Volcano Adventure Guide [illustrated edition] 9780521554534, 0521554535

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The Volcano Adventure Guide Have you ever wondered what it would be like to stare down into the bubbling crater of an active volcano? If so, this book is for you! It contains vital information for anyone wishing to visit, explore, and photograph active volcanoes safely and enjoyably. The book begins by introducing readers to the eruption styles of different types of volcanoes and explains the physical settings on Earth where they are typically found. It describes how to prepare for a volcano trip, and how to avoid the dangers associated with being on or near active volcanoes. The author draws on her own experience of working on active volcanoes to explain what is safe and what is foolish, when to watch an eruption and when to stay away. She believes that volcanoes can be visited and enjoyed by all, and includes several examples of volcanoes that can be easily explored by people of all ages, and all levels of fitness and expertise. The second part of the book provides a comprehensive travel guide to 20 volcanoes around the world that are among nature’s most spectacular examples. It also gives short guides to 22 additional volcanoes located in the same regions, that could be visited during the same trips. This section is packed full of practical information including tour itineraries, maps, transportation details, and warnings of possible non-volcanic dangers such as unfriendly wildlife. The two appendices at the end of the book direct the reader to a wealth of further volcano resources. These include websites with up-to-date listings of volcanic activity across the globe, and a list of learned societies and commercial holiday companies offering volcano tours. There is also an extensive bibliography that refers readers to more detailed geological and practical information. The Volcano Adventure Guide is the first book of its type. Aimed at non-specialist readers who wish to explore volcanoes without being foolhardy, it will fascinate amateur enthusiasts and professional volcanologists alike. The stunning color photographs throughout the book will delight armchair travelers as well as inspire the adventurous to get out and explore volcanoes for themselves. ROSALY LOPES is an expert in planetary volcanism at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, where she studies volcanism on Earth, as well as other planets and moons. Using data returned by the Galileo spacecraft, Dr. Lopes was responsible for the discovery of 71 previously unknown volcanoes on Io, one of Jupiter’s moons. She currently works on the Cassini mission, which is making observations of Saturn and its moons. Rosaly’s field work on Earth has taken her to many active volcanoes, starting with Mount Etna in Sicily (as a member of the UK’s Volcanic Eruption Surveillance Team). She has made many trips to active volcanoes around the world and has given lectures to the public in many countries. During these lectures she was often asked “How can I visit an active volcano?” and this inspired her to write this book on volcano adventures. She has also written many scientific papers, encyclopedia articles, and book chapters, and has been featured on two Discovery channel television documentaries. She has won several awards from JPL and NASA, and was chosen by GEMS Television, Miami, as the GEMS Woman of the Year in Science and Technology, 1997.

The Volcano Adventure Guide ROSALY LOPES

cambridge univerity pre Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 2ru, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521554534 © Cambridge University Press 2005 This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published in print format 2005 ibn-13 ibn-10

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Contents Preface page vii Acknowledgments

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PART I Choosing a volcano to visit 1 Volcanoes of the world

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2 The basic facts about volcanoes 3 Volcanic eruptions

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4 Visiting volcanoes safely

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5 Preparing and planning a volcano adventure

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PART II Guides to volcanoes 6 Introduction to the field guides 7 Volcanoes in Hawaii Hawaii 67 Kilauea 70 Mauna Loa 84 Haleakala 98

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8 Volcanoes in the continental USA The western USA 107 Lassen Peak 111 Mount St. Helens 127 Sunset Crater 145 Yellowstone 153

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9 Volcanoes in Italy 177 Southern Italy 177 Vesuvius 181 The Aeolian Islands 191 Strómboli 192 Vulcano 202 Etna 211 10 Volcanoes in Greece Greece 224 Santorini 226

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11 Volcanoes in Iceland Iceland 239

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vi Contents

Krafla 244 Heimaey 252 Hekla 262 12

Volcanoes in Costa Rica 272 Costa Rica 272 Arenal 275 Poás 286 Irazú 293

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Volcanoes in the West Indies The West Indies 301 Mont Pelée 306 Soufriere Hills 320

Appendix I Appendix II

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Useful information for preparing a volcano trip 332 Tours to volcanoes 336 Bibliography 338 Glossary 345 Index 348

Preface The purpose of this book is to introduce its readers to the wonderful world of volcanoes and to help them visit, explore, photograph, and, above all, appreciate volcanoes both in eruption and in repose. Volcanoes have shaped the Earth’s surface and are nature’s most awesome manifestation of the power within our planet. One of the surprising facts about volcanoes is that they are among the most scenic places on Earth yet only a few of them attract a significant number of visitors. Volcanic eruptions are undoubtedly one of nature’s most spectacular events, but relatively few people can claim to have witnessed one first-hand, and most of them did not do so by choice. The increase in adventure travel over the past two decades has not yet reached most of the world’s volcanoes. Travel companies are quite willing to take tourists all over the globe to meet gorillas, canoe in piranha-infested waters, or dive with sharks, but not, it seems, to watch a volcano erupt. What should people do if they want to visit a volcano, particularly an active one? They can choose a volcano within a well-run national park and rely on information and advice given there. But, if the volcano they want to go to is more isolated, or in a country with fewer resources, travelers will be very much on their own. In practice, this may mean not venturing up the slopes at all or, even worse, ending up in places where experienced volcanologists would fear to tread. In order to explore a volcano in the most sensible and enjoyable way, visitors need to know the dangers they might encounter, as well as the wonders they might see. The Volcano Adventure Guide strives to give readers this knowledge. The idea for this book grew out of the questions that potential volcano visitors often asked me whenever I gave a popular-level talk about volcanoes or revealed in conversation what type of work I do. Some of these questions were: “How can I see an eruption?” “Are all eruptions dangerous?” “Can I go somewhere other than Hawaii to see red lava?” “How do people photograph eruptions?” Less often I’d hear “How can I be sure to visit a volcano when it is not erupting?” I realized that there were no books that could answer these questions in a straightforward way. Most books about volcanoes assume that readers want to learn what volcanoes are and what makes them erupt, but from the comfort of their armchairs. The Volcano Adventure Guide is directed at the people who want to learn about volcanoes by visiting them first-hand. I have tried to provide all the necessary information on how to choose a volcano to go to and, once there, how to make the trip a fulfilling and enjoyable learning experience. These are the themes behind the book’s introductory chapters that are followed by field guides. The first five chapters prepare the reader to visit volcanoes in general, while the field guides provide detailed guidance on what do and see on specific volcanoes. The introductory chapters discuss how volcanoes work and address the practical

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viii Preface

aspects of planning one’s own volcano field trip. A whole chapter is devoted to the most serious concern that travelers have about volcanoes, particularly active ones: safety. The potential visitor has to consider questions such as: “How dangerous is an erupting volcano?” “What precautions can I take?” “What happens if the volcano blows up unexpectedly?” “Are there ways to view or photograph an eruption safely?’ Stories of how the curious came to grief are part of the lore surrounding volcanoes and one should certainly be concerned about potential dangers. Even dormant volcanoes can be treacherous and should always be approached with caution. Obtaining information on volcano safety has been, up to now, rather difficult for the non-professional. Popular books about volcanoes do not discuss how to avoid dangerous situations because most of their readers would not need to know this. Even at the specialist level, very little has been written about safety on volcanoes. In general, budding volcanologists learn about avoiding danger from their more experienced mentors. One of the reasons why few people have attempted to write about volcano safety is that it is rather difficult to stipulate rules. Individual volcanoes often have their own quirks and, besides, people tend to have different comfort levels as far as danger is concerned. I cannot decide for others what level of risk is acceptable to them but I can – and do – attempt to explain fully the dangers a visitor might encounter on a volcano. I have also shared my own safety guidelines and what several colleagues and I have learnt from personal experience. The key message about volcano safety is to learn as much as possible about the dangers of the specific volcano one is planning to go to. Once that is done, all visitors – from the cautious to the daring, the unfit to the athletic – can choose from a wide variety of ways how to make their trip safe, enjoyable, and rewarding. Apart from the safety issues, the potential visitor to a volcano should know a host of practical details such as when it is best to go to there, where the most interesting locales are, and how to get to them. However, such information about specific volcanoes tends to be hard to come by. With few exceptions, travel books do not devote much space to the local volcanoes. Geologic field trip guides can be invaluable but are generally too technical and available only on a limited basis. The field guides in this book attempt to bridge the gap between specialized geological guidebooks and standard travel guides by providing detailed, informal visiting guides to 20 of the world’s most famous volcanoes. Choosing as few as 20 volcanoes to focus on was not an easy task and I have no doubt that some people will be disappointed that their particular favorite was not selected. However, it was necessary to limit quantity in order to provide enough detail on each volcano to optimize readers’ visits, while keeping the book sufficiently short (and light) to be taken along on the trip. Short descriptions of an additional 22 volcanoes and geothermal areas were included when they happened to be easily accessible from one of the volcanoes in the field guides. I arrived at my “short list” of 20 by using my own personal experience of visiting and working on volcanoes, plus three criteria. The first was that the volcano be classified as active, though some of them have not seen an eruption in several hundred years. Even then, paring down to 20 from the world’s approximately 600 active volcanoes was a problem. My second criterion was that the volcano should be easily accessible. For example, I expect that many readers would choose to visit Kilauea in Hawaii, but that most would not be willing (or able) to go to Mount Erebus in Antarctica, even though both volcanoes deserve to be seen. The ease of access, however, varies among the 20: some of the volcanoes are located within national parks where there are excellent roads and facilities, while others are off the beaten path. The summits of some can be reached by road or by an easy hike, while others are for the physically fit only. I

Preface ix

have left out volcanoes where technical climbing expertise is called for. My aim was to write about accessible volcanoes that would suit the different tastes and expectations of a wide range of potential visitors. The final criterion in narrowing down choices was variety: volcanoes come in several different types and their eruptions come in a variety of danger levels. The volcanoes selected range from mildly explosive types such as Kilauea in Hawaii to potentially very violent volcanoes such as Vesuvius in Italy. This requirement for variety also takes into account how often a volcano erupts, as eruption frequency is a factor of major importance to many visitors. There are those whose main reason to go to a volcano is to see some activity, while probably just as many would rather not go if an eruption is likely to happen. The volcanoes selected range from those that have been persistently active over the last few years to those that are not likely to erupt again in the near future. I am hopeful that all readers will find at least one volcano in this book that they will feel inspired to go and see for themselves. I strongly believe that volcanoes should be visited and enjoyed by everyone – be they young or old, frail or fit, cautious or bold. The only requirements for a volcano traveler are curiosity about nature and a sense of adventure. The way – how to choose a volcano and how best to explore it – is what this book is all about.

Acknowledgments Many friends and colleagues provided invaluable help and support for this book, which included teaching me about “their” volcanoes in the field, reviewing chapters, providing photographs and figures, answering questions, and giving much-needed encouragement. My sincere thanks to Guillermo Alvarado, Robert Carlson, Tim Druitt, Stephen Floyd, Charles Frankel, Henrietta Hendrix, Lucas Kamp, Susan Kieffer, Chris Kilburn, Gudrun Larsen, Adriana Ocampo, Scott Rowland, Stuart Malin, Bill Smythe, and Chuck Wood. Special thanks to Nick Gautier, who commented on the manuscript from a non-geologist’s point of view and generously provided many of his photographs. I cannot thank Charlie Bluehawk enough for drawing so many of the figures in his spare time. I am truly grateful to all others who contributed photographs and helped with figures, including Elsa Abbott, Mike Abrams, William Aspinal, Pierre-Yves Burgi, Kathy Cashman, Frederico Chavarria, John Eichelberger, Jim Garvin, Magnús Guemundsson, John Guest, Tom Mommary, Tom Pfeiffer, Vince Realmuto, Armando Ricci, Oddur Siguresson, Eysteinn Tryggvason, Rodolfo van der Laat, Ralph White, and Simon Young. Simon Mitton, Susan Francis, Jayne Aldhouse, and Anna Hodson, my editors at Cambridge, guided this book through completion. Last I thank my family: my son and great field assistant Tommy, my parents Atir and Walmir, and my sister Rosane, for their never-failing support. This book is dedicated to my late friend and mentor Dr. Jon Darius, whose love for life and science remain my constant source of inspiration.

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PART I

Choosing a volcano to visit

1 Volcanoes of the world Why go to a volcano? Active volcanoes are the ultimate adventure destination. Those who have been lucky enough to witness a fire-fountain spouting red lava high into the sky or billowing clouds of steam rising as lava pours into the ocean will testify that volcanoes provide one of nature’s most awesome spectacles. Volcanoes are impressive, spectacular, and have a profound effect on life on Earth. Active volcanoes allow us to experience the thrill of hearing a loud explosion which can make the ground shake at our feet, to gaze at the cracking and shifting of a lava lake’s surface, and to smell the strangely appealing sulfur odor. Even when they are dormant, volcanoes offer a wide variety of beautiful and strange sights, ranging from the majesty of snowcapped cones to the barren lava wastelands that have often been compared to Hell. Volcanoes are definitely a destination for those of us who are adventurous travelers. We are no longer a peculiar group made up of daring eccentrics, but a growing number of intelligent people who are not content with spending our vacations in quaint seaside towns. Exotic and unusual destinations are increasingly within our reach. In recent years, the traveling public’s growing interest in adventure as well as in ecology has led to a wave of “nature tours” ranging from safaris and whale-watching to shark diving and trekking in the Amazon forest. This trend should eventually make volcanoes one of the most popular destinations on Earth. A trip to a volcano has the potential to be a memorable adventure as well as a first-class lesson in how our planet works and even, in many cases, how history was made. A trip to a volcano is a challenge to the mind because it gives us the opportunity to see a major geologic process at work. Out of the four fundamental geologic processes that shape the Earth’s surface – volcanism, erosion, tectonism, and meteorite impacts –

volcanism is the only one we can easily witness making rapid changes in the landscape. Volcanoes can be very cooperative: they can erupt gently for long periods of time, making it possible for us to plan a trip specifically to see the action. For example, the Italian volcano Strómboli has been nearly continuously active for centuries, while Kilauea in Hawaii is currently on its third decade of delighting visitors with an exceptionally “watchable” eruption. Volcanoes shape not only the Earth’s surface but also the course of human history. Eruptions have contributed to the downfall of civilizations, changed the course of wars, and, more frequently, destroyed whole cities killing thousands of inhabitants. On the positive side, volcanoes make fertile lands that are the source of livelihood for numerous people all around the globe. One of the most interesting aspects of visiting a volcano is learning how its eruptions have affected the local people and their culture. Equally fascinating is to find out how the current population views the volcano: feelings run from pride to terror, depending largely on the frequency and character of the predominant eruptions. Even those who live far away from active volcanoes are vulnerable to their effects. Large eruptions, such as that of the Philippines’ Mt. Pinatubo in 1991, can lower temperatures around the world. These eruptions inject large amounts of sulfur gases into the stratosphere, where they combine with moisture to produce a thin aerosol cloud. The cloud causes some sunlight to be deflected, causing slight decreases in average surface temperatures around the world. Although such changes are small (very rarely as much as 1 °C) and do not lead to major climatic effects, it is possible that large eruptions may have more profound effects on the Earth. There are indications that the amount of chlorine injected into the stratosphere by these eruptions may contribute to the depletion of the Earth’s ozone

3

4 Volcanoes of the world

Fig. 1.1. Volcanic eruptions are some of nature’s most awe-inspiring events and some, like this one from Kilauea volcano in Hawaii’s Big Island, can be watched and photographed safely. (Photograph by the author.)

layer. This problem is still being studied and raises some serious concerns, because we cannot stop eruptions happening. Given the major importance of volcanoes on the past, present, and future history of our planet it is not surprising that so many people become interested in them, often from a young age. Many children are as interested in volcanoes as they are in dinosaurs and space. Volcanoes have the distinct advantage of being neither extinct nor unattainable to most people. They are all over the Earth to be visited and explored. For those still wondering whether volcanoes are worthwhile traveling destinations I offer the following reasons: volcanoes deepen our understanding of how the Earth evolves and how humans interact with nature’s forces. Volcanoes are magnificent in repose and thrilling in action, when they allow us to experience the sounds and sights of nature at work. Volcanoes appeal to our intellect, our sense of adventure, our appreciation of natural wonders, and our fascination with danger (Fig. 1.1). As many youngsters would agree, a visit to an active volcano would rank second in excitement only to a trip into space – or maybe one to Jurassic Park.

Volcanic tours What are the world’s most interesting active volcanoes and where are they located? Our planet has many volcanoes that are considered active – about 600 on land and many more under the sea. On average, about 50 volcanoes erupt each year and about a dozen or more may be active in any particular month. Most people don’t hear about these eruptions, either because they

are small or because they occur in isolated places and do not have a significant local or global impact. The eruptions that grab the headlines are those which cause loss of life or major economic disasters. If you are determined to see an erupting volcano, you will need to choose either a persistently active volcano (such as Strómboli in Italy) or one that has just begun erupting, and hope that the activity will last until you arrive. Chapter 5 discusses how you can find out about current activity and how to choose a volcano to go to. For now, I’ll borrow an idea from my late friend Peter Francis and take us on an imaginary journey to the Earth’s most volcanic regions. We will follow the plate tectonic boundaries (discussed in Chapter 2) and break the journey into four volcano world tours: the Ring of Fire, the mid-Atlantic, Africa, and the Mediterranean. Time and money are no object; we will imagine ourselves to be wealthy volcanologists on sabbatical leave.

The Ring of Fire and the Pacific Ocean Volcanically speaking, this is the Earth’s busiest side. The volcanoes that mark the Ring of Fire – over 1,000 of them – are located in no fewer than four continents and span a wide variety of scenarios, climates, and cultures (Fig. 1.2). A good starting point for our journey is the scenic North Island of New Zealand, one of the world’s prime volcanic areas. This is where the most violent eruption in historical times took place: the Taupo eruption of AD 186. What we know about this cataclysmic event has been pieced together from geologic studies of the immense ash flow deposits, as no historical records exist. If people lived in the island at

Volcanic tours 5

Fig. 1.2. The distribution of volcanoes round the Pacific Ring of Fire. These include some of the deadliest volcanoes known, such as Pinatubo, Krakatau, and Mt. St. Helens. (Modified from Francis, 1993.)

the time, they didn’t survive to tell their story. These days the Taupo–Wairakei area offers thermal baths and geothermal power stations, and Lake Taupo Caldera as reminder of the eruption. Aside from the record-setting Taupo, North Island has other volcanic areas that have been active more recently, if rather more sedately. These include Ngauruhoe, a frequently restless and nearly perfectly shaped volcano and Ruapehu, whose latest activity was a small mudpool eruption in 2001. Ruapehu has hiccups every few years, sometimes sending mudflows (also known as lahars, an Indonesian word) down the slopes, but this has not stopped New Zealanders from building ski runs on the side of the volcano. Both Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu are located inside the Tongariro National Park which has good facilities for visitors. The Rotorua–Tarawera area offers a variety of volcanic landscapes, The Tarawera complex of rhyolite domes erupted spectacularly in 1886, burying three villages. This, however, was a minor event compared with what could happen again in the island. The Waiotapu thermal area is a wellknown tourist attraction, and the town of Rotorua is within a large geothermal area. For the more adventurous, a visit to White Island is recommended. You can get there by boat or helicopter, but get some local

information first and a guide. White Island is very active, there are mudpools and fumaroles, and new craters form often (there is one crater named Donald Duck). A strong and unexpected explosion in July 2000 covered half the island with a thick layer of ash and pumice fragments, but luckily nobody was visiting the island at the time. With so many interesting choices, New Zealand is a great country for volcano tours. North of New Zealand the Ring of Fire starts curving around towards Asia, along the Tonga–Kermadec island chain, Samoa, and the New Hebrides. These are the South Seas volcanoes whose fantasy versions show up now and then in Hollywood movies such as South Pacific, Bird of Paradise, and, more recently, Joe versus the Volcano. The reality is somewhat different: the inhabitants of these islands are quite friendly and don’t throw themselves or visiting volunteers into fuming craters. In fact, many of these volcanoes are nowadays on the quiet side and in no need of appeasing. Travelers who want to see some action should head to Yasur volcano in Tanna Island, part of the nation of Vanuatu. Yasur has been in almost constant but fairly mild activity since its discovery in 1774 and you can – with caution – climb right up to the top and

6 Volcanoes of the world

look down at the erupting crater, and up to see the volcanic fireworks. Just don’t try to take home rocks as souvenirs: native folks believe that every rock from their active volcano has spiritual significance and have confronted visitors who tried to take them away. Vanuatu has other interesting volcanoes, such as Ambryn, and it is a great destination for the adventurous, as the islands are well off the beaten tourist path. While in this part of the world, visitors may hear about the fascinating Falcon volcano in the Tonga Islands. This undersea volcano is famous for its “disappearing” islands, which are small ash cones formed during eruptions that are quickly washed away after the end of the activity. Volcanoes that come and go are not so uncommon in this part of the world. In May 2000, a lucky group of scientists came to the dormant underwater volcano of Kavachi and much to their delight found it spewing ash, forming a new, temporary beach that is truly far away from it all. Continuing along the Ring we come to exotic Papua New Guinea, which boasts one of the world’s great calderas, Rabaul. This is actually a group of small volcanoes clustered around the rim of a caldera bay. Rabaul had a large eruption in 1937 which generated disastrous tsunamis, killing 500 people. In 1994, Rabaul woke up again with a spectacular eruption from Vulcan and Tavurvur volcanoes. The town of Rabaul was greatly damaged and over 52,000 people had to be evacuated. Luckily only a few deaths occurred. Much more tragic circumstances resulted from the 1951 eruption of New Guinea’s other notable volcano, Mt. Lamington, when glowing avalanches (nuées ardentes, French for “glowing clouds”) devastated 230 km2 (90 square miles) of land and killed about 3,000 people. Further west from New Guinea we come to the volcanic wonderland of Indonesia, a country made up of over 13,000 islands and home to 76 historically active volcanoes. Some of the world’s most notorious volcanoes are here: Krakatau, Tambora, Merapi (Fig. 1.3), Agung, Semeru, and Galunggung. These are big killers – past eruptions have claimed many thousands of lives. The Krakatau eruption of 1883 is thought by many to be the largest recent historical eruption but, in fact, the blast from Tambora in 1815 holds the record: it produced some 40 km3 (10 cubic miles) of ash and magma fragments. These fell over thousands of square kilometers, killing crops and causing widespread famine. Krakatau, however, remains in the public’s mind as one of the world’s most infamous volcanoes and, for this reason, many visitors like to make their

way there. Although the original island of Krakatau was destroyed by the 1883 eruption, a much smaller eruption in 1927 generated a new island – Anak Krakatau, meaning the “child of Krakatau” – which one hopes will not live up to its parent’s reputation. It is not easy to travel in Indonesia at present because of the often volatile political situation and potential terrorist attacks, but this does not deter every traveler. The safest place to go to is probably Bali, despite an isolated, recent terrorist attack. Bali is an idyllic island with interesting volcanoes such as Gunung Agung and Gunung Batur. Lombok is another popular tourist destination and it has Gunung Rinjani. Anak Krakatau is potentially dangerous, both because of its location and its mild-to-moderate activity in recent years. It is possible to get there by boat from beach resorts on the west coast of Java, but access has been limited in the last few years since the death of a tourist in 1996. The highest volcano in Java is Semeru, which rises to 3,676 m (12,060 feet) elevation. It is a very active and dangerous volcano; in August 2000 it killed two volcanologists from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia and injured six others who were on a tour for professional scientists. This is not a place to go without a local guide and, even then, the risk is high. The same could be said about other majestic Indonesian volcanoes such as Merapi, one of the country’s most active, which stands over the densely populated city of Yogyakarta. Among the dangers posed by Indonesian volcanoes are lahars. The explosive nature of the volcanoes creates steep flanks and deposits of fine ash; heavy rainfall can lead to devastating and deadly lahars. The next notable volcano country along the Ring of Fire is the Philippines, site of several extremely dangerous types such as Taal, Mayon, and Pinatubo. The 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo was the world’s third largest eruption in the twentieth century and made many international headlines. Mayon is the country’s most active volcano. It is known for its symmetrical shape, but the placid beauty hides a rather restless interior. Explosive activity and the growth of a lava dome led to evacuation of people from areas adjacent to the volcano in 2000 and 2001. Taal is a volcanic caldera filled with a lake, with the small but very active Volcano Island in the center. The eruptions have caused disastrous lake tsunamis. Taal is easily accessible from Manila and resorts on the crater rim provide good tourist facilities. Although not the best country from a tourism point of view, the Philippines are worth a stop because of these and other notorious volcanoes.

Volcanic tours 7

Fig. 1.3. Merapi in Java is one of Indonesia’s most active and dangerous volcanoes. The steep-sided stratovolcano dominates the landscape of one of Java’s major cities, Yogyakarta. Merapi’s eruptions have caused many fatalities and devastated agricultural land. This type of volcano, part of the Earth’s Ring of Fire, is best visited while in repose. (Photograph courtesy of Vincent Realmuto.)

Next comes Japan, another country where the volcanoes are numerous and restless, with Unzen and Sakurajima being the most frequently active these days. Unzen claimed the lives of famous volcano chasers Maurice and Katia Kraff in 1991 (see Chapter 4). A less dangerous highlight for a volcano tour is Mt. Fuji, undoubtedly the most scenic Japanese volcano and famous throughout the world for its postcardperfect beauty. Fuji seems to be resting since its last eruption in 1707, but it has a history of being restless – it is known to have erupted at least 13 times in the last

thousand years. It is considered by the Japanese to be a sacred mountain and each year many pilgrims make their way to the summit. Go in the summer if you want to join them, in the spring if you would like to take your own postcard-style photograph of the volcano with cherry blossoms in the foreground. Asama volcano, in central Japan, tends to have small eruptions, but in 1783 it sent out deadly nuées ardentes. Visitors should beware of Aso volcano, where small explosive eruptions have occasionally killed tourists standing on the rim at the wrong time. Go to

8 Volcanoes of the world

Sakurajima for a chance to see some action; the volcano often has small eruptions that can be seen from the base of the mountain. For hot springs, Hakone volcano is the place to visit. It has a beautiful crater lake, varied volcanic features, and plenty of tourist facilities. The Ring of Fire then stretches along the Kurile Islands and the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia. These places are not renowned for their tourist facilities, but Kamchatka is rapidly changing. This volcanic peninsula was closed to Westerners until the fall of the Soviet regime but since then it has started to become a popular destination for adventure tours. The major volcanoes in the peninsula are Bezimianny, Karymsky, Kliuchevskoi (Fig. 1.4), and Tolbachik. All are quite active, erupting on average more than once a decade. Bezimianny (in Russian “the nameless one”) was considered rather insignificant until 1955, when it woke up with one of the most violent eruptions of the century, sending clouds of ash 45 km (28 miles) above the ground and giant nuées ardentes which devastated more than 60 km2 (23 square miles).

The Ring of Fire continues along the Aleutian Islands, where there are active volcanoes such as Kanaga, but these islands are not easy to get to, and the tourist facilities are limited to say the least. The next group of volcanoes that are reasonably easy to reach are those in Alaska. Highlights are Mt. Spurr, Redoubt, Augustine, Pavlof, Veniaminof, and Novarupta. These tall volcanoes can have very violent eruptions that, because of the sparse population, do not usually cause fatalities. Novarupta caldera had a very powerful eruption in 1912. The eruption, the largest of the twentieth century, was known for the huge pyroclastic flows that formed the Valley of the Ten Thousand Smokes. Although almost all of those steam vents (the “smokes”) are now gone, the site has not lost its appeal – a classic lava dome can be seen inside the caldera. Canada represents a gap in the rich eastern side of the Ring of Fire, as its volcanoes have not been historically active. However, the West Coast of the United States more than makes up for the short gap. The majestic Cascade volcanoes attract millions of visitors

Fig. 1.4. Kliuchevskoi is the highest and most active volcano in Russia’s Kamchatka peninsula. The 4,835 m (15,863 feet), beautifully symmetrical volcano has produced frequent eruptions, which range from stream and ash explosions to outpourings of lavas. This area photograph shows the 1993 lava flow in the foreground, dark against the snow. Volcanoes in the Kamchatka peninsula are spectacular, but the area was closed to foreign tourists during the Soviet era and is still seldom visited. (Photograph courtesy of Vincent Realmuto.)

Volcanic tours 9

to their beautiful, well-run national parks. All of them are worthy of a visit, from Mt. Baker near the Canadian border to Lassen Peak and Mt. Shasta in California. Highlights include the menacing Mt. Rainier, the still notorious Mt. St. Helens, and the breathtaking Crater Lake. The latter is no longer active, but it is the archetypal volcanic caldera and a must for the volcano aficionado. While in California no one should miss a visit to Long Valley Caldera, which is considered a possible site for a catastrophic eruption in the future. At this point, two detours from the Ring of Fire are called for: one to the Yellowstone geothermal area, where thousands of visitors every year marvel at Old Faithful and other spouting geysers, and another to Hawaii, the world’s prime example of “hot spot” volcanism (discussed in Chapter 2). Hawaii is also the prime example of volcano tourism, thanks largely to Kilauea’s Pu’u O’o eruption that started in 1983 and is still delighting visitors, even though it has killed a few of the many thousands of tourists who have flocked there since the eruption started. Kilauea is one of the most accessible active volcanoes and the highlight of the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park. Other Hawaiian volcanoes worth a visit are the gigantic Mauna Loa, the slumbering Hualalai, and the magically beautiful Haleakala. All these volcanoes are easily accessible with excellent facilities for visitors. South of the US mainland the Ring of Fire continues along Mexico, another country that does not lack volcanic activity. Mexico’s most threatening volcano is Colima (Fig. 1.5), but Parícutin is far better known because of the circumstances of its birth – it literally sprang up from a cornfield in 1943. Most visitors climb little Parícutin, but only serious climbers tackle Fuego de Colima, Mexico’s most restless volcano, or its resting neighbor Nevado de Colima. Tough climbers will want to go to El Pico de Orizaba, Mexico’s highest mountain, rising up to 5,700 m (18,700 feet). Other Mexican highlights are Popocatépetl and El Chichón. Popo, as the volcano is known by those who are not comfortable speaking Aztec, is the snow-capped, majestic volcano which dominates the skyline south of Mexico City. Popo woke up from a five-decade slumber in 1994 and has caused a lot of concern. Most of its explosions have been on the small side but a repeat performance of the powerful historic eruption of 1720 is possible. El Chichón was an obscure volcano until 1982, when it woke up briefly but extremely violently, causing 2,500 deaths and significant effects on the world’s climate. The Ring of Fire’s surface expressions continue to be plentiful and notorious south of Mexico. One of them

Fig. 1.5. Colima volcano in Mexico, also known as Volcán Fuego or Fuego de Colima, is one of Central America’s most active volcanoes. It rises to 3,850 m (12,631 feet) and can be climbed during times of repose, though it is safer to view it by climbing its older, snow-capped neighbor, Nevado de Colima. Fuego can be extremely dangerous. Its historic activity has included violent explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flows, and debris avalanches which have threatened the nearby city of Colima. The city and the surrounding region are rich in history and archeological remains. (Photograph by the author.)

is Guatemala’s Santiaguito dome, which has been growing on the flanks of the extremely dangerous Santa María volcano since 1922 (Fig. 1.6). Santiaguito sends out thick, pasty lava flows that move slowly and occasionally some explosions and pyroclastic flows. The volcano is, unfortunately, not an easy or safe place to visit. Pacaya and Fuego, also in Guatemala, are two very active volcanoes that have mildly explosive (Strombolian) eruptions and are better choices for a visit. Eruptions from Pacaya can often be seen from Guatemala City, the country’s capital. El Salvador has Izalco, which was known as the Lighthouse of the Pacific until the nearly continuous activity stopped in

10 Volcanoes of the world

Fig. 1.6. Santa María volcano in Guatemala (right) erupted violently in 1902, devastating a large area of the country. Since 1922, the Santiaguito lava dome (left) has been growing at the base of the 1902 eruption crater. The growth of the dome is marked by almost continuous minor explosions and often by lava extrusions and more violent events. Santiaguito is considered very dangerous, but depending on conditions at the time, the volcano can be viewed safely from a distance. In 1929, a large pyroclastic flow from Santiaguito killed at least several hundred people; some report as many as 5,000. Guatemala is home to several other active volcanoes. (Photograph courtesy of Vincent Realmuto.)

1966 – just as a volcano hotel was being built. Nicaragua is home to Cerro Negro and Masaya, two very active volcanoes that would be very attractive destinations if the country became more politically stable. Although maidens are no longer thrown into the lava lake at Masaya, visitors should remember that some Central American countries can be as volatile as their volcanoes. An exception to the above caution about Central America is the tiny, ecologically-conscious nation of Costa Rica. This is an easy country to travel in, as its politics are peaceful and its tourism well developed. Costa Rica was one of the countries that pioneered the concept of “eco-tours” and has become a popular vacation spot destination for environmentalists. The country’s most active volcanoes are the very active (and dangerous) Arenal, the spectacular Poás, the easily accessible Irazú, and the little-known Turrialba, located in an exceptionally scenic region.

At this point a Caribbean detour is called for. Many volcanoes rise along the Lesser Antilles arc, a result of subduction of the North Atlantic ocean floor beneath the Caribbean plate. Many people have heard of the infamous Mt. Pelée in Martinique and its tragic 1902 eruption, but there are several less well-known but equally interesting volcanoes in the region. Among them are three that share the name La Soufrière (“the sulfur producer”). The homes of the three Soufrières are the charming islands of St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Guadeloupe, while Dominica has the Grand Soufrière. The volcanoes are easily accessible and the islands receive many visitors, but most of them do not venture up the volcanic slopes. The volcano that made the news during the last years of the twentieth century and continues to do so in the new millenium is another “sulfur producer”: Soufriere Hills in Montserrat. Once a haven for visitors wanting to see an unspoiled Caribbean island, Montserrat has been devastated by

Volcanic tours 11

the continuing eruption. It is hard to tell when tourism will return to the island, but while the volcano is still active it is an interesting choice for adventurous types who can forgo the usual tourist facilities. It may come as a surprise that the most active volcano of the Caribbean is a submarine one which bears the unusual name Kick-’em-Jenny. This volcano, near the island of Granada, was first spotted in 1939, when a black column of ash and steam rose almost 300 m (1,000 feet) out of a boiling sea. It has been growing and should form a new island in the near future. Keep watching the news and, when the volcano emerges, it’s time to plan a visit. The Ring of Fire continues down South America and we come next to Colombia, another volcanically interesting but politically problematic country. Two Colombian volcanoes grabbed the world’s attention in recent years by having unexpected and deadly eruptions. Nevado del Ruíz caused one of the major volcanic catastrophes of the twentieth century, while Galeras volcano had a small but ill-timed explosion in 1993 which killed nine volcanologists. Just south of Galeras volcano is Ecuador, a country that owns not only two of the world’s most majestic volcanoes – the much-climbed Cotopaxi and the often active Reventador – but also the Galápagos Islands. The Galápagos are all volcanic islands and some of the volcanoes are still very active. One of these is Fernandina, a shallow-sided volcano with a distinctively large summit caldera. Fernandina’s last eruption was in early 1995 and another could start any time, as this is a volcano characterized by frequent Hawaiian-style activity. A popular choice for visitors is Isabella Island, home to Sierra Negra (whose summit can be reached on horseback) and Cerro Azul, the latter being one of the most active volcanoes in the Galápagos, but currently off-limits to visitors. Its eruption in 1998 created a serious threat to the island’s rare tortoises and some had to be evacuated by helicopter, while others (weighing up to 225 kg, nearly 500 pounds) had to be carried by human rescuers across rugged terrain. Charles Darwin, who made the tortoises famous enough to be worth rescuing, also made important observations about volcanoes and ended up having an active one named after him: Volcan Darwin, also in Isabella Island. The Galápagos are an ideal destination for adventurous types who really want to learn about natural history, but visiting these islands requires some planning. The government of Ecuador has strict measures in force to protect this ecological paradise and the best way to go is to take one of the many organized

tours. Only a few places in the islands are open to independent travelers; otherwise you must be in a tour or in the company of a Galápagos naturalist guide. Continuing down the Andean chain we come to Chile and its imposing volcanoes exemplified by Villarrica and Calbuco, two of the most frequently active. Chile has beautiful national parks and facilities for visitors are very good, though climbing the volcanoes is not easy, as they rise to great heights. The 6,739 m (22,109 feet) high Llullaillaco has the honor of being the world’s tallest historically active volcano. Travelers who are particularly adventurous may wish to go down to Cerro Hudson in Patagonia, a volcano that erupted violently in 1991, scattering ash as far away as Australia. The southernmost Andean volcano is Monte Burney, located at the tip of Patagonia, Chile. It is not an easy place to reach but visitors are rewarded with the knowledge that not many make it that far. The Ring of Fire goes on further south to the far-flung South Sandwich Islands, but most travelers would not venture that far. The Ring finally reaches Antarctica at the isolated and grim Deception Island, whose eruption of 1969 destroyed a research base and caused much alarm among the local penguin population.

Volcanoes of the Atlantic The volcanoes here result from the mid-Atlantic ridge’s intense sea-floor spreading activity (Fig. 1.7), a rather different tectonic setting from that of the Ring of Fire. The southernmost active volcano in the mid-Atlantic chain is Norway’s Bouvet Island, an uninhabited and almost inaccessible place, probably the most remote volcano in the world that is still considered active. The island, discovered in 1739, had a major eruption about 2,000 years ago, or so magnetic dating tells us. Further north is the isolated island of Tristan da Cunha. It may not get many visitors, but it is known to be a rather interesting place. Its eruption of 1961 forced the evacuation of the small population (a few hundred people) but since then the people have returned, the volcano has remained quiet, and the island has started to appear on one or two cruise brochures. Tristan has a nearby neighboring volcanic island that bears the rather appropriate name of Inaccessible and is, as expected, uninhabited. Going north, the next volcanic point of civilization is the island of St. Helena, last home of Napoleon and considered a maritime pit stop since it was discovered in 1502. The volcano is no longer active and the island does not offer much to visitors, who must get there by sea, as St. Helena has yet to catch up with the age of air

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Fig. 1.7. The distribution of volcanoes over the mid-Atlantic ridge. These volcanoes tend to have relatively mild eruptions that are beautiful to watch. Volcanoes in the West Indies and the Mediterranean are not located over the ridge and are discussed in later chapters. (Modified from Francis, 1993.)

travel. Further along the ridge are several volcano remnants such as Ascension Island and the Rocks of St. Peter and St. Paul, none of which is easily accessible. The island volcanoes get more interesting and the port stops more frequent as the ridge enters the northern hemisphere. There are three rather beautiful groups of islands very popular with visitors: the Cape Verde Islands, the Canaries, and the Azores. The Portuguese Cape Verde Islands are home to Fogo (Fire), a volcano with a magnificent caldera about 8 km (5 miles) wide. Fogo lived up to its name three times in the twentieth century. The last eruption, in 1995, forced the evacuation of 3,000 people, many of who had their homes destroyed by lava flows.

Further north and near the African coast are the Spanish Canaries, a fantastic collection of volcanic islands which have Tenerife, Lanzarote, and La Palma as highlights. El Teide volcano in Tenerife is Spain’s highest point at 3,715 m (12,188 feet) and is famous as the volcano that Columbus and his crew possibly saw erupting in 1492, although no one has been able to prove that the “great fire” was indeed an eruption. El Teide erupted in 1909, but it has been quiet since, much to the relief of resort developers. La Palma is a complex volcano with many eruptive centers that are often active, and a spectacular caldera. Teneguia volcano in La Palma erupted as recently as 1971, delighting many visitors. The last eruption in

Fig. 1.8. Iceland’s volcanic activity is strongly affected by overlying ice and its meltwater. Grímsvötn, Iceland’s most frequently active volcano in historical times, lies largely beneath the vast Vatnajökull icecap. This photograph shows the Grímsvötn eruption of 1998 viewed from the air in its fifth day (December 23, 1998). (Photograph courtesy of Magnus Tumi Guemundsson.)

Lanzarote occurred in 1824, but another could happen any time. Most visitors to the Canaries go there for the sun and fun, but the volcanoes themselves are worth the trip. The popularity of the islands as vacation resorts presents some disadvantages, as many adventurous travelers are rather put off by the overcrowding. It is possible to get away from the crowds, but you have to try hard to do so. The Azores islands compete with the Canaries as the prime Atlantic destination for those who appreciate both volcanic landscapes and good weather, but they are far less crowded. The Azores have several historically active volcanoes, including Fayal island, off which the submarine eruption of Capelinhos took place in 1958, and the unusually named Agua de Pau (“Tree Log Water”) in São Miguel island, last active in 1564. Submarine eruptions off the islands are common and several of the vents have erupted repeatedly. Some of those have been named after local banks (such as

Monaco Bank), a rather unusual practice but one that must make sense to the local population. Aside from the weather, the highlight of the midAtlantic ridge is undoubtedly Iceland. This is the Earth’s most volcanic country (Fig. 1.8) with no fewer than 22 active volcanoes, including Hekla, Krafla, and Eldfell in the tiny Heimaey island. Iceland is also famous for its spectacular glaciers, eruptions under ice, geysers, and for its overall geology, which is unique. This is where one can actually see evidence of the spreading action of the mid-Atlantic ridge, which is tearing the island in two. Iceland is also known for the resilience of its people in coping with volcanic disasters and even taking advantage of them, such as when a cooling lava flow was used as a source of heat for local homes. Travelers who are seriously interested in volcanoes should not miss a visit to Iceland, though they would be advised to go there during the summer.

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The world’s northernmost active volcano is Beerenberg, located in the small and rather bleak island of Jan Mayen. Beerenberg has been active five times since 1633, the last time in 1985. This Arctic island is not a hospitable place, though it is visited by more tourists than one might expect, as its remoteness appeals to adventurous types. Most people, however, would prefer to make a swift return down the ridge to volcanoes in more balmy latitudes.

Volcanoes of Africa

Fig. 1.9. Volcanoes in Africa include the famous Kilimanjaro as well as lesser known volcanoes that are hard to get to, such as Erta Ale. (Modified from Francis, 1993.)

Fig. 1.10. Erta Ale is Ethiopia’s most active volcano. The broad, 50 km (30 mile) wide shield volcano rises 613 m (2,011 feet) from below sea level in the barren Danakil depression. Since 1967, or possibly much earlier, its summit crater has housed one, and sometimes two, spectacular lava lakes. Despite the dang