iii. The third order, which describes inadequate infrastructural and institutional set up to avail water to users iv. The fourth order, that results from social disparities such that rural poor are underserved compared to urban dwellers. In the cities too, the urban rich are favored than informal settlers with respect to accessing water services. SSA Africa in this context suffers from the four dimensions of water scarcity (Chitonge 2020; Matchawe et al. 2022). The region has nearly 320 million people without access to improved drinking water sources, which is equivalent to two thirds of the total global figure (WHO and UNICEF 2019). Additionally, only 27% of its population has access to sanitation facilities (WHO and UNICEF 2019). In another more recent report, only 30 and 35% of the population in SSA had access to safely managed and basic water services, respectively in 2020 (WHO/UNICEF 2021). The rest had limited access (13%), used unimproved services (unprotected springs and dug wells) (16%) and direct surface water (7%) (WHO/UNICEF 2021). The observations are despite the fact that the region is endowed with abundant water resources. The region has 17 major rivers, more than a hundred lakes and highly productive aquifer systems (Xu et al. 2019). The withdrawals from the water resources for various uses are relatively low and rainfall to replenish the abstracted water is considerably high (Xu et al. 2019). Even with the resources, their relationship with water scarcity is contrasting. This is especially so when shortages are experienced even in countries such as Ethiopia and Congo, which are endowed with abundant freshwater but still suffer from economic scarcity of the commodity. In the situation, water is available in plenty but financial resources to distribute it to users, infrastructural technology to access it and institutions support and oversee its distribution and access is lacking (Hope et al. 2020). Therefore, water scarcity is not indicative of absence of the commodity in the natural environment. The spatial and temporal variability of water resources is another contributory factor to scarcity in SSA. Spatially, some regions are endowed with more water compared to others. The central region holds 48% of the region’s water with Democratic Republic of Congo alone, having 32% unlike the Gulf of Guinea with 24%

60

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

(Matchawe et al. 2022). Temporarily, the variability of climate has resulted to variability in drought frequency and rainfall levels in the region where some countries are favored while others are disfavored by the changes (Papa et al. 2022). Areas receiving high precipitation levels have adequate water unlike those with extended drought spells. One of the notable effects of climate change in SSA is the disappearance and reduction of Lake Chad’s surface area by about 90% (Pham-Duc et al. 2020). Similarly, the Rift Valley Lake basin of Ethiopia was reported to have reduced water levels due to climate change dynamics and land use changes in the last four decades (Ayalew et al. 2022).

4.3 Management of Water Challenges In Chaps. 2 and 3 of this book, a number of challenges impeding water access in rural and urban SSA are discussed. These include the effects of climate variability resulting to drought and erratic-extreme rainfall events, inadequacies of water infrastructure due to financial constraints by utility providers, costs of the commodity, paucity of data and information on water resources, disparities in coverage often dictated by economic capabilities to pay for water, gender disparities during water search and pollution. Economic losses resulting from time and energy spent accessing water from long distances and managing resultant health effects as well as poor governance/ policies and institutional management resulting to political interference and water conflicts in the scramble for available resources are additional concerns on water access in SSA. The challenges can be collectively attributed to the mismanagement of water resources, which requires corrective measures to remain on track to realizing sustainable development goal (SDG) 6 on clean water and sanitation for all (Cosgrove and Loucks 2015; Loucks and van Beek 2017). In the next sections of this chapter, the management of the challenges is discussed extensively using case studies of countries in SSA region. The interplay of political, social, economic and physical factors influences the management of water systems. The relationship of the factors induce complexity in delivering high quantities, quality and sustainable freshwater in a fair manner (Donkor 2021). Physically, water scarcity can emanate from over-abstraction and inefficient use, geographical proximity to a surface- or ground-water source and climatic variations. Inequity in access to water and its failed or poorly maintained infrastructure economically prevents security of the commodity. Both physical and economic water scarcity impedes providence, conveyance and storage of water required for various community uses even when the commodity is naturally available in the environment (Eludoyin and Olanrewaju 2021). The complex interplay of the factors and their effects on water access is further exacerbated by climate change and pollution especially in SSA where vulnerability to such effects is high despite low preparedness and resilience to deal with their aftermaths (Nyika 2020). Ultimately, socioeconomic development is negatively affected. Therefore, water management is indispensable and demands legal, social and financial adaptation in response to the

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

61

apparent challenges in the sector. For the physical water scarcity, improving infrastructure to better prepare for climate change effects is priority while in social water scarcity, collective involvement of stakeholders in planning on water use and allocation under uncertainty should be given precedence (El-Nwsany et al. 2019. These undertakings along with along with proper system improvements build resilience in water management and in the overall, result to economic growth. The management of water challenges of SSA in this chapter will be discussed under five subtopics: i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Climate change adaptation and mitigation Improving water governance systems Improvement of systems to ensure wise use of water Financial investment in the water sector Deconstructing gendered water management.

4.3.1 Improving Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation to Manage Water Challenges Climate change and variability effects affects water levels significantly. In SSA for instance, temperatures are projected to rise by a range of 1.4–5.8 °C, which will decrease rainfall and drainage by 10 and 17% in 2050, respectively and reduce available freshwater significantly (Misra 2014). In another study, it is projected that, “by 2050, climate change is likely to have an impact on water availability in most of South Africa. In southern African countries for instance, climate change characterized by extended drought has resulted to endemic water stress and energy insecurities in the region (Nyika and Dinka 2022). Most populations in the countries have no access to water and in areas where it is accessible; it has been polluted by stormwater and sediments from extreme climate weather and is therefore, not safe for consumption. Extreme weather also interferes with water infrastructure, destroys and damages water supply pipes and demotes access to clean water (Nyika and Dinka 2022). Increased drying or flooding is expected, with the potential for strong localized effects. This is particularly true of regions with small water resource management systems (United Nations University-WIDER 2016). Larger water bodies of SSA region including the Upper Nile River of Uganda, Niger River of Niger, Lake Tana of Ethiopia, Rozva dam of Zimbabwe, Bani River of Mali and Okavango Delta of South Africa will have decreasing water levels due to extended drought spells resulting to water shortage (Ofori et al. 2021). In most Southern and Eastern SSA regions, which are arid and semi-arid, climate variations will build uncertainties associated with drought, intense storms, rainfall frequency and intensity thereby transferring the effects to the water sector (Kanyerere et al. 2018). In light of these challenges, it is imperative for the region to take up measures aimed at easing the burden of water access derived from climate change. Nyika and Dinka (2022) emphasized the importance of sustainable climate resilience especially in SSA towards enhanced universal

62

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

water access after noting that the mitigation and adaptation strategies that were in place are not very effective. One of the crucial undertakings SSA countries can do is to plan adequately for extreme weather, which is crucial in eliminating water scarcity emanating from extreme weather events and seasonality. Planning for extreme weather involves the use of secondary data and forecasting models to predict weather patterns under uncertain conditions. In the region, the data in most cases is not available and where present, it is fragmented, unreliable and inaccurate to use in forecasting studies (Hughes 2019). Muller (2016) agreed with these suggestions claiming that the designing of infrastructure to withstand extreme weather events is based on quantitative climate assumptions and information derived from reliable historical data. The data is used in curation, validation and interpolation of expected climate change scenarios, which enables planning based on the predicted outcomes. Therefore, planning for extreme weather requires collection of data on rainfall fluctuations, river flow and variations in their storage often in reservoirs (Hughes 2019). Such data can be transformed to information useful in storing or harvesting water during peak flows for use in dry spells and also in avoiding water infrastructural damage resulting from flooding events by reducing maximal flows (Muller 2016). Hughes (2019) also suggested the need for water managers and regulators to familiarize themselves with techniques to access and process data to information while using decision-support or decision-making tools such as hydrological models. Examples of such hydrological models include the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT), water evaluation and planning (WEAP) and modular three-dimensional finite difference groundwater flow model (MODFLOW) (Singh 2018). Such an undertaking is the premise for better plans on erratic events resulting from climate change and with a contributory effect on water scarcity in SSA. In Ghana through a well coordinate partnership with the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and government, more data has been collected on national water resources facilitating the construction of new and rehabilitating old dams for water storage as well as rainwater harvesting to deal with climate change uncertainties (Codjoe and Atiglo 2020). With international support, similar projects aimed at improving resilience to climate change are underway in Nigeria, Rwanda and Ethiopia (Adenuga et al. 2021). The projects have further controlled water pollution associated with increased runoff after rain falls following prolonged drought events. Water resources data has also been used in planning on infrastructural maintenance and expansion as well as in planning for fair allocation of water based on priority needs to ensure fairness (Adenuga et al. 2021). To adapt and mitigate climate change effects on water scarcity, most solutions in SSA are aimed at expanding and increasing allocation and storage of the resource by recharging aquifers in wetter seasons, reuse of wastewater after treatment in areas with physical water scarcity, desalination of saline water in coastal areas and building new infrastructure to augment supplies (Cosgrove and Loucks 2015). The solutions ease the water demand pressure, improving technologies used, controlling and reducing losses during distribution and transport of the commodity and introducing tariff systems to increase water productivity. The adaptation strategies can be further expanded to efficient use of water in sectors such as agriculture through

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

63

use of appropriate technology considering that the food production sector is a major consumer of water resources and also through land use planning. These adaptation practices were found to not only optimize the long-term use of water resources in Nigeria but also promote economic productivity amidst climate change uncertainties (Ngene et al. 2021).

4.3.2 Good Governance to Manage Water Challenges The slow growth in social development unlike technological development today will be a challenge in future since it influences the human componence in management. The International Food Policy Research Institute (2012) observed this challenge and attributed it to the difficulty in modifying governing policies and protocols compared to obtaining funding for improvement of water infrastructure. In SSA, most governments are skewed to authoritarian leadership styles and most of the funding obtained from international aid is diverted to equipping the oppressive regimes by buying weapons rather than for development purposes. Consequently, water resources development is not a priority. In the water sector, effective realization of good governance must be coupled with integrated water resources management (IWRM) as Cosgrove and Loucks (2015) advised. IWRM as a solution to water challenges describes, “a process, which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner, without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems” (Global Water Partnership, GWP 2000, p. 22). The principles of IWRM have been implemented in many SSA countries as shown in Table 4.1 (UNEP 2018). For instance, in Kenya, IWRM implementation has led to establishment of the Water Act 2016 that ensures participation of water users especially in rural areas in decisions on the resources’ management through water resources users associations (WRUA) (Government of Kenya 2016). Such policies with similar functions were replicated in Tanzania and Uganda (Dirwai et al. 2021) This is a remarkable step to preventing water conflicts among locals at waterpoints, involving women more in water management decisions and in collaboration of all stakeholders (even from the environment, energy, housing and agricultural sectors) in policymaking on access and use of the commodity. In West Africa and through the West Africa Water Resources Policy (WAWRP) of 2008, IWRM has facilitated the implementation of a regional water policy that promotes the development of water infrastructure towards improved access to the resource to members of the Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) and in management of transboundary water bodies of the region without conflicts (Dirwai et al. 2021). The concept also led to the development of a protocol on shared water systems (PSWS) among nations of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) to prevent water conflicts, which are common due to physical water scarcity (Mehta et al. 2016). PSWS also promotes the involvement of local communities in water management and trains on the best management approaches to water resources of SADC region with climate

64

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

change uncertainties (Mehta et al. 2016). The principles of IWRM have also led to the management of the Lake Victoria, Mara, Orange and Nile rivers, which are transboundary water resources in the SSA region (Dirwai et al. 2021). The management of water resources involves power and resources distribution, which is usually hierarchical and entails the establishment of relationships between and among communities. The power play influences the actions made to prevent or Table 4.1 Status of IWRM implementation in countries of SSA region (UNEP 2018) Country

Score

Score range

Status interpretation

Mali

53

Medium–high

Kenya

53

Most of the IWRM principles are implemented in long-term programs

Senegal

53

Eswatini

53

Mozambique

55

Uganda

59

Namibia

59

Zimbabwe

61

Burkina Faso

63

Mauritius

64

Cape Verde

64

South Africa

65

Ethiopia

50

Tanzania

50

Medium–low

Ghana

49

Zambia

46

IWRM principles are institutionalized and implementation is ongoing

Seychelles

45

Angola

37

Botswana

41

Malawi

40

Madagascar

36

Nigeria

35

Lesotho

33

Democratic Republic of Congo

31

Togo

32

Cote d’Ivoire

32

Gambia

30

Low

Comoros

26

Implementation of some IWRM elements has begun

Guinea

24

Sierra Leone

19

Liberia

15

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

65

respond to the water crises. As such, good governance must incorporate the stakeholders beyond government such as private institutions, civil societies, communitybased organizations in addition to state actors to make holistic decisions on water management and for collective collaboration. In Cameroon and South Africa, collaborative participation of local, private and public actors in decision making played a role in modifying the attitudes and behavior of users towards water management and also in deconstructing gendered water governance by involving women in decisionmaking on the use, allocation and access to the resources (Musavengane et al. 2019). Cosgrove and Loucks (2015) term this strategy as returning to the basics where people who best understand the water challenges play a part in finding corrective measures. Institutional modifications that involve locals are also growing in SSA to respond to the regional water challenges. In Maputo of Mozambique, peri-urban locals formed public-community partnerships after the national government declined to supply them with the commodity (Adams et al. 2019). Similar arrangements were replicated in Lilongwe (Malawi) and Arusha (Tanzania) following the underserving of water to the urban poor (Adams 2017). With the arrangements, locals were able to bypass the challenge of water access as a result of socioeconomic status. Butcher (2016) reported that in Kenya, public community partnerships through delegated management was becoming common as a result of a devolved government leading to power decentralization, participation of citizens in water decisions and through policy revisions. In this way communities build financial and technical efficiency during the modification of water infrastructure for improved access and wider coverage. In Tanzania and Zambia, partnerships and self-help groups especially in urban settings have helped improve water access among the underserved poor (Adams et al. 2019). With the links leading to water privatization, involvement of locals in developing owned water resources and the participation of river basin committees in water decisions, links to better coverage and reduced conflicts can be realized (Kanyerere et al. 2018). Many of SSA water resources are transboundary in nature due to their variable spatial dimension. The quality or access to such water resources depends on the management by the sharing partners. For instance, in the Inkomati River basin shared between South Africa and Mozambique, construction of a water reservoir by South Africa increased salt levels and decreased the freshwater that was reaching Mozambique’s Inkomati estuary (Vaz and Pereira 2000). In other instances, water at the upstream of one country is of high quality but due to release of municipal, agricultural and industrial effluents among other non-point sources of pollution, it becomes polluted before reaching to the downstream of another country, which can result to water conflicts among users (Kanyerere et al. 2018). To properly govern such resources, it is imperative for sharing countries to formulate and honor water use agreements to maintain the quantity and quality of such transboundary resources (Giordano et al. 2014). In SSA, such agreements were made between sharing countries of Zambezi River (Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Angola) and Volta Basin (Togo, Mali, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Benin) (Lautze and Giordano 2007). Such undertakings however require trust and cooperation of all involved parties. Other measures that ensure fair sharing of such resources

66

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

include the use of geographic information systems (GIS) as a decision support tool on sharing based on availability, formulation of transboundary water commissions and data interpolation on the characteristics of the shared water resources. Commissions on management of transboundary water resources were found to be more common in the SADC region due to the apparent scarcity of water in the region caused by inadequate supplies whose levels are adversely affected by climate change (Mehta et al. 2016). It is for this reason the region formulated the PSWS (Dirwai et al. 2021). GIS techniques and in particular, radar altimetry has been used to monitor transboundary rivers (Nile and Congo River) and lakes (Tanganyika, Malawi and Victoria), which are located in SSA (Papa et al. 2022). With such monitoring measures on the shared water resources, better planning on available amounts and their conservation can be realized. Apart from spatial variability, water varies based intra- and inter-annual rainfall changes often resulting from climate change effects of droughts and floods (Hall et al. 2014). This is a socio-economic challenge especially in SSA that is known to exacerbate poverty (Kanyerere et al. 2018). In reference to the changes, water managers must be swift to create institutions, which plan proactively to share and manage resultant risks of seasonal water variability. This can be done through infrastructural modification to recharge aquifers and store water in reservoirs for use when there is scarcity, improved water use efficiency, wastewater treatment and reuse and water transfers (Muller 2016; Codjoe and Atiglo 2020). Such undertakings require better forecasting on climate changes using reliable data (Hughes 2019). Water transfers and improved storage has been revamped in the South Africa in response to physical water scarcity in the country and the entire SADC region (Mehta et al. 2016) Water use efficiency during food production has also been enhanced in the entire SSA region by using improved technology and infrastructure towards precision agriculture (Dalin and Conway 2016). Good governance of water resources is also advocating for behavioral adjustments among water managers and users. This is with the precognition that water safety at household level is dependent on knowledge on treatment before consumption, observation of hygiene measures during water handling, cleanliness of the storage containers used and prior perceptions on water quality by both managers and users (Kanyerere et al. 2018). Non-consideration of the factors, usually enhanced by poverty may promote the spread of waterborne diseases (Troeger et al. 2018). A survey in 23 SSA countries (Geremew and Damtew 2020) showed that treatment of water sourced from unsafe resources was minimal as only 22% applied some form of treatment and out this figure, only 18% used adequate treatment methods. Similar trends were found in Ethiopia where only 6% of the population treated water before consumption and out of this total, only 58.8% treated the commodity adequately (Azage et al. 2021). Therefore, vigilance is key in addition to promoting best hygiene and sanitation practices during water management. Among educated women who had information on water safety from the mainstream media and health extension workers, the tendency to handle water hygienically at household levels was higher than illiterate ones in Amhara region of Ethiopia (Azage et al. 2021). Education to children on best practices of handling water efficiently and using it

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

67

for sanitation practices is also key in avoiding water pollution at the point of use (El-Nwsany et al. 2019). During water governance, managers deal with competition from various water users. Some of the commodity is used for manufacturing, hydropower generation, irrigation, sanitation, drinking and for environmental flows (Pastor et al. 2014). In this case, the challenge is in determining the most urgent of these uses. Agricultural irrigation in SSA takes up most of the water though farms are not adequately equipped with infrastructure to facilitate efficient water use amidst shortages and competition for the commodity from other sectors whose demands are also rising (Wada et al. 2016). Regional and local governments are therefore engaging in virtual water trade to deal with sectoral water use competition especially in water stressed/scarce regions. In the arrangement, agricultural and other commodities (eg textiles) are traded from the production to consumption region (Graham et al. 2020). In Tamale, Ghana and Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, virtual water flow was evident in the form of food trade from China to deal with water stress in the regions (Akoto-Danso et al. 2019). In the SADC region, 13 countries were found to engage in food trade, which was an efficient approach to water use (Dalin and Conway 2016). However, the authors warned of its sustainability since countries like South Africa who were active water exporters relied on water resources that were stressed due to rising demand and climate change effects.

4.3.3 System Improvements to Manage Water Resources To realize water security aimed at sustainable development, there is need to manage water resources with a present focus and a long-term vision to retain their integrity (Kanyerere et al. 2018). In such a predisposition, two water challenges must be alleviated: (1) infrastructural flaws and (2) water quality deterioration to improve access and coverage. Components of priority in improving water infrastructure and preventing water pollution are as summarized in Table 4.2 (Network of African Sciences Academies, NASAC 2014). With infrastructural improvements and water quality preservation, more water will be available for priority needs, resilience will grow against the pressures resulting from climate change, the costs of the commodity will reduce for enhanced affordability to the poor while coverage will be expanded. For the systems to improve, a paradigm shift from traditional water management approaches to adoption of IWRM is imperative (Rietveld et al. 2016). SSA governments in collaboration with other stakeholders will be required to invest more in the use of recycled water, green technologies and education and novel ideas to enhance water use efficiency. In South Africa for instance, the development of advanced infrastructure has led to access of water to Pretoria city from Vaal River (located more than 50 km away) and Senqu River in Lesotho, which reduced water stress among its people (Apse and Karres 2016). In Kenya’s Upper Tana basin, Nairobi, a partnership between the national government and the Nature Conservancy (a nonprofit organization), resulted to the setup of a water fund that enhanced the quality

68

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Table 4.2 Approaches that can improve water infrastructure and preserve water quality (NASAC 2014) Focus

Management options

Infrastructural improvements • Promote efficient water use and fund operations and maintenance of water systems • Formulate, enact and enforce legislations on wise water use • Include partnerships with public, private and non-governmental institutions in water service delivery • Incentivize economic development and community participation Water quality preservation

• Enhance the commitment to provide safe and improved water services • Reduce exposure of water to chemicals and pathogens before use and safeguard users from such risks

Specific examples • Promote water storage by harvesting in wetter seasons • Advocate for conjunctive-collaborative water uses • Reduce water losses through leakage in the supply-distribution chain • Treat, reuse, recycle, reclaim wastewater cost effectively using advanced technology

• Improve coverage and supply of improved water and sanitation services even to the urban and rural poor • Enforce the policies and actions of treating effluents before release to freshwater resources • Educate the community on effects of water pollution and ways to avoid or control it

and quantity of areal water. This was done through the capture, treatment, storage and supply of the water to users, which improved coverage and livelihoods that depended on water (Apse and Bryant 2015). Users were also educated on efficient water use techniques they can apply in their farms such as drip irrigation systems to prevent overuse of the commodity. In Ghana’s upper east region, vulnerable communities were educated on infrastructural modifications to make to prevent effects of extreme weather, harvest and store water as well as prevent its pollution in a government partnership with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (Olufunke 2021). Further, they were provided with better technology to access and use water year-round despite the climate change uncertainties (Olufunke 2021). Ultimately, the quality was preserved and access to improved services was realized. In Africa Water Vision 2025 (UN 2003), reuse and recycling of wastewater and the use of green technologies in the treatment and distribution of water was advocated for towards sustainable management of such resources especially in water scarce regions of SSA. For system improvements to materialize, SSA water managers and regulatory institutions in collaboration with governments should set up new action plans and policies, revise existent regulations to use water wisely and counteract water governance issues and climate changes with the capacity to accelerate the challenges (NASAC 2014).

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

69

4.3.4 Financial Investment in the Water Sector Financial investments in the water sector from public, private or non-profit organizations are imperative in managing water challenges and in enhanced access to coverage in SSA. It is therefore imperative for governments of SSA countries to give precedence to the water sector and allocate adequate finances to develop and manage available water resources. Such financial investments in the sector would be key in rehabilitation and conservation of ground- and surface-water resources, reducing the costs affiliated with the commodity, improving the supplying network, ensuring bulk storage, water treatment and transfers, improving sanitation facilities and services, in wastewater collection and treatment, educating water managers on best practices to water governance and also in efficient irrigation practices (Alaerts 2019). In addition, adequate finances are needed to develop appropriate education programs that can nurture skills and manpower to deal with the water challenges. Such skills and manpower are limited in SSA and this trend is attributable to failures while implementing water projects due to lack of professionalism. However, in most cases, investment in the water sector or its lack is a policy issue due to the following reasons (OECD 2021): i. ii. iii. iv. v.

Better funding of water management does not always translate to financial flows proportionate with needs Most countries do not have explicit revenue streams and their environments are unsupportive of water investments A mismatch between the needs and features of the supply–demand view of finance can occur There is limited data and knowledge on water resources to support funding Apportioning adequate funds is difficult with the apparent climate change pressures and uncertainties.

As the need to invest more is apparent, governments of SSA must fund or position themselves better to acquire and use the funds availed to the water sector through policy modification. The reasoning is that investors in the water sector value recognition of policy coherence to support investment conditions that achieve goals of multipolicy domains (OECD 2018). With such a notion, water funding will shift to focus on the technological innovations that can improve sustainable access rather than solutions to respond to the already growing crisis of water inaccessibility. The innovations would further avert the water problems resulting from climate change uncertainties while embracing cross-sectoral planning, which is synergetic and involves all stakeholders. Water funding under clearly defined policies and conditions was shown to enhance access coverage and sustainable manage of the resource in the Upper Tana River basin of Nairobi (Apse and Bryant 2015). The flow of funds meant to improve water and sanitation facilities in Ghana has improved through policy enactment and formulation of water sanitation (WATSAN) committees (Beyene and Luwesi 2018). Consequently, access and coverage of water in the country has grown significantly.

70

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

4.3.5 Deconstructing Gendered Water Management As a result of water inaccessibility and poor infrastructure for its supply in SSA region, females have the role of travelling long distances to water points to fetch water especially in rural areas. This role ends up wasting time that could be used for schooling and educational activities resulting to economic losses in the region (Alhassan and Hadwen 2017; Winter et al. 2021). At household level, they also have the role of treating, safely storing and distributing the water to other family members. Unlike their male counterparts, they are minimally involved in decisions on water management despite being the ones spending time to collect it (Jeil et al. 2020). The males also have superior rights to access and use of the commodity despite their inferior role in fetching and collecting water due to cultural norms. Consequently, in the aspect of water management, females are depowered, lose school and entrepreneurial opportunities, have negative health effects emanating from enduring long distances and unfriendly terrain in search of water and overall, negative economic ramifications occur due to these effects (Geere et al. 2018). Therefore, such patriarchal cultural norms must be deconstructed and put an end to as a component of IWRM and sustainable water management in SSA (Kanyerere et al. 2018; Bishoge 2021). A gender-sensitive approach to water resources management enhances inclusivity and synergized skills, knowledge and capabilities to manage inaccessibility and scarcity of water while building resilience to climate variability and change. In a study evaluating the effects of engaging women in water governance in Laikipia, Kenya, the idea was embraced as transformative in water management and a benchmark for other economic sectors (Ifejika and Bikketi 2018). However, the urgent need to modify socio-cultural norms and beliefs to support inclusive water governance in the region was reiterated by the authors. In Limpopo, South Africa, the participation of both men and women in policy- and decision-making on water management had better outcomes to deal with water scarcity and access complications worsened by climate change in the region (Goldin et al. 2017). Additionally, it created awareness to the community on the need to adjust their individual behaviors and attitudes during water use and sanitation practices. In SSA countries of Uganda, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, Togo, Senegal and South Africa, water use and management projects that incorporated gender mainstreaming had positive outcomes in reference to improved access to the commodity and sanitation facilities, better governance of water and economic gains from wise use and strategic allocation planning (Gender Water Alliance, GWA and UNDP 2006).

4.4 Conclusions Water access in SSA is challenged by population growth, urbanization tendencies, aspirations of nations to grow economically and uncertainties and pressures induced

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

71

by climate variation and change. The inter-sectoral use of water in the energy, agricultural, health and human wellbeing sectors complicate the challenges leading to a scramble for the scarce resource especially in water stressed nations of SSA. Cognizant of these complexities, this chapter provided water management opportunities that can reverse the situation in the region and increase access coverage to safe water services sustainably. Solutions geared to better resilience in dealing with climate change-induced water scarcity via adaptation and mitigation, improved governance incorporating policies and IWRM principles, system improvements via infrastructural modifications and water quality preservation, better financing and gender mainstreaming in the water sector were suggested using case studies in the region. Overall, it was shown that resilience in water management must consider the physical and social dimensions of water resources and users to enable collaborative participation in decisions geared to water security in SSA. The management of water resources though region and country specific, must incorporate political, social, scientific and engineering factors and consider the complex interplay of the aspects to be holistic. IWRM was shown to have great potential to resolve water challenges in SSA towards sustainable management but the practice must be supported by feasible policies and action plans in addition to data and information availability to enable evidence-based and realistic decisions to forecasts on water availability even with climate change uncertainties.

References Adams E, Sambu D, Smiley S (2019) Urban water supply in sub-Saharan Africa: historical and emerging policies and institutional arrangements. Int J Water Resour Dev 35(2):240–263. https:// doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2017.1423282 Adams E (2017) Thirsty slums in African cities: household water insecurity in urban informal settlements of Lilongwe, Malawi. Int J Water Resour Dev:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/079 00627.2017.1322941 Adenuga K, Mahmoud A, Dodo Y, Albert M, Kori S, Danlami N (2021) Climate change adaptation and mitigation in sub-Saharan African countries. In: Asif M (eds) Energy and environmental security in developing countries. advanced sciences and technologies for security applications. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-63654-8_16 Akoto-Danso E, Karg H, Drechsel P, Nyarko G, Buerkert A (2019) Virtual water flow in food trade systems of two West African countries. Agric Water Manag 213:760–772. https://doi.org/10. 1016/j.agwat.2018.11.012 Alaerts G (2019) Financing for water—water for financing: a global review of policy and practice. Sustainability 11:821. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11030821 Alhassan S, Hadwen W (2017) Challenges and opportunities for mainstreaming climate change adaptation into WaSH development planning in Ghana. Int J Environ Res Public Health 14(7):749. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14070749 Apse C, Bryant B (2015) Upper Tana-Nairobi water fund business case. version 2. The Nature Conservancy, Nairobi, Kenya Apse C, Karres N (2016) Sub-Saharan Africa’s urban water blueprint: securing water through water funds and other investments in ecological infrastructure. The Nature Conservancy, Nairobi, Kenya

72

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Ayalew A, Wagner P, Sahlu D, Fohrer N (2022) Land use change and climate dynamics in the Rift Valley Lake Basin. Ethiopia. Environ Monit Assess 194:791. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661022-10393-1 Azage M, Motbainor A, Gedamu G (2021) Access to improved water and household water treatment practice in rural communities of Amhara region, Ethiopia. PAMJ-One Health 6(4):1–15. https:// doi.org/10.11604/pamj-oh.2021.6.4.28481 Beyene A, Luwesi C (2018) Innovative water finance in Africa: a guide for water managers. The Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden Bishoge O (2021) Challenges facing sustainable water supply, sanitation and hygiene achievement in urban areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Local Environ 26(7):893–907. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13549839.2021.1931074 Butcher S (2016) The “everyday water practices” of the urban poor in Kisumu, Kenya. In: Urban solutions: metropolitan approaches, innovation in urban water and sanitation, and inclusive smart cities. Wilson Center, USAID, Washington, DC, pp 5–22 Chitonge H (2020) Water scarcity for most people in Africa is socially-induced. Available at: https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2020/12/11/water-scarcity-for-most-people-africaissocially-induced-infrastructure/ Cosgrove W, Loucks D (2015) Water management: current and future challenges and research directions. Water Resour Res 51:4823–4839. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016869 Codjoe S, Atiglo Y (2020) The implications of extreme weather events for attaining the sustainable development goals in Sub-Saharan Africa. Front Climate 2:592658. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fclim.2020.592658 Dalin C, Conway D (2016) Water resources transfers through southern African food trade: water efficiency and climate signals. Environ Res Lett 11(1):015005. https://doi.org/10.1088/17489326/11/1/015005 Dirwai T, Kanda K, Senzanje A, Busari T (2021) Water resource management: IWRM strategies for improvement of water management. a systematic review of case studies in East, West and Southern Africa. PLoS One 16(5):e0236903. 10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0236903 Donkor F (2021) Adaptive water, sanitation and hygiene management: resilient governance systems. In: Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Lange Salvia A, Wall T (eds) clean water and sanitation. encyclopedia of the un sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/ 978-3-319-70061-8_190-1 Dos Santos S, Adams E, Neville G, Wada Y, Sherbinin A, Bernhardt E, Adamo S (2017) Urban growth and water access in sub-Saharan Africa: progress, challenges and emerging research directions. Sci Total Environ 607–608:497–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.06.157 El-Nwsany R, Maarouf I, El-Aal W (2019) Water management as a vital factor for a sustainable school. Alex Eng J 58(1):303–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aej.2018.12.012 Eludoyin A, Olanrewaju O (2021) Water supply and quality in the Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Leal Filho W, Azul A, Brandli L, Lange Salvia A, Wall T (eds) Clean water and sanitation. encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31970061-8_166-1 Geere J, Bartram J, Bates L, Danquah L, Evans B, Fisher M, Groce N et al (2018) Carrying water may be a major contributor to disability from musculoskeletal disorders in low-income countries: a cross-sectional survey in South Africa, Ghana and Vietnam. J Global Health 8(1):1–14. https:// doi.org/10.7189/jogh.08.010406 Genneken M, Netterstrom U, Bennett A (2012) More, better or different spending: trends in public expenditure on water sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa. Water Partnership Program, The World Bank, Washington DC, USA Geremew A, Damtew Y (2020) Household water treatment using adequate methods in sub-Saharan countries: evidence from 2013–2016 demographic and health surveys. J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 10(1):66–75. https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2019.107

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

73

Giordano M, Drieschova A, Duncan J, Sayama Y, De Stefano L, Wolf A (2014) A review of the evolution and state of transboundary freshwater treaties. international environmental agreements: politics, law and economics 14:245–264. Global Environ Change 16(3):253–267. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10784-013-9211-8 Global Water Partnership (GWP) (2000) Integrated water resources management, technical advisory committee. Background Pap. 4, Global Water Partnership, Stockholm, Sweden Goldin J, Botha J, Koatla T, Anderson J, Owen G, Lebese A (2017) Towards an ethnography of climate change variability: perceptions and coping mechanisms of women and men from Lambani Village, Limpopo Province. Human Geogr New Radic J 10(2):forthcoming Government of Kenya, GOK (2016) The water act, 2016. Government Printer: Nairobi, Kenya Graham N, Hejazi M, Kim S, Davies E, Edmonds J, Wilhelm F (2020) Future changes in the trading of virtual water. Nat Commun 11:3632. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-17400-4 GWA & UNDP (2006) Mainstreaming gender in water management. https://www.inclusivewash. org.au/wpcontent/uploads/2018/09/Gender_and_IWRM_Resource_Guide_complete5b15d-1. pdf Hall J, Grey D, Garrick D, Fung F, Brown C, Dadson S et al (2014) Coping with the curse of freshwater variability. Science 346:429–430. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1257890 Hope R, Thomson P, Koehler J, Foster T (2020) Rethinking the economies of rural water in Africa. Oxf Rev Econ Policy 36(1):171–190. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxrep/grz036 Hughes D (2019) Facing a future water resources management crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. J Hydrol Reg Stud 23:100600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100600 International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) (2012) Finding the blue path for a sustainable economy. DC, USA, Washington Ifejika C, Bikketi E (2018) Engaging with gender in water governance and practice in Kenya. In: Fröhlich C, Gioli G, Cremades R, Myrttinen H (eds) Water security across the gender divide. water security in a new world. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64046-4_7 Jeil E, Abass K, Ganle J (2020) We are free when water is available: gendered livelihood implications of sporadic water supply in Northern Ghana. Local Environ 25(4):320–335. https://doi.org/10. 1080/13549839.2020.1744118 Kanyerere T, Tramberend S, Devine A, Mokoena P, Mensah P, Chinombe W et al (2018). Water futures and solutions: options to enhance water security in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Mensah P, Katerere D, Hachigonta S, Roodt A (eds) Systems analysis approach for complex global challenges. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71486-8_6 Kumari U, Swamy K, Gupta A, Karri R, Meikap B (2021) Global water challenge and future perspective. In: Dehghani M, Karri R, Lima E (eds) Green technologies for the defluoridation of water. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85768-0.00002-6 Lautze J, Giordano M (2007) Demanding supply management and supplying demand management: transboundary waters in sub-Saharan Africa. J Environ Dev 16(3):290–306. https://doi.org/10. 1177/1070496507306170 Loucks D, van Beek E (2017) Water resources planning and management: an overview. In: Water resource systems planning and management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-44234-1_1 Matchawe C, Bonny P, Yandang G, Mafo H, Nsawir B (2022) Water shortages: cause of water safety in sub-Saharan Africa. In: Eyvaz M, Albahnasawi A, Ekbas T, Gurbulak E (eds) Drought-impacts and management. IntechOpen, London, United Kingdom. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen. 103927 Mehta L, Movik S, Bolding B, Derman B, Manzungu E (2016) Introduction to the special issue– flows and practices: the politics of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in Southern Africa. Water Altern 9(3):389–411 Misra A (2014) Climate change and challenges of weather and food security. Sustain Built Environ 3(1):153–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsbe.2014.04.006 Muller M (2016) Urban water security in Africa: the face of climate and development challenges. Dev South Afr 33:67–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2015.1113121

74

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Musavengane R, Tantoh H, Simatele D (2019) A comparative analysis of collaborative environmental management of natural resources in sub-Saharan Africa: a study of Cameroon and South Africa. J Asian Afr Stud 54(4):512–532. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909618825276 Mvongo V, Defo C (2021) Assessing water service performance in rural sub-Saharan Africa environment: the cases studies of two councils of the southern and eastern regions of the Republic of Cameroon (Central Africa). J Water Sanit Hyg Dev 11(1):37–50. https://doi.org/10.2166/was hdev.2020.164 NASAC (Network of African Science Academies) (2014). The grand challenge of water security in Africa: recommendations to policy makers. Network of African Science Academies Ngene B, Nwafor C, Bamigboye G, Ogbiye A, Ogundare J, Akpan V (2021) Assessment of water resources development and exploitation in Nigeria: a review of integrated water resources management approach. Heliyon 7(1):e05955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e05955 Nyika J (2020) Climate change situation in Kenya and measures towards adaptive management in the water sector. Int J Environ Sustain Green Technol 11(2):34–47. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJE SGT.2020070103 Nyika J, Dinka MO (2022) Urban resilience to the challenges of climate change: the case of Africa. In: Udday C, Arindam B, Jenia M, Mahata D (eds) Sustainable urbanism in developing countries. CRC Press, Florida, USA. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003131922-17 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2018) Financing water, investing in sustainable growth, policy perspectives. OECD Environmental Policy Paper No. 11. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/water/Policy-Paper-Financing-Water-Investing-in-Sus tainable-Growth.pdf. OECD (2021) Watered down? investigating the financial materiality of water-related risks in the financial system; Background paper session 3 of the 8th Roundtable on Financing Water. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/water/Background-paper-RT-on-Financing-Water-and-ClimateAction-Session-3.pdf. Ofori S, Cobbina S, Obiri S (2021) Climate change, land, water and food security: perspectives from sub-Saharan Africa. Front Sustain Food Syst 5:680924. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021. 680924 Olufunke C (2021) Putting water at the heart of sustainable development in West Africa. IWMI, Pretoria, South Africa Papa F, Cretaux J, Grippa M, Robert E, Trigg M, Tshimanga R et al (2022) Water resources in Africa under global change: monitoring surface waters from space. Surv Geophys. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 Pastor A, Ludwig F, Biemans H, Hoff H, Kabat P (2014) Accounting for environmental flow requirements in global water assessments. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 18:5041–5059. https://doi.org/ 10.5194/HESS-18-5041-2014 Pham-Duc B, Sylvestre F, Papa, F, Frappart F, Bouchez C, Cretaux F (2020) The Lake Chad hydrology under current climate change. Sci Rep:5498. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-02062417-w Rietveld L, Siri J, Chakravarty I, Arsenio A, Biswas R, Chatterjee A (2016) Improving health in cities through systems approaches for urban water management. Environ Health 15(Suppl 1) 31:151–160. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-016-0107-2 Romero-Lankao P, Gnatz D (2016) Conceptualizing urban water security in an urbanizing world. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 21:45–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2016.11.002 Singh V (2018) Hydrological modelling: progress and future directions. Geosci Lett 5:15. https:// doi.org/10.1186/s40562-018-0113-z Troeger C, Blacker B, Khalil I, Rao P, Cao S, Zimsen S, Albertson S et al (2018) Estimates of the global, regional, and national morbidity, mortality, and etiologies of diarrhea in 195 countries: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016. Lancet Infect Dis 18(11):1211– 1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30362-1

4 Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa

75

UNEP (2018) Progress on integrated water resources management. Global baseline for SDG 6 indicator 6.5.1: degree of IWRM implementation. 2018, United Nations Environment Program, Nairobi United Nations (2003) Africa water vision for 2025: equitable and sustainable use of water for socioeconomic development. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia United Nations-WIDER (2016) WIDER research brief (2015) working paper (2015/45). Available at: https://ideas.repec.org/s/unu/wpaper.html Van Vliet M, Jones E, Florke M, Franssen W, Hanasaki N, Wada Y, Yearsley J (2021) Global water scarcity including surface water quality and expansions of clean water technologies. Environ Res Lett 16:024020. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/abbfc3 Vaz A, Pereira A (2000) The Inkomati and Limpopo international river basins: a view from downstream. Water Policy 2:99–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1366-7017(99)00024-0 Wada Y, Florke M, Hanasaki N, Eisner S, Fischer G, Tramberend S et al (2016) Modeling global water use for the 21st century: Water Futures and Solutions (WFaS) initiative and its approaches. Geosci Model Dev 9:175–222. https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-9-175-2016 World Health Organization (WHO) & United Nations Children Fund (UNICEF) (2021) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation, and hygiene 2000–2020: five years into the SDGs. World Health Organization & United Nations Children’s Fund WHO/UNICEF (2019) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–17. Special focus on inequalities. World Health Organization and United Nations Children’s Fund, New York Winter J, Darmstadt G, Davis J (2021) The role of piped water supplies in advancing health, economic development, and gender equality in rural communities. Soc Sci Med 270:113599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113599 Xu Y, Seward P, Gaye C, Lin L, Olago D (2019) Preface: groundwater in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hydrogeo J 27:815–822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-019-01977-2 Zerbo A, Delgado R, Gonzalez P (2020) Vulnerability and everyday health risks of urban informal settlements in sub-Saharan Africa. Global Health J 4(2):46–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.glohj. 2020.04.003

Chapter 5

Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean Water in Sub-Saharan Africa Joan Nyika and Megersa Olumana Dinka Abstract This chapter focused on assessing the progress towards realization of sustainable development goal (SDG) 6 on universal access to safe water in subSaharan Africa (SSA) region. Findings showed that progress had been made in providing access to safe drinking water and sanitation facilities in rural and urban areas though at a slow pace. Implementation of collaborative water management was evident through various formal agreements on water-sharing for transboundary resources, implementation of integrated water resources management (IWRM) and provision of aid to governments of the region to fund water and sanitation projects. However, the progress was sluggish and more than 50% of people in SSA were vulnerable to water stress/scarcity and only had access to unsafe water sources and unimproved sanitation facilities by 2019. Water pollution, climate change effects, data non-availability, pressures of population increases, urbanization and limited finances in the water sector were challenges attributable to the slow progress in realizing all indicators of SDG 6. Therefore, SSA countries must invest more in enhanced financial, managerial, human and technological resources to remain on-track towards universal water access realization. Keywords Clean water · Indicators · SDG 6 · Sub-Saharan Africa · Targets · Universal water access

5.1 Introduction In 2015, the 2030 agenda for sustainable development defining 17 goals and their 169 targets was endorsed by the 193 United Nations member countries in New York, USA (United Nations, UN 2015, 2018). The sustainable development goals (SDGs) aimed at managing the environmental, economic and social issues that impede longterm growth around the globe and their foundation was from the previous millennium development goals (MDGs) that expired in 2015 (Tortajada and Biswas 2018). The environment as one of the pillars of sustainable development is associated with more than half of the SDGs whose focus is on the management and use of natural resources (United Nation Environmental Program 2019). In specific, the access to enough

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka, Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management, SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_5

77

78

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

amounts and good quality water is of superior importance even with the precognition that water is life. In the SDGs, the sixth goal which is to, “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all” is aimed at resolving emergent issues during water resources use and allocation (UN 2018). Additionally, SDG 6 responds to interdependent and interlinked issues across the 16 other goals. This suggestion could be because issues to do with water security are multifaceted and have a cross-sectoral and multidimensional nature and implications (Taka et al. 2021). Ortigara et al. (2018) also noted that SDG 6 provided a framework towards universal water access through inspired action, stakeholder participation, mobilization and integration among developing and developed countries after embracing the interconnectedness in their natural resources through synergistic approaches. In reference to SDG 6, a number of studies have been conducted with the aim of understanding concepts of the goal towards its realization. Fukuda et al. (2019) for instance, tried to understand the ways in which the access to affordable and safe water can be universally developed. Muller et al. (2020) formulated an implementation framework for SDG 6 based on water scarcity as the risk and wise water use as the sustainable measure. The integration of the two was a foundation for decisions to take towards the goal’s realization. In another study, Graham et al. (2020) focused on improving water access via virtual water trading across the globe and its effects in the long-term using projections. Zhao et al. (2019) focused on climate resilience as one of the weapons to realize SDG 6 owing to the phenomenon’s capacity to influence fluctuations in water availability. Issues of water governance and their influence on water use, availability, demand, supply, infrastructure and financial management were also studied (Schaefer et al 2019; Zhou et al. 2018). Kulkarni et al. (2022) matched the investment needs required for nine SDGs including SDG 6 with the progress made since the inception of the sustainable development agenda in 2015. Tortajada and Biswas (2018) focused on the role of academia in critiquing MDGs and correcting the flaws made while expanding opportunities realized from the goals in SDG 6 for improved universal clean water and sanitation access. Although the studies provide insight on the prerequisites to realize SDG 6 by 2030, they lack to acknowledge the complexity of the goal since they do not focus on the components of the goal in an integrative and holistic approach (Cai et al. 2021). The studies are also hampered by data inadequacies and therefore, do not represent the complete picture of milestones realized and bottlenecks encountered in the pathway to SDG 6 realization. In studies that have focused on the progress in some SDGs, the expected achievements were noted to be sluggish compared to the timelines, which necessitates corrective measures (Kulkarni et al. 2022). Studies focusing on the progress of SDG 6 in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are also rare and constrained by data unavailability despite the fact that the region did not realize the 2015 MDGs (Atangana and Oberholster 2022). The complications of the COVID-19 pandemic also played a role in reversing some of the gains by redirecting resources including water resources to non-target areas, which slowed down the progress to achieve SDGs (Mukarram 2020). To this end, this chapter highlights the relationship between all the indicators of SDG 6 and the progress realized at global and regional levels with a specific focus on SSA region. The aim is to discuss the state towards SDG 6 realization

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

79

in SSA region and compare it with other global regions while formulating measures to optimize achievements made and manage the apparent challenges.

5.2 Components of SDG 6 SDG 6 has six core targets and nine indicators, under two modes of implementation (MoI): (1) targets and (2) indicators. At international level, indicators are assessed, evaluated and reported by custodian agencies of the UN under the Water Integrated Monitoring Initiative (IMI) for SDG 6 (UN-Water 2016; Guppy et al. 2019). The summary of the targets, their indicators and custodian agencies are as shown in Table 5.1 (UN 2018; Ortigara et al. 2018). The national results and data are used to report on the monitored progress. There are four stages to the implementation of SDG 6 and in the evaluation of progress made. They include: i. ii. iii. iv.

Creating an enabling environment to implement the goal Conducting the actual implementation Measuring the progress of implementation Monitoring the progress and review of actions plans for reinforcement and corrective measures.

The stages and how they are conducted is represented as shown in Fig. 5.1 (Guppy et al. 2019). The management of SDG 6 using indicators is based on two reasons according to the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (2015). First, indicators serve as management tools to enable allocation of resources and enhance evidence-based implementation at national and global community levels. Secondly, indicators are report cards for quantifying progress to SDG realization. These two reasons must be supported by expeditious collection of reliable, accurate and appropriate data as the foundation for political commitment, advocacy and investment across UN member nations (Hering 2017; Hughes 2019). Using this logic, implementation stage three is split into two (Fig. 5.1). In Target 6.1, the aim was to improve water services to more than 2.1 billion people who did not have access to safely managed water when they needed it, within their premises and when it was free from contamination (World Health Organization and United Nations Children Fund, WHO and UNICEF 2017). Target 6.2 was meant to reach out to more than 4.5 billion people globally who had no access to safely management sanitation facilities and services by 2015 (WHO and UNICEF 2017). With the two targets, safe and affordable drinking water, sanitation and hygiene facilities were to be accessed by all equitably by 2030. The proportion of the populace that had access to safely management water was to be monitored in indicator 6.1.1 while the proportion of the population with access to safely managed sanitation with non-shared handwashing facilities and where excreta was safely disposed was to be monitored using indicator 6.2.1. Monitoring these targets required massive data, which was not available or reliable in some countries especially in developing countries (Ortigara et al. 2018).

6.3. By 2030, improve water quality by eradicating and controlling disposal and release of noxious materials and chemicals, reducing the amount of untreated wastewater by 50%, increasing safe reuse and recycling of wastewater globally

6.21 a. Percentage of the population using safely managed sanitation services

6.2. By 2030, achieve access to enough and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all, eradicate open defecation, prioritize needs of girls and women and the marginalized in vulnerable situations

Custodian agencies

UN-Habitat UN-Statistics Division (UNSD) UNSD

6.3.2 Percentage of water sources with good ambient water quality

WHO and UNICEF

WHO and UNICEF

6.3.1 Percentage of the population using safely managed sanitation services

6.2.1 b. Percentage of the population utilizing a handwashing facility with soap and water

Indicator

6.1.1 Percentage of the population using safely management drinking water services

Target

6.1. By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all

(continued)

UNEP GEMStat water quality database

UN-Habitat JMP global database

JMP global database

JMP global database

Database

Table 5.1 The targets, indicators and custodian agencies responsible for collecting, monitoring and storing data on SDG 6 (UN 2018; Ortigara et al. 2018)

80 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Indicator

Custodian agencies

6.6. By 2030, protect and restore ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, aquifers, wetlands and forests that are water-related

6.5. By 2030, implement IWRM at all levels including using transboundary cooperation for international water resources

UNEP/Ramser Convention

UNESCO UN-economic commission for Europe (UNCE)

6.5.2 Percentage of transboundary basins with an operational arrangement on water sharing, allocation and use

6.6.1 Temporal changes in water related ecosystems

UNEP

Food and Agricultural organization of the UN

6.5.1 Degree of IWRM implementation

6.4. By 2030, significantly 6.4.1 Temporal changes in water use efficiency increase efficient water use in all sectors and ensure supply 6.4.2 Compare withdrawals of freshwater to the total available and withdrawals in resource from a given source freshwaters are sustainable in addition to addressing increasing water scarcity and persons negatively affected by water stress and scarcity

Target

Table 5.1 (continued)

(continued)

UNEP/Ramser Convention

UNESCO UNECE

UNEP IWRM data portal

FAO/AQUASTAT

FAO/AQUASTAT, World Bank

Database

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean … 81

WHO, UN-organization for economic cooperation and development (UN-OECD)

6.a.1 Amount of assistance/aid for water and sanitation projects given to government of developing countries

6.b.1 Percentage of local administrative divisions that have formal protocols and policies on community participation in projects and processes on water and sanitation

6.b. Strengthen and support local community participation in water and sanitation management and improvement WHO, OECD, UNEP

Custodian agencies

Indicator

Target

6.a. By 2030, enhance capacity building and international cooperation to support poor developing nations in water and sanitation projects. Such projects should be aimed at promoting water use efficiency, wastewater recycling and reuse, desalination and water harvesting

Table 5.1 (continued)

UN-Water GLAAS

WHO, OECD, UNEP, Aid activity database, Creditor Reporting system (CRS) and UN-Water global analysis and assessment of sanitation and drinking water (GLAAS)

Database

82 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

83

Fig. 5.1 Stages involved in implementation of SDG 6 (Guppy et al. 2019)

Target 6.3 on water quality and wastewater is tasking form many countries globally, especially developing ones to realize. The World Water Assessment Program (WWAP 2017) made similar observations noting that more than 80% of the wastewater sourced from agricultural, urban storm drains, industrial and municipal activities was discharged into freshwater bodies without any form of treatment globally. The aim of the target was to reduce quantities of untreated effluent by 50% through better collection, handling and treatment in accordance to the predefined national standards of effluent release by 2030. Diffuse pollution from the misuse or overuse of agrochemicals as well as point-source pollution was to be controlled and avoided in the target. The rise in global pollution of ground- and surface-water resources as countries strive to advance economically while neglecting water quality preservation was the motivation for the target (Akhtar et al. 2021). Target 6.3 closely influences the access to clean water for agricultural activities, the need to reduce waterborne diseases and the access to safe drinking water. The target was monitored using two indicators: (1) 6.3.1 and 6.3.2 that monitored and quantified the percentage of safely treated effluent and the percentage of water resources, which had good ambient-water quality. The lack of trained professionals, physical infrastructure and technology to collect, analyze and interpret data regarding these indicators was challenging just as in target 6.1 and 6.2 especially in developing countries. In this case, many of the countries did not have supportive environments, institutions and policies to store data, harmonize the data to standards while seeking the views of other sectors and nations (in the case of transboundary water resources). Additionally, industrial and

84

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

municipal discharge of effluent went unmonitored and data on wastewater release was not available at national levels (Hering 2017). Target 6.4 dealt with water scarcity and use issues and was monitored using indicator 6.4.1 and 6.4.2 on efficient water use and water scarcity, respectively. The variable nature of the two indicators makes them difficult to monitor and due to data non-availability, the Food and Agriculture Organization’s AQUASTAT database provided the data to monitor the indicators (FAO 2016). Indicator 6.4.1 focused on using less water for higher economic gains particularly in the agricultural sector. This can be realized through irrigation efficiency, enhanced water productivity, reduced losses during supply and distribution of the commodity for industrial, agricultural and municipal uses. Water efficiency in SDG 6 refers to the ability to save the resource using better technologies to avail the it for other uses including environmental flows (Grafton et al. 2018). In agriculture, water efficiency for example, by using drip irrigation could save water that can expand the area of planted land (Ye et al. 2019). Indicator 6.4.2 quantified water scarcity as the amount of total freshwater abstracted compared to the total available from a particular source. The indicator came from the precognition that countries across the world, both developed and developing experience variable water stress, which negatively impacts socioeconomic development and management of land resources (Wang et al. 2021). All water uses were considered in the indicator including allocation for environmental flows. Although the synthesis report of 2018 (UN 2018) concluded on an 11% value on global water stress, this estimation may not be an accurate representation due to regional variations in water levels. For instance, in SSA, a 3% water stress value was reported though the southern countries of the region experienced severe stress and water scarcity due to higher drought frequencies compared to northern SSA that was endowed with large freshwater resources. Even within countries that are water stressed such as South Africa, some regions have higher quantities of water compared to others and hence the need to disaggregate such data to make accurate predictions and decisions as Ortigara et al. (2018) advised. Target 6.5 aimed at operationalizing integrated water resources management (IWRM) at national and transboundary level. The target had two indicators: (1) 6.5.1 whose aim was to rate IWRM implementation in UN member countries and (2) 6.5.2 that rated the degree of transboundary cooperation in the management of water resources. Implementing IWRM would be transformational in multistakeholder participation and institutional modification in the use of water for ecosystem services, supporting economic growth and enhancement of human welfare holistically (Benson et al. 2020; Jazi 2021). In the implementation of IWRM at country level (indicator 6.5.1), each UN member country was to apply its own strategy towards integration of socio-economic and environmental aspects in water management so long as political commitment at high governance levels was guaranteed (Ait Kadi 2016). Although most countries were shown to have the intention of implementing IWRM, with even some having incorporated IWRM elements in their long-term projects (UNEP 2018), a high likelihood was noted that not all countries will realize full implementation of the concept by 2030 (UNEP-DHI Centre Partnership 2018).

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

85

At transboundary level (indicator 6.5.2), cooperation was assessed by the presence of an operational arrangement such as a convention, agreement, treaty and/or any other arrangement that was formal to use and showed commitment to implement IWRM between involved parties. This indicator was relevant in other SDGs that required international cooperation to manage land resources. A number of countries with riparian rights agreed to apply basin-wide collaboration agreements to share both surface- and ground-water. According to the UN (2018), 59% had some form of arrangement to share the water as evident from data sourced in 61 of the possible 153 countries. Transboundary cooperation however was challenged by power plays and imbalances of sharing countries, limited data availability on water resources particularly groundwater systems, limited technical, human and financial capacity among sharing nations and fragmented governance from ineffective administrative, institutional and legal frameworks (Guo et al 2016; Sindico 2016). In areas where indicator 6.5.2 was implemented successfully, economies thrived due to synergistic efforts to nurture political stability and peace. Target 6.6 focused on the conservation and restoration of riparian-based ecosystems including lakes, aquifers, rivers, forests, mountains and wetlands. Loss of such ecosystems due to unprotection is disadvantageous to sustainable development since there existence also influences SDGs to do with biodiversity, land and seas ecosystems, energy and food security. Similarly, the success of this indicator was also pegged on proper implementation of related SDGs. The Global Water Partnership (2016) observed that the sustainability aspect in protecting and restoring waterrelated ecosystems was neglected and the focus was on meeting short-term objectives. Consequently, many anthropogenic activities resulted to the degradation and destruction of such ecosystems. Target 6.6 sought to avoid such a crisis. The target had one indicator (6.6.1) whose goal was to assess the temporal variations of four waterrelated ecosystems:—(1) groundwater, (2) open-water bodies, (3) vegetated wetlands and (4) rivers and estuaries. Richter et al. (2016) noted that water-related ecosystems have been stretched in recent times due to rising demand for water and other natural resources from the growing population, due to urbanization and economic growth trends. The consequence of these ambitions is characterized by depletion of rivers and their water quality, migration of native species and the imminent threat of their extinction and a deteriorating health of freshwater ecosystems. Climate change has further exacerbated the effects by widening the water demand and supply gap and enhancing pollution in riverine and aquifer systems as a result of extreme weather. The need for improved governance including policy and regulations to manage such ecosystems is therefore essential to prevent further deterioration. Target 6a focused on capacity building and cooperation to realize all SDGs and their associated targets. Cooperation deals with funding especially from external sources, which is key in meeting targets 6.1 to 6.6 of SDG 6. Most countries had data on recurring costs of operations and maintenance but lacked reliable data on the spending of international aid in water, sanitation and hygiene projects (Ortigara et al. 2018). Target 6b described the role of participatory water management through engagement of stakeholders in water development-related decisions. A study in Thailand evaluating the role of stakeholder participation in water resources management

86

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

noted that, “participation should be institutionalized and facilitated in a way that fosters accountable representation by all stakeholders, builds trust, and recognizes stakeholder interests and knowledge” (Singto et al. 2018, p. 1). By 2015, more than 75% of countries had set up definitive protocols and policies for communities and water service users to participate in decision-making on projects to do with access to drinking water and sanitation in both rural and urban areas (WHO 2017). A clear monitoring framework however is needed to ensure that participation is of high quality and its effects add value. The monitoring of this indicator just as the others in SDG 6 requires reliable data.

5.3 Progress of SDG 6 in Sub-Saharan Africa A report by the UN-Water (2021), detailed the global progress towards realization of SDG 6 and provided statistics as of 2020. A global overview shows that globally, the progress to realize SDG 6 is not on track. Approximately 2.2 billion people, representing 29% of the total global population cannot access improved drinking water and sanitation facilities especially in rural developing nations. In the second indicator on access to sanitation facilities, challenges in data availability were reported. However, many people were found vulnerable to diseases due to the slow progress in target 6.2 by 2020. More than 3.6 billion (46% of the total global population) did not have safely managed sanitation facilities and out of this total, 494 million practiced open defecation (UN-Water 2021). Additionally, 29% of the global population (2.3 people) lacked handwashing facilities with available water and soap (UN-Water 2021). On target 6.3 whose monitoring was challenged by data unavailability; the water quality was shown to be on a dwindling trend. More than 44% of wastewater released from households was not adequately treated and its release to the environment posed as a threat from extensive pollution in freshwater ecosystems. The data on discharge of industrial effluents was limited at national level to make comprehensive conclusions on the global trend. It was concluded that more than 3 million people had high etiology to waterborne diseases since the quality of the water they were consuming from groundwater, lakes and rivers was not known and even more, not monitored (UN-Water 2021). In reference to target 6.4, a 4% increase in water use efficiency at all sectors was reported although more than 2.3 billion of the global population lived in areas experiencing some form of water stress. Out of the total, 721 million people lived in regions considered to be critically or highly water-stressed. Spatial and temporal variations in water availability were evident within nations and regions and a global representation of the trend can be disaggregated for accurate reporting on the trend in the indicator 6.4. Double efforts in implementing IWRM (target 6.5) were required to realize its indicators by 2030. At national level, 129 countries were not on track regarding IWRM incorporation in water resources management but only 22 of the countries with transboundary water resources used operational arrangements to share

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

87

and allocate such resources. More than 20% of the global riverine systems experienced changes in areal coverage by surface waters. The trend was associated with climate change effects such as drought and flooding events. In reference to target 6.a, official development aid for water projects to developing countries rose by 11% between 2015 and 2019 although the disbursement rate was low at 3% due to concessional lending. In national water regulations and policies, participation is being accommodated in decision making on water and sanitation access though the rate of implementation remains a challenge. The conclusion was made using data from 14 countries out of the possible 109 (UN-water 2021) and therefore, the it may not be an accurate representation of reality. The progress in realizing SDG 6 and its associated target indicators in SSA region is discussed in the following sub-headings. The data used to generate the maps and figures was sourced from the UN-Water SDG 6 data portal for all the indicators (WHO and UNICEF 2022).

5.3.1 Proportion of Population Using Safely Managed Drinking Water Services (6.1.1) Although there were challenges in availability of reliable data, SSA region lagged behind in access to safely managed drinking water services (Fig. 5.2). Countries where data was available had barely half of their population having access to such water services. Limited data inferred to many of the countries being off the tract with the indicator. The trend was attributable to poverty in rural SSA and the growth of urbanites with majority living in poverty in the slum areas (Bishoge 2021). The proportion of individuals in using improved water sources of drinking water was as shown in Fig. 5.3. The number of individuals using non-piped improved water sources has been steadily growing between 2000 and 2020. Despite the trend, the coverage was below half of the total population in both rural and urban SSA. A similar trend was shown in the number of rural residents accessing piped water but, with a sluggish growth rate. In urban SSA, the proportion of persons accessing piped water was on a declining trend mainly because of the pressures of urbanization and a growing demand for the commodity as new towns and suburban regions emerge. A study by Armah et al. (2018) assessing the variations in access to improved drinking water showed notable progress from an overall assessment but there were disparities between rural and urban areas due to poverty levels with the latter being favored as established in this study. Additionally, the disparities between access to the resource among the urban rich and poor were attributed to the dwindling trend in access to piped water in such areas of SSA (Armah et al. 2018). A similar trend was also established in this study.

88

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 5.2 Percentage population of people using safely managed drinking water services in SSA (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data. org/)

Fig. 5.3 Proportion of rural and urban population accessing improved drinking water in SSA (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

89

Fig. 5.4 Proportion of the population using various sanitation facilities in SSA region (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

5.3.2 Proportion of Population Using Safely Management Sanitation Services (6.2.1a) The access of safely managed sanitation services is still a challenge in SSA region as shown in Fig. 5.4. Less than 30% of people in the region have access to such services with a considerable percentage (>15%) engaging in open defecation (WHO and UNICEF 2022). The data coincides with evidence from a study evaluating the progress on hygiene and sanitation access between 2000 and 2017 showing that more than 709 million people in SSA have no access to basic sanitation services (UNICEF and WHO 2020). The trend is attributable to poverty and disparities in providing the services based on income levels. With poor access to sanitation facilities in addition to open defecation, the region is under threat of slowed economic growth due to a high prevalence to neonatal child mortality, infectious diseases and a low quality of life particularly for girls/females and marginalized groups (Kanyangarara et al. 2021).

5.3.3 Proportion of the Population with a Hand Washing Facility with Soap and Water Available at Home (6.2.1b) Even with data non-availability in some regions, it was shown that majority of SSA region had limitations in accessing handwashing facilities with exception of Rwanda. The trend is attributable to an acute water shortage especially in rural areas and informal settlements (Amuakwa-Mensah et al. 2021). The COVID-19 pandemic explicitly showed the relationship between not practicing handwashing and the spread of infectious diseases to be directly proportional. Therefore, moving

90

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 5.5 Proportion of the population with access to handwashing facilities (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

forward, member countries in SSA are urged to invest more in handwashing to prevent the health effects associated with non-adherence to the practice (Jiwani and Antiporta 2020; Mwema and Nyika 2020).

5.3.4 Proportion of Domestic and Industrial Wastewater Flow that is Safely Treated (6.3.1) In monitoring the progress on indicator 6.3.1, SSA had insufficient data to make conclusions on the quantities of wastewater being generated and treated at domestic and industrial levels. The trend infers to a large proportion of the wastewater generated as both uncollected and untreated. A study using gridded data to predict quantities of wastewater generation, collection, treatment and reuse globally established that SSA had limited data on these aspects (Jones et al. 2021). Using available data from seven countries in the region, wastewater generation rates for SSA were 10 m3 /year, which was 20 times less than annual per capita generation in North America. Collection and treatment in SSA were rated at 23 and 16%, respectively, which was significantly low compared to Europe that had 88 and 86% collection

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

91

and treatment ratings. Lastly, reuse of wastewater in SSA was at a rate of 1.6 × 109 m3 /year and among the lowest globally. The lack of reliable data was a challenge in making comprehensive estimates though, the region was off track on this indicator. Therefore, moving forward improved monitoring data for both industrial and domestic wastewater generation, collection, treatment and reuse rates must be collated by setting up the right infrastructure, policies and institutions to manage it (Rugaimukamu et al. 2022).

5.3.5 Proportion of Bodies of Water with Good Ambient Water Quality (6.3.2) Figure 5.6 shows the proportion of water bodies with good ambient water quality in SSA. In most countries where data was available, water was of good condition. Therefore, protection of the water bodies should be prioritized. This can be done through enhanced monitoring and data collection on the state of the water bodies, policy enactment and enforcement on their monitoring and use, improved wastewater treatment and enhancement of agricultural management practices particularly, the use of agrochemicals. The measures prevent the pollution threat on such water resources (Masindi and Foteinis 2021).

5.3.6 Change in Water Use Efficiency Over Time (6.4.1) Improvement in water-use efficiency in SSA does not show a significant change compared to the global average and other regions of the world (Fig. 5.7). The region also lagged behind compared to the global average. Although the trend was concluded from limited data, it is evident that SSA needs to adopt efficiency in water use in all sectors (agricultural, forestry, industrial and service sectors) to optimize the resource’s productivity (Williams 2015).

5.3.7 Level of Water Stress (6.4.2) Except for a few countries, available data did not show water stress levels of concern in SSA region with exception of Southern Africa (Fig. 5.8). In South Africa for instance, the situation on water levels is critical and predictions show a looming crisis characterized by severe water shortages (Prins et al. 2022). In some cities such as Johannesburg, Cape Town and Durban, restrictions to access and use water are being implemented by utility providers to promote wise use of the limited commodity

92

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 5.6 Proportion of water bodies with good ambient water quality in SSA (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

Fig. 5.7 Progress of indicator 6.4.1 over time (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

93

Fig. 5.8 Water stress levels as a proportional of freshwater withdrawal compared to available resources (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg 6data.org/)

(Prins et al. 2022). The trend however could be as a result of misreporting or underreporting in some of the countries where data tracking on water levels and withdrawals was limited (UN-Water 2021). Similarly, within countries, temporal and spatial variability in rainfall in an era of climate change showed some areas experiencing water stress while others had an increase in water levels compared to the withdrawals. Ortigara et al. (2018) made this observation and suggested the need to disaggregate regional and country data to smaller units for an accurate trend analysis on indicator 6.4.2. Moving forward, the region must focus on adapting to climate change while capitalizing on efficient water use especially in the agricultural sector that is a great consumer of the resource (Kadigi et al. 2019).

5.3.8 Degree of IWRM Implementation (6.5.1) SSA has made progress in strengthening policies, institutions and legislations that support IWRM as evident in Fig. 5.9. Countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, Comoros, Somalia and Equatorial Guinea recorded low IWRM implementation levels below 30% while South Africa had the highest implementation level at

94

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

above 71%. In South Africa, efforts to improve IWRM implementation were formalized in the integrated water quality management strategy of 2017 (Department of Water and Sanitation 2017). The strategy aligned the country’s water management policies and action plans with SDG 6 by suggesting measures for both water and watershed management under climate change uncertainties. These efforts have a positive effect to sustainable development in the long term (Kanyerere et al. 2018). However, implementation efforts must be intensified in countries with medium and low implementation levels to avert negative effects to socioeconomic and environmental development. This can be done by engaging multi-stakeholders during the monitoring of IWRM to correct gray areas and optimize on the priority areas for continuous growth in IWRM adoption (Bishoge 2021).

Fig. 5.9 Degree of IWRM implementation in SSA as of 2022 (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

95

5.3.9 Proportion of Transboundary Basin Area with an Operational Arrangement for Water Cooperation (6.5.2) The percentage of transboundary water resources that had an operational arrangement for cooperation in SSA was as shown in Fig. 5.10 (WHO and UNICEF 2022). Although there were data gaps, high levels of engagement were evident in the southern SSA region compared to other areas in reference to cooperation during the management of transboundary water basins. In the Nile basin, Sudan, Egypt and Ethiopia have a formal initiative for sharing the water, which for a long time has been the source of conflicts and political tensions (Swain 2011). The Southern African development community (SADC) has a protocol on shared water systems (PSWS) due to the apparent physical water scarcity in the region aimed at managing allocation of water while preventing water conflicts (Dirwai et al. 2021). In addition to enabling water sharing in the region, transboundary cooperation is synergistic to economic development in the region (Mehta et al. 2016). Other countries in SSA should therefore emulate the trend to optimize the catalytic role that such cooperations have on sustainable water management in addition to holistic economic development. However, such formal water sharing agreements must be based on cooperation, transparency and trust among the sharing parties in addition to being free of political interferences (Swain 2011).

5.3.10 Change in the Extent of Water-Related Ecosystems Over Time (6.6.1) The spatial data showing changes in areas covered by freshwater bodies between 2008 and 2016 and based on data availability in SSA was as shown in Fig. 5.11. A steady increase in the area covered by water occurred between 2008 and 2013 followed by a decline up to 2016. Increases in areas covered by surface water could be a result of higher rainfall levels resulting to the construction of new reservoirs, increasing flooding events and space occupied by inundated land. Conversely, reducing trends are a result of extended drought events that result to increased water withdrawals on the water bodies for agricultural activities, energy production, domestic and industrial uses among other consumptive uses. Additionally, poor watershed management could induce reductions in areas covered by surface water. In West African countries, poor catchment management characterized by over-abstraction and overuse of groundwater was attributable to reduced groundwater levels (Tang and Adesina 2022). With climate change, some regions are favored with high precipitation while others are not and hence the fluctuations in areas covered by surface water bodies (Serdeczny et al. 2017). To prevent further decrease in the spaces covered by surface waters, water managers and governments of SSA region should invest in polices that

96

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 5.10 Proportion of transboundary basin areas with an operational arrangement for cooperation in SSA (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg 6data.org/)

protect such ecosystems from destruction at nation and river basin levels. Crosssectoral planning and management of the water systems is crucial to enable data collection and sharing across institutions, which will be useful in monitoring and evaluating the measures in place. Institutional cooperation is also key in management of the freshwater resources based on their importance in promoting quality lives and in their relationship with other SDGs. These measures as fall under the IWRM principles and seek sustainability (Mehta et al. 2016; Dirwai et al. 2021).

5.3.11 Amount of Water and Sanitation Related Official Assistance that is Part of Government Coordinated Spending Plan (6.a.1) Operational development assistance (ODA) for water projects in SSA has been on an increasing trend from 2010 to 2019 with a few exceptions (Fig. 5.12). Within the same period, concessional lending for water projects increased by 52% (OECD 2021; UN-Water 2021). In 2019 alone, SSA received ODA of more than US$ 3 million up from US$ 2.5 million in 2015. The amount was equivalent to 34% of

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

97

Fig. 5.11 Spatial data on the changes in area covered by lakes, rivers, estuaries and artificial water bodies in SSA region (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

all ODA provided globally. More than 60% of the aid was for enhancing water and sanitation facilities while 15% was for administrative and policy streamlining (UNWater 2021). In response to the water challenges of SSA particularly the vulnerable people, more aid commitments are needed from the developed world to reduce the rising water demand and supply gap. On the other hand, water managers in the region must ensure prudent, transparent and accountable use of the funds to aid providers to gain their trust (OECD 2021). This suggestion is made with the precognition that despite the increase in water funding, the money sometimes is used for other purposes and in some cases end up with corrupt politicians. For successful water projects, ODA must be used accountably for the targeted purposes.

5.3.12 Participation of Local Communities in Water and Sanitation Management (6.b.1) Although there were data gaps, many SSA countries recorded some form of participation in planning and decision making on water management (Fig. 5.13). These endeavors are key to deconstructing gendered water management and also reducing disparities in access as a result of socioeconomic status (UN-Water 2021). A number of regions had no data and some reported low participation in indicator 6.b.1, which

98

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Fig. 5.12 Trends in the amount of official development assistance provided to SSA governments for coordinated spending plans on water and sanitation projects (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www.sdg6data.org/)

was inhibitory to sustainable management of water resources. The lack of financial and human capacity to support the indicator were attributable to the trend (Bruns 2021). Moving forward, implementing policies and legislations on participatory water management in addition to setting aside funds for it should be prioritized in the region to accelerate its resultant benefits (Bruns 2021).

5.4 Conclusions SSA region is shown to have made efforts to improve access to safe water for drinking and sanitation facilities. In addition, the region has seen an improvement in water governance through the involvement of multiple stakeholders in water management decisions, formation and use of water sharing agreements, international cooperation in managing and financing water projects and in implementation of IWRM. The region is also committed to enhancing the water infrastructure and preserving water quality in freshwater ecosystems. These achievements though hampered by data non-availability, limited human, financial and technological resources were noted to be synergistic to sustainable development in the region. In the implementation of SDG 6 targets, a number of gaps were identified in this evaluation, which necessitates the uptake of corrective measures to achieve universal access to safe water.

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

99

Fig. 5.13 The level of participation of water users and local communities in water and sanitation management (WHO and UNICEF 2022) (Data to draw this figure was accessed from: https://www. sdg6data.org/)

Such measures include the need to create enabling environs to implement SDG 6 in SSA through policy revisions, better governance of water resources and regulation enforcement, the need for continuous data collection and monitoring on the progress of existent water projects and the need to intensify collaborations with stakeholders especially women and marginalized groups and international communities to implement successful and valuable water projects.

References Ait Kadi M (2016) Water for development and development for water: realizing the sustainable development goals (SDGs) vision. Aquat Procedia 6:106–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro. 2016.06.013 Akhtar N, Syakir Ishak M, Bhawani S, Umar K (2021) Various natural and anthropogenic factors responsible for water quality degradation: a review. Water 13:2660. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13 192660 Amuakwa-Mensah F, Klege R, Adom P, Kohlin G (2021) COVID-19 and handwashing: implications for water use in sub-Saharan Africa. Water Resour Econ 36:100189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. wre.2021.100189

100

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Armah F, Ekumah B, Yawson D, Odoi J, Afitiri A, Nyieku F (2018) Access to improved water and sanitation in sub-Saharan Africa in a quarter century. Heliyon 4(11):e00931. https://www.10. 1016.2Fj.heliyon.2018.e00931 Atangana E, Oberholster P (2022) Assessment of water, sanitation, and hygiene target and theoretical modeling to determine sanitation success in sub-Saharan Africa. Environ Dev Sustain. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02620-z Benson D, Gain A, Giupponi C (2020) Moving beyond water centricity? conceptualizing integrated water resources management for implementing sustainable development goals. Sustain Sci 15:671–681. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-019-00733-5 Bishoge O (2021) Challenges facing sustainable water supply, sanitation and hygiene achievement in urban areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Local Environ 26(7):893–907. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13549839.2021.1931074 Bruns B (2021) Polycentric solutions for groundwater governance in Sub-Saharan Africa: encouraging institutional artisanship in an extended ladder of participation. Water 13:630. https://doi. org/10.3390/w13050630 Cai J, Zhao D, Varis O (2021) Match words with deeds: curbing water risk with the sustainable development goal 6 index. J Clean Prod 318:128509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021. 128509 Department of Water and Sanitation (2017) Water quality management policies and strategies for South Africa. Report Number 3.2 P RSA 000/00/21715/16 Dirwai T, Kanda K, Senzanje A, Busari T (2021) Water resource management: IWRM strategies for improvement of water management. a systematic review of case studies in East, West and Southern Africa. PLoS One 16(5):e0236903. 10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0236903 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2016) AQUASTAT Database. Available at: http://www. fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm Fukuda S, Noda K, Oki T (2019) How global targets on drinking water were developed and achieved. Nat Sustain 2(5):429–434. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0269-3 Global Water Partnership (GWP) (2016) Linking ecosystem services and water security— SDGs offer a new opportunity for integration. Perspectives Paper. 2016. Available at: https://www.gwp.org/globalassets/global/toolbox/publications/perspective-papers/gwp_pp_ ecosystemservices.pdf Grafton R, Williams J, Perry C, Molle F, Ringler C, Steduto P, Udall B et al (2018) The paradox of irrigation efficiency. Science 361:748–750. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat9314 Graham N, Hejazi M, Kim S, Davies E, Edmonds J, Miralles-Wilhelm F (2020) Future changes in the trading of virtual water. Nat Commun 11(1):3632. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-174 00-4 Guo L, Zhou H, Ziqiang X, Huang F (2016) Evolution, opportunity and challenges of transboundary water and energy problems in Central Asia. Springer Plus 5(1):1918. 10.1186%2Fs40064-0163616-0 Guppy L, Mehta P, Qadir M (2019) Sustainable goal 6: two gaps in the race for indicators. Sustain Sci 14:501–513. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11625-018-0649-z Hering J (2017) Managing the “monitoring imperative” in the context of SDG target 6.3 on water quality and wastewater. Sustainability 9:1–8. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9091572 Hughes D (2019) Facing a future water resources management crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. J Hydrol Reg Stud 23:100600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100600 Jazi H (2021) Integrated water resources management: a tool for sustainable development. Future Eng J 2(1):2314–2337 Jiwani S, Antiporta D (2020) Inequalities in access to water and soap matter for the COVID-19 response in sub-Saharan Africa. Int J Equity Health 19:82. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-02001199-z Jones E, Van Vliet M, Qadir M, Bierkens M (2021) Country-level and gridded estimates of waste production, collection, treatment and reuse. Earth Syst Sci Data 13:237–254. https://doi.org/10. 1594/PANGAEA.918731

5 Progress Towards Attaining SDG Target on Universal Access to Clean …

101

Kadigi R, Tesfay G, Bizoza A, Zibadou G, Zilberman D (2019) Irrigation and water use efficiency in sub-Saharan Africa. Policy Document. https://doi.org/10.21955/gatesopenres.1115251.1 Kanyangarara M, Allen S, Jiwani S, Fuente D (2021) Access to water, sanitation and hygiene facilities in health facilities in sub-Saharan Africa 2013–2018: results of health facility surveys and implications for COVID-19 transmission. BMC Health Serv Res 21:601. https://doi.org/10. 1186/s12913-021-06515-z Kanyerere T, Tramberend S, Devine A, Mokoena P, Mensah P, Chinombe W et al (2018) Water futures and solutions: options to enhance water security in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Mensah P, Katerere D, Hachigonta S, Roodt A (eds) Systems analysis approach for complex global challenges. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71486-8_6 Kulkarni S, Hof A, Ambrosio G, Edelenbosch O, Koberle A, van Rijn J et al (2022) Investment needs to achieve SDGs: an overview. PLOS Sustain Transform 1(7):e0000020. https://doi.org/ 10.1371/journal.pstr.0000020 Masindi V, Foteinis S (2021) Groundwater contamination in sub-Saharan Africa: implications for groundwater protection in developing countries. Clean Eng Technol 2:100038. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.clet.2020.100038 Mehta L, Movik S, Bolding B, Derman B, Manzungu E (2016) Introduction to the special issue– flows and practices: the politics of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) in southern Africa. Water Alt 9(3):389–411 Mukarram M (2020) Impact of COVID-19 on the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Strateg Anal 44:253–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/09700161.2020.1788363 Muller A, Avellan T, Schanze J (2020) Risk and sustainability assessment framework for decision support in water scarcity—water reuse situations. J Hydrol 591:125424. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jhydrol.2020.125424 Mwema F, Nyika J (2020) Challenges in Facemasks Used and Potential Solutions: the Case Study of Kenya. 10:e00563. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00563 OECD (2021) Watered down? investigating the financial materiality of water-related risks in the financial system; Background Paper Session 3 of the 8th Roundtable on Financing Water. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/water/Background-paper-RT-on-Financing-Water-and-ClimateAction-Session-3.pdf Ortigara A, Kay M, Uhlenbrook S (2018) A review of the SDG 6 synthesis report 2018 from an education, training and research perspective. Water 10:1353. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10 101353 Prins F, Etale A, Ablo A, Thatcher A (2022) Water scarcity and alternative water sources in South Africa: can information provision shift perceptions? Urban Water J. https://doi.org/10.1080/157 3062X.2022.2026984 Richter B, Powell E, Lystash T, Faggert M (2016) Protection and restoration of freshwater ecosystems. In: Miller K, Hamlet A, Kenney D, Redmond K (eds) Water policy and planning in a variable and changing climate. Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK Rugaimukamu Q, Wang H, Huang R, Xie L (2022) Wastewater treatment needs more attention. Nat Africa. https://doi.org/10.1038/d44148-022-00071-2 Schaefer T, Udenio M, Quinn S, Fransoo J (2019) Water risk assessment in supply chains. J Clean Product 208:636–648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.262 Serdeczny O, Adams S, Baarsch F, Coumou D, Robinson A, Hare W et al (2017) Climate change impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa: from physical changes to their social repercussions. Reg Environ Change 17:1585–1600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0910-2 Sindico F (2016) Transboundary water cooperation and the sustainable development goals. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), France Singto C, Fleskens L, Vos J (2018) Institutionalizing participation in water resource development: Bottom-up and top-down practices in southern Thailand. Water 10:781. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w10060781 Sustainable Development Solutions Network (2015) Indicators and a monitoring framework for the sustainable development goals: launching a data revolution. A report to the secretary-general of the United Nations by the leadership council of the sustainable development solutions network, Indonesia

102

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Swain A (2011) Challenges for water sharing in the Nile basin: changing geo-politics and changing climate. Hydrol Sci J 56(4):687–702. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2011.577037 Taka M, Ahopelto L, Fallon A, Heino M, Kallio M, Kinnunen P, Niva V, Varis O (2021) The potential of water security in leveraging Agenda 2030. One Earth 4(2):258–268. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.oneear.2021.01.007 Tang X, Adesina J (2022) Integrated watershed management framework and groundwater resources in Africa-a review of West Africa sub-region. Water 14(3):288. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14 030288 Tortajada C, Biswas A (2018) Achieving universal access to clean water and sanitation in an era of water scarcity: strengthening contributions from academia. Curr Opin Environ Sustain 34:21–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.08.001 United Nations (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. Available at: www.un.org/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for%20Sustainable% 20Development%20web.pdf United Nations (2018) Sustainable development goal 6: synthesis report 2018 on water and sanitation. Available at: www.unwater.org/app/uploads/2018/12/SDG6_SynthesisReport2018_Wat erandSanitation_04122018.pdf UN-Water (2021) Summary progress update 2021—SDG 6—water and sanitation for all. Version1, Geneva, Switzerland UN-Water (2016) Integrated monitoring guide for SDG 6: targets and global indicators. UN-Water, Geneva, Switzerland United Nations Environmental Program (2019) Measuring progress: towards achieving the environmental dimension of the SDGs. Available at: https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/ measuring-progress-environment-and-sdgs UNEP (2018) Progress on integrated water resources management. Global baseline for SDG 6 Indicator 6.5.1: degree of IWRM implementation. 2018, United Nations Environment Program, Nairobi, Kenya UNEP-DHI Centre Partnership (2018) IWRM data portal. 2018. Available at: http://iwrmdataportal. unepdhi.org/iwrmmonitoring.html UNICEF & WHO (2020) Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000–2017: Special focus on inequalities. New York, USA Wang D, Hubacek K, Shan Y, Gerbens-Leenes W, Liu J (2021) A review of water stress and water footprint accounting. Water 13:201. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13020201 Williams T (2015) Accessing and putting water to productive use in sub-Saharan Africa. Brief for Global Sustainable Development Report World Health Organization (2017) UN-Water global analysis and assessment of sanitation and drinking-water (GLAAS) 2017 Report: Financing universal water, sanitation and hygiene under the sustainable development goals. Available at: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/ publications_glaasreport-2017/en World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2017) Progress on drinking water, Sanitation and hygiene: 2017 update and SDG baselines. Geneva. Available at: https://washdata.org/report/jmp-2017-report-final World Water Assessment Programme (2017) Wastewater: the untapped resource. The United Nations world water development report 2017. https://unep.org/20.500.11822/20448 WHO & UNICEF (2022) UN-Water SDG 6 data portal. https://www.sdg6data.org/ Ye S, Han J, Liu T (2019) Determination of optimum irrigation strategies and the effect of drip irrigation system on growth and water use efficiency of pear jujube in Loess Hilly region of northern Shaanxi. PLoS One 14(8):e0221925. 10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0221925 Zhao H, Qu S, Guo S, Zhao H, Liang S, Xu M (2019) Virtual water scarcity risk to global trade under climate change. J Clean Product 230:1013–1026. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13020201 Zhou Z, Liu L, Zeng H, Chen X (2018) Does water disclosure cause a rise in corporate risk-taking?— evidence from Chinese high water-risk industries. J Clean Product 195:1313–1325. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.001

Chapter 6

Recommendations to Improve Management of Water Challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa Joan Nyika and Megersa Olumana Dinka Abstract In this chapter, recommendations to improve water management in subSaharan Africa towards universal access to the commodity were discussed. This was done with the precognition that the region is yet to make substantive progress in reference to sustainable development goal 6. Findings showed the need for the region to improve resilience to climate change through the use of smart tools to predict effects of the phenomenon to water quantities and via scenario-based predictions and planning. In water ecosystems, which were vulnerable to overexploitation and quality deterioration, the need to protect them was noted as stimulatory to their ability to meet water needs of the population. The use of decentralized water governance systems that were adaptive to uncertainty, engaged stakeholders including locals, private and public sectors was also discussed as synergistic to integrated water resources management. Additionally, better financing of the water infrastructure was recommended to enable better supply, distribution and development of water resources even with climate change pressures especially to the underserved. Keywords Climate change · Policies · SDG 6 · Sub-Saharan Africa · Water management · Water Prices

6.1 Introduction According to the United Nations (UN-Water 2021), 26% of the world’s population equivalent to 2 billion people did not have safely managed drinking water services by 2020 while 29% (2.3 billion) and 46% (3.6 billion) did not have adequate handwashing and safely managed sanitation facilities, respectively. The trend is not in line with sustainable development goal 6 (SDG 6) to realize universal access to water by 2030. In light of the climate change effects of erratic rainfall and temperature patterns, water insecurity threat among people and in the agricultural, industrial, energy and domestic sectors is going to escalate (Stringer et al. 2021). Additionally, the water set for environmental flows will significantly reduce, which is a threat to riverine ecosystems (John et al. 2021). Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) appears to have adequate water resources although there are large variations within countries and regions such that some areas are well endowed with the resource and others are © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka, Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management, SpringerBriefs in Water Science and Technology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_6

103

104

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

already experiencing water stress (Ortigara et al. 2018). Other regions rely heavily on groundwater resources to meet their water demands and due to resource’s reduced vulnerability to climate change. The tendency has increased pressure on the resource and is likely to threaten its sustainability to supply water (Sorensen et al. 2021). Regions of Southern Africa such as Cape Town are reported to suffer of both acute and chronic water shortages due to climate change effects of extended drought in addition to poor planning of the resource’s infrastructure and management as well as its overexploitation (Otto et al. 2018). Other rural and urban areas of SSA face the same challenges, which points to a crisis in the near future unless corrective measures are taken. In addition to the threats of water scarcity in SSA and the inability of available resources to provide the population’s drinking, sanitation and hygiene needs of today and the future, the systems are poorly monitored. Information on water use, quality of water in freshwater resources, hydro-climatic variations in evaporation, precipitation, stream flows for both surface- and ground-water is limited (Ortigara et al. 2018; UN-Water 2021). Even where the data is present, it has inconsistencies that make it unreliable or inaccurate during decision-making (Papa et al. 2022). In some instances, access to the data is restricted to the public and scientific community by government agencies due to its associated political sensitivity (Chawla et al. 2020). Data unavailability is associated with poor funding and lack of technical capacity by the water regulatory agencies. Non-participation of locals in water decisions such as their input in water development designs based on their immense understanding of the region is an additional bottleneck to realizing sustainable water management projects usually run by foreign experts. These challenges therefore necessitate intervention measures to prevent a water crisis in the region and also eliminate the data uncertainties that would enable reliable decision-making and forecasting. The aim of this chapter is to make recommendations on the intervention measures to be taken to improve the state of water management in SSA.

6.2 Recommendations to Improve the Management of Water Challenges In the near future, poor water management will be one of the limiting factors to socio-economic and environmental development globally. In SSA, water shortage is exacerbated by degradation of freshwater ecosystems, which results from pollution (Sanon et al. 2020). The competing demands for water among economic sectors, human consumption and the ecosystem needs result to geopolitical security threats due to water conflicts in the region (Ofori et al. 2021). The demand for the commodity is also rising due to population growth and urbanization tendencies. The pressures by the demand drivers compromise advances to secure reasonably priced, reliable and safe water for drinking and sanitation purposes. Sufficient environmental flows are also being compromised as a result of non-treatment of wastewater, whose generation

6 Recommendations to Improve Management of Water Challenges …

105

levels are rising prior to release. Such undertakings result to extensive pollution of freshwater ecosystems and restricts availability of safe supplies due to quality compromise (Sanon et al. 2020; Ofori et al. 2021). In areas where supplies are available, affordability is a limiting factor due to the high pricing of the commodity. Some of the specific recommendations to reverse the current state of water in SSA are discussed in the following sub-sections.

6.2.1 Safeguarding Water Resources Owing to the climate change era, many water resources of SSA are under threat due to over-abstraction of the commodity and quality deterioration. Therefore, sustainable management in the water sector is key to counter the challenges. The following recommendations can enhance the protection of water ecosystems. i.

Balancing of water supply and demand prevents over-abstraction in surfaceand ground-water systems. The key in closing the gap for water demand and supply is in alleviating physical and economic water scarcity (Huang and Yin 2017). Physical water scarcity can be alleviated through efficient use of available water resources, rainwater harvesting for use during drier spells, recycling of wastewater and desalination to create alternative water sources (Huang and Yin 2017). Recommendations to alleviate economic water scarcity include enhanced financing for water infrastructure and technology to enable its supply, distribution and withdrawal from aquifers, rivers and other sources and improvement of human capacity to make and implement decisions, policies and laws on approaches to satisfy water demand (Vallino et al. 2020). ii. To safeguard water ecosystems, it is key to protect the physical features of the ecosystems in addition to their species. This can be done by protecting flow patterns of wetlands, lakes and rivers in respect to their quantities and qualities (Combes 2020). The ecosystems are expected to change due to climate variations but eliminating impediments to their flow through reducing input of toxic substances and nutrients and at the same time, maintaining forested and healthy river basins will make them resilient to the changes (Bogardi et al. 2020). iii. Water ecosystems also need to be protected from human pressures such as overuse of natural (land and water) resources. Anthropogenic activities lead to economic water scarcity and the introduction of exotic animals and plants in such water systems (Matthews 2016). To this end, freshwater ecosystems should be monitored frequently to control and prevent them from negative human effects. iv. In the management of watersheds, it is crucial to control extractive water uses especially in the upstream areas since such actions interfere with the temperature, quantity and quality of water in such systems. By avoiding practices such as deforestation, misuse of agrochemicals and diversion of agricultural water from riverine systems, their sustainability is possible in addition to enhanced climate change resilience. Therefore, sustainable water management schemes

106

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

must prioritize on better timing for water extractions (when the flows are high or in the presence of runoff) and use water efficiently in their attempts to meet human needs for the commodity (Parks et al. 2019). v. The restoration of highly degraded water ecosystems in addition to putting up measures to prevent degradation in non-degraded ones is imperative in proper water management (Geist and Hawkins 2016). Such undertakings improve the ecological integrity of damaged ecosystems, which is key in their resilience to climate change and also ensures smooth recovery of watersheds against future effects of climate variations. Specific measures recommended for restoration include renewal of wetland flows by removing barriers, removal of exotic species and applying lime in acidified rivers to neutralize them (Dubey et al. 2021). Interbasin transfers, draining of flooded areas and recharging aquifers also ameliorate restoration of water ecosystems and their sustainability. vi. The unpredictable and uncertain nature of climate change and its effects on water systems demand flexible strategies and goals of management. This can be done by changing current water management strategies, which are fixed to the adaptive management style (Thomann et al. 2022). In the new style, water is managed based on past trends (passive adaptation) in addition to using scenarios on how water systems will respond to uncertainties of climate change (active adaptation). Both active and passive adaptive approaches of managing water resources require adequate stakeholder engagement and reliable policies that support data collection on the state of water resources and the use trends (Cheng et al. 2019).

6.2.2 Managing the Risk to Water Investments With the unprecedented threat to ground- and surface-water sustainability by climate change, it is crucial to analyze the resultants risks from the phenomenon and their impacts on water resources and the capacity to access it in future. To do this, water managers and experts require robust data to make predictions in light of the uncertainties, estimate the risks and advise accordingly on the remedial measures to improve the current water infrastructure and ensure sustainable provision of the resource (Hughes 2019). The data improves the understanding of future water demand and allows the uptake of climate adaptive and mitigation measures while taking into consideration resilience, social support, water quality, environmental impacts, associated costs and benefits of water investment and other emergent operational and technical risks (Jahanddideh-Tehrani et al. 2021). It is therefore recommended that SSA countries invest more finances, human resources and time on accurate data collection, organization, storage and interpretation on the status of water resources, the trends in use and management to facilitate accurate predictions on future demands (UN-Water 2021).

6 Recommendations to Improve Management of Water Challenges …

107

6.2.3 Smart and Innovative Water Management Technology and innovation are keys in water resources management since they facilitate enhanced use of water and preservation of the commodity’s quality. In water management, digital technology has been applied in distributed groundwater and hydrological modelling to process historical data using decision support/making tools or models to predict effects of improved water efficiency, climate change and other management scenarios on water availability in the future (Giupponi and Sgobbi 2013). In this case, one-, two- and three- dimensional modelling softwares are used. Stochastic hydrology used to gain insight on the effects of water resources by drought and/or flooding events also fall under such smart tools for water management (Vogel 2017). By using historical data from variables such as pollution, weather and climate coupled with physical infrastructure, smart tools such as modelling softwares provide solutions to water management problems and enable practical decision-making with the resultant outputs. In advanced SSA countries such as South Africa, digital tools have been used predict the effects of climate change on the country’s water resources, for allocation of ecological flows, in creation and update of a database on water resources information, in assessing the interactions of ground- and surface-water and in rainfall-runoff modelling (Hughes 2017). In Nigeria’s Ogun-Ona River basin, hydrological modelling was applied to assess the impacts of climate change on cropwater productivity of soybeans (Durodola and Mourad 2020). Changes in daily rainfall levels in the climate change era were predicted through stochastic modelling in Uganda towards better management of their surface waters (Kigobe et al. 2011). In Mfoundi watershed of Cameroon, hydrological models were used to assess the vulnerability of the Yaoundé city to floods resulting from extreme weather and make corrective infrastructural measures (Nsangou et al. 2022). Similar applications can be applied in other SSA regions to enable sustainable water management.

6.2.4 Establish Working Markets The prices of water differ in many SSA countries and globally based on the cultural and institutional frameworks, the demand for the commodity and its availability. Water prices should take in consideration all the marginal costs of providing the service in addition to supporting the poor for them to be effective. Such considerations enable the generation of income needed to expand, develop or refurbish water infrastructure, incentivize water use efficiency and at the same time, assure users of affordability (Mitlin and Walnycki 2016). Although in SSA, the pricing structures for industrial and municipal water services considers the costs for providing the services, agricultural water uses, which are the largest consumers are largely subsidized, which promotes inefficient use of the already scarce commodity. Issues of affordability of the commodity and ability to pay for it remain a growing challenge among the poor of rural and urban informal settlements. In light of these challenges,

108

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

developing countries of SSA should invest more in development of water infrastructure to ease the supply of the commodity and expand its reach to the underserved (Heymans et al. 2016). In Nyeri town (Kenya) and Kampala city (Uganda), connection costs have been lowered to allow increased access of water to even the poor though the results have not been measured (Heymans et al. 2016). To ensure access to informal settlers, cities such as Kampala and Nairobi have adopted the prepaid water dispensers where individuals access water as long as they pay for it (Heymans et al. 2016). Such an arrangement enables access to the commodity in addition to cost recovery for service delivered. In Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso), utility agents in the form of small providers serve the urban poor while in eThekwini (South Africa) and Nyeri (Kenya), the water infrastructure has been developed and extended even in areas considered inaccessible (Heymans et al. 2016). These milestones to expand access to water were a result of better funding by local governments of the regions, partnerships with the private sector, better cost recovery for services delivered and infrastructural advancement and expansion and therefore, the aspects should be emulated by other countries in the region.

6.2.5 Enhancing Coherence Decision Making In many SSA countries, reforms have been made in management and institutional structures where water services are provided in line with SDG 6 requirements for implementation of integrated water resources management, IWRM (UNWater 2021). River basins in some countries are being managed through ecosystembased and whole-basin approaches and comprehensive frameworks to steer up water management regulations, programs, institutions and policies are in place and implementation has begun (Ortigara et al. 2018). Other notable developments include the incorporation of the private sector to manage water resources and services and a shift of the public sector from being a sole provider to being a regulator. The private sector has access to technical knowledge and finances to operate and manage both public and private water facilities and their inclusion is highly encouraged for a wider coverage of water users. In South Africa for instance, privatization of water utilities came with better water decentralization and infrastructural improvement, which had positive impacts on the economy though the financial turnout of such utilities was low and their sustainability was threatened by political interference (McCallum and Viviers 2020). Privatization was reported as one of the innovative mechanisms of financing the water sector in Africa, SSA included since such investors have adequate capital and operational finances to steer up water harnessing, supply and distribution to users (Beyene and Luwesi 2018). Therefore, the benefits of water privatization should be optimized to ensure wider coverage of SSA residents with water while seeking for innovative ways to avert its resultant challenges. In addition to privatization, participation of locals in adaptive and transformative water management by engaging them in decision making on water development and use creates a good

6 Recommendations to Improve Management of Water Challenges …

109

environment to implement water projects successfully (Cheng et al. 2019). Decentralization of water services, which incorporated stakeholder participation and the private sector in water governance was found to deliver effectively since accountability and accommodation of new ideas was prioritized in a case study in Kenya (Nyika 2018).

6.2.6 Managing Water Through Working Partnerships The role of the international community in promoting universal water access for developing countries of SSA region is highlighted as crucial and unavoidable (UNWater 2021). Through partnerships, operational development aid towards realization of various water projects can be accessed. For instance, through partnerships with developed countries and international institutions, SSA received US$ 3.2 billion in 2019 to enhance water access in addition to provision of sanitation and hygiene facilities in the region (OECD 2021; UN-Water 2021). Although this was the highest aid compared to other global regions, it was not adequate to meet the water needs of the growing poor population of SSA. Public private partnerships (PPPs) are the commonest forms of partnerships in water resources management and they help to improve access to water, sewerage and sanitation services in SSA countries. According to the International Finance Corporation (IFC 2022), PPPs couple skills and resources to deliver technical knowledge and capital useful in setting up and running water, sanitation and hygiene infrastructure. In SSA, specific countries have benefited from such PPPs. The Rwandese government for instance, had a PPP with the Metito Group of Abu Dhabi under the financing of the IFC transaction advisory to set up the Kigali bulk water project that boosts the city’s drinking water by 40% adding 40,000 m3 of water to their normal supply. With this help Rwanda is the only country in SSA that is on track in meeting indicator 6.2.1b of SDG 6 (proportion of the population with a handwashing facility with soap and water available at home) with more than 75% of its population having access to handwashing facilities that had soap and water available at home (WHO and UNICEF 2022). In Uganda’s Basembati area, a PPP between IFC and the Ugandan government enabled the establishment of a piped water project in the town, where the commodity was supplied to 700 stations (IFC 2022). The project enabled majority of the town dwellers to access safe water rather than use unprotected wells whose water was contaminated and had previously caused waterborne diseases in the area. In rural Senegal, Niger, Kenya, Madagascar, Benin, Mauritania and Burkina Faso, various PPPs have facilitated the provision of piped water or the pumping of water from protected wells improving access of the commodity to the locals (Kleemeier and Lockwood 2015). Although PPPs are effective in expanded coverage of the population with water, sanitation and hygiene facilities, the benefits are limited to the transparency of the applied procurement processes, the allocated risks to the involved parties and the access to expertise and finances especially from the private sectors (IFC 2022). To nurture effective PPPs, it is recommended that partners involved build

110

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

trust in one another while sharing finances, knowledge and information and exercise transparency throughout the implementation stages of the water projects.

6.3 Conclusions SSA region faces a lot of challenges in its attempts to provide water, sanitation and hygiene services to its rapidly urbanizing and growing population in the era of climate change. The progress in line with SDG 6 is slow and hence the need to rethink of new ideas to fast-track universal access. This chapter recommended the need to build resilience to climate change in the water sector through the use of smart technologies to model the effects of climate change on water variations in the region. Through hydrological and stochastic models, different scenarios on water use efficiency and their effects in saving the resource can be assessed to support decision-making on management measures. The need to improve resilience of freshwater resources against climate change by protecting them from overexploitation and degradation was also recommended. The application of IWRM elements, participatory and adaptive water management approaches to manage and govern complex water systems and oversee the use, distribution and supply of the commodity to users was highlighted as an important step to universal access. However, such initiatives must be supported by workable policies and partnerships involving water users, the private and public sectors. The private sector involvement is synergistic in providing capital, technical and human expertise to provide water and hence must be incorporated. However, PPPs must be pegged on transparent procurement processes and uses of finances in addition to a clear plan on risk- and knowledge-sharing for successful implementation of water projects.

References Beyene A, Luwesi C (2018) Water finance innovations in context: a guide for water managers. The Nordic Africa Institute, Uppsala, Sweden Bogardi J, Leentvaar J, Sebesvari Z (2020) Biologia futura: integrating freshwater ecosystem health in water resources management. Biologia Futura 71:337–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42977020-00031-7 Chawla I, Karthikeyan L, Mishra A (2020) Review of remote sensing applications for water security: quantity, quality, and extremes. J Hydrol 585:124826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2020. 124826 Cheng K, Wei S, Fu Q, Pei W, Li T (2019) Adaptive management of water resources based on advanced entropy method to quantify agent information. J Hydroinform 21(3):381–396. https:// doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2019.007 Combes S (2020) Protecting freshwater ecosystems in the face of global climate change. Available at: https://combeslab.faculty.ucdavis.edu/wpcontent/uploads/sites/594/2020/01/WWF_fre shwater.pdf

6 Recommendations to Improve Management of Water Challenges …

111

Dubey P, Singh A, Raghubanshi A, Abhilash P (2021) Steering the restoration of degraded agroecosystems during the United Nations decade on ecosystem restoration. J Environ Manag 280:111798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111798 Durodola O, Mourad K (2020) Modelling the impacts of climate change on soybeans water use and yields in Ogun-Ona River basin, Nigeria. Agriculture 10:593. https://doi.org/10.3390/agricultu re10120593 Geist J, Hawkins S (2016) Habitat recovery and restoration in aquatic ecosystems: current progress and future challenges. Aquat Conserv Mar Freshw Ecosyst 26:942–962. https://doi.org/10.1002/ aqc.2702 Giupponi C, Sgobbi A (2013) Decision support systems for water resources management in developing countries: learning from experiences in Africa. Water 5:798–818. https://doi.org/10.3390/ w5020798 Heymans C, Eberhardt R, Ehrhardt D, Riley S (2016) Providing water to poor people in African cities effectively: lessons from utility reforms. World Bank, Washington DC, USA Hughes D (2019) Facing a future water resources management crisis in sub-Saharan Africa. J Hydrol Reg Stud 23:100600. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2019.100600 Hughes D (2017) South African research in the hydrological sciences: 2003–2006. S Afr J Sci 103(9–10):415–418 Huang L, Yin L (2017) Supply and demand analysis of water resources based on system dynamics model. J Eng Technol Sci 49(6):705–720 International Finance Corporation, IFC (2022) Benefits flow from public private water partnerships. The World Bank, Washington DC, USA Jahanddideh-Tehrani M, Bozorg-Haddad O, Daliakopoulos I (2021) The role of water information and data bases in water resources management. In: Bozorg-Haddad O (eds) Essential tools for water resources analysis, planning, and management. Springer Water. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-33-4295-8_3 John A, Horne A, Nathan R, Fowler K, Webb J, Stewardson M (2021) Robust climate change adaptation for environmental flows in the Goulburn River, Australia. Front Environ Sci 9:789206. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2021.789206 Kigobe M, Mclntyre N, Wheater H, Chandler R (2011) Multi-site stochastic modelling of daily rainfall in Uganda. Hydrol Sci J 56(1):17–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2010.536548 Kleemeier E, Lockwood H (2015) Building blocks for sustainability series triple-S: public-private partnerships for rural water services. International Water and Sanitation Center (IRC), The Netherlands Matthews N (2016) People and fresh water ecosystems: pressures, responses and resilience. Aquat Procedia 6:99–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aqpro.2016.06.012 McCallum S, Viviers S (2020) Private sector impact investment in water purification infrastructure in South Africa: a qualitative analysis of opportunities and barriers. Water SA 46(1). https://doi. org/10.17159/wsa/2020.v46.i1.7880 Mitlin D, Walnycki A (2016) Why is water still unaffordable for sub-Saharan Africa’s urban poor? International Institute for Environment and Development, London, United Kingdom Nsangou D, Kpoumie A, Mfonka Z, Ngouh N, Fossi D, Jourdan C, Mbele H et al (2022) Urban flood susceptibility modelling using AHP and GIS approach: case of Mfoundi watershed at Yaoundé in the south-Cameroon plateau. Sci Afr 15:e01043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2021.e01043 Nyika J (2018) Decentralization as a tool in improving water governance in Kenya. Water Policy 20(2):252–265. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2018.102 OECD (2021) Watered down? investigating the financial materiality of water-related risks in the financial system; Background Paper Session 3 of the 8th Roundtable on Financing Water. Available at: https://www.oecd.org/water/Background-paper-RT-on-Financing-Water-and-ClimateAction-Session-3.pdf Ofori S, Cobbina S, Obiri S (2021) Climate change, land, water and food security: perspectives from sub-Saharan Africa. Front Sustain Food Syst 5:680924. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021. 680924

112

J. Nyika and M. O. Dinka

Ortigara A, Kay M, Uhlenbrook S (2018) A review of the SDG 6 synthesis report 2018 from an education, training and research perspective. Water 10:1353. https://doi.org/10.3390/w10 101353 Otto F, Wolski P, Lehner F, Tebaldi C, Van Oldenborgh G, Hogesteeger S, Singh R et al (2018) Anthropogenic influence on the drivers of the Western Cape drought 2015–2017. Environ Res Lett 13(12):124010. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aae9f9 Papa F, Cretaux J, Grippa M, Robert E, Trigg M, Tshimanga R et al (2022) Water resources in Africa under global change: monitoring surface waters from space. Surv Geophys. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10712-022-09700-9 Parks R, McLaren M, Toumi R, Rivett U (2019) Experiences and lessons in managing water from Cape Town. Grantham Institute Briefing Paper No. 29. Imperial College London Sanon V, Toe P, Revenga J, Bilali H, Hundscheid L, Kulakoswka M et al (2020) Multiple-line identifications of socio-ecological stressors affecting aquatic ecosystems in semi-arid countries: implications for sustainable management of fisheries in sub-Saharan Africa. Water 12:1518. https://doi.org/10.3390/w12061518 Sorensen J, Davies J, Ebrahim G, Lindle J, Marchant B, Ascott M et al (2021) The influence of groundwater abstraction on interpreting climate controls and extreme recharge events from well hydrographs in semi-arid South Africa. Hydrogeo J 29:2773–2787. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10 040-021-02391-3 Stringer L, Mirzabaev A, Benjaminsen T, Harris R, Jafari M, Lissner T et al (2021) Climate change impacts on water security in global drylands. One Earth 4(6):851–864. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.oneear.2021.05.010 Thomann J, Werner A, Irvine D (2022) Developing adaptive management guidance for groundwater planning and development. J Environ Manag 322:116052. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman. 2022.116052 UN-Water (2021) Summary progress Update 2021—SDG 6—water and sanitation for all. Version1, Geneva, Switzerland Vallino E, Ridolfi L, Laio F (2020) Measuring economic water scarcity in agriculture: a crosscountry empirical investigation. Environ Sci Policy 114:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.env sci.2020.07.017 Vogel R (2017) Stochastic watershed models for hydrologic risk management. Water Security 1:28–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasec.2017.06.001 WHO & UNICEF (2022) UN-Water SDG 6 data portal. https://www.sdg6data.org/