Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India [First ed.] 9789390818303

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

Edited by Prof. (Dr.) C. B. Bhange Miss. Mamta Jangir, Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari Memoonah Baig

Bharti Publications New Delhi-110002 (India)

Copyright © Editors Title: Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India Editors: Prof. (Dr.) C.B. Bhange, Mamta Jangir, Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari and Memoonah Baig All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any from or by any means, without permission. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. First Published, 2021 ISBN: 978-93-90818-30-3 Published by:

Bharti Publications 4819/24, 3rd Floor, Mathur Lane Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi-110002 Phone: 011-23247537, Mobile: +91-989-989-7381 E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Website: www.bhartipublications.com

Printed in India, by S P Kaushik Enterprises, Delhi Disclaimer: The views expressed in the paper/chapter are those of the Author(s)/contributor(s) and not necessarily of the publisher and editors. Author(s)/contributor(s) are themselves responsible for the facts stated, opinions expressed, conclusions reached and plagiarism. The publisher and editors of the book bear no responsibility.

Professor (Dr.) Meena Bardia Dept. of Public Administration Jai Narain Vyas University,Jodhpur 342003, (Raj.) India Vice-Chairperson, RC-18 Committee on Asian and Pacific Studies International Political Science Association, Montreal, Canada Dated: May 5,2021

FOREWORD I feel great pleasure in forwarding this valuable volume “Various dimensions of Women Empowerment in India” in these challenging and difficult times of COVID-19 pandemic. The editors and authors of this book should be lauded for choosing a very important and relevant theme. In the last four decades, there have been tremendous changes in the socio, political, cultural and technological ecosystem and this has been a tool of magnificent makeover and reinvention of women power. Women empowerment has many facets. The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of their political, social, economic and health status is a significant end in itself. Further, it is essential for sustainable development of humanity. There is no dearth of books on women empowerment but this scholarly work explains exhaustively the different concepts in a lucid style. Each and every chapter of the book comes from varied disciplines with varied perspectives. Different aspects are covered in the theoretical and factual status of women empowerment in India. A coherent, insightful and balanced book which magnificently tells the towering challenges, extraordinary strengths and new horizons for women in Indian democracy.

I am confident that the book will be very useful for researchers, faculty members, students and common readers. The editors Professor Dr. C B Bhange, Ms. Mamta Jangir, Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari and Memoonah Baig have done a commendable work. I congratulate them and wish a very bright future ahead and also hope that they continue with more volumes like this.

Professor (Dr.) Meena Bardia

M. S. KHAN Superintendent of Police

FOREWORD It is a matter of great pleasure that during Covid 19 Pandemic a very useful book titled ’Women Empowerment in /ndia’ is being published. The book contains various articles on Women’s issues. It focuses on various problems faced by women and also offers solutions to those issues. Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari, (Assistant Professor-Political Science) one of its editors is personally known to me for last 25 years. To his credits are innumerable essays on contemporary issues published in “Pratiyogita Darpan“ & various news papers. I like reading his essays even during my busy schedule. The Liberalization & Privatization has posed new social & economical challenges before womenfolk; however, this has also created a sea of opportunity for them. Age old traditions are crumbling under these challenges & women are expected to perform dual roles in almost all spheres of life. The manuscript of the present book reveals that the Indian women are preferred in their traditional roles such as loving mother, sister, daughter & daughter-in-law; however, they are now being expected to contribute in driving the household economy by their income with the changing time. The women have successfully tuned themselves with the new realities and expectations of the society & now they are gearing up to contribute in social reforms by their active participation. Hence, we should also continuously strive for their social, educational, political and economicalprogress. I hope that topics such as ‘Impact of COVID-19 on Indian women’, ’Problems Faced by Lady Prisoners & Solution’, ’Plight of Women Engaged in Agricultural Sector’, ’Changing Role of Women In 21st Centur)/’ etc

will definitely draw the attention of the readers as these are mostly untouched hither to. I believe that this book will not only be useful to the teachers & research scholars but will definitely guide the students preparing for competitive examinations. It will assist them in preparation of essay writing, quizzes and the personalitytests. I wish best luck & bright future to its editors Prof. (Dr.) C. B. Bhange, Mamta Jangir, Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari and MemoonahBaig.

M. Salim Khan

CONTENTS Foreword

iii-iv

Foreword

v-vi

Professor (Dr.) Meena Bardia M. Salim Khan

1.

Empowerment of Women through



MSMEs in India





2.

Role of Women in Environment Protection

1

C. Vinod Kumar 9

Dr. Rantu Mani Deka 3.

Women’s Movement in India: Touring



through Times

14

Srishti Behal 4.

The Role of Micro Finance in Women



Empowerment through Women



Entrepreneurship Development

20

Dr. Parturkar. M.S. 5.

Challenges on the Way of Women



Empowerment and their Solution

26

Memoonah Baig 6.

Legal Measures for the Empowerment



of Women in India

S. Balraj

33

7.

Women Empowerment: An Judicial Perspective

39

Dr. Sonali J. Gaikwad 8.

Participation and Empowerment: Women in



Local Government of Rural West Bengal, India

46

Soumita Biswas 9. Political Empowerment of Women & Indian

51

Politics: Key Concerns and Future Ahead

Souvik Chatterjee & Dr. Subhash Kumar 10. Panchayati Raj and Women Empowerment

57

Swapan Hati 11. Problems and Solution Faced by Working

Women in India



Dr. Sunita Dhoote

12. Pramila Nesargi - The Advocate Social

64

69

Activist of Karnataka

Dr. Vasudha. N 13. Gender Discrimination and Human Rights

Abuses in the Khap Area



Dr. Vivek Pathak

14. Women Empowerment in India

72



77

Ria Sharma

15. Exhortations to Improve the Condition of 84

Women in India

Dr. Sonu Agarwal

16. Jyotirao Phule: An Educational Philosopher

90

Dr. Vandana Munjal 17. Gandhi and Women

94

Dr. Alpana Sharma 18. Women Empowerment in Sikhism

98

Lovedeep Sandhu 19. Triple Talaq and Muslim Women with

105



Reference to the Muslim Women (Protection of



Rights on Marriage) Bill 2017 and Surah at-Talaq:



Are Muslim Women Really Empowered?

Zakeeyah Shahnaz 20. Status of Women in India: An Assessment

111

Dr. Pravat Kumar Dash 21. Women Empowerment: A Quantitative

118

Exploration



Dr. Rajesh Kumar

22. Women Empowerment: Constitutional,

Legal Provisions and Govt. Efforts to Empower



the Women in India

132

Dr. C.B. Bhange & Mamta Jangir 23. Impact of COVID-19 on Indian Women

Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari, Simran Kapoor &



Hemant Shukla

24. Covid 19 and Its Impact on Gender Issues

Joyeeta Das

138

142-151

Chapter

1

Empowerment of Women through MSMEs in India C. Vinod Kumar*

Introduction “Empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation, when women are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is essential as their thoughts and their value systems lead to the development of a good family, good society and ultimately a good nation.” Dr. APJ Abdul Kalam Today, women entrepreneurs play a very important role in business or industry. Women have already shown their important role in other fields such as politics, administration, medicine, technical, social and educational. This is true in advanced countries, and now in recent years, they have entered these areas of our country. Their entry into entrepreneurship is a new phenomenon in India. The emergence of women as entrepreneurs and their active involvement in enterprises is widely seen as one of the most effective ways of initiating positive changes in their lives, homes, society, and ultimately, the economy as a whole. Competent women who have been exposed to market facilities but having lesser family support turn out to become working women. Micro, Small Medium Enterprises make an important contribution to the inclusion of industrial and commercial development through work as an aid to large industries that produce diversity. Products and services to meet the requirements of national and international markets. In India, the Ministry of MSME promotes growth and development in the sector, including Khadi, Village, and Coir Industries in collaboration with the relevant departments, Governments and other interest groups Support for existing companies e-promote the creation of new businesses. Ph. D., Research Scholar, Dept. of Public Administration, Dr.B.R. Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad, Telangana.

*

2

Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

At the same time, the micro, small and medium-sized enterprise (MSME) sector has played an important role in providing job opportunities at comparatively lower investment costs than large industries and has contributed to the industrialization of rural and underdeveloped areas. By promoting a fairer distribution of firms, national income will be guaranteed and regional imbalances will be reduced.

Concept of Entrepreneurship The word “entrepreneur” is derived originally from the French word “entrepredre” which means an organizer of musical or other entertainment. Oxford English dictionary also defined the same as a director or a manager of a public musical institution. Entrepreneurship may be a dynamic process of vision, change, and creation. It requires an application of energy and keenness towards the creation and implementation of latest ideas and artistic solutions. Essential ingredients include the willingness to take calculated risks, in terms of time, equity, or career; the ability to formulate an effective venture team; the creative skill to gather the needed resources; and the fundamental skill of building a solid business plan; and finally, the vision to recognize opportunity where others see chaos, contradiction, and confusion. Entrepreneurship is needed to start the process of economic development in industrialized and developing society because it is the backbone of a country’s economy.

Concept of Empowerment Empowerment is a term that refers to the freedom of choice, autonomy, liberation, Participation, self-confidence, mobilization, and selfdetermination. Empowerment methods are divided into five main groups: social, economic, educational, political, and psychological. Furthermore, empowerment applies to women (collectively and individually) as well as to other disadvantaged, marginalized, and socially excluded groups in powerless society, such as ethnic minorities and the poor. In particular, women fall as a category relative to other socially excluded groups and the core of their helplessness is their family interactions.

Definition of Women Entrepreneur Women entrepreneurs may be defined as a “Woman or a group of women who initiate, organize and run a business enterprise”. The Government of India has defined women entrepreneurs supported women participation in equity and employment of a commercial

Empowerment of Women through MSMEs in India

3

enterprise. Accordingly, a woman run enterprise is defined as “an enterprise owned and controlled by a woman having a minimum financial interest of 51 per cent of the capital and giving at least 51 per cent of the employment generated in the enterprise to women”. The Ministry of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises, known as the Incubator for the Growth Engine and Entrepreneur in the Country, has become a torchbearer for women’s empowerment on the global stage. In view of International Women’s Day 2018, the Ministry of MSME launched Udyam Sakhi a network to promote social entrepreneurship by developing business models that focus on low-cost products and services that eliminate social inequalities. The portal caters to the needs of approximately 8 million Indian women who have started or run their own businesses through their entrepreneurship teacher tool platform, incubation tool, fundraising training programs, consultants, individual investor meetings, market research, and technical assistance. In summary, it is easy to see that the Government of India is constantly involved in revolutionizing the role of women outside the four walls of their homes. Women today take risks, trust their vision and settle for nothing less. The liberation of women in ancient India leads to a mixed scenario. Women had the same status as men in ancient India and were educated by preference in the art of warfare. After the adoption of the Constitution of India, which includes many clauses and sections that eliminates ambiguity about women’s status, women’s empowerment in India achieved significant strength. When Dictionary Oxfords called in 2018 the Hindi word “Nari Shakti.” Obviously, through all those years we should quantify the effect that women have on the planet. Gone are the days when women would end their entire lives within the four walls of their homes. Like their male counterparts, women today write new success stories unprecedented for skill and hard work. More and more women are broadening their entrepreneurial horizons and are daring to enter an unprecedented area of activity. The increased opportunities women now have in the world of work have been the main reason for their transformation as bureaucrats, professionals, and managers. They have now begun to enter the highly competitive world of business and financial independence. The fact that such a large percentage of them have entered nontraditional areas confirms that female entrepreneurship is a relatively new phenomenon, spurred by the Indian government’s program and plans to restore women’s autonomy in the long term. Traditional skills of women are transformed into livelihoods and they start a home

4

Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

business that includes textiles, catering, embroidery, shopping, crafts, and more. See the world around them where women have the power. This is evident in their dominant presence in courts and public offices, in companies and parliaments, and not to mention entrepreneurs and writers, academics and social activists, actors and directors. they are everywhere. The MSMEs in India are playing a crucial role by providing large employment opportunities at comparatively lower capital cost than large industries as well as through industrialization of rural & backward areas, inter alia, reducing regional inequities, guaranteeing more reasonable distribution of national income and wealth. As per the annual report 2019-20, the distribution of estimated MSMEs by nature of activity 196.65 lakhs (31 percent) in the manufacturing sector and 206.85 lakhs (33 percent) in the service sector, 230.35 per cent (36 percent) in the trade sector. The micro sector with 630.52 lakh enterprises accounts for more than 99 per cent of total estimated number of MSMEs accounted for 0.52 percent and 0.01 percent of total estimated MSMEs, respectively. Out of 633.88 estimated number of MSMEs, 324.88 lakh MSMEs (51. 25 percent) are in rural areas and 309 lakhs MSMEs (48.75 percent) are in the urban areas. Out of the 633.88 MSMEs, there were 608.41 lakh (95.98 percent) MSMEs were proprietary concerns. There was the dominance of males in ownership of proprietary MSMEs. Whereas MSMEs as a whole, male-owned 79.63 percent of enterprises as compared to 20.37 percent owned by women only. The percentage of distribution of women enterprises in rural 22.24 percent and urban 18.42 percent in India. At the same time the ownership of the women in MSMEs are in micro enterprises 20.44 percent, Small enterprises 5.26 percent and Medium enterprises 2.67 percent and overall, 20.37 percent in India. The total women distribution of workers is 264.92 lakhs and its share is 24 percent. Out of them 137.50 percent are from rural areas and 127.42 percent from urban areas. The Ministry of MSME, which recently held its first conclave to empower women entrepreneurs from marginalized sections, has received colossal demands - it was the first to respond to the phenomenon of women entrepreneurship. To raise the country’s awareness of the problems of hidden differences and address a range of issues to highlight the emerging role of women’s entrepreneurship in India, Conclave participated in several sessions bringing together influences from different backgrounds in Keys to Discuss and Debate Problems. With step-by-step thinking among MSME stakeholders, the ministry recognized innovative women entrepreneurs and prominent

Empowerment of Women through MSMEs in India

5

women in various fields in connection with International Women’s Day 2019. The goal of this initiative is to celebrate women who violate regressive coercion that society and circumstances have been imposed on them and choose to be financially independent while continuing to fulfill their traditional roles as primary guardians. Women are the pillars of society and when women have power, the whole world gains power. The Ministry of Micro, Small, and Medium-sized Enterprises (MSME) provides women entrepreneurs with various programs that help women develop their talent and build their identity. Since the launch on 23 January 2019, women entrepreneurs have launched projects worth 1.38 lakhs under the Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP). Projects launched by the Prime Minister’s women entrepreneurs account for approximately 30 percent of all PMEGP projects. Under this programme, women entrepreneurs fall into the specific category and are entitled to a contribution of 25 percent or 35 percent to the project carried out in urban or rural areas. For the beneficiary women, their contribution is only 5 per cent of the cost of the project, while for the general category it is 10 percent. In 2016-2017 and 2017-2018, women entrepreneurs initiated 30,437 projects under the KVIC Khadi programme, for which a financial margin of 85,305 lakh was paid. The Indian government has taken several steps to improve women’s autonomy and security through entrepreneurship. India is the largest coconut producer in the world with a share of over 80 percent World’s production of coconut. The coconut fiber sector in India is very diverse and extensive Families, cooperatives, non-governmental organizations, producers, and exporters. This is the best example of the Production of beautiful items, crafts and everyday items from coconut shells otherwise wasted. The coconut industry employs around 7.34 lakhs, of which the majority come from rural areas belonging to the economically weaker sections of society. Almost 80 percent of the coconut workers in the extraction and spinning of fibers are women. Mahila Coir Yojana is a freelance work program for women from the coconut board. The program offers paid training for craftsmen on coir technology and improving the skills of coir workers. Trained women Artisans receive financial support for the purchase of machines/ units under the Prime Minister’s Employment Generation Program (PMEGP) with the support of the Coir Board through its branches. Financial support for the machines/equipment can be purchased under the PMEGP Facility program new coir units for which the maximum project cost is Rs. 25 lakhs. 80 percent for MSEs owned/operated by

6

Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

women with a uniform guarantee at 75 percent of the credit exposure above Rs. 50 Lakh and up to Rs. 200 lakhs. Government of India providing funding support for setting up of Common Display Centres for women entrepreneurs. As per the NSS 73rd round of NSSO there are a total of estimated 1,23,90,523 women-owned proprietary MSMEs in the country. More than 20 percent of proprietary MSMEs are owned by women in the country. As per the annual report 2019-2020, the share of state among all MSMEs with female owners in West Bengal 23.42 percent, in Tamilnadu 10.37 percent, in Telangana 7.85 percent, in Karnataka 7.56 percent, in Uttar Pradesh 6.96 percent and Andhra Pradesh 6.76 percent. The lowest share of women is proprietary in Daman & Diu and there are no women shares in Lakshadweep. Higher subsidy is provided to women beneficiaries under PMEGP. Since its inception from 2008 to 2019, a total of 1,62,383 projects have been assisted to women entrepreneurs in India. In accordance with the provisions contained in the Sexual Harassment of women at workplace Act, 2013, an Internal Complaints Committee has been constituted in the Ministry. During the year 2019-20, no case was reported to the Internal Complaints Committee and no case is pending with the ICC. At the same time, the online complaint management system “She box” (Sexual Harassment Electronic-Box) introduced by the Ministry of Women and Child Development to enable women employees of the Central Government to file complaints directly. For the protection, it has been given wide publicity by the Ministry among its employees and attached/subordinate organizations. Organizations under the ministry are providing skill training to the youths for wage employment and self-employment. They also provide skill up-gradation training to existing entrepreneurs and the working force to enhance their performances of women.

Conclusion Micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSME) is an important part of Economy. Acknowledges the contribution of this sector and a balanced regional development by the government makes special efforts for growth and development in this sector. Policy makers understand that development is impossible without the support of weaker sections in the Indian society. This is what the government has done over and over again different policies and regimes introduced for Support and development of women entrepreneurship. But the success of these efforts was limited due to traditional attitudes and mentalities of people in relation to women in Indian society.

Empowerment of Women through MSMEs in India

7

That’s why there is the need for major changes in attitudes and mentalities in Indian society. And now absolutely necessary in addition to the design of guidelines Training, marketing and support programs Services, additional programs must be designed Who will manage the changes in people’s attitudes in the society. The awareness program should take place on one on a large scale to make women aware of their unique identity, existence, respect, and support their role in the development of the economy. The government should encourage more Industry associations and federations to play a role in different areas instead of trying to make everything yourself ineffective. The Responsibility of women leads to financial empowerment, the ability to control their lives, self-determination, and a means to personal success. Empowerment through Self-employment is also linked to women’s ability to take control of financial resources and participate more in the wealth creation process. The most powerful tool for empowering women is education. Education is also part of a heeded political responsibility. It was strengthening democracy. Education is the only way to make women mainstream Society.

References

1. Dr. Olufemi Aladejebi, The Effect of Entrepreneurship Education on 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Entrepreneurial Intention among Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria, Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship Development, December 2018, Vol.5, N0.2, pp. 1-14 Ibrahim, Solava, and Sabina Alkire. 2007. Agency and empowerment: A proposal for internationally comparable indicators. Oxford Development Studies 35: 379–403. Malhotra, Anju, and Sidney R. Schuler. 2005. Women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. In Measuring Empowerment: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives. Edited by Deepa Narayan. Washington: The World Bank, vol. 1, pp. 71–88. Vembly Colaco & Dr.V.Basil Hans, Women Entrepreneurship in IndiaChanges and Challenges, Sahyadri SJOM, Vol.2, Issue 2, December 2018. Annual Report 2019-20, Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, Government of India. https://headstart.in/blog/launching-of-we-initiative-of-headstart-forwomen-entrepreneurs/ https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent. cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1& article=1020&context=ojwed#:~:text=As%20stated%20by%20 Kuratko%20%26%20Hodgetts,new%20ideas%20and%20creative%20 solutions.

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

8. h t t p : / / e c o u r s e s o n l i n e . i a s r i . r e s . i n / m o d / p a g e / v i e w .

php?id=4474#:~:text=Women%20entrepreneurs%20may%20be%20 defined,activity%20are%20called%20women%20entrepreneurs. 9. https://medium.com/@eduarticle/development-of-womenentrepreneurs-in-india-533e89866f55 10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/200803656_Empowering_ Women_through_Entrepreneurship_Development_in_Emerging_ Economies_An_Overview 11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339050933_Women_ Entrepreneurship_Development_In_India_Challenges_And_ Empowerment 12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332172496_An_Overview_ of_Female_Entrepreneurs_in_Indian_MSME_Sector 13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228173157_Women Empowerment_Through_Women_Entrepreneurship_A_Study_of_ Faizabad_Zone_of_Uttar-Pradesh

Chapter

2

Role of Women in Environment Protection Dr. Rantu Mani Deka*

Introduction All the biotic and abiotic components together form the environment where the living organisms survive and maintain their own race. The abiotic components includes physico- chemical characteristics of air, water and soil which influence the living organisms including human beings. A good environment helps to sustain the living organisms. Hence for sustenance of the human being and other living organisms of the biosphere we should protect our environment. In recent days the various anthropogenic activities causes degradation of environment and as a result of that decreasing trend of biological diversity. We have obtained all the essential resources from the environment, so the environment protection is utmost important. The resources of the environment helps us in maintaining the standard of living. Environment protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment. The main objectives of the environment protection are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment. The environment provides food, fodder, fuel, water, air and shelter to all living organisms. Therefore, human awareness is developed about the need to preserve the environment by preventing adverse impacts on nature. The women helps in sustainable development by protecting the environment. Throughout history men have looked at natural resources as commercial entities or income generating tools, while women have tended to see the environment as a resource supporting their basic needs (4). Women in different parts of the world are actively involved in saving environment. Globally one of the well known environmentalist was Rachel Carson whose concern for the environment was voiced in her seminal book “ Silent Spring”

* Department of Zoology, Barbhag College, Kalag, Nalbari, Assam

10

Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

(1962). She warned about the bad impacts of use of DDT, which was used as pesticide (5).

Women’s Environment Protection Movement in India In India, women are actively involved in environmental movement for conserving natural resources to sustain livelihood. In India most of the environmental protection movement was against deforestation and water conservation. Some of the Indian women environmentalists are Amrita Devi, Bachani Devi and Gaura Devi, Medha Patkar, Sugatha Kumari etc. (5 ). The origin of the environment protection movement in India dates back to Kehjrali movement and gain momentum through Chipko movement, Appiko movement, Silent valley movement and Narmada Bachao Andolan etc. (6). Besides these, women have been involved in several governmental and non- governmental forestry and environment programs such as community forestry programs, social forestry programs, Green Belt movement and green India clean India programs etc. (6). Some of the Indian environmental protection movement led by Indian women are as follows.

Bishnoi’s Environmental Movement Amrita Bai and her band of women Bishnoi’s can be considered the first women environmentalists of the world (5). Bishnoi’s movement (1731 A D) began with royal order of Maharaja Abhay Singh to cutting of khejri trees which was worshipped by Bishnoi. Amrita Devi declared “ If a tree is saved even at the cost of one’s head, it’s worth” (1). Amrita Devi and her three daughters were beheaded for saving the khejri trees of her village Khejaralli. Similarly 363 Bishnoi lost their lives for protection of khejri trees and thereafter Maharaja stopped the order for cutting of trees. This movement was revived by Bachni Devi and Gauri Devi of Uttar Pradesh in 1972.

Chipko Movement The Chipko movement was also called Chipko Andolan, a nonviolent, social and ecological movement by rural villagers, particularly women in India. This movement was started at Terai region of uttarakhand in the Himalayan foothills in April,1973. Chandi Prasad Bhatta organized the chipko movement who aired the slogan “ Ecology is permanent economy ”. Women were the main divers of this movement which was led by Sundarlal Bahuguna, Bachni Devi and Gaura Devi. The main cause of this movement was due to refusal of supply of Ash tree to Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal of of Chamoli

Role of Women in Environment Protection

11

district and government gave permission for cutting of Ash trees to Simon company. Women formed Mahila mandal for the protection of forest for their livelihood. The method of tree hugging found success against chopping down of trees and Simon company stopped cutting of trees.

Appiko Movement It is the movement of hug the trees movement which was initiated by Panduranga Hedge in September, 1983 to save the forest of Western Ghats in South West India. The main objectives of this movement was as follows • To protect the existing forest cover. • To generate trees in denuded lands • Last but not last to utilize forest wealth with due consideration to conservation. This movement has created awareness among villagers of Western Ghats about the ecological destruction of forest wealth and forced the government to change its forest policy.

Silent Valley Movement It was a social movement aimed at the protection of silent valley evergreen tropical forest in Palakkad district of Kerala, India. this movement was started in 1973 against the decision of Kerala government to construct a dam for hydroelectric power project in the silent valley forest of Kerala. Sugatha Kumari was the prominent leader of this movement and success in their struggle and government cancelled the project. The government declared silent valley as National Park in 1984 (3).

Navadanya Movement Navadanya is an Indian best non governmental organization which promotes biodiversity conservation, organic farming, the rights of farmers and the process of seed saving. Navadanya begin in 1984 as a program of the Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology (RFSTE). This initiative was founded by environmentalist Vandana Shiva. Navdanya has helped set up 54 community seed banks across the country and sustainable agriculture over past two decades (7).The main aim of Navdanya is to said seeds from bio piracy and setup community seed banks. They are strongly campaigning against Genetically Modified seeds ( 3).

12

Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

The Narmada Bachao Andolan Narmada Bachao Andolan is an Indian social movement spearheaded by native triblals, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the construction of dams on the Narmada river. This environmental movement was led by Medha Patkar, Baba Amte and Arundhati Roy (1989) and had turned into the international protest gaining support from NGO all around the globe (5). The mode of campaign under Narmada Bachao Andolan includes hunger strikes, rallies, court actions and gathering support (8). This movement spread to three states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The demands of Narmada Bachao Andolan was to provide project information and legal representation to the concerned residents of Narmada valley, to settle the people displaced by the dam and not to raise the height of Sardar Sarovar Dam. The consequences of dams of Narmada river was that the dams force the displacement of about a million people and affect many poor peasants and tribals. The dams cause immense ecological damage through the inundation of forests. As a result of strong protest of the people World bank withdraw the project in 1993 (2 ).

Conclusion The present study discussed the role of Indian women in environment protection. It is evident that India has a long history of involvement of women in environmental movement. In fact, the Chipko movement spearheaded many such movements by women to save the forests. Women have a stake in conserving environment as they depend on it not just for livelihood but also for daily needs of households and there by women play a key role in sustainable development, maintaining ecological balance and help in building of the nation.

References 1.

Moksha (2014), Bishnoi communication for perfect life, death and enlightment: An Ecological perspective. Scientific Journal of International Research, 1 (2 ): 91-114.

2.

Nakhoda, Zein ( 2010), Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA ) Forces end of world Bank Funding of Sardar Sarovar Dam, India, 1985-1993.

3.

Raimi M O, Suleiman R M. Odipe OE, Salami J T, Oshatunberu M et.al. Women Role in Environmental Conservation and Development in Nigeria. Ecol Conserv Sci. 2019 ; 1(2): 555558. DOI: 10.19080/ECOA.2019.01.555558.

4.

Sharma, R and Kaushik, Baljit ( 2011), Role of women in Environmental

Role of Women in Environment Protection Conservation. Excel International Journal of Management studies, ISBN-2249 8834, 1(2); 162-167.

13 Multidisciplinary

Web References 5.

Women and Environmental Movements and Policies in India.

6.

epgh.inflibnet.co.in

7.

Role of Women in Environmental Conservation.

Papers.ssrn.com>so13>papers 8.

https://em.m.wikipedia.org

9.

W.em.m wikipedia.org>wiki> Narma

Chapter

3

Women’s Movement in India: Touring through Times Srishti Behal*

Abstract Women’s Movement in India has traversed through times to the present day and has successfully reached a phase where women can tell themselves apart from their male counterparts and thereby grip the central position which had been in the past times controlled exclusively by the male members of the society. The present paper focuses on how a movement’s purpose gets fulfilled with time through honest participation of its members. The aim of this paper is to emphasize on the beginnings of the Movement; the waves of Feminisms; and the present status of the Movement with reference to India. The present reading explains the mission of the movement and the forces associated with its growth. How feminisms worked greatly in order to crumble the patriarchal forces embedded in the Indian society is to be seen in this paper. Keywords: Equal Members, Women’s Movement, Feminisms, Patriarchal Forces, Indian Society. Reading, Women’s Movement in India, Touring through Times But does the word woman, then, have no specific content? -Simon de Beauvoir, The Second Sex At all times we need a ‘theory,’ a systematically functioning platform if we are to work for a cause. Looking back at the social and cultural history of India, one observes a considerable number of practices and stringent norms that were primarily focused to repress the power of women and their existence. One of the commonly practiced ritual exercised during ancient times was sati pratha. The famous Indian writer, Amitav Ghosh, in his novel Sea of Poppies has talked at length about the societal norms prevalent in the Indian society at the time of the British Raj. The postcolonial novel talks a lot about the marginalization of women at the hands of patriarchal set-up of the society which forms the design of the civilization at large. Writing * M.A. English, 113 A, Avtar Avenue, Majitha Road, Amritsar, Punjab

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too was a challenge for women writers who would get little or no space to come about their writings, and literature, that forms the bulk of any nation, fell primarily into the hands of men. Virginia Woolf, a western Feminist, in her book-length essay A Room of One’s Own writes, “a woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction,” (p. 4) concluding the difficulties women had in writing career. Writing would define women’s repressed thoughts and thereby was offered no specific arena. Sinha writes “Though women have been official storytellers to generations, much of world literature had been dominated by a canon that dismissed women’s writings as inconsequential a few centuries ago. Women writers whether postcolonial or not have always been marginalized and excluded from the literary canon” (xii). Societal operations have always been, at large, ruled by men of the society. Patriarchy has constructed the order of any society in a manner that it almost becomes impossible to challenge its working without a theory that poses response to its brutal forces. Although India’s historical, political and social past has improved through times but it is always significant to look at the condition of women at all times. How women have suffered and finally made their way from a marginalized position of the social order to a position of importance is to be explained through the theory of feminisms, a theory which although initially did not have a theoretical basis, grew intensely over time aiming against the male-dominating society and happened to create comparatively more opportunities for women not only in India but across the world. The ‘women’s movement’ that started in the 1960s had developed in order to define the inequalities experienced by the female members of the society. The Women’s Movement gave a momentum to the theory of feminism/feminisms that prevails today in its most refined form. Feminisms focuses primarily on the male centered cultural mind-set that has its roots deeply embedded in the organization of the society and so the theory attempts to explain how inequality is preserved between sexes. …it switched its focus from attacking male versions of the world to exploring the nature of the female world and outlook, and reconstructing the lost or repressed records of female experience (Barry 117).The theory of feminisms can be studied more clearly when compared to the theory of postcolonialism, a theory which attempts to focus on the reconstruction of a country’s lost cultural identity; repressed values of a nation under Imperial rule. Feminisms similarly concentrates on the restoration of a woman’s silences, experiences and identity suppressed under male authority.

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The feminism of the 19th and the early 20th centuries focussed on the acquisition of a few basic political rights and liberty for women, such as the right of married women to own property and enter into contracts, the right of defendants to have women on juries, and the crucial right to vote (Singh 16). The growth and spread of feminisms becomes a great force in the cause for women and stimulates women’s participation in almost all the spheres; political, social and cultural. I further take the reading to a more historical perspective thereby explicating the different waves of feminisms in the Indian context.

Feminisms, the Three Phases or Waves: An Overview Feminisms in India began in the middle of the 19th century with a purpose of bringing equality between the sexes and to work on the cultural issues that were primarily male-centered. The laws which had long been favoring men, for example the Inheritance Law, underwent a transformation. The first phase of feminisms (1850-1915) marks the beginning of the rise of the concept of nationalism in the wake of dominance of European Imperial powers over the indigeneity of India. Moreover the period emphasized on the analysis of the discriminatory practices that had long been a part of the accepted order of the Indian society. Initial movements related to women’s cause were initiated by men and focused largely on the eradication of social evils including Sati pratha, child marriage and women’s illiteracy. Rani Laxmi Bai, Rani Chennama and Jind Kaur became epitome of women power who authorized their rule in order to protect their country’s nativity. These women set example for other Indian women who realized the importance of their own participation in the national struggle. Such great female figures are an impetus in shaping a theory which has for its exclusive purpose the empowerment of women. The second phase of feminisms (1915-1947) displayed a more intensified struggle for preserving nationhood and cultural authenticity which, under the supremacy of Western Imperial powers, had been greatly affected. This phase of feminisms strengthened womanhood since the resistance against colonizers was assisted by women as active members who participated in the battle for nation. Gandhiji justified and lengthened the involvement of women in Civil Disobedience Movement against British Raj. Works of literature began supporting women’s involvement in the politics of the country which had for long been left unconsidered. The Indian writer Raja Rao in his postcolonial novel Kanthapura illustrates women characters not as marginalized members of the society but as embodying realized

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strength to struggle for their own land. The demonstrations held against the whites by the female characters in the novel is out of the ordinary since women in those times would be defined only as a part of the domestic sphere, quite aloof from the political and social arena of the society. Organizations working exclusively for women’s cause began developing; AIWC (All India Women’s Conference) and NFIW (National Federation of Indian Women) are women organizations. The growth of Indian nationalism had for its essential component participation of women members of the society. The third phase or Post 1947 phase of feminisms worked to define and encourage the involvement of women in workforce. The divide created between the sexes as regards labor force was not acceptable to the feminists of the period. Feminisms of the 1970s questioned these inequalities. The power structures that had been created on the basis of tribe, language, religion, class, region etc demanded justification. However Indira Gandhi’s initiation of the term as the first female Prime Minister of India in 1966 was a sign of women empowerment. Percentage of women’s literacy rate started increasing comparatively with the highest record in the state of Kerala. Inheritance and property rights were glanced through the prism of feminisms and thus were maintained taking into consideration equality of all the members of the society; male and female. Implementation of various acts for women created spaces for them to work freely in a safe environment and express their experiences anytime they felt harassed at domestic level or at workplace. Some of the acts working for women include: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005, The Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act 2015, The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act 2013, The Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB) 1953 etc. These Acts have a primary cause of preventing harassment and stalking of women anywhere. National Policy on Education (NPE) was launched in 1986 to better the literacy level of women. By the year 2001 literacy rate of women had increased almost by fifty percent of the overall population of women. In the year 2019 DRDO launched scholarship scheme solely for women. Governmental measures have obviously brought an extensive level of improvement in the participation of women in all the spheres of the society; cultural, socio-political, national etc.

The Present Status The momentum gained by the theory of feminisms has to be analyzed through the long journey it has travelled; beginning from the history

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to the contemporary period. It has so far been a reason for women to raise themselves to a level equal to their male counterparts. From holding high offices in the political sphere to serving nation in all the other fields, women are taking lead. Sub Lieutenant Shivangi became the first female Indian naval pilot serving in the Indian Navy. In sports we have many leading figures; P.V. Sindhu, Heena Sidhu, Aditi Ashok, Rani Rampal and many others. Such women become exemplary examples for the other women of the society and facilitate a budding perspective leading to growth. Feminisms as a theory has developed pathways for Indian women by supporting them, justifying their presence and working on their silences. Works of Literature now have women on the lead sharing their experiences and speaking away their silences. The great Indian poet, Kamala Das, is known best for her confessional poetry. The poet, through her work, initiates a tradition of vocalizing personal life through one’s writing. She is the first India poet to have spoken about her sexual frustration so audibly before the readers. Of the many critical and theoretical innovations since the 1970s, the concern with the effects of sexual differences in the writing, interpretation, analysis, and assessment of literature has had perhaps the most enduring and wide-ranging effects on literary history, criticism, and academic instruction, when conducted by men as well as by women (Abrams and Harpham 129). With globalization the quantum of opportunities for women has amplified so much so that Indian women have created spaces for themselves not only within the country but within the sphere that had long been foreign (unknown) to them. We have Chennai-born Indra Nooyi as the president and CEO of PepsiCo, an America based food corporation. Lata Mangeshkar, in the field of music, has won appraisal across the globe.

Conclusion Times have changed considerably and we are heading toward a consistent growth pattern. The status of women has improved eventually with the active forces working in the society for the cause of women. It must be said that the success of any movement is caused not by a single contribution but by a multitude of factors that have intended to serve for the same purpose. A society must operate by including equal participation of all its members for an improved working.

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Works Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Beauvoir, Simon de. The Second Sex. Translated and edited by H.M. Parshley. Lowe and Brydone (Printers) Ltd., London, N.W. 10, p. 14. Sinha, Sunita. Post Colonial Women Writers New Perspectives. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd., 2012, p.xii. Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One’s Own. Oxford University Press, Great Clarendon Street, Oxford New York, 1998, p. 4. Singh, Sushila. Feminism Theory, Criticism, Analysis. Pencraft International, B-1/41, Ashok Vihar II, Delhi-110052, p. 16. Barry, Peter. “Feminist Criticism.” Beginning Theory. Viva Books Private Limited, 2010, p. 117. Abrams, M.H. et al. “feminist criticism.” A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2015, p. 129.

Readings 1. 2. 3.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism_in_India#:~:text=The%20 history%20of%20feminism%20in,Indian%20independence%2C%20 when%20Gandhi%20incorporated https://triumphias.com/blog/womens-movements-in-india-analysis/ https://mea.gov.in/in-focus-article.htm?23931/Indian+Women

Chapter

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The Role of Micro Finance in Women Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship Development Dr. Parturkar. M. S.*

Introduction “You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of women”. Jawaharlal Nehru Micro finance now a day is indentified as efficacious institution for socio-economic empowerment of rural women in particular all over the world .In another words ,microfinance in recent times has recognized as a powerful tool for its potential is to alleviate poverty ,particularly of rural poor women especially in the developing countries like India. The Significance impact of women entrepreneurship development is not only in enhancing economic status of women but also improve personality as well as social status of women .Women entrepreneurs are considered to be most significant economic agents for economic development of the country .The famous thought of the Jawaharlal Nehru is“ You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of women ”.Empowerment is a process of community or a group gaining autonomy and control over one’s life .As a result of the empowerment ,the empowered should become agents of their own development ,exercising choices selecting their own agenda and improving their status in the society .A nation can only be developed if its women are given equal opportunities as compare to men. Developing women entrepreneurship will be appropriate approach for women empowerment .It’s very necessary to enhance their socioeconomic status .Once women start entrepreneur activity with help of micro finance( SHGs )that’s effect women feels economically strong and also she will feel equal to men in all respect .And it can be only possible with the help of micro finance ,therefore its very necessary to find out“ The Role of Micro Finance in Women Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship Development” * Head & Assistant Professor, Faculty of Commerce & Management Science, Shri Shivaji Arts, Commerce & Science College Parbahni

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Literature Review Review of literature plays vital role in procuring information regarding the work done in the past by various researchers and provides useful guidelines in formulating the theoretical framework of research .Rajeswari M .and Sumangala P )1999( .explored the problems and prospects in women entrepreneurship and concluded that women entrepreneurship enables to pool the small capital resources and skill available with women .It paves the way for fuller utilization of capital and also mobilizes the female human potential. The study reveals that the total economic development of India is not possible without support of women entrepreneur.Empowerment of women :According to Pillai J.K“ )1995( .Empowerment is an active ,multidimensional process which enables women to realize their full identity and powers in all spheres of life .Power is not commodity to be transacted ;nor can it be given away as aims .Power has to be acquired ,it needs to be exercised sustained and preserved. According to Bandura“ )1986( Empowerment is the process through which individuals gain efficacy ,defined as the degree to which an individual perceives that he or she controls his or her environment.” Empowerment of women in all the respect is essential in the country .Manimekalai and Rajeswari )2000( conducted a study, “empowerment of women through micro enterprises ,and concluded that the SHGs are considered as a viable organization of the rural poor people particularly women for delivering micro-credit in order to undertake entrepreneurial activities .Dr.W.K Sarwade)2019( Developing women entrepreneurship will be appropriate approach for women empowerment .It’s very necessary to enhance their socioeconomic status .Once women start entrepreneur activity with help of micro finance( SHGs )that’s effect women feels economically strong.

Statement of the Problem Since the day of independence a number of innovative schemes have been launched for the upliftment of women in our country .These have been a perceptible shift from viewing women as critical agents for socio-economic development .Now the emphasis has shifted from development to empowerment .Indeed the target of socio-economic development of poor women can be achieved through women empowerment with help of Women entrepreneurship.

Need and Significance of the Study Over 80 percent of the working women in rural areas directly related to agriculture and allied activities .They usually perform very well

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

but ,do not get equal wages particularly as compared to male workers. It is very necessary to given a golden chance to women agricultural workers for improving their socio-economic status .And it is possible with them they prefer to take up alternate economic activities with the help of SHGs .The government has also laid stress on empowering especially rural women by providing them alternative economic activities.

Objectives of the Study Keeping in view of the significance of the study ,the following are the main objectives of the preset study. 1. To Study the role of Entrepreneurship development in Women empowerment. 2. To analyze impact of micro finance on socio-economic empowerment of women through Entrepreneurship development.

Hypotheses of the Study The following specific hypotheses have been formulated to meet the above objectives of the study. 1. Self help groups( SHGs )leads to socio-economic empowerment of women with help ED. 2. Microfinance helps in promoting Entrepreneurship activities for women empowerment.

Research Methodology of the Study Given the nature of the present study ,it was required to collect data from secondary sources therefore this study totally depends on secondary data .The related review of literature and study have been review for formulate conclusion. 8 .Scope of the study :The present study confined only overview The Role of Micro Finance in Women Empowerment through Women Entrepreneurship Development and based on secondary data only.

Analysis and Findings The analyses of findings have been discussed under the filoowing sub-head.

1. Economic Empowerment of Women Economic empowerment of women can only be achieved by eradication of poverty as women form the majority of population

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observed below poverty line .By implementing new perspectives to strengthen the existing micro-credit mechanism and micro-finance institutions and involve them in designing and implementing macroeconomic and social policies by institutionalizing their participation in such processes to improve women life11. Economic empowerment of women can only be achieved by alleviation of poverty ,because majority of the population below the poverty line. Therefore ,poverty eradication programmes will particularly address the need and problems of poor and neglected women .Once we provide adequate financial access to such women ,which are help to eradicate poverty .Once eradicate poverty ,economic empowerment automatically follows .In short no economic empowerment of women is possible ,unless make them free from poverty.

*Source :M.S,Kamble“ The Role of SHGs in Socio-economic Empowerment of Women ]2018[,”pp.158-159 :

It is disclosed from the table 6.14 that ,out of 240 respondents120 sample respondents 50.00[ percent ]family monthly income were up to 3000 followed by 20.42[ 49 percent ]family income were below Rs. 44 ,1500sample respondents 18.33[ percent ]family monthly income were up to .5,000 The rest of them only 27 sample respondents11.25[ percent ]were earning more than 6,000 per month after joining the group. It is found out that ,majority of the sample respondents( women )are earning a monthly income up to 3000 after joining SHGs. It is portrayed from the table 6.14 that ,out of 240 sample respondents 58.33[ 140percent ]sample respondent family monthly income ranged from Rs 1000-2500 .followed by ,47 sample respondents 19.58[ percent] family monthly income were below Rs 36 .1000 .sample respondents 15[percent ]family monthly income were ranged from Rs.3000-5000 .

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

The rest of them only 17 respondent 7[ percent ]were earning more than Rs 5000 .per month before joining the group. It is concluded that ,majority of the sample respondents( women )are earning a monthly income ranging from Rs ,2500 -1000 .particularly before joining SHGs. The comparatively study of after & before joining SHGs the monthly income of the sample respondents are significantly growth especially after joining the SHGs.

2. Social Empowerment of Women Social empowerment of women can only be achieved by eradication of their illiteracy and providing adequate health facilities to needy poor women .It’s possible only offer having equal access to education particularly to poor neglected and backward women and girls. Government of India takes it on agenda and makes an effective arrangement of quality higher education to women making them socially empowered. 3. Journey towards Women Empowerment Journey towards empowerment can be explained with following chart.

Source :B.Suguna“ ,Empowerment of rural women through Self Help Group, Discovery Pulication New Delhi ,pp.6-7 :

Conclusion Empowerment is closely linked to economic independence .Nothing succeeds better them power of self-help .Micro finance has emerged as a powerful instrument for fighting against poverty in rural areas and support for women empowerment .Micro finance provides sufficient credit ,saving and other basic financial services to the needy rural poor women .Given small amounts of credit at reasonable interest rates to set up a small own business activity especially rural women .The role of Micro finance is very significant in women empowerment through Entrepreneurship Development.

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References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Yojana ’August ,2019 ,pp.04 :. Status of Micro Finance in India( ,2017-2018 ’SMI)2019-2020 NABARD Report.2019 – Social Economic Review of Jalna District.2018-19 NABARD .)1989( Studies on Self Help Groups of the Rural Poor,” NABARD ,Mumbai Anna V .and Pillai .)1990( Women entrepreneurs in Kerala ,DPH Discovery Publishing House ,New Delhi ,pp.1-57: M.S,Kamble“ ]2018[ The Role of SHGs in Socio-economic Empowerment of Women ,”pp.158-159 : Dr .W.K Sarwade“ )2019( Conical International Journal“ ”Women Empowerment”pp24-29.

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Challenges on the Way of Women Empowerment and their Solution Memoonah Baig*

Introduction Women’s empowerment is the process of engaging women. Empowerment can be characterized from various perspectives, however, when talking about women’s empowerment, empowerment implies tolerating and including people (women) who are outwardly of the dynamic process into it. Women’s empowerment is the most essential highlight is noted for the general advancement of a country. (Schwartz-Shea, 1991) Many famous people are supportive of young lady influence such as Liza Koshy and Lilly Singh (who has her own late night show and has won many honors and furthermore fundraised for girllove and other causes). “This places a solid accentuation on cooperation in political constructions and formal dynamic and, in the monetary circle, on the ability to get a pay that empowers investment in financial dynamic.” (Misra, 2006) Empowerment is the process that makes power in people over their own lives, society, and in their networks. People are engaged on the off chance that they have an admittance to promising circumstances with no constraints or limitations such as in instruction, calling and in their lifestyle. Feeling qualified for settle on your own choices makes a feeling of empowerment. Empowerment incorporates the activity of raising the situation with women through instruction, bringing issues to light, proficiency, and preparing and furthermore give preparing identified with self preservation. Women’s empowerment is tied in with preparing and permitting women to settle on life-deciding choices through the various issues in the public eye. (Yesudian, 2006). Then again, it is the process for women to rethink sexual orientation jobs that permits them to gain the ability to pick between known options whom have otherwise been confined from such an ability. * Research Scholar (West Asian Political Science), Department of West Asian and North African Studies, Faculty of International Studies, Aligarh Muslim University, U. P.

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There are a few standards characterizing women’s empowerment such as, for one to be enabled, they should come from a place of disempowerment. For instance: A stripper no longer needs to remove her garments to get cash and now is an assistant for a decent organization. Empowerment originates from sense of pride. Moreover, one should secure empowerment themselves as opposed to have it given to them by an outer gathering. Other examinations have discovered that empowerment definitions involve people having the capability to settle on significant choices in their lives while also having the option to follow up on them. Ultimately, empowerment and disempowerment is comparative with other at a past time; hence, empowerment is a process, not an item. (Kabeer, 2005) Women empowerment has become a critical subject of conversation being developed and financial matters. It can also highlight the methodologies in regards to other downplayed sexes in a specific political or social setting. Women’s monetary empowerment alludes to the ability for women to make the most of their entitlement to control and profit by the assets, resources, pay and their own time, just as the ability to oversee hazard and improve their financial status and prosperity. (Duflo, 2012) While regularly conversely utilized, the more exhaustive idea of sex empowerment alludes to people of any sexual orientation, focusing on the differentiation among natural and sex as a job. Entire nations, organizations, networks and groups can benefit from the execution of projects and policies that receive the idea of ladies strengthening. Strengthening of ladies is a need for the actual development of a general public, since it upgrades both the quality and the amount of human assets accessible for development. Strengthening is one of the principle procedural concerns while tending to human rights and development. (Bose, 2000) Ladies’ strengthening and accomplishing gender equality is fundamental for our general public to guarantee the sustainable development of a country. Numerous world chiefs and researchers have contended that sustainable development is inconceivable without gender equality and ladies’ strengthening. Sustainable development acknowledges natural security, social and monetary development, including ladies’ strengthening. With regards to ladies and development, strengthening should remember more decisions for ladies to make for their own.

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

Challenges Many of the barriers to women’s empowerment and value lie imbued in social norms. Many women feel these pressures, while others have gotten familiar with being dealt with mediocre compared to men. Regardless of whether officials, NGOs, and so on know about the advantages women’s empowerment and cooperation can have, many are terrified of upsetting the situation with the women and keep on allowing cultural norms to hinder development. (Aramanzan Madanda, 2007) Examination shows that the expanding admittance to the web can likewise bring about an expanded abuse of women. Delivering individual data on sites has put a few women’s very own wellbeing in danger. In 2010, Working to Halt Online Abuse expressed that 73% of women were exploited through such locales. Sorts of exploitation incorporate digital following, harassment, online porn, and blazing. Sexual harassment specifically is an enormous obstruction for women in the work environment. It shows up in practically all ventures, however is generally prominent in the accompanying: business, exchange, banking and account, deals and promoting, neighborliness, common assistance, and schooling, addressing and teaching.According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), sexual harassment is a reasonable type of sex segregation dependent on sex, an indication of inconsistent force relations among men and women. Besides, the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) is encouraging for expanded proportions of security for women against sexual harassment and savagery in the working environment. 54% had encountered some type of work environment sexual harassment. 79% of the casualties are women; 21% were men. (Berry, 2015) Late examinations likewise show that women face a bigger number of barriers in the work environment than do men. Sex related barriers include sexual harassment, out of line recruiting rehearses, profession movement, and inconsistent compensation where women are paid not as much as men are for playing out a similar work. (Das, 2007) When taking the middle income of men and women who worked all day, all year, government information from 2014 showed that women made $0.79 for each dollar a man acquired. The normal profit for working moms came out to even less—$0.71 for each dollar a dad made, as indicated by a recent report led by the National Partnership for Women and Children. While a large part of the public conversation of the “wage hole” has centered around women getting equivalent

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compensation for similar work as their male companions, many women battle with what is known as the “pregnancy punishment”. The primary issue is that it is hard to gauge, however a few specialists say that the chance of having a child can be sufficient for managers to push women back from their line. In this way, women are set in where they need to settle on the choice of whether to keep up in the labor force or have youngsters. This issue has started the discussion over maternity leave in the United States and many different nations on the planet. (Norville, 2011) However, despite the struggle for equal pay, in Nepal the tech industry has made progress in assisting with empowering equal pay across sex. In March 2016, tech vocation site Dice delivered an investigation of in excess of 16,000 tech experts that found that when you analyze identical training, experience and position, there is no pay hole—and hasn’t been throughout the previous six years. However, this industry additionally struggles to utilize ladies in leader positions. This is somewhat because of the boundary of inappropriate behavior and pregnancy that was previously mentioned. Such obstructions make it hard for ladies to progress in their work environment or get reasonable remuneration for the work they give

Solutions Economic Empowerment Economic empowerment increases women’s agency, admittance to formal government programs, portability outside the home, economical autonomy, and buying power. Strategy producers are proposed to help work preparing to help in entrance in the conventional business sectors. One suggestion is to give more proper instruction freedoms to women that would take into account higher dealing power in the home. (Mehra, 1997)They would have more admittance to higher wages outside the home; and accordingly, make it simpler for women to find a new line of work on the lookout. (Endeley, 2001)

Political Strengthening Political strengthening supports creating policies that would best help gender equality and agency for women in both people in general and private circles. Strategies that have been proposed are to make governmental policy regarding minorities in society policies that have a standard for the quantity of women in arrangement making and parliament positions. Starting at 2017, the worldwide normal

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of women who stand firm on lower and single house parliament footings is 23.6 percent. Further suggestions have been to expand women’s rights to cast a ballot, voice assessments, and the capacity to pursue position with a reasonable possibility of being chosen Because women are regularly connected with youngster care and homegrown obligations in the home, they have less time devoted to entering the work market and maintaining their business. Policies that expansion their haggling power in the family would incorporate policies that represent instances of separation, policies for better government assistance for women, and policies that give women command over assets, (for example, property rights). In any case, support isn’t restricted to the domain of governmental issues. (Lakshmi, 2005)

Education Empowerment It is said that education increases “people’s self-confidence and furthermore enables them to find better jobs and they can work shoulder to shoulder with men”. They take part openly discussion and make demands on government for medical services, social security and different entitlements”. Specifically, education empowers women to make choices that improve their kids’ wellbeing, their prosperity, and chances of securing survival skills. Education informs others of forestalling and containing the disease, and it is an essential component of efforts to lessen unhealthiness. Besides, it empowers women to make choices that can improve their government assistance, including wedding past adolescence and having less kids. Urgently, education can increase women’s awareness of their rights, boost their self-esteem, and give them the chance to assert their rights. (Longwe, 1998)

The Internet use to Empower Women The growing access of the web in the late twentieth century has permitted ladies to engage themselves by using various apparatuses on the Internet. With the presentation of the World Wide Web, ladies have started to utilize social networking locales like Facebook and Twitter for online activism.Through online activism, ladies can engage themselves by getting sorted out missions and voicing their assessments for balance rights without feeling persecuted by individuals from society. For instance, on May 29, 2013, an online mission began by 100 female promoters constrained the main social networking website, Facebook, to bring down various pages that spread scorn about ladies. (Mamidipudi, 2021),

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Conclusion The principle of gender equality is cherished in the Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. The Constitution awards equality to ladies, yet in addition enables the State to embrace proportions of positive segregation for ladies. (Gupta, 2004) Inside the structure of a majority rule nation, our laws, improvement strategies, Plans and projects have focused on ladies’ headway in various circles. From the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974-78) onwards has been a stamped move in the way to deal with ladies’ issues from government assistance to advancement. Lately, the strengthening of ladies has been perceived as the focal issue in deciding the situation with ladies. The National Commission for Women was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1990 to protect the rights and legitimate qualifications of ladies. The 73rd and 74th Amendments (1993) to the Constitution of India have given to reservation of seats in the local collections of Panchayats and Municipalities for ladies, establishing a solid framework for their support in dynamic at the local levels. The action taken on by the U.S is the PEPFAR program, initiated by the Bush administration in 2003. The U.S. spent more than $1.4 billion in funding sub-Saharan Africa during the duration of the program. This program was taken into effect in response to the worldwide HIV/AIDS crisis, and it advanced abstinence among young girls and women.There was a partnership with DREAMS, and its fundamental purpose with PEPFAR was to permit the two girls and ladies to form into Determined, Resilient, Empowered, without aids, Mentored, and Safe ladies. Nonetheless, there are criticisms that this program didn’t actually do much to reduce HIV risk conduct, and critics such as John Dietrich stressed that the setting of help implemented Western beliefs of choosing abstinence before marriage.There was and still is controversy in regards to the effectiveness of this program in reducing HIV/AIDS through upholding abstinence and whether this would actually engage ladies in Africa. (Boyd, 2000)

References 1. 2. 3.

Aramanzan Madanda, C. K.-K. (2007). Challenges to Women’s Empowerment through ICTs: The Case of Makerere University. Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, 71, 81-88. Berry, M. E. (2015). When “Bright Futures” Fade: Paradoxes of Women’s Empowerment in Rwanda. Signs, 41 (1), 1-20. Bose, A. (2000). Empowerment of Women: How and When? Economic and Political Weekly, 35 (34), 3005-3007.

32 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India Boyd, R. E. (2000). Empowerment of Women in Contemporary Uganda: Real or Symbolic? Labour, Capital and Society, 22 (1), 19-40. Das, S. (2007). WOMEN AND EMPOWERMENT: PREDICAMENT OR AFFIRMATIVE ACTION. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 68 (1), 123127. Duflo, E. (2012). Women Empowerment and Economic Development. Journal of Economic Literature, 1051-1057. Endeley, J. B. (2001). Conceptualising Women’s Empowerment in Societies in Cameroon: How Does Money Fit In? Gender and Development, 9 (1), 34-37. Gupta, S. K. (2004). Women’s Empowerment in India and Its States: Evidence from the NFHS. Economic and Political Weekly, 39 (7), 14-20. Kabeer, N. (2005). Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of the Third Millennium Development Goal. Gender and Development, 13 (1), 23-24. Lakshmi, D. S. (2005). POLITICAL EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN INDIAN LEGISLATURE: A STUDY. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 66 (1), 75-92. Longwe, S. H. (1998). Education for Women’s Empowerment or Schooling for Women’s Subordination? Gender and Development, 6 (2), 19-26. Mamidipudi, R. G. (2021). Cyberfeminism, Technology, and International ‘Development’. Gender and Development, 7 (2), 8-16. Mehra, R. (1997). Women, Empowerment, and Economic Development. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 554, 136137. Misra, J. K. (2006). EMPOWERMENT OF WOMEN IN INDIA. The Indian Journal of Political Science, 867. Norville, V. (2011). The Role of Women in Global Security. Washington DC: US Institute of Peace. Schwartz-Shea, B. R.-S. (1991). Empowering Women: Self, Autonomy, and Responsibility. The Western Political Quarterly, 44 (3), 605-610. Yesudian, K. G. (2006). Evidence of women’s empowerment in India: a study of socio-spatial disparities. GeoJourna, 365.

Chapter

6

Legal Measures for the Empowerment of Women in India S. Balraj*

Abstract “There is no change for the world unless the condition of women improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on only one wing” – Swami Vivenkananda

Introduction Women empowerment implies the ability in women to take decisions with regard to their life and work and giving equal rights to them in all spheres like: personal, social, economic, political, legal and so on. Empowerment provides a greater access to knowledge and resources, more independence in decision making, considerable ability to plan lives, more control over the circumstances which influence lives, and freedom from customs, beliefs and practices. Without women’s empowerment, we cannot remove injustice and gender bias and inequalities. If women are not empowered, they deprived from enjoying security and protection in life. Also, women need to be given equal opportunities for education and employment without any sense of discrimination. In this context, present chapter only deals with the Legal measures for the Empowerment of Women in India. Women empowerment refers to the ability of women to transform economic and social development when empowered fully participate in the decisions that affect their lives through leadership training, coaching, consulting and the provision of enabling tools for women to lead within their communities, religious and countries. The word women empowerment essentially means that the women have the power or capacity to regulate their day- to- day lives in the social political and economic terms. The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. The Indian woman has cast of their age* Ph.D, Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, Thiruvalluvar Government Arts College, Rasipuram, Namakkal DT, Tamil Nadu

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old shackles of serfdom and male domination. She has come to her own and started scaling the ladders of social advance which proud and dignity. Now Indian women’s are uplifted and emancipated and granted equal status with men in all walks of life like political, economic, social, domestic and educational aspects. Women’s issues could be broadly classified into five, all of them relating to the status of women namely political recognition, access to education, access to employment, legal recognition and cultural recognition. Women need to empowered in almost all of them. Otherwise they will not get their rightful share of the productive resources or in the participate in the decisions that affect their lives. In other words as the term “empowerment” is very broad women’s empowerment could be broadly classified into five different aspects political, social, economic, legal and cultural.Legal machinery is one of the important aspect at all levels, as it has an ability sanitize women to fulfill their needs. Concept of Women Empowerment Women’s empowerment is a new phrase in the vocabulary of gender literature. The phrase is used in two broad senses i.e. general and specific. In a general sense, it refers to empowering women to be self- dependency by providing them access to all these freedoms and opportunities, which they were denied in the past only because of their being a woman. In a specific sense, women empowerment refers to enhancing their position in the power structure of the society. The term “empowerment of women” refers to the process of providing power to women to become free from the control of others, that is, to assume power to control her own life and to determine her own conditions. The term “empowerment of women” could also be understood as the process of providing equal rights, opportunities, responsibilities and power positions to women so that they are able to play a role on par with men in society. Legal Measure for the Empowerment of Women during the British Period 1. The Hindu widow remarriage Act 1856. To remove the deplorable condition of the hindu widows, a leading social reformer of the day Pandit Ishwara Chandra Vidya Sgar, brought pressure on the British government to make legal provision for widow marriages. 2. The Indian diverse Act 1869 lays down the conditions under which Christians can obtain or seek divorce through the court. It also deals with the dissolution of the marriage declaring the marriage on the specific grounds. It provides for judicial separation, protection to the spouses and restitution of conjugal rights.

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3. Indian Christian marriage Act 1872. This legislation covers various aspects of Christian marriage. 4. The child marriage restraint Act 1929. This act came into force on 1st April 1930. The act prohibited the marriage of a child. According to this act, marriage of boys under 18 and girls under 14 years of age was an offence. 5. The parsi marriage and divorce Act 1936. This is an act which governs the marriage and divorce that take place among the parsis. 6. The dissolution of Muslim marriage Act 1939.entites a married Muslim women to seek dissolution of her marriage on some specific grounds.

Constitutional Provisions for the Empowerment of Women The Constitution of India does not discriminate between men and women. All the men and women are equally entitled for individual freedom, fundamental rights including the right to participate in social, cultural, religious, educational, economic and political activities. The Constitution provides for equality of sex and offers protection to women against exploitation. The following some articles gives an legal provisions for the empowerment of women. The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination by the state (Article 15 (1)), equality opportunity (Article 16) and the equal pay for equal work (Article 39 D). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15 (3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51 (A and e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the state for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief (Article 42). Legal Measures for the Empowerment of Women after Independence 1. The Hindu marriage Act 1955 which prohibits polygyny, polyandry and child marriage and concedes equal rights to women to divorce and remarry. 2. The Hindu succession Act 1956 which provides for women the right to parental property. 3. The Hindu adoption and maintenance Act 1956 which gives a childless women the right to adopt a child and claim maintenance from the husband if she is divorced by him. 4. The special marriage Act 1954 which provides rights to women on par with men for minimum age of marriage 21 for males and 18 for females.

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5. The dowry prohibition Act 1961 which declares the taking of dowry an unlawful activity and thereby prevents the exploitation of women. 6. The suppression of immoral traffic of women and girls Act 1956 which gives protection to women from being kidnapped and or compelled to became prostitutes. 7. The maternity benefit Act 1961 which gives maternity benefits such as two months leave with salary to the married women workers. 8. The medical termination of pregnancy Act 1971 which legalizes abortion conceding the right of a man to go for abortion on the ground of physical and mental health. 9. The equal remuneration Act 1976 which removes wage discrimination between male and female workers. 10. The factories amendment act 1976 which includes provisions dealing with working laws, weekly rest, standards of cleanliness, ventilation, temperature, first aid facilities, rest room etc., 11. The criminal law amendment Act 1983 which seeks to stop various types of crimes against women. 12. The family court Act 1984 which seeks to provide justice to women who get involved in family disputes. 13. The representation of women (prohibition) Act 1986 prevents the media from misrepresenting the women. Any attempt to degrade and discredit women, insult and humiliate them, assassinate the character of women and present them in an indecent manner is declared punishable. The provisions of this act are applicable to all the means of the mass media and also to advertisements, books, handbills, posters, etc., violation of this act are liable for punishment which amounts to Rs. 2000 fine and 2 years imprisonment. 14. Commission of Sati Act 1987 during the British rule itself this inhuman practice was declared unlawful as per the sati prevention act 1829. Some reported instances of the practice of the sati that look place after independence compelled the central government to make the act more stringent by giving new shape to in the form of Commission of Sati Act 1987. 15. Muslim women protection of rights on divorce Act 1990, provides the right for divorced Muslim wife to demand from her husband her maintenance during the Iddat. 16. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted to protect women

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from domestic violence. It was brought into force by the Indian government from 26 October 2006. The Act provides for the first time in Indian law a definition of “domestic violence”, with this definition being broad and including not only physical violence, but also other forms of violence such as emotional/verbal, sexual, and economic abuse. It is a civil law meant primarily for protection orders and not for meant to be enforced criminally. 17. Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal Act, 2013. Law Review of Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013 The Commission felt that there is a need to review the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013.

Indian Penal Codes for the Empowerment of Women 1. Rape (Sec. 376 IPC) 2. Kidnapping & Abduction for different purposes ( Sec. 363-373) 3. Homicide for Dowry, Dowry Deaths or their attempts (Sec. 302/304-B IPC) 4. Torture, both mental and physical (Sec. 498-A IPC) 5. Molestation (Sec. 354 IPC) 6. Sexual Harassment (Sec. 509 IPC) 7. Importation of girls (up to 21 years of age) The government established a special ‘cell’ in 1976 with a view to provide due assistance to women in distress. The responsibility of the cell is entrusted to the Commissioner of police. The central government has also established a separate ministry with a cabinet rank to deal with the issues and problems concerned with women. To assist judiciary in its task of ensuring judicial protection to women social vigilance groups are established. Family courts established according to the Family court Act 1984, are giving legal protection to women. The social welfare department has established women’s bureau in order to look into the problems of women.

National Commission for Women The National Commission for women was setup on 31st January 1992 in pursuance of the National commission for women act 1990. The functions assigned to the Commission are wide and varied covering almost all aspects relating to safeguarding women’s rights and promotion of their interests. The Commission has a chairman, five member and a member secretory all nominated by the central government. The Commission continues to pursue its mandatory

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activates namely, review of legislations, interventions in specific individual complaints of atrocities and remedial action to safeguard the interests of women. The Commission has accorded highest priority to securing speedy justice to women. Indira mahila Yojana: the Indira Mahila Yojana aims at organizing women at the grass root level to facilitate their participation in decision making and empowerment was launched on 20th August 1995, in 200 integrated child development services blocks. The strength of the scheme lies in the strength of group dynamics. The objectives of the scheme are awareness generation among the women from rural areas and urban slums and economic empowerment of women.

Conclusion The women’s empowerment should constitute an important segment of empowerment of women. The central and state governments have undertaken various legal measures and other legislation for the empowerment of women. The government is fulfilled and the targeted persons have received all the benefits. The educated, middle class and upper caste women have taken relatively greater advantage of these measures, whereas the vast mass of uneducated, lower class and lower caste women aware of most of these welfare measures. Also, women need to be given equal opportunities for education and employment without any sense of discrimination.

References Shankar Rao, C.N, “Sociology of Indian Society”, S.chand & Company Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi, 2015. 2. Shankar Rao, C.N, “Indian Social Problems A Sociological perspectives”, S.chand & Company Pvt.Ltd, New Delhi, 2015. 3. Lal,S “Women in Indian Politics”, Kunal Books, New Delhi, 2010. 4. Krishna Bhowmik, “Indian Women the ushering of a new dawn”, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2006. 5. Sudha Nayar, “Women’s Empowerment in South Asia”, Navyug Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 2008. 6. Razia Parvin, M “Empowerment of Women strategies and system for gender justice”, Dominant Publishers & Distributors, New Delhi, 2005. 7. Zaiab Rahman, women and Society, Kalpaz Publications, Delhi, 2005. 8. Panigrahy,R,L and Dasarathi Bhuyan, “Women Empowerment”, Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 2006. 9. Heggade,D et all, “Empowering Women in India march towards gender equality”, Arjun Publishing Hose, Mysore, 2006. 10. h t t p : / / n c w . n i c . i n / s i t e s / d e f a u l t / fi l e s / F I N A L % 2 0 N C W % 2 0 ENGLISH%20ANNUAL%20REPORT%202018-19_0.pdf 1.

Chapter

7

Women Empowerment: An Judicial Perspective Dr. Sonali J. Gaikwad*

“I measure the progress of a community with the degree of progress women have achieved.” Dr. B.R. Ambedkar In reality, since eternities the status and the position of women folk in India is over and over again a debatable subject, because it reflects the contradictory and paradoxical nature of the Indian society. Women who constitute half of the world population are discriminated, harassed and oppressed regardless of the state, religion to which they belong, un-mind of the faith which they profess and without regard of the timeframe they live in. Everywhere women encounter with many challenges. In all civilizations to a more or less degree, women and girls are subjected to physical, sexual and psychological abuse and exploitation that cuts across lines of income, class and culture(Judicial Activism in Protection and Promotion of Women in India with Special Reference to Indian Con, n.d.).

Need of Women Empowerment The 20th era has countersigned the intensification and strengthening of women empowerment movement universally. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) reaffirming reliance within the fundamental human rights, within the dignity and value of the human person, equivalent rights of men and women, envisaged the entitlement of all cherished freedoms to all living individuals without any discrepancy of any kind, including discrimination based on sex. The World Conference on Human Rights at Vienna in 1993 had declared the human rights of women and the girl child to be “inalienable, integral and indivisible a part of universal human rights” and abolition of any sort of discrimination on the basis of sex, is the precedence objective of the international community. The Convocation on the Elimination * Assistant Professor, D.G.B. Dayanand Law College, Dayanand Nagar, Raviwar Peth, Solapur, Maharashtra

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of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), 1979 is one of the United Nations’ landmark treaty marking the struggle for women’s rights(Lahoti, 2020). The UN defines women’s empowerment as “women’s sense of self-worth; their right to possess and determine choices; to have access to opportunities and resources; right to have the supremacy to regulate their own lives, both in and out of the home; and their ability to influence the direction of social change to make a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally.” In other words, the extensive definition of empowerment incorporates both psychological and social development and moreover the human rights of people within the society, like the right to access opportunities and to organize collectively for change(Fox & Romero, 2017). Thus, women empowerment is recognition of women’s basic human rights in a righteous sense and creating such a surrounding where they’re treated as equals to men. Women empowerment means deliverance of women from the malicious clutches of social, economic, political, caste and genderbased discrimination. It means granting women the liberty to have life choices. Women empowerment doesn’t mean to glorify them as of supreme worth or goddess rather it means switching patriarchy with uniformity(Prathiba, n.d.).

Role of Indian Judiciary in Empowerment of Women The principle of gender equality is enshrined in our Indian Constitution in its Preamble, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties and Directive Principles. Awareness, understanding, and sensitivity towards the glitches and issues of gender bias are imperative within the judicial setting, since women look to our Judiciary for justice and protection in cases of violence, abuse, or discrimination(Bohra & Llb, n.d.). Gender bias is a present-day problem that’s seen everywhere over the Globe. Whatsoever the whys and wherefores may be, it’s our sense of duty of humans to guard the human rights of individuals who are victims. Our Constitution makes precise provision for confirmatory action in favour of women. It forbids all kinds of discrimination against women and lays a carpet for acquiring alike opportunity to women in all walks of life, including education, employment and participation. Judiciary has played a dynamic and active part in enforcing and strengthening the constitutional goals towards safeguarding the rights of the women. The Court of law in India have

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tried to interpret laws in consonance with the transnational treaties and conventions(Gattaiah, 2017). The below sighted cases, which were tussled to deliver justice to one woman, and which brought positive and optimistic hope to several women facing circumstances that emasculated their dignity and their fundamental right to equality. In the case of Air India Etc. vs Nergesh Meerza, 1981 AIR 1829, Indian airlines had laid down some provisions which were held violative of Article 14 of the Constitution of India. The provision specified that the air hostesses cannot tie the knot for the initial four years of their joining and shall lose their employments if they become pregnant and shall retire at the age of 35 unless it’s extended by the managing director at his discretion. The Supreme court hence held that the clauses regarding the superannuation and pregnancy were debauched and unconstitutional and thus therefore ordered them to be struck down. Also, the powers granted by the Regulation 47 of Air India Employees Service Regulations to the Managing Director are much excessive and it could lead on to possible cases of unfair practice(Rai, 2020). Mary Roy Vs State of Kerala 1986 (AIR 1011, 1986 SCR (1) 371), is a landmark case decided by the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India in the course of which the court had for the first time decided upon the inheritance right of Christian women against the law that had been earlier laid down in Travancore Succession Act of 1916 applicable upon Travancore Cochin Christians in Travancore area of Kerala. Women from the Syrian Christian community in Kerala were prevented from inheriting property owing to patriarchal traditions. This decree was challenged by Mary Roy, a woman’s right activist and educationalist. After the demise of her father, she filed a case against her elder brother when she was denied equal share within the family’s legacy. Though the petition was rejected by the inferior court, the Kerala High Court overruled the previous judgment. In 1986, the Supreme Court delivered a landmark judgment that granted Syrian Christian women the right to seek out the same share in their father’s property(Babbar, 2020). In Vishaka Vs State of Rajasthan (1997) 6 SCC 241 Case, Bhanwari Devi, a societal worker from Rajasthan, was violently gang-raped by five men for averting a child marriage. Persistent to seek justice, she decided to approach to the court. In a shocking decision, the trial court acquitted all five accused. Vishaka, a Group for Women’s Education and Research, took up the cause of Bhanwari Devi. It joined forces with four other women’s organisations, and filed a petition before the Supreme Court of India on the problem of sexual harassment

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at the workplace. On August 13, 1997, the Supreme Court made to order the Vishaka guidelines that defined sexual harassment and put the burden and responsibility on the employers to make available a secure working environment for women(Bohra & Llb, n.d.). Tamil Nadu Vs Suhas Katti, CC No. 4680 of 2004 is another revolutionary case which led to the primary conviction under the Information Technology Act, 2000. The victim was being beleaguered by the accused, Suhas Katti, when she denied to marry him. He would send slanderous and indecent messages to her online in a Yahoo message group. To augment to her torture, she began to receive phone calls from unknown people soliciting sex work. The victim filed a complaint in February 2004, and within seven months the accused was found guilty. In an age of ruthless trolls and other sorts of online harassment, this judgment acts as a tool that woman can use to safeguard their dignity(8 Landmark Judgements That Changed the Course for Women in India - YourStory, n.d.). In the case of Lata Singh Vs State of Uttar Pradesh, (2006) 5 SCC 475, is a landmark judgment in the legal history of India. In this case the Hon’ble Justice Ashok Bhan and Markandey Katju, JJ. permitted the writ petition under Article 32 filed by a woman named Lata Singh for enforcement of her right, that is to marry a person of her choice with her own will. The Supreme Court gave a decision in her favour and ordered for her police protection as well(Verma, 2020). In Mukesh v. State (NCT of Delhi) [(2017) 6 SCC 1], case, a girl was gang-raped while coming back from a movie theatre with a friend. She was assaulted and gang-raped by 6 men one among whom was a 17 years old minor. Her friend, when he tried to guard her, was also assaulted and beaten up by the convicts. Nirbhaya was gang-raped and they caused critical damage to her body internal and externally. After almost a month of treatment, she died owing to cardiac arrest, multiple organ failure and internal bleeding on December 29th 2012. The Supreme Court’s 3 judges bench, recognised the inhuman act of the respondents. The court after taking into consideration the nature of their conducts, how they maimed her body and destroyed her selfrespect and dignity, awarded the death sentence while recognising it a ‘rarest of the rare’ case(Garg, 2020). In Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes (CEHAT) Vs Union of India, Writ Petition (Civil) No. 301 of 2000, case with the onset of pre-natal diagnostic techniques that would determine the gender of a foetus, the growing tendency of aborting female foetuses was witnessed. In a bid to curb female feticide, the government of India issued the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act in 1996. The provisions

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of the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, however, weren’t being efficiently implemented by the State and Central government. The Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied themes filed a petition which led to the Supreme court to direct the Central and State governments to legislate the provisions of the act instantaneously and barred all advertisements concerning to pre-natal sex determination schemes(Feminist Jurisprudence In Patriarchal Society, n.d.). In one more promising case of Shiv Kumar Vs Union of India, Writ petition no.13112/2012, Resulting a writ petition filed by advocate Shiv Kumar from Karnataka, alongside Vimochana, a women’s activist group in Bengaluru, an anomalous discernment against Christian women was scrutinized and redress facilitated as per judgement delivered on February 3, 2015. As per the provisions under The Hindu Marriages Act of 1955, The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act of 1936, and the Special Marriages Act of 1954, a waiting period of just one year is specified before divorce with mutual consent are often sought. However, Section 10-A of The Divorce Act, 1869, prescribes two years of separation for Christian women, which violates the constitutional guarantee of equivalence before the law, regardless of religion. Remarking that a precedent exists from the Kerala High Court, which is applicable to all the states, the judge ruled that the one-year rule should apply to all womanhood. The court additionally made a mention of the necessity for a Uniform Civil Code, which was assured at the time of Independence but has so far not been taken up(“These Landmark Judgements Upholding the Dignity of Women by Indian Courts Will Make You Proud!,” 2015). The milestone pronouncement delivered in ‘Indian Young Lawyers Association vs. State of Kerala and Ors. (2018) The petitioners have prayed in the PIL for issue of appropriate writ or direction commanding the Government of Kerala and Devaswom Board of Travancore, to ensure entry of female devotees between the age group of 10 to 50 at the temple at Sabarimala which has been denied to them on the basis of certain custom and usage and to declare Rule 3(b) of the Kerala Hindu Places of Public Worship (Authorization of Entry) Rules, 1965 as unconstitutional being violative of Articles 14, 15, 25 and 51A(e) of the Constitution. The Supreme Court accepted the petition and on 28 September 2018, overturned the restriction on the entry of women, declaring it unconstitutional and discriminatory. The Supreme Court in a 4:1 majority said that the temple practise violates the rights of Hindu women and that banning entry of women to shrine is gender discrimination(Sehgal, 2019).

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A landmark verdict in shielding women’s rights within the context of the family is that the Supreme Court judgment in Vineeta Sharma v Rakesh Sharma (2020) where the court held that daughters would have equal coparcenary rights in Hindu Undivided Family property by virtue of their birth and will not be left out from inheritance, regardless of whether they were born before the 2005 amendment to the Hindu Succession Act, 1956.

Conclusion Empowering women socially, frugally, pedagogically, politically and legally is going to be a Colossal task. It is not going to be easy to change the culture of disregard and disrespect for women which are so deeprooted in Indian society. But it does not mean that it is unimaginable. Judiciary is a cornerstone of our democracy, idiosyncratic for the transparency, predictability and accountability of their process. Our judicial system is a key aspect of our egalitarian way of life. After going through all cases decided by the Indian Judiciary in regard of strengthening women empowerment, the positive role of Indian Judiciary can be discernible. All what is needed is a concentrated effort focused in the right direction that would rest only with the liberation of women from all forms of evil.

References 1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

8 landmark judgements that changed the course for women in India—YourStory. (n.d.). Dailyhunt. Retrieved December 25, 2020, from http://m. dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/yourstory-epaper-yourstory/8+lan dmark+judgements+that+changed+the+course+for+women+in+indianewsid-79913607 Babbar, D. S. K. (2020, April 27). we can make the difference: Women: Social Problems and Legislation (Part II). We Can Make the Difference. http:// drshilpakhatri-wecanmakethedifference.blogspot.com/2020/04/ women-social-problems-and-legislation_27.html Bohra, S. C., & Llb, B. A. (n.d.). ROLE OF INDIAN JUDICIARY IN WOMEN EMPOWERMENT. 18. Feminist Jurisprudence In Patriarchal Society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 25, 2020, from http://www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-1869feminist-jurisprudence-in-patriarchal-society.html Fox, L., & Romero, C. (2017). In the Mind, the Household, or the Market? Concepts and Measurement of Women’s Economic Empowerment. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-8079 Garg, R. (2020, August 20). Landmark judgments on offences against women under the Indian Penal Code, 1860. IPleaders. https://blog. ipleaders.in/landmark-judgments-on-offences-against-women-underindian-penal-code-1860/

Women Empowerment: An Judicial Perspective 7. 8.

9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14.

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Gattaiah, R. (2017). Women Empowerment in India and Judicial Activism. 5(4), 10. Judicial Activism in Protection and Promotion of Women in India with special reference to Indian Con. (n.d.). Retrieved December 23, 2020, from http:// www.legalserviceindia.com/legal/article-116-judicial-activism-inprotection-and-promotion-of-women-in-india-with-special-reference-toindian-con.html Lahoti, J. R. C. (2020). Women’s Empowerment—Role Of Judiciary And Legislature. The Practical Lawyer, 4. Prathiba, L. (n.d.). A Study on Issues and Challenges of Women Empowerment in India. 6, 3. Rai, D. (2020, November 16). Role of judiciary in maintaining a genderjust world. IPleaders. https://blog.ipleaders.in/role-of-judiciary-inmaintaining-a-gender-just-world/ Sehgal, D. R. (2019, November 22). Case Comment on Sabarimala Case. IPleaders. https://blog.ipleaders.in/case-comment-sabarimala-case/ These Landmark Judgements Upholding the Dignity of Women by Indian Courts Will Make You Proud! (2015, November 25). The Better India. https://www.thebetterindia.com/38927/judgements-in-favourof-gender-equality/ Verma, A. (2020, November 29). Case summary of Lata Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh. IPleaders. https://blog.ipleaders.in/case-summary-latasingh-v-state-uttar-pradesh/

Chapter

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Participation and Empowerment: Women in Local Government of Rural West Bengal, India Soumita Biswas*

Abstract This chapter explores the women empowerment experience in local government of rural West Bengal, on the basis of published and unpublished studies till date. Four themes are explored including legislative changes associated with women empowerment, participation of women in the decision-making process, party control over women representatives, and delivery of services by the women elected representatives. It concludes by arguing that there is a felt need to identify the barriers of empowerment such as lack of political awareness and politicization of the panchayats to achieve the desired level of outcomes. Keywords: Women Empowerment, Panchayati Raj Institutions, West Bengal, India

Introduction This essay hopes to initiate a discussion on women empowerment in Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs), the local government of rural India, in the state of West Bengal by re-examining scholarly literature on the Panchayat system in the state. In this context, my objective is not to add any empirical data but to make sense of what is available to us. Since the issue of women empowerment has received broad attention in the scholarships of local government, this essay will also be of interest to the scholars and practitioners of local government. In order to analyse the existing state of knowledge I have classified it into four thematic areas including (i) legislative changes associated with women empowerment, (ii) party control over women representatives, (iii) participation of women in the decision-making process, (iv) delivery of services by the women elected members.

* Assistant Professor, Department of Anthropology, Bidhannagar College, Salt Lake, Sector 1, Kolkata, West Bengal

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Legislative Changes Associated with Women Empowerment The state of West Bengal has a long history of local government (Ghosh, Bhattacharya, and Mitra 2010). It existed long before the independence. In this regard, the Bengali Chowkidari Act of 1870, the Bengal Local Self-government Act of 1885, and the Village Selfgovernment Act of 1919 were noteworthy (Ghosh et al. 2010). But women did not have the right to vote in these institutions (Ghosh et al. 2010). After the independence, the structure of panchayat system of West Bengal has undergone several changes. For example, in 1977 immediately after coming to power in West Bengal, the Left Front Government introduced three-tier Panchayati Raj Institutions including Gram Panchayat at village level, Panchayat Samiti at block level, and Zilla Parishad at district level. In 1978, the Left Front Government decided to hold party based direct elections to all the three tiers of the panchayats (Ghosh et al. 2010). Two major amendments were made in 1992 and 1994 regarding the empowerment of women. In 1992, the 73rd Amendment ensured that one-third of the seats of all three-tiers must be reserved for women (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). The amendment in 1994 provided for reservation in the offices of both chairpersons and vicechairpersons of all the tiers for women (Bhattacharya 2013). After that, in 2010 the Government of West Bengal decided to provide 50 per cent reservation for women at all levels of the panchayat system to promote greater participation of women in the decision-making process (The Hindu 2010).

Participation of Women in the Decision-making Process Participation in the decision-making process is the essence of Panchayati raj system (Bhattacharya 2013). Panchayat elections have been held at regular interval since 1978, and the participation of people as voters is numerically high in these elections (Bhattacharya 2013). However, participation of women at the village constituency meetings, the decision-making wings of the Village Panchayat, is significantly low (Kundu 2009), or almost absent (Bhattacharya 2002). Participation of women as elected representatives is significantly higher than the constitutional requirement (Bhattacharya 2013). But statistical data are not consistent with the reality. For example, it has been observed that the women representatives are guided by their husbands and relatives from behind (Bhattacharya 2013; Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Many women representatives do

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not raise their voices in the general meetings at the Village Panchayat (Bhattacharya 2013), and they return home after signing the attendance register of the village constituency meetings (Kundu 2009). Many of them do not want to participate in next panchayat election (Kundu 2009).

Delivery of Services by the Women Elected Members It has been observed that when a woman is elected as a Pradhan, the village constituency chief, attendance of women voters at the village constituency meetings also increases (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Even the number of women electors present in the meeting is also higher than that of men voters (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Women as elected representatives emphasize much on those issues which are relevant to the needs of local women (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). For example, the women members of West Bengal to a large extent invest on potable water and road construction (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). In West Bengal, drinking water is mainly fetched by the women, and women labourer are employed during road construction (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Hence, these two issues are deliberately considered by the women members (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Other issues like widow allowance, maternity allowance and old age pension for the destitute are also seriously considered by the women members as the beneficiaries of this welfare program are women (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). As a result, the condition of roads is comparatively better in those Village Panchayats where seats are reserved for women (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004). Investment in drinking water is also higher in these Village Panchayats (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004).

Party Control over Women Representatives In West Bengal, panchayats are political by nature (Banerjee 2008; Bhattacharya 2002; Chattopadhyay, Chakrabarti, and Nath 2010; Kundu 2009). All major decisions and activities of the panchayats are overseen by the party and the Pradhans just convey their decisions to the other elected representatives (Kundu 2009). Due to lack of experience in politics, women members also obliged to abide by the directions of the party members (Kundu 2009). Sometimes women members are nominated because of their family background (Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004; Kundu 2009). In such cases, they are assisted by their husbands and relatives who are party members or former Panchayat representatives. In this way, women representatives work as “messenger” or loyal bureaucrat” instead of political leaders

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(Kundu 2009). Many women members experience emotional pressure during selection of beneficiaries because they have to face the expectations of neighbours and relatives (Kundu 2009).

Conclusion From the discussion mentioned-above, it can be argued that most of the literature (e.g., Bhattacharya 2002; Kundu 2009) on women empowerment in rural West Bengal questions the active participation of women in the decision-making process of Village Panchayats. Only few scholars (e.g., Chattopadhyay and Duflo 2004) put forth the positive consequences of women empowerment in functioning of Village Panchayats. The Panchayati Raj Institutions encourage women participation in decision-making process at the grass root level through sufficient representation of the women in all three-tiers of the Panchayats. As a result, the number of women elected representatives has increased but the question is whether they have actually been empowered. Most of the research on women empowerment at the panchayat level in West Bengal has been done during the Left Front government (19772011). Hence, women empowerment at the panchayat level during the Trinamool Congress rule needs more scholarly attention. The Trinamool Congress has won with an overwhelming majority in the 2011 and 2016 assembly elections in West Bengal. After coming to power in West Bengal state assembly, the Trinamool Congress government has considered the issue of women empowerment with utmost importance, and brought about several major initiatives for women. Among these policies, the Kanyashree scheme has gained national and international recognitions and has won the United Nations Public Service Award at The Hague (Monideepa 2017). However, research is needed on the success of these policies for the empowerment of women at the panchayat level. It will pave another way for research on women empowerment in rural West Bengal. Rural women need to be made aware of the importance and effectiveness of local government. They also need to be made aware of the resources of the local government and its distribution. They should be encouraged to think innovatively, and make sure that local politics should not impede their independent thoughts. I believe through these initiatives we can achieve objectives of Panchayati Raj as local self-government where needs and aspirations of local people irrespective of gender would be reflected in the decision-making process. To conclude, it can be argued that scholars should begin in

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depth analyses of issues related to obstacles of women empowerment including politicization of panchayats, and lack of political awareness among women.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

8.

9.

Banerjee, Partha Sarathi. 2008. “The Party and the Panchayats of West Bengal.” Economic and Political Weekly 43(24):17–19. Bhattacharya, Debraj. 2013. “Centralised Decentralisation: Left Front and Panchayati Raj in West Bengal (1978-2013).” Dialogue 15(2):114–28. Bhattacharya, Moitree. 2002. Panchayati Raj in West Bengal: Democratic Decentralisation or Democratic Centralism. Manak Publications. Chattopadhyay, Raghabendra, Bhaskar Chakrabarti, and Suman Nath. 2010. “Village Forums or Development Councils: People’s Participation in Decision-Making in Rural West Bengal, India.” Commonwealth Journal of Local Governance 5:66–85. doi: https://doi.org/10.5130/cjlg.v0i5.1490. Chattopadhyay, Raghabendra, and Esther Duflo. 2004. “Impact of Reservation in Panchayati Raj Evidence from a Nationwide Randomised Experiment.” Economic and Political Weekly 39(09):979–86. Ghosh, Buddhadeb, Debraj Bhattacharya, and Madhulika Mitra. 2010. Political Economy of Panchayats in West Bengal. New Delhi. Kundu, Manasendu. 2009. “Panchayati Raj or Party Raj? Understanding the Nature of Local Government in West Bengal.” Pp. 107–36 in Inclusion and Exclusion in Local Governance: Field Studies from Rural India, edited by B. S. Baviskar and G. Mathew. New Delhi: Sage. Monideepa, Banerjie. 2017. “Kanyashree Scheme For Girls in Bengal Wins UN Award.” NDTV. Retrieved January 20, 2021 (https://www. ndtv.com/india-news/kanyashree-scheme-for-girls-in-bengal-wins-unaward-1716321). The Hindu. 2010. “50 p.c. Quota for Women in West Bengal Panchayats.” Retrieved January 19, 2021 (https://www.thehindu.com/news/ national/other-states/50-p.c.-quota-for-women-in-West-Bengalpanchayats/article16634596.ece).

Chapter

9

Political Empowerment of Women & Indian Politics: Key Concerns and Future Ahead

Souvik Chatterjee* (Corresponding Author) & Dr. Subhash Kumar**

Introduction Despite constituting a significant portion of the global population, women are still the most marginalized group in our society. Historically over the years’ women are not onlysuppressed economically and socially but times and times again their political rights were either curtailed or they deemed unqualified to run for public office. Such under-representationshave adverse consequences for substantive representation and fulfillment of women’s interests(Iyer L., 2019). In the contemporary times with the increasing level of literacy and technological advancement, there are gradual transformation of the condition of women in our society. Today women are as much important as man. Similarly, the success or failure of a democracy and its values depends on how well women are incorporated and integrated within power framework of society. In a polity, employment and work performed by women are indicators of nation’s overall progress. Women are entrusted with so much responsibility ranging from performing domestic chores to look after need for the family members. Yet women remain the most segmented and marginalized group in our society. India being the largest democracy of the world are entrusted with the responsibility to ensure active participation of women in politics. Even after so many years of independence, Indian state is still struggling to achieve gender equality especially in the politics and decision making arena. This study is an attempt to understand the current status of women in Indian politics. Rather than arguing only about political representation of women in politics, this study supports comprehensive understanding of gender related

* Ph.D., Research Scholar, Department of Politics and International Relations, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand **Assistant Professor, Department of Politics and International Relations Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand

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issues and incorporating them within the mainstream political discourse.

The Role and Current Status of Women in Indian Politics In order to improve the status of women in society requires not only formal recognition of their political rights but it perquisites incorporating them within the mainstream political process. In this aspect the lack of women political candidates provides barrier to their eventual representation in government. In the 2019 national election, about 14% of those elected to parliament were women (Jensenius & Verniers, 2019 as cited in Iyer, 2019). But only 9% of the candidates were women. So, it highlights in spite women under representationthey have a higher probability of winning. One of the interesting aspect of India’s democracy is the large turnouts of women voters at both the national and state levels in the country.The 2019 general election is a historical milestone in terms of number of women parliamentarians. In 2019 election the Rajya Sabha brought the number of women MPs to 25 of 245, just over 10% of the house, while there are 78 women in the 17th Lok Sabha(Krishnaswamy, 2020; Election Commision of India).This brings the tally of women in parliament to 103 which is a new record.However, these Electoral outcomes cannot achieve minimum women representation be they direct elections to the lower house or indirect elections to the upper house considering women in India constitute a half of the population. In the 2012 elections to Uttar Pradesh Legislative Assemblies recorded turnout of 58.82 to 60.29 per cent of the female voters(Paul & Mehta, 2016). Similarly, Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Manipur, Meghalaya, and Mizoram and many more reported higher turnouts for women in both legislative and panchayat elections. However, despite this increasing women participation in elections are not sufficient enough to capture legislative and decision making power for women. In contrast to women voters, the statistics on women’s lawmakers in Parliament and Legislative Assemblies are relatively low. So what are factors that responsible for low political participation of women? Firstly, family affairs and managing household prohibits them being part of political activities such as participation in elections, or membership in political parties and engage in any serious political dialogues. Secondly, women in Indian society especially in rural areas are not encouraged to engage in political process. Low political literacy and insufficient knowledge about the political institutions, leadership skills, and how to channelize their political demands are providing critical challenges for women participation in politics(Iyer L., 2019).

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All these factors, together with low level of education, household affairs, religion or caste, can explain approximately 69% of the gender gap in electoral political participation. This suggests that improving women’s knowledge, self-confidence, voice and mobility can have significant effects on their political participation(Iyer & Mani, 2019).  

Explaining Women Participation in Indian Politics: Key Constrains and Challenges Political participation in general is a broader concept which doesn’t concern only about election but it delineates political consciousness, decision-making opportunities, overall involvement in political process. Over the years there have been various measures taken such as reservation for women in Parliament and local bodies elections, empowering young women leaders and vocalizing sensitive gender related issuesetc. However, these measures don’t highlight the deep and hidden structural inequalities between the genders. In case of India, achieving gender equality is a major problem, because the very structures and institutions have been build and functioning with a patriarchal mindset. Women in India face many challenges when it comes to participate in politics. The major challenges are linked with sexual abuseand discrimination (Gesala, 2019). And the situation is much more grave for rural and Dalit Women.They have been brutally suppressed and marginalized and often are forced to stand out from elections by threats of violence. Even after India’s democratic decentralization in many areas, voting in an election without fear and compulsion are still a distant dream for many Indian women, Women in India are unaware about their constitutional rights and the political process in India (Gesala, 2019). Even though the working women in urban cities are having little knowledge about the politics of nation puts women at a disadvantage and vulnerable position. Additionallyin politics family members or other people generally make decisions for women and thus even though women vote, their decision is widely dominated by the male population (Gesala, 2019).

Empowering Women in India beyond Political Participation Now it is prerequisite to understand that why only voting is not enough for politically enlightening women in India. Unlike voting, if women are elected in public officethat not only boost the self-confidence of the candidate but provides inspiration for future potential women candidates. The higher the number of woman legislators and policy makers in a country, women will feel more comfortable with voting and participating in politics. Subsequently political parties will invest

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may be more willing to nominate women candidates after observing their electoral success(Iyer L., 2019).  Iyer her groundbreaking work put together data on 3,473 electoral constituencies over the threedecade period from 1980 to 2007 and to understand the position of women in Indian politics.In India’s federal system States have considerable authority over several policy domains, including law and order, health, and education. Because of this the central focus of this study was to understand the position of women in Indian States. This study highlights that in most cases where women win, voters are more woman-friendly to begin with and which encourage female candidacy in the upcoming elections, irrespective of whether the woman won or lost (Iyer L., 2019; Iyer & Mani, 2019). This study highlights three important findings which are so helpful to understand the position of women in Indian politics and also develops policies keeping in mind such challenges. First, woman’s electoral victory in an election leads to an 18.5 percentage point higher probability of having a woman major party candidate in the next election. Second, even after women candidates are successful in election, major political parties are hardly bother about women candidates and also there is no increase in female candidacy in nearby constituencies.Third, in some Indian states there are ‘backlash’ effect for new women candidates. States in which gender inequality are prominentand deeply entrenched a woman’s electoral victory is followed by a significant decline in the share of new women candidates in the next election(Iyer L., 2019). 73rd constitutional amendment is important milestone in politically empowerment of women in India(Srivatsa, 2016). This act offered gender based reservation, with one-third of all seats in village and district councils. Also this is for the time women got some experience of politics and governance. This brings us to the fundamental question how can we improve and enrich the political participation of women in India. We need to understand that voting and contesting in elections are important to understand the political process in India, it is not sufficient enough. Majority of the Indian population lives in rural community under patriarchal power structure. In many cases they have not only been denied education, their voting rights are determined by their family head. So in recent times the success or failure of polity depends upon how the Indian State is able to capture and recognized the political skills of women and women’s leadership. Over the years, the rate of women representation in national parliaments increased significantly.In Some regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and the Arab states region the number of

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women representation increased from 11 to 23.6 percent and 3.1 to 17.5 percent subsequently(Pepera, 2018). However still women are considerable minority of all legislators with insignificant policy making and decision making abilities(Pepera, 2018). Barring some remarkable women political personality, politics as public practice is still dominated by men and women lacks sufficient avenues to upheld their political demands and rights.Accordingly, nationaldevelopment policy is to framed in such a way that the meaningful participation and representation of women in national, local, and community leadership are achieved. Government need to develop partnership with women civil society groups to women are involved in all aspects of the political process. So it’s very clear as long as we are only concern about voters turn outs and elections, the position of women is not going to increase significantly. We need to locate women and engage them in whole spectrum of political process ranging from elections, leadership to decision making powers etc.

Conclusion In the current context the vibrancy of Indian democracydepends upon political participation of women along with greater responsiveness of women needs, increased cooperation between government and civil society groups to achieve gender equal society.In order to achieve this gender equality both women participation and their involvement in policy matters are equally important. Engaging women in policy issues helps us understand how women considered their demands and what are best types of solutions that can be implemented to improve their condition.Similarly, it has been observed throughout the globe if women are elected to public office, there are significant increase in quality of life as women are more considerate about the priorities of families, women, and other minorities. At the same time with the increased literacy among women and with help of social media platform, women can be more effectively into the mainstream political process.In case of rural localities, both central and state governments along with local NGO’s need to organize campaigns and workshops to develop awareness among rural women. However, the biggest challenge is to bring structural reforms in Indian politics. Patriarchal mindset and gender based abuse still dominated the common parlance of Indian politics.In this aspect both Political parties and national leadership needs to ensure that women can make an informed political decision, without any fear. Similarly, in order to ensure gender equality in society onlyreservation, wide campaigning and voting in elections will not solve the problem. There is need to

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bring out a comprehensive understanding about the status of women in Indian politics so that complex issues can be dealt in an efficient and effective manner.

References 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

8. 9.

For more details about voter turnouts and list of parliamentarians visit Election Commission of India https://eci.gov.in/ Gesala, K. (2019, April 09). Women and Political Participation in India. Retrieved from Safecity: https://safecity.in/women-and-politicalparticipation-in-india/ Iyer, L. (2019, May 24). Getting more women into politics: Evidence from elections in India. Retrieved from VoxEU- The Centre for Economic Policy Research: https://voxeu.org/article/getting-more-women-politicsevidence-india Iyer, L., & Mani, A. (2019). The Road Not Taken: Gender Gaps Along Paths to Political Power. World Development(119), 68-80. Jensenius, F., & Verniers, G. (2019). Indian National Election and Candidates Database 1962 - Today. Trivedi Centre for Political Data. Krishnaswamy, T. (2020, August 11). Female Parliamentarians at a Historic High, but Parties Must Do More. Retrieved from The Wire: https://thewire. in/women/women-parliament-lok-sabha-rajya-sabha-politica-parties Paul, S., & Mehta, A. (2016, June 04). Where are the women? Political power is still a male domain in India. Retrieved from Firstpost: https://www. firstpost.com/politics/where-are-the-women-political-power-is-still-amale-domain-in-india-2816568.html Pepera, S. (2018, February 28). Why Women in Politics? Retrieved from Women Deliver: https://womendeliver.org/2018/why-women-inpolitics/ Srivatsa, P. (2016). Political Empowerment of Women and Panchayat Raj. Yojana(October,2016). Retrieved from http://yojana.gov.in/ public-account_2016sep.asp#:~:text=At%20the%20local%20level%20 the,and%20chair%20persons%20of%20Panchayats.

Chapter

10

Panchayati Raj and Women Empowerment Swapan Hati*

Introduction “To awaken the people, it is the women who must be awakened. Once she is on the move, the family moves, the village moves, the nation moves” -Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. Empowerment is a multi-dimensional concept and relates to the attainment, economical participation and political participation of people. Further, empowerment being an ongoing process, there is no final goal. One does not arrive at a stage of being empowered in some absolute sense. It is always relative and situation specific in context. Because of its complex and dynamic nature, defining and measuring empowerment is challenge in any development study. More so in case of women, who faced prolonged discrimination that has resulted into gender disparity in the society. Hence, it is a challenge to define what empowerment means in its own context and to assess whether and to what extent women have been empowered. Some studies suggest a linear cause-effect model while other resort to a more process-based approach. The dynamic process might be broken into key components for a comprehensive understanding of empowerment. Separating the process into components (such as enabling factors/parameters, agency and outcomes) is useful in identifying policy interventions to support empowerment, and for evaluating the impact of such interventions. Success or failures in development interventions may partly be attributed to approaches that recognise the underlying factors/ parameters responsible for empowering women. Therefore, utmost attention needs to be taken in identifying the key empowerment parameters.

* Assistant Teacher of Political Science, Harasankar Garkilla Santamayi High School (H.S.), West Bengal

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Conceptual frameworks for measuring women’s empowerment at the aggregate/ macro level are less developed as compared to household level. The accepted and most commonly cited are Genderrelated Developed Index (GDI), a gender-disaggregated Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) by UNDP (1995).

Empowerment: Dynamic and Political Process In order to move towards gender equality, we have to empower that gender which is disempowered, i. e., women and girls. One needs to understand POWER in order to empower anyone. Power is the capacity or ability to take actions freely and independently, it is the capacity to control or influence others. Power means autonomy freedom, making your own choices, having a voice. In human societies, power is derived from control over resources and ideology. People who control resources and ideology (people’s thinking, belief systems etc.) become the decision makers and controllers of families, communities and countries. According to me, empowerment of women will improve our lives only if our notion of power is different from the present notion of power. Women’s empowerment is a process, which is both on-ongoing and dynamic and which enhances women’s ability to change those structures and ideologies which keep them subordinate. This process enables them to gain more access to and control over resources and decision-making; gain more control over their own lives, gain more autonomy. It is a process which enables women to have self-respect and dignity, which improves their self image and social image. The process of empowerment is a political process, because it aims at changing existing power relationship between women and men. The goal of women‘s empowerment cannot and should not just be to change hierarchical relations, but to change all hierarchical relations in society i.e. class, caste, race, ethnic, and North-South relations. Because gender relations do not operate in a vacuum, because they are related to and influenced all other economic, social, and political system, one cannot change gender hierarchies without changing other system and hierarchies. Women’s empowerment is not and cannot be separate from the empowerment of nature, empowerment of all the marginalised people and countries. Women’s struggles and movements therefore, need to be closely linked to peace movements, ecology movements,

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workers, and peasants’ movements, human rights movements and movements for democratisation and decentralisation of society. These different movements are different aspects of the same struggle, different segments of the same dream; therefore, there need to be strong connections and alliances between them.

Women in India: Constitutional Guarantee The Constitution of India guarantees to all women, equality (Article-14); no discrimination by the state [Article-15(1)]; equality of opportunity (Article-16); equal pay for equal work[Article-39(d)]; renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women [Article-51(a) (c)]. The Constitution also allows the state to make special provision in favour of women and children [Article-15(3)]; and securing just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief (Article-42). The Government of India declared 2001 as the “Year of Women’s Empowerment” and the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women came into force from 2001. The 73rd constitutional amendment bill which inter alia ensured the entry of women into rural local self governing units i.e. the panchayats, both as members and as functionaries. This was considered a gigantic step towards empowerment of women. The 73rd constitutional amendment spelt a sea change in the arena of women’s representation in PRI (Panchayati Raj Institution). It brought in a total departure from the erstwhile system of token nomination or co-option of one or two women in panchayats as advised by B.R.Mehta Committee (1957) and Ashok Mehta Committee (1978). Further, it also partially complied with the recommendation of the committee on the status of women which, way back in 1974 mentioned that earnest efforts should be taken for “....................establishment of statutory women’s panchayats at the village level with autonomy and resources of their own for the management and administration of welfare and development programmes for women and children, as a transition measure, to break through the traditional attitudes that inhibit most women from articulating their problems and participating actively in the existing local bodies” (as cited in India Panchayati Raj Report-2001). On 27th August, 2009 the Indian cabinet approved a proposal for enhancing the reservation of directly elected seats for women from one third to fifty percent in all the tiers through an amendment Article 243(D) (3) of the constitution. Article 243(D) (3) enumerates that ‘not less than one third (including the number of seats reserved for women belonging in to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes) of the total number seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat

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shall be reserved for women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a panchayat’. Along with this, rotational reservation of at least one third of the total number of offices of chair persons at all levels of panchayat was ensured through Article 243D (4). The proposed amendment seeks to replace this phrase of “not less than one third” with the words “not less than half”.

Performance of Women in PRIs 1. Despite several stumbling blocks women PRIs( Panchayati Raj Institutions) members have generally performed well throughout the country. Several surveys indicate this, the Ministry of Panchayati Raj of the Government of India has also conducted one, with by far the largest sample size. 2. Participation of women in the Gram Sabha meetings increases when the Prodhan is a Women. This corroborates the general perception that political communication improves when the citizen and the leader are of the same sex. (The Impact of Reservation in the Panchayati Raj-Evidence from nationwide randomized experiment- Raghobendra Chattopadhyay & Esther Daflo-Nov.-2003). 3. Since women panchayat representatives consistently demand for adequate supply of drinking water, housing and social welfare programmes, expenditure on these count are relatively higher in women headed panchayats. 4. Women headed panchayats score brownie points in construction of roads, upkeep of drinking water facilities and administering government loan schemes. However their performance is not as effective in ensuring irrigation avenues. 5. Women headed panchayats generally take more interests in negotiating social evils like child marriage, indiscriminate sale of liquor, which-hunting and such other problems.

Real Empowerment It is argued that women need to be ‘empowered’ in the realm of political decision making so as to facilitate their ‘real’ empowerment. About one million women entered Panchayats after 73rd constitutional Amendment Act. It is a known fact that 40 percent of the elected women represented the marginalized sections and about 70 percent women representatives were illiterate and most of them had no previous political experience. Therefore, it was but natural that there was a widespread apprehension that women will be manipulated

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by men. However, in spite of several instances of such manipulation and capitulation by women, the presence of such a large number of women in panchayats has indeed had a deep impact on gender equity. The occupation of the marginalized women of elected seats and chairperson’s posts in grassroots democratic governments is a huge social and political revolution, the significance of which would take at least generation to fully unfold. There are a huge number of panchayats working in different circumstances, the extent of empowerment of women vary from region to region and panchayats work under different legal frame works - as states have the discretion to define the scope and ambit of Panchayati Raj - every spectrum of political behaviour, ranging from abject subordination of women to remarkable instances of social and political assertiveness can be seen in the functioning of Panchayats. Therefore, examples are merely anecdotes – true only in respect of the instance quoted – and have very little value in terms of deriving conclusions about Panchayati Raj. Surely, an endeavour to broad base democracy on this scale is bound to have shortcomings and setbacks, and would need course correction. However, there is no taking away from the fact that there have been huge benefits, which have not been fully understood or studied, to empowerment and development through Panchayati Raj.

Owing to Rotational Policy Women can scarcely continue their relationship with politics. There are three points to be noted in this kind of rotational reservation – 1. First a very small percentage of first time women members/ pradhans get elected for the second /third time. The following table amply clarifies this. 2. Secondly, as well these seats were previously held by male members, they often manage to fix these up in favour of one of their women relatives. Hence we find that most women representatives scarcely had previous experience of being associated with political or social organization and majority of them got elected to the seats to which their family members were previously elected. 3. Thirdly, women candidates are scarcely nominated from unreserved seats. In rural local bodies only 10.8% of the women get elected from unreserved seats. For male contestants however this figure is 49%. (“Study on Elected Women Representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions” – Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India, 2008)

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Thus this rotational aspect of reservation begets a short-term gain mindset, leading to a lack of accountability among the PRI (Panchayati Raj Institutions) members. Women who have got in simply through family connections are also not effective in asserting themselves and bringing about meaningful change. The process also entails a huge wastage of resources on the part of state governments as with every election they have to start process of training and other related activities initio for the women members. There is however, big difference between representation and participation. It is easier to legislate representation, but it is rather a complex and difficult task to create conditions for participation. The proper representation does not automatically lead to proper participation. It is important that they are in a position to influence decision making and prepare and implement the schemes for economic development and social justice.

Conclusion The approach of addressing issues related to empowerment of women from a holistic and macro-point of view acknowledging the cross cutting linkages between political, social and economic identity of women presents a new hope. There is increasing recognition that these factors deeply intertwined and if efforts in any one dimension remains absent or weak, the outcome and momentum generated by the other components cannot be sustained, and that it only when all these three factors are addressed simultaneously and made compatible with each other can women be truly empowered. Therefore, for the holistic empowerment of women, all ministries and departments would need to energize synergistic measures through more effective use of tools such as Gender Budgeting and platforms such as the National Mission for Empowerment of Women. The gender convergence mantra also holds a key to inclusive governance and our cherished dream of growth with justice and equity. Women’s concerns have to be kept at the centre of public policy, developmental planning and governance, with recognition of their role as critical growth agents and as ambassadors of social change. This facet of women’s life has undergone major transformation in recent times. The modern women’s is no longer confined to the four walls of the house. Women are now realizing their worth in every way and demanding gender equality and justice both at home and in the workplace. They have broken the glass barrier in almost every field. A multidirectional organized approach to women empowerment is sure to take the country way beyond this path. It would be apt to quote

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Swami Vivekananda – “There is no chance of the welfare of the world unless the condition of women is improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on wing.” Surely it is time to change this.

References 1.

Agrawal, S. (2003).Technology Model for Women’s Empowerment. Kurukshetra, May, (4), pp. 18-28. 2. Amartya Sen, ‘Transition to Sustainability in the 21st century’ Keynote Address, at the Inter-Academy Panel called Sustainability and Freedom on International Issues,15th May,2000 3. Geraldine Forbes, ‘The Politics of Respectability: Indian Women and the Indian National Congress’ in Women in Colonial India: Essays in politics, Medicine and Historiograph, Delhi: Chronicle Books, 2005, PP. 11-62 4. Ghosh, J. (2015) Women’s Burden in Jain, D. and Sujay, C.P. (Eds.) India Women, Publication Division. Government of India. 5. Kabeer, n. (2001). Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment, Discussing Women Empowerment – Theory and Practice. Sida Studies, 3. Stockholm. 6. Radha Kumar, The History of Doing: An Illustrated Account of Movements for Women’s Rights,1800-1990, Delhi: Kali for Women, 1993 7. “ Study on Elected Women Representatives in Panchayati Raj Institutions” – Ministry of India,(2008). 8. http://pib.nic.in/newsitelPrintRelease.aspx?relid=123669 9. http://cbseonline.nic.in/regn/uddaan,html 10. https://www.ges2017.org/govt-of-india-support-for-empowerment 11. http://indiatoday.intoday.inIstory/pmjdy-hejped-more-women empowered-reportll170 12. YOJANA, (2011), P.P-24, YOJANA, ( 2016), P.P-5, and YOJANA,(2018).P.P -23.

Chapter

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Problems and Solution Faced by Working Women in India Dr. Sunita Dhopte*

Abstract The main objective of the study was to understand the problems and issues faced by urban working women in India. The objectives also included identifying the key socioeconomic attributes contributing to women’s status, safety and security, and to study women’s involvement in various activities/ organizations for improving of family, community and society. The study was confined to the urban working women in white collared jobs in the city of Rourkela, India. A mixed methods approach involving face to face interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaire technique including both closeended and open-ended questions was chosen for effective elicitation of data from the respondents. Methods triangulation was adapted for establishing validity and reliability of the study. The study was based on primary data collected from Rourkela city to find out the possible solutions for working women which could help them to overcome the problems that they face in the workplace. The results of the study showed that different age group of working women have different kinds of problems and challenges and different categories as married, single, divorcee, single parent, separated, have different issues at stake in the workplace. Some problems are definitely common, like mental and physical stress, lack of proper balance between employment and family care, unfair treatment in the workplace, stressful life and work place discrimination etc. Keywords: Gender Discrimination, Health issues, Equality, Problems and Challenges.

Introduction In the history of human development, women have been as vital in the history making as men have been. In fact higher status for women vis-à-vis employ. Undoubtedly, without the active participation of women in national activities, the social, economic or political progress * Head, Dept. of Sociology, Smt. Kesharbai Lahoti Mahavidyalaya, Amravati, Maharashtra

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of a country will deteriorate and become stagnant. But ironically and tragically, women employees in general, are not taken very seriously by their superiors, colleagues, or society at large. Having a career poses challenges for women due to their family responsibilities. Traditionally Indian women had been home makers but in the recent decades, proper education and better awareness, in addition to the ever increasing cost of living has made them to go out and choose careers. In a patriarchal society like India it is still believed that a man is the primary bread winner of his family. Although Indian women have started working outside their homes but still they have a long way to go both culturally, socially and economically, to bring in positive attitudinal changes in the mind-set of people. It is generally perceived that gender bias against working women starts right from the stage of recruitment. Most of the Indian men are not ready to accept that women are capable enough to work side by side with men in all the sectors, other than in a few limited ones like teaching, nursing and in clerical sectors. Their capabilities are generally underestimated as a result of which Indian women have a tendency to opt for less demanding jobs even if they are highly qualified. Women have the responsibilities to effectively manage their multiple roles in domestic as well as professional lives. Men generally do not offer any help in the households work. This makes the life of working women extremely stressful.

Background Information While a majority of the women still face discrimination and gender bias, in the last few decades, the number of women successful in politics, technology and business etc. is definitely on the rise. Society has started seeing women in a different perspective. They work as lawyers, nurses, doctors, social workers, teachers, secretaries, managers and officers etc. There is no profession today where women are not employed. However, it is true that working women have to face problems by virtue of their sex. For centuries women have been subjected to exploitation and torture, physically, sexually and mentally. There are innumerable challenge and problems faced by them both at home and workplace. What we generally see today, in addition to various media and journal reports is that in the workplace women generally face mental stress, sexual harassment, discriminatory practices, safety and security issues etc (Martin, 1989). India’s patriarchal society thinks of women only as homemakers and sexual objects and is generally subjected to exploitation and torture (Dube, 2001).

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Women in the Workplace Women in the workforce earning wages or a salary are part of a modern phenomenon, one that developed at the same time as the growth of paid employment for men; yet women have been challenged by inequality in the workforce (N. Andal 2002). A woman is a social animal. To keep her in captivity, without access to work or finance or interaction with the outside world, is less than fair (Eisenhover, 2002). Economic, social and political empowerment of women is essential for the development of any society. Working women are essential for the development of the society, so empowerment of women is important to the process of upliftment of economic, social, political status of women.

Research Problems The study evinces the following research problems for the study at hand related to problems and challenges faced by working women in the workplace: 1. Balancing between paid employment and family care. 2. Work related stress problems faced by working women. 3. Victims of physical harassment and unfair treatment in the workplace. 4. Tolerance of abuse, violence, harassment and discrimination. 5. Sexual harassment, mental pressure and safety problems

Objectives of the Study The study attempts to address the following key research objectives: 1. To gain knowledge about the problems and challenges faced by urban working women in the workplace. 2. To identify the key socio-economic pointers contributing to women’s status, safety and Security. 3. To study women’s involvement in various activities/ organizations for upliftment of family, community and society that can lead to their overall development.

Research Methodology The study is exploratory in nature and seeks to identify the problems and challenges faced by urban women in different professional sectors like public sector enterprises, banks, schools and colleges, hospitals, commercial organizations etc. Further the study also aims also at finding out the organizational supports for women employees so that

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the women employees are able to give their best to their organization and are able to reach their full potential. The present study surveyed only urban women employees in white collared jobs who have been in their jobs for at least six months. The study was conducted within Rourkela city. Rourkela city is a steel plant city; multi-linguistic, multiethnic, multi-religious and multi-cultural. This diversity makes it more attractive for this research study. The places covered for the study were the local schools, colleges, banks, hospitals, Public Sector enterprises, Engineering services, Commercial organizations etc. Primary data was collected from 100 working women of the organized sector using a mixed-methods approach that included face to face interviews, Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and questionnaire. Seventy-five responses were found to be complete and valid the data. Results and Discussions: The items in the questionnaire included urban working women issues related key parameters like sexual and mental harassment, promotion issues, family care issues, discrimination based on gender, workplace discrimination and prejudices, safety and security issues etc. Table1.1Perception of prevalence of sexual harassment or underestimation on the basis of gender (in nos.) No. of Respondents

%

Yes

40

47

No

35

53

Percentage distribution of perception of prevalence of sexual harassment or underestimation on the basis of gender, Inference: According to the above information 53% of females agreed that sometimes they felt hesitant to work with male colleagues and 47% said that they were not comfortable with male colleagues. The reason for such high percentage of women not feeling comfortable working with their male colleagues could be their lack of selfconfidence, or the inherent distrust for men in our society, reinforced down the years by negative experiences and general awareness. Have you ever faced sexual abuse of any kind in your workplace?

Recommendations Conclusions Related to the challenges and problems faced by working women drawn from the analysis of responses: 1. Professional women feel isolated and burdened by the simultaneous demands of their new aspirations on one side and the traditional way of life on the other.

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2. Women are discriminated against in all walks of life. 3. Women are subjugated, dominated and exploited both at work places and home. 4. Women are generally unable to give proper and quality time to households, kids and family. 5. Working women generally face workplace sexual harassment, mental pressure, and safety issues. 6. 6. Females are also highly judgmental about other female colleagues and try to put one at any given opportunity. 7. Women face problems leaving kids at home and going to office early in the morning. 8. Child rearing problems are always faced by working women. 9. People make particular perception or draw conclusion about characters of working women. 10. The social system cannot accept the new roles of women who end up feeling misunderstood and distressed.

Refferences 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Dr. Shambunath © 2017 IJCRT (2017)PROBLEMS AND CHALLENGES FACED BY URBAN WORKING WOMEN IN INDIA Agapiou, A. (2002). Perceptions of gender roles and attitudes toward work among male and female operatives in the Scottish construction industry. Construction Management &Economics, 20(8), 697-705. Andal, N. (2002). Women and Indian society: Options and constraints. New Delhi: RawatPublications. Arnove, R. F., Torres, C. A., & Franz, S. (Eds.). (2012). Comparative education: The dialectic of the global and the local. Rowan& Littlefield Publishers. Beck, L., & Keddie, N. R. (Eds.). (1980). Women in the Muslim world (Vol. 13). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Borooah, V. K., &Iyer, S. (2005). Vidya, Veda, and Varna: The influence of religion and caste on education in rural India. The Journal of Development Studies, 41(8), 1369-1404. Budhwar, P. S., Saini, D. S., &Bhatnagar, J. (2005). Women in Management in the New economic Environment: The case of India. Asia Pacific Business Review, 11(2), 179-193. Chakra borty, S. (2013). Empowering the Tribal Women through Education: Issue of Social Justice with Reference of West Bengal. Afro Asian Journal of Anthropology and Social Policy, 4(1), 24-28 Dube, L. (2001). Anthropological explorations in gender: Intersecting fields. New Delhi: SagePublications Pvt. Limited.

Chapter

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Pramila Nesargi - The Advocate Social Activist of Karnataka Dr. Vasudha. N*

Indian women have been an epitome of beauty, strength and intelligence. The success of Indian women in various walks of life have earned them a special reputation in diversified spheres. Some women have actively participated in changing some of the major social evils of the society. The focused dedication of these dedicated women has brought about tremendous changes in the society. These women have displayed exemplary dedication to bring about positive developments in society. Some prominent women who deserve a mention here include Aruna Roy who is known for her fight against corruption and promoting government transparency, Medha Patkar who fought for the rights of the underprivileged and felt for the need to serve them, Kiran Bedi the first woman IPS Officer of the country who introduced several social reforms in Tihar Jail, Arundhati Roy who is known for her involvement in environmental and cause for Human rights, Irom Sharmila popularly known as the ‘Iron Lady of Manipur’ and ‘the longest hunger striker of the world’ with a fasting of 500 weeks without food and water for the rights of people of North-East, Manasi Pradhan who has worked for the rights of women and started a movement to end violence against women in India, Amala Akkineni who has left the glittering world of stardom and has taken the cause of sick, beaten and homeless animals, Laxmi Agarwal a target of acid attack herself has taken up the cause of rights of acid attack victims, Shaheen Mistri who has earned global recognition for her dedication and commitment to fight for educational equity, are a few examples of women who have come out of the traditional set up to fight for a meaningful cause. However, there are many more women whose work and name may not find a mention but have brought drastic changes in many fields.

* Assistant Professor, Department of History, Government First Grade College, Ramanagara, Karnataka

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One such social activist who deserves a mention here is Pramila Nesargi, an Indian Lawyer, social activist, humanitarian, educationist and a well-known woman’s activist. She has many achievements to her credit. She is the first ever woman to be elected in the past 50 years for Karnataka Bar Council as Chairman of Bar Association. She was born on 25 March 1938, in Mysore, Karnataka. Her parents have had a major impact on her. Her mother was a freedom fighter and her father was a self-made man. She was the first person in the family who went to college. She completed her Bachelor of Science in the year 1958, LLB degree in the year 1960, and a graduate degree in law in 1963. She has been the first lady to qualify M.L. (Jurisprudence). Pramila Nesargi started her career when persuading graduate program (M.L) by filing a writ against her lecturer who was only an under graduate (LLB) and was conducting graduate classes. She obtained a law degree at an early age and started practicing law. She is known as a maverick lawyer who fights against sensitive issues such as child labor, house and control, sexual violence at work, domestic violence and prisoner’s plight. Her vision is to stand up for women and fight against injustices meted out to them. Lawyer profession was male profession a few decades back. But she took it up as a challenge to change the trend and succeeded in becoming a renowned lawyer. She has also contributed in organizing various unincorporated sectors. She has been a member of the dictionary committee for English-Kannada translation. She is the first woman to be elected in the past 50 years to the Karnataka Bar Council as Chairman of Bar Association. Pramila has represented a sweep of cases from high profile to controversial cases for which she has often faced severe criticism. She fought against many ministers in controversial cases and was responsible to bring justice to many unfortunate people who have faced injustice and oppression in society. She fights against injustice, corruption and when the integrity of a public personality is questionable.

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Pramila Nesargi joined politics in the year 1978. She was first elected Lady Senate member to Karnataka Legislative assembly from Janata party during the years 1978-1983. She contested and won from Chamrajpet constituency, Bangalore. She also contested for parliament elections in the 1991 from North Bangalore and lost to C. K. Jaffer Sharief. She was later elected as member of Legislative assembly of Karnataka from the year 1991-1994. In her second term she contested and won from Chamrajpet constituency, Bangalore. She was also the Chairperson of Women’s state commission in 2007. She was also the President of India Women Lawyer, Karnataka State between 20072014. Pramila Nesargi has suggested and submitted various reports to the Government of Karnataka and Government of India on sensitive issues such as child labor, house and rent control, sexual violence at work, domestic violence and prisoners plight. She has also raised her voice in organizing various unincorporated sectors. She also suggested to amend various laws offending women in Hindu and Mohammedan Law. She recommended revision in Criminal Procedure law, Evidence act, Cyber act and Right to Information act. As a member of the Education Committee, she has provided suggestions and policies that have been widely accepted in the arena of technical education (engineering), medical education and general education. During her tenure in the education committee, she has attended various functions related to the respective universities. During her tenure as MLA, she had held different positions in various capacities in the Government. She heads Samragni Swa Udyog Trust, whose primary function is to uplift skill in all women and special children. She holds a very strong bond with the literary field too, especially with Kannada Sahitya Parishad. She has felicitated several literary figures of Karnataka. Recognising her painstaking efforts, in August 2018 Power Brands awarded Pramila Nesargi with the Bharatiya Manavata Vikas Puraskar for being one of India’s most revered advocate-activists and a staunch negotiator for the law and all forms of legal reforms and for displaying exemplary political courage, leadership and acumen for the sake of the common man and for playing a stellar role in numerous seemingly insurmountable battles for a greener tomorrow.

References 1. 2. 3. 4.

Jewelsofindia.blagspot.in/2013/01 Daily India Media – Bharatiya Manavata Vikas Puraskar 2018 IndianKanoon.org www.centralchronicle.com

Chapter

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Gender Discrimination and Human Rights Abuses in the Khap Area Dr. Vivek Pathak*

The Khap Area does not refer to the Khap Panchayats, but to the districts of the states where the Khap Panchayats have influence. Most of the khap has influence in Karnal, Sonipat, Jhajjar, Jind, Hisar in Haryana besides Baghpat, Aligarh, Meerut and Saharanpur districts of western Uttar Pradesh. With the passage of time, there should have been a change in the thinking and structure of the Khap Panchayats; it has changed only to some extent. Most of the time, whenever there was a voice for reform, there has been opposition. In particular, the Khap area has been very fierce about the rights of women. The Khap Panchayat has mostly failed to challenge its thinking. “Our thinking is a bundle of our experiences, beliefs and habits. We get all this in home, Family, Education and society. But when after a time when this routine is made, it turns into Conservatism. Everything we think is just repetition1.Therefore; the basic problem is how to reconcile the realities of our identity and our culture, our society and our history with other identities, other cultures and other nations. Taking part in the glories of our culture does not suit the people of any society, especially in today’s time when all the structures are changing.2But as changes and the voices of their participation in women’s khap panchayat become louder, the voices of protest begin to become vocal. The main reason for this is “patriarchy, through which a certain set of institutions are now recognized, is defined as a system of social structure and action in which men dominate women and they exploit them. – Harassment.3People belonging to the Khap region also have the same problem that they do not want to be ready to give up their rights. It is often seen that the head of the Khap Panchayat is the male, when it comes to participation or election in the Khap, the share of women is very less. Most of the issues involve youth and women.

* Guest Teacher, Department of History, Rajendra College, Takkar

Mode, Chapra, Bihar

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If women are involved in a social issues meeting.So neither an attempt is made to know their thoughts nor are they allowed to speak. This is the reason that even if one or two Khap Panchayat heads become women, their support does not get much of a raid. This is the reason that old ideas do not only provide an opportunity for new ideas to flourish. This makes it clear that the dominance of man or woman is not an individual phenomenon, but it is part of a broader structure. The most useful definition of patriarchy is given by, ‘Gerda Lerner’, “According to him, the expression of male dominance over women and children in the patriarchal family is generally an extension of men’s social domination over women. It means that men have control over all the important power establishments of society and women are deprived of access to such power”4. Not only has this, under patriarchy; the man controlled the woman both inside and outside the house. From the perspective of gender discrimination, discourses on the birth of a daughter in the home, discrimination on facilities and responsibilities, violence against women within the home are prominent. The nature of patriarchy has been different in different societies, different castes, classes and Characters. But the sequence of change in the Khap region should have been continuous, it has been negligible. Even if there was some improvement or change, how much was applied to the ground is not clear. Humans are considered intelligent beings in all beings. While progressing from an animal state, humans started living in groups. In this group stage, a variety of mixed or narrow female-male relationships were conducted.5Society continues to operate through this social relationship.In states like Haryana, all responsible women, from children to cattle and kitchens to farms have been allocated in rural areas of Jind, Sonipat and Rohtak districts. The Middle class’s ‘Seva Devi’ of Jayajayanti’ village in Jind district says, “After cleaning the house every day, we load cow dung in bullock carts and go out to the fields to fetch fodder for cattle.”After serving food to the family after reaching home by noon, we again fetch water from the hand pump. In the evening, we again arrange fodder for the cattle. Then at night prepare food for the family.6 Santosh Dahiya, National Convener of Sarva Jati Sarva Khap, Have to say“The life of a woman in this area is very difficult because she works day and night to feed the family and the cattle. Furthermore, these women never raise voice against their exploitation as they feel that it is their responsibility to work for the family. Neeraja Ahlawat, assistant professor and director of the Mahila Adhyan Kendra at

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Maharishi Dayanand University, is of the view that women are leading a difficult life in rural areas of Haryana. Even after hard work they get nothing. The result was that “women fell behind on the social and economic front. Often the ‘woman-question’ is ignored in the analysis of the class structure of society. A woman’s struggle for equality is a struggle for a society in which economic, social and political conditions exist to achieve equality.7In the same cramped village of Baghpat in Uttar Pradesh, when a brother married a girl of the dominant caste, the village council ordered his Dalit sisters to Naked and parade. In protest against this, on August 24, Amnesty International India launched a petition as well as a signature campaign which has so far been signed by over 50,000 people.8 In Mathura district of Uttar Pradesh, a young man took the matter to the panchayat, raising doubts over his wife’s character. Where a female tantric conducted fire test. Put a burning fire on both hands. In which both got scorched. Such disputed and illegal cases continue to come from the region of Haryana and West Uttar Pradesh. The biggest challenge to the constitution and democratic system is to kill lovers of love or to expose lovers from the village.9“The Khap panchayat in Karnal, Haryana, decreed that a husband marrying in the same gotra would have to give his wife a ten-rupee omen as sister. The family was forced to resort to court. The Sarvakhap Panchayat of Shahpur area of​​ Muzaffarnagar issued a decree ordering the love girls to be drowned in the Ganges River. This decree was supported by 36 fraternities of Shahpur in Khap region. Balian Khap chief Naresh Tikait says that opposing sangotra marriage is the tradition of our elders, we will not break it. They say what do girls need mobile? In 2014, the Khap panchayat in Morena district ordered his buffalo to be picked up if he did not receive the goods from the accused. In December 2014, the Khap Panchayat in Luharwa of Barmer district in Rajasthan heard the decree of a married woman biting her nose. The woman’s fault was that she had filed a rape case against the father-in-law with the police. A Khap panchayat of 47 villages in UP has banned girls wearing jeanstops. The same Mahakhap ordered in 2010, that virgin girls stay away from Facebook and the Internet. Khap panchayat in Baghpat, Uttar Pradesh, decreed that women below 40 years of age should not go to the market alone. When a girl broke her child marriage in Rohichana Khurd village in Luni tehsil of Jodhpur, Khap fined her 16 lakh rupees and expelled the family from the village.10 It is clear from the above data that women hold the authority of most men. According to Utpal Kumar, “In today’s world, it is necessary to look at human relations including Gender and Gender from a

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Humanistic perspective rather than looking at them from different national, religious, cultural perspective. “While the constitution grants the right to marry anyone who is an adult, but in Khap region it is considered a crime to marry outside one’s own caste. “Marriage is the relationship between a man and woman, one side of which is the personal pleasure that both of them get from sex, while the other side is the discharge of social responsibilities associated with the process of reproduction and the institution of the family. Hence the meaning of change in the institution of marriage, change in other institutions of society also11.Article 39 mentions the rights related to economic equality of man and woman.12Article 16 (1) states that any adult man and woman has the right to marry and settle their home without any limitation of their original lineage, nationality or religion. At the same time, the law has the right to punish in a democracy.Stopping someone’s hookah in the name of social boycott by influential people, telling and abstaining from anyone is a violation of Article 7 and Article 8. Declaring any person as a criminal without reason and not giving him a chance to prove himself guilty, denying him all facilities is a violation of Article 11.

Notes and References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.

Dua, Harvansh. 2013. Creativity: The Magic of Idea. P. 66 Saeed, Edward W., Translator. Shukla, Ramkirti. 2015. Supremacy and Resistance. P.218 Arya, Sadhana. Menon, Nivedita and Lokniti, Jini. 2001. Feminist Politics: Conflicts and issues. P. 1 Lerner, Gerda.1986. Creation of Patriarchy.P.1-2 Rajwade, Vishwanath Kashinath. 2004. History of Indian Marriage Institution. P.89 Mohan,Nrrraj.Women slog like Labourers in Haryana’s khap Land, Unrewarded. Update. Dec. 2015. Hindustan Times. Link.https://www. hindustantimes.com/punjab/women-slog-like-labourers-in-haryana-s-khapland-unrewarded/story-PSVUCg5hLfjEunTVXzRWZM.html Pro. Prasad, Kamala. 2004. Women: Dream of Salvation. P.188 Baghpat and Caste & Gender Discrimination in India. Update. 9/92017. 10:54 AM. Link. https://amnesty.org.in/baghpat-caste-gender-discrimination-india/ Why do people consider the Panchayat’s dreaded illegal decisions? 26.10.2018 Link.https://www.dw.com/hi/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%82%E0%A4 %9A%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8B%E0 %A4%82-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8C%E 0%A4%AB%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95-%E0%A4%97% E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8% E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80-%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%88

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%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%87-%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82-%E0%A4%A E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%82-%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B% E0%A4%97/a-46052178 10. Vashist,Vinita. Awesome decree of Khap left no one, Amar Ujala. Delhi. Updated.Wed. 24/2 /2016. 07:06 PM IST. Link. https://www.amarujala.com/ news-archives/india-news-archives/weird-decision-of-khap-panchayat-hindinews-ar?pageId=8 11. Parmar, Shubhra. 2015. Women Theory and Practice. P.162 12. Dr. Meena, Janak Singh. 2015. Human Rights and Women in India.P.30

Chapter

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Women Empowerment in India Ria Sharma*

The term “women empowerment” in itself exhibits women as poor entities that need to be empowered. Although the mainstreaming of women empowerment is a contemporary issue, the subjugation of women is a long-drawn and a long-held custom that has only consolidated itself through the ages. Empowerment of women was needed right from the time of the origin of history but it is only in the contemporary times that this need is being felt. The dormancy in the rise of women issues can be attributed to the perception of injustices towards women as natural. There can be no denying that our mothers and grandmothers have accepted gender stereotypes, patriarchy, and all the related ills as a natural part of their lives. Obviously the ‘society’ which we openly criticize (yet accept) today was the bar which set their morals and standards and in such circumstances anyone who would question the traits of an “ideal women” couldn’t have escaped the wrath of the society. But still, despite all the constraints, there are few great women at each point of history who have stood the tides of time, encompassing all restraints, to speak up for themselves. And it is because of the courage of those few that everytime when a woman speaks she represents the voice of all other women of the civilisation.

Women and Empowerment through the Ages The nature of women’s status in the social canvas of any period has been portrayed by their extent of freedom to participate in war, archery, horse riding, public activities, education, decision making, and in the selection of male partners. The people of ancient period worshipped various female deities and despite the existence of a preference for sons, daughters were always accepted and treated well. Nevertheless, this period depicted women as the root of dharma, pleasure, and prosperity and the ideal womanhood was well illustrated as glorifying the value of pativratya(devotion to one’s * Undergraduate Student, Ramjas College, University of Delhi

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husband). Gender equity was relatively visible during the period of Jainism and Buddhism although men were still considered supreme to women. Women’s right to education was fully withdrawn with Mánu’s codification of the laws governing society. What serves as the penny for one’s thought is the irony how women were elevated to the level of divinity in religious affairs but degraded in the socio-political and economic sphere. In the medieval times, women were more involved in public affairs and represented the culture of the court. We can find many prominent women personalities in medieval India. Gulbadan Begum is known for her exceptional poetic talent, Mumtaj Mahal for her superb intellectual talents and aesthetic tastes, and Nur Jahan and Jahanara took an active part in the state affairs. Chandbibi, who appeared on the ramparts of the fort of Ahmednagar dressed in male attire; Tara Bai, the Maratha heroine who was the life and soul of Maratha resistance during the last determined onslaught of Aurangazeb; Mangammal, whose benign rule is still a green memory in the South, and Ahalya Bai Holkar, whose administrative genius and philanthropic attitude is still widely appreciated. Although the Bhakti movements which flourished during the medieval age cared little for gender bias and widened the horizon of women, the curtailment of the right to freedom and social mobility for a larger section of women, particularly the lower ones in class hierarchy, was notably evident. The zenith of women’s heroism and valour manifested in the earlymodern and modern period of the Indian history. Women like Sarojini Naidu, Pravabati Devi, Kasturba Gandhi, Kamala Nehuru, Latika Ghosh, Ashalata Devi, Captain Laxmi Saigal, Aruna Asaf Ali played a remarkable role in the Indian national movement. Nothing could stop the daunting spirits of women reformers like Pandita Ramabai and Tarabai Shinde from pointing out the biasness of their male counterparts and empowering women around them. In this regard, the name of the enlightened Indian, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the modern Indian, cannot go unmentioned.

Lockdown and Women A clutch of early studies on the impact of the lockdown on employment showed that women’s employment was particularly badly hit. Although more men lost jobs by April 2020, but the impact was proportionately greater on women as there are much less women in paid workforce than men. In percentage terms, the number of men who reported themselves as employed dropped by 29% between March 2019-20 and April 2020, while for women the change was much

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greater at 39%. This implies that even from an already low base, four out of every ten women who were working during the last year lost their jobs during the lockdown.

As per the statistics released by the National Commission for Women (NCW) India in early April 2020 there has been 100 % increase in complaints related to violence against women after the nationwide lockdown was imposed in March 2020. The worst hit are the women who had been working in the informal sector. Women employed as domestic help, at construction areas, etc had to battle the confluence of poverty, marginalisation and stereotypes as the nation plunged into a complete lockdown. Being at home was not a favourable option for them as many of them had to face the wrath of their frustrated dominating husbands who couldn’t find any better substitute to shed all their patriarchal grudges.

When the Home is Not Safe Are legal protections enough to protect women from violence at home? Although “gender equality” as a popular issue has picked up momentum only in the recent past, the principle has been enshrined in our constitution right from the beginning- in the Preamble, Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles of State Policy. We have the National Commission for Women running under the Ministry of Women and Child Development which has done an instrumental job in legislating changes and has also set up Grievance cells, The Indian

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Penal Code enumerates different punishments for different crimes against women. There are various schemes and applications launched by the governments at the centre and the states to reach out to women. But all these legal provisions will come to help only and only when women report the injustices they face. Until and unless we speak up none of the tenets of legal safety will come to our rescue. Even crimes need to be reported in order to get the accused punished. Therefore, it is clear that women need to take the first step of speaking up for laws to come up to their rescue. Despite these laws, India has only seen a rise in the number of crimes against women. According to the National Crimes Record Bureau [NCRB], India recorded 88 rape cases everyday in 2019 and rape vulnerability of a girl or a woman has increased upto 44% in the last ten years. Besides, many crimes faced by women go unreported for the primary accused in most of them is one from the family and hence, the trial and judgement happens within the four walls of the house. It is so disheartening that the social stigma of not speaking up just to maintain the “honour and dignity” of the family has suppressed so many voices that could have made an impact.

Women and Gender Simone de Beauvoir has rightly put it, ‘One is not born, but made a woman’. The fact that many people fail to differentiate between ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ makes them comply with all the gender stereotypes and norms that have been followed since ages. One way of differentiating is to use the term sex to refer to biological differences and gender to indicate the vast range of cultural meanings that we attach to it. Lets illustrate how gender is attached to a particular sex. Children, boys,

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are taught to be ‘strong’, ’brave’ and ‘masculine’ where as girls are trained to be in appropriate gender-specific forms like behaving well, speaking politely, growing long hair etc. What we need to learn is that gender is not specific and limited to any sex. It is not the way in which the colour ‘pink’ is associated with girls and ‘toy cars’ with boys. Have you ever seen a boy playing with a doll? There do exists differences in the sexes that are natural but this cannot justify the gender attributes we relate with them. Why is a women expected to manage the domestic sphere? Is a man not capable enough of doing that? Why can’t a woman be the sole bread-earner of the family? In the first ‘Time Use Survey’ conducted by the National Statistical Office, one can clearly point out the areas that need improvement. Given below are the three key findings relating to the participation of women and men in paid work and domestic services and the time spent in both areas.

The low participation rate of women in paid employment can be, perhaps, attributed to the patriarchal mindset of the society and the consequent tendency of many women to give priority to the domestic work to fit in the “ideal role”. One of the, many reasons why the patriarchal mindset views females as inferior beings is their 1tendency to objectify women. In many rape cases the accused blames the woman as the cause of rape because she was out at night, or was wearing something not acceptable by the misogynistic mind, making woman’s body her biggest burden. Indian society has long way to go to eliminate gender inequality from its blood. In the annual Global Gender Gap report 2020 published by

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the World Economic Forum, India ranks 112th among 153 countries. Thats how low we stand on gender equality!

Future is Forseeable and can be Made Better Women and economy interlinked? According to the studies made by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), our biggest challenge lies in getting women into the labour force. Equal pay and lucrative work incentives for women can propel them to devote some of their time in earning for themselves, making them indepent and establishing basic financial stability. Welfare schemes for children, women and the elderly would indirectly allow women to diversify their time-use outside the four walls. It is so interesting that our economy could grow by an additional 60% by 2025 if women were represented in the formal economy at the same rate as men. However, the most landmark change would be the one when our society and our people leave behind the patriarchal mindset and treat women like any other human being and not with a demeaning and degraded pre-conception. Nevertheless, great and successful women continue to inspire and encourage other women through their efforts. Aishwarya Shridhar, a 23-year-old wildlife photographer, became the first Indian woman to bag the the Wildlife Photographer of the Year Award 2020. Preeti Sudan, a retired Indian Bureaucrat, was appointed to WHO’s independent panel for pandemic preparedness and response. Rani Rampal, captain of India’s women’s hockey team, became the first Indian women’s hockey player to be given the Khel Ratna 2020. And who knew when Nirmala Sitharaman was appointed as India’s first full-time woman finance minister in 2019, she would be shepherding the country’s $3-trillion economy through the worst pandemic of a lifetime.

Notes and References 1. 2.

3.

h t t p s : / / w w w . t h e h i nd u . c o m / b u s i n e s s / E c o no m y / e c o n o m i c survey-covid-19-lockdown-led-to-increasing-role-of-gig-economy/ article33695898.ece https://www.livemint.com/news/india/how-covid-19-lockedout-women-from-jobs-11591772350206.htmlhttps://www. newindianexpress.com/nation/2020/oct/03/under-30-percentconviction-rate-in-rape-cases-in-india-says-ncrb-data https://wcd.nic.in/womendevelopment/national-policy-womenempowerment

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https://asiafoundation.org/resources/pdfs/ womensempowermentindiabriefs.pdf https://content.sciendo.com/view/journals/mgrsd/23/3/article-p180. xml?language=en https://www.sociologydiscussion.com/status-of-women/status-ofwomen-in-india-ancient-medieval-and-modern-sociology/13526 https://scroll.in/article/981291/although-men-too-lost-jobs-thepandemic-affected-indian-women-in-the-workforce-harder https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/more-women-than-menleft-jobless-post-lockdown/articleshow/78096703.cms

Chapter

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Exhortations to Improve the Condition of Women in India Dr. Sonu Agarwal*

“There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women” Kofi Annan The subject of women empowerment has become a burning issue throughout the world including India since last few decades. All countries and agencies of international organizations especially United Nations have emphasized that gender issue is to be given utmost priority. Inequalities between men and women and discrimination against women have been age-old issues all over the world. Therefore, women’s quest for equality with man is a universal phenomenon. Women have demanded equality with men in matters of education, employment, inheritance, marriage, politics and recently in the field of religion also to perform various religious rituals which are to be performed by men only. The position and status of women all over the world has risen incredibly in the present time. Earlier they were treated like ‘objects’ that can be bought and sold. There was a time when women’s education was not a priority even among the elite. Since the last quarter of the 20th century a growing number of women have been entering into the economic field, seeking remunerative jobs outside the family. Women are playing bigger and bigger role in economic field: as workers, consumers, entrepreneurs, managers and investors. Today, almost everywhere, including India, more women are employed, though their share is still very low. We can now see women in almost every field: architecture, lawyers, financial services, engineering, medical and IT jobs. They are increasingly and gradually seen heading into domains which were previously reserved for males such as police, driver’s, army, pilots, chartered accountants, commandos etc.

* Associate Professor, Department of Law, Manipal University Jaipur, Rajasthan

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Though it emerges a new pattern in which laws are being made for the protection and welfare of the women but the he paternalistic attitude of the society in India have not changed much. Government of India and Parliament have made several laws and special provisions in various laws to provide certain safeguards and equal status to women of the country and to protect them from being victimized of any crime and violence. The Constitution of India also provides various protections and privileges to the women of the country and specifically provides by the fundamental rights and the fundamental duties that each and every citizen of this country is equally entitled of these rights and duties. To provide maximum benefits of these laws and policies to the women the following suggestion are required to be inculcated: 1. Creating Awareness: In spite of the fact that the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into power, individuals don’t know about the law. Subsequently, individuals are summoning a greater amount of corrective arrangement in issues identifying with aggressive behavior at home as opposed to common cures gave under the new law Therefore, attention to the arrangements of the demonstration and how to execute the demonstration is the issue. The need of great importance is exposure about this demonstration to build mindfulness among ladies and to submit the question shapes effectively accessible. 2. Amendment in the Indian Penal Code: Section 304B, IPC which manages ‘Dowry Death’ should be changed developing the extent of brutality referable to different circumstances of provocation of unmarried little girls too in their parental home. At present, the law covers just wedded a lady who faces badgering in their military homes. It ought to incorporate separated and bereft ladies too who might be annoyed in their natal or military homes. The clarification (b) to Section 498A is unduly prohibitive as ladies are pestered to satisfy unlawful needs for the property as well as frequently just to state authority. Such badgering takes various structures, for example, disavowal of food access to kids, access to wedding home or dangers to confiscate a lady from the marital home. The sub- section ought to be revised to make any provocation of a ladies as a demonstration of cruelty, whether such badgering is so as to constrain any individual identified with her to satisfy an unlawful need for property or not. Amendment to the IPC is to be made accommodating ‘Marital Rape’. 3. Amendment to the Dowry Prohibition Act: The meaning of dowry in Section 2 of the Dowry Prohibition Act,

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2005 should be changed covering wedding presents, customary blessings and so forth., given for the sake of custom or practice and in the appearance of deliberate presents. Insignificant interest for endowment ought to comprise an offense, regardless of the reality whether it was acknowledged or not by the other party, whether given regarding the marriage or not, whether given previously or resulting in the marriage. 4. Setting up of more Family Courts: The nonappearance of sufficient common courts leads numerous ladies to look for police help and exploit Section 498A, IPC to make sure about separation or settlement. So as to escape from his training more Family Courts need to be established to provide speedy justice to the aggrieved women. 5. Guidelines/ Rules of the court: Rules, for example, entrusting of examination of settlement passing cases to a senior cop, kicking the bucket revelation to be recorded in the way recommended by the justice, and the confirmation of the withering affirmation by the specialist and so forth., given by the court to the open investigators and researching offices must be carefully followed for their better working. For this, the prosecution and the police must work couple in criminal preliminaries. 6. Training for Judicial Personnel: Condemning variations can be diminished via preparing the legal faculty in penology and condemning strategies by keeping them educated regarding the most recent patterns in penological thought and practice. The Supreme Court underlined the significance of preparing of legal staff in Santa Singh v. Province of Punjab. Condemning committees or barricades can be set with specialists prepared in disciplines like social work, psychiatry and unified devotees and the activity of condemning might be endowed to them. 7. Setting up Diagnostic Clinics: There is likewise a recommendation making strides in created nations that the condemning force ought to be detracted from the adjudicators and gave over to a leading group of researchers known as demonstrative centers, which would be staffed by a gathering of individual gifted in the fields of human conduct like therapists, social laborers and clinicians. These facilities through tests and examination would recognize the individuals who experience the ill effects of enthusiastic issue from the individuals who are hindered intellectually or who, through clear conditions were coincidentally

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hastened into wrongdoing. Despite the fact that we might be far from setting up symptomatic centers, at any rate pre-sentences examination might be demanded, which would help in diminishing incongruities in condemning. Law is acceptable however equity is better and it’s practical in light of a legitimate concern for equity that condemning went for a situation ought to sensibly be adjusted to the exigencies of the case. 8. Social Movement/ Revolution: Mere passing of an Act isn’t sufficient to change a social practice or fiendishness. There ought to be a development/transformation against the malevolent practices like endowment among the individuals itself and except if that upheaval originates from inside social enactment and change on sex issues can’t be effectively influenced. 9. Setting up and strengthening Monitoring Bodies in every District: The body called Mahila Suraksha Samithi in Maharashtra and Gujarat comprising of cops, lawful guide laborers, delegates of ladies’ association and directing specialists and so forth, ought to be set up in all regions of every single state right away. 10. Support of Voluntary Organizations: It is built up reality that in many areas in India, it is the deliberate associations that have spearheaded and supported the crusade to battle viciousness against ladies. Perceiving the quality and abilities of these association for producing open reaction to brutality and social assembly, a lot more noteworthy help ought to be given to the deliberate part by the focal and state governments than is the training here to. The current plans of helps to NGOs ought to be adjusted to incorporate a particular segment for battling abominations against ladies. 11. Pre – Conjugal counseling: The central welfare board has assisted voluntary organization to set up family counseling centers in each state through the state social advisory boards. The counselors, who are trained in social work / sociology/ psychology, work towards reconciliation in order to maintain the institution of family. The cases handled by these family counseling centers include those of martial conflict due to dowry and other reasons. The counselors may also be directed to work towards pre – marital counseling to the youth and elders on the evils of dowry. While pre – marital counseling is preventive measures, family counseling is remedial measures.

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12. Women’s cells in Police Departments/ All Women Police stations in Urban Areas: In a few metropolitan regions and urban areas in the nation, ladies’ cells or All Women Police Stations have been set up as extraordinary system to adapt to brutality against ladies. In certain regions, these cells sorted out as hostile to – settlement cells and their activists stay kept basically to reestablish ‘stridhan’ and to give directing sometimes. All Women Police Stations are progressively imaginative manifestations. In state like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu such police headquarters are accounted for to accomplish praiseworthy outcomes. There is a critical need to set up such cells/police headquarters in every urban territory with satisfactory powers, assets and staff underpins. 13. The Role of Women Groups: The desperation of managing the profound established custom of settlement urges ladies’ gatherings to take up on war balance, a scope of issues, for example, ladies’ legacy rights to property, equivalent rights and financial strengthening as a revitalizing point. At that point just the vulnerable ladies’ casualty would be freed from the malicious grasps of their partners and parents in law. Though women condition in India has been improving day by day but still we have a long way to go. Mindset of the society needs to be changed. Laws are to be executed properly and women should be considered equal to men then only we can overcome the problem of offences against women.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

https://indianexpress.com/article/india/supreme-court-verdictadultery-law-live-updates-section-497 Indian young lawyer association v. The State of Kerala & Ors. (2018 SC) https://indianexpress.com/article/india/sabarimala-verdict-liveupdates-supreme-court-women-temples-kerala http://www.mondaq.com/india/x/668468/divorce / Triple +Talaq + Judgment + Of + Honble + Supreme + Court + And + The + Most + Anticipated + Triple + Talaq + Bill Dr. Samiya Tabasum (2016), Women and Law, Satyam Law International A.S Anand, Justice for Women: Concerns and Expressions, (2002), pp.13., Act No. 46 of 1983. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Outraging-The-Modesty-OfWomen-828589.html. See K.D Gaur, The Indian Penal Code (Fourth Edition, 2012) p. 833. See K.D Gaur, The Indian Penal Code, (Fourth Edition, 2012), p. 608.

Exhortations to Improve the Condition of Women in India 9. 10. 11. 12.

13.

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Will Murdock’s Rape Comments Sink the GOP?“, U.S. News & World Report. 54 Cal.3d 202, 222 (1991). Nelson’s Penal Code, 7th Edition (1983)., AIR 1996 SC 1393. Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal (1975). Rebecca Walker, ―Becoming the Third Wave, ||from Ms. Magazine, in Leslie L. Heywood (ed.), The Women’s Movement Today- An Encyclopedia of Third –Wave Feminism 6 (Greenwood Press, U.S.A., 2006) http://aicps.org/social-programs/crime-against-womanchildren(Visited on May 15,2020)

Chapter

16

Jyotirao Phule: An Educational Philosopher Dr. Vandana Munjal*

Jyotirao Phule: Jyotirao established the first girls’ school in August 1848. Later, he also opened two more schools for girls and lower castes- Mahars and Mangs Jyotiba Phule as global philosopher in 19th century. He raised the problem of women’s oppression and his thoughts on resolving women’s oppression through their own efforts and autonomy makes him join the company of other nineteenth century Western Philosophers and male feminists like J.S. Mill and F. EngelsJyotiba Phule was one of the makers of modern India. He was the philosopher, leader and organizer of the oppressed castes. He always practiced what he preached. He fought for the rights of the untouchables and women and work for their emancipation. He identified and theorized the most important questions of his time. These include religion, the Varna system, ritualism, British rule, mythology, and the gender question, the condition of production in agriculture and the lot of the peasantry. In 1848 Jyotiba began his work as a social reformer interested in education of lower caste boys and girls. He encouraged his young wife Savitribai to read and write. At home he began educating. No female teacher was available to teach in the school. As not teacher dared to work in school in which untouchables were admitted as students Jyotiba asked his wife to teach in the school. The orthodox opponents of Jyotiba were furious and they started a vicious campaign against him. They refused to give up their noble endeavor and choose the interest of the larger society over their personal comfort. He also took keen interest in establishing a network of institution through which it would be possible to educate the masses., he was honored by the Board of Education for the work he did for girl’s education in 1852. By 1858, he gradually retired from the management of these schools and entered into a broader field of social reform. He turned his attention to other social evilsThe history of nineteenth century is the story of the impetus for social reform in * Associate Prof, PG Deppt of Political-Science, DAV College Abohar, Punjab

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which the introduction and spread of modern education was an important element. Schools which taught English language were opened not so much to educate the masses but to groom Indian people to run the British government. Christian missionaries opened a Marathi school in Pune for the public. During this transitional phase, even though education was open to masses, the common person was not aware of its importance. Jyotiba has worked for the masses and made them aware of education as a vehicle for social change19th Century was a period of social problems like Varnasystem, mythology, caste-system, ignorance about human rights etc. In oppressed castes greatgrandparents and grand-parents did their community work which involved hard menial labour. They were not permitted social mobility other permissible for them. They were not even aware of their rights; illiteracy was very high in the society. Jyotiba shows the light of hope, to free from these problems of society. He revolted against the unjust caste-system and upheld the cause of education of women and lower castes. He started primary education and higher education and fought for their rights. Thus, he ushered in primary education as a tool in perceiving the work of the oppressed castes as dignified labour that was exploited by societyIn 20th Century people belongs to oppressed castes their parents had opportunity to get undergraduate education which they could also impart to their children. This was a period when oppressed castes struggled to enter institutions and make their presence visible in the context of nationbuilding. It was also a period when they had an understanding of their rights and responsibilities. In the late 20th century and the beginning of 21st Century oppressed castes to an extent have entered into institutions of higher learning and have started producing knowledge that questions inequality and reconstructs identity from the theoretical point of view. They are ready to face the challenges of their time. We can see the growth of education from 19th to 21st century India. 19th century the focus on primary to higher education, then in 20th century system focused on Undergraduate level education, and now in 21stcentry high level research on social sciences is available for the generation. The present position is better because of education which has given them self respect, made them aware of their rights, organizations to voice their feelings. century male feminists like Mill and Engels. Phule differed from other Indian male reformers who were his contemporaries in that he did not see women’s oppression as an excuse to objectify them under the control of male norms. Rather, he believed that women have to, through their own struggles, evolve ways of living with dignity. In this, education played

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a very big role for PhuleIn the modern age, hierarchy between men and women has been explicitly questioned with rise of women’s freedom movements all over the world. As a result women are quite confident of their ability to achieve their goals in this life. Today we find that women have proved to be quite otherwise and are holding highest positions in every field of life. Jyotiba and his wife Savitribai amidst the women’s reform movement of the nineteenth century Maharashtra. Vitthal Ramji Shinde, Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar were the real successors of the feminist movement of Jyotiba’s thought, which they developed further in the twentieth century Phule is remembered for his contribution to various fields like education, caste equality, agricultural reforms, economics, women and widow rights, human rights and social equality. He occupies a unique position among the 19th century social reformerAmong many thinkers and theorists one come across in the field of education, Jyotiba Phule was the first who devoted his life for the cause of mass education, the education of backward communities and women. His thoughts and ideas were revolutionary. His single most concern was universalisation of primary education. He concentrated on such aspects as the need for primary education, the essential qualities to be possessed by primary school teachers and the curriculum of primary education. He gave importance to the upliftment of lower castes and women through education and took necessary steps for achieving this end. During Phule’s time education for women and those born into castes considered untouchable was like a distant dream. In 3 such a situation he launched a momentous struggle for the education of women and lower castes, inspite of threats to his life. For him education was not just literacy but a tool of social change in the real sense of the term. He was the forerunner of Dr. B.R.Ambedkar as far as education of the down trodden is concerned. For this reason Dr. Ambedkar considered Mahatma Phule his “Guru”. To Mahatma Phule education is the only panacea for eradicating social evils. It was his firm conviction that if social reforms are to be effective and lasting, persons at all levels should be educated. For this purpose he considered the spread of education as his life’s mission. Without doubt we can say that Phule was the pioneer of revolutionary thinking. He was rightly called the ‘Father of Indian Social Revolution’ in the modern age Jyotiba related education with access to justice, equity and growth for lower castes and women and asserted that only through education growth could be possible. Phule’s thoughts on education can be summarised as follows- ‘Lack of education leads to lack of wisdom, which in turn leads to lack of

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justice. This leads to lack of progress, which leads to lack of money and results in oppression of the lower castes’. Mahatma Phule was fully conscious about the importance of education as a tool of social justice and equality. In fact he saw education as the harbinger of a social revolution. The essence of the educational philosophy of Mahatma Phule was that ‘education is a human right’. Phule’s bold efforts to educate women, Shudras and the untouchables had a deep effect on the values, beliefs and ideologies relating to the movement for social justice through education. His efforts unleashed the forces of awakening among the common masses. Education made women more knowledgeable. They became conscious of the differences between the right and the wrong and could analyse these differences with a scientific approach. In today’s educational scenario Phule’s thoughts on education are very relevant. As we know, today education has been mostly reduced to information transmissionHe was a practical man with a profound philosophical background. The Indian educationists of his period and after were deeply impressed by the richness and originality of Phule’s thoughts. His educational ideas and principles especially in the field of women’s education and universal, free and compulsory primary education are most relevant in modern Indian society as elsewhere. It is not an exaggeration to say that the history of women’s education in India would be incomplete without making a reference to the contribution of Mahatma Jyotiba Phule. He is rightly called Mahatma

References 1.

Bakshi, S.R. and Lipi Mahajan (2000). Jyotirao Phooley In History of Indian Culture and Religion: Vol. 5: Social Reformers. Delhi: Deep & Deep. · Deshpande,G.P,(ed)(2002).Selected Writings of Jyotiba Phule. Manohar Publishers and Distributers:New Delhi. · Gupta N.L. (2002). Mahatma Jyotiba Phule: An Educational Philosopher. New Delhi: Anmol Publications. · Joshi, TL. (1996).Jyotirao Phule. New Delhi: sRao Phule: Father of the Indian Social Revolution,Popular Prakashan:Bombay.

Chapter

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Gandhi and Women Dr. Alpana Sharma*

There have been many aspects of Mahatma Gandhi’s life. But when it comes to Gandhi’s relations with women, the scope of people’s thinking is limited to ‘my experiment with truth’. Gandhi’s thoughts towards women at that time can be called ‘feminist’ according to the present time.Whatever the scale of Feminism today, Gandhi meets them all. The meaning of the equality of man and woman, which Gandhi presented then, is still present today. In the 15 September 1921 edition of Young India, Mahatma Gandhi gave his views on the status and role of women in society. Gandhi then wrote, ‘Man is responsible for all evils for women. Men use women and abuse them for his own interest. She is not an “Abla” but a woman. He further wrote, ‘The woman should stop treating herself as the object of man’s enjoyment. Its treatment is more in the hands of women than men. She should refuse to dress for the man’s sake - including her husband. Only then will she become an equal partner with the man. Mahatma Gandhi has been an advocate of freeing women from stereotypes and malpractices and developing personality independently. Gandhi raised his voice vigorously for the rights of women when no one raised their voice. Nobody even imagines that women can be independent. But Gandhi took many steps for the salvation of women without caring for anyone. An important aspect of Gandhi’s positive attitude towards women is that he considered women stronger and gentler than men. He was also strongly opposed to calling the woman an “ABLA”. This notion of him appeared many times in his conduct, articles and lectures. In this context, this quote of Mahatma Gandhi is worth knowing, “Calling them unabashed is the internal power of women to repress.” If we look at the history, we will find many examples of his bravery. If women resolve to increase the dignity of the country, then in a few Vice Principal, SSR College of Arts, Commerce and Science, Silvassa

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months they can change the form of the country on the basis of their spiritual experience”. Gandhi was of the opinion that women are superior to men in their moral and spiritual strength. They have greater powers of selfsacrifice and suffering. On this account, women are capable of infinite strength, which they only needed to realize and channelize. Mahatma Gandhi is generally regarded as conservative and conservative in religious, cultural and social matters. But as far as the status of women in Hindu society is concerned, the vision that Gandhiji developed not only within himself in the first half of the twentieth century, but also in his conduct, can seem quite revolutionary even in this phase of the twenty-first century. Sometimes it seems surprising that in many other social matters, how could Gandhiji, who supported the traditionalist tradition, adopt such a deeply liberal and egalitarian view on questions related to women? But his conduct and his writings, speeches, letters, etc. are living proofs of the fact that he did not underestimate women in any way and considered women more capable and capable than men in matters like tolerance. That is why he gave women full opportunity to lead in Congress. Along with the participation of women in various movements, programs of their social, educational, economic and political upliftment were also organized. The remarkable thing is that instead of making noise of women’s liberation, they made women an integral part of the freedom movement in a very smooth manner. It can be said that the favorable environment we see today in relation to women’s rights was laid by the great personalities like Gandhiji long ago. In this context, the statement of the eminent social worker Ila Bhatt seems to be very accurate which he wrote in the role of the book ‘Gandhi on Women’. She writes: “Women participated in the Jan Andolan led by him in a smooth manner. This marked a turning point in the lives of Indian women. I would like to say that if Gandhiji had not made this turn, I would not have been who I am today. This applies to every woman of today. “ Gandhiji respected the entire human race in this way, but there was a deep sympathy and respect for women in his heart. Gandhi firmly believed that the collapse of a country is certain if half of the population would not be active. In South Africa, when Gandhi was just 30, he started leading programs related to the women’s liberation movement. After returning to India, they started activating women by roaming everywhere in villages and cities. During the entire independence movement, he not only inspired many women to jump into freedom struggle, but also gave them an opportunity to lead. In

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the history of freedom struggle, Sarojini Naidu, Sucheta Kripalani, Sushila Nayyar, Vijay Laxmi Pandit, Aruna Asaf Ali, Indira Gandhi and many other women leaders have contributed to strengthen the Congress. Apart from this, many women adopted social uplift and other creative works with the inspiration of Mahatma Gandhi. Not only this, Gandhiji also impressed some foreign women with her behavior and affection that they left their country and not only settled in India, but also adopted Indian name and way of life and actively supported in creative work. Names like Sarla Ben and Mira Ben are particularly notable among them. Gandhiji considered inner power of women to be the most suitable for non-violent weapons like Satyagraha. He also believed that Satyagraha has given women a chance to serve the society and the country by taking them out of the walls of the house. This is clear from his statement, “I have included women-service in a constructive program, because Satyagraha automatically drove women out of the dark in such a short time and by no means. could have been done.” Obviously, with respect for equality and equality at the emotional level, women cannot be given real equality in society. Gandhiji was clear in this regard that it is very important to improve the educational level of women and make them economically independent. It was at that time that Gandhiji recognized the need for economic independence for women’s equality.One of the objectives of his Khadi movement was to highlight the spirit of Swadeshi and the other purpose was to provide poor people of the country, especially women, who could not work outside the home due to social restrictions, by driving them a spinning wheel or a spindle. The means to earn money was to be provided. Through the Khadi industry, lakhs of poor women in villages, towns and cities got patriotism as well as employment and brought happiness in their lives. Mahatma Gandhi was also very concerned about the social upliftment of women. He had a lot of bitterness about the social evils affecting the lives of women.He believed that women were not able to progress due to maladies like child marriage, veil system, sati system and widow-marriage prohibition and are forced to suffer exploitation, injustice and atrocities. Although he did not organize any organized movement for the eradication of these mischiefs, he continued to attack these social evils through his lectures and writings at various forums. Gandhiji believed in the emancipation of women through education and did not discriminate against women in political social or

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development related activities towards the rejuvenation of Indian society. Gandhi was well aware of the difficulty of women due to social autocracy and male dominance.Gandhi gave enough importance to the education of women, but he knew that nation alone could not achieve the goals set by education alone. He was in favor of proper action for the emancipation of not only women but also men. His ideas about education differed from many contemporaries and education was a major event in his village reconstruction.He once said that poor education of women is not the only culprit, our entire education system is spoiled. He used to criticize the people living in cities and towns who make up 10–15 percent of the total population, and promote gender discrimination in everything.An article by Gandhiji, written in Young India on 23 May 1929, reveals how much he was aware of illiteracy, lack of school facilities, exploitation of landowners and other such socioeconomic disabilities that rural women faced Have to do. He wrote that it is important that the education system should be repaired and it should be fixed keeping in mind the wider population. According to him, adult education with children could not be stressed only in the education system. “ Gandhi believed that an Indian woman can enthusiastically fulfill her role in family, community and society only when her work and life conditions will improve in social life, and she will be able to free herself socially, financially and mentally. The entire system is responsible for raising women. For this, the whole society needs to be awakened, because their problems are not one-sided but are connected to the whole society. Only then our country will be able to move forward.

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Women Empowerment in Sikhism Lovedeep Sandhu*

“From woman, man is born; within woman, man is conceived; to a woman he is engaged and married. Woman becomes his friend; through woman, the future generations come. When his woman dies, he seeks another woman; to woman he is bound. So why call her bad from which kings are born. From woman, woman is born; without woman, there would be no one at all. O Nanak, only the Creator is without a woman.” Shri Guru Nanak Dev

Introduction From its inception, the Sikh Faith has defended women’s freedom and integrity. In a way that was ahead of his time, Guru Nanak, the founding Guru of the Sikh Religion, stressed women’s integrity. Sikhism’s teachings state that women have the same souls as men and therefore have an equal right to cultivate their faith with equal prospects for redemption. Though legally women can take part in all religious, cultural, social and secular practises, including leading religious congregations, take part in the Akhand Path (continuous recitation of the Holy Scriptures), conduct Kirtan (congregational singing of hymns) and function as a Granthis, even though equality for women has always been a major attribute of Sikhism, and a significant number of women do. The equality of men and women was declared by Guru Nanak, and the role of women has also been documented in Sikh history, depicting them as being equal to men in service, dedication, sacrifice, and bravery. The Sikh Gurus and the numerous Sikh saints have done a great deal to advance women’s rights, which in the 15th century were greatly downtrodden. * Ph.d. Research Scholar, Department of Laws, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar, Punjab

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Practices Condemned in Sikhism 1. Menstrual Taboo Menstruation does not lead to women being considered impure in Sikhism, and women’s behavior is not restricted when she is menstruating.  2. Polygamy In a culture where monogamy is generally the rule, Sikh polygamy is exceptionally rare.  3.  Female Infanticide Female infanticide is prohibited, and the Rahitnamas (codes of conduct) prohibit Sikhs from having any contact or relationship with those who indulge in this practice.  4. Sati Widow burning, or sati, is expressly forbidden by scripture. In a Shabad (hymn) in Raag measure Suhi, Guru Amar Das says, “Satis are not those that burn themselves on the husband’s funeral pyre; satis are they, O Nanak, who die of the pangs of separation (from the supreme God).

Role of Women in Sikh History Re-evaluation of the Adi-Granth: evaluating this holy book from a new “feminist lens” India’s long and vast past abounds with enlightened women who in a number of activities were trained and educated and radiated their brilliance. It is a well-known saying that there is a woman behind every successful man, assisting him doggedly and patiently. While carrying out this research on women in Sikhism, one recognises that Sikhism as an ideal has gender equality; as opposed to other beliefs that have anti-women precepts as values as well as as practise. To understand the role of women, we need to first look at the fundamental rights given to women by the tenets of Sikhism. The Shri Guru Granth Sahib states that- “in all beings is the Lord pervasive, the Lord pervades all forms male and female.” Sikh women are free to visit the Gurdwara, say their prayers, and worship accordingly. The only restriction placed is that the woman should not enter the Gurdwara wearing a veil over her face. The Sikh Rehat Maryada clearly states that women should not cover their faces with veils, (Sikh Rehat Maryada, Article XVI). Marriage was redefined by the Sikhs to be monogamous in form and practice for both parties. The Gurus gave Sikh men and women the same dress. Five symbols Kes (hair), Kara (an iron bracelet), Kirpan (sword), Kangha (wooden comb), and Kacherra (an

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under short) are given to both men and women. The third Guru, Guru Amar Das writes the purdah (veil) system suppressed the personality of women and reflected an inferior status. Bhai Gurdas, a Sikh scholar who was the scribe of the original holy book as dictated by Guru Arjan Dev during the 16th Century, reveals: “Woman is one half of the complete personality of man, and is entitled to share secular and spiritual knowledge equally.” 

Influential Women in Sikh History This research work speaks of a few women from Sikh history, who are women of substance and not mere footnotes in history. Their voices teach us several profound truths about human life.  1. Mata Tripta (Mother of Shri Guru Nanak Dev) Mata Tripta is the first woman to be honoured in Sikhism; her grandeur needs to be honoured as she was Guru Nanak Dev’s mother. In Talwandi, Punjab, which is now part of Pakistan, she lived with her husband, Mehta Kalyan Chand. Tradition has it that, because Mata Tripta had a very high spiritual status, she was given the great distinction of becoming the mother of the great saviour, Guru Nanak Dev. 2. The First Sikh: Nanaki (1464- 1518) Born in the village of Chahal (Lahore, Punjab, now in Pakistan), Mata Nanaki cherished and nurtured Guru Nanak Dev, her younger brother. Nanak was presumably born in the home of his mother Tripta in 1469, like his elder sister Nanaki, and like her, named after the home of his mother’s ancestors, Nanake in Punjabi. As a young man, Nanak witnessed a holy vision and became the first Guru or teacher of what is now the Sikh religion. Nanaki was the first to follow him and, meaning “disciple” or “seeker of truth, is celebrated as the First Sikh.” 3. The First to Serve Langar: Khivi (1506 – 82) With her good humour and a friendly disposition, Mata Khivi is credited with the spirit of hospitality, now considered an important feature of Sikh community. She might well be the first woman in her age to ever work outside of her immediate family home and responsibilities. To Karan Devi and Bhai Devi Chand Khatri, Khivi was born in 1506. Mata Khivi accompanied Guru Nanak and kept food available for all who came to hear the philosophical discourse of the Guru. She was married to Bhai Lehna, who was to become the second Sikh Guru, in 1519, when she was thirteen, and presided over langar, a free and open kitchen, providing food to the rich and poor of

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all castes, sects, and backgrounds. Every Sikh gurdwara in the world today serves the language of the religion and is open to all, both Sikh and non-Sikh. This resulted in the growth of freedom in Sikhism and gave the tradition of untouchability a deathblow. 4. Bibi Bhani Bibi Bhani has a very special place in history, as she was the Guru’s daughter (Guru Amar Das), the Guru’s wife (Guru Ram Das), the Guru’s mother (Guru Arjan Dev), the Guru’s grandmother (Guru Hargobind), the Guru’s great grandmother (Guru Tegh Bahadar) and the Guru’s great grandmother (Guru Gobind Singh). She was born in Basarke, a town near Amritsar, in 1533. It is therefore important to remember the role played by a woman in deciding the progress and important role played by Bibi Bhani in her son’s life in a late patriarchal society. She left this world in 1598 at the age of 65 at Tarn Taran where she was serving the lepers. 5. Mata Sundari (1667) As she is popularly regarded among the Sikh masses, the Great Mother of Khalsa was the wife of Guru Gobind Singh and was married in 1686. Hers was a magnificent personality who merged the various positions of a committed wife, a devout mother, and the masses’ optimistic and far-sighted guide. It was Mata Sundari who, after the death of Guru Gobind Singh, led the Sikh community through a very challenging era of external persecution and internal divisions after the death of her husband for around forty years (1708-1747 C.E.), longer than most of the nine Gurus after Guru Nanak. It was she who got the writings of Guru Gobind Singh collected and compiled as “Dasam Granth.” 6. The Warrior-Saint: Bhago (the late 1600s- early 1700s) Mai Bhag Kaur was named Bhag Bhari in her youth, which means lucky or one who is full of good fortune. She was called Bhag Kaur upon being baptised. She is known in Sikh culture as Mai Bhago. Born in the village of Jabal (now Amritsar, Punjab), Maee Bhago grew up at a time when Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru, was struggling to protect the Sikhs against the Mughal regime’s tyranny and the regional Hindu hill chiefs. Bhago rallied 40 deserters after a major siege in 1705 and led them into action herself, sword in hand. They died in battle and became known as the Forty Liberated Ones, the Chaali Muktey. Later on, Bhago became the bodyguard of the Guru, sporting a turban and wearing warrior dress. She is known in Sikh tradition today as a warrior-saint.

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7. Commander-in-Chief: Sada Kaur (1762- 1832) Sardarni Sada Kaur is one of Sikh history’s most eminent ladies. She was Gurbakhash Singh’s wife, As her husband was killed in a war, Rani Sada Kaur became a young widow. She led battles and laid the groundwork for the kingdom of the Sikhs, which from 1799 to 1849 spanned Punjab. She wisely instructed her son-in-law to direct him as Maharaja Ranjit Singh became the first Emperor of the modern Sikh empire. Therefore, her contribution to the development of the Sikh kingdom is exceptional. 8. Freedom Fighter: Maharani Jind Kaur (1817-63) Married to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, in the fight to oust the British from the subcontinent, Jind Kaur was the first woman freedom fighter. The British annexed Punjab by bribery and treachery after Ranjit Singh’s death. The British who jailed her were shaken by the nationalist speeches and stirring calls of Jind Kaur. She fled, a dramatic saga in itself, and remained in Nepal in exile. Later, when her son, the exiled Maharaja Duleep Singh, who was taken away when she was still a child, was eventually able to see her, she died shortly afterwards in England at the age of 46 in 1863. She is known with sowing the seeds of the fight for independence from the subcontinent. 9. The Great Social Worker: Dr Inderjit Kaur (1942) Inderjit Kaur, a physician by profession, is the president of the Pingalwara Charitable Society in Amritsar, Punjab, a prominent sanctuary for the poor, sick, ill and mentally ill. She has borne with her bold leadership the legacy of her founder, Bhagat Puran Singh, since 1992. She stands with countless Sikh women-doctors, nurses, lobbyists for health care, volunteers-who take care of the sick and poor selflessly. 10. Universal Mother: Prakash Kaur (1951) In a nation (India) noted for female infanticide, Prakash Kaur runs a house for 60 abandoned girls in Jalandhar, Punjab. She was lost as a child- she was found in the drain a few hours old. She has been saving and raising unwanted and unclaimed baby girls since 1993. She represents the many Sikh women who struggle against abandonment, domestic abuse, sexual harassment, and forced marriage in favour of women and children. 11. Civil Rights Lawyer: Amrit Singh (1969) Amrit Singh, a formidable human rights advocate, was one of the most fierce U.S. opponents under the Bush Administration of the torture and violence of prisoners. She has litigated allegations of

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torture, indefinite imprisonment and post-9/11 injustice as an ACLU solicitor. She currently works on the Justice Program of Open Society. The 13th and present Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh, is her father. Amrit Singh is a new generation of Sikh woman lawyers, wielding the law on the civic battlefield as a sword and shield. 12. The Senator: Dr. Anarkali Kaur Honaryar (1984) Anarkali Kaur is a spokesperson for human rights in Afghanistan and a lawmaker. As one of few thousand Sikhs left in war-torn Afghanistan with a dwindling population, she campaigns for the human rights of minorities and women. She joined the Grand Council, Loya Jirga, to elect the provisional government when the Taliban were overthrown in 2001, and then helped write a new constitution for the region. She serves in the Lower House of Parliament as the first non-Muslim woman member. She was elected “Person of the Year” by the Afghan chapter of Radio Free Europe in 2009 at 25 years of age, becoming a household name in Kabul. Anarkali Kaur, a modern-day “Ma-ee Bhago,” reflects the advent of fearless modern-day Sikh warriors. 13. The Great Poet: Amrita Pritam (1919- 2005) In the 20th century, she was the subcontinent’s leading author. She is the first popular female Punjabi author, novelist, and essayist to be loved equally on both sides of the border between India and Pakistan. Amrita Pritam produced more than 100 novels, with a career spanning six decades. In the arts, she illustrates the rise of Sikh women-writers, musicians, filmmakers, and academics. 14. Bobbie Singh Allen (2020)  Bobbie Singh-Allen is the first Sikh women to hold a public office directly elected in the U.S.; after making history. She will soon step down from that position and will be sworn in on 9 Dec 2020 as the new mayor of the city. After helping to administer a school district which educates more than 64,000 students in 67 schools, she will become an Elk Grove City official. That’s something that the Sikh community is likely to be proud of.

Conclusion Finally, it can be inferred that by smashing through the stereotypes working deeply in their worlds, females represented the transition. Sikh women thus represent the feminine aspect of the influence of the teachings of the Gurus. Sikhs are obliged to consider women as equals and there is no religious justification for gender inequality in Sikh society but gender equality has been difficult to attain in reality. It is worth noting that the caste system itself goes against Sikhism’s basic

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values. While equality for women has always been a major attribute of Sikhism and significant sacrifices have been made by a large number of women, it is important to remember that it is still a work in progress. Ritual services such Sukh-aasan ritual at the Harmandir Sahib where the Guru Granth Sahib is transferred, are often maledominated. Mostly male dominated fields are also the occupation of Granthis to Gurudwara administration.

References S.R. Bakshi, Encyclopaedia of Saints of India: Guru Nanak, (2002) R.C. Dogra, Langar- Free Kitchen, Encyclopedia of Sikhism, (1996) Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, Who are the Sikhs, (2007) Mohinder Kaur Gill, The Role and Status of Sikh Women,(1998) M.K Gill, ed., Eminent Sikh Women, (1996) J.S.Grewal, Sikh Ideology and Social Order, (2007) R Doris Jakobsh, Relocating Gender in Sikh History Transformation, Meaning and Identity,(2003) 8. Gopal Singh, Sri Guru Granth Sahib, [English Version] Vol. II, (1960) 9. Jaspal Singh, Guru Granth Sahib, The Sikh Scripture, (2010) 10. R.N Singh, Social Philosophy and Social Transformation of Sikhs,(2003) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Chapter

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Triple Talaq and Muslim Women with Reference to the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Bill 2017 and Surah at-Talaq: Are Muslim Women Really Empowered?

Zakeeyah Shahnaz* “It is ordained for the husband to fear Allah (Glorified and Exalted be He) and not hasten to pronounce divorce. Rather, he should be patient and should solve problems using wisdom, kind words, and good manner and not be oppressive.” (Fatwas of Ibn Baaz, (30/331, Part No.30 | Al-Ifta)

Introduction Within Islam conflict has arisen specifically regarding Muslim women’s rights to read and interpret passages in the Holy Qur’an and the Hadith. In Islam, the Holy Qur’an emphasizes that Allah in His perfect wisdom, “He has made for you mates of your own kind” (42:12), and “He it is Who has created you from a single soul and made there from its mates, so that the male might incline towards the female and find comfort in her” (7:190). Islamic writings are exclusively in the hands of male religious scholars who have interpreted Quranic religious passages in ways that have marginalized, subjugated, and disenfranchised Muslim women for approximately the past thirteen hundred years.

Insight into Triple Talaq with Reference to Surah at- Talaq At-Talaq contains commandments about Talaq (divorce) itself. The rules prescribed in these verses were as follows: 1. A man can pronounce at the most three divorces on his wife. 2. In case the husband has pronounced one or two divorces he is entitled to keep the woman back as wife within the waiting period *  A  ssistant Professor in Political Science, Bhairab Ganguly College, Kolkata, West Bengal ** Research Scholar, Department of Political Science, University of North Bengal, Darjeeling, West Bengal

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and if after the expiry of the waiting period the two desire to remarry, they can re- marry there is no condition of legalization (tahlil). But if the husband has pronounced three divorces, he forfeits his right to keep her as his wife within the waiting period, and they cannot re-marry unless the woman re-marries another husband and he subsequently divorces her of his own free will. 3. The waiting period of the woman, who menstruates and marriage with whom has been consummated, is that she should pass three monthly courses. The waiting period in case of one or two divorces is that the woman is still the legal wife of the husband and he can keep her back as his wife within the waiting period. There is no waiting period for the woman, marriage with whom has not been consummated, and who is divorced even before she is touched. She can re-marry, if she likes, immediately after the divorce (Khattab). It is also imperative to understand the various forms through which a marriage can be dissolved. When dissolution proceeds from the husband, it is called talaq and when it takes place at the instance of the wife, it is called khula. When it is by mutual consent it is called mubara. Under certain circumstances the wife may move to qadi or court to get herself released from the marital tie, which is called faskh. Divorce may be conveniently discussed under the following classification: 1. By the husband: (i) Talaq (Repudiation) (ii) Ila (Vow of continence) (iii) Zihar (Injurious assimilation) 2. By the wife: (i) Talaq-e-Tafwid (Delegated divorce) (ii) Khula (Redemption) 3. By common consent: (i) Khula (Redemption (ii) Mubaraa (Mutual freeing) 4. By judicial process: (i) Lian (Mutual imprecation) (ii) Faskh (Judicial rescission) (Ahmad, 2003). In Islam there are two categorizations of Talaq: as talãq al-sunnãh {talãq in accordance with the Sunnah) and its opposite talãq al-bidah. In the former the husband divorces his wife (with whom he has consummated the marriage) through a single pronouncement while she is in a pure state (not menstruating) during which time he has not had sexual intercourse with her. In the second type, the husband proclaims divorce while his wife is menstruating or in an impure state, having already established a conjugal relationship with her, which is not in accordance with a sunnàh divorce.

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“O Prophet! When you [intend to] divorce women, divorce them with a view to the waiting-period appointed for them, and reckon the period [carefully], and be conscious of God, your Sustainer. Do not expel them from their homes; and neither shall they [be made to] leave unless they become openly guilty of immoral conduct. These, then, are the bounds set by God - and he who transgresses the bounds set by God does indeed sin against himself: [for, O man, although] thou knowest it not, after that [first breach] God may well cause something new to come about” (Munir, 2013).

Shayara Bano Case and the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Bill 2017 The current debate around triple talaq is centred on the Sharaya Bano and several batches of petitions as well as Supreme courts own suo moto PIL to consider whether certain aspects of Islamic personal laws amount to gender discrimination and hence violates the constitution. It states: “It is submitted that religious officers and priests like imams, maulvis, etc. who propagate, support and authorise practices like talaq-e-bidat, nikah halala, and polygamy are grossly misusing their position, influence and power to subject Muslim women to such gross practices which treats them as chattel, thereby violating their fundamental rights enshrined in Articles 14, 15, 21 and 25 of the Constitution”.

Further it Avers that “This practice of talaq-e-bidat (unilateral triple-talaq) which practically treats women like chattel is neither harmonious with the modern principles of human rights and gender equality, nor an integral part of Islamic faith, according to various noted scholars. The practice also wreaks havoc to the lives of many divorced women and their children, especially those belonging to the weaker economic sections of the society” (Tiwari, 2017). With the development of new technologies, the tradition under consideration in India has undergone certain metamorphoses and has contributed to its misuse - as is the case with the Muslim “divorce formula” – a kind of perverted modernization. According to the norms of Sharia, husbands are obliged to pronounce the word “talaq” in front of witnesses or at least in the presence of a wife. At the same time, there are frequent cases when men sent spouses either a text message with the text “talaq, talaq, talaq”, or a similar message in

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messengers like WhatsApp, Skype, etc. Thus, over the decade (2007– 2017), the Muslim Movement of India has recorded many instances of such a “high-tech” divorce (Abbas, 2019). Following this, the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Bill, 2017 was introduced in the Lok Sabha. This Bill, makes instant Triple Talaq or Talaq-e-Biddat a punishable offence. It follows the Supreme Court judgment on August 22, 2017 in the case of Shayara Bano vs. Union of India. Under the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Ordinance, 2019, divorcing through instant Triple Talaq will be illegal, void and would attract a jail term of three years for the husband. While the ordinance makes it a “non-bailable” offence, an accused can approach a magistrate even before trial to seek bail. A provision has been added to allow the magistrate to grant bail “after hearing the wife” the government has said. • Clauses 5 and 6 of the Bill say, “ a married Muslim woman upon whom talaq is pronounced, shall be entitled to receive from her husband such amount of subsistence allowance for her and dependent children,” and “shall be entitled to custody of her minor children in the event of pronouncement of talaq by her husband.” The Law Minister, Ravi Shankar Prasad, has said the law will, “help in ensuring the larger Constitutional goals of gender justice and gender equality of married Muslim women and help subserve their fundamental rights of non-discrimination and empowerment.”

Debates Centered on the Bill and its Aftermath The concept of inter-sectionality works best here where we can better acknowledge and ground the difference among us and negotiate the means by which these differences will find expression in constructing group politics. Mass media has long been a propaganda tool with its heavy “reliance on market forces, internalized assumptions, and self-censorship, […] without significant over coercion.” It is said to “manufacture consent” through a process of repeated representations of certain issues in a particular way. Thus the media also plays its part in becoming a powerful source of establishing ideas and imagery about race. The minds of the public are thus “impregnated with unconscious racism” towards Muslims and Islam. The Bill presumably stands for gender justice and women’s rights and per se, cannot be countered on the plank of violating the human rights of Muslim men, though when you scratch the surface that is exactly what the Bill is all about.

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The provision granting right over her children is being hailed as a position move. The mere words “sustenance allowance” and “child custody” tend to convey that utterance of the words talaq thrice has, in fact, dissolved the marriage, a position which is contrary to the Supreme Court verdict (Abbas, 2019). After the Supreme Court verdict, uttering the words ‘talaq’ thrice does not dissolve the marriage, but filing criminal charges against the husband for pronouncing these words certainly will.

Conclusion: are Muslim Women Really Empowered? Only good one can see coming out of this entire debate is the coming of age of Indian Muslim women catapulted to the forefront of the triple talaq debate are finally asserting themselves to seek their space in a male-dominated society teeming with bigots and hypocrites. Yet again, the State fails to take into account certain other problems such as nikah halala which have been deemed to be dehumanizing by numerous Muslim women. In any event, we must ask if a woman’s right to equality and dignity must only be defined in terms of marriage and divorce. What about education and livelihood – the real keys to empowerment? According to Census 2011, 48% of all Muslim women are illiterate. Politicians must look at real issues of Muslim women empowerment. How can we plug the gaps in education and literacy? Can we look at teaching Muslim women skills and other livelihood measures beyond the usual low-income generating tailoring-embroidery to include IT and tech? Women across India are increasingly articulate about what they want. Muslim women are no different: Jobs, healthcare, security for their families, schools for their children. “Triple talaq is a fine victory. But it is not the only one that is needed “ (Bhandare, 2017). References 1. 2. 3.

Abbas, S. (2019, April). Gendered Discourse On Triple Talaq Bill and The Muslim Woman’s Voice. Research gate. Ahmad, F. (2003). UNDERSTANDING THE ISLAMIC LAW OF DIVORCE. Journal of the Indian Law Institute, 45 (3/4), 484-508. Bhandare, N. (2017, August 25). From Triple Talaq Verdict:What Empowerment Of Muslim Women Really Means. Retrieved January 15, 2021, from Hindustan TImes: https://www.hindustantimes.com/columns/ triple-talaq-verdict-what-empowerment-of-muslim-women-reallymeans/story-PLo56wnSS2G65p7bgrCLgO.html

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Khattab, D. M. (n.d.). The Noble Quran. Retrieved January 10, 2021, from Quran.com: https://quran.com/65 Munir, M. (2013). Triple “Talāq” in One Session: An Analysis of the Opinions of Classical, Medieval, and Modern Muslim Jurists under Islamic Law. Arab Law Quarterly, 27 (1), 29-49. Tiwari, A. (2017). TRIPLE TALAQ- COUNTER PERSPECTIVE WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO SAYARA BANO. ILI Law Review, 1 (Summer Issue), 85-95.

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Status of Women in India: An Assessment Dr. Pravat Kumar Dash*

An overview or evaluation of the status of women in India can be attempted from many perspectives, depending on where you are placed, and what perspective you bring to bear on the subject, the realities will look different. It is one of the most enduring of clichés about India that it is a country of contradictions. Like all clichés, this one too has a grain of truth in it. At the heart of this contradiction stand Indian women; for it is true to say that they are among the most oppressed in the world, and it is equally true to say that they are among the most liberated, the most articulate and perhaps even the most free. During the debate after the publication of the Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, Justice Krishna Lyer, rethinking the separate terms from the perspective of women who, despite, the Constitutional guarantees had not achieved real justice, or liberty, or equality, or dignity –came up with the holistic concept of gender justice which united all the principles into one, to challenge the persistent denial of these promised objectives to the over whelming majority of the women of India after the birth of the Republic. The Committee on the Status of Women in India had, to an extent, tried to suggest the following guidelines in the approach paper and fixed some criteria. 1. that equality of women is necessary, not merely on the grounds of social justice, but as a basic conditions for social, economic and political development of the nation; 2. that in order to release women from their dependent andunequal status, improvement of their employment opportunities and earning power has to be given the highest priority; 3. that society owes a special responsibility to women because of their child –bearing function. Safe bearing and rearing of children * M. A. (Pol.Sc.,Pub. Admn) LLB. PGDM(XIMB) Ph.D, Lecturer in Political Science, KBDAV College, Nirakarpur, Odisha

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is an obligation that has to be shared by the mother, the father and society; 4. that the contribution made by an active house wife to the running and management of a family should be admitted as economically and socially productive and contributing to national savings and development; 5. that, marriage and motherhood should not become a disability in women’s fulfilling their full and proper role in the task of national development. Therefore, it is important that society, including women themselves, must accept their responsibility in this field; 6. that disabilities and inequalities imposed on women have to be seen in the total context of a society, where large sections of the population –male and female, adults and children –suffer under the oppression of an exploitative system. It is not possible to remove these inequalities for women only. Any policy or movement for the emancipation and development of women has to form a part of a total movement for removal of inequalities and oppressive social institutions, if the benefits and privileges won by such action are to be shared by the entire women population and not be monopolized by a small minority; 7. that, if our society is to move in the direction of the goals set by the Constitution, then special temporary measures will be necessary to transform de jure into de facto equality. These guidelines testify that to the CSWI the concepts of equality, justice or dignity were absolute values, and that unless they were achieved for all citizens equally, the promises made to the women of India by the founding fathers of the Indian Republic, could never be translated into reality. Equality therefore, did not mean ‘equality among equals’ but equality across the vertical and horizontal divisions of our plural society. Since women cannot be separated from their community, caste, religious groups, class, occupational segments, they have to be perceived as a category among all these sections. It is obvious that there status vis-a-vis men in their own sections or vis-avis other women in our plural and hierarchical society, could not be analysed or defined without reference to the position of that particular group within socio-economic and political system of India. Efforts to define or pursue gender equality without its contextual setting would be futile. Indian history yields ample evidence that the rights and freedoms enjoyed by women change in inverse proportions to the status of their families and especially men in their families within the social hierarchy.

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Within the government machinery, separate department of women and Child Development was set up in 1985, and later, in 1992, a National Commission for Women was also set up. In 1991 a National Plan of Action for the Girls Child was devised in response to the SAARC decade of the girl child. Apart from this, virtually every political party, no matter whether it was of the Right or the left, began to recognize the existence of women, as a separate category. The political parties tried to enumerate the issue in its election manifestos. But looking at it from the point of view of a rural women, or of a poor urban woman, things would perhaps seem quite different. Little improvement has seen in their lives; violence continues unabated, both at the domestic level, and systemically, structurally, health care remains as elusive as ever; women’s burden of work has increased. Poverty still remains widespread and women are the poorest of the poor. For the most part, women still do not have access to land and material possession is the least. By the large their fundamental rights as citizens of Indian continue to be eroded by the continuing existence of discriminatory personal laws. Health and education seem to be outside the graphs of most women. This included employment and economic independence, education, access to health care and family planning, support services to meet the immediate gender needs of women. Given these shifting realties, it is difficult to adopt a view that looks at change in a linear fashion, instead for activists, the history of the last several decades has been one that has been marked not only by contradictions but also by a movement back and forth in time, with every campaign being a learning experiences, and every seeming ‘gain’ something that needs further examination and scrutiny and it has becoming a “start from the scratch”. Another way of evaluating the change in the status of women is by trying to apply what one might call ‘objective’ criteria: figures, numbers, scales and ratios. Here too, there are problems. Global, or in this case, national, figures tell quite a different story from the detailed, differentiated figures at the state level or at the district level and this is continuously and deliberately manipulated. On all the counts of income, education, mortality, health, violence, political participation access to water and so forth, it appears that women have had to shoulder extraordinary burdens of both inequitable development strategies and skewed sets of power relations. Clearly there is little to celebrate.

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Another criteria looks at the relationship with the women’s movement and state as a way of assessing and evaluating changes. There is simply too much heterogeneity, too many differences, too much variation between women of different classes, castes, religion and ethnic groups and so on, for anyone to claim to speak on their behalf. In independent India, ‘women’s movements’ is generally dated from the mid-seventies when women’s groups began to be formed in different parts of the country. Recent research, however, has pointed to the decades of the forties and fifties as the ‘silent decades’ the quality of this activism was somewhat different from what we see in the seventies. When India became independent, it was widely acknowledged that the battle for freedom had been engaged in as much by women as by men. In the famous Salt March, no woman has been included by Gandhi in his chosen number of marchers. But nationalist women protested and they forced him to allow them to participate. The first to join was Sarojini Naidu, who went on to become the first women President of the Indian National Congress in 1925. The trajectory of movement is usually traced from the social reform movements of the nineteenth century when campaign for the betterment of women’s lives were taken up, initially by men. By the end of the century women had begun to organize themselves and gradually they took up a number of causes such as education, the conditions of women’s work and so on. It was in the early part of the twentieth century that women’s organizations were set up and many of the women who were active in these later became involved in the freedom movement Independence brought many promises and dreams for women in India – the dream of an egalitarian, just democratic society in which both men and women have a voice. By the sixties, it was clear that many of the promises of independence were still unfulfilled. Sixties and seventies saw a spate of movements in which women took part; campaign against rising prices, movements for land rights and peasant movements. Everywhere, in the different movements that were sweeping the country, women participated in large numbers. Everywhere, their participation resulted in transforming the movements from within worried at this increase in political activity. One of the first issues to receive countrywide attention from women’s groups was violence against women, specifically in the form of rape, and what came to be known in India as ‘dowry deaths’. This was also the beginning of a process of learning for women: most protests were

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directed at the state. Because women were able to mobilize support, the state responded, seemingly positively, by changing the laws on rape and dowry, making both more stringent. So a further level of work was needed: awareness raising or conscientisation so that violence against women could be prevented rather than only dealt with after it happened. Legal aid and counseling centres were set up, and attempts were made to establish women’s shelters. As activity increased, so did the number of ‘problems’ and ‘issues’ activists were faced with, and it became increasingly clear that what had earlier seemed the only effective strategies to pursue, for example street level protest, marches and pickets, were no longer adequate. For while they provided an initial push and sometimes, even led to immediate results, in the long term, they addressed only the symptoms, and not the root of the problem. The euphoria of the late seventies and early eighties, symbolized by street level protest campaigns in which groups mobilized at the national level, the sense of a commonality of experience stretching across caste and class and religion, all these have gone, to be replaced by a more considered, and complex response to issue. The history of the last several decades has affirmed that change does not come easy, that patriarchies function in many and complex ways, that we too are complicit in ensuring their continued resilience, and that change has to be fought for at all levels. Every campaign has brought its own lessons and its own problems; activists have had to accept the loss of many cherished articles of faith, and deal with situations rendered both difficult and different by this. Current situation has rendered the movement more nuanced and complex, but which also reveals the different stages through which the movement has passed. Whether in the early movements of the ‘silent decades’ or in the later more self –consciously ‘feminist’ movement and campaign, one of the things that characterized the movement was a complex and contradictory relationship with the state. In later campaigns, for example against rape and dowry, the state was more directly addressed by women, particularly in terms of demanding changes in the law. The basic assumption behind such activism was that the simple fact of being citizens in a country that was committed to democracy, allowed for the assumptions of certain rights and privileges. Whenever these seemed to be under threat, they could be fought for and guarded. The Constitutional Amendments which made for 33 per cent reservation in village elections were seen by some womens groups – and with some justification – as the direct result of activism and pressure extorted by them, A number of similar steps can be cited the opening of womens

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studies centers, the setting up programmes to extend credit to women, or to provide them training for work. In recent times the state has time and again, reassured on its promises and has revealed itself to be patriarchal and often oppressive. If law has been an area where the state has responded to women’s groups, it has equally been an area where women have been deeply discriminated against the denied their rights and citizens of this country. Nothing exemplifies this better than the bringing in narrow political considerations, the Muslims Women’s Protection of Rights on Divorce Bill, meant to appease the Muslims community at the cost of right of women, or indeed the continuation of deeply discriminatory personal laws, Even when the Indian government finally become signatory to the ‘Convention of the Elimination of All forms of Discrimination Against Women’, it reserved certain clauses in the pretext of preserving the sanctity of the ‘community’, sacrificing the interests of women in the bargain. Over the years, the women’s movement and women activists have faced many challenges which touch upon their relationship with the state. Within the movement this has led to considerable discussion and debate on what strategies should be pursued for the future. Most recently the newest and perhaps most difficult challenge to the womens movement has come from communalism, something which has alerted groups to another possible dimension of their relationship with the state. With increasing communalization also came the increasing participation of women. With appropriation of spaces, symbols, and later even campaigns and slogans, the women’s movement was placed in a situation of constantly having to differentiate itself from communal parties. The earlier studies of faith –speaking about the victimization of women as a result of the communalization of society, and the accompanying violence –could no longer hold true. For here, the women, were not merely victims of a force that was denying them any rights; rather the communal parties offered them a new kind of empowerment, a public space where power and violence were glorified, the were honoured as protectors of the community and guardians of its purity, mothers and wives and sisters, of men who went out to fight, and in the home, vulnerable women, but protected nonetheless, by party cadres, from problems such as domestic violence, wife battering etc. With these kinds of complications, it is not surprising that the movement seems to ‘move’ if at all, in fits and starts, that for every step it takes forward, it seems to take two steps back.

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There are studies which suggest that the political reservations in Panchayati Raj Institutions, has improved the women’s political participation, decision-making and thereby their status. All over the country there is opportunity for about 7 to 8 lakh women to share political decision –making power. All these women should be turned properly to actively mobilize other women across the country for grabbing their gihtful position in all sections. A question come to the mind of researchers that with the prevailing extreme gender-bias do we have true democracy? Can it sustain the changing paradigm? Women have been the back-bone of Indian Society who are shouldering multifarious responsibilities in household chores and upbringing of children. The women from the landless households hire-out their personal labour on the fields, sweating for lower wages, to supplement household earning. Women belonging to small and marginal farm households work not only on their own uneconomical fields, but supplement family earnings by working on others fields too. So, women are contributing so large for the society and receiving very little in return. Women should realize their potent power which is quite latent for too long. There are over seven lakh women members in the PRIs and quite a substational number of them are holding decision making power. All these women should work towards sensiting other women by spreading awareness about their rights and the means by which they could be realized. If women organize well, the strong- sex would have to bend before women for cooperation. Such a day is not far away.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Ahuja Ram,(2015),“Social Problems in India” Jaipur, Rawat Publication. Ahuja Ram, (1993), “India Social System” Jaipur, Rawat Publications Andal Narayanan(2002), “Women and Indian Society: Options and Constraints”, Jaipur, Rawat Publication. Kar, P.K. (2000), “Indian Society”, New Delhi, Kalyani Publishers. Mathur, Deepa,(1992),”Women, Family and Work” Jaipur.Rawat Publication Madhu Kishwar and Ruth Vanita (1991),“In Search for Answer”, Delhi Horizon Indian Books. Desai Neera and Maithreyi Krishnaraj, (1987), “Women and Society in India” New Delhi, Ajanta Publications. Rana,P.K.,(2012),“Social Justice, Panchayati Raj & Women Empowerment,Bhubaneswar Odisha Review (Feb-March) Srinivas, M.N.(1978),“The Changing Position of Indian Women” Bombay, Oxford University Press.

Chapter

21

Women Empowerment: A Quantitative Exploration Dr. Rajesh Kumar*

Abstract This paper attempts to analyze the status of Women Empowerment in India and highlights the Issues and Challenges of Women Empowerment. Today the empowerment of women has become one of the most important concerns of 21st century. But practically women empowerment is false statement. We observe in our day to day life how women become victimized by various social evils. Women Empowerment is the vital instrument to expand women’s ability to have resources and to make strategic life choices. Empowerment of women is essentially the process of upliftment of economic, social and political status of women, the traditionally underprivileged ones, in the society. It is the process of guarding them against all forms of violence. The study is based on purely from secondary sources. The study reveals that women of India are relatively disempowered and they enjoy somewhat lower status than that of men in spite of many efforts undertaken by Government. It is found that acceptance of unequal gender norms by women are still prevailing in the society. The study concludes by an observation that access to Education, Employment and Change in Social Structure are only the enabling factors to Women Empowerment. Keywords: Women Empowerment, Education, Health, Socio-Economic Status. Crimes against Women, Policy Implications.

Introduction Women empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social, educational, gender or economic strength of individuals and communities of women. Women’s empowerment in India is heavily dependent on many different variables that include geographical location (urban/rural), educational status, social status (caste and class) and age. Policies on Women empowerment exist at the national, state and local (Panchayat) levels in many sectors, including health, * Associate Professor, Officiating Principal, K. L. S. D. College, Subhash Nagar, Ludhiana

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education, economic opportunities, gender based violence and political participation. However there are significant gap between policy advancements and actual practice at the community level. Empowerment of women is essentially the process of upliftment of economic, social and political status of women, the traditionally underprivileged ones, in the society. It is the process of guarding them against all forms of violence. Women empowerment involves the building up of a society, a political environment, wherein women can breathe without the fear of oppression, exploitation, apprehension, discrimination and the general feeling of persecution which goes with being a woman in a traditionally male dominated structure. Women constitute almost 50% of the world’s population but India has shown disproportionate sex ratio whereby female’s population has been comparatively lower than males. As far as their social status is concerned, they are not treated as equal to men in all the places. In the Western societies, the women have got equal right and status with men in all walks of life. But gender disabilities and discriminations are found in India even today. The paradoxical situation has such that she was sometimes concerned as Goddess and at other times merely as slave.

Review of Literature H. Subrahmanyam (2009) compares women education in India at present and Past. Author highlighted that there has a good progress in overall enrolment of girl students in school. The term empower means to give lawful power or authority to act. It is the process of acquiring some activities of women. M. Bhavani Sankara Rao (2011) has highlighted that health of women members of SHG have certainly taken a turn to better. It clearly shows that heath of women members discuss among themselves about health related problems of other members and their children and make them aware of various Government provisions specially meant for them. Doepke M. Tertilt M. (2013) Does Female Empowerment Promote Economic Development? This study is an empirical analysis suggesting that money in the hands of mothers benefits children. This study developed a series of non cooperative family bargaining models to understand what kind of frictions can give rise to the observed empirical relationship. Duflo E. (2015) Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development, National Bureau of Economic Research Cambridge The study argues that the inter relationships of the Empowerment and Development are probably too weak to be self sustaining and that continuous policy commitment to equally for its own sake may be needed to bring about

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equality between men and women. Sethuraman K. (2008) The Role of Women’s Empowerment and Domestic Violence in child Growth and Under nutrition in a Tribal and Rural Community in South India. This research paper explores the relationship between Women’s Empowerment and Domestic Violence, maternal nutritional status and the nutritional status and growth over six months in children aged 6 to 24 months in a rural and tribal community. This longitudinal observational study undertaken in rural Karnataka. India included tribal and rural subjects. Venkata Ravi and Venkatraman (2005) focused on the effects of SHG on women participation and exercising control over decision making both in family matters and in group activities.

Objectives of the Study

• To know the need of Women Empowerment. • To assess the Awareness of Women Empowerment in India. • To analyze the Factors influencing the Economic Empowerment of Women.

• To study the Government Schemes For Women Empowerment. • To identify the Hindrances in the Path of Women Empowerment. • To offer useful Suggestions in the light of Findings. Research Methodology This paper is basically descriptive and analytical in nature. In this paper an attempt has been taken to analyze the empowerment of in India. The data used in it is purely from secondary sources according to the need of this study.

Crime against Women The crimes against women fly directly against orchestrating Women Empowerment in India. A report on the crimes against Women by the National Crime Records Bureau comes up with alarming statistics. The Crime Head Wise details of reported crimes during the year 2009 to 2013 along with percentage variation are presented in Table 1; Table 1: Crime Head - Wise Incidents of Crime Against Women During 2009-2013 and Percentage Variation in 2013 over 2012

Women Empowerment: A Quantitative Exploration... Year Sl. No.

Crime Head

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

121 Percentage variation in 2013 over 2012

1.

Rape (Sec. 376 IPC)

21,397

22,172

24,206

24,923

33,707

35.2

2.

Kidnapping and abduction (Sec. 363 to 373 IPC)

25,741

29,795

35,565

38,262

51,881

35.6

3.

Dowry Death (Sec. 302/304 IPC)

8,383

8,391

8,618

8,233

8,083

-1.8

4.

Cruelty by husband or his relatives (Sec. 498-AIPC)

89,546

94,041

99,135

1,06,527

1,18,866

11.6

5.

Assault on women with intent to outrage her modesty (Sec. 354 IPC)

38,711

40,613

42,968

45,351

70,739

56.0

6.

Insult to the modesty of women (Sec. 509 IPC)

11,009

9,961

8,570

9,173

12,589

37.2

7.

Importation of girl from foreign country (Sec. 366B IPC)

48

36

80

59

31

-47.4

A.

Total IPC crime against Women

1,94,832

2,05,009

2,19,142

2,32,528

2,95,896

27.3

8.

Commission of Sati Prevention Act, 1987

0

0

0

0

0

0.0

9.

Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956

2,474

2,499

2,435

2,563

2,579

0.6

10.

Indecent Representation of Women (P) Act, 1986

845

895

453

141

362

156.7

11.

The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961

5,650

5,182

6,619

9,038

10,709

17.9

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India Year

Sl. No.

Crime Head

Total SLL crime against Women

B.

Total (A+B)

Percentage variation in 2013 over 2012

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

8,969

8,576

9,507

11,742

13,650

16.2

2,03,804

213585

228649

244270

309546

26.7

Source: Crime in India-2013

A total of 2,44,270 Incidents of Crime against Women (both under IPC and SLL) were reported in the country during the year 2012 as compared to 2,28,649 in the year 2011 recording an increase of 6.4% during the year 2012. These crimes have continuously increased during 2008-2012 with 1,95,856 cases in the year 2008. 2,03,804 cases in 2009 and 2,13,585 cases in 2010 and 2,28,650 case in 2011 and 2,44,270 cases in the year 2012. The proportion of IPC crimes committed against women towards total IPC crimes has increased during the last 5 years from 9.2% in the year 2009 to 11.2% during the year 2013, variation are presented in table 2; Table 2: Proportion of Crime Against Women (IPC) Towards Total IPC Crimes S. No

Year

Total IPC Crimes

Crime Against Women (IPC) Cases

Percentage to Total IPC Crimes

1.

2009

21,21,345

2,03,804

9.2

2.

2010

22,24,831

2,13,585

9.6

3.

2011

23,25,575

2,28,649

9.4

4.

2012

23,87,188

2,44,270

10.2

5.

2013

26,47,722

3,09,546

11.2

Source: Crime in India-2013 Present Situation of Women • New Delhi: Being equal to their male counterparts is still a far cry for Indian women. Not only are they marginal as public figures an average Indian women can hardly call the shots at home or outside. In 2012, women occupied only 8 out of 74 ministerial positions in the union council of ministers. There were only 2 women judges out of 26 judges in the Supreme Court and there were only 54 women judges out of 634 judges in various high courts.

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• Shocking Facts: According to 2013, UNDP report on Human

Development Indicators, all south Asian Countries except Afghanistan, were ranked better for women than India it predicts: an Indian girl child aged 1-5 years is 75% more likely to die than the boy child. A women is raped once in every 20 min and 10% of all crimes are reported. Women form 48% of India’s Population, only 29% of the National workforce, only 26% women have access to formal credit. Why Need of Women Empowerment? Reflecting into the “Vedas Purana” of Indian culture, women is being worshiped such as LAXMI MAA, goddess of wealth; SARSWATI MAA, for wisdom; DURGA MAA for power. The status of women in India particularly in rural areas needs to address the issue of empowering women. About 66% of the female population in rural area is unutilized. This is mainly due to existing social customs. In agriculture and Animal care the women contribute 90% of the total workforce. Women constitute almost half of the population, perform nearly 2/3 of its work hours, receive 1/10th of the world’s income and own less than 1/100th the world property. Among the world’s 900 million illiterate people, women out number men two to one. 70% of people living in poverty are women. Lower sex ratio i.e. 933, The existing studies show that the women are relatively less healthy than men though belong to same class. They constitute less than 1/7th of the administrators and mangers in developing countries. Only 10% seats in World Parliament and 6% in National Cabinet are held by women. y Hindrances of Women Empowerment: The main Problems that were faced by women in past days and still today up to some extent: Gender discrimination Lack of Education Female Infanticide Financial Constraints Family Responsibility Low Mobility Low ability to bear Risk Low need for achievement

Absence of ambition for the achievement Social status Dowry Marriage in same caste and child marriage (still existing) Atrocities on Women (Raped, Kicked, Killed, Subdued, humiliated almost daily)

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Various Dimensions of Women Empowerment in India

y Need for Women Empowerment: Women are deprived of Decision Making Power Freedom of Movement Access to Education

Access to Employment Exposure to Media Domestic Violence

Ways to Empower Women

• • • • • • •

Changes in women’s mobility and social interaction Changes in women’s labour patterns Changes in women’s access to and control over resources and Changes in women’s control over Decision making Providing education Self employment and Self help group Providing minimum needs like Nutrition, Health, Sanitation, Housing • Other than this society should change the mentality towards the word women • Encouraging women to develop in their fields they are good at and make a career

Government Schemes for Women Empowerment The Government programmes for women development began as early as 1954 in India but the actual participation began only in 1974. At present, the Government of India has over 34 schemes for women operated by different department and ministries. Some of these are as follows; 1. Rashtria Mahila Kosh (RMK) 1992-93 2. Mahila Samridhi Yojana (MSY) October, 1993. 3. Indira Mahila Yojana (IMY) 1995. 4. Women Entrepreneur Development programme given top priority in 1997-98. 5. Mahila Samakhya being implemented in about 9000 villages. 6. Swayasjdha. 7. Swa Shakti Group. 8. Support to Training and Employment Programme for Women (STEP). 9. Swalamban.

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10. Creches/ Day care centre for the children of working and ailing mother. 11. Hostels for working women. 12. Swadhar. 13. National Mission for Empowerment of Women. 14. Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) (1975), 15. Rajiv Gandhi Scheme for Empowerment of Adolescence Girls (RGSEAG) (2010). 16. The Rajiv Gandhi National Crèche Scheme for Children of Working Mothers. 17. Integrated Child Protection scheme (ICPS) (2009-2010). 18. Dhanalakahmi (2008). 19. Short Stay Homes. 20. Ujjawala (2007). 21. Scheme for Gender Budgeting (XI Plan). 22. Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP). 23. Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM). 24. Prime Minister’s Rojgar Yojana (PMRY). 25. Women’s Development Corporation Scheme (WDCS). 26. Working Women’s Forum. 27. Indira Mahila Kendra. 28. Mahila Samiti Yojana. 29. Khadi and Village Industries Commission. 30. Indira Priyadarshni Yojana. 31. SBI’s Sree Shaki Scheme. 32. SIDBI’ s Mahila Udyam Nidhi Mahila Vikas Nidhi. 33. NGO’s Credit Schemes. 34. National Banks for Agriculture and Rural Development’s Schemes The efforts of government and its different agencies are ably supplemented by nongovernmental organizations that are playing an equally important role in facilitating women empowerment. Despite concerted efforts of governments and NGOs there are certain gaps. Of course we have come a long way in empowering women yet the future journey is difficult and demanding.

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Status of Women Empowerment The status of Women Empowerment cannot be visualized with single dimension rather multidimensional assessment in terms of various components of women’s life and their status would bring a clear conception. So, this paper tries to give a basic idea about the condition and status of women in terms of employment, education, health and social status. Before going to elaborate separately let us have a quick view of the overall status of women in terms of gender gap index prepared by World Economic Forum in 2012. Table 3: Details of Gender Gap Index — 2012 (Out of 135 Countries) Gender Gap sub-Indices

India

Srilanka

Economic Participation and Opportunity

123

0.4588

105

0.5596

Educational Attainment

121

0.8525

108

0.9946

Health and Survival

134

0.9612

1

0.9796

Political Empowerment

17

0.3343

22

0.3151

Overall Index

105

0.6442

39

0.7122

Source: World Economic Forum (2012) Global Gender Gap Index- 2012

The above table clearly depicts the status of low level of attainment of women in the varied field of their attainment. The ranking and scores for India amply proves that it is found in the lower rank even compared to Sri Lanka in all sub-indexes of gender equality. India gained eight places (from 113 rank in 2011 to 105 rank in 2012) as a result of improvement in the educational attainments and political empowerment. Keeping aside the Political Empowerment, the other three indices is all above the rank of 100. The Political Empowerment ranks quite high may be due to the 73rd and 74th Constitution amendments of India providing greater opportunity to women to take part in active politics.

Reasons for the Empowerment of Women Today we have noticed different Acts and Schemes of the central Government as well as state Government to empower the women of India. But in India women are discriminated and marginalized at every level of the society whether it is social participation, political participation, economic participation, access to education, and also reproductive healthcare. Women are found to be economically very poor all over the India. A few women are engaged in services and other activities. So, they need economic power to stand on their own

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legs on per with men. Other hand, it has been observed that women are found to be less literate than men. According to 2001 census, rate of literacy among men in India is found to be 76% whereas it is only 54% among women. Thus, increasing education among women is of very important in empowering them. It has also noticed that some of women are too weak to work. They consume less food but work more. Therefore, from the health point of view, women folk who are to be weaker are to be made stronger. Another problem is that workplace harassment of women. There are so many cases of rape, kidnapping of girl, dowry harassment, and so on. For these reasons, they require empowerment of all kinds in order to protect themselves and to secure their purity and dignity. To sum up, women empowerment can not be possible unless women come with and help to self-empower themselves. There is a need to formulate reducing feminized poverty, promoting education of women, and prevention and elimination of violence against women.

Challenges There are several constraints that check the process of women empowerment in India. Social norms and family structure in developing countries like India, manifests and perpetuate the subordinate status of women. One of the norms is the continuing preference for a son over the birth of a girl child which in present in almost all societies and communities. The society is more biased in favour of male child in respect of education, nutrition and other opportunities. The root cause of this type of attitude lies in the belief that male child inherits the clan in India with an exception of Meghalaya. Women often internalize the traditional concept of their role as natural thus inflicting an injustice upon them. Poverty is the reality of life for the vast majority women in India. It is the factor that poses challenge in realizing women’s empowerment. There are several challenges that are plaguing the issues of women’s right in India. Targeting these issues will directly benefit the empowerment of women in India. Education: While the country has grown from leaps and bounds since independence where education is concerned the gap between women and men is severe. While 82.14% of adult men are educated, only 65.46% of adult women are known to be literate in India. The gender bias is in higher education, specialized professional trainings which hit women very hard in employment and attaining top leadership in any field.

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Poverty: Poverty is considered the greatest threat to peace in the world, and eradication of poverty should be a national goal as important as the eradication of illiteracy. Due to this, women are exploited as domestic helps. Health and Safety: The health and safety concerns of women are paramount for the wellbeing of a country and are an important factor in gauging the empowerment of women in a country. However there are alarming concerns where maternal healthcare is concerned. Professional Inequality: This inequality is practiced in employment sand promotions. Women face countless handicaps in male customized and dominated environs in Government Offices and Private enterprises. Morality and Inequality: Due to gender bias in health and nutrition there is unusually high morality rate in women reducing their population further especially in Asia, Africa and china. Household Inequality: Household relations show gender bias in infinitesimally small but significant manners all across the globe, more so, in India e.g. sharing burden of housework, childcare and menial works by so called division of work.

Constitutional Provisions for Empowering Women in India • • • • •

• •

•

Equality before law for all persons (Article-14). Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth (Article 15(I)). However, special provisions may be made by the state in favors of women and children Article 15(3). Equality of opportunity for all citizens relating to employment or appointment to any office under the state (Article 16). State policy to be directed to securing for men and women equally the right to an adequate means of livelihood (Article 39(a); (v) equal pay for equal work for both men and women (Article 39(d). Provisions to be made by the state for securing just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief (Article 42). Promotion of harmony by every citizen of India and renouncement of such practices which are derogatory to the dignity of women Article 51A(e). Reservation of not less than one-third of total seats for women in direct election to local bodies, viz; Panchayats and Municipalities (Articles 343(d) and 343 (T).

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Findings of the Study 1. Globalization, Liberalization and other Socio - Economic forces have given some respite to a large proportion of the population. However, there are still quite a few areas where women empowerment in India is largely lacking. 2. There needs to be a sea — change in the mind set of the people in the country. Not just the women themselves, but the men have to wake up to wake up to a world that is moving towards equality and equity. It is better that this is embraced earlier than later for our own good. 3. There are several Government programmes and NGOs in the Country, there is still a wide gap that exists between those under protection and those not. 4. Poverty and illiteracy add to these complications, The Empowerment of Women begins with a guarantee of their health and safety. 5. Empowerment of Women could only be achieved if their economic and social status is improved. This could be possible only by adopting definite social and economic policies with a view of total development of women and to make them realize that they have the potential to be strong human beings. 6. In order to create a sustainable world, we must begin to Empower Women.

Suggestions 1. The first and foremost priority should be given to the education of women, which is the grassroots problem. Hence, education for women has to be paid special attention. 2. Awareness programmes need to be organized for creating awareness among women especially belonging to weaker sections about their rights. 3. Women should be allowed to work and should be provided enough safety and support to work. They should be provided with proper wages and work at par with men so that their status can be elevated in the society. 4. Strict implementation of Programmes and Acts should be there to curb the mal-practices prevalent in the society.

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Conclusion Thus, the attainment in the field of income / employment and in educational front, the scenario of women empowerment seems to be comparatively poor. The need of the hour is to identify those loopholes or limitations which are observing the realization of empowerment of women and this initiative must be started from the women folk itself as well as more importantly policy initiative taken by the state and society. Let us take the oath that we want an egalitarian society where everybody whether men or women get the equal opportunity to express and uplift one’s well being and well being of the society as whole. Women’s empowerment is not a Northern concept women all over the world, including countries in South, have been challenging and changing gender inequalities since the beginning of the history. These struggles have also been supported by many men who have been outraged at injustice against women. Women represent half the world’s population and gender inequality exists in every nation on the planet. Until women are given the same opportunities that men are, entire societies will be destined to perform below their true potentials. The greatest need of the hour is change of social attitude to women. “When women move forward the family moves, the village moves and the nation moves”. It is essential as their thought and their value systems lead the development of a good family, good society and ultimately a good nation. The best way of empowerment is perhaps through inducting women in the mainstream of development. Women empowerment will be real and effective only when they are endowed income and property so that they may stand on their feet and build up their identity in the society. The Empowerment of Women has become one of the most important concerns of 21st century not only at national level but also at the international level. Government initiatives alone would not be sufficient to achieve this goal. Society must take initiative to create a climate in which there is no gender discrimination and women have full opportunities of self decision making and participating in social, political and economic life of the country with a sense of equality.

References 1. 2.

Duflo E. (2015) Women’s Empowerment and Economic Development, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge. India: Women’s Empowerment - IFAD / OE, 2000, The Republic of India; TamiluNadu Women’s Development Project Completion Evaluation, Report 340 - IN Rome, April.

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8. 9.

10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

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Baruah B. (2013) Role of Electronic Media in Empowering Rural. Goswami, L. (2013). Education for Women Empowerment. ABHIBYAKTI: Annual Journal, 1, 17-18. Baruah, B. (2013). Role of Electronic Media in Empowering Rural Women Education of N.E. India. ABHIBYAKTI: Annual Journal, 1, 23-26. Kadam, R. N. (2012). Empowerment of Women in India- An Attempt to Fill the Gender Gap. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 2(6), 11-13. Nagaraja, B. (2013). Empowerment of Women in India: A Critical Analysis. Journal of Humanities and Social Science (IOSR-DHSS), 9(2), 45-52 [WWW page]. URL http: www.Iosrjournals.Org/empowerment. html. Deshpande, S., and Sethi, S., (2010). Role and Position of Women Empowerment in Indian Society. International Referred Research Journal, 1(17), 10-12. Kishor, S. and Gupta, K. (2009), Gender Equality and Women”s Empowerment in India, NATIONAL FAMILY HEALTH SURVEY (NFHS-3) INDIA, 2005-06, International Institute for Population Sciences, Deonar, Mumbai. Suguna, M., (2011). Education and Women Empowerment in India. ZENITH: International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(8), 19-21. Dr. Dasarati Bhuyan “ Empowerment of Indian Women: A challenge of 21st Century” Orissa Review, 2006 Vinze, Medha Dubashi (1987) “Women Empowerment of Indian: A Socio Economic study of Delhi” Mittal Publications, Delhi.. Dhruba Hazarika “Women Empowerment in India: a Brief Discussion” International Journal of Educational Planning & Administration. Volume 1, Number 3 (2011) Pankaj Kumar Barol & Rahul Sarania “Employment and Educational Status: Challenges of Women Empowerment in India”, A Peer-Reviewed Indexed International Journal of Humanities & Social Science. http://www.slideshare.net/puneetsharma5688/womenempowermentpuneet-sharma.

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Women Empowerment: Constitutional, Legal Provisions and Govt. Efforts to Empower the Women in India Dr. C. B. Bhange* & Mamta Jangir*

There is no tool for development more effective than the empowerment of women. Kofi Annan

Abstract The status of Women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millenniums. The real change came after independence. Constitution of India guarantees equality to women (Article 14). Through constitutional rights and educational status of women has changed a lot, although a lot is still has to be done. Women empowerment can be measured along with a number of indicators- such indices include economic parameters, social as well as political but it doesn’t mean that they are the only parameters to define empowerment. Various other parameters are also included to define empowerment. Economic indices itself include various factors like (i) household – women’s control over income, relative contribution to family support, access to and control of family resources. (ii) communitywomen’s access to employment, ownership of assets and land access to credit, involvement or representation in local trade association, access to markets. (iii) Broader access – representation of women’s economic interest in macro economics, policies, state and federal budgets. Political indices includes right to vote, choice to vote, does she know the importance of voting, does she prefer female candidate etc. Social indices includes-(i) literacy level, any say in family planning, social freedom i.e. marriage related decisions, study related decisions, number of children, right against domestic violence, physical, verbal and sexual abuse of women etc. Women empowerment cannot be achieved without educating women.  Education of the women is the most powerful tool of change in society. Education also brings a reduction in inequalities and functions as a means of improving their status within the family. *  Professor and HOD, Military Science, Shri Shivaji College, Parbhani Maharashtra ** Asst. Professor, Deptt. of Political Science, DAV College, Abohar, Punjab

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Introduction The extent of empowerment of women in the national hierarchy is determined largely by the three factors – her economic, social and political identity and their weightage. These factors are deeply intertwined and interlinked with many cross cutting linkages which imply that if efforts in even one dimension remain absent or weak, outcomes and momentum generated by the other components cannot be sustained as they will not be able to bring any changes or upheavals. It is only when all the three factors are simultaneously addressed and made compatible with each other can the woman be truly empowered. Therefore for holistic empowerment of the woman to happen - social, economic and political aspects impacting a woman’s life must converge effectively. The State and our constitution enacted several women-specific and women-related legislations to protect women against social discrimination, violence and atrocities and also to prevent social evils like child marriages, dowry, rape, practice of Sati etc. The recently notified Prevention of Domestic Violence Act is a landmark law in acting as a deterrent as well as providing legal recourse to the women who are victims of any form of domestic violence. Apart from these, there are a number of laws and article which may not be gender specific but still have ramifications on women.

Special Initiatives to Empower the Women in India

1. The Dowry Prohibition Act (1961):- Dowry Prohibition Act,

2.

3.

4.

Indian law, enacted on May 1, 1961, intended to prevent the giving or receiving of a dowry. Under the Dowry Prohibition Act, dowry includes property, goods, or money given by either party to the marriage, by the parents of either party, or by anyone else in connection with the marriage. The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act (1986):An Act to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. National Commission for Women: - The government of India established this statutory body in January 1992 with a selected authority to review and inspect all matters regarding constitutional as well as legal safeguards for women. Reservation for Ladies in Local Self-Government:- The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Act enacted in 1992 was passed

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by Parliament to ensure 1/3 of the seats of fully elected offices for women in rural areas or local bodies in urban areas. 5. The National Plan of Action for the Girl Child (1991-2000):-Action plans to make sure the protection, development, and survival of girls with the last word objective of creating a bright future for the girl child. On 26th April 2013, the government of India passed the National Policy for Children, 2013. 6. National Policy for the Empowerment of Women, 2001:-The Ministry of Human Resource Development has formulated a “National Policy for Empowerment of Girls” in the year 2001 under the Department of Women and Child Development. The goal of this policy is to lead to the development, advancement, and empowerment of women. 7. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005):The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act 2005 is an Act of the Parliament of India enacted to protect women from domestic violence. It was brought into force by the Indian government and Ministry of Women and Child Development from 26 October 2006. The Act provides for the first time in Indian law a definition of “domestic violence”, with this definition being broad and including not only physical violence, but also other forms of violence such as emotional/verbal, sexual, and economic abuse. It is a civil law meant primarily for protection orders and not for meant to be enforced criminally. 8. The Prohibition of Child Marriage Act (2006):- The object of the Act is to prohibit solemnization of child marriage and connected and incidental matters. To ensure that child marriage is eradicated from within the society, the Government of India enacted Prevention of Child marriage Act 2006 by replacing the earlier legislation of Child Marriage Restraint Act 1929. 9. The Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Redressal, and Prohibition) Act, 2013: An Act to provide protection against sexual harassment of women at workplace and for the prevention and redressal of complaints of sexual harassment and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto. 10. Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2018:- The Bill amends the IPC, 1860 to increase the minimum punishment for rape of women from seven years to ten years. Rape and gang rape of girls below the age of 12 years will carry minimum imprisonment of twenty years and is extendable to life imprisonment or death.

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Welfare Schemes for Women by the Government of India 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, 1993 Mother and Child Tracking System (MCTS), 2009 Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Yojana, 2015 Pradhan Mantri Matru Vandana Yojana, 2017 Ujjawala Scheme

Constitutional Provisions for Women in India Article 14 – Equality before the law for women. Article 15 (i) – states that the State shall not discriminate against any citizen merely based on religion, caste, caste, sex, place of birth, or any of them. Article 15 (3) – State to make special provisions in favor of women and children. Article 16 – Employment and appointment in any office under the states is an equal opportunity for all. Article 39 (a) – Protections for both men and women are equal right to adequate means of livelihood. Article 39 (d) – In any field for both men and women equal pay for equal work. Article 42 – To secure the conditions of state workers and to make provision for maternity relief.

“Women’s Reservation Bill” - Journey and Fact Details 1. The Women’s Reservation Bill was initially introduced in the parliament on September 12, 1996. The bill was introduced in Lok Sabha by the United Front government of HD Deve Gowda. 2. The main aim of this bill is to reserve 33 percent seats in Lok Sabha and all state legislative assemblies for women. 3. Reservation Criteria- As per the bill, the seats will be reserved on a rotational basis. The seats would be determined by a draw of lots in such a way that a seat would only be reserved once in every three consecutive general elections. 4. Vajpayee government pushed for the bill in Lok Sabha but it still wasn’t passed. 5. UPA-I government, led by Congress, again introduced the bill to reserve seats for women in Lok Sabha and legislative assemblies in May 2008.

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6. After its reintroduction, the bill was passed by Rajya Sabha on March 9, 2010, but was still left pending in Lok Sabha. 7. Lalu Prasad-led RJD has been one of the vocal opponents for the Women’s Reservation Bill, along with Samajwadi Party (SP) 8. Political personalities like LJP’s Chirag Paswan and Odisha Chief Minister Naveen Patnayak have been pushing for the Women’s Reservation Bill in their rallies and speeches.

Conclusion Presently youngest age group of 20-30 years is the privileged group who is enjoying their fundamental constitutional rights because they are the most literate group. Education of women has changed their position in the society although their participation in decision making needs to be increased. In India, women are still facing different obstacles in male-dominated cultures. Our predominant patriarchal system doesn’t provide enough chances for women to have higher education even if they wish. Although this trend has been changing in modern times and now women are slowly getting empowerment in the sectors like education, politics, the work force and even more power within their own households. The worth of civilization can be arbitrated by the place given to women in the society. So collective efforts should be done to improve the status of women just like Mahatma Gandhi said, “If you educate a man you educate an individual, but if you educate a woman you educate an entire family.”

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Carr, M., Chen, M., Jhabwala, R. (ed) (1998), Speaking Out, Womens Economic Empowerment in South Asia, Vistaar Publications, New Delhi. Desai, N. and Thakkar,U. (2001), Women in Indian Society, National Book Trust, Delhi. Kaushik, S. (2002), Economic Empowerment of Women- Some Issues, Urdhava Mula, Mumbai, Vol.1, No.1, Nussbaum, M. (2000), Women and Human Development- The Capability Approach, Kali For Women, Delhi. Chary, M. (2012). Women and Political Participation in India: A Historical Perspective. The Indian Journal of Political Science. 2012 Kumar  Hajira, Varghese Jaimon,  Women’s Empowerment, Issues, Challenges, and Strategies 2005 National Health Mission, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, G. of I. (2016). Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan. Government of India.

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Ahmed-Ghosh, H. (2004). Chattels of Society: Domestic Violence in India. Violence Against Women. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801203256019 9. www.JSTOR.com 10. https://www.prsindia.org/theprsblog/women%E2%80%99s-day-andreservation-status-women-india 11. https://wcd.nic.in/act/dowry-prohibition-act-1961 12. https://legislative.gov.in/actsofparliamentfromtheyear/protectionwomen-domestic-violence-act-2005

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Impact of COVID-19 on Indian Women Dr. Niyaz Ahmed Ansari*, Simran Kapoor** & Hemant Shukla***

The novel corona virus disease COVID-19 is one of the biggest death causing flu spread across the world from December 2019. The virus was originated in China and rapidly spread across the globe. Due to increased cases and rising death rate, the World Health Organization declared this situation of Covid-19 as pandemic.1 As this virus is rapidly transmitted from human to human, almost all nations are taking different measure to prevent themselves from this virus. Really, women constituting nearly about half the global population continue to experience institutionalized socio-cultural discrimination acoss the world. The situation is no diffirent in our India. Indian Government has imposed lockdown to break the chain of Covid-19 in the country. “Stay home stay safe“ was the slogan given by government to control the spread of virus. This lockdown protected us from virus but created more dangerous & savior problem for women. Lockdown locked women’s with abuser in a house where they’re allready facing mental and physical torcher. They are unfortunately trapped with the abuser.  Food security has been a major concern in India also. It is thus a multi-dimensional concept and extends beyond the production, availability and demand for food. COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown across the globe. Government of India adopted many measures to provide the food security to all the citizens of the country. So Food Security is included in Good Governance Index ( GGI ) by Govt. of India. There are fifteen points in GGI– Health, Education, Employment, Food Security, Provide the information, Public Private Partnership, Women Empoewrment, Rule of Law, Transparency etc. 2

*   Asst. Prof. – Political Sc., Govt. Aadarsh College, Umaria, M.P. **   Asst. Prof. – English, Sardar Patel College, Chandrapur, MH *** PGT–English, Robertson Convent H.Sec. School, Umaria, M.P.

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During this pandemic women’s are unsafe in their own house they are subjected to violence and abuse such as rape, molestation, domestic violence, physical, sexual abuse, mental and emotional abuse. The abusers are mostly a member of the family or there intimate partner. According to crime records One third of crime against women are registered under cruelty of their husbands. The number of domestic violence cases during pandemic has raised quite sharply. The complaint received by National Commission for Women have been doubled. Violence against the woman is growing during this pandemic due to various psychological, mental, emotional, and economic factors. Women’s suffer from injury, death and psychological harm as a result of domestic violence. Economic instability during this pandemic is one of the most important factor affecting domestic violence. Due to lockdown all the members of the family where locked in home. The men either work from home or have lost the job which leads stress, frustration, poverty and violence. Unemployed man create abusive behaviour towards their wife or children. Their pressure come out as anger towards their spouses. AsMan fetl increasing anxious and out of control over thier job and financial security the likely increase control over thier partner sometimes to the point of abuse. They torcher there wife Physical and mental to satisfy there ego and pressure. They also abuse them with forceful intimate relationship. Violence against women due to economic instability results in physical and mental injuries, sexual and reproductive health disease. During pandemic domestic violence increase with increased in level of alcohol consumption due to various reason. Consumption of alcohol trigger abusive behaviour to wards women by there partner. The partner reflect there stress and problem by beating there spouse. Bars and restaurants were closed in lockdown, due to this many man’s started taking alcohol at home. After drinking they start abusing and beating there wife at home. Due to this women’s suffer physical and mental torcher. Women’s have to spend 24 hour with abusers which automatically increase risk of danger. Unfortunately they are forced to live with abusers at home. Another reason of violence by Alcohol consumer is less availability of alcohol that increases more stress to abuser which create the risk of experience violence for women. Less support for women against domestic violence at the time of lockdown or without lockdown creat more critical situation. Many

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women’s Accept torcher by man, they consider abuse and insult by male partner as normal clash. Hence most of the women’s don’t take any stand against violence. Even Our culture and society support male domination. If women raised voice against violence they questions about ‘women’s purity’ which again force her to neglect abusive behaviour of there partner. Hence more than half of women’s being domestic violence victims do not even consider themselves as victims. At the time of lockdown situation became more critical. Their no support for women. They would not be able to escape form the torcher by there partner. They can’t seek help of their parents, neighbours, relatives as they are locked at home due to pandemic. They have to spend lockdown with abuser which create more abusing surrounding for women. Domestic violence is dangerous, critical and major violence affecting women life and health. Violence done by intimate partner, affect physical, financial, psychological, emotional and mental life of women’s.Due to patriarchal society man consider their right on women. He considers he has full control over a woman’s life, whether financially, emotionally, physically or sexually. This society teach man a sense of superiority over women’sAnd hence they have right to treat women’s as there property.Due to such culture and society the man thinks it is his right to treat women like victims and the women’s thinks it’s right to treat her in an abusive manner. Man think that they have right to beat, slap, insult, torcher, molested and even sexual assault women’s. Women are considered as products which can be exploited by man. They not only exploits her physical but also psychologically, mentally and spiritually. This torcher, assult, insultand injury affect her.  Women’s have suffer life long even if she face violence once. She will never forget what happen to her. They face many serious injuries, gynecological problems related reproductive and sexual health, permanent disabilities, depression ans some time suicide. Other issues include heart problems, digestive problems, trouble sleeping, physical injuries like bruises and burns, headaches, memory loss, repeated unconsciousness and degrading immune system are also seen. We can say domestic violence is one of the major reason for women’s illness. It is imperative that we break our silence about domestic violence and take an active role to stop the violence. We should try to describe women’s about their right.We should try to convince them for registering FIR against abuser. There is a need to make awareness in society about the laws about domestic abuse and to make stringent steps so that the law is

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implemented properly.School and college should inculde course with give knowledge about law for protection of women’s against violence.the attitude and culture to respect women should be taught from the beginning.It is necessary to create an environment of safety, equality and respect for the women of this country. Only then will we be able to realise the vision of Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar who called the relationship between a married couple as that of mutual respect and friendship. 3 So far as the legal provisions are concern to get women liberated from this perpetual tourter which is popularly known domestic violence, the first initiative was the constitution of family courts in 1984 but the effectiveness of the measure is still unproved and demands the detailed study statistics. 4 In the year 2006, Protection of a Woman from Domestic Violence Act (2005), came into the effect and we can cleary conclude that it was a milestone so far as the legal provisions against the domestic violence are concern. 5 Under this act a woman is protect against domestic misbehavior done against her by the family of her in laws or her husband. This act clearly advocates sturn action for the any kind of indescent, tourturing, explorting and humilationting behavior against a married or a woman in relationship. It is a matter related to woman empowerment also. So we should ceate a vision of empowered women living with dignity and contributing as equal partners in developmentin an environment free from violence and discrimination. Swami Vivekanand is true said, “ There is no change for the world unless the condition of women improved. It is not possible for a bird to fly on only one wing. ” 6

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Pratiyogita Darpan (2020, September) Upkar Prakashan, Agra (U. P.), p-94 Mohan, Saumitra, (2017), selected Contemporary Essays, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, Chennai, p-49 Gaba, Omprakash, (2017), Political Thinkers, Mayur Paperbacks, Noida, p-250 Joshi, Manmohan, (2018), New Essays, Takshshila Publication & Distribution Private Limited, Indore, p-124 India 2020, Publications Division, Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, New Delhi, p- 588 www.swamivivekananda.org

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Covid 19 and Its Impact on Gender Issues Joyeeta Das*

Abstract Across the globe, women are more likely to be employed in the informal sector and hold less secure jobs. The pandemic is deepening pre-existing inequalities and women are more vulnerable to COVID-19 related socio-economic effects because of existing gender inequalities. COVID-19 measures and the subsequent lockdown associated with it diminishes their access to paid work, women face an increase in their unpaid labour. One of the consequences of COVID-19 has been an increment in the non-remunerated care work for women and girls within their homes. As they are more engaged in unpaid care work, their vulnerability towards sexual violence increases. Restricted movement and close contact with the abusive partners for long period of time exacerbate intimate partner violence. Simultaneously limited access to healthcare centres and social services leads to sharp rise in maternal and neonatal mortality. Today, there is more acceptance than ever before that women bring different experiences as they take a central role in the fight against the COVID-19 crisis, as health care frontline workers, caregivers, innovators, community organisers given their exemplary and leadership role in combating the pandemic. The crisis has highlighted both the centrality of their contributions and the disproportionate burdens that women and girls carry. Keywords: Gender Inequalities, Violence, Frontline Workers, Care Work, Unpaid Labour, Mortality. The impacts of crises are never gender-neutral, and COVID-19 is no exception. The violence against women tends to increase in any emergency, including epidemics. Mental Stress, increased economic instability, financial insecurity and limited access to health and social services can exacerbate the risk of women suffering violence. In case of COVID-19, isolation, restricted movement and home quarantine measures to prevent the spread of the virus have adversely affected * Assistant Professor, Dept of Political Science, Victoria Institution (College), Kolkata, W.B.

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the women. Conflict and household stress intensifies among the family members as they spend more time with each other. The risk increases when the families also have to cope with economic or job losses. And the women and children are worst effected as their chances of being exposed to violence is dramatically increased. Across every sphere, from domestic to social, health to economic, the impacts of COVID-19 are exacerbated for women and girls simply by virtue of their sex:

Domestic Sphere The increasing economic crisis and limited social activities are increasing the rifts between the partners. Men are frustrated after losing their jobs because of the COVID-19 lockdown resulting in domestic violence which is mainly perpetrated by them in the form of physical and mental assault on their wives and children. They express their frustration by abusing and torturing the latter. The grasp of domestic violence perpetrators has tightened in times of the pandemic. Assaulted victims are distanced from their regular support systems making it difficult for them to call out for help. There are numerous reported and unreported cases of domestic violence which includes physical, verbal, financial, psychological, and sexual abuse. Undoubtedly there is a direct link between crisis like these and interpersonal violence. They do provide for an enabling environment of fear and uncertainty that may intensify diverse forms of violence against women. However the government reports do not show the real violence scenario against children and women taking place across during lockdown. Isolation, stay-at-home measures, loss of jobs and economic insecurity are some of the factors that contribute to making domestic violence even more prevalent. Besides the women also face financial constraints imposed by their husbands. The consequences of COVID-19 also limit access to life-saving resources for survivors of violence and those at risk, such as psycho-social, health, and safety programs (Ali, 2020). While there has been a continuous growth in the number of domestic violence cases in India since the pandemic, strangely enough, the data produced by National Commission for Women  is completely opposite. There is huge difference between the complaints received in pre-lockdown and post-lockdown period. Though there is a continuous rise in the cases of domestic violence during the lockdown was, the instances are not actively reported. The World Health Organization reported that one in three women experience physical or sexual violence, mostly from an intimate partner. During the COVID-19 pandemic, emerging reports from around the world suggest that

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domestic violence has intensified, according to UN Women. Confined in limited spaces for a prolonged period would contribute to added stress and tensions over health concerns, economic insecurity, and fear for the future. With a rapid increase in the number of COVID-19 cases across the world in the past one and a half year, several international organisations marked a steep global rise in domestic violence cases as a result of physical distancing regulations and its subsequent lockdowns.  The World Health Organization has clearly stated that gender-based violence is a “global health problem of epidemic proportions”. Social distancing policies and mandatory quarantines, which are required to contain the spread of the virus, increase the risk of exposure to intimate partner violence. Intimate partner violence is defined as physical, emotional, psychological or economic abuse and sexual harm by the partner or spouse. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 25 percent of women and 10 percent of men experience some form of intimate partner violence in their lifetime. In the paper, “COVID-19, Intimate Partner Violence, and Communication Ecologies,” published in American Behavioral Scientist, the co-authors Frederick Buttell and Clare E.B. Cannon, stated that COVID-19, like other kinds of disasters, exacerbates the physical, psychological and livelihood stresses and circumstances that we know ultimately leads to intimate partner violence. The isolation and quarantine rules have created an environment where the victim cannot get away to safer place from their abusive partners and as a result experience intimate partner violence. Notably there is a direct link between intimate partner violence and loss of jobs and financial security. There are three factors that contribute to rise of violence against women and a potential increase of femicides. They are: 1) the perpetrator and the victim staying together for longer period; 2) increase in conflicts between intimate partners due to financial pressure and loss of jobs; and 3) the perceived security and impunity of the perpetrator. The hurdles towards reporting the Domestic violence cases amidst a pandemic are as follows: 1. The home quarantine measures imposed by the government to check the spread of the virus restricted the movement of women, making them more vulnerable to physical and mental abuse. Staying in close contact with abusers for a longer period of time raised the cases of violence on women rapidly. 2. Primarily, the Natal family is usually the first and foremost supporting system of the victim subjected to abuse. The continuous

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presence of the perpetrator made it difficult for the victims to contact them. This is also a factor as to why majority of domestic violence cases goes unreported. 3. The measures adopted towards Protection of Women from Domestic Violence were overwhelmed by the measures to control the spread of COVID 19. To tackle COVID-19 happened to be the foremost priority of the police officers. Moreover, Due to restricted movements, neither the NGOs nor the police officers were able to visit households of victims, and have physical interactions with them victims. While COVID-19-related lockdowns may have decreased the spread of a deadly virus, they have created an ideal environment for increased domestic violence. Unfortunately, domestic violence cases are underreported across the world, especially in times of global emergencies like COVID-19. This is the Shadow Pandemic growing amidst the COVID-19 crisis and we need a global collective effort to stop it. The domestic workers, majority of whom are women, are also worst hit by the pandemic. 90 per cent of them have lost their jobs because its hard for them to earn money at this time. People who work at the office, they continue to work from home and earn their salary regularly; but domestic workers cannot. They are entitled to unpaid leave. Some didn’t even receive their salary when they were asked to stop in the middle of the month. Besides non-remunerated care work has increased as a result of COVID-19. One of the consequences of the quarantine implemented in many countries the wake of COVID-19 has been the increment in the unpaid work for women and girls within their homes. Women and girls are often the primary caregivers at home and in general have more domestic chores and care responsibilities relative to men. School closures, along with no domestic help from outside, have drastically increased additional burden of women. The responsibility of caring for sick and elderly family members often falls on women as well. The situation is overtly difficult for working mothers who has to balance between full-time employment with childcare and schooling responsibilities. Therefore it can be said that the need to care for patients at hospitals and children at home, the double burden on women will probably increase.

Socio-Economic Sphere Besides being a deadly pandemic, COVID-19 has also huge economic and social consequences for women. It is expected that COVID-19 will result in an economic recession even much dangerous than the 2008

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financial crisis and the resultant recession will disproportionately impact the income and employment of the most vulnerable, i.e., women. Infact, women’s paid labour and women-run businesses are hardest hit. Its economic consequences have further widened the gender inequalities. Though both men and women have been negatively impacted by the crisis, the effect has not been equal on both the sexes. Since women are disproportionately more engaged in informal economy, they suffered higher loss of jobs and reduced working hours due to higher workload within the household for domestic and care responsibilities which are non-remunerative and unpaid. As they are more engaged in unpaid domestic and care work, their vulnerability towards sexual violence increases and less effective is their response to different forms of gender-based violence. Women engaged in private business lost more than 50 per cent of her income as social distancing guidelines drastically reduced the number of people visiting the market. The International Labour Organization (ILO) suggests that about 25 million jobs could be lost as a result of COVID-19 worldwide and women would be among the most vulnerable groups. The larger the size of women in informal sector, the harder they are hit by the economic crises of COVID-19. They are overrepresented in the sectors hardest hit by COVID-19, such as food service, tourism, entertainment, cleaning, social services, frontline health care services and remunerated domestic services. Moreover, increase in unpaid care and domestic work impelled them to drop out of the labour force. Consequently they tend to earn less and have less access to social protections. While everyone is facing unprecedented challenges, the poor and marginalized women face an even higher risk of COVID-19 transmission and fatalities, loss of livelihood, and increased violence. These poverty-stricken highly vulnerable women will not only be affected by the increase of the care responsibilities and loss of jobs, but also by the material conditions and infrastructure of their households. Living in remote areas, overcrowded, with low access to drinking water and sanitation, unhealthy households and dirty floors, they can hardly comply with social distancing measures adopted to contain the spread of the virus. Painstakingly, in India, the social distancing policies adopted to prevent the spread of the virus are often associated with class distinctions and privileges. Though globally, majority of the frontline health and care workers are women and girls, yet in view of remuneration, they are not at par with their male counterparts. In fact the gender pay gap in the health sector is the highest. Lockdown, restriction of movement, stay-at-home

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measures and closures of business and economic activity affect those individuals and families who derive their livelihood from informal sector, women in particular. Lack of social security and protection, low wages, precarious working conditions are some the conditions of informal economy. The situation is much more precarious for migrant and refugee women who continuously suffer from employment crisis, often unpaid, which makes them targets of violence and limits their chances of finding fair employment. The recovery of women from this economic blot caused by COVID-19 has turned out to be the biggest challenge for them. These women are the faces behind the headlines, the people most affected by the economic impact of COVID-19. Unless, policies intended to enable economic relief measures for the women, support women-led businesses and their income security, their situation will only worsen. The pandemic arrives at a time when the level of poverty was on a decline globally. Suddenly almost all the sectors suffered a severe blow and with shrinking of economies and loss of livelihoods, massive job losses, particularly for women. On one hand, the resurgence of extreme poverty as a result of the pandemic has revealed women’s precarious economic security, on the other hand, weakened social protection systems have left them unprotected, with no safeguards to combat the storm. The recently released report by United Nations shows that the pandemic will push 96 million people into extreme poverty by 2021, 47 million of whom are women and girls. The pandemic-induced poverty surge has further widened the gender poverty gap – meaning, more women is pushed into extreme poverty than men. Loss of jobs and rise in the burden of unpaid care work made women vulnerable to layoffs and loss of livelihoods. The closure of educational institutions also endangered the accumulation of human capital of students despite multiple attempts by the government to implement online learning. Poor internet facility or no facility at all in majority of the Indian households and weak digital skills especially of girls, put the entire online teaching-learning method into question. Further the whole online teaching learning method led to the escalation of cyber-violence like sexualised trolling and online stalking. New forms of violence such as ‘Zoom-bombing’ emerged to intimidate and harass women and girls. In this need of the hour, the immediate need for a rigorous and coordinated policy response has revealed a good number of social and economic measures that have been and can be adopted by countries. These measures seek to protect employment and guarantee the continuity of productive activity, while also protecting the income

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and the mechanisms available to deal with the crisis of individuals and households, especially in the most vulnerable segments and those at greatest risk of loss of jobs and livelihoods.

Health sphere  COVID-19  is having catastrophic impact on the health of women all around the world. The crisis demands immediate and coordinated response to healthcare, care policies and other measures in order to mitigate the social and economic impacts of the crisis. Women are situated at the front line of health and care response in healthcare centers, social services, communities and households. In fact, the nurses and healthcare workers are mainly women who tend to develop a close contact with the patients which put them at heightened risk of infection. But shockingly the Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) meant for the frontline health care workers is sized primarily for men. Women’s access to sexual and reproductive health services such as clinical management of rape, first-line support and basic mental health services also received a severe blow by the urgent need to counteract the effect of the pandemic. Lockdowns all over the world have led to several women being stuck at home with their abusive partners. The upsurge in cases leading to the worsening of situation has further cut them off from sexual and reproductive health services. Often care services are either denied outright or the women have to face dangerous delays getting the services which leads to sharp rise in maternal and neonatal mortality. The barriers towards care services are especially severe in places with weak or overburdened health systems. Innumerable lives were lost when these services became inaccessible due to the outbreak. Thousands of rape victims suffered death after failing to get necessary services. The pregnant women have struggled to find transportation to hospitals  after imposition of night curfew. The pregnant women are facing the difficulties of transportation. Most of the maternal and neonatal deaths caused during the pandemic due to inaccessibility of health care services and movement restrictions will never be counted because 80% women never made it to the hospital. What appeared to be the biggest threat to women is not the virus but the unavailability of health and care services and people’s apprehension of going to hospitals where they could get infected. As mentioned earlier, lockdowns and home quarantine measures have also contributed to a steep rise in cases of domestic violence. Staying home may be safe for preventing the virus but not safe for many women and girls who falls into the trap of the perpetrator. As

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the need for sexual violence care is increasing, access to health and care services is more difficult. However treatment for sexual violence is time-sensitive; rape victims must reach the health care centres within 72 hours of the assault. But since in a country like india sexual violence is still considered a ‘shameful’ subject which cannot be talked about in public. As a result many people seldom know about the urgent need for treatment and consider it as a nonessential service.  Some sexual and reproductive health services, such as contraception and safe abortion care, are often seen as non-essential or even illegitimate. These services have been highly politicised, making them all the more likely to be deprioritised during a crisis as we are seeing now. Special consideration should be given to more vulnerable groups, including women living with disabilities, who are at increased risk of domestic violence and may face further barriers in reaching the services they need, such as social assistance and home care, due to curfews and social distancing or restrictions on movement. Displaced and refugee women, and women living in conflict-affected areas are also particularly vulnerable due to high population density, close proximity in living conditions; poor water, sanitation and hygiene; and limited health, social and protection services.

Conclusion It is the women who have been hardest hit by the pandemic since they have been disproportionately engaged in the informal sector. Along with loss of jobs, they are more likely to cut back on working hours in light of rising demands at home, to perform domestic care responsibilities from cleaning to preparing food and supervising children’s learning. Though it has negative implications on their socio-economic security, but it is them who emerge as the shock absorbers during such crises who sustains families and communities. They take on the central role in the fight against the COVID-19 as health care frontline workers, caregivers, community organisers given their flawless leadership role in combating the pandemic. The crisis has highlighted both the centrality of their contributions and the disproportionate burdens that women and girls carry. Whether in terms of taking decisions, making policies and implementing laws, there are more acceptances that women bring different experiences, perspectives and skills to the table, and make irreplaceable contributions. Today women’s experiences and leadership qualities has been hailed all over the world in the fight against the COVID-19 pandemic.

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