Understanding New Perspectives of Spirituality [1 ed.] 9781848883772, 9789004374591

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Understanding New Perspectives of Spirituality

Critical Issues Series Editors Dr Robert Fisher

Lisa Howard

Advisory Board Simon Bacon Katarzyna Bronk John L. Hochheimer Stephen Morris Peter Twohig S. Ram Vemuri

Ana Borlescu Ann-Marie Cook Peter Mario Kreuter John Parry Karl Spracklen Peter Bray

A Critical Issues research and publications project. http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/critical-issues/ The Ethos Hub ‘Spirituality in the 21st Century’

2015

Understanding New Perspectives of Spirituality

Edited by

Edie Lanphar and Agata Wilczek

Inter-Disciplinary Press Oxford, United Kingdom

© Inter-Disciplinary Press 2015 http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/publishing/id-press/

The Inter-Disciplinary Press is part of Inter-Disciplinary.Net – a global network for research and publishing. The Inter-Disciplinary Press aims to promote and encourage the kind of work which is collaborative, innovative, imaginative, and which provides an exemplar for inter-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary publishing.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior permission of Inter-Disciplinary Press.

Inter-Disciplinary Press, Priory House, 149B Wroslyn Road, Freeland, Oxfordshire. OX29 8HR, United Kingdom. +44 (0)1993 882087

ISBN: 978-1-84888-377-2 First published in the United Kingdom in eBook format in 2015. First Edition.

Table of Contents An Introduction to the Incurving of Current Issues: Understanding New Perspectives of Spirituality Edie Lanphar, Agata Wilczek and Phil Fitzsimmons Part I

Understanding Spirituality Empirical Acquisition of Data on Spiritual Health: Contradictio in Adjecto, or Coincidentia Oppositorum? Ivo Jirásek and Pavel Veselský

Part II

vii

3

The Emergence of Spirituality Studies as a Field: Notes from the Front Benjamin A. Lyons and John L. Hochheimer

13

The Way of Man to a Spiritual Life According to Martin Buber Ferdinand Röhr

31

Emanuel Swedenborg’s Contribution to Understanding Spirituality in the Twenty-First Century Jane Williams-Hogan

41

Self-Transforming Power of Spirituality The Spirituality of Change and Transformation Martin C. Fowler

53

Developing Our Inner Spiritual Guide: A Practical Spiritual Epistemology for the 21st Century Anna Gatmon

61

Inside Story: Spiritual Transformations of Malaysian-Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim Sandra Ng Siow San

71

Part III Spirituality in Literature and Culture Dancing with the Eternity, Dervish as Dasein Cihan Camcı

89

Ghost from the Past: The Fortune of hyaku monogatari in Post-Meiji Japan Diego Cucinelli

97

Part IV

Part V

Indian Dance in Christianity M. Caterina Mortillaro

107

The Literary beyond Words: Towards Theonomic Understanding of Literature and Culture Agata Wilczek

115

Spirituality in Education The Buddha and Ignatius of Loyola in Conversation: Responding to the Challenge of Religious Pluralism in Faith-Based Higher Education Andre L. Delbecq

125

The Ideal and Idealized School: Spirituality as the Core of Being, Belonging and Becoming Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar

135

Seeing Crucibles: Educational Relevance of Spiritual Development Audrey Lingley

145

Mandala: From Ancient Wisdom to an Application to Spiritual Teaching for the 21st Century in Higher Education Himapan Ruktaengam

159

Spirituality in the Outdoor Experiential Learning Courses: ‘Life Is a Gothic Dog’ Pavel Veselský and Ivo Jirásek

169

Spirituality in Healthcare Spirituality in the Care of the Dying in India: A Historical-Cultural Exploration Hamilton Inbadas, Aru Narayanasamy and Jane Seymour

181

Spirituality and Japanese Self-Help Groups for Alcoholics: Zen Buddhism for Abstinence Tomofumi Oka and Richard Dean Chenhall

197

Spirituality, Healing and Wellbeing: Meta-Theoretical Perspectives within the Framework of Practical Theology Lutricia E. Snell (neé Maree)

213

An Introduction to the Incurving of Current Issues: Understanding New Perspectives of Spirituality Edie Lanphar, Agata Wilczek and Phil Fitzsimmons Over the past few years the research focussed on spirituality has occurred within a wide range of disciplines. The findings of this broad spectrum of specialities have gradually begun to coalesce into more focussed set of developing understandings. However, like all initial attempts at research interconnectivity and shifts in different paradigms, any attempt at telescoping similarities leads to new issues, the arising of new unforeseen questions and at times degrees of ambiguity. From our perspective, this is not a negative outcome of combing research trajectories but an outflow of coming to grips with a realignment of paradigmatic lenses. The following chapters both reveal and begin to deal with the inevitability of new alignments as new questions arise. While admittedly the emergent understandings and new questions that have arisen in and amongst research disciplines have only just begun to scratch the surface of this most human of all research areas, the aim of this book is also to showcase a cross section of the development of these new themes of understandings. It is not the intention to suggest that the chapter headings and the individual chapters in each section represent a precise framing of all the new developments or a bonding to the current edges of difference, rather the purpose is to provide a rich sample of possibilities that act as springboards for new research agendas, as well as continue interdisciplinary dialogue. Within each discipline spirituality is a complex pastiche of enmeshed aspects, and so this text needs to be also read with the interdisciplinary view of finding and connecting threads across all of the author’s perspectives. In doing so, perhaps this book can become another step in pulling together the individual components of the spiritual path, journey and understandings that we all share: each different but perhaps also much the same. Certainly, this apparent ambiguity is reflected as a contemporaneous overall theme of this text in that while spirituality is a lone walk, it is also is deeply connected to others. This has raised the questions in this text and in the field as a whole regarding what the spiritual walk actually looks like and how it manifests itself. It is these twin questions of ambiguity that perhaps have created the greatest divides amongst spirituality researchers and those interested in putting theory into practice. These points are also the aspects of greatest interest. The flow-on effect from this in regard to research is that spirituality has appeared to create further interesting divides of paradigmatic thinking: more so than perhaps any other field. There are those who seek to measure it as an entity, its effects and affects. On the other side of the investigative spectrum are those who seek to understand all of these aspects but through the human lens of perception and awareness. This

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__________________________________________________________________ difference is perhaps the greatest divide to be overcome by researchers, as one seeks to understand truth as singularity through testing and proving hypotheses, devoid of contextual elements. Not wishing to begin or enlarge an already polemic divide existing in other disciplines, this book primarily deals with understanding spirituality. Thus, perhaps unwittingly, researchers on this side of the spectrum have entered the ideological schema of multiple realities. Thus, each and every research agenda will reveal different results. In a global sense, the spread of results will always shift but will also reveal the rich tapestry, or prismatic viewpoints that underpins human spirituality. Even contradictory results will give added gravitas to the wonder and complexity of the psycho-emotional-cognitive aspects related to spirituality. The chapters in this book deal with connecting different issues from a global variety of, and at times competing disciplines. Indeed, the following pages reveal the richness, breadth and depth of spirituality. In starting on the path of dealing with divides, Jirásek and Veselský begin to distinguish the key aspects of religiosity and spirituality. Their underpinning belief is that in doing so the potential research on spiritual health, stemming from the concept of non-religious spirituality will emerge. They further contend that this is a critical issue as the entire focus on health has been restricted to the physical, mental and social dimensions. In their field, only the scientific paradigm has begun to deal with the spiritual dimension of health, and with most of these dealing with religious experiences only. In their chapter focussing on the spiritual frame of understanding, they unpack what they term a unity of opposites in this field, or coincidentia oppositorum Lyons and Hochheimer continue the overall theme of change and ambiguity in the second chapter, believing the field has exponentially grown in understanding as well as fields exploring this area. While they understand the research arena remains problematic in all of the research facets such as subject, methods, pedagogies and foundational definitions, they also see its overall development as robust and relatively expansive. They attempt to develop a roadmap to the field, as well as connecting to the previous chapter, as they move from the religious concept to sociological theory. Thus, they unpack how spirituality has become a question of human experience. In developing this web of experience they continue to discuss the related interdisciplinary threads. In doing so they connect the spiritual experience with modern history, communication technologies and applications. Their argument is that these new possibilities for expression and connection have reshaped current conceptualizations of spirituality. In an operational and practical sense, they make clear connections to numerous aspects related to healing such as aging, dementia, addiction, coping, and resilience and psychiatry. Other professions have reexamined its potential and place in the theory, teaching and praxis. Perhaps more importantly, they argue that this thread of argument lends

Edie Lanphar, Agata Wilczek and Phil Fitzsimmons ix __________________________________________________________________ itself to a mixed mode research, connecting the alternative forms of the research spectrum. In the third chapter of this section, Ferdinand Röhr describes and discusses how spirituality has emerged as an alternative means of living in what he argues is more human manner. In his worldview, understanding fully the notion of spirituality provides a more positive option towards forming connection between the abstract and theoretical, and an authentic conceptualisation of living. Drawing on the writing of Buber, he discusses the several key issues related to self-contemplation, a process that leads to questioning oneself about the stages we have reached in life and the hiding places we create to escape from our responsibilities. While this process is located within the notion of self, Rohr argues that this leads to a local and global sense of connectedness in that we must also ultimately undertake the tasks the world presents to us. In summarising Buber’s construct, Rohr concludes that there is a spiritual way designated to all individuals and everyone must tap into their own inner sense to find it. In the final chapter of this initial section, Williams-Hogan unpacks the beliefs and writing of Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772). According to this author, Swedenborg believed that he was called to reveal the spiritual sense of the Bible found in both the Old and New Testaments. In these expansive set of Christian writings reality was divided between the spiritual and natural realms. In this spectrum, human beings are born natural with the capacity to become spiritual. The spiritual world is seen as the world of life, while nature is essentially dead. The spiritual path that confronts every human being born into the natural world is to spiritually shape him or herself in preparation for eternal spiritual life. Another interesting facet unpacked by Williams-Hogan is that Swedenborg also understood that the human condition awakens in the spiritual realm immediately after death. In this spiritual domain, a person gradually becomes who he or she truly is: either a lover of God and others, or someone whose primary love is self and worldly pleasures. With apparently more and more people choosing to identify themselves as spiritual, and religion being viewed negatively, Williams-Hogan contends that Swedenborg’s teachings regarding spiritual processes have a definitive connection to the twenty-first century, Western cultural thinking. Martin Fowler continues the notion of the spiritual process in the second section. As he sees it, the dynamics of spiritual process involves two different but reciprocal transitions: change and transformation. While different from each other, he argues that we all strive to change internal and external environments. As well in his view, our ability to deeply belong is related to our capacity and vulnerability to undergo transformation, which constitutes a prerequisite for the experience of deep belonging. It is this notion of belonging that forms the core of Fowler’s discussions. In particular, he posits that the key questions of life and an optimal spiritual life revolve around successfully answering the questions: whom do I belong? Belong with what? Belong here? Belong now? Belong just how exactly?

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__________________________________________________________________ Does anyone really belong? In this ideological thread and praxis life’s signature success is belonging. It may be a rootless and ceaseless change, but these enable and enrich the spirituality of the human experience. The notion of spiritual knowing and spiritual epistemology for enhancing spiritual experiences and creating the conditions for a richer spiritual life is the theme of Anna Gatmon’s chapter. This non-denominational framework emerged out of her personal and professional experience with individuals and groups. This research investigated the effects of activities designed to facilitate spiritual knowing in adult learners. Situated in adult education theory and practice, the emergent framework offers simple skills that can help tap into spiritual capacities and develop inner spiritual guide. Gatmon further claims that on a personal level this has the capacity to affect the outcome of our choices, actions and relationships, transforming our personal and professional life, and providing a qualitative difference in the world. On a more systemic level, she believes that such an awareness can also provide a useful platform for developing new and sustainable ecological, economic and social structures. Sandra Ng Siow San’s chapter shifts the concept of spiritual knowing and mapping into the realm of Buddhism. Focussing on the teachings of Buddha Sakyamuni, she outlines the importance of Sakyamuni’s concept of the four main pilgrimage destinations: the birthplace, the enlightenment place, the first sermon and his final resting place. While there is a physicality and travelling motif to these, there is also a corresponding inward pilgrimage through introspection and the discovery of one’s inner nature in Buddhism. The idea of travelling to a sacred place is parallel to life, with all that the pilgrim’s personal experience entails. From the Buddhist perspective, the entire life journey is a pilgrimage. San draws selected narratives arising out of the semi-structured, face-to-face, audio-recorded interviews to illustrate expressions of spirituality as compared to religiosity, thus highlighting the sense of spiritual becoming related to the pilgrimages in the Malaysian-Chinese Buddhist tradition. Further exploring the conjoined notions of movement and spirituality, Cihan Camcı leads into the third section with a chapter that focuses on an interpretation of the Dervish through the lens of the concept of Dasein. In this instance, Dasein is defined as Heidegger’s notion of subject whose structure of existence is temporality. In summary, this continuous temporalization of temporality provided the opening of the meaning of existence as a whole. Thus, in contrast to the traditional view, the Dervish turns out dance to feel the temporality as contemporaneous temporalization. The second chapter in this section, written by Diego Cucinelli, further extends the transcultural and mapping themes through an investigation of the Hyaku Monogatari or One-Hundred Tales, a parlour game created in the Edo period in Japan. Through this period between 1603 and 1867, the game was initially played by samurai as a test of courage. However, it shortly spread in popularity and

Edie Lanphar, Agata Wilczek and Phil Fitzsimmons xi __________________________________________________________________ became common also among the lower classes. Considered as a sort of lighthouse for spirits, it became very popular and the stories of ghoulish encounters narrated during the gatherings converged in a literary movement. In the ensuing periods of modernity, and in particular, in the wave of positivism that spread in Japan after the influence of the Western culture, well known intellectuals, such as Mori Ōgai and Izumi Kyōka, and Yanagita Kunio, showed great interest in Hyaku Monogatari. In the more recent times, the surge of manga and anime literature in the 1960s reveals a deep connection with this spiritual practice. Cucinelli unpacks how this old form of culture has taken on new forms in contemporary Japan. In this ninth chapter, Caterina Mortillaro also reveals how an ancient practice has taken on new forms while maintaining the original spiritual dimensions. In her chapter, she describes how old forms of dance still have an important role in Indian society and Hindu religion. In the Natyashastra, dance and drama were created by the Brahma in order to ‘teach the path of Virtue’ to humankind. The dances performed by the devadasi, the servants of the temple, according to the Hindu religion, had the power to balance the world, purifying it. In the recent decades in India various theologians and priests have attempted to introduce dance in the Christian liturgy with the same role of chants in the western liturgy. For example, the Bharatanatyam is one of the dance styles that Indian Christians have transformed in order to fit into the Christian context. Mortillaro reveals through her fieldwork in Andhra Pradesh, that this ancient dance connection is not without its detractors due to the reasons of modesty. While not officially approved by the Vatican and not introduced into the Christian liturgy, dance is nowadays performed only in a paraliturgical context. In Agata Wilczek’s ninth chapter, she proposes a way of thinking about literature and culture that would go beyond words, towards the extra-verbal, spiritual sphere. Her belief is that the study of literature can be perceived as a reflection aimed at metaphysics and mystery, and literary criticism as concerned with mysteries, which call for very personal, self-involved responses. Therefore, reading turns out to be spiritually involved process, which could take place only in the aura of adoration and contemplation, free from any attempts to usurp the right to offer definite answers to the mystery of life hidden beyond the letters. She goes on to argue that this form of involvement is one of the higher order and literature constitutes a reflection of it. As well, she adds that literature and culture are understood here theonomically, that is as spirit-determined and spirit-directed. Entering into the role of philosophy and religious thinking, her perspective is that the function of writing is therefore fundamentally ascesis, prayer and spiritual reflection upon oneself, the world and God. In the first chapter of Section 4, and the tenth chapter overall, Andre Delbecq also crosses boundaries. Taking up a religious-spiritual nexus, similar to Wilczek, he discusses how the Catholic universities frequently seek to anchor students’ educational experience in the spiritual charism of a founding religious order. He cites the approach of Jesuit education, which leans heavily on The Spiritual

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__________________________________________________________________ Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, a series of foundational reflection. However, he poses the issues of many institutions which have an increasing number of administrators, faculty and students coming from non-Catholic traditions. Thus he posits, religious pluralism poses a challenge. He asks a very timely question of how individuals coming from varied traditions find resonance with the Ignatian teaching while simultaneously perceiving their own religious worldview as a valued contributor to a shared spiritual perspective. This chapter explores how the Spiritual Exercises, the experiential doorway to Jesuit spirituality, can be creatively juxtaposed with Buddhism. As such, he argues that this foundational approach piloted could also be a basis for dialog in other institutional settings. In the ensuing chapter, Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar take up the educational theme of new directions, unpacking the findings of an international study that sought to explore middle school student’s perceptions of the ideal school. Previous research had suggested that this age group were more than able to articulate their understandings of what worked and what did not work for them in educational settings. Their findings revealed the same theme, and in particular the concept that students in this age bracket wanted a more holistic approach to education, which requires an integration of outdoor education, value development through reflective collective discovery, engagement with a chaplain-mentor, a refocusing of curriculum, complete engagement with staff and parents, and an authentic provision for their voices. They argue that in order to address the despiritualizing spiral of education, the model arising out of their study indicates that schools need to develop an emancipatory-holistic framework of approximative journeying. Audrey Lingley in the fourteenth chapter clearly argues for reforms in middle school education in the United States, believing that curriculum and instruction, as well as leadership and organization, should be informed by knowledge of all the developmental characteristics of 10 to 15 year-olds. More importantly, she believes that absent from the general conception of human development are spiritual developmental characteristics of young adolescents. Unpacking her critical historiographical research methods, her results offer encouragement as the relevance of spiritual development as part of the middle grades concept and the integration of knowledge of adolescent spiritual development are theoretically supported by commitments to caring relationships in schools and constructivist learning theory. Her results provide a foundation for a new discourse of possibility for spirituality in education. Next, Himapan Ruktaengam also takes up the theme of the need for diversity and the inclusion of spirituality in education spheres. In specific terms, the focus in this chapter is on the use of a tertiary assignment in which each student was asked to create an art piece that represents one most important value of BuddhaDhamma, or teachings of the Buddha. Using Mandala or a sand painting that represents the Universe, to represent the core teaching of impermanence, the

Edie Lanphar, Agata Wilczek and Phil Fitzsimmons xiii __________________________________________________________________ assignment reveals that it is possible to connect ancient wisdom and contemporary spiritual education. Veselský and Jirásek’ chapter rounds out this educational focus, focussing on explicitly spiritual aspects of education: a controversial subject in Central Europe. In their context they see the materialism of the Socialist era and then the materialism of the consumer society as inhibitors in introducing this focus in the mainstream discourse of educational sciences. While the explicit curriculum does not contain spirituality as a focus, the informal aspects do. To this point they discuss how in the Czech Republic, university courses that focus on outdoor expeditions, which require stepping out of the comfort zone and into nature, are a case in point. In specific terms, they unpack how their investigation of the responses of the participants who were involved in two experiential winter courses resulted in the findings that were related to direct spiritual outcomes. Thus, they argue the case for implementing spirituality into the theoretical and practical framework of educational sciences in the Czech Republic. The chapter written by Hamilton Inbadas, Aru Narayanasamy and Jane Seymour leads into the final section of this book: one dealing with health care. Their argument is that the historical-cultural approach to the understanding of spirituality has long been recognized essential for a comprehensive knowledge of the subject in specific contexts. In particular, such an understanding is invaluable for culturally appropriate spiritual care in palliative care practice. As a critical source, India is known for its rich and diverse spiritual heritage, however, little research has been done to explore these historical traditions to inform the perception of spirituality in the current day. These authors explore the findings of their research, which focussed on the oral history methodology undertaken in India with the explicit aim of understanding the values and principles of spirituality from a historical-cultural perspective. Through exploring the care of the dying in the past related to dying with dignity they have connected these perspectives to the current understanding of death and notions of a good death. Next, Oka and Chenhall explore spirituality as an emerging theme in addiction research. While substantial research has been conducted on spirituality in specific western groups such as Alcoholics Anonymous, they contend little research has been undertaken on self-help groups that have traditions based on beliefs other than Christian ones. In specific terms, using an ethnographic approach they explored the spirituality of one Japanese self-help group for alcoholics, Danshukai. This group incorporates principles of Zen Buddhism. Their results revealed three kinds of activities or artefacts were identified as spiritual: vows and prayers; acts of spiritual training, called gyô; and Buddhist symbols. However, as the membership of Danshukai is decreasing, medical professionals have been approached with the aim of further referrals. This has resulted in the introduction of medical terms and concepts into their activities, which has weakened the alternative nature of their existing self-help culture. They finish off by questioning this decision and reflecting on the future direction of Danshukai without a spiritual foundation.

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__________________________________________________________________ Lutricia Snell’s final chapter explores the relationship between trauma and faith-estrangement within the holistic healing paradigm in the context of theory and praxis. Her segment is an examination of the extent to which perspectives from the scientific disciplines of psychology, social work, sociology, anthropology, the medical sciences, and theology per se contribute towards an understanding of the nature of trauma as well as the recovery of the individual. Against this theoretical background she advocates for appropriate meta-theoretical markers to consider in the process of healing of the traumatized faith-estranged. In many ways, the last sentence that summarizes Snell’s contribution is exactly the thrust of this entire text. Spirituality is more than an esoteric concept! While its diversity can appear ambiguous at the present time, it is and can be a thread of understandings that leads to both physical and psychical healing. As you read each of the ensuing chapters and become aware of the alternate pathways and understandings related to the field of spirituality, the editorial team hopes that not only will the essence of spirituality become clearer, but a healing of the mind may also occur.

Part I Understanding Spirituality

Empirical Acquisition of Data on Spiritual Health: Contradictio in Adjecto, or Coincidentia Oppositorum? Ivo Jirásek and Pavel Veselský Abstract Our contribution distinguishes between the terms of religiosity and spirituality in order to focus primarily on a potential research on spiritual health, stemming from the concept of non-religious spirituality. The issue of health has not been lately restricted to its physical, mental, and social dimension only; increasing scientific attention has been paid to a distinctly spiritual dimension of health as well. There are various approaches to the terminological distinction between the religious and spiritual experience, yet all available questionnaires focusing on similarly conceived research seem to provide insufficient distinction between the two. A number of questions deal with the relationship to God, prayer, or church attendance, these phenomena, however, relate to religious experience, not spirituality, which can obtain non-religious connotations, e.g. in the context of deep ecology, various humanist movements, including specific atheistic spirituality. The conclusion of our contribution brings back the key question, which is related to the possibility of finding out respondents’ opinions concerning their own spiritual health experience via a quantitative approach, that is, by collection of questionnaire data. Although the phenomenon of spirituality resists the confinement of explicit categories and strict criteria, such an attempt would constitute a contradiction in itself, contradictio in adjecto, we believe that such investigations may broaden our understanding due to their certain informative value, and that our questionnaire—along with other research methods, may contribute to an intriguing unity of opposites; coincidentia oppositorum. Key Words: Religiosity, spirituality, spiritual health, research, questionnaire. ***** 1. Spirituality, as Well as Health, Is an Open Notion Literature dealing with spirituality very often uses diverse notions of religion/spirituality, yet it is necessary to perfectly distinguish between the terms of religiosity and spirituality. It is not only a practical question of linguistic understanding; there is a fundamental philosophical and ontological reason behind it. This distinction was described by Eliade,1 however, it has been rarely applied in empirical research. While religion belongs to the possible world which is different from our actual world; for example: eternity – time; infinity – finiteness; God – human being, etc., spirituality is a part of the human experience in the actual world focused on the purpose of life, relationships with other people, genuine values and the like.

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__________________________________________________________________ This distinction allows us to apply the concept of spirituality outside the religious discourse. This kind of spirituality may be described as spiritual-but-notreligious,2 non-religious spirituality,3,4 atheistic spirituality,5 humanist spirituality,6 etc. Even such a materialistic and apparently non-spiritual philosophical tradition such as Marxism represents a specific kind of spirituality.7,8 To explore spirituality scientifically is rather difficult: spirituality is loose in its substance, being a ‘slippery concept’ with different meanings. The same should be said about the phenomenon of health: it is not a status, but a dynamic process, which has its physical, psychical, social, and spiritual dimensions. Spirituality is rather a symbol or a metaphor than a strict concept. While religion can be investigated scientifically by means of statistical methods, I am aware, of course, of how misleading it is to reduce religion to church denomination, the number or frequency of church attendance or praying, the amount of received financial gifts or tax assignations, etc., the same approach would not be applicable for spiritual experience. Therefore, there are certain prerequisites for scientific research of spirituality, and these are: • A strict definition of the concept itself. • A possibility of data evaluation, for example, using a scale. • The investigation results in transferring the concept into a behavioural structure. None of these conditions may be valid: • It is not possible to define spirituality sensu stricto; it means by using a hypernym, a superordinate, i.e. genus proximum; or by its generic characteristic, i.e. differentia specifica. • It is probably not possible to determine the degree of spiritual content. • Specific behavior thus cannot be perceived as more or less spiritual. However, there has been abundant research related to spirituality, for example concerning the possibility of definition and measurement of spirituality,9 the relationships between religiosity, spirituality, and personality,10,11,12 not mentioning a large body of research looking for connection between spirituality and other elements of human experience, including various diseases. What does this contradiction mean? 2. Possibilities in the Research on Spiritual Health Health is a traditional area of research in a number of disciplines. Increasing scientific attention has been paid to a distinctly spiritual dimension of health; the

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__________________________________________________________________ relation of spirituality and health was first investigated in terms of how religious/spiritual practices influence subjectively perceived health. On the basis of non-religious spirituality, we can consider a potential research on spiritual health. Should we decide to use any existing instruments of spiritual health research, there are specific questionnaires available. Regrettably, the insufficient distinction between the two basic notions, meaning religiosity and spirituality, is obviously absent not only there, but also in the research of spirituality itself. A number of questions deal with the relationship to God, prayer, or church attendance, these phenomena, however, relate to religious experience, not spirituality, which can obtain non-religious connotations, e.g. in the context of deep ecology, various humanist movements, including specific atheistic spirituality. For example, there is a theistic model of spirituality, where almost every question is related to God.13 Many of these tools use terms such as God, Lord, Creator, higher power, divine, religious, faith, etc. as a statement of spirituality, for instance Daily Spiritual Experience Scale,14 Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire,15 Multidimensional Inventory for Religious/Spiritual Well-Being,16,17 Spiritual Health and Life-Orientation Measure, SHALOM,18,19 Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List (SAIL),20 Spiritual Experience Index,21 Spiritual Health Locus of Control Scale.22 The only exception, known to us, is Spiritual Meaning Scale,23 which does not use any religious item, but the questionnaire is not focused on health, more precisely spiritual health. What does this status quo imply for us, who are interested in the phenomenon of spiritual health without any connection to religion? Does it mean we should give up trying? Or should we not rather abandon the positivistic paradigm with its ideal of science which can explain everything, so that we can move forward to phenomenological and hermeneutic interpretations and thus strive for understanding? Notions may be explained not only by a permanent linguistic formulation with an unchanging, strict meaning, but also by a metaphor, allegory, simile, and symbol: it is a very common way of communicating knowledge in humanistic disciplines. There were times when newly developing science was refusing metaphorical expressions as belonging to the ancient times,24 but we find metaphors necessary in order to open the discourse to more indirect ways of expression, because, as a famous Buddhist teacher Ajahn Chah25 says, they may grasp spiritual truths, in his words dharma, much more precisely. We have to talk about the Dhamma like this, using similes, because the Dhamma has no form. Is it square or is it round? You can’t say. The only way to talk about it is through similes like these. •

It is possible to differentiate between spiritual and nonspiritual approaches or aspects and their various modes, when we shift from quantity towards quality.

Empirical Acquisition of Data on Spiritual Health

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__________________________________________________________________ •

Human experience more than behaviour can be interpreted by qualitative methods of research.

3. Another Measuring Tool for Spiritual Health Research Undoubtedly, there still must be other possibilities of quantitative investigation. Given the lack of distinction between spirituality and religiosity, apparent in all existing questionnaires in this area, we are strongly in favour of making a strict distinction between them according to Eliade’s concept of sacral and profane spheres. Instead of investigating the influence of spirituality on health (physical or mental), we propose to explore the concept of spiritual health. In order to investigate experiences related to spiritual health without a religious connotation, a new tool was developed at Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic: a new questionnaire. Its first version consisted of 76 questions; proposed by a team of four experts on the basis of their study of relevant resources as well as their own concepts of spirituality, and after the evaluation and interpretation of the pilot study,n=190, the questionnaire was reduced to 33 questions. The questionnaire has two language versions, Czech and English, and has been used in an investigation of experiences that occurred during a sailing voyage across the Pacific Ocean. However, the project has just started and further modifications are necessary. The reason why we discuss this issue at this occasion is that we would like to maintain certain general framework in the design of this concept in order to investigate five key aspects of spiritually healthy experience: • The authentic mode of experience, meaning the relationship to self, I, and resistance to non-personal social power, for example advertisement; the endeavour for recognition of my own needs and attitudes. • The relationships to other people are not formed by pragmatic calculation of their exploitability nor fears or worries, but confidence and trust in human encountering and reciprocal enrichment. • The world of nature is not understood only as source of material wealth, pragmatic exploitation, nor something that we have to protect environmentalist ideology, but as something holistic that transcends us and that can be perceived in the dimension of beauty, aesthetics as well as amazement and astonishment. • The question for purpose and meaning of life seems to have much significance. This does not mean that a spiritual person knows his or her purpose of life, it is, in fact, disputable whether it can be recognized and whether such a question can

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__________________________________________________________________ be answered, but the very fact of asking for purpose is a significant aspect of spiritual health. • Our life with all the ways of its experiencing is not perceived as a mechanical, explainable aggregate of facts, but a mystery and gift. This opens the possibility to experience the moments of humbleness, transition, transcendence, and wholeness. The conclusion of our contribution brings back the key question, which is related to the possibility of exploring the respondents’ opinions concerning their own spiritual health experience via a quantitative approach, that is, by collection of questionnaire data. Although the phenomenon of spirituality resists the confinement of explicit categories and strict criteria, such an attempt would constitute a contradiction in itself, contradictio in adjecto, we believe that such investigations may broaden our understanding due to their certain informative value, and that our questionnaire, along with other research methods, may contribute to an intriguing unity of opposites, coincidentia oppositorum. The question remains, however, whether it is possible, in dealing with such a phenomenon which basically lacks a strict definition, to choose behavioural patterns and evaluate them on a scale, or whether the application of quantitative methods of research will fail in this area. This work with all its findings is still ahead of us.

Notes 1

Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion (New York: A Harvest Book, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1959). 2 T. Schnell, ‘Spirituality with and without Religion - Differential Relationships with Personality’ [In English], Archive for the Psychology of Religion-Archiv Fur Religionspsychologie 34, no. 1 (2012): 33-61. 3 M. E. Hyland, P. Wheeler, S. Kamble, and K. S. Masters, ‘A Sense of 'Special Connection', Self-Transcendent Values and a Common Factor for Religious and Non-Religious Spirituality’ [In English], Archive for the Psychology of ReligionArchiv Fur Religionspsychologie 32, no. 3 (2010): 293-326. 4 I. Jirásek, ‘Verticality as Non-Religious Spirituality,’ Implicit Religion 16, no. 2 (2013): 191-201. 5 S. Nolan, ‘In Defence of the Indefensible: An Alternative to John Paley's Reductionist, Atheistic, Psychological Alternative to Spirituality’ [In English], Nursing Philosophy 10, no. 3 (Jul 2009): 203-13. 6 Peter Iver Kaufman, ‘Humanist Spirituality and Ecclesial Reaction: Thomas More's Monstra’ [In English], Church History 56, no. 1 (Mar 1987): 25-38.

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__________________________________________________________________ 7

R. J. Arneson, ‘Marxism and Secular Faith’ [Article], American Political Science Review, 79, no. 3, (1985): 627-640. 8 I. Jirásek, ‘Marxism and Spirituality: An International Anthology’ [Book Review], Filosofický časopis, 42, no. 6 (1994): 1067-1071. 9 D. N. Elkins, L. J. Hedstrom, L. L. Hughes, J. A. Leaf, and C. Saunders, ‘Toward a Humanistic-Phenomenological Spirituality: Definition, Description, and Measurement,’ Journal of Humanistic Psychology 28, no. 4 (Fal 1988): 5-18. 10 Jude M. Henningsgaard and Randolph C. Arnau, ‘Relationships between Religiosity, Spirituality, and Personality: A Multivariate Analysis,’ Personality and Individual Differences 45, no. 8 (2008): 703-08. 11 T. Schnell, ‘Spirituality with and without Religion - Differential Relationships with Personality’ [In English], Archive for the Psychology of Religion-Archiv Fur Religionspsychologie 34, no. 1 (2012): 33-61. 12 B. J. Zinnbauer, K. I. Pargament, B. Cole, M. S. Rye, E. M. Butter, T. G. Belavich, K. M. Hipp, A. B. Scott, and J. L. Kadar, ‘Religion and Spirituality: Unfuzzying the Fuzzy,’ Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 36, no. 4 (Dec 1997): 549-64. 13 Todd W. Hall, and Keith J. Edwards, ‘The Spiritual Assessment Inventory: A Theistic Model and Measure for Assessing Spiritual Development,’ Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41, no. 2 (2002): 341-57. 14 Lynn G. Underwood, and JeanneA Teresi, ‘The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale: Development, Theoretical Description, Reliability, Exploratory Factor Analysis, and Preliminary Construct Validity Using Health-Related Data’ [In English], Annals of Behavioral Medicine 24, no. 1 (2002/02/01 2002): 22-33. 15 Rapson Gomez, and John W. Fisher, ‘Domains of Spiritual Well-Being and Development and Validation of the Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire,’ Personality and Individual Differences 35, no. 8 (2003): 1975-91. 16 H. F. Unterrainer, K. H. Ladenhauf, M. L. Moazedi, S. J. Wallner-Liebmann, and A. Fink, ‘Dimensions of Religious/Spiritual Well-Being and Their Relation to Personality and Psychological Well-Being,’ Personality and Individual Differences 49, no. 3 (2010): 192-97. 17 H. F. Unterrainer, Oliver Nelson, Joanna Collicutt, and Andreas Fink, ‘The English Version of the Multidimensional Inventory for Religious/Spiritual WellBeing (Mi-Rswb-E): First Results from British College Students,’ Religions 3 (2012): 588-99. 18 John Fisher, ‘Development and Application of a Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire Called Shalom,’ Religions 1, no. 1 (2010): 105-21. 19 John Fisher, ‘Developing a Spiritual Health and Life-Orientation Measure for Secondary School Students.,’ Research with a Regional/Rural Focus: Proceedings of the University of Ballarat Inaugural Annual Conference edited by J. Ryan, V.

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__________________________________________________________________ Wittwer and P. Baird (Ballarat: University of Ballarat, Research and Graduate Studies Office, 1999), 57-63. 20 Eltica Meezenbroek de Jager, Bert Garssen, Machteld van den Berg, Gerwi Tuytel, Dirk van Dierendonck, Adriaan Visser, and Wilmar B. Schaufeli, ‘Measuring Spirituality as a Universal Human Experience: Development of the Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List (Sail),’ Journal of Psychosocial Oncology 30 (2012): 141–67. 21 Vicky Genia, ‘The Spiritual Experience Index: A Measure of Spiritual Maturity’ [In English], Journal of Religion and Health 30, no. 4 (1991/12/01 1991): 337-47. 22 Cheryl L. Holt, Clark Eddiem, and Patrick R. Klem, ‘Expansion and Validation of the Spiritual Health Locus of Control Scale: Factorial Analysis and Predictive Validity,’ Journal of Health Psychology 12, no. 4 (July 1, 2007 2007): 597-612. 23 Nathan Mascaro, David H. Rosen, and Leslie C. Morey, ‘The Development, Construct Validity, and Clinical Utility of the Spiritual Meaning Scale,’ Personality and Individual Differences 37, no. 4 (2004): 845-60. 24 G. Vico, The New Science of Giambattista Vico, eds T. G. Bergin and M. H. Fish (Eds). (New York: Cornell University Press, 1948). 25 A. Chah, A Tree in a Forest: A Collection of Ajahn Chah's Similes (Chungli (Taiwan): Yuan Kuang Publishing House, 1994).

Bibliography Arneson, R. J. ‘Marxism and Secular Faith.’ [Article]. American Political Science Review, 79, no. 3, (1985): 627-640. Chah, A. A Tree in a Forest: A Collection of Ajahn Chah's Similes. Chungli (Taiwan): Yuan Kuang Publishing House, 1994. de Jager Meezenbroek, Eltica, Bert Garssen, Machteld van den Berg, Gerwi Tuytel, Dirk van Dierendonck, Adriaan Visser, and Wilmar B. Schaufeli. ‘Measuring Spirituality as a Universal Human Experience: Development of the Spiritual Attitude and Involvement List (Sail).’ Journal of Psychosocial Oncology 30 (2012): 141–67. Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. New York: A Harvest Book (Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.), 1959.

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__________________________________________________________________ Elkins, D. N., L. J. Hedstrom, L. L. Hughes, J. A. Leaf, and C. Saunders. ‘Toward a Humanistic-Phenomenological Spirituality: Definition, Description, and Measurement.’ Journal of Humanistic Psychology 28, no. 4 (Fal 1988): 5-18. Fisher, John. ‘Development and Application of a Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire Called Shalom.’ Religions 1, no. 1 (2010): 105-21. –––, ‘Developing a Spiritual Health and Life-Orientation Measure for Secondary School Students.’ In Research with a Regional/Rural Focus: Proceedings of the University of Ballarat Inaugural Annual Conference, edited by J. Ryan, V. Wittwer and P. Baird, 57-63. Ballarat: University of Ballarat, Research and Graduate Studies Office, 1999. Genia, Vicky. ‘The Spiritual Experience Index: A Measure of Spiritual Maturity.’ [In English]. Journal of Religion and Health 30, no. 4 (1991/12/01 1991): 337-47. Gomez, Rapson, and John W. Fisher. ‘Domains of Spiritual Well-Being and Development and Validation of the Spiritual Well-Being Questionnaire.’ Personality and Individual Differences 35, no. 8 (2003): 1975-91. Hall, Todd W., and Keith J. Edwards. ‘The Spiritual Assessment Inventory: A Theistic Model and Measure for Assessing Spiritual Development.’ Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41, no. 2 (2002): 341-57. Henningsgaard, Jude M., and Randolph C. Arnau. ‘Relationships between Religiosity, Spirituality, and Personality: A Multivariate Analysis.’ Personality and Individual Differences 45, no. 8 (2008): 703-08. Holt, Cheryl L., Eddiem. Clark, and Patrick R. Klem. ‘Expansion and Validation of the Spiritual Health Locus of Control Scale: Factorial Analysis and Predictive Validity.’ Journal of Health Psychology 12, no. 4 (July 1, 2007 2007): 597-612. Hyland, M. E., P. Wheeler, S. Kamble, and K. S. Masters. ‘A Sense of 'Special Connection', Self-Transcendent Values and a Common Factor for Religious and Non-Religious Spirituality.’ [In English]. Archive for the Psychology of ReligionArchiv Fur Religionspsychologie 32, no. 3 (2010): 293-326. Jirásek, I. ‘Verticality as Non-Religious Spirituality.’ Implicit Religion 16, no. 2 (2013): 191-201.

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__________________________________________________________________ –––. ‘Marxism and Spirituality: An International Anthology.’ [Book Review]. Filosofický časopis 42, no. 6 (1994): 1067-1071. Kaufman, Peter Iver. ‘Humanist Spirituality and Ecclesial Reaction: Thomas More's Monstra.’ [In English]. Church History 56, no. 1 (Mar 1987): 25-38. Mascaro, Nathan, David H. Rosen, and Leslie C. Morey. ‘The Development, Construct Validity, and Clinical Utility of the Spiritual Meaning Scale.’ Personality and Individual Differences 37, no. 4 (2004): 845-60. Nolan, S. ‘In Defence of the Indefensible: An Alternative to John Paley's Reductionist, Atheistic, Psychological Alternative to Spirituality.’ [In English]. Nursing Philosophy 10, no. 3 (Jul 2009): 203-13. Schnell, T. ‘Spirituality with and without Religion - Differential Relationships with Personality.’ [In English]. Archive for the Psychology of Religion-Archiv Fur Religionspsychologie 34, no. 1 (2012): 33-61. Underwood, LynnG, and JeanneA Teresi. ‘The Daily Spiritual Experience Scale: Development, Theoretical Description, Reliability, Exploratory Factor Analysis, and Preliminary Construct Validity Using Health-Related Data.’ [In English]. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 24, no. 1 (2002/02/01 2002): 22-33. Unterrainer, H. F., K. H. Ladenhauf, M. L. Moazedi, S. J. Wallner-Liebmann, and A. Fink. ‘Dimensions of Religious/Spiritual Well-Being and Their Relation to Personality and Psychological Well-Being.’ Personality and Individual Differences 49, no. 3 (2010): 192-97. –––, Oliver Nelson, Joanna Collicutt, and Andreas Fink. ‘The English Version of the Multidimensional Inventory for Religious/Spiritual Well-Being (Mi-Rswb-E): First Results from British College Students.’ Religions 3 (2012): 588-99. Vico, G. The New Science of Giambattista Vico. Edited by T. G. Bergin and M. H. Fish . New York: Cornell University Press, 1948. Zinnbauer, B. J., K. I. Pargament, B. Cole, M. S. Rye, E. M. Butter, T. G. Belavich, K. M. Hipp, A. B. Scott, and J. L. Kadar. ‘Religion and Spirituality: Unfuzzying the Fuzzy.’ Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 36, no. 4 (Dec 1997): 549-64.

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__________________________________________________________________ Ivo Jirásek is a professor at Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. He deals with philosophical aspects of movement culture (game and play, experience, body, movement), which includes the issue of spirituality of movement activities and spiritual health. Pavel Veselský is a senior lecturer at Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. While his interests have included the samatha-vipassana practice of Buddhist teaching and Sanatana Dharma tradition, his research focus mostly on the spirituality in the teaching and learning milieu.

The Emergence of Spirituality Studies as a Field: Notes from the Front Benjamin A. Lyons and John L. Hochheimer Abstract The emerging discipline of Spirituality Studies has undergone sea change in recent years. Once considered incompatible with academic scholarship, the field has proliferated in terms of institutional homes and peer-reviewed journals. While spirituality remains problematic—in terms of its subject, methods, pedagogies and even foundational definitions—its emergence as a field has been robust, spanning academic approaches, geographic locales and practical applications. This paper attempts to serve as a roadmap to the field. Moving from a religious concept to a sociological theory, the study of spirituality has been re-framed as a question of human experience. Scholars have broadened their interest to secular spirituality, and changing outlooks on the human condition have been employed to make sense of modern history. If spirituality is about the process of making and expressing meaning, important new questions have arisen with the growth of communication technologies and applications. New possibilities for expression and connection have necessarily reshaped current conceptualizations of spirituality. It has been operationalised in the study of all manners of physical and mental healing. Psychologists have examined its role in aging and dementia; addiction, coping, and resilience; and even creativity and personality. Nursing, social work, palliative care, psychiatry and other professions have reexamined its potential and place in the theory, teaching and praxis. These are especially meaningful because they mark the penetration of a once mystic concept into qualitative and quantitative science. Likewise, spirituality has become entwined with the emergence of environmentalism, giving birth to spiritual ecology, in keeping with the Gaia hypothesis. A further parallel, bio-spirituality has been coined to encapsulate the beliefs of those whose spiritual beliefs integrate with their vegetarianism. Drawing broadly on spirituality and its interdisciplinary literature, this paper assesses the state of the discipline, its current directions, and moves toward both consensus and enriching diversity. Key Words: Spirituality, meaning making, pedagogy, theory, healing, nursing, medicine, social work, environment, ecology. ***** 1. Introduction The study of spirituality focuses upon the human experience of making meaning, tapping into the perception of connecting with

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__________________________________________________________________ something larger, grander, more profound, more meaningful to life than mere sense experience. Spirituality is ubiquitous, spanning all eras, chronological and physical ages, genders, social classes, religious systems, races, cultures, geographic locations, monotheism, polytheism, non-theism, agnosticism, and/or atheism. It is one of the endeavours that constitute a person’s, or people’s, perceived and expressed experiences of being human throughout life. As such, its study constitutes not only the most fundamental of any social scientific approach to comprehending the human condition, but also the humanities and arts as well.1 The discipline of what we are calling Spirituality Studies has been undergoing sea change in recent years. Once considered incompatible with academic inquiry, it has in the past 10-15 years proliferated in terms of institutional homes, theoretical conceptualizations, methodological approaches, peer-reviewed journals and the like in such wide-ranging fields as: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Adult education Alcohol and drug rehabilitation Architecture Business Childhood Education Counselling Dance Ecology Education Healing Health Communication History Hospice Care Intercultural Studies Literature Management Medicine Music Nursing Organizational communication Palliative Care Perinatal Studies Performance

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__________________________________________________________________ • • • • • •

Police work Prison Rehabilitation Psychiatry Psychology Social work Theatre

Although spirituality has overcome perceptions that its study is incompatible with rigorous academic inquiry, it remains problematic in terms of its subject, methods, pedagogy and even foundational definitions.2 Such plurality3 deserves illumination; this paper attempts to serve as a roadmap. This chapter is concerned with how spirituality has been emerging as a field of legitimate study as it relates to foundational issues across a number of fields: redefined, reconsidered, re-examined, and rediscovered in overlooked areas. While traditional approaches, such as theology, are still very much a part of the landscape of spirituality studies, it is trends such as the unyoking of spirituality and religion, the lens of spirituality as a worldview, and the secularization of spirituality that is of interest here. Likewise, it is the recognition of its place in the phenomenal world, in everyday life, which is under focus. As ever, spirituality’s relation to the sciences continues to oscillate and warrants mention. Areas of the discipline’s growth, therefore, and not points of relative stasis, are discussed. 2. A Growing Discipline As Kourie points out,4 spirituality is a new, yet ancient, discipline. In terms of human history, it is older than perhaps any other academic field; it is of course prehistoric, an innate part of us. But its newness—shouldering into the crowded university—deserves discussion. Going from a literally cloistered discourse environment to one increasingly public, spirituality studies are now considered relevant in health professions;5 psychology;6 business;7 and education.8 Waaijman speaks of the ‘explosion – in both lived spirituality and … scholarly reflection’ of the ‘global phenomenon’ of spirituality.9 This is in contrast to the early 20th century, when scholarly consideration of the topic was limited to Western Christianity. There has been an epiphany that spirituality, as it affects the ‘totality’ of human experience, cannot be studied in isolation, and instead must be seen in relation to other areas; logically, then, spirituality is now constituted from its core as an interdisciplinary enterprise.10 And increasingly, spirituality is seen as tangible, legitimate experience.11 And the numbers of published works has been increasing rapidly in recent years. For example, just in the health literature, Hvidt reports a database survey of popular publications using the search term ‘spirituality and health’ yields 25 articles in the years 1990-1994 and more than 100 in the subsequent five-year period. Further, a Lexis-Nexis survey under the heading of ‘Medical Health News’

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__________________________________________________________________ between 1994-1999 yields 49 articles as opposed to 549 articles between 20002005.12 A. Defining, Operationalizing Because spirituality has begun to appear in diverse academic disciplines, its concepts and foundational definitions are not always in agreement. While some argue it eludes empirical analysis as an unseen phenomenon, others, like Delaney13 have forged ahead in constructing reliable psychometric scales. These are intended to produce optimal outcomes in health fields. McCaroll, O’Conner & Meakes14 conducted a meta review of meta reviews, finding some, but minimal agreement in the operationalization of ‘spirituality’; However, large majorities (23/27) included meaning or purpose in their central definitions; 22/27 said relationships or connections were central, including those between self and others, and self and the universe. New outlooks contend that spirituality is culture-specific;15 and everyone ‘has’ spirituality: whether ‘religious, materialist, nihilist, [or] humanist’ – since it is taken as the meaning of one’s life. B. Multiplying Methods Growing out of an early alignment with scripture and dogmatism, spirituality has expanded ‘to include the whole of the human search for self-transcendent integration and authenticity.’16 Fitting this widened approach, methodologies have multiplied. Kourie17 outlines five: theological, historical, anthropological, hermeneutical, and phenomenological. When appropriately implemented, these allow for a problematically self-implicating subject matter to be analyzed with rigor. The theological method, originating in Christianity, is tied to doctrines of organized religions—and the normative role of these in arbitrating spiritual legitimacy.18 Necessarily, this approach is less open to interdisciplinary approaches. In focusing on the principles of religion, theological spirituality may allow such ‘presuppositions’ to confine spiritual experience or its analysis.19 The historical or historical-contextual method20 examines texts and other artefacts that relate spiritual experience, connecting the present to the past and preventing an isolated outlook,21 introducing meaningful context. This gives attention to the influence of spirituality on culture.22 This approach is limited, however, since spirituality cannot be reduced to or deduced from its documentation in the historical record;23 the method lacks the ability to interrogate spiritual experiences, instead confined to flat observation of events. Moreover, Schneiders24 contends that while historical understanding is a scholar’s pre-requisite, it is eluded by the ‘transhistorical’ properties of spirituality.25 According to Schneiders,26 the anthropological method approaches first the human subjects and their intrinsic spiritual experience as the object of study, rather than the theological traditions it falls within or the historical record of such. It

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__________________________________________________________________ treats spirituality as a trait, and not a component of a religion. This approach is by definition: interdisciplinary, … cross-cultural and inter-religious … open to a variety of approaches, inter alia, psychological, sociological, feminist, liberationist, ecological, pluralistic, literary, artistic, humanistic, in addition to biblical, religious and theological.27 The hermeneutical technique is interpretive; it is ‘used to tease out the message and meanings that are not immediately obvious in all sorts of human activity.’28 This method avoids prejudicial accountings for the divine.29 Hermeneutics involve describing a phenomenon, critically analyzing it, and constructively interpreting it.30 Finally, phenomenological methods focus on experience and its internal examination. Waajman31 argues this approach, especially when combined with a dialogical process, is ideal, considering the subject of spirituality, experience, and the importance of alterity the Other in such an analysis. This method likewise allows for open-minded, open-ended inquiry of different spiritualities. Following this system of inquiry could help invest a fraught discipline with appropriate academic thoughtfulness. There need not be strict division among these means. There may be considerable overlap, borrowing, appropriation and mixing. Indeed, today’s scholars recognize that theological discourse is not separable from its culture. In this way, theology becomes hermeneutical, interpreting observable real-world instances of lived spirituality.32 It is widely recognized that scholars and studied phenomena are inexorably linked. C. Pedagogy Once relegated to religious education, spirituality has come into its own in the education system, from primary school to university. This has been associated with callbacks to nurturing core values, and new requirements of citizenship education.33 Spirituality has also been noted for its facilitation of process-overoutcome learning styles.34 Spirituality is increasingly a basic part of ‘the sociology of education.’35 Since educators are now more interested both in learning outcomes and students’ personal development, curricula have also shifted from the 1990s onward. While spirituality’s role in pedagogy remains problematic, Holmes argues that it is likely the rise of spirituality as a domain in its own right that has allowed its finding a home in the education system. 3. Spirituality and New Communication Tools If spirituality is about the process of meaning making, important new questions have arisen with the growth of communication technology. Many spiritual thinkers

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__________________________________________________________________ have produced the same optimism and pessimism for the digital world as other scholars in the social sciences.36 The internet as a sacramental space37 advances a long intellectual history of spirituality and technology; new possibilities for expression and connection have necessarily reshaped the current state of spirituality. Bauwens notes that the nature of communication enabled by the digital revolution has had serious impact on the speed of cultural evolution.38 Much as occurred with the advent of the written word, knowledge is liberated in the networked society, only more so. He argues that pessimists see technology as weakening mankind’s inner senses, the spiritual, in strengthening and extending a la Marshall McLuhan our exterior senses. Optimists, meanwhile, view the onset of universal communication technologies as promoting global consciousness, – a ‘noospehere’ or collective mental space. Like the cathedrals of Europe in past centuries, Bauwens argues that cyberspace is a parallel space to reality, one to which we may escape momentarily. It also is seen by some as immaterial space in line with ancient spiritual traditions ‘from time immemorial,’ for instance, Hinduism’s Indra’s Web and the Askashic Records. Spiritual optimists see it as a utopian social project. Of course, many in traditional spiritual modes – organized religion – make use of the internet as an auxiliary tool. Others, less in the mainstream, have ritualized the internet, sacralizing it and incorporating it into spiritual practice. In essence, new technology has been seen as integrated with, parallel to, an extension of, or even degenerative to previous spiritualities. From an outside standpoint, meanwhile, some see techno-spirituality or cyber-spirituality39 as anthropological developments. 4. Spirituality and Secularism Moving from a religious concept to a sociological theory, the study of spirituality has been re-framed as a question of human experience. With religion and spirituality disjoined,40 scholars have broadened their interest to secular spirituality, and changing outlooks on the human condition have been employed to make sense of modern history. It is increasingly common for the non-religious to speak about their own spirituality;41 the phrase spiritual but not religious has become a part of the lexicon. Spirituality has broken away from religious confines and taken on boarder definitions.42 A. Spirituality as Explication of Secular Historical Events In some instances, a lens of spirituality has been used to retroactively make sense of recent world history. For example, Herzog argues the United States implemented a ‘spiritual-industrial complex,’ playing on Eisenhower’s phrase ‘military-industrial complex,’ in the early years of the Cold War.43 He proposes that a top-down, from government positions and corporate boardrooms, spiritual

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__________________________________________________________________ revival took place—through political rhetoric, advertising, and education— turning back tides of early 20th-century secularism in favour of religion-celebrating antiCommunist propaganda; the spiritual good of America versus ungodly evil abroad. Rather than move from a covenant nation to a secular one, postwar America reversed, as religion became a public force. The country’s foreign policy decisions, such as backing Catholic and Protestant leaders in Vietnam ,Ngo Dinh Diem, and South Korea,Syngman Rhee, serve as further evidence of spiritualized politics. Meaningfully, this movement has informed the rise of today’s Christian Right in American politics. If Herzog approached spirituality’s role in the conflict at the surface level, Rossbach drills down deeper.44 He argues that the ancient traditions of apocalypticism, millenarianism and Gnostic spirituality lay beneath the Cold War era, and ‘the specter of a man-made nuclear apocalypse appeared as the latest and most dramatic expression of an outlook on the human condition which refuses to accept limits in the imposition of human designs on the world.’45 Works such as these examine spirituality beyond interior experience, and even transcend traditional historical techniques of examining faith. These approaches see spirituality’s strategic deployment in a mass-media world; its invisible underpinning of the worldview that could entertain nuclear war; and its profound impact on geopolitical outcomes. B. Encountering Spirituality in New Contexts The scholars mentioned above looked for and found spirituality in new, once seen as secular, places. Similarly, the concept of the pilgrimage has been reimagined to include counterculture,46 consumer culture,47 and cyberculture. At the same time, spirituality has been recognized in more mundane areas of daily life. Its places in workplaces and sports arenas now constitute active subfields, for instance. In these domains, spirituality’s appreciation represents further sensitivity to its conceptualization as a lifestyle, a worldview, an underlying core of lived experience. Marketing, too, has taken note48 – yet another instance of spirituality going secular. Likewise, spirituality has become entwined with another concern of the material world, the emergence of environmentalism, giving birth to spiritual ecology. 5. Spirituality and the Environment The notion of spiritual ecology has been forwarded as a reaction to the current ecological crisis. In principle, this subfield proposes that the global-environmental problems facing humanity, i.e., climate change, overconsumption, resource exhaustion, can only be solved by reconsidering our relation to the earth, and recognizing our spiritual responsibilities to the planet.49 By identifying the sacred in creation—and our inherent duties to it—conservation is possible.50

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__________________________________________________________________ Spiritual ecologists contend that the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions induced a shift in humans’ relation to their environment. Rather than a spiritual manifestation, nature became a functional resource for human enterprise. This coincided with a more general severance from the spiritual cycles of agricultural societies as the world industrialized; responsibility to the natural environment was lost in the process of progress.51 In contrast, the worldview of spiritual ecology is that of interconnectedness of all things. In this way, it shadows the Gaia Hypothesis.52 The movement has been forwarded from religious leaders, academics, and environmentalists. It has alternately been described by scholars as ‘dark green religion or Spirituality’53—beyond merely eco-friendly green religion to a sacred regard for the material world. Elsewhere in the academy, it has emerged in physics, biology, the study of consciousness, and systems theory.54 Religious leaders of all stripes emphasize mindfulness of the environment as a form of prayer or communion,55 as a way of experiencing the divine incarnate. This has logically spilled over into advocacy, e.g. Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development. These faith communities span both Western and Eastern, but all emphasize stewardship, and that the idea of earth as ‘other’ than the spirit must be reversed. The adoption of this philosophy of oneness, against anthropocentrism, is described by Macy56 as the ‘Great Turning.’ The above explanation of spiritual ecology is described in terms of modernity’s impact and a later ‘correction.’ This excludes indigenous spirituality and practice, because those cultures maintained consciousness of the environment’s centrality throughout.57 Today’s spiritual ecology, then, could be said to be a callback to indigenous wisdom. Bio-spirituality58 has been recently proposed to describe the overlap of daily matters of health, worship, and social life. For vegetarian faiths, especially ,e.g. Hare Krishna, Seventh-Day Adventist Christians, certain Buddhist groups, spirituality goes beyond an interior relationship with the divine, to something far more tangible, visible, even biological: the food they eat. As a conceptual tool, then, bio-spirituality links beliefs with the physical world. Though it seems plain on its face, recent work such as this expands our understanding of spirituality to less traditional areas, especially those that may appear mundane or habitual. 6. Spirituality, Science, and Health The realms with the perhaps most drastic reassessment of spirituality are health professions. It has now been operationalized in the study of all manner of physical and mental health. Psychology has examined its role in aging and dementia; addiction, coping, and resilience; and even creativity and personality. In psychology, Spiritual Quotient, SQ, much like an IQ, has emerged as a measurement tool.59 This is defined as the drive to ask spiritual questions in what has been called a numb age. Although operational definitions for spirituality differ

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__________________________________________________________________ from field to field, e.g. between psychotherapy and psychoanalysis, it has nonetheless become a core component of treatment60 of maladies such as dependence issues61 and learning disabilities,62 to name a few. Crucially, these implementations are due to an increased awareness of the mind-body-spirit holism.63 Again it should be mentioned that this is nothing new; it is, rather, a rediscovery of ancient premises. Spirituality and Health has become a field in itself. Nursing, social work, palliative care, psychiatry and other professions have reexamined its potential and place in the theory, teaching and performance of their jobs. We see again the influence of secular outlooks on spirituality in the praxis of these fields. Crisp64 notes that in societies increasingly drifting from organized religion, social work,and by extension like fields, must accommodate secular spiritualities—those seen as aspects of lived experience. King and Leavey argue that whatever the patient believes has meaning cannot be ignored in psychiatric practice.65 The telos, then, in society, is that spirituality’s reappraisals may be leading to a healthier and more fulfilled humanity. It is clear that the time has come for the establishment of Spirituality Studies as a fully legitimated field of theory development, practical application and pedagogical approach, containing a wide range of conceptualisations, methodologies and applications. It has a legitimate cross-disciplinary status with a wide variety of established fields, and is being addressed by scholars, teachers and field workers around the world. There are a growing number of scientific journals, books, conferences, and research papers being presented every year, and that number has been growing for some time. What next needs to be done is for more senior scholars act and write as if this is now assumed so that more junior scholars can engage this work without apology or self-consciousness. The more we assert the legitimacy of the field with our work, the more support we provide our junior colleagues and students to examine the growing literature and interest, the more firmly we plant the seeds for future growth.

Notes 1

John L. Hochheimer, Introduction to The Sharing of Spirituality and Meaning, eds. Duysal Askun Celik, Michael Weiss, and John L. Hochheimer (Oxford, UK: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013), in press. 2 Mary Frohlich, ‘Spiritual Discipline, Discipline of Spirituality: Revisiting Questions of Definition and Method,’ Minding Spirituality. The Study of Christian Spirituality, eds. Elizabeth A. Dreyer and Mark S. Burrows (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 65-78. 3 Pam McCarroll, Thomas St. James O’Connor, and Elizabeth Meakes, ‘Assessing Plurality in Spirituality Definitions,’ Spirituality and Health: Multidisciplinary

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__________________________________________________________________ Explorations, eds. Augustine Meier, Timothy St. James O'Connor, and Peter Lorens (Waterloo, Ont: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2005), 43-60. 4 Celi Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality,’ Acta Theologica 27, no. 2 (2007): 1938, http://dx.doi.org/10.4314%2Factat.v27i2.52310. 5 Bernard McGinn, ‘Spirituality Confronts Its Future,’ Spiritus: A Journal for Christian Spirituality 5, no. 1 (2005): 88-96. 6 Todd W. Hall, and Keith J. Edwards, ‘The Spiritual Assessment Inventory: A Theistic Model and Measure for Assessing Spiritual Development,’ Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41, no. 2 (2002): 341-57. 7 Kit Dollard, Anthony Marett-Crosby, and Timothy Wright, Doing Business with Benedict. The Rule of Saint Benedict and Business Management: A Conversation (London: Continuum, 2002). 8 Hanan A. Alexander, Spirituality and Ethics in Education. Philosophical, Theological and Radical Perspectives (Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press, 2004). 9 Kees Waajman, ‘Spirituality: A Multifaceted Phenomenon – Interdisciplinary Explorations,’ Studies in Spirituality 17 (2007) 1. 10 Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality’; Waajman, ‘Spirituality: A Multifaceted Phenomenon.’ 11 Peter Holmes, ‘Spirituality: Some Disciplinary Perspectives,’ A Sociology of Spirituality, eds. Kieran Flanagan and Peter C. Jupp (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2007). 12 Niels Christian Hvidt, ‘Making Meaning of Meaning-Making Research,’ Spirituality in the 21st Century: Explorations, eds. John L. Hochheimer and William S. Schmidt (Oxford, UK: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013), 105. 13 Colleen Delaney, ‘The Spirituality Scale: Holistic Assessment of the Human Spiritual Dimension,’ Journal of Holistic Nursing 23, no. 1 (2005): 145-67. 14 McCarroll, O’Connor, and Meakes, ‘Assessing Plurality in Spirituality Definitions.’ 15 Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality,’ 689. 16 Sandra Schneiders, ‘Spirituality in the Academy,’ Theological Studies 50 (1989). 17 Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality.’ 18 Michael Downey, Understanding Christian Spirituality (New York: Paulist Press, 1997); Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality.’ 19 Downey, Understanding Christian Spirituality, 124. 20 Bernard McGinn, ‘The Letter and the Spirit: Spirituality as an Academic Discipline,’ Minding the Spirit. The Study of Christian Spirituality, eds. Elizabeth A. Dreyer and Mark S. Burrows (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 25-41. 21 Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality.’

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__________________________________________________________________ 22

Philip Sheldrake, A Brief History of Spirituality (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2007). 23 Downey, Understanding Christian Spirituality. 24 Sandra Schneiders, ‘A Hermeneutical Approach to the Study of Christian Spirituality,’ Minding the Spirit. The Study of Christian Spirituality, eds. Elizabeth A. Dreyer and Mark S. Burrows (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 49-60. 25 Ibid., 55. 26 Schneiders, ‘Spirituality in the Academy’; Sandra Schneiders, ‘Spirituality as an Academic Discipline: Reflections from Experience,’ Christian Spirituality Bulletin 1, no. 2 (1993): 10-5. 27 Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality,’160. 28 David B. Perrin, Studying Christian Spirituality (New York: Routledge, 2007), 41. 29 Kourie, ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality.’ 30 Schneiders, ‘A Hermeneutical Approach to the Study of Christian Spirituality.’ 31 Kees Waaijman, Spirituality Forms, Foundations, Methods (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2002). 32 Schneiders, ‘A Hermeneutical Approach to the Study of Christian Spirituality.’ 33 Holmes, ‘Spirituality: Some Disciplinary Perspectives.’ 34 Ruth Deakin Crick, Transforming Visions: Managing Values in Schools: A Case Study (London: Middlesex University Press, 2002). 35 Stephen J. Ball, Sociology of Education: Major Themes (London: Routledge Falmer, 2000). 36 Michel Bauwens, ‘Spirituality and Technology: Exploring the Relationship,’ First Monday 1, no. 5 (1996), Accessed on April 16, 2014, http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/496/417. 37 Heidi A. Campbell, ‘Considering Spiritual Dimensions within ComputerMediated Communication Studies,’ New Media & Society 7, no. 1 (2005): 110-34, doi: 10.1177/1461444805049147. 38 Bauwens, ‘Spirituality and Technology.’ 39 Holmes, ‘Spirituality: Some Disciplinary Perspectives.’ 40 Waaijman, Spirituality Forms, Foundations, Methods. 41 John Drane, ‘Rebuilding the House of Faith: Being Spiritual, Human, and Christian in Today’s World,’ Unpublished address given at the 2002 National Assembly of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland, accessed April 16, 2014, http://2churchmice.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/rebuilding-the-household-offaith.pdf.

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Holmes, ‘Spirituality: Some Disciplinary Perspectives’; Waaijman, Spirituality Forms, Foundations, Methods. 43 Jonathon P. Herzog, The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011). 44 Stefan Rossbach, Gnostic Wars: The Cold War in the Context of a History of Western Spirituality (Florence: European University Institute, 1997), accessed April 16, 2014, http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5371. 45 Ibid., 1. 46 P.J. Johnston, ‘Dharma Bums: The Beat Generation and the Making of Countercultural Pilgrimage,’ Buddhist-Christian Studies 33 (2013): 165-79, doi: 10.1353/bcs.2013.0022. 47 Renne D. Lockwood, ‘Pilgrimages to the Self: Exploring the Topography of Western Consumer Spirituality through “the Journey,”’ Literature & Aesthetics 22, no. 1 (2012): 108-30, accessed April 16, 2014, http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=770872895662341;res=IELL CC. 48 Deirdre Shaw and Jennifer Thompson, ‘Consuming Spirituality: The Pleasure of Uncertainty,’ European Journal of Marketing 47, no. 3/4 (2013): 557 – 73, doi: 10.1108/03090561311297454. 49 Leslie E. Sponsel, Spiritual Ecology: A Quiet Revolution (Santa Barbara, CA.: Praeger, 2012). 50 Ibid. 51 Mary Evelyn Tucker, ‘Complete Interview,’ Global Oneness Project, accessed April 13, 2014, http://www.globalonenessproject.org/library/interviews/maryevelyn-tucker-complete-interview. 52 James E. Lovelock, ‘Gaia as Seen through the Atmosphere,’ Atmospheric Environment 6, no. 8 (1972): 579–80, doi:10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5. 53 Bron Taylor, Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010). 54 Llewellyn Vaughan-Lee, Spiritual Ecology: The Cry of the Earth (Point Reyes, CA.: The Golden Sufi Center, 2013). 55 Thich Nhat Hanh, ‘Beyond Environment,’ Ecobuddhism [Interviews: Wisdom], accessed April 16, 2014, http://www.ecobuddhism.org/wisdom/interviews/tnh-be. 56 Joanna Macy and Chris Jonstone, Active Hope: How to Face the Mess We’re in without Going Crazy (Novato, CA.: New World Library, 2012). 57 John Grim, ‘Recovering Religious Ecology with Indigenous Traditions,’ Indigenous Traditions and Ecology (Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology, 1998), accessed April 16, 2014, http://fore.research.yale.edu/religion/indigenous; Mary Evelyn Tucker and John A. Grim, eds., Worldviews & Ecology: Religion, Philosophy, and the Environment (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994); Tu Wei-

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__________________________________________________________________ Ming, ‘Beyond Enlightenment Mentality,’ Worldviews & Ecology: Religion, Philosophy, and the Environment, eds. Mary Evelyn Tucker and John A. Grim (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994), 27. 58 Jemal Nath, ‘God is a Vegetarian: The Food, Health and Bio-Spirituality of Hare Krishna, Buddhist and Seventh-Day Adventist Devotees,’ Health Sociology Review 19 (2010): 356-68, doi:10.5172/hesr.2010.19.3.356. 59 Danah Zohar, SQ: Connecting with Our Spiritual Intelligence (London: Bloomsbury, 2000). 60 Holmes, ‘Spirituality: Some Disciplinary Perspectives.’ 61 William R. Miller, ‘Researching the Spiritual Dimensions of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems,’ Addiction 93 (1998): 979–90, doi:10.1046/j.13600443.1998.9379793.x 62 John Swinton, ‘Spirituality and the Lives of People with Learning Disabilities,’ Tizard Learning Disability Review 7, no. 4 (2001): 29-35, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1108/13595474200200037. 63 James T. Cacioppo, D. J. Klein, Gary G. Berntson and Elaine Hatfield, ‘The Psychophysiology of Emotion,’ Handbook of Emotions, eds. Michael Lewis and Jeanette M. Haviland (London: Guilford Press, 1993), 119-143. 64 Beth Crisp, ‘Social Work and Spirituality in a Secular Society,’ Journal of Social Work 8, no. 4 (2008): 363-75, doi:10.1177/1468017308094990. 65 Michael King and Gerald Leavey, ‘Spirituality and Religion in Psychiatric Practice: Why All the Fuss?’ Psychiatric Bulletin 34 (2010): 190-3, doi:10.1192/pb.bp.108.022293.

Bibliography Alexander, Hanan A. Spirituality and Ethics in Education: Philosophical, Theological and Radical Perspectives. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 2004. Ball, Stephen J. Sociology of Education: Major Themes. London: Routledge Falmer, 2000. Bauwens, Michel. ‘Spirituality and Technology: Exploring the Relationship.’ First Monday 1, no. 5, (1996), Accessed 16 April 2014. http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/496/417. Cacioppo, John T., D.J. Klein, Gary G. Berntson and Elaine Hatfield. ‘The Psychophysiology of Emotion.’ In Handbook of Emotions, edited by Michael Lewis and Jeanette M. Haviland, 119-43. London: Guilford Press, 1993.

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__________________________________________________________________ Campbell, Heidi A. ‘Considering Spiritual Dimensions within Computer-Mediated Communication Studies.’ New Media & Society 7,1 (2005): 110-34. doi: 10.1177/1461444805049147. Crick, Ruth Deakin. Transforming Visions: Managing Values in Schools: A Case Study. London: Middlesex University Press, 2002. Crisp, Beth R. ‘Social Work and Spirituality in a Secular Society.’ Journal of Social Work 8, no. 4 (2008): 363-75. doi: 10.1177/1468017308094990. Delaney, Colleen. ‘The Spirituality Scale: Holistic Assessment of the Human Spiritual Dimension.’ Journal of Holistic Nursing 23,1 (2005): 145-67. Dollard, Kit, Anthony Marett-Crosby and Timothy Wright. Doing Business with Benedict. The Rule of Saint Benedict and Business Management: A Conversation. London: Continuum, 2002. Downey, Michael. Understanding Christian Spirituality. New York: Paulist Press, 1997. Drane, John. ‘Rebuilding the House of Faith: Being Spiritual, Human, and Christian in Today’s World.’ Unpublished address given at the 2002 National Assembly of Churches Together in Britain and Ireland. Accessed April 16, 2014. http://2churchmice.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/rebuilding-the-household-offaith.pdf. Frohlich, Mary. ‘Spiritual Discipline, Discipline of Spirituality: Revisiting Questions of Definition and Method.’ In Minding Spirituality: The Study of Christian Spirituality, edited by Elizabeth A. Dreyer and Mark S. Burrows, 65-78. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. Grim, John. ‘Recovering Religious Ecology with Indigenous Traditions.’ Indigenous Traditions and Ecology. Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology, 1998, Accessed April 16, 2014, http://fore.research.yale.edu/religion/indigenous. Hall, Todd W., and Keith J. Edwards. ‘The Spiritual Assessment Inventory: A Theistic Model and Measure for Assessing Spiritual Development.’ Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 41,2 (2002): 341-57. Hanh, Thich Nhat. ‘Beyond Environment,’ Ecobuddhism [Interviews: Wisdom]. Accessed April 16, 2014. http://www.ecobuddhism.org/wisdom/interviews/tnh-be.

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__________________________________________________________________ Herzog, Jonathon P. The Spiritual-Industrial Complex: America’s Religious Battle Against Communism in the Early Cold War. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2011. Hochheimer, John L. Introduction to The Sharing of Spirituality and Meaning, edited by Çelik, Duysal Aşkun, Michael Weiss, and John L. Hochheimer. Oxford, UK: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013. Hochheimer, John L. and William S. Schmidt, eds. Spirituality in the 21st Century: Explorations. Oxford, UK: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013. Holmes, Peter. ‘Spirituality: Some Disciplinary Perspectives.’ In A Sociology of Spirituality, edited by Kieran Flanagan and Peter C. Jupp. Aldershot: Ashgate Pub Co, 2007. Hvidt. Niels Christian. ‘Making Meaning of Meaning-Making Research.’ In Spirituality in the 21st Century: Explorations, edited by John L. Hochheimer and William S. Schmidt, 103-20. Oxford, UK: Inter-Disciplinary Press, 2013. Johnston, P. J. ‘Dharma Bums: The Beat Generation and the Making of Countercultural Pilgrimage.’ Buddhist-Christian Studies 33 (2013): 165-79. doi: 10.1353/bcs.2013.0022 King, Michael and Gerald Leavey. ‘Spirituality and Religion in Psychiatric Practice: Why All the Fuss?’ Psychiatric Bulletin 34 (2010): 190-3. doi:10.1192/pb.bp.108.022293 Kourie, Celi. ‘The “Turn” to Spirituality.’ Acta Theologica 27,2 (2007). http://dx.doi.org/10.4314%2Factat.v27i2.52310. Lockwood, Renee D. ‘Pilgrimages to the Self: Exploring the Topography of Western Consumer Spirituality through “the Journey.”’ Literature & Aesthetics 22,1 (2012): 108-30. Accessed April 16, 2014. http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=770872895662341;res=IELL CC. Lovelock, James E. ‘Gaia as Seen through the Atmosphere.’ Atmospheric Environment 6, no. 8 (1972): 579–80. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(72)90076-5. Macy, Joanna and Chris Jonstone. Active Hope: How to Face the Mess We’re in without Going Crazy. Novato, CA.: New World Library, 2012.

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__________________________________________________________________ McCarroll, Pam, Thomas St. James O’Connor, and Elizabeth Meakes. ‘Assessing Plurality in Spirituality Definitions.’ In Spirituality and Health: Multidisciplinary Explorations, edited by Augustine Meier, Thomas St. James O'Connor, and Peter Lorens, 43-60. Waterloo, Ont: Wilfred Laurier University Press, 2005. McGinn, Bernard. ‘The Letter and the Spirit: Spirituality as an Academic Discipline.’ In Minding the Spirit: The Study of Christian Spirituality, edited by Elizabeth A. Dreyer and Mark S. Burrows, 25-41. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005. ———. ‘Spirituality Confronts Its Future.’ Spiritus: A Journal for Christian Spirituality 5,1 (2005): 88-96. Miller, William R. ‘Researching the Spiritual Dimensions of Alcohol and Other Drug Problems.’ Addiction 93 (1998): 979–90. doi:10.1046/j.13600443.1998.9379793.x. Nath, Jemal. ‘“God Is a Vegetarian”- The Food, Health and Bio-Spirituality of Hare Krishna, Buddhist and Seventh-Day Adventist Devotees.’ Health Sociology Review 19 (2010): 356-68. doi: 10.5172/hesr.2010.19.3.356. Perrin, David B. Studying Christian Spirituality. New York: Routledge, 2007. Rossbach, Stefan. Gnostic Wars: The Cold War in the Context of a History of Western Spirituality. Florence: European University Institute, 1997. Accessed April 16, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5371. Schneiders, Sandra M. ‘Spirituality in the Academy.’ Theological Studies 50 (1989): 676-97. ———. ‘Spirituality as an Academic Discipline: Reflections from Experience.’ Christian Spirituality Bulletin 1,2 (1993): 10-5. ———. ‘A Hermeneutical Approach to the Study of Christian Spirituality.’ In Minding the Spirit: The Study of Christian Spirituality, edited by Elizabeth A. Dreyer and Mark S. Burrows, 49-60. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.

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__________________________________________________________________ ———. ‘The Discipline of Christian Spirituality and Catholic Theology.’ In Exploring Christian Spirituality. Essays in Honour of Sandra M. Schneiders IHM, edited by Bruce Lescher and Elizabeth Liebert, 196-212. New York: Paulist Press, 2006. Shaw, Deirdre and Jennifer Thompson. ‘Consuming Spirituality: The Pleasure of Uncertainty.’ European Journal of Marketing 47,3/4 (2013): 557 – 73. doi: 10.1108/03090561311297454. Sheldrake, Philip. A Brief History of Spirituality. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Sponsel, Leslie E. Spiritual Ecology: A Quiet Revolution. Santa Barbara, CA.: Praeger, 2012. Swinton, John. ‘Spirituality and the Lives of People with Learning Disabilities.’ Tizard Learning Disability Review 7,4 (2001): 29-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13595474200200037. Taylor, Bron. Dark Green Religion: Nature Spirituality and the Planetary Future. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2010. Tucker, Mary Evelyn and John A. Grim, eds. Worldviews and Ecology: Religion, Philosophy, and the Environment. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994. Tucker, Mary Evelyn. ‘Complete Interview,’ Global Oneness Project video, n.d. Accessed April 13, 2014. http://www.globalonenessproject.org/library/interviews/mary-evelyn-tuckercomplete-interview. Vaughan-Lee, Llewellyn. Spiritual Ecology: The Cry of the Earth. Point Reyes, CA.: The Golden Sufi Center, 2013. Waaijman, Kees. Spirituality. Forms, Foundations, Methods. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters, 2002. ———. ‘Spirituality: A Multifaceted Phenomenon Explorations.’ Studies in Spirituality 17 (2007): 1-113.

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Interdisciplinary

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__________________________________________________________________ Wei-Ming, Tu. ‘Beyond Enlightenment Mentality.’ In Worldviews and Ecology: Religion, Philosophy, and the Environment, edited by Mary Evelyn Tucker and John A. Grim. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1994. Zohar, Danah. SQ: Connecting with Our Spiritual Intelligence. London: Bloomsbury, 2000. Benjamin A. Lyons is a doctoral student in Mass Communications at Southern Illinois University Carbondale. His research examines the social and psychological implications of new media. He has work forthcoming in Mass Communication & Society and New Media & Society. John L. Hochheimer is Professor of Communication in the College of Mass Communication and Media Arts at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, USA. His research and writing focus on community-based media for social change, spirituality and the spiritual foundations of communication.

The Way of Man to a Spiritual Life According to Martin Buber Ferdinand Röhr Abstract In the midst of today´s nihilistic and anthropocentric tendencies and set alongside institutionalized religions, which often involve radicalism, spirituality has emerged as an alternative way to conduct our lives in a human manner. The very subtle nature of spirituality does not allow us to grasp a definite or universal notion of what it is. Describing the way to a spiritual life is a good option towards forming abstract and theoretical conceptualisations. The contribution of this article is a hermeneutic approach to Buber´s book The Way Of Man According To The Teachings Of Hasidism which has his philosophy as its background. Buber, in the most mature phase of his intellectual activities, selected six, from among hundreds of Hasidic tales, that represent the most essential needs of transformation on the spiritual way: ‘Self-Contemplation’ leads to questioning ourselves about the stage we have reached in life and the hiding places we create to escape from our responsibilities. Spirituality demands considering every human being a singularity that has to find in him/herself the orientation for a ‘particular way’. ‘Determinedness’ is the virtue to choose only those steps on our spiritual way that we are perfectly prepared for. Facing conflicts means having to ‘begin with ourselves,’ and find how we contribute to our own disharmony between thinking, speaking and acting. Instead of being ‘preoccupied with ourselves,’ we must undertake the tasks the world presents to us. Finally, spiritual realization is only possible ‘here where one stands,’ by feeling deeply, in an I-Thou relationship, what our fellow man needs to become complete. Our interpretation accentuates that it is possible to transcend the religious limits of Hasidic tales and comprehend Buber’s contribution merely based on the presumption that there is a spiritual way designated to all individuals and everyone has his own inner sense to find it. Key Words: Spiritual way, Martin Buber, Hasidism, self-contemplation, singularity, determinedness, conflict coping, selflessness, realization of existence, I-Thou relationship. ***** Spirituality has emerged nowadays as an alternative way to conduct our lives in a human manner. The very subtle nature of spirituality does not allow us to grasp a definite or universal notion of what it is. Describing the way to a spiritual life is a good option towards forming abstract and theoretical conceptualisations. The contribution of this article is a hermeneutic approach to Buber´s book ‘The Way Of Man According To The Teachings Of Hasidism.’ Buber, in the most mature phase of his intellectual activities, selected six, from among hundreds of Hasidic tales

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__________________________________________________________________ that represent the most essential needs of transformation on the way to spiritual life.1 Our interpretation falls within a broader comprehension of spirituality. In by far the majority of traditional spiritual approaches, we can find the principle of oneness as a basic belief with regard to the ultimate nature of reality. Martin Buber shares that belief, but at the same time he warns that it is not possible for human beings to have an entire and concrete knowledge of that underpinning principle. All religions, spiritual traditions, cultural and ethnic legacies are attempts at expressing something of oneness, but never itself in its wholeness. The ultimate ground of spirituality is interdenominational and transcends cultures and races. We can get knowledge only in historical expressions. So Buber presents the way of man to a spiritual life by how it is expressed in a specific form, namely, in tales of the Hasidic tradition. Our interpretation will seek to demonstrate the principal beliefs that characterize this spiritual way to facilitate dialog with other traditions. 1. Self-Contemplation The first tale that Buber chose talks about a zaddik, a leader of a Hasidic community, responds to the question ‘How we are to understand that God, the allknowing said to Adam: “Where art thou?”’2 Instead of giving a theological explanation, the zaddik involves the questioner in an existential reflection responding: … in every era, God calls to every man: ‘Where are you in the world? So many years and days of those allotted to you have passed, and how far have you gotten in your world?’3 That question makes our heart tremble, if we allow it to resound within us. It confronts us with our lack of seriousness, thoughtlessness and irresponsibility. That was also what Adam felt. He ‘hides himself to avoid rendering accounts, to escape responsibility.’4 And to hide oneself from oneself is the most common reaction of mankind when someone feels that he was not right. This affirmation implies two matters: First, we have an inner sense that advises us what we have to do; secondly, we always immediately think of reasons for not taking such action. In a life without presence of self-contemplation, these reasons generally prevail. Our immediate interests, wishes and impulses make us disregard what the inner sense requires from us. Acting against the inner sense creates the need to hide ourselves behind excuses and false justifications. In other words, we ourselves produce our hide-aways. Over time, man has built a permanently increasing and perfect system of hide-aways. To find a way out we have, primarily, to detect the mechanism that leads us into the situation of hiding ourselves. We have at our disposal an inner knowledge, but we do not use it. Superficial interests speak louder. The inner voice is very subtle. ‘For the Voice does not come in a thunderstorm which threatens

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__________________________________________________________________ man’s very existence: it is a “still small voice”5 and easy to drown.’6 There is no possibility of man being able to find his way other than by returning and seeking to hear and obey that inner Voice.7 2. The Particular Way The second tale addresses the question of difference and equality between man. The reflection on it begins with a typical Hassidic affirmation: To the question: ‘Show me one general way to the service of God?’ a zaddik replied: ‘It is impossible to tell man what way they should take.’8 Formulated in terms of our question, we have to ask: is there a general way to set out on a spiritual life? The answer is no! We are all different! ‘Mankind’s great chance lies precisely in the unlikeness of man, in the unlikeness of their qualities and inclinations.’9 That kind of thinking does not combine with modern management strategies and political ideologies trying to equalize all human beings. Buber admits only one aspect of human equality: everyone has a way to God.10 That means in a broader sense that anyone can find his own way to a spiritualized life. It is obvious that this position is not very common in spiritual traditions. There we frequently find examples of gurus, idols, patriarchs or saints to be imitated. The Hasidic spirit does not agree with this. We can always admire and venerate the great deeds of these persons and perceive what it is possible for man to achieve. Nevertheless, it does not make sense to try to imitate them. First, nobody will reach perfection by imitating someone else, simply because that is to take on the identity of another person. Second, in imitating another person we will not be able to realize our own potential and own mission in this world. Instead of trying to be another person, our first spiritual task is always to seek to become more us. Now, the most important question is how to discover who I am. It is revealed to man ‘only if he truly perceives his strongest feeling, his central wish, that in him, which stirs his inmost being.’11 That feeling is different from a particular passion. It is necessary, that the power of even the feeling of our superficial satisfaction ‘be diverted from the casual to the essential and from the relative to the absolute. Thus a man finds his way.’12 That means that we shall direct the same force of wishing what we feel in our immediate and superficial inclinations to that which has an unconditional value for us. That does not mean to say, especially in Hasidism, that we have to abdicate the pleasures of this world. By no means, however can it be our true task in the world into which we have been set, to turn away from the things and beings that we meet on our way and that attract our hearts: our task is precisely to get in touch, by hallowing our relationship with them, with what manifests itself in them as beauty, pleasure, enjoyment. Hasidism teaches that rejoicing in the world, if we hallow it with our whole being, leads to rejoicing in God.13

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__________________________________________________________________ 3. Determinedness Buber reveals the meaning and the need of determinedness on man’s spiritual way, based on a strange reaction of the zaddik, towards, a seemingly successful exercise of a hasid, a pupil and follower of his, who wished to get a higher rung of spirituality. After an entire week of fasting, the zaddik received him with the exclamation: ‘Patchwork!’14 What happened was, that the hasid had not had the necessary determination before realizing his exercise. Always maintaining the fasting, the way of the Hasid, having doubt about his capacity, was a zigzag course. Shortly before his fast ended, he thought that he could not bear the thirst. When he overcame the temptation, he felt pride. When he condemned his own pride and decided to drink, the thirst disappeared. So, the seemingly very harsh judgment of the zaddik means: ‘This is not the proper manner to attain a higher rung.’15 It is not only a question of seeking to reach a certain goal; equally important is the posture on the way. ‘The object of the reproof is the advance and subsequent retreat; it is the wavering, shillyshallying character of the man’s doing that makes it questionable. The opposite of patchwork is work all of a piece. Now how does one achieve work all of a piece? Only with a united soul.’16 That affirmation poses a new question. What about the people that have ‘by nature’17 ‘a divided, complicated, contradictory soul?’18 This kind of man ‘is not helpless: the core of his soul, the divine force in its depths, is capable of acting upon it, changing it, binding the conflicting forces together, amalgamating the diverging elements – is capable of unifying it. This unification must be accomplished before a man undertakes some unusual work.’19 So we must begin with less ambitious challenges. However modest a work realized with a united soul may be it acts positively on the soul.20 4. Beginning with Ourselves In the fourth chapter, Buber dealt with the origin of perhaps the most important topic of human relationships: the conflict between men. Hasidic thinking focuses attention on the inner motivations of a conflict, trying to always comprehend the person as a whole. Only this leads to a ‘real transformation, real restoration, at first of the single person and subsequently of the relationship between him and his fellow-man.’21 In Hasidic thinking the principal aspect is to reach an understanding of how his transformation can come about. At first, a man should himself realize that conflict-situations between himself and others are nothing but the effect of conflictsituations in his own soul; then he should try to overcome this inner conflict, so that afterwards he may go out to his fellow-man and enter into a new, transformed relationship with them.22

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__________________________________________________________________ That approach contrasts totally with our usual procedures. The most common form of dealing with conflicts is for both sides involved to try to blame each other for having caused it. More educated people recognize that in every conflict both sides have contributed to it having arisen; but in this case, it seems unfair to demand a unilateral change. Nevertheless, Buber is inexorable in that question. But just this perspective, in which a man sees himself only as an individual contrasted with other individuals, and not as a genuine person, whose transformation helps towards the transformation of the world, contains the fundamental error which Hasidic teaching denounces.23 The question that remains is: what does our inner conflict consist of? Buber finds the answer in the thoughts of Baal-Shem, the founder of Hasidism. “The origin of all conflicts between me and my fellow-man is that I do not say what I mean, and I do not do what I say.”24 Thus, we create more and more false images of ourselves, undermine the confidence of others, and poison all our relationships. Nobody, except myself, can liberate me from that confused and contradictory situation.25 To stay firm in that decision is an extremely difficult task on our spiritual way and the principal demand is that we unveil ourselves. But in order that a man may be capable of this great feat, he must first find his way from the casual, accessory elements of his existence to his own self: he must find his own self, not the trivial ego of the egoistic individual, but the deeper self of the person living in relationship to the world. And that is also contrary to everything we are accustomed to.26 5. Not to Be Preoccupied with Ourselves One Rabbi confessed to his fallow Rabbi ‘I have not yet atoned!’ ‘O my friend,’ replied the fallow Rabbi, ‘you are thinking only of yourself. How about forgetting yourself and thinking of the world?’27 Again a stringent and strange affirmation of a Rabbi. All the care of ourselves we have seen before is not for us, it is to be prepared to act in the world. To begin with ourselves, but not to end with ourselves; to start from oneself, but not to aim at oneself; to comprehend oneself, but not to be preoccupied with oneself.28 To be preoccupied constantly with our evil deeds makes us keep thinking about the evil29 and wastes the energies that we need for a true renewing, our turning to a new path.

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__________________________________________________________________ Turning means here something much greater than repentance and acts of penance: it means that by a reversal of his whole being, a man who had been lost in the maze of selfishness, where he had always set himself as his goal, finds a way to God, that is, a way to the fulfilment of the particular task for which he, this particular man, has been destined by God.30 However, there is always a more subtle critique in the zaddik’s rejection of overvalued atonement. What is the final reason why a person is preoccupied with atonement? He ‘is essentially concerned with the salvation of his soul, with his personal fate in eternity.’31 But in the Hasidic point of view, … no soul has its object in itself, in his own salvation. True, each is to know itself, purify itself, perfect itself, but not for its own sake – neither for the sake of its temporal happiness nor for that of his eternal bliss – but for the sake of the work which it is destined to perform upon the world.32 Valuing atonement to get salvation is a very subtle form of egoism. 6. Here Where One Stands In the last tale, Buber addresses the question of the true fulfilment of our existence. It appears in the tale in the form of a treasure that a poor Jew, motivated by a dream, looked for unsuccessfully in a foreign country and finally found in his own house. That will symbolize the tendency of man, to seek his realization commonly in distant goals, in extraordinary implantations and deeds that obtain large recognition, but this does not guarantee the fulfilment of our existence. Here we enter into contact with what Buber calls presence. We can encounter ourselves in a certain situation and yet are not really inserted into it. That means we are not present. Presence requires a different posture towards reality. The environment, which I feel to be the natural one, the situation which has been assigned to me as my fate, the things that happen to me day after day – these contain my essential task and such fulfilment of existence as is open to me.33 What is necessary for our realization, Buber, once again, finds in the thinking of the founder of Hasidism: The Baal-Shem teaches that no encounter with a being or a thing in the course of our life lacks a hidden significance. The people we live with or meet with, the animals that help us with our

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__________________________________________________________________ framework, the soil we till, the materials we shape, the tools we use, they all contain a mysterious spiritual substance34 which depends on us for helping it towards its pure form, its perfection. If we neglect the spiritual substance sent across our path, if we think only in terms of momentary purposes, without developing a genuine relationship to the beings and things in whose life we ought to take part, as they do in ours, then we shall ourselves be debarred from true, fulfilled existence.35 Here we enter the kernel of Buber’s philosophy, the I-Thou relationship. We are called to perceive the other not as an object, but as a person with his inner needs and whose destination is to become always more complete and perfect. Based on a Hasidic belief, Buber demands a sensitive feeling to discover what I and only I can contribute to the perfection of the Thou. Only in this mission, can we find the fulfilment of existence. Some Final Observations First, if we look at Buber’s position of a spiritual way as a whole, we can affirm that it represents a really enormous challenge. If we trust Friedman’s biography of Buber, he himself searched and followed that way. We also have the zaddik´s examples, and, examining the history of humankind we may find many people who lived their lives in a spiritual manner that corresponds to a large extent with the Hassidic way. However, we must not resign ourselves to that gigantic task. We have to be humble and recognize that we are not yet near the end of the way or perfectly on it. We can only take it step by step, sometimes failing but always trying to correspond to what our inner being tells us to do. Secondly, we have to observe that that way is based on the Jewish religion and specifically, Hasidic spirituality. All justifications are underpinned by the belief in a personal God who created the earth and humankind with certain purposes that are revealed to humans in direct and indirect ways. Obviously, those suppositions are not shared in most other religions or spiritual traditions. Finally, we can ask, if it is possible to transform the religious suppositions into anthropological characteristics that may facilitate the dialog with other spiritual approaches. So we have to formulate some questions: Is it possible to find a spiritual way without self-contemplation which implies there is a silent inner voice that advises us what is right to do and what is not? Are we in fact singular persons with distinctive characteristics and therefore ought we to find our specific way? Does the capacity to unify one´s soul and follow one´s deepest purposes with determinedness exist in every person? Is there any more secure and durable manner to resolve conflicts between people other than the sincere will to begin with you and harmonize our thinking, speaking and acting? Finally, is it possible to find real

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__________________________________________________________________ fulfilment of existence already in this world by humanizing our action in exactly the situation we find ourselves in by opening up ourselves to I-Thou relationships?

Notes 1

Maurice Friedman, one of the greatest scholars of Buber’s philosophy affirms: ‘No one of Martin Buber’s works gives us as much of his own simple wisdom as this remarkable distillation.’ Maurice Friedman, Foreword to The Way Of Man According To The Teachings Of Hasidism, by Martin Buber (Wallingfort: Pendle Hill Publications, 2002), 5-6.), Viewed July 20, 2013, http://www.pendlehill.org/pendle_hill_pamphlets. htm. 2 Martin Buber, The Way of Man According to the Teachings of Hasidism (Wallingfort: Pendle Hill Publications, 2002), 8. The present interpretation is based on the German text ‘Der Weg des Menschen nach der chassidischen Lehre’, included in Buber’s works (Werke) that had been authorized by himself for publication. In the quotations I have used the translation published by Pendle Hill Publications, Wallingford, Pennsylvania, Viewed July 20, 2013, http://www.pendlehill.org/pendle_hill_pamphlets.htm. Where we disagree with this translation and the disagreement is only a question of style we changed it without drawing attention to this; but if there is a different understanding possible, we offer an alternative translation in the footnotes. 3 Martin Buber, The Way Of Man, 8. 4 Ibid., 10. 5 In the original text in German, Buber quotes a phrase from the Bible, 1 Kings 19.12: ‘die Stimme eines verschwebenden Schweigens.’. Buber uses the German language in a very creative form. The word ‘verschwebend’ does not exist in German dictionaries. ‘Schwebend’ means floating. The prefix ‘ver’ indicates that this floating is disappearing. So we can translate it still precarious: ‘the voice of a silence in state of disappearing floating.’ 6 Martin Buber, The Way Of Man, 10. 7 ‘Whatever success and enjoyment he may achieve, whatever power he may attain and whatever deeds he may do, his life will remains way-less, so long as he does not face the Voice.’ (Ibid.) 8 Ibid., 11-12. 9 Ibid., 13. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid., 14. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid., 15. 14 Ibid., 16. 15 Ibid., 17.

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__________________________________________________________________ 16

Buber explains: ‘However, what is meant by unification of the soul would be thoroughly misunderstood if “soul” were taken to mean anything but: the whole man, body and spirit together. The soul is not really united, unless all bodily energies, all the limbs of the body, are united.’ (Ibid.) 17 Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid., 18. 20 ‘But any work that I do with a united soul reacts upon my soul, acts in the direction of new and greater unification, leads me, through by all sorts of detours, to a steadier unity than the preceding one did. (Ibid.) 21 Ibid., 20. 22 Ibid., 21. 23 Ibid. 24 Ibid., 22. 25 ‘From here, there is no way out but by the crucial realization: Everything depends on myself, and the crucial decision: I will straighten myself out.’ (Ibid. 27) 26 Ibid. 27 Ibid., 23. 28 Ibid., 24. 29 The Rabbi of Ger expressed it in a drastic manner: ‘Rake the muck this way, rake the muck that way – it will always be muck. Have I sinned, or have I not sinned – what does Heaven get out of it? In the time I am brooding over it I could be stringing pearls for the delight of Heaven. That is why it is written: “Depart from evil and do good’ – turn wholly away from evil, do not dwell upon it, and do good. You have done wrong? Then counteract it by doing right.”’ (Ibid., 25.) 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid., 28. 34 In the German text we find ‘eine heimliche Seelensubstanz,’ a close translation of which is: ‘a secret substance of soul.’ 35 Ibid., 29.

Bibliography Buber, Martin. The Way of Man According to the Teachings of Hasidism. Wallingfort: Pendle Hill Publications, 2002. Viewed July 20, 2013. http://www.pendlehill.org/pendle_hill_ pamphlets.htm.

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__________________________________________________________________ Buber, Martin. ‘Der Weg des Menschen nach der chassidischen Lehre.’ In Werke. Dritter Band. Schriften zum Chassidismus, by Martin Buber, 713-738. München: Kösel Verlag, 1963. Friedman, Maurice. ’Foreword.’ In The Way of Man According to the Teachings of Hasidism, by Martin Buber, 3-6. Wallingfort: Pendle Hill Publications, 2002. Ferdinand Röhr is professor of the Department of Social-Philosophical Foundations of Education, at the Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil. He is coordinator of the Nucleus of Education and Spirituality from the Postgraduate Program in Education of the same University. ([email protected])

Emanuel Swedenborg’s Contribution to Understanding Spirituality in the Twenty-First Century Jane Williams-Hogan Abstract Emanuel Swedenborg 1688-1772 believed that he was called to reveal the internal or spiritual sense of the Bible found in the Old and New Testaments. In his new Christian religious writings, eighteen different titles, written between 1749 and 1771, he divided reality between the spiritual and natural realms, and claimed that human beings are born natural with the capacity to become spiritual. The spiritual world is the world of life, while nature is essentially dead. The task confronting every human being born into the natural world/s is to spiritually shape him or herself in preparation for eternal spiritual life. One wakes in this spiritual realm immediately after death. In this spiritual world, a person gradually becomes who he or she truly is: either a lover of God and others, or someone whose primary love is self and worldly pleasures. We create either a heaven or a hell within us, while on earth, and live with likeminded spirits after death. Swedenborg’s writings have had a broad, though under-recognized impact on modern Western culture through the arts, literature, psychology, and various social movements, such as Spiritualism in the nineteenth century. A significant distinction made in the twenty-first century is between those who identify either as a religious person or as a spiritual person. More and more people are choosing to identify themselves as spiritual. From this perspective, religion is thus viewed negatively, as collective, constraining, and rule-governed, while spirituality is defined as personal, free, and internal. This paper connects Swedenborg’s teachings and their influence to the current, twentyfirst century, Western cultural emphasis on spirituality in lieu of religion. Key Words: Swedenborg, spirituality, naturalism, religion, influence, art, literature, psychology, spiritualism, twenty-first century. ***** 1. Introduction Two things are noteworthy about spirituality today. First, in the modern/postmodern world, a belief in naturalism is on the rise, and with it, the rejection of any transcendent or metaphysical reality, which, according to Wuthnow, is the essence of spirituality; and second, is the self-identification of an increasing number of individuals as spiritual but not religious. Certainly this is an interesting, and even curious, combination of trends. The thesis of this presentation is that Swedenborg’s spiritual perspective is particularly well suited to clarify the relationship between these two trends.

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__________________________________________________________________ It may be fair to say that Emanuel Swedenborg, 1688-1772, introduced the modern concept of spirituality to the world. He was a Swedish polymath and spiritual visionary. While he made enormous contributions in all the spheres of his life, he is noted for his many volumes that reveal the mysteries of the spiritual world, our inner spiritual nature, and our spiritual destiny. He wrote eighteen different titles on these topics. The first volume of his eight-volume work, Secrets of Heaven, was published in 1749. It was printed with no author listed on the title page. However, in 1771, his last work True Christianity was signed ‘Emanuel Swedenborg, servant of the Lord Jesus Christ.’ In that work he wrote: ‘… now we are allowed to use our intellect to explore the mysteries of faith.’1 It could be said, that in Secrets of Heaven, he lifted the veil that was masking spiritual reality. He wrote: ‘I realize that many will claim that no one can talk with spirits and angels, as long as bodily life continues, … however, I have seen, I have heard, I have felt.’2 Ironically, he did this a year after the Scottish philosopher, David Hume, 1711-1776, published his Philosophical Essays Concerning Human Understanding, 1748, in which he attempted to dissect the rational pretensions of religion. As he wrote: ‘upon the whole, we may conclude, that the Christian Religion not only was at first attended by miracles, but even at this day cannot be believed by any reasonable person without one.’3 The rational, scientific spirit of the age led Hume into naturalism. On the other hand, it led Swedenborg, the scientist, to find spirituality. For many years, Swedenborg had explored human physiology in search of the soul, so that he might analytically demonstrate its reality. He wrote two multi-volume works in this pursuit. Immersed in nature, using the tools of experimental science and philosophy, he found that instead of crossing the abyss from nature to spirit, as he hoped, the spiritual shore seemed to recede farther and father away. In the end, he discovered that one cannot get there from here. The finite can see, but not know the infinite; and the natural, of itself, simply cannot grasp the spiritual. But as Swedenborg was later to learn, the cosmos is both spiritual and natural, and human beings are ‘spirits clothed in flesh.’4 Given the hierarchy of forms, discussed by R. G. Collingwood in his book, The Idea of History (1946), the lower can never apprehend the higher, but the higher can comprehend the lower. Metaphysically, this means that, finite human beings cannot, of themselves, learn of God and his ways, even by means of rationality. However, the Infinite God, can reveal himself to humanity and, he must do so, if we are to know him; because, on our own, we cannot find him. According to Swedenborg, God’s unceasing love for us ensures us that he will provide revelations about himself to meet every human state. The infinite nature of his love suggests that God has revealed himself through the ages. Swedenborg documents this in his theological writings.5

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. The New Christianity Swedenborg’s theological corpus in which he details the teachings of, what he called, the New Christianity, contains thirty volumes, making a brief summary challenging. However, touching on the nature of God, the structure and purpose of creation, and the endowments and place of humanity in the divine plan should provide the essentials necessary to address Swedenborg’s contribution to spirituality in the twenty-first century. God Swedenborg states that there is one God of the heavens and all the earths in the universe. That God is the Lord Jesus Christ in whom there is a trinity, the Father is the soul, the Son is the body, and the Holy Spirit is the divine truth and action radiating from God. His essence is love, which is clothed by his wisdom. The New Christianity reveals the Divine Human of the Lord,6 because those who form this new church are ‘to worship one visible God in whom is the invisible like the soul in the body.’7 His visibility makes conjunction between God and humanity possible. Creation, Nature and Spirit, World and Humanity The New Christianity teaches that the goal of creation is a heaven from the human race.8 Thus, God created both nature and spirit--the cosmos, as the world of nature; and the microcosm, the human world, as spirit clothed in nature. The Lord who is life itself and love itself desires nothing more than to share his life and love with others. These others cannot be divine, nonetheless, they must be capable of receiving and responding to the divine. Thus, God created human beings, to be an image of heaven and an image of the world, because he or she is a microcosm. ‘… A person is an image of the world as to his or her natural mind, and is an image of heaven as to his or her spiritual mind.’9 Human beings are created microcosms, and have a dual inheritance, in order that they may choose to love spirit, others, and God, which is life or, to love nature, the world, and self, which Swedenborg calls death. The Lord grants human beings the gifts of freedom and rationality, in order that they may, over the course of a life-time, choose their eternal spiritual home, either in heaven or in hell.10 It is important to realize that the Lord loves everyone, and he never withdraws his love from us; thus, he is willing to allow us to choose our way, and our natural loves, over his. ‘That is why the Lord protects our freedom the way we protect the pupil of our eye.’11 (ibid.). Swedenborg’s revelation teaches that: ‘There are two worlds, the spiritual and the natural. The spiritual world does not draw anything from the natural, nor the natural from the spiritual. The two are totally distinct, and communicate only by correspondences.’ 12 Human beings live in both worlds, however, they are conscious of living in only one. Death is the doorway between the two worlds. In

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__________________________________________________________________ death a person passes from one world into the next and from one form of consciousness natural to another spiritual. Prior to death, a person is only conscious of living in this world, and after death he or she is only conscious of living in the spiritual world. Nonetheless the two worlds are interdependent. Two other teachings found in Swedenborg’s theological writings broader our understanding of his conception of spirituality. One relates to the concept of variety. In the work Divine Providence, it states that: ‘We can see an image of what is infinite and eternal in the variety of everything in the fact that nothing is exactly like anything else and nothing can be to eternity.’13 This, in fact, is the foundation of the unity of heaven. The other is the universality of salvation, which is also discussed in Divine Providence: ‘Consequently, under divine providence everyone can be saved; and everyone is saved who believes in God and lives a good life.’14 Stated another way: ‘… No matter what religion people are born into, people can all be saved … .’15 3. Human Spiritual Crisis and Revelation in the Eighteenth Century Swedenborg does not leave his readers in the dark about why he believed he was called to reveal the internal or spiritual sense of the Bible in the middle of the eighteenth century. In religious terms, he states that there was no longer any spiritual life in the Christian Church because over time there arose a fatal separation of faith from a life of charity. This is seen in the idea of salvation by faith alone. The separation can be seen in the rise of naturalism, and a belief that a moral life could be separated from a belief in God and spirituality. This is certainly the view of David Hume and many of the French philosophes. From their perspective revealed religion, and Christianity in particular was the dead hand preventing the progress of humanity. They were eager to develop the science of humanity or human nature freed from the supernatural and superstition. They were advocates of reason and the idea that rationality could be applied to good effect in every area of human life. Swedenborg claimed that a new revelation was necessary to address the awakening need, particularly in Christian Europe, for rational explanations concerning all manner of things related to human life, including religion. Eighteen centuries after the birth of Christ, the proximity and immediacy of the spiritual world, for many people seemed very distant and removed from their lives. British Prime Minister, Horace Walpole, 1717-1797, witnessed this state of affairs. He wrote: ‘There were no religious combustibles in the temper of the times. Popery and Protestantism seemed at a stand. The modes of Christianity were exhausted and could not furnish novelty enough to fix attention.’16 These observations were written shortly before Swedenborg was an eyewitness to The Last Judgment, 1758, an event long anticipated in the Christian world. The expectation was that the Apocalypse would be an observable, disruptive occurrence in the natural world. However, according to Swedenborg, because it

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__________________________________________________________________ concerned spiritual things, it was a spiritual event that took place in the world of spirits, midway between heaven and hell, the entrance to the spiritual world where everyone arrives immediately after death. This judgment or apocalypse did not actually mean the end of the world, but revealing something hidden, and the coming of a new age. Swedenborg describes the veil being lifted in both realms. In the spiritual world, the veil was lifted to reveal the falsities trapping both good and evil spirits and preventing them from discovering their inmost loves, and finding their spiritual homes. The light that shone in the spiritual world was made possible, by the internal sense of the Lord’s Word coming to light, here on earth, through the publication of Secrets of Heaven. According to Swedenborg, both these events removed the clouds obscuring the divine influx and light of heaven from flowing into the spiritual and natural worlds. With this light came a new and deeper freedom for people to reflect on spiritual truths. They then could choose to have these truths light their way or not. There are many indications that the world was transformed after the publication of writings that contained the New Christianity. Certainly in many spheres of human life, freedom was more visible, particularly in politics and economics. Social arrangements were also changed. Whether, it was the new spirituality that made all these changes is, of course, open to question. Nonetheless, several studies point specifically to Swedenborg’s religious writings as a source of change. The World Transformed: Swedenborg and The Last Judgment, 2011, is a recent compilation of essays exploring this theme within mathematics, science, religion, philosophy, and social movements, such as antislavery and feminism. One study done in Sweden by Inga Sanner, in her book Den segrande eros: Kärleksföreställningar från Emanuel Swedenborg till Poul Bjerre, 2003, suggests the positive impact of Swedenborg’s teaching on marriage love to marriage practices in Sweden. 17 Various writers, including Brett Carroll’s Spiritualism in Antebellum America, 1997, have documented the influence of Swedenborg’s works and his spiritual experiences on the emergence of Spiritualism. The American historian, Drew Gilpin Faust wrote the following about Emanuel Swedenborg in her book, The Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (2008): ‘The publication of Emanuel Swedenborg’s Heaven and Hell in 1758 marked the origins of an important movement away from the conception of heaven as forbiddingly ascetic, distant from earth and its materiality and highly theocentric. Instead a more modern notion of heaven began to emerge as a realm hardly separate and different, except in perfection, from earth itself.’18 Faust added that Swedenborg’s views were absorbed by all American denominations leading them to moderate their views of heaven and to temper the negative images of the end of life that they had previously stressed. Death no longer signaled an end to relationships but was seen as a temporary parting.19

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__________________________________________________________________ 4. The Twenty-First Century Turning now to the twenty-first century, what does the cultural landscape look like for spirituality, almost 250 years since Swedenborg’s death? Naturalism not only remains as an intellectual force, but its spokespersons are more open and forthright than were their eighteenth century counterparts. Postmodernists, and there are many of them, delight in their naturalistic and anti-metaphysical stance. One web-site, posted in 2009, focuses on ‘7 Steps to Understanding the Characteristics of Postmodernism in Relation to Absolute Truth.’20 The introduction to the list states the following: ‘Postmodernism informs more of the current culture than ever before, and is a driving force behind media, politics, culture, and religion. … Learning these 7 characteristics of postmodernism that drive our culture can make all the difference in making sense of the world.’21 The seven characteristics are: 1) there is no absolute truth 2) facts and falsehoods are interchangeable 3) frustration with modern (scientific) thinking 4) opinion is the driving force of thought 5) global community is more important than nationalism 6) all religions are equally false or equally valid 7) each person’s ideas about morality are also equally false or valid.22 To a certain extent, the naturalism of the eighteenth century was more optimistic about our common human future than are postmodernist. From my perspective, as a sociologist, it is difficult to a dynamic society functioning on the principles of postmodernism. It stresses an unreflective individualism that is sustained by the on going, almost automatic, functioning of a superabundant technologically sophisticated society. A society in which many participants, in fact, subscribe to views that run counter to postmodernism. These people contribute to a functioning society, which ironically permits the illusions of postmodernism. Moral individualism is, in fact, no morality at all. It could just as easily lead to Auschwitz as to Nirvana. Postmodernism, as sketched above, presents a worldview in which everything is continually negotiated, and nothing is permanent. In such a world, as in the world of nature, power would be the ultimate determinant. 5. The Swedenborgian Contribution The Swedenborgian perspective makes both substantive and analytical contributions to twenty-first century spirituality. Substantively, it gives primacy to spirituality as the essential definer of human beings. Swedenborgianism stand between the historical dogmatism of a dead Christianity and the nihilism of postmodernism. It identifies spirituality as the characteristic that calls people to be

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__________________________________________________________________ attentive to what is beyond and above the self. It views spirituality as the quality which encourages care and concern for others. It affirms that spirituality allows for the recognition that, it is the existence of truths that leads to the doing of good. It states that these truths, while immutable, are not the sole property of any one system of beliefs. Swedenborgianism asserts that all people have the means to look to the good of life, and have been given freedom and rationality to do so. Analytically, Swedenborg’s contribution to understanding the increase of those who identify as spiritual, in relation to the growth of postmodernism may be twofold: first, the Swedenborgian perspective affirms that the teachings of traditional Christianity no longer satisfy the current yearnings of sincere spiritual seekers. Thus, these seekers step beyond the doors of organized religion; however, they do not then choose the postmodern naturalistic position, but remain open to the metaphysical call of spirit and spirituality. Certainly some embrace naturalism and become atheists. At present, however, a significantly large number choose to call themselves spiritual. The Swedenborgian perspective would hypothesize that if the reach of postmodernism increases, with its mortifying message of natural liberation, there would be a parallel growth of spirituality in the twenty-first century, as people choose the way of life over the call of death.

Notes 1

Emanuel Swedenborg, True Christianity, trans. Jonathan S. Rose (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2011), §508:3. 2 Emanuel Swedenborg, Secrets of Heaven, trans. Lisa H. Cooper (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2008), §68. 3 Peter Gay, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, The Rise of Modern Paganism (New York: Vintage Books, 1968) 406. 4 Swedenborg, Secrets of Heaven, §69. 5 During this time, hHe wrote, among others, such works as: Heaven and Hell (1758); The Last Judgment (1758); Divine Love and Wisdom (1763); Divine Providence (1764); Revelation Unveiled (1766): Marriage Love (1768); and True Christianity (1771). After publishing anonymously for almost two decade, he signed Marriage Love, “Emanuel Swedenborg, A Swede.” He also listed in that work, the titles of his previous theological book, and those he intended to write. He published four of them, and these were also signed. 6 The Lord is the term Swedenborg most frequently used to refer to God. 7 Emanuel Swedenborg, True Christian Religion, Vol. II trans. John C. Ager (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 1996), §787. 8 Emanuel Swedenborg, Divine Providence, trans. George F. Dole (Swedenborg Foundation, 2003), §27. 9 Emanuel Swedenborg, Apocalypse Explained, Vol. V, trans. John C. Ager (West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 1994), §969.

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__________________________________________________________________ 10

Swedenborg, Divine Providence, §73, 97. Ibid., §97:8. 12 Emanuel Swedenborg, The Divine Love and Wisdom, trans. H. G. Smith (London: The Swedenborg Society, 1969), §83. 13 Swedenborg, Divine Providence, §56. 14 Ibid., §325. 15 Ibid., §253. 16 Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity (New York: Antheneum, 1980), 345. 17 English translation of the title is Triumphant Eros: The Concept of Love from Emanuel Swedenborg to Poul Bjerre. 18 Drew Gilpin Faust, The Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 178. She quotes Swedenborg: ‘Man after death is as much a man as he was before so much so as to be unaware that his still not in the former world […] death is only a crossing.’ 19 Ibid. 20 Voices.yahoo.com. posted July 3, 2009. Erik Wesley. 7 Steps to Understanding Postmodernism in Relation to Absolute Truth. Accessed January 12, 2014 (http://voices.yahoo.com/7-steps-understanding-characteristics-postmodernism3730670.html?cat=4). 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 11

Bibliography Acton, Alfred. Concerning the Messiah about to Come and Concerning the Kingdom of God and the Last Judgment. A Posthumous work by Emanuel Swedenborg. Translated by Alfred Acton. Bryn Athyn, PA: Academy of the New Church, 1949. Carroll, Brett. Spiritualism in Antebellum America. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1997. Faust, Drew Gilpin. The Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008. Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, the Rise of Modern Paganism. New York: Vintage Books, 1968. Johnson, Paul. A History of Christianity. New York: Antheneum, 1980.

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__________________________________________________________________ Religious Tolerance.org. Glossary of religious and spiritual terms. Spirituality. Accessed January 12, 2014. http://www.religioustolerance.org/gl_s1.htm/ Sanner, Inga. Den Segrande Eros: Kärleksföreställngar från Emanuel Swedenborg til Poul Bjerre. (The Triumphant Eros: Conceptions of Love from Emanuel Swedenborg to Poul Bjerre). Nora: Nya Doxa, 2003. Sigstedt, Cyriel Odhner. The Swedenborg Epic. London: The Swedenborg Society, 1981. Swedenborg, Emanuel. The Infinite: The Final Cause of Creation also the Mechanism of the Operation of the Soul and Body. Translated by Dr. J. J. G. Wilkinson. London: The Swedenborg Society, 1965. ———. The Divine Love and Wisdom. Translated by H. G. Smith. London: The Swedenborg Society, 1969. ———. Apocalypse Explained. Vol. V, Translated from the Latin by John C. Ager. West Chester, PA: 1994. ———. True Christian Religion. Vol. II, Translated from the Latin by John C. Ager. West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 1996. ———. Divine Providence. Translated from the Latin by George F. Dole. Wester Chester, PA: 2003. ———. Secrets of Heaven. Vol. 1, Translated from the Latin by Lisa Hyatt Cooper. West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2008. ———. True Christianity. Vol. II, Translated from the Latin by Jonathan S. Rose. West Chester, PA: Swedenborg Foundation, 2011. Voices.yahoo.com. posted July 3, 2009. Erik Wesley. 7 Steps to Understanding Postmodernism in Relation to Absolute Truth. Accessed January 12, 2014. http://voices.yahoo.com/7-steps-understanding-characteristics-postmodernism3730670.html?cat=4. Williams-Hogan, Jane. ‘The Influences of Emanuel Swedenborg and the New Church on the Spiritualist Movement.’ IN The Spiritualist Movement: Speaking with the Dead in America and around the World, Vol. III, edited by Christopher M. Moreman, Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2013.

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__________________________________________________________________ Woofenden, William Ross. Swedenborg’s Journal of Dreams. Translated by Dr. J. J. G. Wilkinson. New York: Swedenborg Foundation, Inc., 1977. Wuthnow, Robert. After Heaven: Spirituality in America since the 1950s. Berkley: University of California Press, 1998. Jane Williams-Hogan teaches sociology and history at Bryn Athyn College in Bryn Athyn, PA USA. She is Co-Director of a MA program in Religious Studies. She is currently finishing a biography of Emanuel Swedenborg. [email protected]

Part II Self-Transforming Power of Spirituality

The Spirituality of Change and Transformation Martin C. Fowler .

Abstract The dynamics of spiritual process involves two different but reciprocal transitions: change and transformation. Reinhold Niebuhr’s well-known Serenity Prayer invokes grace, courage, and wisdom to cope with change. But we also hope that our lives might be transformed. Undergoing change is different than being transformed. I wish to argue that we strive to change internal and external environments, but it is our capacity and vulnerability to undergo transformation, which allows us to deeply belong. We can’t transform the world unless that world is ready to undergo transformation in some way. The ways in which we combine our own humble capacities for power, speed, strength, flexibility, balance, coordination, accuracy, agility, stamina, and endurance mix striving and belonging so that we spiritually experience courage, justice, peace, truth, and love. Change is a matter of process and degree. Transformation is a complete and entire transition. If you’re transformed, you’re not merely changed, improved or reformed, but rather you become a new person. Transformation may feel momentous or may happen as casually as turning a corner, knowing that your life will never be the same. Striving to make an impact in the world is about change. But in order to transform the world, that world must be ready to accept transformation. The same is true for you. We expect positive change to feel good, but transformation is unpredictable yet exactly what we should have expected. Life mixes change and transformation: striving and belonging. Life changes environments to make life possible and is likewise transformed to belong within lives. Ecologically and spiritually, your life belongs in every other life, and every life belongs in yours. Therefore, life is more than desperate strivings because life’s signature success is belonging. By itself, belonging would suffocate us. By itself, striving is ceaseless and rootless change. Together, they enrich the spirituality of our experience. Key Words: Belonging, spiritual transformation, striving, philosophy, courage, justice, peace, truth, love. ***** 1. Life’s First Story and Second Story When we promise, demand, or hope for real change, or to make a difference, we invoke something other than change and process. We invoke transformation. Any rock can make an impact, but to make an impact which matters, you don’t just change what you’re doing. You make a difference in some internal or external environment that is ready, vulnerable to, and open to transformation. Think of change as striving. Think of transformation as belonging. Transformation which

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__________________________________________________________________ we call conversion, enlightenment, or communion alters how the transformed engages the world. Transformation is not higher or better than change in some spiritual pecking order. Let’s simply agree that change and transformation are different processes. Think of life as having two spiritual stories. Striving is life’s first story, much like a resume listing of your tasks, accomplishments, and projects. Tributes and eulogies try to do justice to a life by extoling the high points of the first story. However, there is a second story for your life. That’s the story of how you have experienced belonging or made belonging possible for others. It is equally important. Figuring out where and how you belong and how others might belong is your story of transformation. Working out terms of belonging together is probably the most human thing you can do. Therefore, think of belonging not as attachment or membership but as your vulnerability to transformation. Scientific descriptions of life are typically biased in favour of stories about striving, noting processes such as metabolism, adaptation, homeostasis, growth, and reproduction battling for completion in a hostile world. Within this mind-set of life as striving, life of any sort looks very, very busy – ceaselessly so. Its vulnerabilities appear as weaknesses, and are considered impediments to the essential activities of life. But life is also vulnerable to transformation. That’s not necessarily a weakness. Otherwise, metamorphosis and evolution would be impossible. Otherwise, a good coach would not see teachability in a promising athlete. Life changes environments to make new ways o life possible, but life must be transformed to experience belonging. Life is about more than how it sustains itself. Life enables life to belong within lives. Belonging and transformation may look larger than life, but that’s an optical illusion. Belonging and transformation are exactly life-sized, whether you’re a human being or a mollusc. How then does a striving life also manage to become transformed to belong? 2. Belonging as Benediction You belong. You always did, and you always will. How do I know? These two words are not about my knowledge because You belong is my benediction to you, and is it is my claim about you. On what authority do I extend this blessing to you? I am alive, and belonging is the first and most important gift of the living to the living. Anyone alive can extend this blessing to you, including your dog, but whether you accept this gift is up to you. You probably have questions peppered with prepositions and indirect objects: Belong to whom? Belong with what? Belong here? Belong now? Belong just how exactly? Does anyone really belong? Yet you know intuitively that this blessing is a real gift and a good one, for you needed this blessing even if you never thought to ask for it. Extend it to me and I’m grateful even though belonging is intimate enough to be both reassuring and scary.

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__________________________________________________________________ You belong could be a reciprocal exchange between two strangers, two opponents, two lovers, or between the powerful and the weak. It is not a superficial social courtesy such as “Have a nice day.” It’s not my benign affirmation that you’re okay and I’m okay. I am not claiming that you belong. I’m giving words, which, in my giving, give form to the truth that you belong. The blessing you receive invokes your belonging, not as word magic but as our word commitment. I don’t make your belonging appear out of nowhere. My two words, which are now yours, mean that your belonging was never nowhere in the first place. You belong. You always did and you always will. Realise that each life belongs in every life and that every life belongs in each life, and new possibilities appear and certain threats disappear. We are more respectful and hospitable. Do we become non-violent? Not necessarily, but our violence no longer quite knows what to do with itself. Life within lives is a new and unfamiliar way to encounter each other where acting out violence no longer has its usual stage settings and borders. That’s so because, when we share this blessing, belonging is no longer something problematic and probationary. Belonging is no longer a perk, which can be granted or revoked. Belonging is no longer a distant romanticized sweet place for which we can only yearn in vain. As we belong, we may then welcome or exclude each other, as we accept, refuse, or negotiate the terms of belonging. But we belong, notwithstanding. Your belonging isn’t something I have the power to make or unmake. 3. We Combine Change and Transformation to Experience Values We expect positive changes to feel good, but transformation is a surprise transition that turns out to be exactly, though unpredictably, where we belong. You can’t point to transformation or belonging, so we invariably rely upon, and place authority in, someone else, virtually anyone, really, to confirm our belonging. You'd hardly ever say, I belong, aloud unless you were clarifying your membership or protesting your exclusion. That’s why, I belong, rings hollow. What you say is true, but you’re not the one to say it because you can’t make yourself belong. Belonging is a gift. Think of it this way: respect can also be transformative. Respect acknowledges a special status, entitlement, standing and dignity. Respect is what you’re entitled to or what we owe each other as persons. Respect can transform situations and people when they are ready to be transformed. But we don’t owe each other belonging. None of us is entitled to belong, none of us owes belonging to each other, and yet we depend on others to bless our belonging. Again, belonging is a gift. I have a hunch about how we combine striving and belonging in our activities. I think this combination allows us to experience core values of courage, justice, peace, truth, and love. This hunch occurred to me in an unexpected way. Over the

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__________________________________________________________________ years, I have studied and sweated my way through different exercise and fitness programs, when one day I realized that the movement values of all these programs: power, speed, strength, flexibility, balance, coordination, accuracy, agility, endurance, and stamina are, in fact, animal capacities broader and deeper than physical movement and given a transformative dimension by human beings. For example, we speak of economic power, strong emotions, balanced lives, etc. without having to leap into figurative language, not because these attributed capacities such as balance and agility are analogous to how we talk about muscular movement, but because these capacities were never merely physical movement in the first place. These capacities are not simply the mechanics of how vertebrates use their muscles. They may be exercised in physical exertion but moral, spiritual, economic, social, political, and institutional life also expresses these capacities. I wish to argue that these capacities are transformative in how they allow us to experience core values. Value is a ball in play, philosophically speaking. You can defend values as precious subjective preferences, as useful evaluative categories, or as transcendent and authoritative abstractions. If you prefer, be sceptical about values’ authority, universality, or enduring nature. You might explain or deconstruct the values, which societies construct and affirm. Nevertheless, I grab the ball of values to argue that our animal capacities exercised together in activity affords our spiritual experience of certain values. I argue that we have transformative experiences of courage, justice, peace, truth, and love not merely as abstractions and ideals, but as values we live as we combine our capacities to strive and to belong. 4. Courage, Justice, Peace, Truth, and Love Before we judge courage, justice, peace, truth, or love, we should find out first what they actually feel like. Courage exercises power within speed constraints that may risk life and limb to make a difference and open new ways of belonging. Courage is mostly about investing such power as have, but it’s also a matter of speed and timing. Speed constraints make the exercise of power risky. Power invests and gambles our other capacities to make a time-sensitive difference. Call this wager of our capacities mustering courage. I don’t think we claim to muster any other value. Think of power as striving to make a difference. Think of speed as the capacity to do so with good timing. For example, if you think my deed was courageous and not foolhardy, you pay attention to what I’m wagering and to the situation’s speed constraints. Courage is never leisurely, but it’s also never rushed. This doesn’t exhaust the historical and cultural meaning of courage, but it grounds courage in two basic capacities we all share. Though we often out-source speed and power to our machines, technology has no monopoly on speed and power. You have exactly the power and speed that you need. When you act with courage, you find that justice, peace, truth, and love

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__________________________________________________________________ jump on the bandwagon. This is because courage risks exercising our other capacities to make a difference at the right time. And that’s how we experience those other values. Consider the basic experience of justice as exercising strength against resistance with enough flexibility to bend rules. My hunch is that strength is the core of justice, but that justice is mostly flexibility. Again, someone might object that justice is too abstract to be directly experienced. Besides, retributive, compensatory, and restorative justice, are all quite different forms of fairness. How could one experience of strength and flexibility give us a feel for three kinds of justice? Could it be that they deploy different strengths and forms of flexibility in the relationships among the offender, victim, and the community? Of course, strength by itself is not justice. Neither is flexibility. However, together they impart a sense of just rightness or enough, which we learn from reach and resistance. Keep in mind that strength and flexibility are not merely physical skills. They are fundamental capacities for engaging the world. If we remain static and expect some external good called justice to be delivered, then we don’t allow ourselves to fully experience – and be a part of making – justice in our lives. This initiative should be cause for hope. Strength and flexibility are capacities hurt when we first try to exercise them. That could tempt you to think that justice is impractical or too painful to work. But work through that pain, and you find that strength and flexibility improve with practice. Why not expect the same for practicing justice? Peace is a different sort of value, often pictured as a precarious but precious cessation of hostilities. Think of peace instead as a way of life: individual or community coordination of activities on the move while balanced relative to some base of support. For peace on the move, balance, belonging relative to a base of support, and coordination, striving to make many patterns of movement mesh together, would be equally important. The intuition that balance is part of peace is not new, but if peace were only achieving balance, peace would look extremely fragile and vulnerable to any disturbance. But, for peace on the move, balance is not an end in itself. Balance makes sense and is more resilient for peace when matched by and experienced together with coordination. Likewise, coordination manipulates and blends diverse movements into a meaningful activity, but without balance relative to some base of support, coordination isn’t confident enough to handle complexity or abrupt changes. We think of peace activism as striving to coordinate fragmented or conflicting elements, but it’s equally a matter of restoring and finding anew a society’s sense of balance. Ask ‘What is truth?’ and the spiritual hunt begins. Is it in the stars, in the dirt, or in your heart? Was it ever anywhere at all? Dwell instead with your intuitions about what truth feels like and how startling to acknowledge that truth should have a feel at all!, and you needn’t go truth hunting. You speak of hitting the mark or ringing true making contact or some equivalent tactile just-rightness. Whenever

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__________________________________________________________________ you try to move with accuracy and agility, you’re moving in truth perhaps towards a moving target, but then you’re moving as well. Again, thinking of yourself as static and inert, passively waiting for some external ideal called “truth” to be uncovered or delivered doesn’t help. Think of truth as accuracy nimble enough to change direction or position as dictated by conditions. My intuition is that truth is really more about agility than accuracy, but we need both. You may think of truth as a value quite independent of our capacities for activity, but I encourage you to take ownership of how you experience truth as striving for accuracy with enough agility to change position or direction as dictated by changing truth conditions. I have argued that each life belongs in every life, and that every life belongs in each life. This is what makes ecosystems and communities viable. And what value is more intimately associated with belonging than love? What value is more transformative? Although it sounds dogged and dreary, I think we experience love as a value first in our endurance and stamina. That’s not the same thing as feeling love or falling in love, of course. But I think we learn to trust love’s credibility only as we test our capacity for endurance and stamina. Think of endurance as learning to belong in relationship with suffering. Think of stamina as hope and perseverance. These two capacities don’t define or exhaust love, but love needs intuitive credibility before we risk feeling love and committing to it as a value. When we see animals endure with stamina for the sake of their young or partners, or owners, we identify emotionally with their experience. That’s not anthropomorphizing, and that’s not projection. Animals have been humanity’s teachers, examples, icons, and symbols of these abstract values because we share the same capacities to strive and to belong In Belonging to the Universe, 1992, David Steindl-Rast interprets Christian belonging in terms of love: For us God’s saving power is manifest in the religious experience, the experience of limitless belonging. In our peak moments we experience ‘saving power’ rescuing us, bringing us out of that which is most foreign to this sense of belonging, namely, alienation. The experience that we belong is the basis for Jesus’ preaching of the Kingdom, expressed in contemporary terms. Then, the primary reference was to the community of the chosen people. But for us it is more broadly the experience of belonging and its social consequences.1 He raises the stakes with this affirmation:

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__________________________________________________________________ Love is saying yes to belonging. That’s my definition of love, pure and simple. Anything that we call love, as far as I can see, is in some way related to this yes … and that saying yes is not just an intellectual assent; it has profound moral implications.2 Endurance is about your relationship with suffering, and stamina is about your relationship with energy. Perhaps that’s the ‘yes’ which Stendl-Rast speaks of. I think its implications are not only moral and ethical, but also deeply inform our ethos of striving and belonging. Trusting love and believing in love are the result of how we find and assign meaning to endurance and stamina. As you summon meaning for endurance and stamina, you increasingly belong with suffering. This is a transferable capacity for love in which love’s directionality risks suffering. 5. Misgivings and Encouragements You have compared yourself to more able-bodied others or more able-bodied versions of yourself, and you come up short. Is there hope? These capacities improve with practice and training. That’s good news. I would argue that effective use of capacities is about transformation to make a needed difference, not about making big changes. This is not about how strong, fast, or coordinated you think you are. This is not making a meteoric impact, always bad news for the meteor, but about using your capacities that were never just physical skills to make a welltimed difference in a world ready for transformation. You may lack mobility and mobility may be painful for you, but, with less range to work with, you can be more creative, selective, and judicious about your activities. That care increases the odds that your exercise of capacities for activity will be transformative. Thinking of change and transformation spiritually may sound nebulous and free-floating. Belonging as vulnerability may still look ethereal and out of reach. You insist on knowing exactly where you belong. Very well. Your life belongs in every other life. Every other life belongs in your life. The cosmos is a harsh place for fragile life, so life finds belonging within lives. Where else would you expect to find it? Don’t worry about whether you’re inside or outside. Belonging is a gift. Inside and outside are just packaging. This may not be the where you were hoping for. It’s not a piece of turf or a cozy familiar spot. This borderless belonging may make you feel intruded upon or spread too thin, maybe both, but your spirit never doubted that we’re in this life together. You just thought we were stuck with each other. No, relationships may provide adhesive between lives, but belonging is life within lives. In closing, meditate upon Toni Morrison’s poem. Perhaps your belonging is not so distant a place as you suppose.

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__________________________________________________________________ Whose house is this? Whose night keeps out the light In here? Say, who owns this house? It’s not mine. I had another, sweeter, brighter With a view of lakes crossed in painted boats; Of fields wide as arms open for me. This house is strange. Its shadows lie. Say, tell me, why does its lock fit my key?3 Welcome home.

Notes 1

Frioff Capra and David Stendl-Rast, Belonging to the Universe (San Francisco: Harper-Collins, 1993), 57. 2 Ibid. 3 Toni Morrison, Home (New York: Vintage, 2006), Prologue.

Bibliography Abram, David. The Spell of the Sensuous. New York: First Vintage Books, 1996. Capra, Frioff and David Steindle-Rast. Belonging to the Universe. San Francisco: Harper-Collins, 1993. Casey, Edward S. Getting Back into Place. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2009. Hooks, Bell. Belonging – A Culture of Place. New York: Routledge, 2009. Morrison, Toni. Home. New York: Vintage, 2006. Martin Fowler is a Lecturer in Philosophy at Elon University in North Carolina. He is the author of The Ethical Practice of Critical Thinking (2009), You Always Belonged and You Always Will – A Philosophy of Belonging (2014), and articles about ethics and spirituality.

Developing Our Inner Spiritual Guide: A Practical Spiritual Epistemology for the 21st Century Anna Gatmon Abstract A spiritual epistemology is presented, in which four ways of spiritual knowing provide a tangible map for enhancing spiritual experiences and creating the conditions for a richer spiritual life. This non-denominational framework emerges out of my personal and professional experience with individuals and groups, as well as my doctoral thesis, in which I studied the effects of activities designed to facilitate spiritual knowing in adult learners. Situated in adult education theory and practice, this framework offers simple skills that can help us tap into our spiritual capacities and develop our inner spiritual guide, providing an opportunity for a spiritually guided life in collaboration with what we call Spirit, or the hidden intelligence of the universe. This has the capacity to affect the outcome of our choices, actions and relationships, transforming our personal and professional life, and providing a qualitative difference in the world. On a systemic level, it can provide a useful platform for developing new and sustainable ecological, economic and social structures. Key Words: Adult education, spiritual epistemology, embodied spirituality, conceptualizing spirituality, teaching spirituality, inner knowing, spiritual knowing, spirituality and nature. ***** 1. Gratitude: Four Dimensions of an Enhanced Spiritual Experience Think of something that happened to you today for which you are grateful, a person whose presence in your life fills you with gratitude, or a capacity of yours that you love to express in the world. We all count our blessings at different moments in our daily life! Let’s take such a moment of gratitude, amplify it, look at it through a magnifying glass, and explore its potential as a spiritual experience. Allow yourself to fully focus on that for which you are grateful. You may say thank you in your heart repeatedly, allowing your gratitude to fill your senses and feelings. Take a moment to experience: what does it feel like to fully experience gratitude? From my experience, responses may range from a feeling of joy or inspiration, to a sense of warmth or calmness, or the experience of grace or faith, to name just a few. Whatever the feelings present in a moment of gratitude, if you really allow yourself to experience gratitude, it is an experience that has the potential to transport you out of the ordinary and into the realm of the sublime. As you observe your experience, you will note an expansion of consciousness that occurs when

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__________________________________________________________________ you open up to experiencing the sublime. In addition, while gratitude itself has its unique felt sense, if you keep observing the experience, you may discover the presence of additional layers of feelings and sensations, such as those I have mentioned. Noting these has the potential to enhance your experience, and thus amplify your experience, the experience of spiritual expansion. My experience has been that when consciousness is expanded, we open up to insight and wisdom, to guidance from Spirit, the hidden creative intelligence of the universe, or however you may choose to call the Divine within and around us. Staying further with the experience of spiritual expansion, you are likely to gain some new insight regarding the timing of graceful events in your life, or you may have an intuitive sense concerning the meaningful person to whom you are grateful. These are different forms of spiritual guidance. Now, if your experience of gratitude was especially potent and you gained significant insight into your experience, you may choose to act upon it and repeat the activity that happened today for which you are grateful; you may choose to contact the person who is so meaningful to you and thank them for their presence in your life; or you may choose to express yourself more fully in the world as a result of having recognized that with which you are gifted. This is action that is imbued with a sense of Spirit. Such action that follows through on insight and inner guidance enhances a spiritual experience and the felt connection to the Divine. This is the experience of spiritual action. Repeated spiritual experiences of expansion, followed by inner guidance, and action based on this guidance, strengthen our trust and faith that there is a hidden intelligence that creates and sustains the universe. It is an inner knowing that the Divine, or Spirit, exists and is in relationship and constant communication with us. It is the experience of spiritual confidence. As we gain spiritual confidence, we become motivated to continue our spiritual development through cycles of expansion, guidance and action in the world. The above is a simple exercise of counting our blessings, something we have all done many times in our life. It can become a practical and readily available process for creating intentional spiritual experiences in daily life, and for living a spiritually guided life. 2. Everyday Spirituality There is a hidden intelligence of endless potential and creativity from which everything originates. Many names have been given to this unfathomable force: God, Goddess, Allah, Yehovah, Great Spirit, The Source, The Eternal Light, Higher Power, and many more. Whatever the name used, there is an overall understanding that there is an intelligent and creative force that creates, sustains and destroys everything in our universe.

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__________________________________________________________________ While this hidden intelligence is unfathomable, we experience its presence as The Sacred and The Divine within ourselves and everything around us. This presence is revealed to us repeatedly in our daily lives: When we experience a sense of peace and wholeness triggered by a walk in nature; the scent of fresh herbs or the earth after the rain; being washed with love and warmth from the look or touch of a child, or being nurtured by someone; a feeling of gratitude while cooking a wholesome meal for ourselves or others; a sense of truth and clarity when we feel we are in the right place at the right time, doing the right thing; experiencing elation during creative expression; or a sense of inner joy and contentment when our life is filled with purpose that serves a higher good. During these moments we enter the holy realm of the Divine, of Spirit.1 We have access to such experiences with any activity with which we engage, be it a special once-in-a-lifetime event, or a seemingly mundane activity in our everyday life. Regardless of our social and cultural background or religious inclination, we have the innate capacity to experience The Sacred and The Divine. It is our birthright! I believe that the time has come for spiritual experiences to be claimed by many, rather than being reserved only for the devout religious person, or the rare mystic. For that to happen, we must study spiritual experiences, so that we might better understand their subtleties and inner workings. The knowledge we gain can be shared with all, serving to better our personal and collective journey on this planet. 3. Studying Spiritual Experiences Ten years ago, I attended a workshop with one of the co-founders of the Findhorn Foundation, a spiritual ecological community and educational centre in Northern Scotland. The workshop focused on developing an unmediated relationship with a personal God or Spirit: a relationship of love, inspiration and guidance based on the belief that each one of us can have direct unmediated contact with the Divine by attuning to the subtle inner dimensions of our being. This notion of an intimate and accessible God opened my mind up to a new perception and experience of the Divine, and to a tangible way for accessing the spiritual realm. Following this experience, I began studying my own meditation practice. At the time, I was in the process of completing my doctoral degree in transformative learning and decided to focus my dissertation on spiritual knowing. I analysed the experience of eight adults, seven women and one man, as they engaged in an adult education program that focused on developing and enhancing their capacity for

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__________________________________________________________________ spiritual knowing. The research program was conducted in a workshop format and consisted of different exercises created to facilitate spiritual experiences for the participants. The theoretical framework chosen for the study was adult education. The methodological approach was a qualitative instrumental case study, situated in the Participatory Research Paradigm formulated by John Heron and Peter Reason.2 Participants were recruited through purposeful snowball and network sampling; those who were chosen had an interest in the topic of spirituality and a desire to develop their inner spiritual life. Religious affiliation was not a factor in choosing participants, as the study focused on a secular, non-denominational spirituality. After analysing participants’ experience, I proposed a spiritual epistemology consisting of four ways of knowing that are of a spiritual nature: expansive knowing, guided knowing, active knowing, and faith-filled knowing. These four offer a practical approach to developing our capacity to know when we are having spiritual experiences. They provide a framework for creating intentional spiritual experiences, living a spiritually guided life, and thus, a more meaningful, rich and conscious spiritual existence. The process of studying my personal spiritual experiences, along with my doctoral research and work with others, helped surface these subtle dynamics of spiritual experiences, allowing for this spiritual epistemology to emerge. 4. Expansive Knowing Spiritual experiences evoke a sense of expansion, where we may feel that our being expands beyond our habitual sense of self. We may experience clarity of mind as we are able to see a larger picture of a given situation, and we may experience our life as being filled with a deep sense of meaning and a higher purpose. These are all moments of expansion of our consciousness beyond our regular state of mind. According to Michael Newman, consciousness is: … the experience of existence. We develop our consciousness in the continual encounter between our self and the social and material world . . . consciousness is all encompassing, infinite. It is literally all we have, and without it neither the self nor the world exists. Expanded consciousness describes a heightened form of consciousness in which we feel and we think and we do with clarity and intensity.3 ‘Recognizing that one is in a spiritual state can be defined as having the ability to identify the conditions that evoke an expanded state of consciousness, as well as the ability to recognize sensations, feelings, and thoughts that are associated with such an expanded state.’4 The more we are able to identify the conditions that bring

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__________________________________________________________________ about such a state, the more we develop our capacity for expansive knowing, and the easier it becomes to access and shift into such a state of mind and being. 5. Guided Knowing As we expand our consciousness: The refinement of the senses increases our ability to experience the complexities and subtleties of our situation within our environment and to make conscious our feelings–which provides the opportunity for revised meaning making.5 One such meaning making may be a sense of knowing that we are in an expanded state of consciousness. Guided knowing is meaning making that occurs when our consciousness is raised, or expanded. It is when we gain insight from a higher place within ourselves regarding life situations. When our consciousness is expanded, we literally gain access to a larger picture of the whole. This enables us to understand the complexity of a given situation, and we may gain insight into the simplicity of the solution. When our consciousness is expanded we connect to the good in life, and are drawn to solutions that benefit all those who are involved. Such guided knowing may come in the form of an intuitive flash, creative inspiration, synchronicity of events, or a sense of inner conviction, to name a few. Inner guidance becomes a way of life for ‘those who are aware of their own state of consciousness and who are alert to thoughts, images, metaphors, analogies, physical sensations, and other experiences associated with altered states of consciousness.’6 6. Active Knowing Once we have received inner guidance in the form of insight or inspiration, the next step is to act upon this guidance so that our actions are imbued with spiritual qualities. This is how we infuse our choices, actions and relationships with qualities of sacredness, acknowledging our own divinity, and that of everyone and everything in our world. Active knowing, ‘the experience of acting from an inner spiritual knowing’, may feel, for example, like ‘flowing with the elements’ and a sense of ‘everything is going my way’ or, alternatively, a strong sense of inner conviction in spite of contrary, external, logical reasoning.’7 An action that is imbued with a sense of Spirit may also involve changing our attitude towards a certain situation and seeing the opportunity given in a seemingly challenging situation. However small or big the action, if it is filled with spiritual intention and the insight or inspiration we received while in an expanded state of consciousness, it is imbued with a knowing that we are in the right place, at the right time, doing and saying the right thing.

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__________________________________________________________________ 7. Faith-Filled Knowing Carl Jung was asked in an interview for the BBC in 1959 whether he believed in God when he was a child, to which he responded, ‘Oh, yes!’ He was then asked whether he believed in God now that he was eighty-four years old. After some thought Jung answered: ‘Now? (pause) Difficult to answer. I know. I needn’t, I don’t need to believe. I know.’8 This kind of faith-filled knowing comes with life experience and the building of faith over time: faith that is developed through consciously and intentionally living a spiritually guided life, and faith that comes from personal evidence as a result of many spiritual experiences. It is an inner knowing that what we may call Spirit does exist in some form, and is in a constant relationship of guidance and collaboration with us and the world around us. This relationship manifests through events in our life, people with whom we are in relationship, projects with which we engage, and our relationship with the natural world. 8. The Value of a Spiritual Epistemology, Personally and Professionally The spiritual epistemology presented in this paper provides a framework for understanding spiritual experiences, and a roadmap for creating conditions for intentional spiritual experiences. These four ways of spiritual knowing can be used in a cyclical and sequential manner, whereby each one informs the next in the order in which they were presented: expansive knowing prepares the ground for guided knowing, which informs active knowing, which develops faith-filled knowing, which in turn fuels additional cycles of developing our spiritual knowing. With practice, we become aware of more and more subtleties of spiritual experiences, as we keep developing our capacity for spiritual knowing and living a spiritually guided life. Zohar and Marshall speak of ‘a specifically human longing . . . for something that takes us beyond ourselves.’9 I believe we all long for something greater than our material world, something that allows us to soar and express our full potential as human beings. It is that longing that nurtures spiritual development. Elizabeth Tisdell suggests that ‘spiritual development constitutes moving toward greater authenticity.’10 This suggests connecting to more and more aspects of ourselves, and expanding our consciousness as we keep expanding as human beings. There is also great value in a spiritual epistemology on a systemic, sociocultural, level: We live in challenging times of financial and ecological crisis, of material overload and spiritual void, where our political structures are often stuck in the very paradigms that have created our current situation. In such times, a spiritually guided approach could open up new and creative solutions that would propel us towards more sustainable and wholistic ways of living together

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__________________________________________________________________ and in collaboration with Nature. In addition, connecting to The Divine within and living a spiritually guided life could bring renewed depth and meaning into our lives and communities.11 What could this lead to? Imagine an executive business meeting that begins with each person choosing a meaningful quality they would like to practice during the meeting; an environmental policy summit that starts with a hike in the wilderness; or a public school teacher starting the day with a meditation where she envisions her students as beautiful souls who are longing to be seen and valued. You can imagine the qualitative shift in such sessions, the expansion of everyone’s consciousness, the enjoyable work and study environment, and the inspired and creative solutions to problems and challenges. The world might not be ready for some of these practices, but we need to keep striving to make them accessible to all, in order to save our children, our humanity, and our planet.

Notes 1

Anna Gatmon, ‘Creating Intentional Spiritual Experiences: The Towards Wholeness Approach,’ Somatics: Magazine Journal of the Mind/Body Arts and Sciences, 17,1. (2013): 22. 2 John Heron and Peter Reason, ‘A Participatory Inquiry Paradigm,’ Qualitative Inquiry, 3(3), (1997): 274-294. 3 Michael Newman, ‘Calling Transformative Learning into Question: Some Mutinous Thoughts,’ Adult Education Quarterly, 62(1), (2010): 42-43 Doi: 10.1177/0741713610392768. 4 Anna Gatmon, ‘Education towards Wholeness: Developing Spiritual Knowing in Adult Learners,’ (Doctoral dissertation, 2012), Accessed September 27, 2012, http://gradworks.umi.com/3508072.pdf, 211-212. 5 Chad Hoggan, Soni Simpson, and Heather Stuckey, ‘Transformative Learning, Multiple Ways of Knowing, and Creativity Theory in Progress,’ in Creative Expression in Transformative Learning: Tools and Techniques for Educators of Adults, eds. Chad Hoggan, Soni Simpson, and Heather Stuckey (Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 2009), 24. 6 Dorothy MacKeracher, Making Sense of Adult Learning, 2nd ed., (Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 178. 7 Gatmon, ‘Education towards Wholeness,’ 213. 8 Gatmon, ‘Creating Intentional Spiritual Experiences,’ 24. 9 Dana Zohar and Ian Marshall, Spiritual Intelligence: The Ultimate Intelligence, (New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2000), 4. 10 Elizabeth J. Tisdell, Exploring Spirituality and Culture in Adult and High Education (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2003), 29.

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Gatmon, ‘Creating Intentional Spiritual Experiences,’ 25.

Bibliography Heron, John, and Peter Reason. ‘A Participatory Inquiry Paradigm.’ Qualitative Inquiry, 3(3), (1997): 274-294. Hoggan, Chad, Soni Simpson, and Heather Stuckey. ‘Transformative Learning, Multiple Ways of Knowing, and Creativity Theory in Progress.’ In Creative Expression in Transformative Learning: Tools and Techniques for Educators of Adults, edited by Chad Hoggan, Soni Simpson, and Heather Stuckey, 7-28. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 2009. Gatmon, Anna. ‘Creating Intentional Spiritual Experiences: The Towards Wholeness Approach.’ Somatics: Magazine Journal of the Mind/Body Arts and Sciences, 17,1. (2013): 22-26. Gatmon, Anna. ’Education towards Wholeness: Facilitating Spiritual Knowing in Adult Learners’ (Doctoral dissertation, 2012), Accessed September 27, 2012, http://gradworks.umi.com/3508072.pdf Jung, Carl, ‘I Know God Exists,’ Interview on BBC television, 1959. You Tube. Accessed January 16, 2013, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WJ25Ai__FYU. MacKeracher, Dorothy. Making Sense of Adult Learning, 2nd ed., Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto Press, 2004. Newman, Michael. ‘Calling Transformative Learning into Question: Some Mutinous Thoughts.’ Adult Education Quarterly, 62(1), (2010): 36-55, Doi: 10.1177/0741713610392768. Tisdell, Elizabeth J. Exploring Spirituality and Culture in Adult and High Education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 2003. Zohar, Dana, and Ian Marshall. Spiritual Intelligence: The Ultimate Intelligence. New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2000. Anna Gatmon, Ph.D. is an educator with over 15 years of experience in Transformative Learning, group facilitation, and individual counceling. Anna’s

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__________________________________________________________________ workshops and private sessions focus on facilitating spiriutal experiences and developing inner knowing. Her diverse background includes a succesful career as a fashion model in Europe and the USA, founding an alternative elementary school based on an original wholistic educational model, and homeschooling her two sons. She is co-founder of Innovationship, a consultancy based in Silicon Valley that teaches innovation leadership through design thinking. She is currently working on a book focused on developing the spiritual guide within.

Inside Story: Spiritual Transformations of Malaysian-Chinese Buddhist Pilgrim Sandra Ng Siow San Abstract Before his passing, the honourable teacher of Buddhism, Buddha Sakyamuni taught his disciples the importance of the four main pilgrimage destinations – the birthplace, the enlightenment place, the first sermon and his final resting place – and advised his disciples to visit them for spiritual encouragement. That being said, the inward pilgrimage of a Buddhist is through introspection and the discovery of one’s inner nature. The idea of travelling to a sacred place is parallel to life in the case of a Buddhist, when the pilgrim’s ‘personal experience becomes an integral component of understanding or “testing” Buddhist teaching.’1 From the Buddhist perspective, the life journey is a pilgrimage. This is observable through the pilgrimage experiences of Buddhists from Malaysia and Singapore, who are of ethnic Chinese background. Such experiences are potentially transformative in relation to their religious and/or spiritual wellbeing. For the purpose of this essay, I will privilege selected narratives out of a total of 27 in-depth, semi-structured, face-to-face, audio-recorded interviews that were conducted as a method of data gathering for my postgraduate research project. Through selected narratives, I will illustrate expressions of spirituality (as compared to religiosity), as well as the sense of becoming spiritual of these Buddhist pilgrims, which are externalised through devotional acts and practices such as pilgrimages. This essay aims to contribute to an under-researched scholarship pertaining to pilgrimages in the Buddhist traditions, and the understanding of religiosity and/or spirituality of Malaysian-Chinese Buddhists. Keywords: Pilgrim, Pilgrimage, Spirituality, Spiritual Pilgrimage, Buddhist Pilgrimage, Malaysian-Chinese, Malaysian Buddhist. ***** 1. Research Aim Personal experiences and observations from going on various Buddhist pilgrimages have inspired this qualitative research that aims to analyse religiosity and/or spirituality of Buddhist pilgrims from Malaysia and Singapore, who are of ethnic Chinese background. This paper illustrates expressions of spirituality and sense of becoming spiritual that are externalised through pilgrimages, thereby rethinking meanings and constructions of pilgrimages through selected narratives that are part of my postgraduate research, which hopes to deepen understanding of religiosity and/or spirituality of Malaysian and Singaporean Chinese Buddhists,

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__________________________________________________________________ which is under-researched, and to offer insights within and outside the groves of academe. 2. Theoretical Framework Pilgrimage is ‘a journey both outwards, to new, strange, dangerous places, and inwards, to spiritual improvement, whether through increased self-knowledge or through the braving of physical dangers.’2 According to Leeming and Odajynk, it involves ‘three essential steps’ starting with ‘a significant separation of the pilgrim from home and ordinary life and the journey to a sacred centre [where] separation can be signified by particular clothes, rituals or any consciously unusual behaviour with interaction with the sacred that involves certain ritual acts and the return which is always marked by a sense of renewal.’ 3 The journey disengages the pilgrim temporary from everyday life to enter a realm of sacredness, to experience calmness and contentment. In doing so, the pilgrim practices, experiences, and expresses his/her religiosity and/or and spirituality. I posit a parallelism in ‘doing gender’4 and in doing pilgrimage. West and Zimmerman state that ‘doing gender is unavoidable’ because the ‘sex-category membership: the allocation of power and resources’ involving social, economic and political power to persons.’ 5 Both categories of ‘gender’ and ‘pilgrimage’ seem to be naturalised but are in fact, constructs: the processes in doing pilgrimage seems naturalised because the processes usually begin from one’s religious affiliation that are thus taken unquestioningly. These inform my analyses regarding the ways pilgrims deconstruct and reconstruct meanings of pilgrimage that in turn influences ways they do pilgrimage. 3. Method and Methodology This research employs an inductive method of inquiry to generate theories from the data gathered. Prior to fieldwork, ethics clearance was sought from the Monash University Humans Research Ethics Committee, MUHREC, 6 to enable me to conduct this low-risk, non-financial incentive project. A total of 27 in-depth, semistructured, face-to-face, and audio-recorded interviews were conducted as a method of data gathering; I will privilege selected narratives for this conference paper. All the interviews were transcribed, and every quotation analysed and coded.7 The coding processes included the assistance of ATLAS.ti, a ComputerAssisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software, CAQDAS, for data analyses. Transcribing, coding, and analyses have been vital in grounding my findings through participants’ narratives and presenting them faithfully in my dissertation. 4. Literature Review Pilgrimage, one of the earliest and non-economic forms of travel in search of the sacred and holy8 is recognised synonymous with ‘religious tourism.’9 Besides religious connotations and motivations, this form of travel often brings positive

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__________________________________________________________________ feelings and experiences,10 as such are reconsidered through the lenses of tourism because of its characteristics that have transformed as a consequence of, for instance, globalisation and technological advancements.11 Due to the secularising of religious traditions and practices, pilgrimages have undergone reinterpretations that are not limited to piety in religious sense. A pilgrim’s travel can be motivated out of religion, gender, culture, heritage, nationality, spirituality, memorial sites, or within cyberspace.12 Present day types of pilgrimage are varied: ‘volunteer tourism’13 is comparable to backpacking because of the unstructured and free-spirited behaviour. ‘Heritage tourism,’ 14 which refers to ‘the present-day use of the past’ 15 that benefits and becomes meaningful to the personal, local, and international.16 It is also perceived as ‘cultural tourism’ 17 because of the cultural meanings and emotions travellers may experience. Timothy and Boyd view ‘heritage tourism’ 18 as pilgrimage or religious tourism because the routes and places have gained recognition over time. Whilst ‘thanatourism’ or ‘dark tourism’ refers to the act of travelling to places where deaths and disasters have occurred 19 Also, ‘spiritual tourism,’ as Singh states, ‘is a broad term that includes travellers with many different backgrounds, motivations, and interests, travelling to destinations that have some sort of religious import.’20 This is a growing market as individuals are increasingly interested in personal growth, unconventional, and non-institutional spiritual thinking and practice such as the ‘new age’21 travel. In considering both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations, Morinis identifies six types of pilgrimages: devotional, healing, ritual/life cycle, obligatory, wandering, and transformational. 22 The first four types suggest, somewhat, structured and pious motivations in doing pilgrimage. The last two, however, suggest lessening of structure and are observable in my research findings, though I will focus on the sixth type in this paper: a ‘transformational pilgrimage,’ which, according to Morinis has ‘specific and intentional purpose of transforming the self-state of the pilgrim.’ 23 The distinguishing characteristics of traditional and contemporary pilgrimages, and the six types of pilgrimages overlap one another. So are the developments involved that encourage transformations in the typologies of pilgrimages. Experiences of a pilgrim, regardless of motivations and yearnings to go on a pilgrimage, have nonetheless been profound and advantageous for their spiritual development and wellbeing.24 Therefore, pilgrimages today may not be carried out solely for extrinsic factors motivated by commercial, social, cultural, political, or religious influences. The motivations are well driven by the individual’s intrinsic interest in volunteering, spirituality, education, activism, religiosity, seeking for one’s roots, or visiting places with memorable events. Historical and social changes have influenced the developments of the typologies of travelling or pilgrimages. With globalisation and modernity, in addition to geographical distances being lessened because of technological advancements and general improvements in people’s lifestyles, the

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__________________________________________________________________ differences between pilgrims and tourists are becoming less apparent. In the following discussions, I analyse narratives of two Malaysian-Chinese Buddhists25 that I categorised according to meanings and characteristics of the way they do pilgrimages: The Camper and The Intellect. A. The Camper EmptyRiceBowl 26 a 28-year old Zen Buddhist life coach recalls all the pilgrimages he has performed so far. Interestingly though, he speaks of the first novitiate he participated in at the Seck Kia Eenh Buddhist Temple at Malacca.27 He says: One of the pilgrimage[s] that is full on Buddhist was the novitiate program. I was a monk for two weeks [laughs]. It just ends up in Malacca, we went to Seck Kia Eenh. You get to experience how to be a monk and … You would practice meditation everyday. And the pilgrimage is the same thing, you practice meditation. We did a puja,28 a chanting for … prayers for people who were in need. It was around a sacred tree, a bodhi tree29 which is quite old [P2: EmptyRiceBowl.txt - 2:9 (56:71)].30 EmptyRiceBowl associates his novitiate experience as a pilgrimage before describing other experiences of pilgrimages. During the novitiate, he experienced a monastic lifestyle by observing ten precepts,31 shaving off his hair and donning the Buddhist robe ‘that is full on Buddhist.’ Everyday at the novitiate, EmptyRiceBowl cultivated as part of the monastic community32 such as waking up before sunrise, meditating, and engaging in communal chanting and talks. Accordingly, EmptyRiceBowl deems ‘a pilgrimage is the same thing, you practice,’ amongst others, ‘meditation and breathing that is a very serious way to really still the mind back to the neutral place so that you can decide anew to follow the way of love or the way of fear,’ journalling ‘because sometimes it’s very difficult to contemplate when your thoughts are not still but when you put it on paper, it doesn’t move,’ chanting or praying ‘and if you really put your heart into it, you create a vibrational feel, it’s real, and it’s just as simple as how you feel when you sing, you actually feel your vocal chords vibrating and creating … a kind of tremor in your nervous system and that’s very nice’, mentioned elsewhere. While EmptyRiceBowl recognises his novitiate practices and experiences as being on par with going on pilgrimage, some pilgrims hold different opinions; I will exemplify this distinction next. One of my participants, Dhammaduta 33 mentioned that he participated in a novitiate at the age of 17. He delineates that ‘a novitiate is not a pilgrimage.’ The former is ‘to experience the life of a member of the Sangha;’ this similar characteristic is expressed in EmptyRiceBowl’s interview excerpt. However, while

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__________________________________________________________________ EmptyRiceBowl recognises a novitiate as one way to do pilgrimage, Dhammaduta holds a different opinion. A novitiate separates the individual from his/her daily commitments to observe a set of precepts in pursuing one’s spiritual training. This is akin to the classic structure of a pilgrimage in that it entails disengaging from one’s daily commitments to go away from home for religious and/or spiritual purposes, and return with a sense of renewal.34 Additionally, Dhammaduta ascribes a novitiate as where the individual ‘gives up the things that one will normally do as a layperson, to spend time on spiritual cultivation. If one goes under a skilful teacher, it can be a very fulfilling experience.’ EmptyRiceBowl went through the novitiate and consider that a pilgrimage, not only because of a separation, initiation, or a sense of awakening, but also the return and renewal that he experienced. 35 The underlying difference in their perspectives is the way each interprets, adopts, and, expresses his religiosity and spirituality that in turn influences the deconstructions and reinterpretations of meanings and ways the individual could perform and experience pilgrimage. So, why is there a need to go on a physical pilgrimage? I draw from EmptyRiceBowl, a moderate traveller to elucidate this. His other destinations included Bali, Cambodia, Egypt, and India. Yet, he maintains that it is not compulsory to go from one place to another to do pilgrimage. He explains: If you understand the true meaning of pilgrimage, you don’t have to travel [holds]. Because a pilgrimage is really right here, right now. You’re really just sitting still and claiming your spirit back. That’s all you’re doing really. If you understand the real Buddhist teachings as well, I mean, it’s … there’s no form. Form is emptiness, emptiness is form; it’s such a clichéd line in the Buddhist community. And I’m so sick of it but it’s true It’s not about travelling. But sometimes, as human beings of the flesh and blood, when mistakes happen, and it’s not ideal. Life is never ideal … You need to go through a pilgrimage. But the real meaning, if you really understand, you can claim it back right here, right now, with every breath. You’re always in a pilgrimage, you never left it [P 2: EmptyRiceBowl.txt - 2:39 (363:396), 2:40 (397:411)]. ‘Life is never ideal,’ says the Zen Buddhist life coach, EmptyRiceBowl. The four significant encounters – the aged, the ill, the departed, and the recluse – witnessed by Buddha Sakyamuni ‘is not so much that a quest beckons, to which [he] responds, but rather that life “throws” him onto the path of separation/alienation after being hit with a loss of the wholeness that formerly confirmed one’s sense of self.’36 Siddhartha Gotama37 realises that while living in a world that is seemingly perfect, the limitations of life are inevitable and evident.

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__________________________________________________________________ This realisation was phenomenal insofar as he decidedly surrendered all comforts and luxuries he possessed to go in search for answers to the impermanence, dissatisfactions, and limitations in life. Through years of rigorous practice, he did not discover any sort of magic that promises perfections in life, instead, Siddhartha finally learns the wisdom in practising moderation and realises that the nagging displeasures in life experienced by individuals are consequential to perceptions and discriminative assessments that arise from within us. 38 This resonates with EmptyRiceBowl’s narrative that: ‘sometimes, as human beings of the flesh and blood … You need to go through a pilgrimage ‘in order to realise one’s personal quest and meanings in life.’ Although, ‘the experiential framework may be grief, loss, sorrow, or devastation, for such a potential pilgrim, the journey is not primarily about fixing the pain or moving the grief along, but encountering the transformational power of the sacred in the midst of what is being lived.’ 39 Growing up in a protected environment, the four significant encounters are thus rude awakenings that in turn motivated a transformational journey for Siddhartha Gotama; he had no better way than to find out for himself. Likewise, EmptyRiceBowl emphasises elsewhere in the interview that ‘the Buddha himself has said don’t believe everything that I say, experience it for yourself, you are a buddha, the difference between you and I is that I’m awaken, you are not.’ The quintessence of Buddhist teachings is not to be assumed and presumed, rather, it requires the individual to reflect, contemplate, and meditate so to arrive at one’s own insights. EmptyRiceBowl, just as the Buddha did, realises ‘the true meaning of pilgrimage is that you don’t have to travel. Because a pilgrimage is really right here, right now. You’re really just sitting still and claiming your spirit back. You’re always in a pilgrimage, you never left it.’ The purposeful journey is thus paralleled to the way one lives life. It provides opportunities to help the individual understand, appreciate, and be mindful of living in the present ‘right here, right now,’ which EmptyRiceBowl reiterates. For example, to heal from a past relationship that has been damaging, to rediscover one’s passion in life, or understanding the profoundly abstract, yet true teaching that ‘form is emptiness, emptiness is form,’ which can only to be realised through none other than sincere practice. The pilgrimage, regardless of the way it is done, thus becomes a ground for transformative practise and learning. B. The Intellect Atisha, a 60-year old Malaysian has been to India many times for business and once for pilgrimage. He associates his first meeting with His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama, and reading Buddhist texts and writings as pilgrimage also. In fact, Atisha places significant emphasis on intellectual knowledge as he confesses elsewhere in the interview that ‘he would prefer to read the latest book His Holiness has written and try to understand it rather than to go attend a pilgrimage.’ Atisha’s passion for knowledge motivates his enthusiasm in reading Buddhist texts

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__________________________________________________________________ and writings because ‘before we can realise what the Buddha actually taught he thinks a good foundation in the knowledge of what the Buddha taught is very important.’ Reading, moreover, informs the way he practises his faith, and the way he considers and performs pilgrimages; he refers to this as internal pilgrimage or mental pilgrimage. Although Atisha has not been to Lumbini and Kushinagar, the Buddha’s place of birth and death, he articulates some places that are special and significant to Buddhists with admirable ease, demonstrating that ‘a pilgrimage is a manifestation of all that he has read.’ He says: One is the external pilgrimage, the actual physical visit to the four holy places. Some say eight if you include Vesali, Nalanda [and others]. The other one is the internal pilgrimage. How does one go to the pilgrimage itself. For example, look at the four holy sites. Lumbini is a place where the Buddha was born. So, we reflect on what the Buddha talks about this precious human birth. Birth itself, you know. With birth there’s old age, sickness, death. It’s a natural phenomenon. Then one talks about Bodhgaya, a place where the Buddha became enlightened. So that gives us that faith, that confidence, that despite the fragility of this precious human birth, one is able to attain enlightenment itself in this very life. Maybe not the Samyaksambuddha [chuckles], but definitely different levels of enlightenment. When one thinks about Sarnath where the Buddha preached his first sermon, my internal pilgrimage is … because of the wonderful dharma that one has learnt, one should always share it with as many sentient beings as possible. So in the process, we develop the bodhicitta, the altruistic mind. And finally when all is done, there’s Kushinara. That’s the final passing away and you have a mental image of the Buddha passing away. It’s calm, it’s serene. It’s not one of distress, it’s not one of fear, it’s not one of panic. So, we look at these four holy sites and we internalise it. To me … I look at it as an internal pilgrimage. If I get a chance to go to those site physically and touch the ground, that’s wonderful. P 5: Atisha.txt - 5:29 (482:516). The above excerpt is unique in the way it chronicles the ‘storied places … that reach back into the collective memory of the people who dwell there,’40 in this case it refers to the Buddha. Each place is attached with a simple yet profound meaning to it. Out of the ‘four holy place’ mentioned, Atisha has only visited two of them:

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__________________________________________________________________ Bodhgaya and Sarnath. Interestingly as the narrative demonstrates, it is not readily distinguishable whether Atisha is drawing experiences from an external pilgrimage or an internal pilgrimage. The former refers to ‘the actual physical visit to the four holy places’ and the latter is ‘how does one go to the pilgrimage itself’ insomuch as it demonstrates Atisha’s way of doing pilgrimage ‘becomes an integral component of understanding or “testing” Buddhist teaching.’41 By ‘reflecting on what the Buddha talks about this precious human birth …. With birth there’s old age, sickness, death’, that is but ‘a natural phenomenon,’ though not easily accepted. That said, ‘despite the fragility of this precious human birth, one can have faith and confidence that one is able to attain enlightenment itself in this very life.’ And ‘because of the wonderful dharma that one has learnt, one should always share it with as many sentient beings as possible so to develop the bodhicitta, the altruistic mind.’ ‘Finally when all is done, there’s Kushinara,’ the place that reminds the pilgrim of ‘the final passing away and one has a mental image of the Buddha passing away. It’s calm, it’s serene. It’s not one of distress, it’s not one of fear, it’s not one of panic.’ ‘The longest journey,’ therefore, ‘is the journey inward … Wrestling with painful realities and injustices, and resisting the urge to be satisfied with the way our life is, or the way the world is, is at the heart of spiritual growth.’42 Conclusion One characteristic that differentiates traditionally structured pilgrimages from personalised, individualised, and less structured pilgrimages is that the former emphasises being at physical sacred spaces for the purpose of doing pilgrimage whereas the latter emphasises doing pilgrimage regardless of location. Although it seems the way Buddhists could do pilgrimage is scripted and thus naturalised but are in fact, constructs. The yearning and motivation to connect with and express one’s faith are not reduced by the way the individual does this purposeful journey. This is why research on pilgrimages or Buddhist studies requires deeper understanding of how individuals experience their pilgrimages faith and look for new ways to appreciate spiritual and/or religious expressions in doing pilgrimages.

Notes 1

Michael C. Hall, 'Buddhism, Tourism and the Middle Way,' Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, ed. Dallen J. Timothy and Daniel H. Olsen (Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2006), 173, viewed 19 August 2012, http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/. 2 Richard Barber, Pilgrimages (Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1991), 1.

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David Leeming and Walter Odajnyk, ‘Announcement and Call for Articles: The Blanton-Peale “Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion”,’ with Sample Articles on Pilgrimage and Angels,’ Journal of Religion 40.2 (2001): 269, viewed 28 September 2012, http://www.springerlink.com/. 4 Candace West and Don H. Zimmerman, ‘Doing Gender,’ The Social Construction of Gender, eds. Judith L. Lorber and Susan A. Farrell (Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991), 62-74. 5 Ibid., 71. 6 Ethics clearance for this research was approved by the Monash University Human Research Ethics Committee (MUHREC) and project number is CF13/1242013000043. 7 A code is the smallest unit of meaning and will help generate themes that will formulate the chapters of my dissertation. 8 I draw from the scholarship of Antoni Jackowski and Valene L. Smith, ‘Polish Pilgrim-Tourists,’ Annals of Tourism Research 19.1 (1992): 92-106, viewed 5 September 2012, http://www.sciencedirect.com/; Gisbert Rinschede, ‘Forms of Religious Tourism,’ Annals of Tourism Research 19.1 (1992): 51-67, viewed 5 September 2012, http://www.sciencedirect.com/; Vasanti Gupta, ‘Sustainable Tourism: Learning from Indian Religious Traditions,’ International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 11.2 (1999): 91-95, viewed 11 September 2012, http://www.emeraldinsight.com/; Ian Reader, ‘Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World: Meanings and Implications,’ Religion 37.3 (2007): 210-229, viewed 28 September 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Pimmada Wichasin, ‘Stūpa Worship: The Early Form of Tai Religious Tourism,’ Contemporary Buddhism 10.1 (2009): 185-191, viewed 28 March 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/. 9 I draw from the scholarship of Jackowski and Smith, ‘Polish Pilgrim-Tourists,’ 92-106; Rinschede, ‘Forms of Religious Tourism,’ 51–67; Valene L. Smith, ‘Introduction: The Quest in Guest,’ Annals of Tourism Research 19.1 (1992): 1-17, viewed 11 September 2012, http://www.sciencedirect.com/; Dallen J. Timothy and Daniel H. Olsen, eds. Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys. Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2006, viewed 29 August 2012, http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/; Dallen J. Timothy and Stephen W. Boyd, ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century: Valued Traditions and New Perspectives,’ Journal of Heritage Tourism 1.1 (2006): 1-16, viewed 5 September 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Wichasin, ‘Stūpa Worship,’ 185191; Noga Collins-Kreiner, ‘Researching Pilgrimage: Continuity and Transformations,’ Annals of Tourism Research 37.2 (2010): 440-456, viewed 25 September 2012, http://www.sciencedirect.com/.

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I draw from the scholarship of Jackowski and Smith, ‘Polish Pilgrim-Tourists,’ 92-106; Rinschede, ‘Forms of Religious Tourism,’ 51-67; Smith, ‘Introduction,’ 117; Timothy and Olsen, Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys; Wichasin, ‘Stūpa Worship,’ 185-191. 11 I draw from the scholarship of Jason M. Fish and Mary Fish, ‘International Tourism and Pilgrimage: A Discussion,’ Journal of East and West Studies 22.2 (1993): 83-90, viewed 20 September 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Nancy L. Frey, Pilgrim Stories: On and off the Road to Santiago, Journeys along an Ancient Way in Modern Spain, 1st ed. (Berkeley, USA: University of California Press, 1998); Simon C. Woodward, ‘Faith and Tourism: Planning Tourism in Relation to Places of Worship,’ Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development 1.2 (2004): 173-186, viewed 20 September 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Thomas S. Bremer, ‘Tourism and Religion,’ ed. Lindsay Jones, Encyclopedia of Religion (Detroit, USA: Macmillan Reference, 2005), 9260-9264, viewed 7 September 2012, http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/; Timothy and Olsen, Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys; Siv Ellen Kraft, ‘Religion and Spirituality in Lonely Planet’s India,’ Religion 37.3 (2007): 230-242, viewed 20 September 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Reader, ‘Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World,’ 210-229; Wichasin, ‘Stūpa Worship,’ 185-191. 12 I draw from the scholarship of Smith, ‘Introduction,’ 1-17; Amy Kautz, ‘Peace Pilgrim: An American Parallel to a Buddhist Path,’ Buddhist-Christian Studies 10 (1990): 165-172, viewed 23 June 2011, http://www.jstor.org/; Hall, ‘Buddhism, Tourism and the Middle Way,’ 172-185; Pekka Mustonen, ‘Volunteer Tourism: Postmodern Pilgrimage?’, Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change 3.3 (2006): 160-177, viewed 30 June 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Timothy and Olsen, Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys; Yaniv Poria, Avital Biran, and Arie Reichel, ‘Tourist Perceptions: Personal vs. Non-Personal,’ Journal of Heritage Tourism 1.2 (2006): 121-132, viewed 5 September 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Seng Guan Yeoh, ‘Religious Pluralism, Kinship and Gender in a Pilgrimage Shrine: The Roman Catholic Feast of St. Anne in Bukit Mertajam, Malaysia,’ Material Religion 2.1 (2006): 4-37, viewed 30 June 2011, http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/; Reader, ‘Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World,’ 210-229; Bridget Blomfield, ‘Markers of the Heart: Finding Spirituality in a Bus Marked “tourist”,’ Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion 6.2 (2009): 91-105, viewed 30 June 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Gyan P. Nyaupane, ‘Heritage Complexity and Tourism: The Case of Lumbini, Nepal,’ Journal of Heritage Tourism 4.2 (2009): 157-172, viewed 26 July 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Wichasin, ‘Stūpa Worship,’ 185-191. 13 Mustonen, ‘Volunteer Tourism,’ 160-177.

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I draw from the scholarship of Poria, Biran, and Reichel, ‘Tourist Perceptions,’ 121-132; Timothy and Boyd, ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century,’ 1-16; Nyaupane, ‘Heritage Complexity and Tourism,’ 157-172. 15 Timothy and Boyd, ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century,’ 1-16. 16 I draw from the scholarship of Poria, Biran, and Reichel, ‘Tourist Perceptions,’ 121-132; Timothy and Boyd, ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century,’ 1-16; Nyaupane, ‘Heritage Complexity and Tourism,’ 157-172. 17 Timothy and Boyd, ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century,’ 1-16. 18 Ibid., 11. 19 Collins-Kreiner, ‘Researching Pilgrimage,’ 445. 20 Upinder Singh, ‘Exile and Return: The Reinvention of Buddhism and Buddhist Sites in Modern India,’ South Asian Studies 26.2 (2010): 202, viewed 30 June 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/. 21 I draw from the scholarship of Daniel H. Olsen and Dallen J. Timothy, ‘Tourism and Religious Journeys,’ Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, ed. Dallen J. Timothy and Daniel H. Olsen (Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2006), 1-21, viewed 19 August 2012, http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/; Reader, ‘Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World,’ 210-229; Collins-Kreiner, ‘Researching Pilgrimage,’ 440-456. 22 Quoted in Alan Morinis, ed. Sacred Journeys: The Anthropology of Pilgrimage (Connecticut, USA: Greenwood Press, 1992), 10. 23 Ibid., 10. 24 I draw from an article written by Peter Magnin, ‘Messengers of Light: Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims in India,’ The Unesco Courier 5, May 1995, 24-27, viewed 26 July 2012, http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/; Frey, Pilgrim Stories; Koon San Chan, Buddhist Pilgrimage, 1st ed. (Malaysia: Subang Jaya Buddhist Association, 2001); Hall, ‘Buddhism, Tourism and the Middle Way,’ 172-185; Mustonen, ‘Volunteer Tourism,’ 160-177; Olsen and Timothy, ‘Tourism and Religious Journeys,’ 1-21; Poria, Biran, and Reichel, ‘Tourist Perceptions,’,121-132; Timothy and Boyd, ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century,’ 1-16; Kraft, ‘Religion and Spirituality in Lonely Planet’s India,’ 230-242; Reader, ‘Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World,’ 210-229; Blomfield, ‘Markers of the Heart,’ 91-105; Nyaupane, ‘Heritage Complexity and Tourism,’ 157-172; William S. Schmidt, ‘Transformative Pilgrimage,’ Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health 11.1-2 (2009): 66-77, viewed 21 August 2012, http://www.tandfonline.com/; Collins-Kreiner, ‘Researching Pilgrimage,’ 440-456. 25 Malaysia is part of the Southeast Asian region, and is unique for its ethnic, cultural, and religious pluralism. According to the Department of Statistics of Malaysia, in 2010, the country demography of a population that is more than 26 million people is made of up 67.4% Bumiputera (translated as son of the soil),

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__________________________________________________________________ 24.6% Chinese, 7.3% Indian, 0.7% Others whose religious affiliations comprise of 61.3% Islam, 19.8% Buddhism, 9.2% Christianity, 6.3% Hinduism, 1.3% Confucianism, Taoism, and Tribal/Folk/Other traditional Chinese religion, 1.0% Unknown, 0.7% No religion, and 0.4% Other Religion. 26 Pseudonyms instead of real names are used in this project. 27 This is one of the fourteen states of Malaysia. 28 The term conveys the practices of bowing, chanting, and making offerings as expressions of honour and reverence. 29 The bodhi tree is where Siddhartha Gotama progressed and gained enlightenment, and is thus deemed sacred to Buddhists. 30 This is generated by ATLAS.ti, which is a Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) used for this study: “P1” refers to Primary Document 1 or interview transcript 1, followed by the preferred pseudonym of the participant, i.e. “Loke”. Finally, PD 1: quotation 15 (lines 86 to 112). 31 I refer to Anil Goonewardene, ‘Lay Person’s Morality’, in Buddhayana: Living Buddhism (London: Continuum, 2010), 147–152 to summarise the ten precepts as, to avoid: 1) harming, 2) taking, 3) unchaste conduct, 4) wrong speech, 5) intoxicated, 6) food, 7) entertainments, 8) adornments, 9) luxurious seats, and 10) dealing with money. 32 Alternatively known as Sangha. 33 P13: Dhammaduta.txt - 13:16 (288:294) (refer to Note 30). 34 Leeming and Odajnyk, ‘Announcement and Call for Articles: The Blanton-Peale “Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion”, with Sample Articles on Pilgrimage and Angels,’ 269. 35 Schmidt, ‘Transformative Pilgrimage,’ 69-71. 36 Ibid., 70. 37 This is the Buddha’s name prior to becoming an enlightened being. 38 Karen Armstrong, Buddha, 2nd ed. (London: Phoenix, 2002). 39 Schmidt, ‘Transformative Pilgrimage,’ 70. 40 Quoted in Belden C. Lane, Landscapes of the Sacred (Baltimore, USA: John Hopkins University Press, 2001), 15. This is taken from Sheryl A. KujawaHolbrook, Pilgrimage-The Sacred Art: Journey to the Center of the Heart (Vermont, USA: SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2013), 45. 41 Hall, ‘Buddhism, Tourism and the Middle Way,’ 173. 42 Quoted in Dag Hammarskjold, Markings (New York, USA: Knopf, 1970), 48. This is taken from Sheryl A. Kujawa-Holbrook, Pilgrimage-The Sacred Art: Journey to the Center of the Heart (Vermont, USA: SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2013), 45.

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Bibliography Armstrong, Karen. Buddha. 2nd ed. London: Phoenix, 2002. Barber, Richard. Pilgrimages. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell Press, 1991. Blomfield, Bridget. ‘Markers of the Heart: Finding Spirituality in a Bus Marked “tourist”.’ Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion 6.2 (2009): 91-105. Viewed 30 June 2012. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Bremer, Thomas. S. ‘Tourism and Religion.’ Encyclopedia of Religion, edited by Lindsay Jones, 9260-9264. Detroit, USA: Macmillan Reference, 2005. Viewed 7 September 2012. http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/. Chan, Koon San. Buddhist Pilgrimage. 1st ed. Malaysia: Subang Jaya Buddhist Association, 2001. Collins-Kreiner, Noga. ‘Researching Pilgrimage: Continuity and Transformations.’ Annals of Tourism Research 37.2 (2010): 440-456. Viewed 25 September 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/. Department of Statistics of Malaysia (2010) Population Distribution and Basic Demographic Characteristics 2010. Malaysia, Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Viewed 17 April 2012. http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Population/files/census2010/Tabura n_Penduduk_dan_Ciri-ciri_Asas_Demografi.pdf. Fish, Jason M. and Mary Fish. ‘International Tourism and Pilgrimage: A Discussion.’ Journal of East and West Studies 22.2 (1993): 83-90. Viewed 20 September 2011. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Frey, Nancy L. Pilgrim Stories: On and Off the Road to Santiago, Journeys along an Ancient Way in Modern Spain. 1st ed. University of California Press, 1998. Goonewardene, Anil. Buddhayana: Living Buddhism. London: Continuum, 2010. Gupta, Vasanti. ‘Sustainable Tourism: Learning from Indian Religious Traditions.’ International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 11.2 (1999): 9195. Viewed 11 September 2012. http://www.emeraldinsight.com/.

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__________________________________________________________________ Hall, Michael C. ‘Buddhism, Tourism and the Middle Way’. Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, edited by Dallen J. Timothy and Daniel H. Olsen, 172-185. Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2006. Accessed 19 August 2012. http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/. Jackowski, Antoni and Valene L. Smith. ‘Polish Pilgrim-Tourists.’ Annals of Tourism Research 19.1 (1992): 92-106. Viewed 5 September 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/. Kautz, Amy. ‘Peace Pilgrim: An American Parallel to a Buddhist Path.’ BuddhistChristian Studies 10 (1990): 165-172. Viewed 23 June 2011. http://www.jstor.org/. Kraft, Siv Ellen. ‘Religion and Spirituality in Lonely Planet’s India.’ Religion 37.3 (2007): 230-242. Viewed 20 September 2011. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Kujawa-Holbrook, Sheryl A. Pilgrimage-The Sacred Art: Journey to the Center of the Heart. Vermont, USA: SkyLight Paths Publishing, 2013. Leeming, David and Walter Odajnyk. ‘Announcement and Call for Articles: The Blanton-Peale “Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion”, with Sample Articles on Pilgrimage and Angels.’ Journal of Religion 40.2 (2001): 261-274. Viewed 28 September 2012. http://www.springerlink.com/. Magnin, Peter. ‘Messengers of Light: Chinese Buddhist Pilgrims in India.’ The Unesco Courier 5, May 1995, 24-27. Viewed 27 July 2012. http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/. Mustonen, Pekka. ‘Volunteer Tourism: Postmodern Pilgrimage?’ Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change 3.3 (2006): 160-177. Viewed 30 June 2011. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Nyaupane, Gyan P. ‘Heritage Complexity and Tourism: The Case of Lumbini, Nepal.’ Journal of Heritage Tourism 4.2 (2009): 157-172. Viewed 26 July 2012. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Olsen, Daniel H. and Dallen J. Timothy. ‘Tourism and Religious Journeys’. Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys, edited by Dallen J. Timothy and Daniel H. Olsen, 1-21. Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2006. Viewed 19 August 2012. http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/.

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__________________________________________________________________ Poria, Yaniv, Avital Biran, and Arie Reichel. ‘Tourist Perceptions: Personal vs. Non-Personal.’ Journal of Heritage Tourism 1.2 (2006): 121-132. Viewed 5 September 2012. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Reader, Ian. ‘Pilgrimage Growth in the Modern World: Meanings and Implications.’ Religion 37.3 (2007): 210-229. Viewed 28 September 2011, http://www.tandfonline.com/. Rinschede, Gisbert. ‘Forms of Religious Tourism.’ Annals of Tourism Research 19.1 (1992): 51-67. Viewed 5 September 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/. Schmidt, William S. ‘Transformative Pilgrimage.’ Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health 11.1-2 (2009): 66-77. Viewed 21 August 2012. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Singh, Upinder ‘Exile and Return: The Reinvention of Buddhism and Buddhist Sites in Modern India.’ South Asian Studies 26.2 (2010): 193-217. Viewed 30 June 2011. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Smith, Valene L. ‘Introduction: The Quest in Guest.’ Annals of Tourism Research 19.1 (1992): 1-17. Viewed 11 September 2012. http://www.sciencedirect.com/. Timothy, Dallen J. and Stephen W. Boyd. ‘Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century: Valued Traditions and New Perspectives.’ Journal of Heritage Tourism 1.1 (2006): 1-16. Viewed 5 September 2012. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Timothy, Dallen J., and Daniel H. Olsen, eds. Tourism, Religion and Spiritual Journeys. Oxon, UK: Routledge, 2006. Viewed 19 August 2012. http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/. West, Candace and Don H. Zimmerman. ‘Doing Gender.’ The Social Construction of Gender, edited by Judith L. Lorber and Susan A. Farrell, 62–74. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1991. Wichasin, Pimmada. ‘Stūpa Worship: The Early Form of Tai Religious Tourism.’ Contemporary Buddhism 10.1 (2009): 185-191. Viewed 28 March 2012. http://www.tandfonline.com/.

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__________________________________________________________________ Woodward, Simon C. ‘Faith and Tourism: Planning Tourism in Relation to Places of Worship.’ Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development 1.2 (2004): 173186. Viewed 20 September 2011. http://www.tandfonline.com/. Yeoh, Seng Guan. ‘Religious Pluralism, Kinship and Gender in a Pilgrimage Shrine: The Roman Catholic Feast of St. Anne in Bukit Mertajam, Malaysia.’ Material Religion 2.1 (2006): 4-37. Viewed 30 June 2011. http://web.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.lib.monash.edu.au/. Sandra Ng Siow San is currently pursuing a Ph.D. in Arts with the School of Arts and Social Sciences at Monash University, Malaysia under the supervision of Associate Professor Sharon A. Bong (main supervisor) and Professor Padmasiri De Silva (co-supervisor).

Part III Spirituality in Literature and Culture

Dancing with the Eternity, Dervish as Dasein Cihan Camcı Abstract In this chapter, I will interpret the Dervish as a Dasein. Firstly, I will clarify that Dasein is Heidegger’s notion of subject whose structure of existence is temporality. Dasein is involved in the temporality of his everyday life, nevertheless has a potentiality to care the meaning of this temporal life as such. I will discuss that Heidegger’s notion of temporality offers this potentiality in a special moment of vision by virtue of Dasein’s open structure of everyday temporality. Dasein lets the continuous temporalization of temporality open to him the meaning of existence as a whole. I will argue that Dervish, contrary to the traditional interpretation, dances to feel the temporality as a continuous temporalization which is the meaning of existence as a whole. In his whirling, he lets temporality open itself from itself as an endless temporalization. I will claim that Dervish comes close to the meaning of the temporal structure of existence in his transitory mood, telvin and hears the call of the temporalization of temporality beyond spatial limits. Key Words: Dervish, Dasein, Temporality, Temporalization, Telvin. ***** 1. Subjectivity as Agency: Dasein In this talk, I will interpret Dervish, a Sufi believer well known with his whirling dance, as Dasein. In the dance we discussed, one of the lines of the song runs: our course reaches to the god, Hak. I will argue that we can read Hak as the endless temporalization of temporality rather than a determined religious discourse of a particular religion. To do so, first I will discuss Heideggerian notion of subjectivity Dasein. Let us see what Dasein means. For Heidegger, Dasein is the term for subjectivity as agency. He is a living subject, busy, goal-directed and temporal. He understands how to handle life without contemplation. I live in the understanding of writing, lighting things up, walking in and out and the like. More precisely, I am – as Dasein – speaking, walking, understanding, intelligible dealings. My being in the world is nothing other than this being-in-motion (Sichbewegen) that already understands in these modes of being.1

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. In-Authentic Understanding of the Temporal Structure of the Everyday Dealings Heidegger tells us that Dasein exists and understands temporally in temporality. Let us see how Dasein’s existence and understanding lie in temporality. Dasein’s everyday life is constituted of ordinary tasks to accomplish, like cycling to work in the morning, then, dealing with the everyday activities and, at night, going home. All these activities are time consuming dealings. Dasein, as an agent, lives according to a temporal agenda. We deal with different temporal activities but do not meditate on them. The objects are tools for us to achieve our aims in our temporal directedness. They are ready to our hands and meaningful for us as smoothly functioning ecstasies of a temporal activity. We pass from one activity to the other in the rush of everyday concerns. We think, plan, and reckon with time according to our everyday concerns. We take a bus, go to work, and go home according to time intervals. We live according to, implicit or explicit, now, before, at the time, and then, after doing this. In our everyday dealings, we go for something in the right time. We care about? the succession of the right times that is taking time properly. We care about? doing things in different time intervals. We have breakfast before we go to work and attend on the meetings after we arrive at the office. We count these time intervals implicitly in order to carry out our activities. We silently think, now I will do this, before I have to finish this job, and the like. 3. Living as Counting, the Numeric Dimension of Time beyond Everyday Temporality Dasein is busy with running his course. He is involved in the rush of different time intervals. Nevertheless, beyond our agenda, temporality is not divided into different intervals. It is originally a continuous unity in itself. In our rush, we are concerned with now, before, at the time, and then, after doing this, as if time is not originally a continuous unity. Dasein’s authentic understanding of the meaning of his existence as temporality is an understanding of this original continuity beyond his everyday temporality. He will come to understand this temporality out of his tacit understanding of the temporality of his everyday activities. Accordingly, we need to distinguish two dimensions of temporality. The First dimension is the temporality of everydayness. Dasein is already thrown into this everyday temporality and lives through in a tacit, in-authentic understanding of a common temporality. Yet, he has a possibility of an authentic understanding of this continuous temporal structure in itself, which could reveal the meaning of his existence. That is his potentiality to be, Seinkönnen. Dasein’s potentiality to be as an authentic understanding of his existence is nothing but understanding temporality in its numeric dimensionality. To explicate the numeric dimension of time, let us see what ancient philosophers have said about the nature of time.

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__________________________________________________________________ Time has always puzzled philosophers. It was first Plato who associated time with the numeric succession in accordance with the pure motion of heavens. Then Aristotle considered time in relation to change and motion according to the numbers. For Aristotle, time is with which we count in relation to before and after; proton and husteron. Aristotle also said that time in itself can extend to infinity as a potential since it is possible to count till infinity. Aristotle’s potential infinity is a numeric potentiality which is not limited to spatial limits of actually existing finite things. This numeric span of temporality is continuous since the transition between the numbers is non-spatial. This continuous and potentially infinite dimension of temporality is what Dasein misses in his everyday rush. Dasein’s potentiality to be is an authentic understanding of his temporal directedness as a part of this continuous, numeric and transitory dimension of an original temporality. This numeric structure has been a latent, concealed potentiality that is open for Dasein in his silent and implicit counting of activities as before and after. How does this numeric dimension of temporality reveal itself to Dasein out of his in-authentic understanding of temporal activities? Let us remember how Dasein experiences his everyday activities. As we have said, he plans them in a temporal span and passes through them according to their time as before and after. Heidegger says Dasein already counts his temporal activities as before and after silently. He counts his activities without limiting them from each other as though we limit extensional objects. When we reckon with time, we count each now, before, at the time, and then, after doing this not as a spatial extension but as a numeric succession of deeds like, let us have a cup of coffee, then we will meet at the office and the like. As we have said, Dasein reckons with a time interval as the coffee break is before the next session. The end of the coffee break and the beginning of the next session are open to each other. They are intertwined. The temporality of different activities of Dasein is originally stretched from one to the other due to the open-ended structure of their temporality. Although they are different activities dealt by Dasein in different time intervals, at the same time, they bear the continuity of the original time. Two dimensions of time, the temporality of everydayness and the original temporality as continuity are essentially one by means of this openness. While passing from one time interval to the other, Dasein already goes through a continuous temporality. Original temporality offers itself to Dasein as a whole in a moment of vision. 4. Moment of Vision, Letting Be How does this moment of vision affect Dasein concretely? Let us imagine that Dasein is cycling to work everyday. He does not calculate how long it takes to go to work and does not beware how his bike is ready to his hand. He expects to go to work as he always does. When his bike is broken, for instance when he has a flat tire, he is impeded. He feels uneasy, unheimlich, not at home, anxious. He can no

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__________________________________________________________________ longer comport smoothly to what he cares. In this moment of vision, which breaks his expected temporal activity, he is driven to care what the temporality itself has been. In this moment of vision, temporality is no longer the temporality of going to work that we understand implicitly. It is the original temporality as such. Temporality as such means the universal of the temporal intervals of everyday activities. It is the original temporality, which has always-already been along with Dasein while he is busy with his everyday dealings. When the bike is out of order due to the flat tire, Dasein is dragged to beware of the temporality of the temporal activity he has been dealing with smoothly. When the bike no longer functions, Dasein is drawn to concern how long it takes to go to work. Time becomes long, stretched; it slows down when our expectations are not properly actualizing. He feels a long while, Langeweile, which means boredom in German. He thinks what existence means without his time consuming everyday rush as a continuous temporality. That is existence as a temporal form without any content. The meaning of existence as a formal temporality is like a container of time which we have always been in. Heidegger calls this, in-being, in-sein.2 In a moment of vision, the numeric continuity of temporality comes to presence, as presencing, and withdraws at the same moment. At this very moment, Dasein is driven out of his loss in the rush of the everydayness. He experiences his temporal directedness as a part of the continuous, numeric and transitory dimension of an original temporality. Although Dasein faces the possibility of the oneness of his temporal being and the original temporality, he can never transcend his finitude. This experience is like feeling at the threshold of the meaning of existence as an ecstatic whole. He remains at the threshold of the joint of time, feels homeless because of the suspended completion of the meaning of existence. 5. Dervish as Dasein Dervish, a Sufi believer well known with his whirling dance, can be interpreted as a Dasein. Dervishes wear a special costume and a conic hat. Their costume is white, loose and lengthened. One of the Dervishes walks to the dance floor and start whirling. The other Dervishes join him one by one and they whirl all together without any interaction and communication. At the same time as they set in motion, they begin opening their arms little by little. Afterwards, while their speed of whirling increases, they open their arms fully, one rising up and one losing down. Dervish never stops while whirling. The dance, as a symbol of embracing the meaning of existence as an ecstatic openness, goes on and on. To see the relation between a Dervish and Dasein, let us look at the etymological origin of Dervish that stems from Persian Der-nish. Der means door and nish means threshold. This is generally interpreted as a symbol of being modest and humble. A Threshold is seemed? in connotation with the submissive attitude of the Dervish who worries, staying away from pride and arrogance. Nish, the threshold of the door, is interpreted as a symbol of letting everyone step over

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__________________________________________________________________ Dervish. In opposition to this generally accepted reading of the meaning of Dervish as a threshold, I think we can see Dervish as a Dasein who voluntarily ventures the experience of the infinity of being. 6. Telvin without Temkin In order to see Dervish as a Dasein, we shall look at the transitory character of his disposition in his life, which is duplicated in his dance. Like Dasein, Dervish too, lives as being in motion, Sichbewegen that already understands in these modes of being. Dervish’s being in motion, which is his being on the way, is not exactly how Dasein lives and understands tacitly his everyday dealings. Nevertheless, Dervish also lives in motion and already understands the temporal structure of existence as a whole tacitly. To see in what sense Dervish is a Dasein, we shall view Dervish’s temporal course of life and understanding closely. His temporal course, rah, is called telvin. Telvin has several meanings in tasavvuf. It basically means path, route, and course. In addition, it means coloured, colourful, open to the transition of colours, at the same surface, passage, transitory disposition, passing from one mood to the other smoothly, passing from one moment to the other without coming to an end. That is why he is fakir, poor. Fakir, another name of Dervish, means deprived. Dervish is in a mood of constant lack. He is never satisfied with any earthly possessions. His temporal seek is towards his Hak, god. In the traditional interpretation, the end of Dervish’s being in motion comes to an end when he reaches his god. The end of his being in motion is called temkin in tasavvuf. Temkin etymologically stems from mekân, which is space, extension, place, possession, home, property. Temkin is a spatial end for Dervish’s course where he attains his unity with the Islamic god, Allah. In this sense, temkin is a closure where Dervish’s course terminates as if he has reached his god’s home. That fenafillâh. Fenafillâh, which is similar to Dasein’s potentiality to be, is the completion of Dervish’s being in motion. In this conventional interpretation, the temporality of Dervish’s way comes to a completion, fenafillâh, which is an Islamic notion of reaching Hak, god. Dervish’s journey ends up in a specific place, the home of his god, camii. Thus Dervish’s poorness, his feeling of the lack of a closure, temkin, ends up in Hak. Despite this traditional interpretation, we can see Dervish as a Dasein, whose journey does not come to a completion and remains open the potentiality of the infinity of temporality. In order to do that we need to remember Heidegger’s notion of temporality. The core of his interpretation of the Aristotelian concept of time as a non-spatial continuity relies on the ecstatic and open character of temporality. Despite acknowledging the originality of Bergson’s reading of Aristotle’s notion of time, Heidegger says that even Bergson’s notion of temporality remains spatial. Rendering temporality spatial, one misses the opportunity to see the temporalization of temporality as remaining open to the infinity of the non-spatial,

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__________________________________________________________________ numeric temporality. Dasein’s potentiality to be is nothing but an openness to feel the original temporality as pure numeric continuity. Dasein is finite. He cannot experience the original continuity of temporality beyond his everyday being-inmotion, Sichbewegen. He can never feel at home since he can never experience the non-spatial temporalization of original temporality as a spatial location. Even his potentiality to feel de-severent, ent-fernen, which literally means distancelessness, cannot be reduced to a spatial location. It can be imagined as an ecstatic location. Heidegger sees this location of the temporality as a constant temporalization as Ekstatikon.3 The closer Dasein comes to Ekstatikon in the moment of vision, the further the closure of the ecstatic horizon of temporality runs off. Contrary to Hegel’s completion of temporalization of history, Heidegger’s notion of temporality as Ekstatikon is a Nietzschean notion of eternal recurrence. Dasein’s course towards the feeling of in-being, at home, is a constant defer. Dervish’s telvin, which is being in motion and understanding tacitly this being in motion as the meaning of existence as a whole, is similar to Dasein’s experience of the original continuity of temporality. One can view Dervish’s dance as a potentiality to be in this sense. He understands what being in motion is in his dance since he never moves forward but whirls as a resemblance of the original temporality. Thereby, Dervish feels the non-spatial temporalization of temporality as the meaning of existence in his whirling, which mirrors telvin. 7. Nowhere Telvin can be understood similar to Heidegger’s sichbewegen, understanding the meaning of existence as non-spatial temporalization of temporality while already moving in it. We have seen that Telvin entails passing through and a constant defer? deferement? of the end of Dervish’s journey. Nowhere appoints the teleological end of his dance. Dervish, in the mood of telvin, is devoted to nowhere. Yunus Emre, a well known Sufi poet, says Dervish is devoted to lâmekân. Mekân means place and Lâmekân means literally no place, nowhere. Dervish feels homeless; he belongs to nowhere because of the openness of the temporalization of temporality. The non-spatial continuity of original temporality attracts Dervish as the non-spatial place, nowhere, as if he belongs there. Mevlana tells that, Dervish is ibnül-vakt, which means that he originally belongs to time. Ibnül-vakt means literally, the son of temporality. Belonging to the non-spatial temporality, Dervish is never at home. He is a doorstep at the edge of temporality. He inbounds his way from spatial limits and comes close to hear the endless flow of the temporalization of temporality, Ekstatikon. He is a volunteered homeless, a devoted wanderer ever since his other name is fakir, which means indigent, homeless. Nowhere makes him feel at home as the final end of his journey. All houses are open, intertwined and, in a sense, imply a possibility of a passage from one to the other. Dervish feels in-being, insein in Heideggerian sense, merely at the non-spatial transition of temporality.

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__________________________________________________________________ Dervish is the son of temporality means that he seeks his origin beyond the spatially determined houses of god. That is why, all holy places, camii, church or synagogue, do not endow him with a place where the Dervish feels temkin, at home. His journey remains as an open-ended telvin. Camii is open to the church and the church is open to the synagogue. Dervish’s dance as a symbol of his transitory mood, telvin, is not limited by a religion but open to the religiosity of religion. All destinations are open ecstasies of the uninterrupted passage of time. As Aristotle already said, Dervish’s dance resembles the possibility of infinity that is the openness of the numeric continuity of time. In the stanza, our course reaches to the Hak, Hak means an unlimited possibility of religiosity beyond Islamic god. The Dervish dances to the non-spatial temporalization of temporality as Ekstatikon, which is never determined in a particular discourse or topos and therefore is possible everywhere, like the Da of Dasein signifies.

Notes 1

Guignon Charles, Heidegger and the Problem of Knowledge (Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983), 118. 2 Heidegger Martin, Die Grundprobleme der Phänomenologie (Frankfurt: Klostermann Seminar, Vittorio Klostermann), 415. 3 Ibid., 329.

Bibliography Guignon Charles. Heidegger and the Problem of Knowledge. Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, 1983. Heidegger Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. Oxford: Blackwell Publishiss, 1995. Heidegger Martin. Sein und Zeit. Tubingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag, 2006. Heidegger Martin. Basic Problems of Phenomenology. Translated by Albert Hofstadter. Indianapolis: Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1989. Heidegger Martin. Die Grundprobleme der Phänomenologie. Klostermann Seminar, Vittorio Klostermann, 1975.

Frankfurt:

Heidegger Martin. The Fundamental Concepts of Metaphysics: World-FinitudeSolitude. Translated by William McNeill and Nicholas Walker. Indianapolis: Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1995.

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__________________________________________________________________ Heidegger Martin. Introduction to Metaphysics. Translated by Gregory Fried and Richard Polt, London: Yale University Press, 2000. Cihan Camcı is teaching philosophy of art, phenomenology and philosophy of identity at Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey.

Ghost from the Past: The Fortune of hyaku monogatari in Post-Meiji Japan Diego Cucinelli Abstract The hyaku monogatari, the ‘one-hundred tales’, a parlour game created in the Edo period, 1603-1867, was initially played by samurai as a test of courage. However, it shortly spread in popularity and became common also among the lower classes. Considered a sort of lighthouse for spirits, it became very popular and the stories of ghoulish encounters narrated during the gatherings converged in a literary movement, which includes some Japanese masterpieces of all times. In the Meiji, 1868-1912, and Taishō, 1912-1924 eras, despite the wave of positivism that spread in Japan after the influence of the Western culture, well known intellectuals, like the novelists Mori Ōgai and Izumi Kyōka, as well as the ethnographer Yanagita Kunio showed great interest in hyaku monogatari. They even participated in those gothic meetings and reproduced that atmosphere in their works. If in early modern Japan the heritage of hyaku monogatari seems to be in the hands of literature, in the 1960s, manga and anime, in particular Mizuki Shigeru's, production show a special bond with the practice. On the one hand, this represents the debut of Edoperiod ghost stories in the media world. On the other hand, this phenomenon can also be seen as youngsters’ rediscovery of older national traditions. The results are shown in the works of the next generation of novelists, whose most representative voice can be considered the ‘contemporary hyaku monogatari teller’ Kyōgoku Natsuhiko (b. 1963). This paper aims to analyse the fortune of hyaku monogatari during the process of modernization of the country, as well as to analyse the path trodden by the practice in order to take on its new forms in contemporary Japan. Key Words: Ghost stories, oral tradition, folklore, spirituality, anime and manga, supernatural creatures, Kyōgoku Natsuhiko, Mizuki Shigeru, Mori Ōgai, demonology, cultural identity. ***** 1. The hyaku monogatari in Japan's Modernization Process The 1868 Meiji Restoration marked the beginning of modernity for Japan. After about three hundred years of isolation, Westerners penetrated the country, and brought with them what they called modern knowledge. From here onwards, Japan had to follow its modernity in order to break the bonds created by unequal treaties, and find new autonomy.1 In this moment of rapid changes and instability, despite the wave of positivism brought about by Western culture, old and new superstitions exerted huge influence on people. In particular, spirit invocation practices underwent a great

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__________________________________________________________________ boom during the Meiji era, 1868-1912. Among these, one of the most popular can be considered the kokkuri-san, a technique through which a spirit is called down to inhabit a simply constructed spirit board, that is a direct descendant of the Western round table. The kokkuri-san reached the peak of its fame in these years, being practised by a huge number of people among whom we also find the father of modern Japanese novel, the essayist and novelist Tsubouchi Shōyō, 1859-1935.2 Beside this game of Western origins, we have another popular practice for spirit invocation, which has its roots in early Edo period, 1603-1867. The hyaku monogatari – the ‘one-hundred tales’ – is a parlour game of medieval Japan that is considered a sort of lighthouse for ghosts and supernatural phenomena. Initially played by samurai as a test of courage, by the early 19th century it became a widespread form of entertainment for commoners. At night, one by one, the guests would declaim stories of ghoulish encounters and at the end of each story they would extinguish one of the one hundred andon3 positioned in the room. When the last lantern got extinguished it was believed that real ghouls would appear called upon by the storytelling.4 This practice had such huge fortune that it generated a real literary business: novelists, who often participated as observers to the meetings, started giving a written form to those narrations and sold the most impressive ones as a repertoire to be used in gatherings. This literature genre, which in Japanese takes the name of kaidan, ghost stories,5 includes masterpieces of all times such as the collection Tales of moonlight and rain, 1776, by Ueda Akinari, 1734-1809, and the Picture book of hundred stories, 1841, by Takehara Shunsen, a work between the bestiary of yōkai, the ‘Japanese monsters,’ and literature. As Figal points out,6 the popularity of both oral and written literature derived from this practice suggests that the weird and mysterious had a powerful fetishistic appeal to the people of the Edo-period, and that certain experiences, among which we can include the misemono, the sideshows of freaks and monsters7 which were found attractive because they were rich in ambiguity and fear. In the Meiji era the hyaku monogatari continued to play its role, as well known intellectuals, like the novelists Mori Ōgai,1862-1922, and Izumi Kyōka, 1873-1939, showed interest in it and participated in some gatherings. In particular, the former, an Army Surgeon, had an unusual view of the cutting-edge sciences of his time and made particularly poignant observations concerning the weird. In the short story Hyaku monogatari One hundred stories, 1891, he locates the past within the present by considering a modern version of the Edo-period practice: the narrator, an alter-ego of the author, describes his experience with the practice, showing that the impression it made on him is pretty strong, a once-in-a -lifetime event.8 At the same time, Ōgai considers the possibility of a psychological mechanism at the root of the phenomenon that does not leave space for doubts about any supernatural nature of the practice. At the end of the account the author expresses his real view of the event, ‘a relic from a world that has now passed’9 and ‘what Ibsen calls a ghost’.10 Ōgai alludes to

Diego Cucinelli 99 __________________________________________________________________ Ibsen's play Ghosts, 1881, to express his vision of hyaku monogatari in the Japan of modernization: Ibsen's spectres are not supernatural images, as in the tradition of hyaku monogatari, but the ideas of the previous generation, something left behind, a relic which has only form but no content. On the contrary, Izumi Kyōka, the novelist who asserted that ‘monsters are the concretization of my feelings,’11 seems to be a punctual member of hyaku monogatari, introducing his friends from the literary world and intellectuals from different fields to the practice. He has led many gatherings from which a large number of ghost stories have originated. These collections have recently been republished and widely appreciated.12 Rich in themes inspired by hyaku monogatari' stories, Kyōka's tales, in their reinvested versions, often lay the foundations for a penetrating critique of the path taken by Japan's rationalized modernity. His aesthetics of ‘in-between’13 operates on the interstices between the categories that ordered a reality commonly accepted as a natural reflection of Reality. Thus situated, in-between, the chronotope typical of fantastic tales, marks a critical register, while the folk beliefs and popular imaginary that fuel them are consequently given new importance.14 2. Mizuki Shigeru, the Link between Two Generations of hyaku monogatari Following this phase, during which exponents of the literary world showed great interest in the practice, throughout the Second World War – as the anthropologist Komatsu Kazuhiko suggests – people had no need to invoke hyaku monogatari's supernatural creatures to express their confusion and horror. After a pretty uneventful period during which we lose track of hyaku monogatari, in the first decades of the Shōwa era (1924-1987) it finds a home in media such as manga and anime.15 New supernatural creatures emerge to frighten, entertain and to breathe new life into the relics of the past, thus reuniting the weird and the mysterious, dimensions that split in the early 20th century. More specifically, the long series, subject to numerous remakes, Gegege no Kitarō, Spooky Kitaro, 1959, by Mizuki Shigeru, 1922-2007, describes the world of hyaku monogatari and its grotesque creatures through the art of manga. Mizuki represents the link between three generations of hyaku monogatari tellers and is, at the same time, the pioneer of a new vision of the traditional yōkai's world. His production is deeply connected to the ethnographer Yanagita Kunio's, 1875-1962, Tōno monogatari: Stories from Tōno, 1910, an account of experiences with the Supernatural narrated to Yanagita by a native of the Tōno region, Sasaki Kizen. His most popular character is a half-human boy called Kitarō, whose name is written in the Chinese character of demon and combined with the cyclopean representation chosen by Mizuki. The character brings back to readers’ minds Yanagita's narration about the hitotsume kōzō, the ‘one-eye demon,’ delicately balanced between demon, deity and human. A large number of characters are derived from earlier yōkai documented by Takehara Shunsen and Yanagita. Mizuki's manga, in particular, visually presents some creatures listed in Yanagita's Yōkai Meii (Yōkai

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__________________________________________________________________ Glossary, 1939). Inspired by those narrations, Mizuki discovers creatures that nobody has ever seen, taking them out of the shadow of Yanagita's erudite writings to place them under the lights of popular culture. In a nutshell, he elaborates a visual hyaku monogatari. Mizuki's re-creation of Shunsen's and Yanagita's supernatural world represents an attempt to inspire in modern life a sense of the primitive and mystical. He breathes life back into the nothing of modern existence, to bring, once more, the characters of hyaku monogatari back to life. Mizuki acts as a medium, a bridge from one world to another, translating different realms of experience. He stands between the supernatural world and his readers’ reality, as a direct link with the ancestors of modern Japanese, a connection between the oral and the visual, the past and the present. 3. From the Contemporary hyaku monogatari Teller Kyōgoku Natsuhiko to the hyaku monogatari ‘for Specific Purpose’. Although in the second half of the Shōwa era the interest in the practice and its narrations was more strictly represented by manga, in the last decades of the century literature showed a new interest in that field. The productions of Kurahashi Yumiko, 1935-2005, and Akagawa Jirō, b. 1948, are just some examples of the new era of the supernatural in literature connected to hyaku monogatari. Among them, the most orthodox portrait of the practice can be considered the one found in Kyōgoku Natsuhiko's, b. 1963, literary production. Like his mentor, Mizuki Shigeru, Kyōgoku explicitly looks for thematic inspiration in the Edo period. Some of his stories are set in the distant past while others unfold in a contemporary setting, but one of the governing concepts of his work is the referential homage he pays to Toriyama Sekien, 1712-1788, the author of the best known Edo-period bestiary of yōkai, Illustrated night parade of one hundred demons (Gazu hyakki yagyō, 1776, and Takehara Shunsen. In particular, the work that granted Kyōgoku the prestigious Naoki Prize in 2004,16 Subsequent hyaku monogatari rumors, Nochi Kōsetsu Hyaku Monogatari, 2003, shows an important debt to Shunsen's Picture book of hundred stories. In his hyaku monogatari series, started in 1999, with Hyaku monogatari's rumors, Kōsetsu Hyaku Monogatari, and still in progress, the author refers to the cliché of the practice and chooses Shunsen's work as a palimpsest: the essential setting, a gathering of people under a lamp who tell stories of the supernatural, is mostly respected. Each narration is prefaced by Shunsen's original illustration and their themes are loosely based on the writings from the bestiary. The stage is set at the end of the Edo period, a historical phase during which the authority of the shogunate started to crackle: the novels depict a country suffering a crisis, presented through the strong image constituted by the belief in hyaku monogatari, here used as a ploy in order to hide murders committed for lust of revenge. In the years following this series a manga and a movie version of the work were

Diego Cucinelli 101 __________________________________________________________________ produced, so that Kyōgoku's contemporary storytelling can be enjoyed by a larger number of both adults and youngsters. One of the last works that deals with the tradition of hyaku monogatari can be considered a particular production, which we here choose to call hyaku monogatari for specific purpose. This definition can include a huge number of literary works of the last years that, despite several formal and stylistic differences, all share the expression ‘hyaku monogatari’ in the titles. Examples of this particular production are ‘hotel hyaku monogatari’ ghost stories set in pensions or hotels, ‘hyaku monogatari of women’ supernatural stories dealing with the topic of ‘poison women,’17 and also ‘hyaku monogatari of marriage,’ ghostly stories about married couples.18 In brief, a new tendency in contemporary production is to create collections of ghost stories that have common elements, such as the setting, the gender of the supernatural characters or a theme, in order to meet the needs of the 21st century readers. 4. Final Considerations Looking at Ōgai's experience we can conclude that, if the pre-Meiji hyaku monogatari is a dynamic admixture of mysterious and weird, then in the early twentieth century Japan the mysterious content was extracted from the weird form, and the power to enchant was connected to more modern concepts, such as turning tables and hypnotism. At the same time, however, as Izumi Kyōka's accounts demonstrate, a large number of artists are sensible to the gothic atmosphere of the practice and make it the aim of their aesthetic research. On the contrary, the revival of hyaku monogatari within the world of manga and anime denotes a deep change in the rhetoric of yōkai, as the invisible and static takes form and movement. In any case, the real spirit of the practice, which consists in the narration, is firmly respected. Mizuki represents a new vision of Edo-period works and invests the supernatural creatures of hyaku monogatari with a fictional life as characters in his narrative, while, at the same time, drawing on their historic lineage and nostalgic energy. From the 1980s, indeed, Japanese literature turns again to hyaku monogatari, thus having tradition interact with the dimension and problems of contemporary society. Here Kyōgoku Natsuhiko's production further demonstrates that the old can be a valid spectrum for an analysis of contemporary society. In a period of crisis as Japan's ‘lost decade.’19 These are the same years in which Kyōgoku's hyaku monogatari series starts. The artist looks at the practice as a solid basis to lay the foundation of his literary experience. Moreover, today we can find hyaku monogatari in many forms, from the paper to the small and the big screen, further proving that tradition can be re-shaped and modelled in order to meet new needs. It is in this perspective that we should read the collections of short stories that I call ‘hyaku monogatari for specific purpose,’ reinterpreted in order to express the mysterious aspects of a place, gender or human condition. The hyaku monogatari's tradition constitutes a link between two worlds, premodern and contemporary Japan, showing a line of continuity from the lanterns of

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__________________________________________________________________ Edo to the neon lights of Tokyo. In brief, it can be seen as a pillar of Japanese cultural identity.

Notes 1

See Edwin Reischauer, Japan: the Story of a Nation (London: Duckworth, 1970), 220-245. 2 For details about this novelist and his production see Donald Keene, ed., Down to the West – Japanese Literature of the Modern Era – Fiction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 96-118. 3 The andon is the Japanese traditional lantern made of paper. 4 For details about this practice see M. Dylan, Foster, Pandemonium and Parade – Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yōkai (London: University of California, 2009), 85-86. 5 For further details about Edo-period kaidan literature see Masao Higashi, ed., Kaiki: Uncanny Tales from Japan – Tales of old Edo (Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press), 4-12. And Noriko Reider, ʻThe Emergence of Kaidanshū: the Collection of Strange and Mysterious in the Edo Period,ʼ Asian Folklore Studies 60 (2001): 79-99. 6 See Gerald Figal, Civilization and Monsters – Spirits of Modernity in Meiji Japan (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999), 21-37. 7 See Andrew Markus, ʻThe Carnival of Edo: Misemono Spectacles from Contemporary Accounts,ʼ Harvard Journal of Asian Studies 2 (1985): 499-541. 8 See Masao Higashi, ed., Mori Ōgaishū – Nezumizaka - Bungō Kaidan Kessakusen (Tokyo: Chikuma Bunko, 2006), 358. 9 Ibid, 62. 10 Ibid. 11 See Figal, Civilization and Monsters – Spirits of Modernity in Meiji Japan, 166. 12 Some of these examples can be considered Higashi, Masao and Kyōgoku Natsuhiko, ed., Yamiyo ni Kai wo Katareba – Hyaku Monogatari Horâ Kessakusen (Tokyo: Kadokawa Horror Bunko, 2006). And Masao Higashi, ed., Hyaku Monogatari Kaidankai (Tokyo: Chikuma, 2008). 13 The Japanese word used by Izumi Kyōka for ‘in-between’ is chūkan, the ‘space in the middle’. See Takako Tanaka, Kyōka to Kaii (Tokyo: Heibonsha, 2006), 3978. 14 See Figal, Civilization and Monsters – Spirits of Modernity in Meiji Japan, 157. 15 An example is constituted by the work Hyaku Monogatari (One hundred stories, 1970) by the famous author of manga Tezuka Osamu (1928-1989). About this topic and Mizuki's manga production see Zilia Papp, Anime and Its Root in Japanese Monster Art (Kent: Global Oriental, 2010), 35-60.

Diego Cucinelli 103 __________________________________________________________________ 16

The Naoki Prize is a Japanese literary award presented semi-annually. Sponsored by The Society for the Promotion of Japanese Literature, the award recognizes the best work of “popular literature”. 17 About this topic in Japanese cultural tradition see Christine L. Marran, Poison Woman: Figuring Female Transgression in Modern Japanese Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007), 5-43. 18 See Shōji Tomita, Hoteru Hyaku Monogatari (Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2013). Masao Higashi, ed., Onnatachi no Kaidan Hyaku Monogatari (Tokyo: Kadokawa, 2014) and Eriko Hayashi, Kekkon Hyaku Monogatari (Tokyo: Kawade, 2000). 19 For details see Miles Fletcher, Japan's Lost Decade – Causes, Legacies and Issues of Transformative Change (London: Routledge, 2012).

Bibliography Figal, Gerald. Civilization and Monsters – Spirits of Modernity in Meiji Japan. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999. Fletcher, Miles. Japan's Lost Decade – Causes, Legacies and Issues of Transformative Change. London: Routledge, 2012. Foster, M. Dylan. Pandemonium and Parade – Japanese Monsters and the Culture of Yōkai. London: University of California, 2009. Hayashi, Eriko. Kekkon Hyaku Monogatari. Tokyo: Kawade, 2000. Higashi, Masao, ed. Onnatachi no Kaidan Hyaku Monogatari. Tokyo: Kadokawa, 2014. ——— ed. Tōno Monogatari to Kaidan no Jidai. Tokyo: Kadokawa, 2010. ——— ed. Kaiki: Uncanny Tales from Japan – Tales of Old Edo. Fukuoka: Kurodahan Press, 2009. ——— ed. Hyaku Monogatari Kaidankai. Tokyo: Chikuma, 2008. ——— ed. Mori Ōgaishū – Nezumizaka - Bungō Kaidan Kessakusen. Tokyo: Chikuma Bunko, 2006. Higashi, Masao, and Kyōgoku Natsuhiko, ed. Yamiyo ni Kai wo Katareba – Hyaku Monogatari Horâ Kessakusen. Tokyo: Kadokawa Horror Bunko, 2006.

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__________________________________________________________________ Ichiyanagi, Hirotaka, ed. Yōkai wa Hanshoku Suru. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2006. Ivy, Marilyn. Discourses of the Vanishing – Modernity – Phantasm – Japan, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1995. Iwasaka, Michiko. Ghosts and the Japanese: Cultural Experience in Japanese Death Legends. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1994. Izumi Kyoka. Izumi Kyōka Zenshū – vol.2. Tokyo: Iwanami, 1973. Keene, Donald, ed. Down to the West – Japanese Literature of the Modern Era – Fiction. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998. Kyōgoku, Natsuhiko. Kōsetsu Hyaku Monogatari. Tokyo: Kadokawa Bunko, 1999. Lafcadio Hearn. Kwaidan: Stories and Studies of Strange Things. Singapore: Tuttle, 1971. Markus, Andrew. ʻThe Carnival of Edo: Misemono Spectacles from Contemporary Accounts.ʼ Harvard Journal of Asian Studies 2 (1985): 499-541. Marran, Christine L. Poison Woman: Figuring Female Transgression in Modern Japanese Culture. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007. Mizuki, Shigeru. Hakaba no Kitarō – Zenrokkan Kanketsu Setto. Tokyo: Kadokawa, 2010. Napier, Susan. The Fantastic in Modern Japanese Literature: The Subversion of Modernity. London, Routledge, 1996 Papp, Zilia. Anime and Its Root in Japanese Monster Art. Kent: Global Oriental, 2010. ———. Traditional Monster Imagery in Manga, Anime and Japanese Cinema, Londra, Brill Academic Pub, 2010b. Reider, Noriko. ʻThe Emergence of Kaidanshū: The Collection of Strange and Mysterious in the Edo Period.ʼ Asian Folklore Studies 60 (2001): 79-99. Reischauer, Edwin. Japan: The Story of a Nation. London: Duckworth, 1970.

Diego Cucinelli 105 __________________________________________________________________ Tachikawa, Kiyoshi, ed. Hyakumonogatari Kaidan Shūsei. Tokyo: Kokusho Kankōkai, 1991. Takada, Mamoru, ed. Kaii – Tokushū, Tokyo, Kasama Shoin, 2007. Takehara Shunsen. Ehon Hyaku Monogatari – Tōsanjin Yawa. Tokyo: Kokusho Kankōkai, 2006. Tanaka, Takako. Kyōka to Kaii. Tokyo: Heibonsha, 2006. Tomita, Shōji. Hoteru Hyaku Monogatari. Tokyo: Seikyūsha, 2013. Toriyama Sekien. Gazu Hyakki Yagyō Zengashū. Tokyo: Kadokawa Sofia Bunko, 2010. Ueda Akinari. Ugetsu Monogatari. Tokyo: Chikuma, 1997. Yanagita Kunio. Yanagita Kunio Zenshū, Tokyo: Chikuma Shoten, 1990. Diego Cucinelli (PhD) is Lecturer of Japanese Language and Culture at Tuscia University of Viterbo. His main research interests deal with Japanese demonology and Japanese modern and contemporary literature, in particular the productions of Murakami Haruki and Kyōgoku Natsuhiko.

Indian Dance in Christianity M. Caterina Mortillaro Abstract Dance has an important role in Indian society and Hindu religion. In the Natyashastra, dance and drama were created by the Brahma in order to ‘teach the path of Virtue’ to mankind. The dances performed by the devadasi, the servants of the temple, according to the Hindu religion, had the power to balance the world, purifying it. It was a mimic art that comprised gestural, vocal and dance movements in order to narrate a myth and perform a prayer. In the last decades in India various theologians and priests have tried to introduce dance in the Christian liturgy with the same role of chants in western liturgy. Bharatanatyam is one of the dance styles that Indian Christians have transformed in order to fit into the Christian context. In fact, the mudra (positions of the hands) and many movements have been changed to represent episodes of the Bible and to perform Christian prayers. The main intent is to acculturate Christianity into Indian society. As I observed in my fieldwork in Andhra Pradesh, this project has many opponents in India and in the West. The Bishop of Gunthur, Gali Bali expressed his reservations about an art that has a strong ‘colour of Hinduism’ and cannot be decodified easily by the assembly of the faithful. Many who oppose this are afraid that the presence of beautiful girls dancing in the church could divert the attention of men away from the ritual. These are some of the reasons why dance has not been officially approved by the Vatican and has not been introduced into liturgy, but nowadays is performed only in a paraliturgical context. Key Words: Christianity, India, liturgy, dance, drama, Bharatanatyam, body. ***** 1. Introduction Indian dance Bharatanatyam is only one of the seven styles of Indian classical dance. However, it is the most diffused in India, where it has a substantial role in the construction and definition of Indian identity. Bharatanatyam performances take place during almost all the public and private celebrations. It is possible to find pictures of dancers on the brochures of the Indian Ministry of Tourism. Shows including dance contests are common on TV. In the schools girls who learn dance are popular and appreciated by their colleagues, even if their marks are not good. Thus, it is an art form that is deeply rooted in Indian culture. According to Francis Barboza,1 Bharatanatyam is not the only Indian dance style that has been adapted to Christianity, but there are many folk and tribal dances which were regularly used by Christians in the past during their feasts and rituals and are vital also today. However, I chose to study this specific style for its

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__________________________________________________________________ diffusion and its importance among Indian people and because it is a highly codified art form. In brief, this chapter explores the ways and the consequences of the attempts of adapting Bharatanatyam to Christianity operated by priests and theologians. 2. History and Mythology An insight on mythology and history of Bharatanatyam is inevitable in order to understand the implications of these attempts to adapt it to Christianity. In fact, it reveals the strong relationship between this dance and Hinduism. The Natyashastra, the most important and ancient theoretical text available about dance-theatre, is considered the fifth Veda. In its pages it is written that the god Brahma originally imparted the science of gesticulation and dance so that knowledge of Vedas could be accessible to all the castes, including that of the Shudras, the members of the fourth Varna, i.e. the Untouchables. The goal of this dance, whose mythical origins are strongly linked to Hindu gods, was essentially educative: It shall be conductive to righteousness, production of wealth and diffusion of fame; it will have succinct collection of didactic material; it will serve as a guide in all, human, activities of future generations as well; it will be richly endowed with the topics dealt with in all the scriptural texts and it will demonstrate all types of arts and crafts.2 Being an agent for educating people, it had to be an imitation of everything taking place in the world, even ‘slaughtering or lovemaking.’.3 According to the legend, dance was performed in playhouses that were also temples. They were built following precise indications written in the treatise, and they had altars and statues of the gods of the Hindu pantheon who protected the various parts of the building. Inside the playhouses the adoration of divinities was practised with homas (rituals), mantras, offerings of foods and flowers. Furthermore, Shiva is renowned as Nataraja, the Lord of Dance. Dancing, he has the power to destroy and rebuild the universe. From a historical point of view, in the past beautiful young girls with a particular disposition to dance were usually brought to a community linked to a temple. There they learnt the art of performing, but also humanities – such as epics, philosophy, and rhetoric – religious rituals and erotic arts. These women, known as devadasis, which means ‘servants of god,’, were considered as wives of god, priestesses and artists at the same time. They had a privileged connection with the divine, and they could intercede for the believers. For this reason, they had the power to neutralize and expiate the sins that altered the balance of the world. They could control and guarantee the frequency of rain and the fertility of the king and

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__________________________________________________________________ of the whole kingdom - including vegetables and livestock. Dance and eros were considered as effective instruments of knowledge and catharsis, just like prayers, pilgrimages, sacrifices, fasts and rituals. Some of the devadasis were not attached to temples and used to perform in the courts only for entertainment purposes. There were also dancers who performed for landlords or exhibited in the streets. Some were probably paid for their erotic arts. Probably for this reason they were considered as prostitutes and, on the 26th of November 1947 the Supreme Court of Madras, only three months after India attained independence, approved a law that prohibited the execution of danced rituals in the temples.4 This was not the end of Indian classical dance. In the Thirties, some dancers restored the ancient art with some important changes. One of them was Rukmini Devi, a woman from the Brahmin caste, who dedicated her life to the revival of Indian classical dance forms, removing the erotic elements and privileging a geometric style. This is the Bharatanatyam, as we know it today. Thanks to its new characteristics, it became a puritan art form appropriate for incarnating the idea of the new bourgeois India, seen as a chaste mother and spouse. Excluded from the temples, nowadays Bharatanatyam is performed usually on stages, but, as we can easily understand, it has not lost its religious meaning. In fact, subjects of dances are taken from the Hindu epics, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana. Christian performers also cannot avoid this repertoire, which is part of their artistic training. Every show has to begin with a prayer to Ganesh, and there has to be a dance dedicated to Shiva Nataraja. This does not discourage Christians from adapting Bharatanatyam to their religion. But, as we will see, it is not so easy to transfer Christian concepts into an art that has been conceived for representing Hindu gods and myths. 3. Technical Aspects Indian dance-theatre is a mimic art that comprises gestural, vocal and dance movements in order to narrate a myth and perform a prayer. Mudras or hastas are particular positions and movements of hands that have specific meanings, but they are not univocal: the same position of hands can depict different facts. From a numerical point of view, in Bharatanatyam we have about fifty-two hastas, but the problem is that for every hasta there is a list of meanings. In addition to these, there are other mudras from other styles of dance and some that are borrowed from the medical or religious field. Moreover, in the Natyashastra it is written that the artist can create new mudras for representing new concepts. All the masters I interviewed during my fieldwork expressed this idea to me. All of them agreed on the fact that art is dead if it does not evolve, and art evolution means acceptance of innovations. Every composer can combine movements, expressions, and gestures in a creative way that is different from any other.

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__________________________________________________________________ This means that a spectator has to decode what is happening on the stage in order to understand the story represented by the actors, and it is not easy. An uneducated or untrained spectator can only understand the general meaning of the dance, thanks to previous knowledge of the story, to the expressions of face and to the contribution provided by music and songs. When about thirty years ago Fr. Francis Barboza, a catholic priest and dancer, decided to systematically adapt Bharatanatyam to Christianity. First, he created new deva hastas, particular gestures that are unequivocally dedicated to a specific god. Since he had a degree in theology, he decided to represent complex theological meanings with his hands. For instance, the gesture that depicts the resurrection is composed by a mudra, ardhapataka that is used by gods for blessing. As the hand is bended, except for the first two fingers, Barboza chose it to represent Jesus as the second person of the Trinity and placed it above the head in order to indicate heaven. The left hand, near the heart, expresses the idea of triumph over sin and victory.5 However, this is only one way to show resurrection, as I observed in India. Other dancers depict it with different movements and gestures. Given that the spectator knows the basic deva hastas, it does not mean that the rest of the performance is understandable. When I interviewed Gali Bali, the Guntur bishop, he was concerned about these technical issues. He told me that if the believers are not trained and educated in understanding Bharatanatyam, it is not possible to introduce it in the liturgy. However, in a context where people often convert without knowing the fundamental contents of the new religion, learning dance is not the priority. 4. Cultural Aspects In addition to technical problems, many cultural issues are at the root of the objections against an adaptation of Bharatanatyam to Christianity. One of them is related to the image of women in Indian culture. In interviews I conducted during my fieldwork, almost everyone told me that beautiful girls performing in the church could divert the attention of the men away from the ritual and lead them into temptation. Furthermore, Bishop Gali Bali expressed his reservations about an art that has a strong ‘colour of Hinduism’. This objection also came from some Catholic nuns and from newly converted believers. For many decades Hinduism was presented by the missionaries as idolatry and evil. Even if now there are efforts in the direction of a dialogue between Hinduism and Christianity, this idea has not disappeared. Some people feel that conversion means to completely break with the past. On the other hand, some so called contextual theologians aspire to an Indian rite that includes dances, since dance is one of the most important expressions of Indian culture and identity. They do not want to renounce their artistic heritage.

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__________________________________________________________________ They think that Bharatanatyam is not specifically Hindu, but is a sort of language that can transmit many different contents. In their interviews they insisted on the point that Christianity is not a religion that came from abroad recently. They underlined that the apostle St. Thomas evangelized India first, at the beginning of Christian age. Thus, it is not true that being authentically Indian means being Hindu, as the Hindu fundamentalist propaganda says.6 In this perspective, the Christianization of Bharatanatyam has an important rhetoric and political meaning and is considered by some fundamentalists as a theft committed by Christians to the detriment of Hindu cultural heritage. The Catholic Church did not express its approval. Even if the new Pope is in favour of contextualization of Christianity, as expressed in the Vatican II,7 the Vatican hierarchy looks at contextual theology with suspicion. Firstly, an extreme indigenisation of religion could lead to a perversion of the message itself. Secondarily, it may be possible that these attempts could undermine the authority of the Vatican. Even without an explicit approval by the Holy See, experimentation is continuing. There are schools of performing arts dedicated to Christianization of Indian dance. Officially, Bharatanatyam has not been introduced in liturgy, but nowadays is performed in a paraliturgical context. During Christmas celebrations in India I saw nuns, novices, priests and seminarists performing on the stage with traditional costumes, jewellery and make up. In Europe and the US sometimes actors also perform in the churches. 5. Conclusions Concluding, despite these difficulties in adaptation of Indian dance to Christianity, it seems to me that it plays an important role in the shaping of the Indian-Christian identity. On one hand, the believers need to distinguish themselves inside a dominant Hindu country. On the other hand, they want to preserve their cultural roots and do not want to renounce the rich heritage of Hinduism. Contextual theologians have perceived this exigency and are trying to satisfy it, combining Indian cultural expressions and philosophy with Christian theology. Their experiments are going also in the direction of reformation of liturgy. However, the political and theoretical implications of their work are looked at suspiciously by the Vatican and sometimes are not understood by the common people. Besides, this research underlines the role that art plays in spirituality and especially in the dynamic relationship between the centre or the centres (the Vatican, but also the biblical and theological institutes) and the periphery or peripheries. Believers are social actors, capable of selecting and combining different cultural elements in new ways in order to create stratified and multivalent

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__________________________________________________________________ identities that can provide effective answers to their problems and ambitions. In my opinion, dance is one of these elements.

Notes 1

Fr. Francis Barboza dedicated a book to the Christianization of various Indian styles of dance: Francis Peter Barboza, Christianity in Indian Dance Forms (Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications, 1990). 2 Bharatamuni, The Natya Sastra of Bharatamuni, Raga Nrtya series 2 (Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1981), 2. 3 Ibid., 9. 4 Tiziana Leucci, Devadasi e Bayadères: tra storia e leggenda: le danzatrici indiane nei racconti di viaggio e nell’immaginario teatrale occidentale (XIII – XX secolo) (Bologna: CLUEB, 2005), 8-9. 5 Pictures and explanations of some of these hastas are included in the cited book by Francis Barboza. 6 On the positions of the Hindu fundamentalist movement about the Christianization of Indian dance, see Rajiv Malhotra e Aravindan Neelakandan, Breaking India: Western Interventions in Dravidian and Dalit Faultlines (New Delhi: Amaryllis, 2011). 7 Pope Francis expressed his favourable opinion in the apostolic letter Evangelii gaudium.

Bibliography Barboza, Francis Peter. Christianity in Indian Dance Forms. Delhi, India: Sri Satguru Publications, 1990. Bergoglio, Jorge Mario. Evangelii gaudiu. London: Catholic Truth Society, 2013. Bharatamuni. The Natya Sastra of Bharatamuni. Raga Nrtya series 2. Delhi: Sri Satguru, 1981. Leucci, Tiziana. Devadasi e Bayadères: tra storia e leggenda: le danzatrici indiane nei racconti di viaggio e nell’immaginario teatrale occidentale (XIII – XX secolo). Bologna: CLUEB, 2005. Malhotra, Rajiv and Aravindan Neelakandan. Breaking India: Western Interventions in Dravidian and Dalit Faultlines. New Delhi: Amaryllis, 2011.

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__________________________________________________________________ Maria Caterina Mortillaro is a PhD candidate in Anthropology at the Università di Milano Bicocca. After receiving her MA degree in Classics in 1997 from the Università Cattolica di Milano, with her dissertation on the philosophy of Seneca, Maria Caterina worked for ten years as a high school teacher. She then took a second MA degree in Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences at the Università di Milano Bicocca, with a dissertation on the ‘Construction of a Christian Identity in Antioch, Turkey’. Her present research explores the ways in which the Indian dance Bharatanatyam is adapted to Christianity. Recently, she also began to study the devotion of Hindu Tamil immigrants to Catholic saints and their pilgrimages to sanctuaries in Italy.

The Literary beyond Words: Towards Theonomic Understanding of Literature and Culture Agata Wilczek Abstract The intention of my chapter is to propose a way of thinking about literature and culture which would go beyond words, towards the extra-verbal, spiritual sphere. The study of literature is perceived here as a reflection aimed at metaphysics, which is at mystery; and literary critics as those who are faced not with problems but with mysteries, which call for very personal, self-involved responses. Therefore, I shall argue that we cannot do without spiritually involved reading, which could take place only in the aura of adoration and contemplation, free from any attempts to usurp the right to offer definite answers to the mystery of life hidden beyond the letters. This involvement is for me the involvement in the higher order; and literature constitutes a reflection of it. Without a longing for at least temporary order, there would be no literature, art or music. Even if truth is manifold and heterogeneous, it is still absolute, united expression. Such approach to literary studies grounded in the belief in the unity and integrity would impel us to meditate upon the world as a whole and the nature of inner relations. The second characteristic of my project is its relation to religious thought. Literature and culture are understood here theonomically, that is as “spirit-determined and spiritdirected.”1 The proposed project of extra-verbal literary studies is close to Derrida’s deconstruction. The role of philosophy is taken here by religious thinking. From such perspective the function of writing would turn out to be fundamentally ascesis, prayer and spiritual reflection upon oneself, the world and God. Key Words: Theonomy, literary studies, reading strategy, metaphysics, mystery, unity, wholeness, existential and spiritual involvement ***** This short chapter constitutes an attempt at literary reflection which would go beyond words. The striving towards the extra-verbal, existential and spiritual sphere can be perceived as a kind of method which I intend to place in a wide field of comparative studies and interdisciplinarity. The approach adopted in the following sketch is characterised by a mode of thinking about literature – and generally about the world – as a whole. Although I do not mean here any vague, elusive idea of holism. To explicate my idea I could rather adduce the words of Cesare Pavese that the matter has been flowing from different sides but it has obtained its form here.2 Here: in the field of comparative literature, in the realm of literary, cultural, philosophical and theological reflection. Here: in the field where

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__________________________________________________________________ divergent styles, languages, epochs, philosophies and genres intersect – in a real alliance of politics and humanism; as we could say after Lodovik Settembrini, one of the characters of Thomas Mann's The Magic Mountain, who claimed that: ‘For literature was after all nothing else than the combination of humanism and politics; a conjunction the more immediate in that humanism itself was politics and politics humanism.’3 Aware of the fact that we live in the epoch of fragmentation and disintegration, I have been struggling to find a way out of this dispersion, this scattering of letters and literatures, in order to show that literature, in a literal sense, is a meeting with Life. It is, however, a silent meeting – although there are so many letters, so many words in the background. Seeing inseparably the world and the different phenomena of this world, I desire to read literary texts in a synoptic way. On the one hand, this approach turns out to express the essence of Fernardo Pessoa's definition of literature stating that ‘literature … is art married to thought,’4 but on the other hand, it stems from the conviction that literature is a twin sister of life, existence, being and all the forms of vitality. I do strongly believe that if humans have ever made a significant attempt to create one discipline, some mathesis universalis, within which they could undertake a meaningful reflection on their own humanity, it has been a widely understood literature. Literature, from its very origins, since Homer, has been interested in life, in a mystery of life and various manifestations of the life of spirit, rather than in some indefinite beauty; it has been much more involved in the search for a way of passing down the wisdom about struggles with suffering or death than aimed at conveying some kind of scientific knowledge, detached from the things themselves. The text of Iliad thoroughly examines Achilles's passions, impulses, outbursts of hatred, but at the same time it transcends the immediate context of the Troyan War, struggling to find the answer to the mystery of human passionate nature. Literature from its very beginnings has desired to be ‘an analysis of life’, ‘Analyse des Lebens’, striving to gather fragments of life into a meaningful whole, but at the same time it has seen its task in ‘an escape from life’, ‘Fluch aus dem Leben,’5 as Hugo von Hofmannsthal wrote. Thus, if we think about university, which is a place where reading and interpreting literary texts are predominant activities, we might say that it has always dealt with analysing life, but at the same time created a space of seclusion, providing one with a possibility of escaping from life. However, in the recent years academic critical discourse on literature has changed our form of reading, transforming it in a reading to the rhythm of ideology; whereas such thinkers as for example Harold Bloom taught us differently: ‘To read in the service of any ideology is not, in my judgment, to read at all.’6 And he also used to repeat: ‘Whatever the Western Canon is, it is not a program for social salvation.’7 Literature is not a sister of mercy, it does not heal the wounds of the contemporary world – although some of us would like it to have such power. Literature and the act of reading shall, first and foremost, transfer us to

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__________________________________________________________________ the regions beyond the present, the immediate, and the transient. They do not provide comfort and peace of mind, but can free us from our immersion in facticity, in our-selves, allowing to re-evaluate life from the standpoint of eternity. So what is reading? Why do we read? We read against death. The canon of literary works is indeed some way of fighting with time. All the great literary works – and any works at all – do not know time, clock or calendar – they were all created as if at one moment, at one hour, simultaneously, in some sacred extraterrestrial infinite time, at the moment of triumph of immortality and genius. In the canon we feel the wholeness, fullness, and can grasp the Renaissance ideal of l'uomo toto. Maybe we also read against our fears and anxieties. Alessandro Baricco in Lands of glass (Castelli di rabbia) notes: On the trains, to save themselves, they would read. A perfect balm. The fixed exactitude of reading as a suture for terror …, reading is never anything other than fixing on a point in order not to be seduced, and ruined, by the world's uncontrollable slipping away. No one would read anything, if it weren't for fear … . The truth is, we read to avoid looking up at the window.8 To some of us Baricco might sound a bit too ironic or even sarcastic; still his observations contain a great deal of truth: we read out of fear. In the times when reading has ceased to be ascetic lectio and contemplative practice, we reach out for a book in order to satiate ourselves with signs, to hide in a safe haven of words, or simply to indulge ourselves in a pleasant, relaxing activity. Nevertheless, within the walls of a university not only have we deprived ourselves of the spiritual benefits which come from perusing literary texts but we also start to forget about the pleasure and pure joy of reading. Thomas Bernhard, while adopting a bit of tragicomic tone, makes such comments on the contemporary practice of reading: It is better to read twelve lines of a book with the utmost intensity and thus to penetrate into them to the full, as one might say, rather than read the whole book as the normal reader does, who in the end knows the book he has read no more than an air passenger who knows the landscape he overflies. He does not perceive the contours. Thus all people nowadays read everything and know nothing. I enter into a book and settle in it, neck and crop, you should realize, in one or two pages of a philosophical essay as if I were entering a landscape, a piece of nature, a state organism, a detail of the earth, if you like, in order to penetrate into it entirely and not just with half my strength or half-

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__________________________________________________________________ heartedly, in order to explore it and then, having explored it with all the thoroughness at my disposal, drawing conclusions as to the whole. It is not necessary to read all of Goethe or all of Kant, it is not necessary to read all of Schopenhauer; a few pages of Werther, a few pages of Elective Affinities and we know more in the end about the two books than if we had read them from beginning to end, which would anyway deprive us of the purest enjoyment.9 So turning back to my questions: what is reading in our changing world? What is literature? I shall attempt to answer them in the following way: reading should be a kind of creative spiritual act, an active exercise of spirit – not only of an eye or an ear. Reading should be a patient effort of transcending human powers in a humble moment of contemplation, admiration, spiritual enchantment, which requires not only skilful development of imagination but above all concentration, alertness, vigilance, gathering together diverse elements, searching for a meaning in an unhurried, careful way. And only thus would reading lead to the virtue of self-fulfilment and courage. This is the objective and, one might dare to say, a practical, useful dimension of literature. The theory of such integrative reading could be comparative literature or – as I would prefer to call it – extra-verbal reading strategy. Such an approach to literature, culture and generally to the world would be a total mobilisation of methods, discourses, interpretative modes, coming from a great variety of disciplines. I have purposely used this metaphor of total mobilisation, which is often associated with Ernst Jünger, because I would like to highlight my idea of the necessity of awakening all the spheres of human life: body, mind and soul. The essence of the method of comparative literature is interiorisation of reading as an experience of wholeness. I do not content myself with analysing only literary, aesthetic values of texts and searching for different allusions, influences, intertextual references etc., but what I am interested in is a kind of total, overall reading that would focus not on the examination of words but on tracing the networks of relations. The comparative gesture consists in going beyond literature and philology, in a shift of emphasis from literary-academic experiences to the ethic, existential and spiritual sphere where we are no longer preoccupied with philological knowledge or accumulation of information but embark on a spiritual journey towards transformation of one's self and the world around us. One might wonder whether it is legitimate at all to call this extra-verbal comparative reading a method or a theory; hence I would rather like it to be perceived as a spiritual practice, an art of life – and, what is equally important, an interdisciplinary art. The choice of such research perspective is founded on my conviction that the task of literature is not to depict what is, but rather what ought to be; or what might be, as a realization of what ought to be. What I wish to argue is that the study of

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__________________________________________________________________ literature shall be a reflection predominantly aimed at metaphysics, which is at mystery, and literary critics as those who are faced not with problems but with mysteries. This crucial distinction between problem and mystery was perfectly explicated by French philosopher Gabriel Marcel, who expounded his concept in the following way: A problem is something which I meet, which I find completely before me, but which I can therefore lay siege to and reduce. But a mystery is something in which I am myself involved and it can therefore only be thought as a sphere where a distinction between what is in me and what is before me loses its meaning and initial validity.10 We can easily examine a frog in a laboratory without any personal involvement, although maybe with some trembling in the face of the mystery of life, however it is not possible to peruse Shakespeare's Hamlet or Aeschylus's Seven against Thebes without full participation of all our intellectual and spiritual powers. All that concerns Hamlet, also concerns me; Eteoklos's great solitude in the besieged city is in some way my solitude, his struggle with destiny is also my mode of life. While the bones in the skull of a frog are certainly interesting and important matter for examination, they do not concern me directly; thus there is no need to engage all my cognitive and spiritual powers, to reach into the deepest layers of my soul, in order to investigate the aforementioned problem. If I talk here about involvement, I do not mean, however, any ideological involvement. I fully agree with the already cited words of Harold Bloom that ‘to read in the service of any ideology is not to read at all.’ We cannot do without existentially and spiritually involved reading, but it would be a reading taking place in the aura of contemplation and adoration rather than in the context of any authority which could usurp its right to offer full explanations and definite answers. This involvement is for me first and foremost the involvement in the higher order, which literature is a reflection of. Without a longing for at least temporary order, there would be no literature, art or music. Even if truth is plural, manifold and heterogeneous, it is still absolute, united expression. At the same time the awareness of such global synthesis could have therapeutic functions, linking intellect and body, will and soul. What I would like to stress once more is that the research approach which I propose does not function only with reference to literary studies. Grounded in the belief in the unity and integrity of life, it could also encompass other disciplines and arts, thus allowing us all to meditate upon the world as a whole and the spirit of inner relations. The second characteristic of the mode of reading proposed by me is its relation to religious and theological thought. It is my intention to interpret literature and culture theonomously – to use the term coined by Paul Tillich. There might appear

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__________________________________________________________________ suspicions, accusations that what I wish to practise is a theo-comparative study. And indeed it is. I do not deny that my understanding of literature and culture follows the most radically theonomous way, and ‘Theonomous culture - as Tillich says - is Spirit-determined and Spirit-directed culture, and Spirit fulfils spirit [human spirit] instead of breaking it.’11 Thus the idea of theonomy is not antihumanistic. My reflection within the field of literary, philosophical and comparative studies is grounded in the faith. It is a mode of thinking out of faith, always with an intention of fusion of different spheres of human intellectual and spiritual activity. The proposed project of extra-verbal reading strategy is an option very close to Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction; however, the role which philosophy played in deconstruction is taken here by religious thinking. From such perspective the function of writing would turn out to be fundamentally ascesis, prayer and spiritual reflection upon oneself, the world and God. To conclude, we could say that what makes the extra-verbal reading unique is its existential and theonomic dimension. As a path of humility leading beyond the well-known, familiar and safe sphere of letters and words towards the farthest corners of the world and deepest layers of human experiences, it finds its essence in a communion with other disciplines, texts, cultures, peoples; thus teaching us to transcend our own enclosed world of self and experience alterity. It is also a path to wisdom, a contemplative exercise, spiritual practice. From the perspective of extraverbal comparative study reading has sense only when it is connected to life, to the widening, enriching of life. If literature and its analysis do not deal with presence, beauty, truth and good, if they do not lead to, what Martin Heidegger called, ‘Zuwachs an Sein’, they are unnecessary or even useless – for life will always be more important than literature, reading, art, pictures. Therefore the most crucial question is: ‘What is the impact of reading of Homer, Pindar, Aeschylus, Shakespeare on my own life?’ Only such existential reading, that is a reading relevant to my existence can have some meaning but this meaning is hidden somewhere beyond the words, within the extra-verbal sphere which will ever remain ineffable.

Notes 1

Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, vol. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 249. 2 Cesare Pavese, Rzemiosło życia, Dziennik 1935-1950 (The Burning Brand: Diaries 1935-1950 (Warsaw: PIW, 1972), 343. 3 Thomas Mann, The Magic Mountain, trans. John E. Woods (New York: Vintage, 2006), 159. 4 Fernando Pessoa, The Book of Disquiet, ed. and trans. Richard Zenith (London: Penguin, 2001), 63-64.

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Hugo von Hofmannsthal, ‘Gabriele d’Annunzio’, in Gesammelte Werke in Einzelausgaben. Prosa I (Frankfurt am Main: Fisher Verlag, 1950), 172-173. 6 Harold Bloom, The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages (New York: Riverhead Books, 1994), 29. 7 Bloom, The Western Canon, 30. 8 Alessandro Baricco, Lands of Grass, ed. Alastair McEwen (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2002), 57. 9 Thomas Bernhard, Old Masters: A Comedy (London: Quartet Books, 1989), 1718. 10 Gabriel Marcel, Being and Having (Westminster UK: Dacre Press, 1949), 117. 11 Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, vol. 3 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963), 249.

Bibliography Baricco, Alessandro. Lands of Grass. Edited by Alastair McEwen. London: Hamish Hamilton, 2002. Bernhard, Thomas. Old Masters: A Comedy. London: Quartet Books, 1989. Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages. New York: Riverhead Books, 1994. von Hofmannsthal, Hugo. Gesammelte Werke in Einzelausgaben. Prosa I. Frankfurt am Main: Fisher Verlag, 1950. Mann, Thomas. The Magic Mountain. Translated by John E. Woods. New York: Vintage, 2006. Marcel, Gabriel. Being and Having. Westminster UK: Dacre Press, 1949. Pavese, Cesare. Rzemiosło życia. Dziennik 1935-1950. Warsaw: PIW, 1972. Pessoa, Fernando. The Book of Disquiet. Edited and translated by Richard Zenith. London: Penguin, 2001. Tillich, Paul. Systematic Theology. Vol. 3. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.

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__________________________________________________________________ Agata Wilczek is a PhD student in the Institute of English Cultures and Literatures at the University of Silesia in Poland. She is currently working on her dissertation Apophatic Discourse in Contemporary Literary and Cultural Studies. Her main research interests include contemporary philosophy, literary theory, postsecularism and Christian mysticism. The project was funded by the National Science Centre allocated on the basis of the decision number DEC-2012/07/N/HS2/00669.

Part IV Spirituality in Education

The Buddha and Ignatius of Loyola in Conversation: Responding to the Challenge of Religious Pluralism in FaithBased Higher Education Andre L. Delbecq Abstract Catholic Universities frequently seek to anchor students’ educational experience in the spiritual charism of a founding religious order.1 In its approach, Jesuit Education leans heavily on The Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius of Loyola, a series of foundational reflection.2 As an increasing number of administrators, faculty and students come from non-Catholic traditions, religious pluralism poses a challenge. How can individuals from varied traditions find resonance with the Ignatian tradition while simultaneously feeling their own religious worldview is a valued contributor to a shared spiritual perspective? In the Western United States, Buddhism provides as an exemplary challenge. This chapter explores how the Spiritual Exercises, the experiential doorway to Jesuit spirituality, can be creatively juxtaposed with Buddhism. Although the setting is higher education, the foundational approach piloted could also be a basis for dialog in other institutional settings. Key Words: Higher education, spirituality, Buddhism, Ignatian spirituality, Jesuit, religious pluralism, meditation. ***** 1. The Origins of the Pilot Resource Catholic higher education has been concerned with preservation of its religious world-view as a distinguishing feature of its mission.3 The many factors threatening a drift toward simply being another provider of secular education are well documented.4 A key element in preserving a distinctive character has been to reference the religious heritage of the founding order or congregation, e.g., Benedictine, Dominican, Vincentian, etc..5 The stories of founding origin are seen as a convivial orientation to a spiritual perspective that inspires faculty, students and alumni. Jesuit higher education has embraced an emphasis on its tradition as central to its mission and values.6 At the core of the tradition are the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius. Every Jesuit undertakes this program of meditative reflections as part of his formation. The Exercises are much referenced on Jesuit campuses. Students and faculty are encouraged to undertake these meditations that were originally composed for lay people. However, the Exercises are deeply theistic and focused on the person of Jesus. Therefore, although in recent years the Exercises have increasingly been undertaken by non-Roman Catholic Christians, limited resources

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providing a religiously plural perspective have restricted access to individuals of non-Christian traditions. This chapter reports on one effort to provide a pilot resource for dialog between the Ignatian tradition and Buddhism.7 Concerned with making The Ignatian Spiritual Exercises welcoming to Buddhism, an inter-religious faculty group met each month for one year. The author team was composed of a business professor teaching a religiously plural graduate course in ‘Leadership Spirituality’, a religious studies professor and teacher in Soto Zen who is a dharma heir of a Buddhist community, a retired Cambodian Buddhist professor of business living as a recluse and studying Theravada Mahayana, Pure Land and Vajrayana teachings, an English professor and Bodhisattva teacher in the Korean Zen tradition, and a professor of management primarily focused in the Advaita Vedanta tradition who is also a student of Buddhism. Meditating with and studying each section of the Ignatian Exercises, the team researched and weaved together passages from classic Buddhist resources inspired by each section of the Ignatian Exercises. 2. The Orienting Point of View Both Ignatius and Buddhism are concerned with the struggle of individuals toward spiritual maturity. However, the author team made no supposition that Christian and Buddhist perspectives were saying exactly the same thing. Their belief was that each religious tradition is best understood within the holistic context of its own worldview. Christian and Buddhist reading passages from Buddhist writings will likely arrive at differently nuanced perspectives. Further Ignatius comes from one tradition within Christianity, Roman Catholic, and the Buddhist passages the team selected came from varied schools within Buddhism. Therefore, the intent was not to arrive at an orthodoxy representing either Christian or Buddhist thought. Rather, the team’s approach was to prepare reflections as a resource for a meditation retreat experience where mature teachers from both traditions would be present as guides. The team envisioned a setting where individuals would engage reflection on passages from each tradition followed by a period of personal silent meditation, i.e. Lectio Divina or passage meditation.8 Following this silent individual reflection and meditation, an opportunity for exchange among participants sharing individual insights and inner experiences would be provided. The expectation was that the deepest inspiration would come through the witness of practitioners from each tradition who serve as ‘living words’ from their tradition. Therefore, the composition of such a ‘retreat’ or ‘study group’ should include appropriate representation from both traditions together with a senior practitioner within each tradition who is knowledgeable in the tradition and experienced with meditation practice. Again, while the teams immediate concern was to provide a pilot resource to faculty and students in Jesuit universities, one can easily imagine the reference

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__________________________________________________________________ document serving Buddhist and Christian groups in other settings. Further, advanced devotees of each tradition can hopefully benefit from the reflections even when read in isolation. The pilot manuscript together with art commissioned for the project was completed in December, 2013. 3. An Illustrative Passage To illustrate the nature of the reflections the team developed we provide below a selection from the very first section of the Ignatian Spiritual Exercises together with the accompanying Buddhist reflections from the pilot manuscript.9 3.1Themes from the Exercises The theme in the ‘Principle and Foundation’ is God as Love and a call to be one with God’s wisdom and compassion. David Fleming reinterprets Ignatius’s words as follows: ‘God who loves us creates us and wants to share life with us forever. Our love response takes shape in our praise, honour and service of the God of our life. All the things in this world are also created because of God’s love and they become a context of gifts, presented to us so that we can know God more easily and make a return of love more readily.’10 He goes on to say Ignatius of Loyola calls us not to ‘abuse any of these gifts of creation since God created everything out of love.’ Compassion and love must be linked to a change in perception, seeing creation as an expression of love. If we do abuse nature, ‘we break our relationship with God and hinder our growth as loving persons.’11 Finally there is the call to balance or as Ignatius expresses it, ‘indifference’. Fleming interprets this as ‘holding ourselves in balance before all created gifts insofar as we have a choice and are not bound by some responsibility. We should not fix our desires on health or sickness, wealth or poverty, success or failure, a long life or a short one. For everything has the potential of calling forth in us a more loving response to our life forever with God. Our only desire and our one choice should be this - I want and I choose what better leads to God’s deepening life in me.’12 We further reflect on the concept of ‘indifference’ by turning to the original Spanish. ‘Es menester hacernos indiferentes a todas las cosas creadas’. ‘Hacernos indiferentes’ is described by the Casares’ Dictionary of the Uses of the Spanish Language as ‘no determinadopor si a una cosa mas que a otra’ or a state in which you are ‘not attached to choose one way or another.’13 We posit that this is not a stoic, detached or withdrawn psychological state. ‘Indiferencia’ is not about denying life and the gifts given to us in every moment. Rather, it is a state that is able to be fully present to what IS, searching in the present tense for beauty and gifts. This would be in contrast to a psychological state yearning

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for a deeply preferred ‘something else’. Attention to what IS permits one to be in a situation of deep gratitude. 3.2 Principle and Foundation: Reflections from the Buddhist Tradition In Buddhism emptiness is a foundation for interconnectedness to nature and the world around us. Emptiness is the realization that we are not an independent self but are one with the world. The Zen Master Lewis Richmond, once a student of Suzuki Roshi, founder of San Francisco Zen Centre, described Suzuki Roshi’s conceptualization of the fruit of emptiness as follows: ‘Emptiness is the experience of being at your mother’s bosom and knowing you will be taken care of.’14 Thich Nhat Hanh describes the way in which emptiness permits us to be in touch with the total interconnectedness of everything. He sees emptiness as the basis for love of self and the prelude for love of nature and the universe. This is because when we are empty of an independent self we can instead be full of all that comes together in each unfolding moment. Therefore, engaged non-attachment, somewhat parallel to ‘indifference’, is directly linked to gratitude for all of creation. In The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching Thich Nhat Hanh writes: In the Diamond Sutra we are taught that a human being is not independent of other species, so to protect humans we have to protect the non-human species. If we pollute the water and air, the vegetables and minerals, we destroy ourselves. We have to learn to see ourselves in things that we thought were outside of ourselves in order to dissolve false boundaries. In Buddhism, the change in perception is one from feeling isolated and separate to feeling connected with all sentient beings and nature.15 For a Buddhist, without this change in perception an individual’s suffering will not be transformed. Buddhism believes in engaged nonattachment as a foundation for a practice destined to move us away from our fears to a more refined capacity to stay present to what IS. Buddhism believes that within the impermanent perpetually perishing world a flow of happiness, remarkable for its depth and durability, is entirely possible. It believes every man and woman embodies a capacity for attending to the rich flow of quality which arises spontaneously in the passing moments of life from a place just beyond ego’s reach.16 Buddhism is not about facilitating a mindless separation from life. Rather, it is about increasing awareness. However, it sees the practice fundamental to psychological transformation as ‘choiceless awareness,’ sometimes expressed as

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__________________________________________________________________ ‘bare attention.’ This form of awareness has been described as ‘sustained, observational, nonreactive attention to inner and outer experience.’17 In this pure awareness, gratitude naturally emerges as we are present to the abundance of the moment. This gratitude in Buddhism is not necessarily directed to a theistic entity but to the ‘Pure Land’ of all beings, human and non-human alike, living in a constant state of interpenetration. If one can be present with love to this world and the life of all beings, one helps the universe emerge as one creation thriving and growing free without hindrance.18 Buddhism contrasts this state of heightened, non ego-distorted awareness with ordinary attention that comes and goes without our mindfulness. Ordinary awareness is not something we attend to but something that happens to us stimulated by habit pathways within our organism.19 ‘Keep a mind so filled with love that it is clear like space’ is an instruction the Buddha gave to his followers.20 Creating ‘space’ to receive what IS and to let others ‘BE’ is the way. Buddhists seek to facilitate the interpenetration and perfection of love across human and nonhuman life. Buddhist precepts ask explicitly that we pay attention to how rare it is to be in this awareness. Buddhism teaches that freedom from greed, aversion, selfconfusion and other distortions caused by craving for gratification is required to touch this inner happiness.21 Buddhists of the Theravada, Mahayana, or Vajrayhana traditions teach that coming to an understanding of the true nature of reality requires wading through the three poisons of ignorance, greed and anger. In the Zen tradition it is expressed that spiritual practice leading to non-preference allows the ‘true self to touch the true beauty’ of the world.22 4. The Experience of Early Users of the Pilot Manuscript Early experience suggests that the pilot manuscript juxtaposing reflections from the Exercises and Buddhism had been a positive experience. To date participants have been mature practitioners from both traditions: Jesuit priests obviously familiar with the Exercises, Buddhist scholars and teachers, faculty members from across Christian, Jewish, Buddhist and Hindu traditions, and mature executives who have engaged in a prior meditation practice. From these early pilot experiences feedback indicates that individuals who engaged the parallel meditations using materials based on the Exercises together with Buddhist reflections: Found the ‘retreat’ format combining reading, reflection, silence and sharing individual inner experience very powerful. There are few inter-religious or ecumenical opportunities that include all these elements.

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The Buddha and Ignatius of Loyola in Conversation For Christian and Buddhist participants, parallel exposure to the wisdom of the two traditions led to surprise insights regarding each tradition, but also led to consciousness of nuances within their own tradition they would not have been sensitive to except through the juxtaposing. All felt they had new appreciation for the two traditions but that this appreciation was not simply the result of conceptual resources, it also grew from appreciative listening to other participants whose authentic witness to their own inner experience was inspiring as well instructive. Because the Exercises are meant to lead an individual toward great freedom through the classical stages of purgative (stepping away from sin and distortion), illuminative (understanding the source of light and wisdom), and unitive (becoming one with spirit, the cosmos, creation and others and committing to loving/compassionate service) the juxtaposition of the readings from the two traditions in the context of the inner transformational journey had a resonance with inner experience that was different from simply cerebral exploration of comparative religious concepts.23

5. Conclusion In this time when religious pluralism is part of institutional and everyday life new ways of bringing individuals from varied traditions into a deeper appreciation for different religious traditions becomes an important challenge. This effort providing a pilot resource for a shared experience between Christian and Buddhist traditions offers one promising approach to bridging the gap between traditions.

Notes 1

John R. Wilcox, Jennifer A. Lindhold and Suzanne D. Wilcox, Revisioning Mission: The Future of Catholic Higher Education (North Charleston, South Carolina: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013), 20-21. 2 David L. Fleming, Draw Me Into Your Friendship: The Spiritual Exercises (St. Louis: The Institute for Jesuit Resources, 1996). 3 Doris Gottemoeller, R.S.M., ‘Catholic Institutional Ministries: Their History and Legacy’, in Called and Chosen: Toward of Spirituality for Lay Leaders, eds. Zeni Fox and Regina Bechtle, S.C. (New York: Sheed and Ward 2005), 53-66. 4 George M. Marsden, The Outrageous Idea of Christian Scholarship (New York: Oxford University Press 1997).

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Gottemoeller, ‘Catholic Institutional Ministries.’ The Society of Jesus in the United States, ‘Communal Reflection on the Jesuit Mission in Higher Education: A Way of Proceeding,’ in A Jesuit Education Reader, ed. George W. Traub, S. J. (Chicago, IL: Loyola University Press, 2008), 177-188. 7 The pilot resource manuscript reported on is: Andre L. Delbecq, Sarita TamayoMoraga, Bo Tep, Len Tischler and Juan Velasco, Ignatius and the Buddha in Conversation: A Resource for a Religiously Plural Dialog Juxtaposing the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatus and Buddhist Wisdom (Santa Clara, CA: Santa Clara University, The Institute for Spirituality of Organizational Leadership, 2013). 8 Basil M. Pennington, Lectio Divina: Renewing the Ancient Practice of Praying the Scriptures (New York, NY: The Crossroad Publishing Co., 1998); Tim Flinders, Doug Oman, Carol Flinders and Diane Dreher, ‘Translating Spiritual Ideals into Daily Life: The Eight-Point Program of Passage Meditation,’ Contemplative Practices in Action: Spirituality, Meditation and Health, ed. Thomas Plante (Santa Barbara, CA: Prager, 2010). 9 Delbecq et.al, Ignatius and the Buddha in Conversation. 10 Flemming, Draw Me Into Your Friendship, 27. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Julio Casares, Diccionario Ideologico de la Lengua Espanola, ed. Gustavo Gili (Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1982), 470. 14 Lewis Richmond, Class Lecture: Heart Sutra, Empty Nest (North Fork, CA: Zendo, 2012). 15 Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching: Transforming Suffering Into Peace, Joy and Liberation (New York, Broadway Books), 147. 16 Sharon Solzberg, ‘Becoming the Ally of All Beings,’ Shambala Sun, January, 2013. Accessed 14 April 2014, http://www.shambhalasun.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=1630. 17 Philip Novak and Ravio Ravindra, The Inner Journey: View from the Buddhist Tradition (Sandpoint, ID: Morning Light Press, 2005). 18 Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching, 147. 19 Novak and Rabindra, The Inner Journey, 46. 20 Nanamoli Thera, Dhammacakkappavattan: A Sutra, Setting Rolling the Wheel of Life, 2012. Accessed 14 April 2014, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.nymo.html. 21 Thich Nhat Hanh, The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching, 147. 22 Frederick Franck, ‘Durkheim’s Zen,’ The Inner Journey: Views from the Buddhist Tradition, ed. Philip Novak (Sandpoint ID, Morning Light Press, 2005), 59-72. 6

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Andre L. Delbecq, ‘The Impact of Meditation Practices in the Daily Life of Silicon Valley Leaders,’ Contemplative Practices In Action: Diverse Paths for Well Being, Wisdom and Healing: Spirituality, Meditation and Health, ed. Thomas Plante (Santa Barbara CA: Praeger, 2010), 183-204.

Bibliography Casares, Julio. Diccionario Ideologico de la Lengua Espanola. Barcelona: Gustavo Gili, 1982. Delbecq, Andre L., Sarita Tamayo-Moraga, Bo Tep, Len Tischler and Juan Velasco. Ignatius and the Buddha in Conversation: A Resource for a Religiously Plural Dialog Juxtaposing the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatus and Buddhist Wisdom. Santa Clara CA: Santa Clara University, The Institute for Spirituality of Organizational Leadership, 2013. Delbecq, Andre L. ‘The Impact of Meditation Practices in the Daily Life of Silicon Valley Leaders.’ Contemplative Practices In Action: Diverse Paths for Well Being, Wisdom and Healing: Spirituality, Meditation and Health, edited by Thomas Plante, 183-204. Santa Barbara CA: Praeger, 2010. Fleming, David L. Draw Me Into Your Friendship: The Spiritual Exercises. St. Louis: The Institute for Jesuit Resources, 1996. Flinders, Tim, Doug Oman, Carol Flinders, and Diane Dreher. ‘Translating Spiritual Ideals into Daily Life: The Eight-Point Program of Passage Meditation.’ Contemplative Practices in Action: Diverse Paths for Well Being, Wisdom and Healing: Spirituality, Meditation and Health, edited by Thomas Plante, 35-59. Santa Barbara CA: Prager, 2010. Frederick, Franck. ‘Durkheim’s Zen.’ The Inner Journey: Views from the Buddhist Tradition, edited by Philip Novak, 59-72. Sandpoint ID: Morning Light Press, 2005. Gottemoeller, Doris. ‘Catholic Institutional Ministries: Their History and Legacy.’ Called and Chosen: Toward of Spirituality for Lay Leaders, edited by Zeni Fox and Regina Bechtle, 53-66. New York: Sheed and Ward, 2005. Nhat Hanh, Thich. The Heart of the Buddha’s Teaching: Transforming Suffering into Peace, Joy and Liberation. New York: Broadway Books, 1999.

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__________________________________________________________________ Marsden, George M. The Outrageous Idea of Christian Scholarship. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Novak, Philip and Ravio Ravindra. The Inner Journey, View from the Buddhist Tradition. Sandpoint, ID: Morning Light Press, 2005. Pennington, Basil M. Lectio Divina: Renewing the Ancient Practice of Praying the Scriptures. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Co., 1998. Richmond, Lewis. ‘Heart Sutra, Empty Nest.’ Paper presented to the North Fork CA Zendo, 23 July 2012. Solzberg, Sharon. ‘Becoming the Ally of All Beings.’ Shambala Sun, January, 2013. Accessed 14 April 2014. http://www.shambhalasun.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=1630. Thera, Nanamoli. Dhammacakkappavattan: A Sutra, Setting Rolling the Wheel of Life. 2012. Accessed 14 April 2014. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn56/sn56.011.nymo.html. Wilcox, John R., Jennifer A. Lindhold and Suzanne D. Wilcox. Revisioning Mission: The Future of Catholic Higher Education. North Charleston South Carolina: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013. Andre L. Delbecq is the J. Thomas and Kathleen L. McCarthy University Chair at Santa Clara University. His scholarship focuses on executive decision-making, organization design, managing innovation, and leadership spirituality.

The Ideal and Idealized School: Spirituality as the Core of Being, Belonging and Becoming Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar Abstract The aim of this chapter is to unpack the findings of an international study that sought to explore middle school student’s perceptions of the ideal school. Prior localized research suggested that this age group were more than able to articulate their understandings of what worked and what didn’t work for them in educational settings. Moreover, this research suggested that what schools needed was a connected systemic approach grounded in the precepts of spirituality as seeing beyond limitations, human formations and human instability through optimal relationships. Extending this research and then sieving the findings through a ‘responsive’ trans-disciplinary literature review, revealed that students in this age bracket require a more holistic approach to education that requires an integration of outdoor education, value development through reflective collective discovery, engagement with a chaplain-mentor, a refocusing of curriculum, complete engagement with staff and parents, and an authentic provision for student voices. In order to address the de-spiritualizing spiral of education, the model arising out of this study indicates that schools need to develop an emancipatory-holistic framework of approximative journeying. The specific elements of this approach will be presented in this chapter. Key Words: Spirituality, wellbeing, holistic schooling. ***** 1. Context of Contagion, Crisis and the Connectivity Fix The aim of this chapter is to report on the findings of a long-term international study that sought to explore middle school student’s perceptions of the ideal school. Our prior research in two schools in the United States suggested that this age group were more than able to articulate their understandings of what worked and what didn’t work for them in educational settings. It also revealed that they believed that the core ideological and practical driver of school should be socioemotionally based learning, which in our view equates with a spiritual nucleus. This initial investigation showed that this foundation of what was deemed authentic and optimal learning was made clear when one respondent stated: Its about loving here, its about loving and nurturing us in the right way. Also, here it’s about loving and exploring.1

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__________________________________________________________________ This lead and further data collection and analysis lead us to a working definition of spirituality which was framed as the: processes grounded in authentic love, through which we as individuals make sense of ourselves, the social and physical worlds around us, and how these are existentially established.2 For many researchers, this definition would be seen to encompass the concepts of wellbeing and connectivity;3 hence we will use these terms and concepts interchangeably from here on. Editorial restrictions demand that we are unable to fully explore these relationships, and so this too becomes another challenge for you, the reader, to critically examine. From our perspective these findings and developing awareness of spirituality also prompted questions as to whether students in other sites had similar viewpoints. Thus the research base was then extended to sites in New Zealand, Fiji and Australia. By way of general introduction, and specific connection to the emerging themes arising out of a responsive review of the literature, not all students in our investigation had experienced the genuine care expressed in the previous two quotes. Although they were aware this was what they needed in order to flourish. As seen in the ensuing paragraphs and pages not only do students in this age bracket know precisely the kind of schools they need in order to personally thrive, they are also aware that by and larger they are educationally trapped in educational environments where: learning is solely an intellectual exercise, which negates the reality that the whole person enters the classroom and that we, as educators who seek to nurture and grow, need to appeal to all of their senses and faculties. As a result of this negation, students are often unprepared to cope with topics of spirituality when they are raised in the academy or are unable to connect and grow in atmospheres that feel sterile, fragmented and devoid of aspects of themselves that they value.4 Within the Australian context as a whole, and the educational sphere in particular, it has become increasingly clear that young people are being confronted with an ‘upsurge and range of issues.’5 While this understanding represents recognition that nothing relatively new has been done in this time period to rectify the broad range of issues that impact on young people, it does represent a shift in awareness. The main thread in the research literature for the past fifty years has been one, which classified young people as a ‘problem population.’6 However, more recently the past contagion or septicity like terminology of deviance and delinquency has given way to notions of being at risk. While acknowledging and academically applauding this shift in language and the corollaries of awareness it

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__________________________________________________________________ brings, we would also contend that there is still an on-going issue concerning the concept of wellbeing as it relates to young people in that the research is still dominated by a deficit model. This perspective brings with it a regime of measuring using quantitative scales grounded in notions of ill health ‘that produce findings that are fragmented and incomplete.’7 It also negates and denies the human condition that continues ‘to return to the sacred and the sense of awe that the universe invites.’8 We would argue that this deficit paradigmatic view of young people is also reflected in many of the fragmentary belief systems held by educators across the globe in regard to their understanding of how children learn, and the notion of spirituality. Notwithstanding the many progressive and holistic learning based schools that we have come across in recent years, we believe that globally the lack of understanding of how children learn in tandem with a deficit a-priori predisposition, has contributed to a despiritualization of curricula, pedagogies and schools. The end result is students who disconnected with school, a sense of authentic meaning and perhaps a genuine sense of direction. As Parker Palmer describes this process of despiritualization of education as ‘death-dealing, as we have driven the sacred out of it.’9 As we have made clear, the reasons for this death sentence is that schools are still driven by curriculum, outdated assessment procedures, evaluation as competition, individuality as isolationism and outmoded applications of invalid learning theories. To be blunt, these constructs and ideals create isolationism and complete disengagement with learning. In an educational sense, or more to the point an overall life affirming sense, our prior research has indicated that the answer to the issues in education and this loss of the sense of the spirituality lies in a world-view schools whose overall ideological framework is grounded in socio-emotional engagement. We believe these processes lie at the heart of spirituality and should lie at the heart of any school. In the briefest of summaries, socio-emotional education is holistic in nature and is a place where emotional connectivity is the driving force. In other words, socio-emotional connectivity is the means by which schools and educators allow students to deeply connect to each other, the world around them and to the pathways of learning that interests them. Our view is not alone. In recent years, researchers in the fields of education, spirituality, human development and psychology have begun to frame similar views in regard to children’s development, debunking the long held myth that the goal of human development hinges on individual independence and self-sufficiency. Today, notions of interdependence and communality as spiritual awareness are portrayed in a positive light in the developmental process of children.10 Fisher and a raft of other researchers have identified several crucial components in psycho-spiritual growth that they believe occurs primarily within relationships. These include an increased sense of well-being that comes from feeling connected to others, motivation and the ability to act positively both within and beyond the boundaries

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__________________________________________________________________ of the relationship. Furthermore, Riggs & Bright believe spiritual growth within a relational framework results in ‘increased self-knowledge and knowledge of the “other” in the relationship, an increased sense of self-worth, and the desire for additional connections.’11 Over time it has been demonstrated that the degree of socio-emotional connectedness within families strengthens children, and that disconnectedness weakens their resilience. As well, disconnectedness stalls their reflectivequestioning development and curtails overall socio-emotional wellbeing. In particular, Csikszentmihali and Rochberg-Halton have both found that children of warm and empathetic families, whose members were connected and attentive to each other, tended to be more sympathetic, helpful, supporting and caring. The children from cool or disconnected families were less loyal, warm, friendly, sociable, and cooperative than the children from warm families.12 Parent-family connectedness and perceived school connectedness have been found to be protective against every health risk behaviour measure except history of pregnancy. While acknowledging the brevity of the previous references to the research base, we have succinctly attempted to demonstrate that spirituality in schools should not be disconnected from the overall communities and families they should serve. Indeed spirituality as connectivity aims at developing and making explicit the sense that we all feel, of needing to belong to something larger than oneself within in a community. A deep sense of belonging leads in turn to deeper personal and social awareness, all of which has been demonstrated to generate personal and social accomplishments. These facets should in turn generate a sense of wellbeing. It is generally accepted that adolescents for example, often feel alone with no one to turn to when needing help. A connected community provides the opportunity for support in these instances. As well, a connected support mechanism provides provision for the facilitation of the ambition that drives us to achieve, with connectedness the force that urges us to ally, to affiliate, to enter into mutual relationships, to take strength and to grow even further as an individual through cooperative behaviour. As well, socio-emotional communities could also provide the mechanisms to engender the development of competence, confidence and self-esteem. If we do not pay close attention to children's developing sustaining connections, connections of all sorts, then they will always be at risk of not finding satisfaction and meaning in life, no matter how competent they may become. As Lerner states: Only through our connectedness to others can we really know and enhance the self. And only through working on the self can we begin to enhance our connectedness to others.13

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__________________________________________________________________ However, the question remains as to what such a supportive community would look like in regard to the processes and connectivity? 2. Research Findings: A Descriptive Account of Perspectives, Positions and Points of View The following diagram and explanation arose from our respondent’s views and perceptions of what was needed in respect to this question.

Figure 1: The Idealized School © 2014. Courtesy of Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar Before unpacking this schematic, it needs to be stated that the middle school respondents in this study, by and large, believed that a more holistic approach to education was needed so as to provide greater connection to their overall sense of self, and as a corollary, to their learning. This sense of integration was also determined to be much broader than the typical approach of pulling subjects into some form of focused curriculum. Rather, this amalgamation was deemed to also require an integration of home life, as well as the processes and outcomes of outdoor education. Indeed the latter was very much the engagement glue that ran throughout this perceived need. These engagement factors included value development through reflective collective discovery, engagement with a chaplain-

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__________________________________________________________________ like-mentor, a constant refocusing of curriculum at critical intervals, complete engagement with staff and parents and an authentic provision for student voices. As stated, the optimal learning environment for these students was seen to be a totally inclusive community in that the school environment interacts and is responsive to the needs of the home community it serves. This does mean that the community alone drives the learning processes, rather it is made aware of the ideological premises on which the school is founded and has the opportunity to ask questions, have input into future directions. Several respondents stated that they would also like their parents to be a key component of all staff professional development. It would appear that these students have a perceived need of directionality. Student R summed this up when he stated: “What I think we want and need as a school is a generosity of spirit. Like ‘K’ has it and its this spirit that makes a real school.” While they believed they needed to have a voice in their educational direction, they also needed to know that all participants in their educational journey were fully aware of how this is to proceed and what is expected. This understanding is very much akin with Miller’s statement that: Besides the whole person there needs to be wholeness in the community. People need to be able to relate to one another openly and directly and to foster a sense of care. Communities need to operate on democratic principles and support pluralism.14 While also needing all parties to be aware of, and on board with their actual educational sphere, these students also looked for all to be fully aware that what they required was a meaning driven education. It goes without saying that there were core elements such as literacy and numeracy that were an integral component of this meaning requirement, but what they desired as a primary focus was a constant support process, which they could access to both alleviate any elements of uncertainty as well as foster skills, talents and elements they are passionate about. One of the critical elements that these students believed fostered authentic learning and meaning was the notion of socio-emotional engagements. While shown as a separate entity in the previous diagram, generally speaking these students saw that development of emotional awareness and emotional resiliency as core elements that ran throughout the entire imagined framework. It needs to be also explicitly stated that the reference to emotion is in no way grounded in the concepts of feelings alone. Rather, it relates to the means by which these students can connect to a genuine meaning of their own life and the lives of others. Specific elements that they rarely dealt with such as love, hate, forgiveness and hope. Student K believes that if these issues were part of the daily school process it would aid the more academic aspects of school. “It helps with learning, because if you carry stuff around you’re thinking all the time that’s heavy you get

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__________________________________________________________________ distracted. It frees you up, you feel safe, and safe to take risks. You’re not as distracted.”15 Returning the first student quote in this chapter, it would appear that a school program based on problem solving or project based learning was the preferred model for learning. This self-directed approach, within a framework of genuine support and safety, was believed by the respondents to incorporate the elements of finding their own set strengths and interests. As well as providing scaffolding, and supportive emotional connections through working collaboratively with others, these respondents by and large also saw connective decision making as one mechanism to realize an understanding of deeper spiritual needs. The on-going discussion and connective reflective elements found in the outdoor education possibilities, were also seen to be critical elements that could be transferred into the classroom situation to as to facilitate authentic engagement with their learning and make connected spiritual understandings. Again, while not suggesting a hierarchy but rather a synergistic system, certainly the young adolescents in this study saw the concept of resilience as being a possible, and interconnected important outcome of both the outdoor process and school experience. With all of this process in play, this group of students believed that they would be free to find out a raft of what they saw as critical issues. The aspects included who they were, what they needed to learn, and where and how they fitted within a group. Thus, at the core of their envisaged ideal school lay the interwoven foci of learning to belong, become and believe. 3. How It Works: The Idealized School as Approximative Journeying In summarizing the process by which these students understood the idealized school would operate, we have come to the conclusion it could only be termed approximative journeying. As the name suggests, this process provides opportunities for students to take responsibility to explore their own interests and learning. However, in order to do this they must feel secure in the actual knowledge, explicitly developed awareness and definitive experience that they are free to explore and question without any form of psychological or emotional harm. Enacting the notion of approximative journeying, mistakes or misdirections will naturally occur. Rather than seeing these through a deficit lens, the general these should be seen as opportunities to grow, change personally and learn from each other. In being provided the opportunity to collaboratively embark on their own self-directed journey implies that they must be able to navigate between how they see the world as individuals, how the world is conceptualized from other’s points of view and how this creates a developing spiritual awareness of ever increasing understanding. As stated by one student, the points of connection between these layers were the times that “just surprises you, shocks you or makes you go what does this really mean? I mean I can find stuff on the Internet if I want to know something. But I need help with what it all really means and where I fit, in

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__________________________________________________________________ everything.”16 Learning for this group was not primarily facts or figures, but the processes that underpinned the social and natural world around them. As well, an integral component of their proposed learning was their desire to make links to the ‘transcendent part of life, something that takes us beyond our current way of thinking, feeling, or acting.’17

Notes 1

Student A1, interviewed by authors, Santa Barbara, F, June 10, 2010. See Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar, ‘Forgotten, Forbidden and Forestalled: Emotion as the Core Ingredient in Classroom Learning,’ in Cross Examination of the Core: An Interdisciplinary Focus on Authentic Learning, eds. Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar (Santa Barbara: Antonian Press, 2010), 55-63. 3 David Haye and Rebecca Nye, The Spirit of the Child (London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2006), 28. 4 Njoke Wane, Energy Manyimo and Eric Ritskes, ‘Introduction,’ in Spirituality, Education and Society, eds. Njoke Wane, Energy Manyimo and Eric Ritskes (Boston: Sense Publishers, 2011), xviii. 5 Marion de Souza, Patricia Cartwright and Jacqueline McGilip, ‘The Perceptions of Young People Who Live in a Regional City in Australia of Their Spiritual WellBeing: Implications for Education,’ Journal of Youth Studies 7, (2004): 155. 6 Peter Kelly, ‘The Entrepreneurial Self and “Youth at Risk”: Exploring Horizons of Identity in the Twenty-First Century,’ Journal of Youth Studies 9, (2006): 19. 7 Richard Eckersley, Ani Weirenga and Johanna Wyn, ‘Success and Wellbeing: A Preview of the Australia 21 Report on Young People’s Wellbeing,’ Youth Studies Australia 25, (2006): 12. 8 Edmund O’Sullivan, ‘Emancipatory Hope: Transformative Learning and the Strange Attractors,’ in Holistic Learning and Spirituality in Education: Breaking New Ground, eds. John Miller, Selia Karsten, Diana Denton, Deborah Orr and Isabelle Colalio Kates (Albany: University of New York Press, 2005), 70. 9 Palmer, Parker, ‘The Grace of Great Things: Reclaiming the Sacred in Knowing, Teaching and Learning,’ in The Heart of Learning: Spirituality in Education, ed. Steven Glazer (New York: Jeremy Tarcher, 1999), 21. 10 John Fisher, ‘Feeling Good, Living Life: A Spiritual Health Measure for Young Children’, Journal of Beliefs and Values 25, (2004): 308. 11 Stephen Riggs and Michael Bright, ‘Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Feminist Approach to Inpatient Treatment Using Jean Baker Miller’s Relational Model,’ Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 4, (1997): 220. 2

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Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Eugene Halton, The Meaning of Things: Domestic Symbols and the Self (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 148. 13 John Miller, ‘Introduction: Holistic Learning,’ in Holistic Learning and Spirituality in Education, eds. John Miller, Selia Karsten, Diana Denton, Deborah Orr and Isabella Colalillo Kates (New York: University of New York Press, 2005), 2. 14 Student M16, interviewed by authors, Santa Barbara, F, April 16, 2013. 15 Student F3, interviewed by authors, Lautoka, June 12, 2013. 16 Student L2, interviewed by authors, Lautoka, June 13, 2013. 17 James Nelson, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality (New York: Springer, 2009), 4.

Bibliography Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly and Eugene Halton. The Meaning of Things: Domestic Symbols and the Self. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999. de Souza, Marion, Patricia Cartwright and Jacqueline McGilip. ‘The Perceptions of Young People Who Live in a Regional City in Australia of Their Spiritual WellBeing: Implications for Education.’ Journal of Youth Studies 7, (2004): 155-172. Eckersley, Richard, Ani Weirenga and Johanna Wyn. ‘Success and Wellbeing: A Preview of the Australia 21 Report on Young People’s Wellbeing.’ Youth Studies Australia 25, (2006): 10-17. Fisher, John. ‘Feeling Good, Living Life: A Spiritual Health Measure for Young Children.’ Journal of Beliefs & Values 25, (2004): 307–315. Fitzsimmons, Phil, and Edie Lanphar. ‘Forgotten, Forbidden and Forestalled: Emotion as the Core Ingredient in Classroom Learning.’ In Cross Examination of the Core: An Interdisciplinary Focus on Authentic Learning, edited by Phil Fitzsimmons and Edie Lanphar, 55-63. Santa Barbara: Antonian Press, 2010. Haye, David, and Rebecca Nye. The Spirit of the Child. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2006. Kelly, Peter. ‘The Entrepreneurial Self and ‘Youth at Risk’: Exploring Horizons of Identity in the Twenty-First Century.’ Journal of Youth Studies 9, (2006): 17-32.

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__________________________________________________________________ Miller, John. ‘Introduction: Holistic Learning.’ In Holistic Learning and Spirituality in Education, edited by John Miller, Selia Karsten, Diana Denton, Orr, Deborah and Isabella Colalillo Kates, 1-6. New York: University of New York Press, 2005. Nelson, James. Psychology, Religion and Spirituality. New York: Springer, 2009. O’Sullivan, Edmund. ‘Emancipatory Hope: Transformative Learning and the Strange Attractors.’ In Holistic Learning and Spirituality in Education: Breaking New Ground, edited by John Miller, Selia Karsten, Diana Denton, Deborah Orr and Isabelle Colalio Kates, 69-78. Albany: University of New York Press, 2005. Parker, Palmer. ‘The Grace of Great Things: Reclaiming the Sacred in Knowing, Teaching and Learning.’ In The Heart of Learning: Spirituality in Education, edited by Steven Glazer, 15-32. New York: Jeremy Tarcher, 1999. Riggs, Stephen, and Michael Bright. ‘Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Feminist Approach to Inpatient Treatment Using Jean Baker Miller’s Relational Model.’ Archives of Psychiatric Nursing 4, (1997): 218-224. Wane, Njoke, Energy Manyimo and Eric Ritskes. ‘Introduction.’ In Spirituality, Education and Society, edited by Njoke Wane, Energy Manyimo and Eric Ritskes, xv-xxiii. Boston: Sense Publishers, 2011. Phil Fitzsimmons is an Associate Professor-Research at Avondale College of Higher Learning, Cooranbong, Australia. Edie Lanphar is a lecturer in all stages of the pre-service teaching program at Avondale College of Higher Learning, Cooranbong, Australia.

Seeing Crucibles: Educational Relevance of Spiritual Development Audrey Lingley Abstract Advocates of middle grades reform in the United States argue that curriculum and instruction, as well as leadership and organization, should be informed by knowledge of the developmental characteristics of 10 to 15 year-olds within physical, social, emotional, psychological, cognitive, and moral domains. Noticeably absent from their conception of human development are spiritual developmental characteristics of young adolescents. Noting the absence, I conducted a critical constructivist1 inquiry of the following question: What is the educational relevance of spiritual development in middle grades education? To study this question, critical historiographical research methods 2 were used to interrogate the academic discourses of three fields related to the research question: a. the middle grades concept; b. spirituality as a developmental domain; and c. holistic education. Foundational texts from these fields served as sources of data. I present the result of the data analyses as narratives on the paradigms that influenced the histories of these three academic fields. These narratives were analyzed for common epistemological and ontological perspectives. Amongst the paradigms of the three fields, three meta-paradigms are shared: Ecological Epistemology, Holistic Ontology, and Positivist Ontology. In addition, a discursive interrelationship within each field, a dynamic of paradox, was found between the three meta-paradigms. These results offer encouragement for the relevance of spiritual development as part of the middle grades concept, as they suggest that integration of knowledge of adolescent spiritual development is theoretically supported by commitments to caring relationships in schools and constructivist learning theory. The results allow for a new discourse of possibility3 for spirituality in education, framed in this paper as spiritually responsive pedagogy. Key Words: Spiritual development, middle grades education, young adolescent development, critical historiography, spiritually responsive pedagogy, philosophy of education, social context of education, critical research methodologies, critical constructivism, holistic education. ***** 1. Including Spiritual Development in Developmentally Responsive Pedagogy In the field of middle grades education in the United States, pedagogical emphasis has been on designing and implementing practices that address the needs, interests, and abilities of young adolescents, ages 10-15, as a distinct developmental group. 4 The driving motivation for developmentally responsive

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__________________________________________________________________ pedagogy in the middle grades has been the perspective, held by many middle school practitioners, that the public education system in the U.S. overlooks the unique characteristics of young adolescents. Too often, claim middle grades advocates, teachers and administrators lack adequate knowledge of young adolescent development. The consequence of this oversight is an educational experience that can be hazardous5 to the short and long term growth, academic and otherwise, of middle school students. In aligning specific practices with early adolescent developmental theory, much of the relevant literature from the fields of middle grades education follows the discursive lead provided by the field of developmental psychology. That is, rhetorical descriptions of the characteristic developmental traits for young adolescents include the cognitive, social, emotional, psychological, physical, and moral domains.6 The spiritual domain of human development is not referenced, at least textually. Some attributes of emotional, moral, psychological, and cognitive development overlap with attributes of spiritual development. An example of this implied spiritual developmental content is the shift in how young adolescents experience interconnection with one’s community. However, on the whole, the issue of student spiritual development is excised from the discourse on teacher knowledge of young adolescent development. In my analysis of the literature on young adolescents and their need for belonging in their school context, I identified the causes and conditions of belonging, and its near enemy, alienation. From that analysis, I came to the conclusion that the absence of the spiritual development of middle grades students within the foundational literature on middle grades education is problematic. I made this connection between alienation and spiritual development through an analysis of the specific recommendations made by middle grades advocates for promoting a sense of belonging. 7 These recommendations, such as using strong relationships to foster and promote a culture of learning, were justified by invoking students’ developmental needs. Each specific recommendation was strengthened when teachers and administrators were addressing the developmental domains with a holistic approach. Using the same logic as middle grades advocates, the impact of the developmental model could be strengthened with the inclusion of the spiritual needs, interests, and abilities of young adolescents. I take the position that leveraging adolescent spiritual development can enhance middle grades curriculum and instruction in the same ways that leveraging knowledge of the characteristics of the other, more commonly referenced domains of development enhances instruction and curriculum. In this work, I posit that it can be just as hazardous for teachers to disregard or be ignorant of the spiritual development as it can be to ignore the intellectual, socio-emotional, psychological, moral, and biological needs, interests, and abilities of young adolescents.

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. A Critical Constructivist Perspective on Spirituality in Education The purpose of the research described in this paper8 was to illuminate what I saw as an area of missed opportunity in the field of middle grades education: the explicit inclusion of the spiritual domain as an element of young adolescent development. My central inquiry question was, What is the educational relevance of spiritual development in middle grades education? Because this study was conducted with a critical constructivist lens,9 efforts to answer the research question were framed within a certain set of assumptions: knowledge production is influenced by the values of the producers and the context within which knowledge is produced; there is a symbiotic relationship between knowledge production and the deployment of power within a society; and education, as an institutional agent of knowledge transmission, is not neutral. By their explicit inclusion, the cognitive, affective, physical, moral, and psychological domains of human development are defined as the relevant domains to address in middle grades education.10 From a critical constructivist perspective, relevance is subjective, although groups can have strong consensus on relevance that appears on the surface to be objective, neutral, and/or empirically based. Relevance, as a subjective construct, can shift over time and when individuals from a group find themselves in new contexts. While relevance, like paradigms, can appear so tacit as to be essentialized, at its core relevance is a social construction and therefore subject to debate. However, to claim that an idea or a construct has relevance is to grant it legitimacy. Therefore, while relevance is a subjective designation, because of its potential for authority, it is desirable to possess. Seen in this light, my research question about the educational relevance of spiritual development is actually a critical interrogation of the tacit understandings that guide education in general and the middle grades concept in particular. As such, it is also a critical interrogation of which knowledge and cultural values are privileged. The absence of the spiritual development from the middle grades concept is, from this critical constructivist perspective, connected to dominant, cultural understandings about spirituality. The potential reasons for the exclusion of spiritual development is explored in the literature that addresses spirituality and education: a fear of invoking resistance,11 the difficulty of describing spirituality in developmental terms,12 and the perception that spirituality involves indoctrination of religious dogma 13 By employing a research methodology, critical historiography 14 that allowed me to unearth both the content of the paradigms influencing the related fields and the discursive interrelationships amongst those paradigms, I was able to challenge the illusion of inevitability regarding the exclusion of spiritual development from the middle grades concept. I sought to establish a clear understanding about the legitimacy of addressing student spiritual development in the context of public schooling. I situated this understanding at the

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__________________________________________________________________ nexus of three scholarly fields: middle grades reform, spirituality as a developmental domain, and holistic education. 3. Defining Spiritual Development in the Secular Context of U.S. Education In framing the exclusion of the spiritual domain from developmentallyresponsive pedagogy as a missed opportunity in middle grades education, I sought to advance a claim made by Nakkula and Toshalis. Their work represented the only mainstream literature on middle grades education that explicitly addressed the spiritualty of young adolescents as an educational issue: When we speak of faith as the dynamic and symbolic frame of orientation or the ultimate concern to which a person is committed and from which one derives purpose in life, it is clear how critical it is that we prepare ourselves to work with adolescents as they develop in this domain.15 Nakkula and Toshalis’ call for teacher preparation that includes knowledge of student spiritual development reflects an important distinction that I make as well. In conceptualizing this research, I distinguished between teaching spirituality in schools and leveraging knowledge of spirituality in schools, I focused on the latter. The middle grades concept does not emphasize teaching young adolescents about their developmental stage; advocates encourage teaching with those developmental traits in mind. What I suggest is the explicit inclusion of the spiritual domain in the discourse on developmentally-responsive pedagogy. Defining spirituality is a task fraught with complexity, nuance, and diplomacy in a Western cultural context. 16 In constructing a definition for this research, I distinguished between the terms spirituality and spiritual development. Spirituality is a universal human quality that reflects how the self relates with and is concerned with matters of the spirit: a sense of awe and wonder, a sense of being connected with something greater than oneself, a sense of reverence and mystery. 17 Identifying or describing a person’s spirituality is examining that person’s orientation towards issues of transcendence, ultimate concerns, and intimate beliefs.18 Spiritual development is a dynamic process of human development. This process involves an evolution of knowing one’s purpose, experiencing interconnectedness, and discovering meaning. Spiritual development is conceptualized as a stage-structural theory 19 and as a developmental systems theory.20 Religion and spirituality are overlapping but not synonymous constructs, and I do not treat them as synonymous in my research of the educational relevance of spiritual development as a curriculum and instruction issue. This research suggests that even in a highly diverse, pluralistic society that constitutionally mandates

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__________________________________________________________________ religious freedom, information about the spiritual developmental characteristics of students is a legitimate body of knowledge for well-prepared teachers to avail themselves of. 4. Interrogating Histories: Paradigms and Paradox For this research, I employed critical historiography, a relatively unconventional methodology in educational research. In the design of my research, I was guided by the work of Kincheloe on critical constructivism and interdisciplinary research, Popkewitz’s theory of social epistemologies, and Henry’s work on historiography in educational research.21 A historiographical approach allowed me to interpret and interrogate the ways in which the fields, or histories, of the middle grades concept, spirituality as a developmental domain, and holistic education have been constructed through an analysis of foundational texts. My sources of data were three to four foundational texts from the fields of the middle grades concept, spirituality as a developmental domain, and holistic education. These data represented the history of each field. The texts were subjected to a series of tests to determine reliability for this research, including the authors’ authority and advocacy within their respective fields. My research design included three rounds of data analysis. Each subsequent round of analysis built on previous layers of analysis, culminating in a finding that offered more clarity to the developmental processes characterized as spiritual and an articulation of how these processes could be considered relevant within a secular educational context. To address my main question about the educational relevance of spiritual development in middle grades education, I investigated two sub-questions: a) What prevalent paradigms underlie the academic discourse on the middle grades concept, spirituality as a developmental domain, and holistic education? b) What are the inter-textual and inter-discursive relationships within the convergence of the paradigms of the three fields? For the first sub-question, I found the influence of five paradigms22 for each field. I summarized these paradigm categories using gerunds, 23 as illustrated by Table 1.

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__________________________________________________________________ Table 1: Paradigm Categories MIDDLE CONCEPT

GRADES

DOMAIN OF DEVELOPMENT

SPIRITUAL

HOLISTIC EDUCATION

Separating and Re-Integrating

Mapping the Human Journey

Beliefs About What it Means to be Human

Nurturing the Nature

Aligning Heart and Will

Knowing with Wholeness

Be-Coming Together

Allowing Paradox

Perceiving Perils

Seeing Crucibles

Claiming Ontological Truths Re-Framing Accountability

Empowering Education

Legitimizing Spiritual Development

Schooling for Cultural Consensus

Epistemological and ontological issues dominate these paradigm categories, with the field of holistic education most deeply steeped in discussions on knowledge, learning, and reality. Holism, as a perennial philosophy, stresses a particular perspective on reality and knowing that lies in contrast to the dominance of technocratic educational discourse. So, in defining holistic education, it was not surprising that epistemology and ontology were frequent topics. What was surprising was the influence of positivist ontology in the history of holistic education, as represented in the paradigm category Claiming Ontological Truths. In the foundational texts on the middle grades concept, epistemological issues were referenced when describing the content of recommended practices with young adolescents, e.g., Separating and Re-Integrating. Ontological issues were referenced when middle grades advocates made claims about the stage of young adolescent development, e.g., Nurturing the Nature. The relationship between ontology and epistemology was a main theme of the history of this field: because of certain ontological claims about the reality of human development, certain epistemological perspectives were preferable for middle grades education. The history of spiritual development invoked ontological issues, especially in regards to the description of developmental processes that were spiritual, e.g., Seeing Crucibles. A subjectivist epistemology was reflected in the data: spirituality and religion were identified as social constructs that have discursively affected how spiritual development has historically been treated in the social sciences. However, I found evidence of reaffirmation of the same positivist paradigms that have historically been used to discount academic study of human spirituality, i.e., a reliance on empiricism.

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__________________________________________________________________ The potential importance of the paradoxical discourse represented by these narratives was further explored in my analysis of the contents of the convergence of the paradigms of the three data sets. In rendering findings for the second subquestion, I distinguished between two discursive patterns: a. the types of shared paradigms and b. the dynamic amongst the paradigms shared by all three fields. I found three specific types of paradigms common to all three fields, Ecological Epistemology, Holistic Ontology, and Positivist Ontology, as well as a pattern of paradigmatic interactions that was common to all three fields. These three paradigms interacted with, and against, each other within their respective academic fields as part of how practitioners and advocates in the three fields decided what was important, valued, and sustained. The influence of these dichotomous paradigms was set forth through a dynamic of paradox. That is, all three were expressed by advocates not as an argument to be resolved but as a complex scaffolding by which to challenge old rules and offer new visions within a discourse that would be acceptable within the socio-historical context of the United States in the late 20th/early 21st century. In reviewing the findings, I identified the ways in which spiritual development is relevant in middle grades education: as a source of enrichment for two central components of the middle grades concept—caring relationships and constructivist learning theory. The ontological and epistemological findings from this study suggest the middle grades field’s deep congruence with the same commitment to the inner life expressed in the histories of holistic education and spirituality as a developmental domain. However, I also concluded that the foundational literature of the middle grades concept lacks a critical, i.e., critical theory, pedagogical or theoretical perspective. The critical theoretical perspective is key, as it engenders a willingness to see the fields of developmental sciences and education as social constructions that replicate certain political and cultural values. 5. Implications for Practice: Spiritually Responsive Pedagogy Issues of discourse and cultural context weigh heavily on any exploration of spirituality and public education. However, through the conceptual conclusions about the ways in which knowledge of spiritual development enriches the central tenets of the middle grades concept, I see great promise for increasing a sense of belonging for young adolescents in schools, empowering teachers who are inclined towards a holistic pedagogy, and positively influencing academic achievement at a significant stage of education and growth. It is possible, and I would argue desirable, to extract characteristics of the processes of human growth categorized as spiritual development and apply them within the relational, constructivist-based framework of the middle grades concept. Given the data about religious affiliations in the U.S.,24 the Establishment Clause of the Constitution,25 and the complexity of distinguishing between religion and spirituality in a Western cultural context,26 I see the definitional issue as inexorably linked to the education relevance issue.

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__________________________________________________________________ How can middle grades teachers apply their knowledge of young adolescent spiritual development, if desirable, if they are unclear about what is meant by spirituality and/or spiritual development? To this end, I proposed three specific strategies for applying this research. First, I proposed clarifying and empowering language with which to define spirituality and spiritual development. Second, I offered specific suggestions for future research that explores how to integrate knowledge of young adolescent spiritual development into the middle grades education. Third, I framed knowledge of adolescent spiritual development as a pedagogical intervention for improving outcomes in accountability-era educational policies, i.e., what is good for cognitive growth is, ergo, relevant in schools. These three specific strategies can be deployed within a new pedagogical framework: spiritually responsive pedagogy. Akin to the construct of culturally responsive pedagogy27 a spiritually responsive pedagogical framework empowers educators committed to a vision of education that values the full development of human potential over technocratic proficiencies that alienate teachers and students. As an educational framework, spiritually responsive pedagogy is based on the assumption that when academic knowledge and skills are situated within the crucibles of spiritual development, students are afforded additional access points with which to integrate, master, and explore the content of school-based learning. While more work is required to fully develop a comprehensive spiritually responsive pedagogy, to begin that work I suggest a set of four required elements: a. a spiritual development knowledge base; b. spiritually responsive curricula and instruction; c. acknowledgment of the spiritual dimension of learning in schools; and d. holistic accountability. Spiritually responsive pedagogy is a call to action. As a pedagogical stance, it is founded on the belief that good education promotes liberation and agency, not compliance and alienation. Spiritually responsive pedagogy is a bridge between theory and practice that teachers can use to embody the discourse of possibility28 illustrated by this critical constructivist research. Zeichner argued that one of the great benefits of historical research is the conceptual knowledge it contributes to a field that seeks to advocate for its interests and respond strategically to challenges.29 From my perspective, today’s debates in the middle grades in the U.S. include the following three challenges: a. how to honor the intent of the middle grades concept in an era of policies that jeopardize its relational aspects; b. how to be more developmentally responsive in the middle school’s organization and leadership; and c. how to recognize and respond to the whole child in the classroom. What potential could a more holistic understanding of the developmental needs, interests, and abilities offer to these debates? This research addresses a gap in the literature of middle grades education by providing a sound theoretical basis for pursuing a more holistic implementation of developmentally responsive education for young adolescents, namely, an implementation that explicitly integrates spiritual development.

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Notes 1

Joe L. Kincheloe, Critical Constructivism (New York: Peter Lang, 2008). Leila Villaverde, Joe L. Kincheloe and Frances Helyar, ‘Historical Research in Education,’ Doing Educational Research, eds. Kenneth Tobin and Joe L. Kincheloe, (Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense, 2006), 311-345. 3 Henry A. Giroux, Ideology, Culture, and the Process of Schooling. (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1981). 4 National Middle School Association, This We Believe Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (Westerville, OH: NMSA, 2010). 5 Robert Felner, Anne M. Seitsinger, Stephen Brand, Amy Burns, and Natalie Bolton, ‘Creating Small Learning Communities: Lessons From the Project on High-Performing Learning Communities about “What Works” in Creating Productive, Developmentally Enhancing, Learning Contexts,’ Educational Psychologist, 42 (2007): 209–221. 6 Micki M. Caskey and Vince Anfara Jr., ‘Research Summary: Young Adolescents’ Developmental Characteristics,’ Middle Level Education: Research Annual, ed. Micki M. Caskey (Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association, 2007), 1-5; Robert W. Roeser, Jacquelynne S. Eccles and Arnold J. Sameroff, ‘School as a Context of Early Adolescents’ Academic and SocioEmotional Development: A Summary of Research Findings,’ The Elementary School Journal, 100 (2000) 443–471; John Van Hoose, David Strahan, and Mark L’Esperance, Promoting Harmony: Young Adolescent Development and School Practices (Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association, 2001). 7 NMSA, This We Believe. 8 The research described in this chapter refers to the author’s dissertation study, conducted at Portland State University in Portland, Oregon, U.S.A, from 20112013. That body of work was later developed by the same author into a published book, Interrogating (Hi)stories: Establishing the Educational Relevance of Spiritual Development through Critical Historiography (New York: Peter Lang, 2014). 9 Kincheloe, Critical Constructivism. 10 Caskey and Anfara, ‘Research Summary: Young Adolescents’ Developmental Characteristics.’ 11 Gail DeBlasio, ‘The Effect of Spiritual Intelligence in the Classroom: God Only Knows,’ International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 16 (2011): 143-150; Rachael Kessler, The Soul of Education: Helping Students Find Connection, Compassion, and Character at School (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2000). 12 Peter Benson, ‘The Science of Child and Adolescent Spiritual Development: Definitional, Theoretical, and Field-Building Challenges,’ eds. Eugene C. 2

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__________________________________________________________________ Roehlkepartain, Pamela E. King, Linda Wagener, and Peter L. Benson, Handbook of Spiritual Development in Childhood and Adolescence (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 484-497. 13 David Tacey, ‘Spirituality as a Bridge to Religion and Faith,’ eds. Marian de Souza, Gloria Durka, Kathleen Engebretson, Robert Jackson, and Andrew McGrady, International Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education, (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2006), 201-213. 14 Villeverde, Kincheloe and Helyar, ‘Historical Research in Education.’ 15 Michael Nakkula and Eric Toshalis, Understanding youth: Adolescent Development for Educators, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2006), 222. 16 Pamela E. King and Robert W. Roeser, ‘Religion and Spirituality in Adolescent Development,’ Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (3rd ed.), ed. Richard M. Lerner and Laurence Steinberg (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009), 435-478. 17 John P. Miller, The Holistic Curriculum (2nd ed.) (Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 2007). 18 Diane M. Hamilton and Mary H. Jackson, ‘Spiritual Development: Paths and Processes,’ Journal of Instructional Psychology, 25 (1998): 262-271. 19 James Fowler, Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning (New York, NY: Harper, 1981). 20 Richard M. Lerner, ‘Developmental Science, Developmental Systems, and Contemporary Theories of Human Development,’ Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human Development (6th ed.), eds. William Damon (Series Ed.) and Richard M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.) (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006), 1-17. 21 Kincheloe, Critical Constructivism; Joe L. Kinchloe, ‘Describing the Bricolage: Conceptualizing a New Rigor in Qualitative Research,’ Qualitative Inquiry, 7 (2001): 679-692; Joe L. Kincheloe, ‘On to the Next Level: Continuing the Conceptualization of the Bricolage,’ Qualitative Inquiry, 11 (2005): 323-350; Thomas Popkewitz, A Political Sociology of Educational Reform: Power/Knowledge in Teaching, Teacher Education, and Research (New York, NY: Teachers College Press, 1991); Annette Henry, ‘Historical Studies: Groups/Institutions,’ eds. Judith L. Greene, Greg Camilli, and Patricia B. Elmore, Handbook of Complementary Methods in Educational Research (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2006), 333-355. 22 Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.) (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1996). 23 Kathy Charmaz, Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide Through Qualitative Anaylsis, (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006). 24 Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. (Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2008). 25 McCullom v. Board of Education, 333 U.S. 203 (1948).

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King and Roeser, ‘Religion and Spirituality in Adolescent Development.’ Geneva Gay, Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice. (New York, NY: Teachers College Press, 2010). 28 Giroux, Ideology, Culture, and the Process of Schooling. 29 Kenneth Zeichner, ‘The New Scholarship in Teacher Education,’ Educational Researcher, 28 (1999): 4-15. 27

Bibliography Benson, Peter L. ‘The Science of Child and Adolescent Spiritual Development: Definitional, Theoretical, and Field-Building Challenges.’ Handbook of Spiritual Development in Childhood and Adolescence, Edited by Eugene C. Roehlkepartain, Pamela E. King, Linda Wagener, and Peter L. Benson, 484-497. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006. Caskey, Micki M. and Vince A. Anfara Jr. ‘Research Summary: Young Adolescents’ Developmental Characteristics.’ Middle Level Education: Research Annual, edited by Micki M. Caskey, 1-5. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association, 2007. Charmaz, Kathy. Constructing Grounded Theory: A Practical Guide through Qualitative Anaylsis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006. DeBlasio, Gail. ‘The Effect of Spiritual Intelligence in the Classroom: God Only Knows.’ International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 16.2 (2011): 143-150. Felner, Richard D., Anne Seitsinger, Stephen A. Brand, Amy Burns, and Natalie Bolton. ‘Creating Small Learning Communities: Lessons from the Project on HighPerforming Learning Communities about “What Works” in Creating Productive, Developmentally Enhancing, Learning Contexts.’ Educational Psychologist, 42.4 (2007): 209–221. Fowler, James. Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for Meaning. New York, NY: Harper, 1981.Gay, Geneva. Culturally Responsive Teaching: Theory, Research, and Practice. New York, NY: Teachers College Press, 2010. Giroux, Henry A. Ideology, Culture, and the Process of Schooling. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1981.

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__________________________________________________________________ Hamilton, Diane M. and Mary H. Jackson. ‘Spiritual Development: Paths and Processes.’ Journal of Instructional Psychology, 25.4 (1998): 262-271. Henry, Annette. ‘Historical Studies: Groups/Institutions.’ Handbook of Complementary Methods in Educational Research, edited by Judith L. Greene, Greg Camilli, and Patricia B. Elmore, 333-355. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 2006. Kessler, Rachael. The Soul of Education: Helping Students Find Connection, Compassion, and Character at School. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2000. Kincheloe, Joe L. ‘Describing the Bricolage: Conceptualizing a New Rigor in Qualitative Research.’ Qualitative Inquiry, 7.6 (2001): 679-692. Kincheloe, Joe L. ‘On to the Next Level: Continuing the Conceptualization of the Bricolage.’ Qualitative Inquiry, 11.3 (2005): 323-350. Kincheloe, Joe L. Critical Constructivism. New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2008. King, Pamela E. and Robert W. Roeser. ‘Religion and Spirituality in Adolescent Development.’ Handbook of Adolescent Psychology (3rd ed.), edited by Richard M. Lerner and Laurence Steinberg, 435-478. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2009. Kuhn, Thomas S. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1996. Lerner, Richard M. ‘Developmental Science, Developmental Systems, and Contemporary Theories of Human Development.’ Handbook of Child Psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical Models of Human Development (6th ed.), edited by William Damon (Series Ed.) and Richard M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), 1-17. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2006. Lingley, Audrey. ‘Seeing Crucibles: Legitimizing Spiritual Development in the Middle Grades through Critical Historiography’. EdD Dissertation, Portland State University, 2013. Lingley, Audrey. Interrogating (Hi)stories: Establishing the Educational Relevance of Spiritual Development through Critical Historiography. New York, NY: Peter Lang, 2014. McCullom v. Board of Education. 333 U.S. 203 (1948).

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__________________________________________________________________ Miller, John P. The Holistic Curriculum (2nd ed.). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 2007. Nakkula, Michael J. and Eric Toshalis. Understanding Youth: Adolescent Development for Educators. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press, 2006. National Middle School Association. This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents. Westerville, OH. Author, 2010. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center, 2008. Popkewitz, Thomas. A Political Sociology of Educational Reform: Power/Knowledge in Teaching, Teacher Education, and Research. New York, NY: Teachers College Press, 1991. Roeser, Robert W., Jacquelynne S. Eccles, and Arnold J. Sameroff. ‘School as a Context of Early Adolescents’ Academic and Socio-Emotional Development: A Summary of Research Findings.’ The Elementary School Journal, 100.5 (2000): 443–471. Tacey, David. ‘Spirituality as a Bridge to Religion and Faith.’ International Handbook of the Religious, Moral and Spiritual Dimensions in Education, edited by Marian de Souza, Gloria Durka, Kathleen Engebretson, Robert Jackson, and Andrew McGrady, 201-213. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2006. Van Hoose, John, David Strahan, and Mark L’Esperance. Promoting Harmony: Young Adolescent Development and School Practices. Westerville, OH: National Middle School Association, 2001. Villaverde, Leila, Joe L. Kincheloe, and Frances Helyar. ‘Historical Research in Education.’ Doing Educational Research, edited by Kenneth Tobin and Joe L. Kincheloe, 311-345. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense, 2006. Zeichner, Kenneth. ‘The New Scholarship in Teacher Education.’ Educational Researcher, 28.9 (1999): 4-15. Audrey Lingley, Ed.D., is Adjunct Assistant Professor at Portland State University. She is the author of Interrogating (Hi)stories: Establishing the Relevance of Spiritual Development through Critical Historiography (Peter Lang,

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__________________________________________________________________ 2014). This chapter draws from that book, as well as Lingley’s 2013 dissertation research.

Mandala: From Ancient Wisdom to an Application to Spiritual Teaching for the 21st Century in Higher Education Himapan Ruktaengam Abstract Mandala is well known as sand painting representing the Universe according to Vajrayana teachings. Deeper than that, it contains the core teaching of Impermanence, and allows those who create the art to practice meditation through Mandala creation as well. ‘The Nature of World and Life’ was a subject in the curriculum of Contemplative Education Center at Mahidol University. One assignment was the creation of an art, which was called Mandala Project. Within 3 months, each student was asked to create an art piece in whatever form one liked; however, it should represent one most important value of Buddha-Dhamma, the Buddha’s teachings, one held strongly. Each student then proudly presented her art and explained the meaning of such creation. At the last session they were told that the Mandala process would not be completed unless the art were to be destructed; ‘Would you like to complete the process?’ Quietness spread over the class. Clearly, the art piece was not the art per se; it was the ‘self’ that one withheld. It was ‘me’, ‘my’ work, ‘my’ value, etc. Interestingly, most students chose to destroy their artefacts with their own hands, some shaking, and some with tears. From written and verbal reflection, students have learnt, though with difficulty, the lesson of ‘letting go’ from direct experience, which was the key of spiritual teaching in the 21st century. The assignment of Mandala shows that it is possible to connect ancient wisdom and contemporary spiritual teaching. The core teaching remains while the application may be applied into various contexts and different settings, even in higher education. Key Words: Mandala, spiritual teaching, contemplative education. ***** Mandala is widely known as a religious ritual in Vajrayana Buddhism. Its origin, according to H. Brunner, could be dated to pre-13th-century from the texts of the Siddhānta School of Śaivism.1 Through time, many forms of mandala are performed these days; probably sand mandala is most familiar. Tibetan monks in red robes circling around one table, on top of it a mandala-in-process lies. As an observer, one may see the artist monks start measuring prior to drawing lines and figures. Gradually, they pour different colouring sands to the little part of the mandala. The construction part of one sacredly beautiful mandala may take days to finish. However, the process could not be completed without the destruction of the mandala. The most venerable monk would sweep the beautiful sand mandala by

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__________________________________________________________________ one little brush. The colourful art piece now is gone; left only a handful of sand, which could not identify its colours. As an observer, it is surely impressive seeing the construction-destruction of the mandala. However, what interests me is not solely the ritual but the process in the mind of those involving in the mandala. Beyond the process, there might be solid Buddhist teachings, as ChöyamTrungpa notes; ‘It is a way of looking at situations in terms of relativity…things exist interdependently, and that interdependent existence of things happen in the fashion of orderly chaos’2 Mandala appears as an art form; but in fact it can convey the essence of spiritual experience, through which one could reach her direct experience. The experience that John Welwood notes: ‘putting aside of habitual conceptual assumptions in order to explore experience in a fresher, looser way.’3 It is the heart that opens to accept all possibilities in life. That is the origin of the application of the mandala project. 1. Mandala as Contemplative Art One subject for the 1st year student is ‘The Nature of World and Life,’ which focuses on the teaching of the reality ‘as it is,’ based on Buddha-Dhamma (the Buddha’s teachings). Most activities are designed for students to learn through direct experiences. And the Mandala project is one of them. Students have the whole semester to carry the project from the onset to completion. Adequate time span is one important factor for this assignment. There are two combinations in order to start the project; and students have their own choices for such combinations. One is the content of Buddhist teachings they would like to choose. They can select only one topic that they would like to contemplate more deeply, or it could be other reasons. For any topic chosen, students must ensure that they understand it deeply enough to convey the content of the teaching into an art piece. The class is structured as community-based. Each student, after selecting the topic of interest, along with the art form, will present them to the class. Other students may give support, or make recommendations. Teachers play a facilitator’s role in such cases. The Mandala project here does not aim to imitate the ‘form’ of Mandala, but to expand the chance to students to taste spiritual experience through the process. The original form of Mandala is profound; therefore, it requires high skills and trainings to create it. The Possibility of closest direct experience, for those without such trainings, might be through the art that they can actually do , one which leads them to an art creation upon contemplating on the Buddhist teaching. Students are strongly advised to do journaling since the onset of the mandala project, observing phenomena inside and outside of themselves. It is actually the mindfulness practices, especially in their own feelings and thoughts. Observing

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__________________________________________________________________ oneself is a very important tool. In this project, the art piece per se is of no meaning without the artist’s self-observation. In the class of 2013, there are 7 students, all female. I gather information from their reflections and pictures on the presentation day. I would like to share the theory developing from the mandala project, the 3 stages of realization: 1. The stage of confusion, 2. The stage of completion, and 3. The stage of disintegration. Be careful not to take stages as stair ladders. Spiritual learning is not a straight line, but spiral learning. When you pass the 3rd stage, somehow you will go back to the 1st stage but with deeper understanding. The Stage of Confusion Most students can make immediate decision choosing the Buddhist teaching while their most concern is the art making. Students feel ‘worried, afraid, and insecure.’ Some admit that they lack technical skills about art, but have high expectation of their works. It is this attitude that pushes intense pressure on the students. In this stage, students are influenced by their own thoughts, which do not touch reality and false expectation. It is quite challenging to start in this stage. Student O chooses knitting to represent the Dependent Origination. It is not easy; O has to create a new pattern and specific colours for this work; ‘so that I have to read the teaching on Dependent Origination once again.’ (O’s reflection). P has a different approach: to represent the Four Noble Truths she chooses acrylic painting, which is not familiar to her. P has learnt the techniques through acrylic handbooks. It fails at first. ‘Failure in the first trial discourages my second trial. Full of self-criticism in my head, why don’t I choose other techniques? It won’t be good. It’s too much suffering…’ (P’s reflection). Students try to cope with this stage quite hard. Many choose to confront it; but some admit that they run away. R reflects that she knows she has to do the art, but she spends most of her time doing something else. It seems that she ignores it; but the warning inside ‘hey, you must do the mandala project’ is underneath. She then takes the class of watercolour painting, plans to use it for the teaching of Right Speech. G chooses what she calls ‘the art of string and nail’ with plaster as based structure, to represent Five Hindrances. G spends 3 weeks buying materials. She feels worried a bit during the art making but it then turns out to be the Five hindrances-in-practice. … decorate the faces into five emotions. I’ve tried to enlarge their eyebrows to show intense emotions. It’s hard to find out 5

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__________________________________________________________________ emotions. Searching from the Internet, but not exact what I want. I then imagine them from my own feelings. At this step, I see laziness* when I feel discourage of being unable to do it. At the same time, I feel doubt-and-wavering* on how the art will be like, and ill will* when it does not turn out what I expect. G’s Reflection, * are components of the Five hindrances. Difficulties students face in this stage are varied. B, who chooses gild, covers a Buddha with a gold leaf, has done it alone for the first time; she reflects excitement, not worrisome or hardship during the stage. The Stage of Completion Students will reach this stage when they finish their arts, and feel satisfied with them, though some students could not be at this stage after all. Quite a few students reflect their meditation practices during making the arts. ... many thoughts and feelings popping up during knitting. I saw the feeling of boredom when doing things repetitively. I tried turning on music. But then my focus moved to music; and I made mistake on knitting. I had to turn music off and focus my full attention to only one task, knitting. At some point when I felt pleasurable and focused, I knit it smoothly and efficiently. (O’s reflection). O’s fingers are painful; however, when the work is finished, she feels ‘…so delighted, relieved, and proud of myself that I can do it.’ So does P, she feels that she has learnt tremendously about suffering and success from this project. ‘My art is an evidence of my effort that I would be proud when I look at it;’ P reflects. When the work is almost done, G reflects, ‘I couldn’t take myself out of this work; I was not satisfied as yet. I spent quite a lot of time decorating the faces…’ until ‘my mindful heart warned myself that it’s enough. It’s time to finish,’ G mentions. R may not reach the stage. She admits that she spends only few hours doing her art on iPad, although watercolour painting was firstly planned. ‘It was far from what I want it to be.’ But time does not allow ‘I had to get it done.’ (R’s reflection). Time and effort spent in the work are major factors to complete the stage. B, who chooses gilding the Buddha, explains, ‘It’s a very neat job. If there’s anything wrong, you can’t go back and correct it.’ She has to clean the Buddha so that his surface is smooth to be painted with yellow oil colour. It will take 6-12 hours for the colour to dry naturally. Then the Buddha is to be covered with golden leaf. All minimal details must be closely looked upon. B practices the Buddha teaching chosen, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration, during

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__________________________________________________________________ the time she has done her art. Breath and body movement are her base of mindfulness. B also meditates on recollections of Buddha as Right Concentration. It was my happy time. I focused on the art and recollection on the Buddha. My art is not for the class, but faith to the Buddha. I did it to pay respect to him. I was so joyful. I was blessed. I took him to the Buddha room at home to pray and meditate. (B’s reflection). Those who are in this stage feel happy and satisfied. Their art becomes the symbol of happiness. Is it because the art helps the artists to feel good about themselves too? At this stage, the art and the one who creates it are one, the completion; or we may call it the integration of self and what is created by self. The Stage of Disintegration On the presentation day, each student explains content of the teaching one has chosen, the art, and the interpretation of the art, followed by some discussions. What a joyful class, I think. Then the moment of truth has come, when the students are told that the mandala project has not been completed without the last part, the destruction of mandala. The atmosphere suddenly changes. Quiet. Some students look sad. Nevertheless, it seems that tension in the class has loosen a bit, even insignificantly, when choices are given, which are to a. destroy the art, b. give it to others, or c. keep it. In the stage of completion, students feel ‘completed’ with themselves, and what they have done. However, the stage of disintegration is on the reverse although they are connected learning processes. P is one of four choosing the first choice while at first she denies it: ‘Impossible. I can’t destroy it. I have already plannedwhere to hang it in my room. Giving to others sounds okay. But will it become others’ burden? I don’t feel uncomfortable with any choice.’ Finally, when she takes more consideration on the practice of non-attachment, she recalls, This picture, if I bring it back home, sooner or later, dust will get in; and it will be one of the old pictures anyway. My feeling to it then will not be as strong as today. It will be like other stuff at home. They are valuable for my heart. But is there any one chance I appreciate them again? Never. I become a collector of the past and self-attachment. For all my life I know only how to accumulate things. This is the first time I will learn how to deaccumulate my ‘self’. Now I know which choice I will choose. (P’s reflection)

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__________________________________________________________________ P looks at her 2 acrylic pictures for a while to say goodbye, then she ‘paints them all with black.’ During her painting, what pops up in her imagination is herself spending long hours and high effort doing the arts. At that moment P feels regret destroying the arts. Nevertheless, she does not stop black painting until two frames turn black. P looks at them quietly. ‘Hearing my voice saying, “that’s it”, I feel relief,’ P reflects. G can make a decision on destroying her ‘nail and string’ work almost immediately. She guesses that it might be because she hasn’t spent enough time making the art. G takes her work back home and redecorates it for hours. When it is done, G’s feeling changes. She feels regret if the work is to be destroyed. ‘I may hang it for a while, and will destroy it later.’ But her final decision is a hammer in her hand. During hammering her own art, G feels regret and sorry. But when the destruction is done, her feeling changes; ‘I feel relief, as if I can take off a burden. My work, if it is not destroyed today, will eventually deteriorate anyway.’ The rest 3 students choose giving their arts to others. T and O’s reflections are quite similar, particularly when they are firstly told to destruct their arts. T holding her painting says, ‘I’m too sad. My inspiration will be gone with the art.’ While O looks at her colourful knitting wool, she shares: ‘from the last minute’s good feeling, it then turns strange...sad, deep sorrow’. Among them, B may find it most difficult to destroy her art of the golden Buddha. B reflects, Like thunderbolt sharpening into my heart when I was told that the mandala project was not completed until it is demolished. It is the way to practice non-attachment in the art that I take it as ‘mine’. For me, this art is not a ‘thing’, but the faith to the Buddha. I can’t take even one golden leave out of the Buddha; therefore, to destroy him is impossible. (B’s reflection). B decides to give the Buddha to her sister, who lives in another province. In this case, she sees her attachment in ‘a person, which is my sister.’ B also asks herself whether she gives the Buddha to those who is not her sister; ‘It could be; but that person must own high respect to the Buddha since he is most meaningful to me.’ Suddenly she sees her hidden attachment from ‘the way I’m so selective to whom I would give the Buddha… now I realize that I have an attachment on my faith to the Buddha,’ B reflects. 2. Learning Process Evolving The stage of disintegration is, in fact, the stage of realization. Students at this point realize that they grasp things as ‘theirs’ without themselves knowing it, and hold them more tightly than they ever thought of. The 3 stages are the learning process evolving. At the first stage, confusion is around. Everything seems fragmented. It is up and down as an unfinished circle. However, when students

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__________________________________________________________________ successfully create art pieces, together with the Buddha teaching intertwined, they reach the stage of completion. It is also good feelings that they may attach to, not the art per se. Art pieces represent their accomplishment, moment of ‘I’ve done it,’ or even faith on one’s highest respect. It seems that the circle of learning is completed at this stage. But is it? The feeling of happiness, joy, bliss is undoubtedly a part of learning, but it could not be there forever. So does everything: it changes, no matter how much we have done to keep it. The deconstructive process allows students to be pondering on their fixated notion, how much they cling their ‘self’ with things and others. Students involved in the art process only 3 months; but their deep sorrow when they heard of destroying such arts is dramatically tense. That is the sign of disintegration.

Image 2: Learning Process Evolving © 2014. Courtesy of Himapan Ruktaengam The stage of completion is when the circle is complete. However, spiritual learning is not yet finished. Deeper understanding of reality is awaiting exploration. When the new learning begins, it shakes students’ old beliefs and fixated notions, the onset of the stage of disintegration. It is time to be confused again. The stage of disintegration then turns to be the stage of confusion of the upper circle. Through time, with self-observation, spiritual understanding goes deeper as further circles. Probably until one reaches the ultimate truth, the last circle without the stage of disintegration may appear. The models are my observation from the mandala project. The 3-stage embraces all phenomena in the mind, not only the positive ones. Spirituality, as

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__________________________________________________________________ Trungpa put, from a superficial point of view, is based on the idea of making things harmonious.4 He added that …from the point of view of the mandala principle, that approach does not apply. The idea is not so much to make things harmonious and less active, but to relate with what is happening, with whatever struggles and upheavals are going onWithout confusion, it is not possible for completion. Again, without the stage of completion, it is not possible for the stage of disintegration, which opens the door to new experience. It might be possible, though minimal, if one keeps escaping unwanted situations in his mind hoping for preferable situations. In this project, students have learned to accept reality ‘as it is’ through direct experiences. As one student reflects, It is considered to be a ‘self’ lesson, a turning point of ‘self’. Though I felt a bit regret for my destroyed art, it’s much more worthwhile when I looked back and knew that I’ve learnt a lot: the art creation, the observation of self. I understand more of myself, particularly various feelings, and how they change, rising and disappearing. Quite a memorable spiritual lesson in my life.

Notes 1

Gudrun Bühnermann, ‘Mandala, Yantra and Cakra : Some Observations’, Mandala and Yantra in the Hindu Traditions, ed. Gudrun BÜhnermann (The Netherlands, Brill, 2003), 19. 2 ChöyamTrungpa, Orderly Chaos: The Mandala Principle, edited by SherabChödzin (Boston : Shambala, 2011). Chap. 2. Kindle edition. 3 John Welwood, ‘Reflection and Presence: The Dialectic of Awakening,’ Transpersonal Knowing : Exploring the Horizon of Consciousness, ed. Tobin Hart, Peter L. Nelson, and KaisaPuhakka (Albany : SUNY, 2000), 94. 4 ChöyamTrungpa. Orderly Chaos : The Mandala Principle.

Bibliography Brookfield, Stephen D. Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher. CA: JosseyBass, 1995. ———. The Skillful Teacher: On Technique, Trust, and Responsiveness in the Classroom. 2nd ed. CA: Jossey-Bass, 2006.

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__________________________________________________________________ BÜhnermann, Gudrun. ‘Mandala, Yantra and Cakra: Some Observations.’ Mandala and Yantra in the Hindu Traditions, edited by Gudrun BÜhnermann, 19.? The Netherlands, Brill, 2003. Chöyam Trungpa. Orderly Chaos: The Mandala Principle. Edited by Sherab Chödzin. Boston: Shambala, 2011. ———. The Collected Works of Chöyam Trungpa Volume Three. Edited by Carolyn Rose Gimian. Boston: Shambala, 2010. J. Krishnamurti. Choiceless Awareness: Meditation without Practice. Revised ed. CA: Krishnamurti Foundation of America, 2007. Miller, John P. The Holistic Curriculum. 2nd ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007. Palmer, Parker J. The Hidden Wholeness: The Journey toward an Undivided Life. CA: Jossey-Bass, 2004. Tisdell, Elizabeth J. Exploring Spirituality and Culture in Adult and Higher Education. CA: Jossey-Bass, 2003. Tucci, Giuseppe. The Theory and Practice of the Mandala. London: Rider & Company, 2001. Welwood, John. ‘Reflection and Presence: The Dialectic of Awakening.’ Transpersonal Knowing: Exploring the Horizon of Consciousness, edited by Tobin Hart, Peter L. Nelson, and Kaisa Puhakka. Albany: SUNY, 2000. Himapan Ruktaengam is a lecturer in the Master Degree Program of Contemplative Education at the Contemplative Education Center, Mahidol University, Thailand. Her main focus is on teaching how to bring in mindfulness practices into students’ lives with direct experience, which she applies into her classes at the centre, ‘The Nature of World and Life’, ‘Spirituality for Society’, and ‘Ancient Wisdom and Contemporary Spirituality’.

Spirituality in the Outdoor Experiential Learning Courses: ‘Life Is a Gothic Dog’ Pavel Veselský and Ivo Jirásek Abstract The vertical or explicitly spiritual aspects of education—as a possibility of opening to a wider concept of learning—still represent a relatively new and controversial theme in Central Europe. First the materialism of the Socialist era and then the materialism of the consumer society did not allow introducing this theme in the mainstream discourse of educational sciences. Its is more than symptomatic that elements of spirituality have been introduced into the process of learning rather by means of informal education and often have appeared without being directly intended. A typical example would be the courses in experiential learning, which seem to live their own story in the Czech Republic, having their own evolution and specific nature. Many of such courses focus on outdoor expeditions, which require stepping out of the comfort zone to a considerable extent. Our investigation conducted among the participants of two experiential winter courses resulted in conclusions, which seem to support the thesis that aspects of spirituality are immanently present in experiential outdoor expeditions, even though they were not included in the objectives of the course dramaturgy. Our contribution presents the findings of our research survey in the context of the dramaturgical design and reconnects them with the challenges of intentional implementing spirituality into the theoretical and practical framework of educational sciences. Key Words: verticality, spirituality, experience, outdoors, experiential learning. ***** 1. Vertical Aspects of Teaching and Learning in the Past and Present For very longtime, vertical aspects of education, in the broad sense of the meaning: spiritual, theological, philosophical, ethical, aesthetic, etc., have been an integral part of teaching and learning. Even a brief look into the history of education shows that vertical values have been firmly grounded, if not taking the lead among other values, in the educational process as well as in its theoretical reflection. Confucius, one of the most influential teachers of ancient times, did not convey intellectual knowledge only. The very core of his approach to teaching and learning was shaped around moral education. As quoted by one his disciples: ‘The Master instructed in four aspects: culture, moral conduct, wholehearted sincerity, and truthfulness.’1 Confucius stepped forward even more radically, being sceptical to practical knowledge in a way. Confucian tradition mentions a following dialogue between the master and Fan Chi, who asked the master for some farming

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__________________________________________________________________ advice. Confucius replied, ‘I am not as good as an old farmer.’ After Fan Chi’s request to learn vegetable gardening, Confucius responded, ‘I am not as good as an old vegetable gardener.’ When Fan Chi left, Confucius made a note that Fan Chi did not have high aspirations, which – in his eyes – would lead especially to the vertical aspects of teaching and learning.2 In a similar manner, in ancient Greek culture, true education ‘was not to train an individual for a specific occupation in adulthood, but to develop a person’s nature and faculties as a whole.’3 Plato himself speaks of a peculiar training within philosophical education that is able to draw the aspirant to the highest goodness, beauty, and justice.4 Comenius – ‘the teacher of nations’ – presented his idea of pansophy, universal knowledge or, more precisely, wisdom, as a general betterment of man, and consequently the whole society, with its inherent and perhaps the most important parts being the moral and theological development – the advancement of the soul. As he says in Great Didactics: Didactica Magna about the destiny of man: Reason itself dictates that such a perfect creature is destined to a higher end than all other creatures, that of being united with God, the culmination of all perfection, glory, and happiness, and of enjoying with Him absolute glory and happiness forever.5 On the basis of these three brief examples from previous times, it can be said that there were eminent figures who are acknowledged in literature on teaching and learning as the founding fathers and shining examples of the development of educational theory and practice, to whom we, through our own prevailing approach of the present time, say, ‘Keep the foremost part of your attitude, consisting of vertical realities, in the past and do not bring it into the present,’ However, by neglecting vertical aspects of teaching and learning we have become ‘hungry’ for deeper meaning and joy in the educational milieu of the last century. Parker J. Palmer does not hesitate to use strong words to illustrate such evolution. It was a century in which we watered down our own humanity – turning wisdom into information, politics into manipulation, destiny into DNA – making it increasingly difficult to find nourishment for the hungers of the heart. Education has not been exempt from this process … We took teaching and learning – that ancient exchange between student and teacher and world in which human beings have always explored the depths of the soul – and started thinning it down into little more than the amassing of data and the mastering of technique.6

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__________________________________________________________________ Parker J. Palmer who wrote these words in the foreword to the outstanding book of Rachael Kessler The Soul of Education7 was able to add also some ‘good news’ to the ‘bad news’. The ‘good news’ of past decades when certain teachers and authors went against the trend of soulless education. Although their voices may not be heard well by the mainstream, they are still there in the West and they are not exceptional, see for example.8 2. Vertical Aspects of Teaching and Learning in Czech Lands, Past and Present As for this period of time, the situation was quite different in the educational environment of Central Europe, specifically in the Czech lands. In the second half of the 20th century, when the need for vertical, that is, spiritual aspects of education started slowly to be recognized in the West, the materialism of the Socialist era did not allow teachers and students even to speak on it in the academia, classes, and public. Within the prevailing Czech tradition of study focused on Comenius’s work, its vertical aspects were quite neglected and hidden. The few authors who developed thoughts on vertical aspects of teaching and learning, mostly under the cloak of philosophy of education, were not given sufficient space to present their ideas. To give only one short example, Jan Patočka, a foremost Czech philosopher, whose secondary interest was philosophy of education, being involved in Comenius studies too, was not allowed to travel freely, had only rare opportunities to speak on it publicly, had very difficult access to relevant literature and could hardly discuss it with his colleagues,9 and finally, after expressing his attitudes publically, he died as a result of interrogation carried out by the state police. Even though there is a possibility to detect quite specific non-religious spirituality in the materialistic or even Marxist discourse too,10 the official school system and its educational content was far away from reflecting verticality, except for its deviated form, the Communist ideology and the Communist code of ethics, etc. The situation changed rapidly after 1989 year with so called Velvet Revolution, but only one-sidedly. The school system opened to the West, and teaching and learning absorbed many Western influences, but without hearing the voices for soulful education. As we have shown in the example of the evolution of the attitude to death and dying people in the Czech lands,11 the materialism of the Socialist era was only transformed into the materialism of the consumer society, and did not allow introducing voices for vertical aspects of education in the mainstream discourse of educational sciences. But, following the words of Parker Palmer, see above, even we in the Czech Republic are able to add some ‘good news’ to the ‘bad news’; not only the ‘good news’ of rare authors who have been calling for change in the last few years ‘the

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__________________________________________________________________ islands of positive deviation in the sea of mainstream,’ but also the ‘good news’ of educational practice itself, as documented briefly in the following lines. 3. Spirituality in the Outdoor Experiential Learning Courses: ‘Life Is a Gothic Dog’ As clarified in the title of this article, out of all the possible vertical aspects of education: spiritual, theological, philosophical, ethical, aesthetic, etc., we tend to focus more specifically on spirituality. The reasons are as follows. Firstly, it is the most lacking aspect of teaching and learning in the Czech Republic. The tradition of church education was partly renewed after the Velvet Revolution, the theological study has been fully developed again, at the university level, aesthetics and ethics have already become a part of the educational process, although not so inherently as they need to be. Secondly, we find spirituality to be substantially different from religiosity. While religiosity is connected to a deity or God, meaning ontologically different reality, spirituality may be a part of the real world, and connected with existence, purpose, and meaning of life.12 It means that mere ontological differentiation between the sacral, religious, holy, and secular, profane, mundane, and their experiencing13 determines whether our discourse is religious, or spiritual, and thus having potential to address – in its non-religious form – the needs of the whole population, which may be vital in such a secular society as the Czech Republic is.14 And last but not least, as we noticed in our research survey, spirituality has emerged in a specific form of education by itself, without any need to be implemented intentionally. The ‘good news’ and a really inspiring and symptomatic fact is that elements of spirituality have been introduced into the process of learning rather by means of informal education and often have appeared without being directly intended. We would like to introduce a research survey dealing with experiential learning courses, which write their own story in the Czech Republic, having their own evolution and specific nature. This specific series of courses, entitled ‘Life is a Gothic Dog’, focuses on outdoor expeditions which require stepping out of the comfort zone to a considerable extent. Our investigation was conducted among the participants of two such experiential winter courses. Although our objective was to observe whether spirituality appeared or not in the experience of the participants, spiritual experience as such was not explicitly present in the dramaturgical design of the courses, it can be identified implicitly, in the idea of non-religious pilgrimage. The participants of the courses trekked on snowshoes along the Bukovské Hills in Slovakia, following a route longer than 60 miles. The aims of the courses included staying for two weeks in quite demanding outdoor conditions: cold, snow or water, and camping and trekking in the winter landscape. Moreover, the participants were required to carry all their necessary things on their backs. Another set of aims was focused on the aspect of self-knowledge. The course was

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__________________________________________________________________ conceived as an opportunity to look at oneself differently, with the eyes of the others, in the spirit of an authentic experience. Despite thus defined objectives and the fact that the course provided the participants with sufficient time for being on their own, forgetting their everyday worries, and facing extreme hardships, spiritual experience was not among the explicit goals of the course, and if, then only in the form a non-religious pilgrimage. 4. Methodology and Findings Our research survey was conducted during a weekend in September 2012, when the participants of previous two courses, years 2011 and 2012, were present, in total 13 persons, 2 women and 11 men between 20 and 55 years of age. Although we used several methodological tools, Prague Spirituality Questionnaire,15 Systemic Constellation of Bert Hellinger and focus groups, the results presented here were obtained through individual semi-structured interviews. Every interview always started with the same question: ‘Is there anything that really touched you during the course?’ presuming that spiritual experience creates a feeling of ‘genuine contact’. Such a neutrally formulated query was meant to open the space for phenomenological unfolding of the discussed themes. Taking into account the dramaturgical design of the course, the participants in the individual semi-structured interviews referred about the following aspects of their experience, which can be interpreted as spiritual, namely: self-centering, creating ‘I and Thou’ relationships in the trekking group, and transcendence. Self-Centering ‘Many times, I just went on and ceased to perceive anything and became absorbed in myself.’ ‘The protective bubble suddenly breaks, and you simply are…’ ‘I had a very strong, long-lasting experience of having abundant time to think of what I do, how I do it, what I want to do… For the first time in my life, I stopped, somehow… I have realized now I don’t even have the time for that in normal life…’ ‘What was happening? Some kind of reconciliation, contemplation on where I am, why I am here, why I want to be here, thinking if my school and family make sense, feeling some kind of energy compelling me to become a better person…’ ‘Concentration on myself, on my inner world, my inner voice, arranging my thoughts, making my mind to leave out this and stop doing this and focusing on that.’ Creating ‘I and Thou’ Relationships in the Trekking Group ‘I somehow overcame my own blocks in relation to other people, as I used to keep such a distance… as if perceived the others from distance… all of sudden you have no energy for that anymore, the constant protection of yourself.’

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__________________________________________________________________ ‘You only deal with what is here and now, with the people who are with you, as there is nothing else… And the morning exercises, when we hugged, in such an intense group of people—I have never experienced anything like it, it was so purifying, the day suddenly received a whole new dimension, you had an immense sense of belonging to the group… You felt great in your soul.’ Transcendence ‘I take the world as it is and I am open to it, and it comes to me, and it’s a deeper connection with the world, a sense of integration, unity, because you’re not somewhere else, you don’t look from the outside on what is happening: you are inside everything. You experience the world through yourself, and it suddenly opens before you.’ ‘You can somehow overcome all the physical challenges, but there’s something behind them, something that can be… I don’t know what it is, I haven’t found out. Anyway, the physical simply doesn’t matter much…’ 5. Conclusion The findings of our research survey show that under the physical movement, very demanding trekking on snowshoes, another kind of movement can be found: the inner movement of the soul. The participants referred on being drawn inward – by the monotonous walk when they faced only the back of another member of the group, keeping ones trek stiffly without a word, and finding a kind of sense in it. Quite physically demanding conditions of the winter environment which made everyone reach the edge of their own limits together with vivid interdependence on other group members brought many of the participants to a shift in their relationship to others: it became much more authentic. To sum it up, some participants found the ‘reality beyond’ to be revealed to them, and this aspect of their experience can be regarded as transcendence in its vivid form. All the three aspects are inherently spiritual and thus prove that spirituality can be found in the educational context of experiential learning, without any reference to religion and even without being its objective. Such implicit and non-religious spirituality could be not only researched, but also intentionally tested in other educational contexts and thus made a meaningful part of the theoretical and practical framework of educational sciences.

Notes 1

Shen, Jianping. Confucius. In A. J. Palmer, A. J. , et al., ed., Fifty Major Thinkers on Education (1-5) (London and New York: Routledge. 2001), 3. 2 Ibid.

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Tehie B. Janice, Historical Foundations of Education (New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2007), 6. 4 Platón, Zákony (Praha: Oikoymenh, 1997); Platón, Euthydémos, Menón (Praha: Oikoymenh, 2000), 21; Platón, Ústava (Praha: OIKOYMENH, 2005). 5 Komenský, A. Jan. Veľká didaktika. Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo, 1991, 34 6 J. Parker Palmer, Foreword, Rachel Kessler, The Soul of Education (Alexandria, USA: ASCD, 2000). 7 Ibid. 8 W. Jerold Apps, Teaching from the Heart (Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 1996); P. John Miller, Education and the Soul: Toward a Spiritual Curriculum (New York: State University of New York Press, 2000); P. John Miller, et al., Holistic Learning And Spirituality In Education: Breaking New Ground (New York: State University of New York Press, 2005); P. John Miller, The Holistic Curriculum (New York: State University of New York Press, 2007);, James Moffett, The Universal Schoolhouse: Spiritual Awakening through Education (Portland: Calendar Island Publisher, 1998);, J. Parker Palmer, A Hidden Wholeness: The Journey toward an Undivided Life (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004); J. Parker Palmer, The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher's Life (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007); Adrew Wright, Spirituality and Education. (London: Routledge, 2001). 9 Ivan Blecha, Jan Patočka (Olomouc: Votobia, 1997). 10 R. J. Arnerson, ‘Marxism and Secular Faith,’ American Political Science Review, 79, 3 (1985): 627-640. doi: 10.2307/1956834; I. Jirásek, ‘Marxism and spirituality: an international anthology’ [Book Review], Filosofický časopis, 42.6 (1994): 1067-1071. 11 I. Jirásek, and P. Veselský, ‘The Understanding of Death in Social Work in the Czech Republic during the Socialist Era and in the Era of Consumerism through Heidegger's Authenticity,’ British Journal of Social Work, 43.2 (2013):394-410. 12 V. Frankl, The Will to Meaning: Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy (New York: New American Library, 1988).; V. Frankl, Man's Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2006). 13 Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. New York: A Harvest Book (Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1959). 14 Hamplová, Dana - Nešpor. R. Zdeněk. ‘Invisible Religion in a “Non-believing” Country: The Case of the Czech Republic,’. Social Compass 56.4 (2009_: 581597. 15 Pavel Říčan, Psychologie náboženství a spirituality (Prague: Portál, 2005).

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Bibliography Arneson, R. J. ‘Marxism and secular faith.’ American Political Science Review, 79.3 (1985): 627-640. doi: 10.2307/1956834 Apps, W. Jerold. Teaching from the Heart. Malabar: Krieger Publishing Company, 1996. Blecha, Ivan. Jan Patočka. Olomouc: Votobia, 1997. Brown, M. ‘Comfort Zone: Model or Metaphor?’ Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 12.11 (2008): 3-12. Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of Religion. New York: A Harvest Book, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., 1959. Frankl, V. The Will to Meaning: Foundations and Applications of Logotherapy. New York: New American Library, 1988. Frankl, V. Man's Search for Meaning: An Introduction to Logotherapy. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2006. Jirásek, I. ‘Marxism and Spirituality: An International Anthology’ [Book Review]. Filosofický časopis, 42.6. (1994): 1067-1071. Hamplová, Dana - Nešpor. R. Zdeněk. ‘Invisible Religion in a “Non-believing” Country: The Case of the Czech Republic.’ Social Compass, 56 (4)2009: 581-597. Jirásek, I., and Veselský, P. ‘The Understanding of Death in Social Work in the Czech Republic during the Socialist Era and in the Era of Consumerism through Heidegger's Authenticity’. British Journal of Social Work, 43.2 (2013): 394-410. Komenský, A. Jan. Veľká didaktika. Bratislava: Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo, 1991. Miller, P. John. Education and the Soul: Toward a Spiritual Curriculum. New York: State University of New York Press, 2000. Miller, P. John. et al. Holistic Learning And Spirituality In Education: Breaking New Ground. New York: State University of New York Press, 2005.

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__________________________________________________________________ Miller, P. John. The Holistic Curriculum. New York: State University of New York Press, 2007. Moffett, James. The Universal Schoolhouse: Spiritual Awakening Through Education. Portland: Calendar Island Publisher, 1998. Palmer, J. Parker. Foreword. In Kessler, Rachael. The Soul of Education. Alexandria (USA): ASCD, 2000. Palmer, J. Parker. A Hidden Wholeness: The Journey toward an Undivided Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2004. Palmer, J. Parker. The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher's Life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2007. Platón. Zákony. Praha: Oikoymenh, 1997. Platón. Euthydémos, Menón. Praha: Oikoymenh, 2000. Platón. Ústava. Praha: OIKOYMENH, 2005. Říčan, Pavel. Psychologie náboženství a spirituality. Prague: Portál, 2005. Shen, Jianping. Confucius. In Palmer, A. J. et al., ed. Fifty Major Thinkers on Education . London and New York: Routledge, 2001. Tehie, B. Janice. Historical Foundations of Education. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2007. Wright, Adrew. Spirituality and Education. London: Routledge, 2001. Acknowledgements The contribution results from a research program which is supported by the grant SGS – 432100671 ‘Dimensions of verticality in personal development through experiential learning and its reflection in education science’ under the auspices of the Internal Grant Agency of Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. Pavel Veselský, Ph.D. is a member of the Department of Sociology, Adult Education and Cultural Anthropology at the Philosophical Faculty, Palacký

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__________________________________________________________________ University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. While his personal interests have included the samatha-vipassana practice of Buddhist teaching and Sanatana Dharma tradition for many years, his current research and writing focus mostly on the Internet advisory and crisis intervention and spirituality in the teaching and learning milieu. Ivo Jirásek, Ph.D. is a member of the Department of Recreology at the Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic. He deals with philosophical aspects of movement culture (game and play, experience, body, movement) with the aim to formulate the basis of philosophical kinanthropology, which includes the issue of spirituality of movement activities and spiritual health. Another area of his research is the framework of experiential education.

Part V Spirituality in Healthcare

Spirituality in the Care of the Dying in India: A HistoricalCultural Exploration Hamilton Inbadas, Aru Narayanasamy and Jane Seymour Abstract Historical-cultural approach to the understanding of spirituality has long been recognized essential for a comprehensive knowledge of the subject in particular contexts. Establishing such an understanding is valuable for the conceptualisation of culturally appropriate spiritual care in palliative care practice. Although India is known for its rich and diverse spiritual heritage, little research has been done to explore these historical traditions to inform the perception of spirituality in the present. This chapter reports the findings of an oral history study done in India with the aim to understand the values and principles of spirituality from a historical-cultural perspective by exploring the features of the care of the dying in the past. Care practices that were customary in the care of the dying and beliefs about good death that prevailed over a couple of decades 40 years ago were analysed resulting in the identification of ‘union with the divine,’ ‘dying in peace’ and ‘dying with dignity’ as the three organizing principles. Perspectives on the present Indian scenario suggest that the above said principles play a vital role in shaping the current understanding of death and ideas of good death. Key Words: Spiritual care, palliative care, historical-cultural, oral history, India. ***** 1. Background Palliative care has been one of the loci for exploring the meanings of spirituality right from the beginnings of the hospice movement. Several studies have demonstrated that patients with advanced and life limiting illnesses often experience spiritual distress and existential despair along with the physical suffering caused by the illness.1 The philosophy of palliative care recognises the criticality of spirituality in the end-of-life phase and includes it as part of the sum of their experiences patients undergo, conceived as ‘total pain’ by Cicely Saunders, the founder of the modern hospice movement.2 ‘Total care’ in all its four aspects – the physical, psychological, social and spiritual, is thus held important in palliative care.3 Some have argued that spirituality needs to be at the centre of the care provided for those at the end of life.4 Literature on the subject of spirituality in health care reveals that defining ‘spirituality’ has been a challenging task since it either does not seem to neatly fit in to any one description or it tends to loose significance when broadened to include the wide range of elements it incorporates.5 Most popularly used notions of spirituality in health care include: Spirituality is the inner essence of life, a

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__________________________________________________________________ dimension of the whole person that is integral to and interacts with all other aspects of life, both physical and psychosocial.6 It is the aspect of life that gives meaning and purpose to life and facilitates self-transcendence.7 Spirituality involves relationship with God, others, nature and oneself.8 Several of these concepts are based on studies done among patients and health care providers. The lack of theological and philosophical content and socio-cultural context to explain spirituality has been remarked as a limitation of this approach to understanding spirituality.9 Indicating the inseparability of culture and spirituality, Martsolf has argued that spiritual care should base itself on the values, beliefs and norms of life practices of the community to which the patient belongs.10 These values and beliefs are often deeply rooted in culture, crystalized and perpetuated across generations through traditions. John Swinton argues that: Understandings of spirituality are inevitably influenced, and to an extent constructed, by the social context within which they are developed. Spirituality is constructed in different ways by various religious traditions, spiritual movements, belief systems, cultures, and contexts, and not least by particular individuals in specific circumstances.11 Very little research has been done to uncover the meanings of spirituality in end of life care in India despite the country’s known rich spiritual heritage.12 The importance of understanding the traditional, spiritual ways of caring for the dying is well recognised among researchers towards a relevant model of care.13 It can be easily observed that in India, numerous rituals surround caring for the dying. They are transmitted through generations in particular cultural contexts and are packed with meanings concerning life and death.14 Historical traditions are often viewed as powerful resources for rediscovering the wisdom for dealing with issues pertaining to the present times. Rediscovering cultural and spiritual heritage can enrich experience of life.15 An enquiry into historical traditions, which invokes the past in order to understand address the issues of the present, can make a significant contribution to understanding spirituality. The purpose of this study is to establish an understanding of spirituality in the care of the dying from a historical cultural perspective in Kanyakumari district, Tamil Nadu, South India. This is part of a larger study, which, in addition to the historical cultural perspective, also seeks to identify the relevance of the historical cultural understandings to the contemporary perceptions of caring for the dying towards informing a model of spiritual care for palliative care practice in India.

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. Methodology and Methods Oral history methodology was used in this study to access the resources of historical traditions through understanding a past experienced both individually and collectively as a community as remembered by older adults.16 Gardner defines oral history as a methodology [t]hat seeks to open novel routes for understanding the past, the relation of the past to present and the lives of others through time, by listening to the voices of individuals talking extensively about the events and experiences through which they have lived.17 Using purposive and snowballing sampling technique thirty older adults aged 65 years or more were recruited from Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu state, South India. The sample consisted of 12 Christians, 11 Hindus, 4 Muslims and 2 atheists. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with these participants. They were asked to describe care practices in the care of the dying forty years ago as they remembered. The interviews were in Tamil language. They were translated and transcribed into English by the first author, who was also the interviewer. The interview data was then analysed using a combination of thematic and structural approaches of narrative analysis.18 Using the thematic approach a descriptive account of several care practices and beliefs in the past in the care of the dying was made. The structural approach was then applied to the descriptive accounts of ‘what happened’, which helped determine the value they attribute to these practices. Using narrative analysis on the oral history narratives, three key principles of spirituality were identified underpinning the care practices and beliefs in the care of the dying in the past. 3. Union with the Divine Several practices from the interview data were recognised to be pointing to the theme of union with God. There were practices that were in common place in the past across the three religious groups. Reading sacred texts, singing devotional songs and praying for and with the dying person were the most commonly referred to practices. The sacred texts they used for reading and songs differed between religions. For Hindus, it was sections from Ramayana, Mahabarata or Bhagavad Gita; for Christians it was portions from the Bible and for Muslims it was reciting the Quran. Abirami anthathi other religious texts used by Hindus had specific readings that had spiritual guidance on ‘removing the fear of death’ and ‘avoiding a bad death,, etc. Besides, visiting holy places, pasting the sacred ash on the forehead, doing special poojas and offering sacrifices were the other common practices among Hindus. Organising communion in deathbed was common practice among Catholic

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__________________________________________________________________ Christians. Giving drops of water, milk or honey was reported as a common practice in those days across religions. For Hindus the water can be from river Ganges or another sacred place and for Muslims it is Zamzam water, holy water from Mecca. All these and other practices were observed to hold a range of meanings for the participants of the study and the community and worldview they represented. Singing devotional songs, reading sacred texts and praying were done so that the person in deathbed is encouraged to have ‘God thought’ in their mind. In addition it also gave the opportunity for the person to acknowledge his failures in life and ask God for forgiveness. Receiving communion was seen as another ritual that facilitated this process. The drop of water, milk or honey given symbolised an internal purification that prepares the person for the union with God. The offering of poojas and sacrifices were offered so that any blemish that might affect the person’s union with God may be removed. All such practices were done with the intention of helping the dying person unite with the divine: “In that stage, if people are sitting around and saying ‘Narayana Narayana’, or Jesus, Jesus, or Allah, Allah, the person automatically has those thoughts running in their mind. It gives him the chance to get that ‘God thought’. There is this . . . if you have the ‘God thought’ when you die, there is the chance that you will reach God.” Kumaran, 66, Leader at Spirituality Centre Thus through the care practices that were described from forty years ago, it is apparent that people in those days were involved in care practices that emphasised the idea of death as a transition leading to union with God.19 Although different religious groups presented specific ways of describing it, ‘heaven’ or ‘the good place,’ the common theme that emerged was facilitating the union of the person with the divine. This is seen as a crucial theme undergirding many care practices. Idiculla and Ravindran amply capture this thought: Despite differences in teachings of oriental and occidental religions, almost all faiths consider death as a twilight zone as a person moves from this world into the next to meet the Divine or the ultimate Truth.20 4. Dying in Peace The second prominent theme that emerged through the analysis of data is assisting one to die in peace. Most participants recollected how extended families were gathered around the dying person and visiting someone at deathbed was considered a duty and moral obligation in society. This meant that the family and friends of the person and the community neighbourhood were with the person in

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__________________________________________________________________ the last days. This offered the possibility of several practices that were commonly prevailed in the past. The most prominent among others are: a. members of the immediate family sitting next to the person and having conversations asking if there are worries in his/her mind, worries about an unmarried daughter or about the future of the family, etc., and they either handed over the responsibilities to someone in the family and/or someone who the dying person approved took charge of the affairs of the family: “For example, if a daughter is yet to be married, or if some unsettled issue is there in family or about a property, if it remains in that person’s mind as a burden, then he is not at peace. That’s a bad death. One should have the time to leave all these behind and have a peaceful mind at the end, think only about God, that’s good death.” Nadesan, 80, Rtd. Govt Admin Officer b. Many remembered instances where if there had been strained relationships between that person and a member of the family or community, the dying person asked for that person to come close to him/her and the strained relationships were restored and c. often friends who visited the dying person engaged in conversation that encouraged life review in a way that reflected the good things he/she had done. Handing over responsibilities helped let go the ‘responsibility’ or karma,21 which many described as ‘the burden’ and ‘worry’. The opportunity to mend relationships facilitated forgiveness, forgiving and forgiven, healed relationships, taking away feelings of grudge and bitterness in the person. The very presence of family and friends and reassuring life reviews were seen as offering a sense of fulfilment to the person at the end of life. Thus enabling the person to die at peace was found to be the principle behind several care practices described by the older adults. 5. Death with Dignity A third set of practices were understood in the direction of assisting the person face death with dignity. When asked about how they cared for people in the last days of their lives, the response given by almost all of the participants was, ‘make sure they are kept clean, giving a bath, making sure he/she has clean clothes’ etc. Much more than the idea of hygiene, it was that of honouring and ‘showing respect’ to the person in deathbed that was governing this practice. The presence of and visits by members of extended family and community to people in the last days were also thought of as an act of paying respect and honouring the person. The friends that visited the person in deathbed shared with him news updates and happenings around the village:

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__________________________________________________________________ “They used to talk to them about a lot of things. This story, that story . . . they cannot go to different places and see what was happening. So, they were pleased when they are told stories about what was happening around.” Maheswari, 67, Housewife This act meant that they considered the person still part of the community, recognising his existence and capacity to relate to events and people until the very end, affirming his/her dignity. In addition, some participants also referred to instances where the dying person was aware of and was comfortable with their imminent death. They recollected this insight and awareness of one’s own death being considered contributing to the dignity of the person. Religious rituals that were referred to in the earlier section also were understood to be upholding the idea of dignity. Several participants indicated that the singing, reading and praying were practiced in order to provide space for the dying person to realise the divine potential within. Besides it’s inclination to contributing to the ‘union with the divine,’ it also was seen as achieving dignity for the person. These practices thus illustrate the idea of promoting dignity at the face of death. 6. Discussion This study has shown how simple activities of everyday life historically have held powerful spiritual meanings attached to them, particularly when faced with major life events such as the context of caring for the dying. It also revealed that the various care practices around the care of the dying in the past in Kanyakumari district were governed by the three principles of facilitating union with the divine, death with peace and in dignity.22 Although they were presented as three distinct principles in this paper, they were not three isolated ideologies. Rather, they were found interrelated in the ways in which the participants of the study and the community of the past they represented understood them. It also demonstrated that people belonging to different religions with different rituals and practices had these principles in common in the context of the care of the dying. The narratives of the older adults revealed a pattern in which the phenomenon of caring for the dying operated in the past. At the heart of all of the care practices was spiritual motive, which was expressed in its three principles as described above.23 In the context of facing death, the dying person was involved in activities and rituals that helped him/her to achieve this spiritual goal. Beside them were the immediate family; around them were the extended family and community and finally the professionals, both medical and religious, who provided support to the person, family and the community, all involved different levels of care practices that aimed at bringing spiritual healing to the person at the end of life.

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__________________________________________________________________ A historical cultural perspective has contributed in identifying the role of spirituality in issues that people at end of life face. There are tendencies to interpret the burden caused by the concern for the future of the family in purely material terms.24 This study has explored these concerns and has shown that it is a much deeper spiritual need associated with ‘responsibility’ and karma. In addition to determining the spiritual issues the findings also have potential to contribute to wider issues of end of life care in India. A study that looked at issues around palliative sedation showed that the families’ desire for the patient to be involved in ‘some activities’ prevented them from agreeing for sedation and argued that ‘these activities should not be used as an absolute criterion to judge of the ethical acceptability of a treatment like palliative sedation.’25 This study has revealed that these are activities that make significant contributions to the meaning of life and death, and from the perspective of the people of India, activities that make them realise their full potential and ultimate purpose of life. Therefore it gives a new perspective to these activities that demands consideration in ethical decision making at the end of life. Much has changed in the social structure of the Indian society and health care over the past few decades. The joint family system that served as the platform for the caring activities has now become extremely rare and the place of death in the present context increasingly becoming hospitals and nursing homes.26 Despite these changes the older adults believed that these spiritual principles still shape the contemporary ideas about good death.27 However, they also recognised that the contextual changes have affected the ways in which these principles are imparted in practice. Further research is needed to determine how these principles have contributed to the current conception of the care for the dying. Although this study was done in Kankakumari district of Tamil Nadu, we believe the same set of principles may have been historically influential in shaping the care of the dying across India. There may have been similarities and differences in the practices that were prevalent and they may have had similar or different meanings for individual practices. The fact that these principles evolved from data across different religious communities and caste groups supports this thought. However, further research is needed to ascertain this. Studies done in other parts of the country not only demonstrate notable correlations to the findings of this study but also indicate the relevance for the current perceptions of spirituality in the care of the dying.28 7. Conclusion This study has demonstrated that a historical cultural approach is an essential component to establish a comprehensive understanding of spirituality. It has demonstrated the complex networking of theological and philosophical concepts that underpin the content of spirituality in the Indian context. Historical cultural perspective on spirituality offers a unique and critical perspective to help

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__________________________________________________________________ understand current tendencies in the care of the dying and to establish the changes it takes in the course of cultural evolution. The findings inform the content of spiritual care for palliative care relevant for the Indian context. A historical cultural approach to spirituality also has the potential to make significant contribution to the conception of the care of the dying in general and to ethical debates in end of life care in India.

Notes 1

Dame Cicely Saunders, the founder of the modern hospice movement, developed the model of caring for the dying based on the understanding that a person is an indivisible entity, a physical and a spiritual being and thereby placing due emphasis on the understanding of spirituality at the face of death and provision of spiritual care for the dying. See Cicely Saunders, ‘Into the Valley of the Shadow of Death: A Personal Therapeutic Journey,’ British Medical Journal 313, no. 7072 (1996). See also Christina M. Puchalski, ‘Spiritual Issues in Palliative Care,’ in Handbook of Psychiatry in Palliative Medicine, ed. H.M. Chochinov and W. Breitbart (Oxford University Press, USA, 2009)., Allan Kellehear, ‘Spirituality and Palliative Care: A Model of Needs,’ Palliative Medicine 14, no. 2 (2000)., Carmen G. Loiselle and Michelle M. Sterling, ‘Views on Death and Dying among Health Care Workers in an Indian Cancer Care Hospice: Balancing Individual and Collective Perspectives,’ Palliative Medicine (2011)., Elizabeth Johnston Taylor, Madalon Amenta, and Martha Highfield, ‘Spiritual Care Practices of Oncology Nurses,’ Oncology Nursing Forum 22, no. 1 (1995). 2 David Clark, ‘"Total Pain", Disciplinary Power and the Body in the Work of Cicely Saunders, 1958-1967,’ Social Science & Medicine 49, no. 6 (1999)., Cicely Saunders, ‘Into the Valley of the Shadow of Death: A Personal Therapeutic Journey.’ 3 Robert G. Twycross, Introducing Palliative Care (Radcliffe Pub, 2003). 4 John Hardwig, ‘Spiritual Issues at the End of Life: A Call for Discussion,’ Hastings Center Report 30, no. 2 (2000). 5 Yasmin Gunaratnam and David Oliviere, Narrative and Stories in Health Care: Illness, Dying and Bereavement (Oxford University Press, 2009)., Wilfred McSherry, Keith Cash, and Linda Ross, ‘Meaning of Spirituality: Implications for Nursing Practice,’ Journal of Clinical Nursing 13, no. 8 (2004). 6 Barbara Carroll, ‘A Phenomenological Exploration of the Nature of Spirituality and Spiritual Care,’ Mortality 6, no. 1 (2001)., Kathy B. Wright, ‘Professional, Ethical, and Legal Implications for Spiritual Care in Nursing,’ Journal of Nursing Scholarship 30, no. 1 (1998)., H. Dom, ‘Spiritual Care, Need and Pain-Recognition and Response,’ European Journal of Palliative Care 6(1999)., Aru Narayanasamy, Spiritual Care and Transcultural Care Research (London: Quay books, 2006).

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Melanie Vachon, Lise Fillion, and Marie Achille, ‘A Conceptual Analysis of Spirituality at the End of Life,’ Journal of Palliative Medicine 12, no. 1 (2009)., Christina M. Puchalski, ‘Spirituality and the Care of Patients at the End-of-Life: An Essential Component of Care,’ OMEGA--Journal of Death and Dying 56, no. 1 (2007). 8 Carla Penrod Hermann, ‘Spiritual Needs of Dying Patients: A Qualitative Study,’ Oncology Nursing Forum 28, no. 1 (2001)., Jane Dyson, Mark Cobb, and Dawn Forman, ‘The Meaning of Spirituality: A Literature Review,’ Journal of Advanced Nursing 26, no. 6 (1997)., Aru Narayanasamy, ‘Recognising Spiritual Needs,’ in Spiritual Assessment in Healthcare Practice, ed. W. McSherry and L.A. Ross (M&K Update Ltd, 2010). 9 Mark Cobb, Christopher Dowrick, and Mari Lloyd-Williams, ‘What Can We Learn about the Spiritual Needs of Palliative Care Patients from the Research Literature?,’ Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 43, no. 6 (2012). 10 Donna S. Martsolf, ‘Cultural Aspects of Spirituality in Cancer Care’ (1997). 11 John Swinton and Stephen Pattison, ‘Moving Beyond Clarity: Towards a Thin, Vague, and Useful Understanding of Spirituality in Nursing Care,’ Nursing Philosophy 11, no. 4 (2010). 12 Palliative care has about twenty years of history in India. The development of palliative care has been very challenging and existence very patchy across the country. Recently there have been a few positive developments in terms of palliative care education at the level of postgraduate medicine and relaxation of laws regulating availability of pain medication. However, there is a dearth of research in Indian palliative care on subjects such as spirituality in the care of the dying. Nira Manghrani and Shagufa Kapadia, ‘Death and Dying: Strategies for Improving Quality of Life of Terminally Ill Patients in India’ (paper presented at the Strength Based Strategies, Hydrabad, 2006)., Carmen G. Loiselle and Michelle M. Sterling, ‘Views on Death and Dying among Health Care Workers in an Indian Cancer Care Hospice: Balancing Individual and Collective Perspectives.’, Purnima Awasthi, ‘Spirituality and Health: A Psychological Inquiry,’ Purushartha: A Journal of Mangagement Ethics and Spirituality 4, no. 1 (2012). 13 S.K. Chaturvedi, ‘Spiritual Issues at End of Life,’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 13, no. 2 (2007)., R. Shubha, ‘End-of-Life Care in the Indian Context: The Need for Cultural Sensitivity,’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 13, no. 2 (2007). 14 Sujatha Shanmugasundaram, Ysanne Chapman, and Margaret O’Connor, ‘Development of Palliative Care in India: An Overview,’ International Journal of Nursing Practice 12, no. 4 (2006). 15 Brigid Murphy, ‘Recovering Treasures in Celtic Spirituality: The Crone as Anam-Cara or Soul-Friend,’ Canadian Woman Studies 17, no. 3 (1997)., Carlo

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__________________________________________________________________ Leget, ‘Retrieving the Ars Moriendi Tradition,’ Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 10, no. 3 (2007). 16 Paul Thompson, The Voice of the Past: Oral History (Oxford University Press, USA, 2000). 17 Philip Gardner, ‘Oral History,’ in The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods, ed. Victor Jupp (Sage publications Limited, 2006): 206 18 Catherine Kohler Riessman, ‘Narrative Analysis,’ in The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods, ed. Victor Jupp (Sage publications Limited, 2006). 19 The understanding of death as transition for union with God has long been part of Indian philosophy, which governs the thoughts and beliefs of Indians. The essence of this understanding can be found in Bhagavad Gita, one of the most important Hindu scriptures: ‘And whoever, at the end of his life, quits his body remembering Me (God) alone at once attains My nature. Of this there is no doubt.’ (Bhagavad Gita 8: 5) 20 Jyothi Idiculla and GD Ravindran, ‘A Good Death: A Matter of Concern in India,’ (2008). 21 Karma in the sense of duty – a metaphysical, ethical and psychological regulative force is understood as actions motivated by one’s sense of individuality in tune with the universe. See Swami Krishnananda, ‘A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India,’ (2011)., Zubin R Mulla and Venkat R Krishnan, ‘Karma-Yoga, the Indian Work Ideal, and Its Relationship with Empathy,’ Psychology & Developing Societies 20, no. 1 (2008). 22 Several other studies, done elsewhere, have identified similar themes in the understanding of spirituality in the care of the dying. ‘Search for meaning and purpose of life’ and ‘hope’ themes that were seen commonly in studies published from the west, but did not appear prominent in this study. See Joy Penman, Mary Oliver, and Ann Harrington, ‘Spirituality and Spiritual Engagement as Perceived by Palliative Care Clients and Caregivers,’ Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, 26, no. 4 (2009); Barbara Carroll, ‘A Phenomenological Exploration of the Nature of Spirituality and Spiritual Care,’ Mortality 6(2001); Scott A. Murray et al., ‘Exploring the Spiritual Needs of People Dying of Lung Cancer or Heart Failure: A Prospective Qualitative Interview Study of Patients and Their Carers,’ Palliative Medicine 18, no. 1 (2004); Jane Dyson, Mark Cobb, and Dawn Forman, ‘The Meaning of Spirituality: A Literature Review.’; ibid. Studies done in the west suggest spirituality as one of the components of dignity, whereas this study has demonstrated dignity as one of the organizing principles of spirituality. Cf. Harvey Max Chochinov, ‘Dignity-Conserving Care—a New Model for Palliative Care: Helping the Patient Feel Valued,’ Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 17 (2002); Harvey M Chochinov et al., ‘Dignity in the Terminally Ill: Revisited,’ Journal of Palliative Medicine 9, no. 3 (2006).

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Hardwig, among others, has argued the the ‘spiritual’ should be at the centre of the care provided for the dying rather than seeing it as one of the components of care. John Hardwig, ‘Spiritual Issues at the End of Life: A Call for Discussion.’; ibid. 24 Cherian Koshy, ‘The Palliative Care Movement in India: Another Freedom Struggle or a Silent Revolution?,’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 15, no. 1 (2009). 25 Joris Gielen et al., ‘The Attitudes of Indian Palliative-Care Nurses and Physicians to Pain Control and Palliative Sedation,’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 17, no. 1 (2011). 26 M. F. Nimkoff, ‘The Family in India: Some Problems Concerning Research on the Changing Family in India,’ in The Family in India: Structure and Practice, ed. Tulsi Patel (New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., 2005)., Rohina Joshi et al., ‘Chronic Diseases Now a Leading Cause of Death in Rural India—Mortality Data from the Andhra Pradesh Rural Health Initiative,’ International Journal of Epidemiology 35, no. 6 (2006). 27 The few studies done in India testify to this idea. See Frank Elsner et al., ‘Psychosocial and Spiritual Problems of Terminally Ill Patients in Kerala, India,’ Future Oncology 8, no. 9 (2012); C.G. Loiselle and M.M. Sterling, ‘Views on Death and Dying among Health Care Workers in an Indian Cancer Care Hospice: Balancing Individual and Collective Perspectives,’ Palliative Medicine 26, no. 3 (2012). 28 The similarities shown between the current study and others done among patients in the recent times illustrates that the historical and cultural aspects of spirituality are influential in constructing the modern notions of spirituality. Cf. Frank Elsner et al., ‘Psychosocial and Spiritual Problems of Terminally Ill Patients in Kerala, India.’, Purnima Awasthi, ‘Spirituality and Health: A Psychological Inquiry.’, Ajit K. Dalal and Namita Pande, ‘Psychological Recovery of Accident Victims with Temporary and Permanent Disability,’ International Journal of Psychology 23, no. 1-6 (1988).

Bibliography Awasthi, Purnima. ‘Spirituality and Health: A Psychological Inquiry.’ Purushartha: A Journal of Mangagement Ethics and Spirituality 4, no. 1 (2012). Carroll, Barbara. ‘A Phenomenological Exploration of the Nature of Spirituality and Spiritual Care.’ Mortality 6, no. 1 (2001): 81-98.

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__________________________________________________________________ Chaturvedi, S.K. ‘Spiritual Issues at End of Life.’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 13, no. 2 (2007): 48. Chochinov, Harvey M, Linda J Krisjanson, Thomas F Hack, Thomas Hassard, Susan McClement, and Mike Harlos. ‘Dignity in the Terminally Ill: Revisited.’ Journal of Palliative Medicine 9, no. 3 (2006): 666-72. Chochinov, Harvey Max. ‘Dignity-Conserving Care— A New Model for Palliative Care: Helping the Patient Feel Valued.’ Journal of the American Medical Association 287, no. 17 (2002): 2253-60. Clark, David. ‘"Total Pain", Disciplinary Power and the Body in the Work of Cicely Saunders, 1958-1967.’ Social Science & Medicine 49, no. 6 (1999): 727-36. Cobb, Mark, Christopher Dowrick, and Mari Lloyd-Williams. ‘What Can We Learn About the Spiritual Needs of Palliative Care Patients from the Research Literature?’. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 43, no. 6 (2012): 1105-19. Dalal, Ajit K., and Namita Pande. ‘Psychological Recovery of Accident Victims with Temporary and Permanent Disability.’ International Journal of Psychology 23, no. 1-6 (1988): 25-40. Dom, H. ‘Spiritual Care, Need and Pain-Recognition and Response.’ European Journal of Palliative Care 6 (1999): 87-90. Dyson, Jane, Mark Cobb, and Dawn Forman. ‘The Meaning of Spirituality: A Literature Review.’ Journal of Advanced Nursing 26, no. 6 (1997): 1183-88. Elsner, Frank, Johanna Schmidt, MR Rajagopal, Lukas Radbruch, and Martina Pestinger. ‘Psychosocial and Spiritual Problems of Terminally Ill Patients in Kerala, India.’ Future Oncology 8, no. 9 (2012): 1183-91. Gardner, Philip. ‘Oral History.’ In The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods, edited by Victor Jupp. 206-08: Sage Publications Limited, 2006. Gielen, Joris, Harmala Gupta, Ambika Rajvanshi, Sushma Bhatnagar, Seema Mishra, Arvind K Chaturvedi, Stef Van den Branden, and Bert Broeckaert. ‘The Attitudes of Indian Palliative-Care Nurses and Physicians to Pain Control and Palliative Sedation.’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 17, no. 1 (2011): 33.

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__________________________________________________________________ Gunaratnam, Yasmin, and David Oliviere. Narrative and Stories in Health Care: Illness, Dying and Bereavement. Oxford University Press, 2009. Hardwig, John. ‘Spiritual Issues at the End of Life: A Call for Discussion.’ Hastings Center Report 30, no. 2 (Mar-Apr 2000): 28-30. Hermann, Carla Penrod. ‘Spiritual Needs of Dying Patients: A Qualitative Study.’ Oncology Nursing Forum 28, no. 1 (2001): 67-72. Idiculla, Jyothi, and GD Ravindran. ‘A Good Death: A Matter of Concern in India.’ (2008). Joshi, Rohina, Magnolia Cardona, Srinivas Iyengar, A. Sukumar, C.Ravi Raju, K.Rama Raju, Krishnam Raju, et al. ‘Chronic Diseases Now a Leading Cause of Death in Rural India—Mortality Data from the Andhra Pradesh Rural Health Initiative.’ International Journal of Epidemiology 35, no. 6 (2006): 1522-29. Kellehear, Allan. ‘Spirituality and Palliative Care: A Model of Needs.’ Palliative Medicine 14, no. 2 (2000): 149. Koshy, Cherian. ‘The Palliative Care Movement in India: Another Freedom Struggle or a Silent Revolution?’. Indian Journal of Palliative Care 15, no. 1 (2009): 10. Krishnananda, Swami. ‘A Short History of Religious and Philosophic Thought in India.’ (2011). Leget, Carlo. ‘Retrieving the Ars Moriendi Tradition.’ Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 10, no. 3 (2007): 313-19. Loiselle, C.G., and M.M. Sterling. ‘Views on Death and Dying among Health Care Workers in an Indian Cancer Care Hospice: Balancing Individual and Collective Perspectives.’ Palliative Medicine 26, no. 3 (2012): 250-56. Loiselle, Carmen G., and Michelle M. Sterling. ‘Views on Death and Dying among Health Care Workers in an Indian Cancer Care Hospice: Balancing Individual and Collective Perspectives.’ Palliative Medicine (2011).

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__________________________________________________________________ Manghrani, Nira, and Shagufa Kapadia. ‘Death and Dying: Strategies for Improving Quality of Life of Terminally Ill Patients in India.’ Paper presented at the Strength Based Strategies, Hydrabad, 2006. Martsolf, Donna S. ‘Cultural Aspects of Spirituality in Cancer Care.’ 1997. McSherry, W., and K. Cash. ‘The Language of Spirituality: An Emerging Taxonomy.’ International Journal of Nursing Studies 41, no. 2 (2004): 151-61. McSherry, Wilfred, Keith Cash, and Linda Ross. ‘Meaning of Spirituality: Implications for Nursing Practice.’ Journal of Clinical Nursing 13, no. 8 (2004): 934-41. Mulla, Zubin R, and Venkat R Krishnan. ‘Karma-Yoga, the Indian Work Ideal, and Its Relationship with Empathy.’ Psychology & Developing Societies 20, no. 1 (2008): 27-49. Murphy, Brigid. ‘Recovering Treasures in Celtic Spirituality: The Crone as AnamCara or Soul-Friend.’ Canadian Woman Studies 17, no. 3 (1997). Murray, Scott A., Marilyn Kendall, Kirsty Boyd, Allison Worth, and T. Fred Benton. ‘Exploring the Spiritual Needs of People Dying of Lung Cancer or Heart Failure: A Prospective Qualitative Interview Study of Patients and Their Carers.’ Palliative Medicine 18, no. 1 (2004): 39-45. Narayanasamy, Aru. ‘Recognising Spiritual Needs.’ In Spiritual Assessment in Healthcare Practice, edited by W. McSherry and L.A. Ross. M&K Update Ltd, 2010. ———. Spiritual Care and Transcultural Care Research. London: Quay books, 2006. Nimkoff, M. F. ‘The Family in India: Some Problems Concerning Research on the Changing Family in India.’ In The Family in India: Structure and Practice, edited by Tulsi Patel. New Delhi: Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd., 2005. Penman, Joy, Mary Oliver, and Ann Harrington. ‘Spirituality and Spiritual Engagement as Perceived by Palliative Care Clients and Caregivers.’ Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing, The 26, no. 4 (2009): 29.

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__________________________________________________________________ Puchalski, Christina M. ‘Spiritual Issues in Palliative Care.’ In Handbook of Psychiatry in Palliative Medicine, edited by H.M. Chochinov and W. Breitbart. 341-51: Oxford University Press, USA, 2009. ———. ‘Spirituality and the Care of Patients at the End-of-Life: An Essential Component of Care.’ OMEGA--Journal of Death and Dying 56, no. 1 (2007): 3346. Riessman, Catherine Kohler. ‘Narrative Analysis.’ In The Sage Dictionary of Social Research Methods, edited by Victor Jupp. 186-89: Sage publications Limited, 2006. Saunders, Cicely ‘Into the Valley of the Shadow of Death: A Personal Therapeutic Journey.’ British Medical Journal 313, no. 7072 (1996): 1599-601. Shanmugasundaram, Sujatha, Ysanne Chapman, and Margaret O’Connor. ‘Development of Palliative Care in India: An Overview.’ International Journal of Nursing Practice 12, no. 4 (2006-Aug 2006): 241-46. Shubha, R. ‘End-of-Life Care in the Indian Context: The Need for Cultural Sensitivity.’ Indian Journal of Palliative Care 13, no. 2 (2007): 59. Swinton, John, and Stephen Pattison. ‘Moving beyond Clarity: Towards a Thin, Vague, and Useful Understanding of Spirituality in Nursing Care.’ Nursing Philosophy 11, no. 4 (2010): 226-37. Taylor, Elizabeth Johnston, Madalon Amenta, and Martha Highfield. ‘Spiritual Care Practices of Oncology Nurses.’ Oncology Nursing Forum 22, no. 1 (1995): 31--31-. Thompson, Paul. The Voice of the Past: Oral History. Oxford University Press, USA, 2000. Twycross, Robert G. Introducing Palliative Care. Radcliffe Pub, 2003. Vachon, Melanie, Lise Fillion, and Marie Achille. ‘A Conceptual Analysis of Spirituality at the End of Life.’ Journal of Palliative Medicine 12, no. 1 (2009): 5359.

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__________________________________________________________________ Wright, Kathy B. ‘Professional, Ethical, and Legal Implications for Spiritual Care in Nursing.’ Journal of Nursing Scholarship 30, no. 1 (1998): 81-83. Hamilton Inbadas is an ordained minister of the Church of South India – Kanyakumari Diocese, currently doing his doctoral studies at the University of Nottingham, UK. Previously he was chaplain and spiritual care educator for Palliative Care Unit at the Christian Medical College, Vellore, India. Aru Narayanasamy is associate professor in the Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, the University of Nottingham. He has written widely in the area of spiritual and cultural dimensions of health care and nurse education. His research interests include spirituality, ethnic diversity and health and nurse education. Jane Seymour is Sue Ryder Care Professor in Palliative and End of Life Studies, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, the University of Nottingham. She is a nurse and social scientist who is involved in palliative care research and education in England and internationally. She has published extensively in the field.

Spirituality and Japanese Self-Help Groups for Alcoholics: Zen Buddhism for Abstinence Tomofumi Oka and Richard Dean Chenhall Abstract Spirituality is currently considered to be an emerging theme in addiction research, and substantial research has been conducted on the spirituality of Alcoholics Anonymous. However, little spirituality research has been undertaken on self-help groups that have traditions based on beliefs other than Christian ones. This chapter aims to fill this knowledge gap by exploring the spirituality of one Japanese selfhelp group for alcoholics, Danshukai, which incorporates principles of Zen Buddhism. Since 2006, we have utilised an ethnographic approach and engaged in participant observation at Danshukai meetings, as well as conducting ethnographic interviews with leaders and members. We have also visited and researched a Danshukai therapeutic community, Danshu Dôjô. We also collected Danshukai newsletters and leaflets describing members’ experiences with Zen Buddhist spirituality. Three kinds of activities or artefacts were identified as spiritual: vows and prayers; acts of spiritual training, called gyô; and Buddhist symbols. First, almost every Danshukai meeting starts or ends with members affirming vows. At every big meeting, prayers for the deceased are offered by all attendees. Second, difficult acts and acts of austerity in Danshukai activities are considered as spiritual training. Third, in Danshu Dôjô there are a number of Buddhist symbols on display, such as a picture, and spiritual ‘framed words’. Because the membership of Danshukai is decreasing, leaders have begun approaching medical professionals with the aim of getting them to refer their patients to Danshukai. As a result, the leaders have introduced many medical terms and concepts into their activities, which has weakened the alternative nature of their existing self-help culture. The spiritual aspects of Danshukai and Danshu Dôjô have been downgraded and labelled obsolete or unscientific. However, if it remodels itself as a mere supplement to medical treatment for alcoholism, how will Danshukai manage to reverse the long-term trend of falling membership? Key Words: Self-help groups, Alcoholism, Zen Buddhism, Danshukai, Danshu Dôjô, Christianity, Alcoholics Anonymous, Spiritual growth, Ethnography, Japanese culture. ***** 1. Spirituality and Recovery from Alcoholism This chapter describes how spirituality is actualised and practised in one Japanese self-help group for alcoholics, Danshukai. ‘Spirituality is currently a “growing edge” topic in the field of addiction studies’1 and numerous authors have

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__________________________________________________________________ examined the relationship between spirituality and recovery from alcoholism. 2 However, review of the literature shows that ‘a substantial portion of the literature focuses on AA and its spiritually based program of recovery.’ 3 Because the spirituality of Alcoholics Anonymous, AA, is essentially Christian, there are comparatively few studies on non-Christian spiritualities of self-help groups for alcoholics, with the notable exception of studies on Hinduism and Sikhism, 4 Buddhism,5 and the indigenous spirituality of Australian Aborigines.6 In the case of Zen Buddhism, although a number of books applying Zen Buddhist concepts to recovery from alcoholism exist, many of these are self-help books written by nonacademics and are based on the author’s individual experiences. 7 Consequently there are very few studies on how Buddhism-based spirituality is used in self-help groups for alcoholics; our literature search found only two such studies,8 both of which are written in Japanese and characterised by ‘unclear separation of spirituality from religiosity.’9 Our research on self-help groups for alcoholics in Japan therefore aims to fill this knowledge gap. To begin with, let us define how we use ‘spirituality’ in this chapter. After reviewing 265 published books and papers on spirituality and addiction, Cook proposed the following definition of spirituality: Spirituality is a distinctive, potentially creative and universal dimension of human experience arising both within the inner subjective awareness of individuals and within communities, social groups and traditions. It may be experienced as relationship with that which is intimately ‘inner’, immanent and personal, within the self and others, and/or as relationship with that which is wholly ‘other’, transcendent and beyond the self. It is experienced as being of fundamental or ultimate importance and is thus concerned with matters of meaning and purpose in life, truth and values. 10 Although we believe spirituality in the above sense is no doubt evident in Japanese self-help groups for alcoholics, unfortunately there are no Japanese words that can be associated with what this English term connotes. This contrasts with American society, for example, where ‘few individuals would have difficulties in using the words spiritual and spirituality in their conversations or writing.’11 The Japanese have therefore coined a new word, Supirichuaritî, by pronouncing ‘spirituality’ in a Japanese way, but it is rarely been spoken in everyday Japanese conversation, and when it is discussed, it can be misleading, because the term is usually associated with a subculture that emerged in the second half of the 1990s in Japan, which is called ‘new spirituality culture’12 and is independent of our research area. We have been conducting fieldwork with Japanese alcoholic self-help groups since

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__________________________________________________________________ 2006, and we have almost never heard members say that the meetings stress the groups’ spirituality, despite its clear existence. Traditional Japanese spirituality is of course different from Christian-based spirituality because of the influence of Zen Buddhism. For example, in books and articles on Japan written in English, ‘the words spirit, spiritual, and spiritualism . . . often keep company with such unlikely, from a Western point of view, words as military, police, business, and sport.’ 13 The following passage on Japanese spirituality, which was written by a famous Zen master, Daisetz T. Suzuki, shows how Japanese spirituality relates to such words by using the metaphor of a swordsman: When the sword is held by the swordsman whose spiritual attainment is such that he holds it as though not holding it, it is identified with the man himself, . . . The man emptied of all thoughts . . . is not conscious of using the sword . . . . His unconscious automatically takes care of the whole situation. The swordsman calls this unconscious ‘the mind that is no mind’ . . .. The secret of swordsmanship consists in attaining to this state of mentality—or, we may call it, spirituality, . . . He must get rid of this obtruding self- or ego-consciousness and apply himself to the work to be done as if nothing particular were taking place at the moment. When things are performed in a state of ‘no-mind’, mushin, or ‘no-thought’, munen, which means the absence of all modes of self- or ego-consciousness, the actor is perfectly free from inhibitions and feels nothing thwarting his line of behavior.14 ‘No-mind’ has been variously rendered as ‘egolessness’ 15 or ‘no-self’ 16 in the literature. ‘That there is no permanent self in a living being is a basic teaching of the Buddha,’ 17 which is called Anatman, the teaching of No-Self, and it is taught that ‘self-renunciation holds the key to salvation.’18 Because ‘the ultimate goal in Buddhism is to realize that the true nature of self is Anatman, no-self,19 this has been identified as an antidote against ‘the self-centeredness that forms the core of addiction.’ 20 This is reflected in the twelve-step philosophy of AA, which ‘echoes Buddhism by recognizing the importance of attachment to self or selfcenteredness,’ 21 and in the oft-repeated words of Alcoholics Anonymous, ‘Selfishness, self-centeredness! That, we think, is the root of our troubles.’ 22 While the spirituality practised in self-help groups has been increasingly studied in AA, groups other than AA have very seldom been investigated. Although Buddhism or Buddhist approaches have attracted alcoholics and their helping professionals, their application is mostly restricted to professional treatments or self-help books for lay people, and very little research has been

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__________________________________________________________________ conducted on Buddhist spirituality in self-help groups for alcoholics. By documenting how Zen Buddhist spirituality is practised in Japanese self-help groups for alcoholics, our research therefore offers ‘a cross-cultural perspective’23 on spirituality and alcoholism. 2. Methodology The Japanese self-help group for alcoholics reported in this paper is called Danshukai. The syllables dan, shu, and kai mean ‘stop, abstain’, ‘liquor’, and ‘society, group’ respectively. The majority of Danshukai groups belong to a national organisation called Zen-Nihon Danshu Renmei, Zendanren. Danshukai is currently the largest self-help group for alcoholics in Japan, the second-largest being AA. Danshukai was also the first such group in Japan and dates back to 1953. Inspired by knowledge of the work of AA and founded under the auspices of the Japan Temperance Union in Tokyo, it was originally led by non-alcoholics. After five years, two Danshukai groups had alcoholics as leaders and by 1963 the organisation was nationwide.24 In the second half of the 1990s membership reached its highest point, close to 12,000, but has now decreased to around 8,000.25 While they maintain good relations with professionals, the groups are completely led by former alcoholics. Many of their meetings are open to non-alcoholics, and in particular, alcoholics’ families are encouraged to attend meetings and give talks. Despite this encouragement for families to attend Danshukai meetings, families are not given any say in the administration of the groups because it is firmly believed that Danshukai should only be led by alcoholics. Our ethnographic research began at the end of 2006 when Chenhall started a one-and-a-half-year postdoctoral fellowship in Tokyo. Fieldwork continued over the next seven years. Oka attended numerous Danshukai meetings, programs and events on local, regional, and national levels in which he conducted participant observations and interviews with leaders, members, their families, and supporting professionals. Chenhall visited Japan once or twice a year, and mainly made observations of various Danshukai meetings and events. We also visited and researched the only Danshukai therapeutic community, Danshu Dôjô, where about fifteen alcoholic men, their leader and his wife lived together (Fig. 1). Danshu Dôjô started in Wakayama Prefecture in 1969. Although the community included only a small number of people, we believe that it reflects the spiritual aspects of Danshukai groups well, and thousands of the graduates of the community have gone on to influence many Danshukai groups. We also collected Danshukai newsletters, leaflets, and videos describing members’ experience with, and views on, Zen Buddhist spirituality. Oka was invited to act as a formal adviser to the national organisation, Zendanren and has done so since 2011, and this advisory role has helped verify the trustworthiness of our findings.

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__________________________________________________________________ 3. Findings Three kinds of activities/artefacts were identified as spiritual in Danshukai or Danshu Dôjô: vows and prayers; acts of spiritual training, called gyô; and Buddhist symbols. First, almost every Danshukai meeting starts or ends with members affirming vows. There has are three types of vows: the Alcoholic’s Vow, 26 the Family’s Vow, 27 and the Abstinence Vow. 28 Typically at the beginning of the meeting, a member reads the Alcoholic’s Vow aloud. Then, one of his/her family members reads the Family’s Vow. Finally, another member then leads all attendees in a reading of the Abstinence Vow. At the beginning of any large meeting such as a national or regional event, a prayer for the deceased is read by a family member accompanied by a sad melody. This is occasionally the widow of a former Danshukai member, and the family member shows appreciation for the contributions that deceased members have made to Danshukai, and reminds members that they owe a lot to them and that their souls will help Danshukai’s development. In Danshu Dôjô, every morning the inhabitants offer prayers to the late founders of Danshu Dôjô and the inhabitants’ families (Fig. 2). Second, difficult acts and acts of austerity in Danshukai activities are considered as spiritual training or gyô/shugyô.29 A gyô is ‘an act done with the body, or by speech or thought, with the object of attaining a higher spiritual state.’30 In other words, it ‘carries the meaning of perfecting the human spirit or enhancing one’s personality.’ 31 Travelling a long distance to a meeting place, preparing the meeting by setting up chairs, attending the meeting, listening to speakers carefully, telling their own stories, editing Danshukai newsletters, and similar demanding efforts can be regarded as gyô. This reflects a feature of Buddhist behaviour modification: ‘emphasis on action.’ 32 For example, in an overnight meeting, the leader encouraged the attendees to stay alert while discussing even if they were very tired, adding ‘Because this is your gyô.’ In Danshu Dôjô, not only daily chores, such as cooking and cleaning, but also hard physical labour is considered important gyô. For example, Danshu Dôjô is surrounded by stone retaining walls that the inhabitants built over a long time with considerable effort, without using machines such as a crane (Fig. 3). Gyô or shugyô is embedded in both everyday and spiritual life in Japan as a way of selfcultivation: Within Japanese culture, it is recognized that an individual may undertake a particular discipline for the sake of self-cultivation. Such an undertaking may be referred to as shugyô. It can be an overtly religious activity, but typically it is something that others would consider secular. Among the most common are calligraphy, shodô, the tea ceremony, chadô, flower arranging, ikebana or kadô, and martial arts, budô, although a great many different activities may be shugyô. Notice that the suffix in these

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__________________________________________________________________ art forms is dô, meaning ‘way,’ a reference to the spiritual path that we may tread as human beings. . . It is an austere mental and physical discipline that one pursues for decades, if not a lifetime. The word originally was used in Buddhist training, although it does not necessarily carry a distinctly religious connotation today.33 Because Danshukai stresses the importance of lifetime abstinence as AA does, shugyô as ‘a sustained and spiritual undertaking stretching over a lifetime,’34 fits the organisation. Danshukai advocates Danshudô, the Way of Abstinence, in which alcoholic members are encouraged to follow a spiritual path to attain abstinence.35 Because dôjô means ‘hall or room in which one of the Japanese ‘ways’ of spiritualpractical training is practiced; as, for example, the Way of the sword, kendo, or the Way of the bow, kyûdô, 36 Danshu Dôjô is meant to be a hall for Danshudô, the Way of Abstinence. Third, in Danshu Dôjô there are a number of Buddhist symbols or such as a picture, and a stone statue of, the Buddha. For example, there is a picture of the Buddha and on a kitchen wall, and there are many ‘framed words’ hung to remind the inhabitants of Buddhist teachings (Fig. 4). One of the framed words is ‘Silence’, which is important for meditation (Fig. 5). In the yard, there is a stone statue of the Buddha, which is called Danshu Kannon, Abstinence Bodhisattva (Fig. 6). In addition, we observed many features of Buddhist behaviour modification: for example, the leader makes full ‘use of parable and analogy’37 in his talks, which is a Buddhist cognitive technique, and encourages ‘meditation as a therapeutic method’38 (Fig. 7). These are repeated by residents of the centre, for example one resident articulating that during morning cleaning activities he was conducting mindful sweeping in silence. 4. Discussion We have shown that Danshukai and Danshu Dôjô have roots in Japanese Zen Buddhist culture, and this cultural background has no doubt helped their development in Japan. In Western constructs of AA, spirituality centres around the key concept of powerlessness, where an individual recognises that they lack self will to remain abstinent and instead must turn to a higher power outside them. Individuals must then apply themselves to working the 12-Steps and through this process experience a spiritual awakening. This awakening is conscious and intentional involving personality change, improving self-efficacy, reorientation of social networks and a refiguring of an individual’s life biography.39 By recognising their powerlessness and engaging with the 12-Steps individuals create newly formed selves. This is quite different to the Buddhist constructs of the self emphasised in Danshukai. In Danshukai the self is constructed through their participation in the rituals associated with attending and belonging to Danshukai.

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__________________________________________________________________ This practice involves self-discipline and fortitude whereby the self is defined in relationship to other Danshukai members by a process of what Clammer calls ‘uniform individualisation.’40The displays of self and responsibilities of Danshukai members at meetings and events are normalised according to age and gender, but participation and membership is defined by the lack of a distinctive self but rather an adherence to practice. Recently, fewer and fewer Danshukai members are paying attention to the spiritual and cultural aspect of this approach. Because Danshukai’s membership has been decreasing for some time, leaders have begun approaching medical professionals with the aim of getting them to refer their patients to Danshukai. As a result, the leaders have introduced many medical terms and concepts into their activities, which has weakened Danshukai’s culture of self-help. The spiritual aspects of Danshukai and Danshu Dôjô have been downgraded and labelled obsolete or unscientific. However, if it remodels itself as a mere supplement to medical treatment for alcoholism, how will Danshukai manage to reverse the longterm trend of falling membership? At the same time, however, health professionals are showing more and more interest in Buddhism41 and Eastern spirituality.42 One spiritual faculty in particular, known as mindfulness, is ‘a core concept within Buddhism’ 43 and mindfulness meditation44 is getting considerable attention in addiction research as ‘a spiritual but non-theistic alternative to the theism implicit in the 12-steps approach.’ 45 Also, we should be aware that that Buddhist view of addiction and recovery is less stigmatising and pathological by ‘shifting the emphasis from the elimination of symptoms to the realization of inner well-being.’46 From a Buddhist perspective addictive behaviour may be seen as a false refuge and a source of attachment, which unwittingly, but inevitably, leads to suffering. Since the root of this is ignorance, there is no question of disapprobation for sinful behaviour, unlike early Western moral or religious views of addiction. . . It is the degree of unskilfulness rather than the type of activity per se which will determine the extent of resulting unhappiness. . . . The aim becomes to move on to more skilful behaviour in general rather than to go back to ‘normal’. . . . Also unlike the disease model, people are seen as having the ability to choose and take responsibility for their actions. The attempt to change, unlike much contemporary therapy, is not primarily problem orientated. The main focus is creating wellbeing through practising skilful behaviour and cultivating skilful mental states.47

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__________________________________________________________________ As stated, however, this Buddhist perspective is less popular among today’s Danshukai members than it was in the past, and a more medicalised approach is being adopted by leaders in an attempt to obtain the cooperation of medical professional in recruiting fresh members. We argue that by imposing a ‘medically ill’ self-image on their members, Danshukai might hinder the development of their members’ ‘applied spirituality,’ 48 which means ‘helping and serving others.’ 49 Mutual support groups that provide members with opportunities to derive spiritual uplifting from sharing, validating and universalizing painful experiences reflect a sociospiritual approach to addiction recovery and mental health.50 Danshukai self-help groups and Danshu Dôjô offer alcoholics a great opportunity to enhance their spirituality. Japanese professionals arguably need to be more sensitive to and aware of alcoholics’ spiritual potentiality, and could assist them to be confident in the expression of their spirituality.

Notes 1

Oliver J. Morgan, ‘Spirituality, Alcohol and Other Drug Problems: Where Have We Been? Where Are We Going?’, Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 20 (2002): 62. See also, Jaime Grodzicki and Marc Galanter, ‘Spirituality and Addiction,’ Substance Abuse 26 (2006): 1-4; and Oliver J. Morgan, ‘Addiction and Spirituality in Context,’ in Addiction and Spirituality: A Multidisciplinary Approach, eds. Oliver J. Morgan and Merle R. Jordan (St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 1999), 3-30. 2 A recent collection of such papers is Marc Galanter and Lee Ann Kaskutas. eds., Research on Alcoholics Anonymous and Spirituality in Addiction Recovery, vol. 18 of Recent Developments in Alcoholism, (New York: Springer, 2008). 3 Donna Leigh Bliss, ‘Empirical Research on Spirituality and Alcoholism: A Review of the Literature,’ Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions 7 (2008): 14. 4 Asesha Morjaria-Keval, ‘Religious and Spiritual Elements of Change in Sikh Men with Alcohol Problems,’ Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 5 (2006): 91-118; and Asesha Morjaria and Jim Orford, ‘The Role of Religion and Spirituality in Recovery from Drink Problems: A Qualitative Study of Alcoholics Anonymous Members and South Asian Men,’ Addiction Research & Theory 10 (2002): 225-56. 5 Gila Chen, ‘The Meaning of Suffering in Drug Addiction and Recovery from the Perspective of Existentialism, Buddhism and the 12-Step Program,’ Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42 (2010): 363-75.

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Peter d’Abbs and Richard Chenhall, ‘Spirituality and Religion in Response to Substance Misuse among Indigenous Australians,’ Substance Use & Misuse 48 (2013): 1114-29. 7 For example, Darren Littlejohn, The 12-Step Buddhist: Enhance Recovery from Any Addiction. (New York: Atria Books, 2009). 8 Minoru Enomoto, ‘Danshukai to AA: Hikakubunka Seishinigakuteki Kōsatsu’ (Danshukai and AA: A Cross-Cultural Psychiatric Discussion), Journal of Studies on Alcoholism Treatment 2 (1985): 157-65; and Yozo Nakata, ‘Danshu Bunka no Minzokuteki Sai-Kenkyu’ (A Study on Ethnic Differences of Abstinence Culture), Humanitas 30 (2005): 69-82. 9 Maja Hadzic, ‘Spirituality and Mental Health: Current Research and Future Directions’, Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health 13 (2011): 228. See also, Thomas F. McGovern and Terry McMahon, ‘Spirituality and Religiousness and Alcohol/Other Drug Problems,’ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 24 (2006): 7-19. 10 Christopher C. H. Cook, ‘Addiction and Spirituality’. Addiction 99 (2004): 548. 11 Gerard J. Connors, Kimberly S. Walitzer and J. Scott Tonigan, ‘Spiritual Change in Recovery,’ in Research on Alcoholics Anonymous, edited by Marc Galanter and Lee Ann Kaskutas, 210. 12 Susumu Shimazono and Tim Graf, ‘The Rise of the New Spirituality,’ in Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions, eds. Inken Prohl and John K. Nelson (Leiden: Brill, 2012), 459-85. 13 Anna Wierzbicka, Understanding Cultures through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, and Japanese. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 270. 14 Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki, Zen and Japanese Culture. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970), 146-147. 15 Mark Epstein, ‘The Deconstruction of the Self: Ego and “Egolessness” in Buddhist Insight Meditation,’ Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 20 (1988): 6169. 16 Osamu Ando, ‘Psychotherapy and Buddhism: A Psychological Consideration of Key Points of Contact,’ in Self and No-Self: Continuing the Dialogue between Buddhism and Psychotherapy, eds. Dale Mathers, Melvin E. Miller and Osamu Ando (London: Routledge, 2009), 8-18. 17 Hisao Inagaki, A Dictionary of Japanese Buddhist Terms: Based on References in Japanese Literature, 5th ed (Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, 1992), 211. 18 David Y. F. Ho, ‘Selfhood and Identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: Contrasts with the West,’ Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour 25 (1995): 122. See also, Helen Josephine Baroni, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism (New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2002), 7. 19 Ando, ‘Psychotherapy and Buddhism,’ 11.

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Chen, ‘Meaning of Suffering,’ 370. Sharon H. Hsu, Joel Grow and Alan G. Marlatt, ‘Mindfulness and Addiction,’ in Research on Alcoholics Anonymous, edited by Marc Galanter and Lee Ann Kaskutas, 238. 22 Alcoholics Anonymous, Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How Many Thousands of Men and Women Have Recovered from Alcoholism. 3rd ed. (London: A. A. Sterling Area Services, 1978), 62. 23 Michele J. Eliason, Diana S. Amodia and Carol Cano, ‘Spirituality and Alcohol and Other Drug Treatment: The Intersection with Culture,’ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 24 (2006): 121-41. 24 The history of Danshukai is detailed in Richard D. Chenhall and Tomofumi Oka, ‘An Initial View of Self-Help Groups for Japanese Alcoholics: Danshukai in Its Historical, Social, and Cultural Contexts,’ International Journal of Self-Help and Self Care 5 (2009): 111-52. 25 Tomofumi Oka, ‘Danshu-No-Michi, “the Way of Abstinence”: Japanese Cultural-Spiritual Model of Alcohol Abstinence Developed by Alcoholics’ SelfHelp Groups,’ Sophia University Studies in Social Services 37 (2013): 30. 26 The Alcoholic’s Vow: ‘I have joined Danshukai to recover from alcoholism. I will endeavour to create a new life while attending Danshukai meetings and maintaining abstinence. Numerous others have recovered, and it is impossible that I will not recover. I also can stop drinking completely. I sincerely make this vow to live a life without alcohol’ (Translated by Oka). 27 The Family’s Vow: ‘I have been caught up in and suffered from my husband’s/wife’s/child’s alcoholism. Alcoholism is a disease that affects the whole family. The disease should be cured, and can be cured. From now on I will understand alcoholism correctly, and recover my mental health by working together (with everybody involved). I vow to become happy together with Danshukai people.’ (Translated by Oka). 28 The Abstinence Vow: ‘We admit that we are powerless before alcohol, and that we cannot help ourselves with individual effort. We will attend Danshukai meetings and talk about ourselves openly. We will examine our experience of alcoholism and admit our faults. We will make an effort to change ourselves, and create a new life. We will make amends to our families and the people we have troubled. We will convey the delight of abstinence to people who are still suffering from alcoholism’ (Translated by Oka). This vow is a condensation of the Twelve Steps of AA. 29 Gyô and shugyô are used interchangeably. 30 Inagaki, A Dictionary of Japanese Buddhist Terms, 86. 31 Yasuo Yuasa, Shigenori Nagatomo and Monte S. Hull, The Body, SelfCultivation, and Ki-Energy (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993), 8. 21

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Padmal De Silva, ‘Buddhism and Behaviour Modification,’ Behaviour Research and Therapy 22 (1984): 664. 33 Jeffrey K. Mann, ‘Lutherans in Need of Self-Discipline: Japanese Shugyô and the Art of Sanctification,’ Dialog: A Journal of Theology 50 (2011): 274-5. 34 Robert Edgar Carter, The Japanese Arts and Self-Cultivation (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008), 3. 35 Oka, ‘Danshu-No-Michi.’ 36 Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard and Michael Diener, A Concise Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Translated by Michael S. Kohn (Boston: Shambhala, 2010), 59. 37 De Silva, ‘Buddhism and Behaviour Modification,’ 671. 38 Ibid., 670. 39 John F. Kelly, Robert L. Stout, Molly Magill, J. Scott Tonigan, and Maria E. Pagano, ‘Spirituality in Recovery: A Lagged Mediational Analysis of Alcoholics Anonymous’ Principal Theoretical Mechanism of Behavior Change,’ Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35 (2011): 454-63; and Robert D. Warfield and Marc B. Goldstein, ‘Spirituality: The Key to Recovery from Alcoholism,’ Counseling and Values 40 (1996): 196-205. 40 John Clammer, Contemporary Urban Japan: A Sociology of Consumption (Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1997). 41 Andrew J. Weaver, Adam Vane and Kevin J. Flannelly, ‘A Review of Research on Buddhism and Health: 1980–2003,’ Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy 14 (2008): 118-32. 42 Cecilia L. W. Chan, S. M. Ng, Rainbow T. H. Ho and Amy Y. M. Chow, ‘East Meets West: Applying Eastern Spirituality in Clinical Practice,’ Journal of Clinical Nursing 15 (2006): 822-32. 43 Jonathan Appel and Dohee Kim-Appel, ‘Mindfulness: Implications for Substance Abuse and Addiction,’ International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 7 (2009): 506. 44 Bonnie E. Carlson and Heather Larkin, ‘Meditation as a Coping Intervention for Treatment of Addiction,’ Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought 28 (2009): 379-92; G. Alan Marlatt, ‘Buddhist Philosophy and the Treatment of Addictive Behavior,’ Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 9 (2002): 44-50; Jane Warren, ‘Applying Buddhist Practices to Recovery: What I Learned from Skiing with a Little Buddha Wisdom,’ Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling 33 (2012): 34-47. 45 Paramabandhu Groves and Roger Farmer, ‘Buddhism and Addictions,’ Addiction Research & Theory 2 (1994): 191. 46 Ando, ‘Psychotherapy and Buddhism,’ 18. 47 Groves and Farmer, ‘Buddhism and Addictions,’ 191.

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Douglas J. King, ‘Applied Spirituality: Expressing Love and Service,’ Journal of Chemical Dependency Treatment 5 (1995): 117-34. 49 Ibid., 118. 50 Kris Kissman and Lynn Maurer, ‘East Meets West. Therapeutic Aspects of Spirituality in Health, Mental Health and Addiction Recovery,’ International Social Work 45 (2002): 41.

Bibliography Alcoholics Anonymous. Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How Many Thousands of Men and Women Have Recovered from Alcoholism. 3rd ed. London: A. A. Sterling Area Services, 1978. Ando, Osamu. ‘Psychotherapy and Buddhism: A Psychological Consideration of Key Points of Contact.’ In Self and No-Self: Continuing the Dialogue between Buddhism and Psychotherapy, edited by Dale Mathers, Melvin E. Miller and Osamu Ando, 8-18. London: Routledge, 2009. Appel, Jonathan, and Dohee Kim-Appel. ‘Mindfulness: Implications for Substance Abuse and Addiction.’ International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction 7 (2009): 506-12. Baroni, Helen Josephine. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2002. Bliss, Donna Leigh. ‘Empirical Research on Spirituality and Alcoholism: A Review of the Literature.’ Journal of Social Work Practice in the Addictions 7 (2008): 5-25. Carlson, Bonnie E., and Heather Larkin. ‘Meditation as a Coping Intervention for Treatment of Addiction.’ Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work: Social Thought 28 (2009): 379-92. Carter, Robert Edgar. The Japanese Arts and Self-Cultivation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2008. Chan, Cecilia L. W., S. M. Ng, Rainbow T. H. Ho, and Amy Y. M. Chow. ‘East Meets West: Applying Eastern Spirituality in Clinical Practice.’ Journal of Clinical Nursing 15 (2006): 822-32.

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__________________________________________________________________ Chen, Gila. ‘The Meaning of Suffering in Drug Addiction and Recovery from the Perspective of Existentialism, Buddhism and the 12-Step Program.’ Journal of Psychoactive Drugs 42 (2010): 363-75. Chenhall, Richard D., and Tomofumi Oka. ‘An Initial View of Self-Help Groups for Japanese Alcoholics: Danshukai in Its Historical, Social, and Cultural Contexts.’ International Journal of Self-Help and Self Care 5 (2009): 111-52. Clammer, John. Contemporary Urban Japan: A Sociology of Consumption. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1997. Connors, Gerard J., Kimberly S. Walitzer, and J. Scott Tonigan. ‘Spiritual Change in Recovery.’ In Research on Alcoholics Anonymous and Spirituality in Addiction Recovery, vol 18 of Recent Developments in Alcoholism, edited by Marc Galanter and Lee Ann Kaskutas, 209-27. New York: Springer, 2008. Cook, Christopher C. H. ‘Addiction and Spirituality.’ Addiction 99(2004): 539-51. d’Abbs, Peter, and Richard Chenhall. ‘Spirituality and Religion in Response to Substance Misuse among Indigenous Australians.’ Substance Use & Misuse 48 (2013):1114-29. De Silva, Padmal. ‘Buddhism and Behaviour Modification.’ Behaviour Research and Therapy 22 (1984): 661-678. Eliason, Michele J., Diana S. Amodia, and Carol Cano. ‘Spirituality and Alcohol and Other Drug Treatment: The Intersection with Culture.’ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 24 (2006): 121-41. Enomoto, Minoru. ‘Danshukai to AA: Hikakubunka Seishinigakuteki Kōsatsu’ (Danshukai and AA: A Cross-Cultural Psychiatric Discussion). Journal of Studies on Alcoholism Treatment 2 (1985): 157-65. Epstein, Mark. ‘The Deconstruction of the Self: Ego and “Egolessness” in Buddhist Insight Meditation.’ Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 20 (1988): 6169. Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, and Michael Diener. A Concise Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Translated by Michael S. Kohn. Boston: Shambhala, 2010.

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__________________________________________________________________ Galanter, Marc, and Lee Ann Kaskutas. eds., Research on Alcoholics Anonymous and Spirituality in Addiction Recovery, vol 18 of Recent Developments in Alcoholism. New York: Springer, 2008. Grodzicki, Jaime, and Marc Galanter. ‘Spirituality and Addiction.’ Substance Abuse 26 (2006): 1-4. Groves, Paramabandhu, and Roger Farmer. ‘Buddhism and Addictions.’ Addiction Research & Theory 2 (1994): 183-194. Hadzic, Maja. ‘Spirituality and Mental Health: Current Research and Future Directions.’ Journal of Spirituality in Mental Health 13 (2011): 223-35. Ho, David Y. F. ‘Selfhood and Identity in Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism: Contrasts with the West.’ Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior 25 (1995): 115-139. Hsu, Sharon H., Joel Grow, and Alan G. Marlatt. ‘Mindfulness and Addiction.’ In Research on Alcoholics Anonymous and Spirituality in Addiction Recovery, vol 18 of Recent Developments in Alcoholism, edited by Marc Galanter and Lee Ann Kaskutas, 229-50. New York: Springer, 2008. Inagaki, Hisao. A Dictionary of Japanese Buddhist Terms: Based on References in Japanese Literature, 5th ed. Berkeley, CA: Stone Bridge Press, 1992. Kelly, John F., Robert L. Stout, Molly Magill, J. Scott Tonigan, and Maria E. Pagano. ‘Spirituality in Recovery: A Lagged Mediational Analysis of Alcoholics Anonymous’ Principal Theoretical Mechanism of Behavior Change.’ Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 35 (2011): 454-63. King, Douglas J. ‘Applied Spirituality: Expressing Love and Service.’ Journal of Chemical Dependency Treatment 5 (1995): 117-34. Kissman, Kris, and Lynn Maurer. ‘East Meets West. Therapeutic Aspects of Spirituality in Health, Mental Health and Addiction Recovery.’ International Social Work 45 (2002): 35-43. Littlejohn, Darren. The 12-Step Buddhist: Enhance Recovery from Any Addiction. New York: Atria Books, 2009.

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__________________________________________________________________ Mann, Jeffrey K. ‘Lutherans in Need of Self-Discipline: Japanese Shugyô and the Art of Sanctification.’ Dialog: A Journal of Theology 50 (2011): 271-79. Marlatt, G. Alan. ‘Buddhist Philosophy and the Treatment of Addictive Behavior.’ Cognitive and Behavioral Practice 9 (2002): 44-50. McGovern, Thomas F., and Terry McMahon. ‘Spirituality and Religiousness and Alcohol/Other Drug Problems.’ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 24 (2006): 7-19. Morgan, Oliver J. ‘Addiction and Spirituality in Context.’ In Addiction and Spirituality: A Multidisciplinary Approach, edited by Oliver J. Morgan and Merle R. Jordan, 3-30. St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 1999. Morgan, Oliver J. ‘Spirituality, Alcohol and Other Drug Problems: Where Have We Been? Where Are We Going?’ Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 20 (2002): 6181. Morjaria-Keval, Asesha. ‘Religious and Spiritual Elements of Change in Sikh Men with Alcohol Problems.’ Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse 5 (2006): 91-118. Oka, Tomofumi, ‘Danshu-No-Michi, “the Way of Abstinence”: Japanese CulturalSpiritual Model of Alcohol Abstinence Developed by Alcoholics’ Self-Help Groups,’ Sophia University Studies in Social Services 37 (2013): 5-30. Available from https://sophia.academia.edu/TomofumiOka. Shimazono, Susumu, and Tim Graf. ‘The Rise of the New Spirituality.’ In Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions, edited by Inken Prohl and John K. Nelson, 459-85. Leiden: Brill, 2012. Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro. Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970. Warfield, Robert D., and Marc B. Goldstein. ‘Spirituality: The Key to Recovery from Alcoholism.’ Counseling and Values 40 (1996): 196-205. Warren, Jane. ‘Applying Buddhist Practices to Recovery: What I Learned from Skiing with a Little Buddha Wisdom.’ Journal of Addictions & Offender Counseling 33 (2012): 34-47.

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__________________________________________________________________ Wierzbicka, Anna. Understanding Cultures through Their Key Words: English, Russian, Polish, German, and Japanese. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. Yuasa, Yasuo, Shigenori Nagatomo, and Monte S. Hull. The Body, Self-Cultivation, and Ki-Energy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. Tomofumi Oka is a professor of social work in the Department of Social Services of Sophia University, Tokyo. Richard Dean Chenhall is a senior lecturer in medical anthropology at the Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne.

Appendix

Fig. 1: Danshu Dôjô. About fifteen male alcoholics live here together with a leader and his family. Fig. 2: Danshu Dôjô inhabitants offer prayers in front of photographs of the dôjô’s founders. Fig. 3: Stone retaining walls around Danshu Dôjô. All © 2015, Tomofumi Oka.

Fig. 4: The Danshu Dôjô kitchen. Fig. 5. The framed word ‘Silence’ (also visible in Fig. 2). Fig. 6. ‘Abstinence Bodhisattva’. All © 2015, Tomofumi Oka

Fig. 7: Danshu Dôjô meditation. The blackboard shows key words and phrases the leader used in his talk on that day. © 2015, Tomofumi Oka

Spirituality, Healing and Wellbeing: Meta-Theoretical Perspectives within the Framework of Practical Theology Lutricia E. Snell (neé Maree) Abstract This chapter is based on some of the research completed in fulfilment of PhD requirements by the same author. It explores the relationship between trauma and faith-estrangement within the holistic healing paradigm in the context of theory and praxis. Meta-theory provides the scientific points of departure that shares intersecting junctures with other disciplines, which explore specific aspects of the same fields of reality. Basis theory is enriched by inter-disciplinary discussions with other disciplines and with insights emanating from these related disciplines, as well as insights from empirical studies within the field of practical theology. Metatheory casts light on and explains the basis theory from the perspective of the related disciplines. The integration of meta-theoretical insights fulfils an important role in designing any practice theory. Key Words: Spirituality, faith, healing, trauma, faith-estrangement, forgiveness, religious/spiritual and health research, theology, practical theology, meta-theory, holistic therapy, practice. ***** 1. Introduction The chapter has as its main objective the examination of the extent to which perspectives from the scientific disciplines of psychology, social work, sociology, anthropology, the medical sciences, and theology per se may contribute towards an understanding of the nature of trauma as well as the recovery of the individual. Against this theoretical background this chapter will focus on some appropriate meta-theoretical markers to consider in the process of healing of the traumatized faith-estranged. Meta-theoretical aspects under scrutiny in this chapter include types of trauma, treatment modalities of the traumatized, healing and recovery. Furthermore, with a view to praxis, a possible holistic therapeutic approach to healing is suggested. The survivor is often also confronted with trust-issues towards God, a position that leaves the wounded person more fragile. Given the therapeutic goal of healing and restoration, some current trauma-intervention approaches are examined, as well as the role of retribution, forgiveness and faith. In the final analysis, some guidelines are proposed towards a holistic counseling approach with the traumatized faith-estranged person. These guidelines have both theory development and praxis in both current and long-term view.

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__________________________________________________________________ 2. Meta-Theoretical Markers on Trauma There is a clear demarcation between the original or primary wounding of man at the fall in Genesis 3, and secondary wounding as a result of a catastrophically experienced traumatic incident or event which extends beyond the normal realm of existence on earth.1 The fields of psychiatry typifies primary trauma as acute stress syndrome, identified by persons of any ages, as the immediate response to a once-off traumatic incident. It dissipates within two to four weeks of the event.2 Some clinicians regard it as a normal trauma response to an unusual event. 3 However, such event has destroyed all previous assumptions of a safe earthly existence.4 Its recovery period is directly correlated with the amount of understanding and support offered by others. 5, The classic, uncomplicated trauma symptomatology, which often warrants medical and/or psychological intervention, relates to the psychiatric diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). When an acute stress reaction is prolonged, more serious symptoms of trauma may manifest in the categories of the physical, cognitive, emotional and behavioural realm, negatively impacting overall functioning in relation to sleep, concentration, libido, hypervigilation, mood and social connectedness.6 Spiritual functioning is also found to be compromised by trauma,7 since value systems are being questioned.8 Complicated Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD, appears in the form of a combination of classical PTSD symptoms together with symptoms of dissociation, denial, somatization, revictimization, relational difficulties, affect disregulation, psychological numbness and interruptions within the identity.9 Complicated PTSD as developing syndrome, also known as relational trauma, often results from a large amount of diverse post-traumatic stress reactions, which, are the consequence of repeated, intense trauma, often interpersonal, with an early life onset.10 It often features a history of childhood emotional and/or sexual abuse in the absence of hallucinations unless a sadist forms part of the background history, while victims of warfare present with severe symptoms of both hallucinations and dissociation.11 In the theological literature original trauma essentially comprises man’s separation from God since before conception. Man’s fundamental original wounding is centred in his deep-seated restless thirst after long-lasting fulfilment within his soul.12 This wounding involves the traumatic loss of the essence of personhood, evident in the thoughts and styles of relating, decisions, actions and relationships.13 Its fruit is dependence upon distorted insights of reality in general and emotional pain in particular. It carries at its very core susceptibility to the false belief that life consists only of what is seen in the tactile world. Primary wounding leaves man to believe that a direct link exists between survival and manipulation of others and circumstances.14 Primary woundedness is furthermore regarded as the lack of wholeness in Christ. It surfaces through the manifestation of a false self and the practicing of the

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__________________________________________________________________ presence of another god, which offers temporary fulfilment.15 The glorification of self as part of the false self becomes the very mechanism of self-protection against the pain of not belonging and the fear of non-acceptance in an intrinsically hostile world.16 Human nature since the fall is affirmed by theists and some atheists to be curved in on itself, ‘… infected with self-love … unable to love others …’ and profoundly self-centred.17 This anxiety is essentially the experience of living outside of the very presence of God.18 A recent study seems to confirm this conclusion into the link between angst and bodily pain, and its relief offered through worship of and closeness to God, essentially a spiritually disciplined lifestyle.19 Primary trauma as defined by the life sciences is regarded as secondary trauma in theological literature, since the supposition is that primary trauma correlates with entering the world outside the presence of God. Any subsequent trauma is regarded as secondary wounding.20 The notion of man’s innate need to be a winner is shattered when rendered helpless if transgressed. Denial of suppressed emotional pain and its traumatic impact due to pride resulting from the Fall in Genesis 3, create distortions about true personhood.21 In the theological research literature secondary wounding in case of the believer is understood to often lead to faith-estrangement, with anger and fear towards God accompanying questions about His omnipotence.22 The consequences of the trauma experienced by the believer may characterize rigidity to support his fantasy of a safe world. The awareness of his vulnerabilities within an unpredictable world escalates existential anxiety.23 Brain research indicates a correlation between brain patterns and behaviour, with some medics surmising that the brain is the hardware of the soul.24,25 It has led to a more holistic approach in the treatment of physical and psychological conditions.26 Kinniburgh et al27 distinguishes the difference between the experience and effect of acute trauma and that of complicated relational trauma on the brain. Perry28 confirmed it with his findings of the permanent state of hyper alertness in traumatized children in the absence of any subsequent danger. Denial and suppression of emotional pain resulting from incidental or longitudinal trauma show a strong correlation with somatization,29 since repressed emotions are merely buried alive,30 with devastating results for body and spirit.31 Intra-psychic stress negatively impacts the immune and the nervous system, as well as hormone secretion to the brain, value judgments, interpersonal relationships and spiritual perspective on reality.32 Trauma debriefing offers support to survivors within a group context, assisting them in diffusing and processing the event. It aims to speed up recovery before stress responses take hold on health, work performance, and family interaction.33 Criticisms on this approach include that comparable intervention modalities have

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__________________________________________________________________ more sustainable long-term results, and that in some cases non-intervention are proven to be as potent to recovery.34 Eye movement and desensitization and reprocessing therapy involves specific protocols, depending on patient needs and type of pathology.35 EMDR attempts to process the negative emotions, thoughts and memories regarding the incident through rhythmic eye movements while recalling the emotional impact of the event, allowing the brain to process the experience. War veterans respond favourably to EMDR.36 However, cognitive behavioural therapy intervention is suggested as empirically proven intervention method with trauma survivors above EMDR therapy.37 Re-evaluation of trauma-related negative perception of self, others and the world is the focus of cognitive behavioural therapy. CBT aims to build a more positive perspective on the self and others, as a more comprehensive insight is developed.38 Cognitive restructuring of basic assumptions and worldview empowers towards a shift from extreme responses to a more balanced perspective.39 An individualized approach appears most effective with PTSD-patients. The short-term cognitive approach in this modality prevents dependency on the therapist from developing. Psychotherapy follows the crisis-intervention modality immediately after a traumatic event, focusing on the dynamics within the subconscious mind. In the wake of the development of classic PTSD two approaches are followed: exposure therapy, which involves gradual desensitization, and stress coping mechanisms, which implies relaxation techniques and cognitive approaches. In the short-term relaxation techniques are effective, while exposure therapy result in sustainable long-term results.40 Psychiatrists use specific prescription medications very effectively with PTSDpatients. Serotonin re-uptake inhibitors such as Zoloft and Paxil are able to safely and effectively deal with symptoms such as anxiety, depression and hyper vigilance, and is usually prescribed for at least a year.41 Empirical research into the implementation of the tool of forgiveness in the helping profession began about two decades ago. Its contribution towards trauma and healing of shattered interpersonal bonds, have been well documented.42 A significant study by Exline et al43 not only indicates a high correlation between trauma and the unforgiveness of God, and symptoms of anxiety and depression, but it also documents a positive correlation between the inability to forgive, and anger and faith-estrangement. A link is also indicated between bitterness, delayed bereavement and a stalled process of forgiveness and healing.44 Findings furthermore indicate a high correlation between forgiveness and improved mental and physical health in the survivor’s case,45 and empathy combined with a non-judgmental perspective, independent of forgiveness proposed by the perpetrator.46 Condoning forgiveness, lending mercy and reconciliation with

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__________________________________________________________________ the perpetrator are aspects not incorporated into the forgiveness model as a prerequisite,47 as is denial, self-blame and weakness of character.48 The process of forgiveness is well researched by Enright et al.49 This process includes the exposure phase (the identification of the anger), the decision-making phase (the decision to forgive and the development of empathy, and the essential search for meaning of suffering marking the working phase. Hereupon, a new centre point is reached on the meaning of life related to growth upon dealing with the aftermath of the infliction.50 McCullough & Worthington 51 proposes flexibility in using the model. Research into the implementation of the aspect of spirituality in medical care education in 75% of medical schools in the USA has been documented by Puchalski et al.52 However, although the literature in the medical and clinical fields do not propose spiritual pointers such as a spiritual discipline in faith and prayer towards healing, the more recent medical and psychological studies acknowledge a valued correlation between prayer and healing of physical and emotional trauma, as protective factors after related medical interventions. An active faith discipline is encouraged through church membership, group prayer and social connectedness given its improved long-term medical prognosis.53 The debate on restorative justice has surged in recent years. The systems of law have focused on retributive justice being served for breaking the law, without taking into account the ‘wound’ suffered by the crime victim.54Given the increasing critique on retributive justice, the justice system has become intent on giving priority to restorative justice. These include survivor needs (financial, material, social and emotional), community safety, giving a voice to the remorse of the perpetrator, and the reintegration of perpetrators into the community to safeguard the community.55 The debate on restorative justice has evolved into the value and role of forgiveness within this context,56 while a positive correlation between remorse and healing in the case of incest has been documented.57 This model extends beyond the CBT approach discussed above,58 to the interpretation of the worldview in the light of Scripture, exploring contrasting views and eternal Truth by a religious therapist.59 Studies have indicated the comparative difference in short- and long-term recovery from symptomatology within the anxiety cluster of diagnosis when both intercessory and centering prayer 60 is introduced into both CBT and the psychotherapy model of intervention.61 Outcomes also differ between non-religious and religious therapists.62 3. Research Methodology and Findings The qualitative method became the relevant method of choice since it incorporates the use of empirical material such as case studies, interviews, life stories and observable texts, with the aim to understand and interpret natural phenomena in relation to the understanding people bring to their environment.63

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__________________________________________________________________ Qualitative research has as its purpose the enhancement of an understanding of the past and current experience of the respondent,64 by way of participant observation in an unstructured, situation-specific interview with open-ended questions related to thematic analysis.65 The analysis of the natural situation of the respondent is the most meaningful contribution of the qualitative research method.66 For the purpose of this research the intrinsic case study method was chosen, to gather data, which may contribute, to an enhanced understanding and description of each case.67 The primary research focus comprised the wounding narrative, the background and essentials to the faith-estrangement, the motivation towards being healed and reintegrated functioning. The researcher attended to interplay of verbal and nonverbal communication, and transference and counter-transference during this process.68 The primary pre-supposition of the study was that the wounded might find healing from trauma and restored faith and meaning to life.69 During 6-8 sessions the wounding narrative was addressed via a holistic model with prayer intrinsic regarding each trauma, and symptomatic residues left over the years. The research results show a correlation between early trauma and the mature theological perspective on suffering and the character of God. It confirms earlier conclusions in the literature on the link between symptoms of primary woundedness, and existential angst and faith-estrangement. This affirms the key role of the therapist in guiding the traumatized person’s search into the authenticity of thoughts by testing it within Scriptural parameters of sound truth. The emerging development of a firm identity in Christ became evident, replacing the possible over-idealization of the therapist. The theological concept of the paracletic metaphor was essential to therapist transference in this regard. Upon forgiveness of the perpetrator, acceptance of Christ’s righteousness could be embraced by the wounded. In the final analysis woundedness and faith-estrangement became resolved by renewed trust in a loving God, resulting in a new existential perspective, spiritual growth and a rebuilt cognitive understanding of the personhood of God. The gift of reason was also successfully utilized during the process. According to the results functional relativistic thought could be reconstructed within a pastoral cognitive-behavioural model. Preparatory prayer by the therapist is thus of utmost importance. In case of the wounded having become the perpetrator, apathy towards the traumatized victim/survivor showed a strong correlation with a compromised healing path in therapy, while remorse correlated with healing, restored functioning and a deeply transformed life. The respondents’ personal relational functioning with committed loved ones entered into a healing process while vocational functioning became reportedly more meaningful.

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__________________________________________________________________ 4. A Holistic Therapeutic Approach Post-traumatic growth and a new definition of fulfilment in life form the core of the approach to healing of the traumatized, since trauma creates an existential crisis.70 The Triune God is central to healing and well-being, and the Godly Kingdom is by faith man’s true home, while the Holy Spirit mediates man’s righteousness in Christ’s redemptive suffering, with Scripture performing a central role in the meditative process.71 The holistic model proposed by the research approach leading to discussed results firstly includes an assessment phase consisting firstly of the taking of a spiritual history, an assessment of spiritual functioning before the trauma and current spiritual functioning, assessment of world view prior to and since the traumatic event(s), and an assessment of the personal commitment to the healing process.72 The second phase of the assessment period focuses on the examination of the clinical intake problem relating to the presenting acute stress syndrome, symptomatology and impact on overall functioning.73 Thirdly, an assessment is furthermore done on any history of additional wounding and symptoms of complicated trauma. The history taking includes the compilation of a prayer list on current and past traumas, family history and toxic relationships inherent to family functioning, losses suffered as a result, and client definitional perspectives on self, others and God. The second phase characterizes in-depth prayer, comprising of bio-psycho-socio-spiritual exploration of each prayer-listed emotion, each body memory, each wound suffered, unmet childhood needs and long-term negative repetitive behaviours in adjusted functionality. The mourning of losses may occur at this stage. Hereupon the redefinition of the relevant faulty cognition and behaviours follows, including that of God, self and others, as well as pertaining to healthy boundary setting, engagement within a support network, as well as a redefinition of the essence of individual family relationships. Once the self is newly defined within the context of God’s love, God may become embraced as the true Father, and a spiritual earthly mentor may be identified for the new spiritual journey ahead. Maintenance is the on-going final phase within the newly adopted spiritually disciplined life. Within this framework a new level of maturity emerges and growth continues into becoming more of the stable self, often evident in loving service to God and others.74 5. Implications for Praxis The essential definition of trauma, as indicated in the section above, involves similar yet differing meanings within the medical and social science literature when compared to the theological literature. In essence the true meaning of trauma stands defined by a combination of insights and understanding of all these mentioned disciplines, considering the research outcomes of various case studies within this research project. Within the context of a successfully implemented

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__________________________________________________________________ holistic therapeutic approach to trauma, the stage is set for meaningful healing and growth into a fulfilled being within the sound definition of existential existence.75

Notes 1

Lutricia E. Maree, Die Rol Van Pastorale Berading In Die Bring Van Heil En Heilservaring Aan Die Geloofsvervreemde PhD diss., North West University, 2010, 72. 2 American Psychiatric Association APA. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV-TR, 4th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2007, 469. 3 JudithL Herman, Trauma and Recovery from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror, Cornwall, London: Pandora, 2001, 119. 4 Robert Hicks, Failure to Scream. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1993, 15. 5 Mary B. Williams and John F. Sommer Jr., eds., Simple and Complex PTSD. Strategies for Comprehensive Treatment in Clinical Practice, Binghamton, N.Y.: The Haworth Press, 2002, 33; H. Norman Wright, The New Guide to Crisis and Trauma Counselling, Ventura, Ca.: Regal, 2003, 222. 6 BenjaminJ. Saddock, Harold Kaplan and Virginia A. Sadock, Synopsis of Psychiatry. Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry. 10th ed., Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2007, 615-616; Mary.B.Williams and John F. Sommer Jr., eds., Simple and Complex PTSD,105-107. 7 Holly Gaudette, Katherine.R.B. Jankowski, ’Spiritual Coping and Anxiety in Palliative Care Patients: A Pilot Study,’ Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy, 19 2013 :131-139. 8 JudithL Herman, Trauma and Recovery from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror, Cornwall, London: Pandora, 2001, 51. 9 JohnP. Wilson, Matthew J. Friedman, Lindy, J.D., Treating Psychological Trauma and PTSD, New York, N.Y.: Guilford Press, 2001, 205; Ingrid. V.E Carlier, Bert. E. Voerman and Berthold Gerson., ‘Intrusive Traumatic Recollections and Comorbid Posttraumatic Stress Reaction in Depressed Patients,’ Psychosomatic Medicine, 62,1, 2000:26-32. 10 JudithL Herman, Trauma and Recovery from Domestic Abuse to Political Terror, 119; Bessel Van Der Kolk, ‘Developmental Trauma Disorder: Towards a Rational Diagnosis for Children with Complex Trauma Histories,’ Psychiatric Annals, 33, 5 2005: 402. 11 MaryB.Williams and John F. Sommer Jr., eds., Simple and Complex PTSD, 104106. 12 Neil T. Anderson, TerryE. Zuehlke and JulianneS. Zuehlke, Christ Centered Therapy: The Practical Integration of Theology and Psychology, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Publishing House, 2000, 78.

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John Eldredge and Brent Curtis, The Sacred Romance. Finding Your Heart’s True Desire, Cape Town, South Africa: Struik, 2007, 108. 14 Larry Crabb, Soultalk. The Language God Longs for Us to Speak, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, 2003, 178. 15 Mark R. McMinn, Psychology, Theology and Spirituality in Christian Counseling, Wheaton, Ill: Tyndale, 1996, 35-36. 16 Leanne Payne, The Healing Presence. Curing the Soul through Union with Christ, Grand Rapids, Mi., USA: Hamewith Books, Baker Publishing Group, 2005, 73. 17 Timothy Keller, Walking with God through Pain and Suffering, Great Britain: Hodder & Stoughton, 2013, 123, 189. 18 Louie Giglio, I Am Not but I Know I Am. Sisters, Oregon: Multnomah Publishers, Inc..2005, 103-110. 19 Erling Tronvik, Torgeir Sorensen, Mattias Linde, Lars Bendtsen, Ville Artto, Katarina Laurell, Mikko Kallela, John-Anker Zwart, Knut Hagen, ‘The Relationship between Headache and Religious Attendance The Nord-Trondelag Health Study – HUNT,’ Journal of Headache and Pain, 15 2014:1. 20 H. Norman Wright, Recovering from the Losses in Life, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Revell, a division of Baker Book House Company, 2006, 13-15. 21 H. Norman Wright, It’s okay to Cry Colorado Springs, Colorado: Waterbrook Press, 2004, 186-188; Gregory.L Jantz, Healing the Scars of Emotional Abuse, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Revell, a division of Baker Book House Company, 2004, 106-108; Wentzel Coetzer, ‘Verwerping’ Unpublished student guide, North West University, 2009, 41. 22 David Cross, Soul Ties: The Unseen Bond in Relationships Lancaster, England: Sovereign World, 2006, 43; Leanne Payne, The Healing Presence. Curing the Soul through Union with Christ, Grand Rapids, Mi., USA: Hamewith Books, Baker Publishing Group, 2005, 81-82. 23 H. Norman Wright, Recovering from the Losses in Life, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Revell, a division of Baker Book House Company, 2006, 35. 24 Daniel G.Amen, and Lisa.C. Routh, Healing Anxiety and Depression, New York: Berkley Books, 2003, 13-32. 25 Frank B. Minirth and Paul Meier, Happiness Is a Choice: The Symptoms, Causes, and Cures of Depression, United States of America: Baker Publishing Group, 2007, 17-20. 26 Daniel J.Siegel, The Mindful Brain. Reflections and Attunement in the Cultivation of Well-Being, New York: W.W.Norton & Co, 2007, 199; Edward T. Welch, Counselor’s Guide to the Brain and Its Disorders. Knowing the Difference between Disease and Sin, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1991, 32-57.

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Kristine J.Kinniburgh, Margaret Blaustein, Joseph Spinnazola and Bessel Van Der Kolk, ‘Attachment, Self-Regulation and Competency: A Comprehensive Intervention Framework for Children with Complex Trauma,’ Psychiatric Annals, 35,5 2005: 430. 28 Bruce Perry, ‘Applying Principles of Neurodevelopment to Clinical Work with Maltreated and Traumatized Children.’ Working with Traumatized Youth in Child Welfare, ed. N. B. Webb, N.B., 32, New York: The Guilford Press, 2006. 29 David A. Seamands, Healing for Damaged Emotions, Colorado Springs, Co.: Life Journey, 2004, 13; Yvonne Retief, Genesing Vir Trauma In Die SuidAfrikaanse Konteks, Kaapstad: Struik, 2004, 31. 30 Stephen Arterburn, Healing Is a Choice, Ten Decisions that Will Transform Your Life and Ten Lies that Can Prevent You from Making Them, Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, Inc., 2005, 37. 31 David A. Seamands, Healing of Memories, Colorado: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1995, 39. 32 Wentzel Coetzer, ‘Die noue wisselwerking tussen die geestelike, emosionele en fisiese dimensies,’ Unpublished student guide, North West University, 2007, 74. 33 Dora Black, Martin Newman, Jean Harris-Hendriks, and Gillian Mezcy eds., Psychological Trauma: A Developmental Approach, London: Gaskell, 1997, 49. 34 Richard Gist and Grant Devilly,’Post-Trauma Debriefing: The Road Too Frequently Travelled,’ Lancet, 360, 2002: 741; Steve J. Lewis, ‘Do One-Shot Preventive Interventions for PTSD Work. A Systematic Research Synthesis of Psychological Debriefings,’ Aggression and Violent Behavior, 8, 3, 2003: 329-343; JohnP.Wilson, Matthew J. Friedman, Jacob D. Lindy, Treating Psychological Trauma and PTSD, New York, N.Y.: Guilford Press, 2001, 144. 35 Francine Shapiro, ‘Efficacy of the Eye Movement Desensitization Procedure in the Treatment of Traumatic Memories,’ Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2 1989:199223. 36 Marta Hatter, ‘EMDR: A Portrait of the Mind-Body Connection,’ Paper presented at the International Conference of the AACC, Nashville, Tennessee, September 14, 2007. 37 Lawrence Robinson, Trauma Rehabilitation, Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006, 266. 38 JohnN. Briere and Catherine Scott, Principles of Trauma Therapy: A Guide to Symptoms, Evaluation, and Treatment, Thousand Oaks: Sage, 2006, 109. 39 Edward M. Carroll, and David.W. Foy, ‘Assessment and Treatment Of CombatRelated Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in a Medical Center Setting,’ Treating PTSD: Cognitive-Behavioral Strategies, ed. DavidW. Foy New York: The Guilford Press, 1992, 61.

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Benjamin.. Saddock, Harold Kaplan and Virginia A. Sadock, Synopsis of Psychiatry. Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry, 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2007, 620-621. 41 BenjaminJ. Saddock, Harold Kaplan and Virginia A. Sadock, Synopsis of Psychiatry, 621. 42 Robert J. Murray, ‘The Therapeutic Use of Forgiveness in Healing Intergenerational Pain,’ Counseling and Values 46 (2002): 188; Roy T. Denton and Michael W. Martin, ‘Defining Forgiveness: An Empirical Exploration of Process and Role,’ The American Journal of Family Therapy 26, 7 (1998): 281; Shann.R. Ferch, ‘Intentional Forgiving as a Counselling Intervention,’ Journal of Counselling and Development, 76,3 (1998): 261. 43 JulieJ. Exline, Ann Marie Yali and Marci Lobel. ‘When God Disappoints: Difficulty Forgiving God and Its Role in Negative Emotion,’ Journal of Health Psychology 4(1999): 365. 44 Neil T. Anderson, TerryE. Zuehlke and JulianneS. Zuehlke Christ Centered Therapy: The Practical Integration of Theology and Psychology, Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan Publishing House, 2000, 265-266; Hendrik P.Kotze, Die Belangrikheid Van Die Stappe Van Rou En Vergifnis In Die Herstelproses Van Die Emosioneel Verwonde Persoon – ‘N Pastorale Studie. PhD diss., North West University, 2008, 150. 45 William West, ‘Issues Relating to the Use of Forgiveness in Counselling and Psychotherapy . British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 29,4 2001: 421; Sandra.K. Johnston, ‘The Affects of Forgiveness on the Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder as a Result of Sexual Trauma.’ Masters diss.,University of Wisconsin-Whitewater., 2007, 37; Laura.Y. Thompson, C.R .Snyder , Lesa Hoffman, Scott T. Michael, Heather N. Rasmussen, Laura S. Billings, Laura Heinze, Jason E. Neufeld, Hal S. Shorey, Jessica C. Roberts and Danae E. Roberts. ‘Dispositional Forgiveness of Self, Others, and Situations’. Journal of Personality, 73,2 2005:313-359. 46 Radhi.H. Al-Mabuk, Robert. D. Enright, and Paul.A. Cardis. ‘Forgiveness Education with Parentally Love-Deprived Late Adolescents’. Journal of Moral Education 24, 4 1995: 427-444; James J.Lynch, The Broken Heart. The Medical Consequences of Loneliness. New York: Basic Books, 1985, 103-106; Holly.K. Orcutt, Scott Picket and Brooke E. Pope, ‘Experiential Avoidance and Forgiveness as Mediators in the Relation between Traumatic Interpersonal Events and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms’. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24,2005: 1020. 47 Eileen R. Borris, ‘The Healing Power of Forgiveness: Occasional Paper Number 10. The Institute for Multi-Track Diplomacy, Washington D.C. October 2003. Viewed 26 Julie 2009.

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Hendrik P. Kotze, Die Belangrikheid Van Die Stappe Van Rou En Vergifnis In Die Herstelproses Van Die Emosioneel Verwonde Persoon – ‘n Pastorale Studie . PhD diss., North West University, 2008, 84. 49 Robert.D. Enright, Susan Freedman and Julio Rique, ‘The Psychology of Interpersonal Forgiveness’. In Exploring Forgiveness, eds. Robert.D. Enright and Joanna North Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1998 52; Robert.D. Enright and the Human Development Study Group, ‘The Moral Development of Forgiveness’. In Handbook of Moral Behavior and Development, eds. William Kurtines and Jacob Gewirtz Hillsdale, New Jersey: Erlbaum, 1991, 123-152. 50 Robert.D. Enright and, G.Reed, ‘Process Model’. Forgiving.org. 2007, Viewed 3 November 2009, 51 Michael Mccullough and Everett L. Worthington. ‘Models of Interpersonal Forgiveness and Their Applications to Counselling: Review and Critique’. Counseling Values, 39,1994:2-14. 52 Christina M. Puchalski, Benjamin C. Blatt, Mikhail Kogan and Amy Butler ‘Spirituality and Health: The Development of a Field’. Academic Medicine, 89 2014:10-14. 53 Jennifer. L. Hillman, Crisis Intervention and Trauma. New Approaches to Evidence-Based Practice New York, N.Y.: Plenum Publishers, 2002, 272; Holly Gaudette and Katherine R.B. Jankowski,’Spiritual Coping and Anxiety in Palliative Care Patients: A Pilot Study’. Journal of Health Care Chaplaincy, 19,2013:131-139; Christine A.Courtois, Julian D. Ford, Judith L. Herman and Bessel A.Van Der Kolk. Treating Complex Traumatic Stress Disorders: An Evidence-Based Guide New York, N.Y.: Guilford Press, 2009, 214. 54 Van Der Westhuizen, B.M., ‘Die Uitwerking Van Oorbevolking Binne SuidAfrikaanse Gevangenisse Op Die Rehabilitasie Van Oortreders’. Dlitt et Phil diss., University of South Africa, 2005, 345. 55 Jan Neser, ‘Restorative Justice as Reaction to Crime: Development and Conceptualisation’. Crime Research in South Africa, 2, 1, 2001: 5. 56 Ann Skelton and Mike Batley, ‘Restorative Justice: A Contemporary South African Review’. Acta Criminologica, 21,3 2008: 38; Minette F. Plaatjies, ‘The Application of Restorative Justice in The South African Correctional System’ Dlitt et Phil diss., University of South Africa, 2008, 283. 57 Gloudien.M Spies, ‘Restorative Justice: A Way To Support The Healing Process of a Child Exposed to Incest’. Acta Criminologica, 22,1 2009: 16. 58 Mark R. McMinn, Psychology, Theology and Spirituality In Christian Counseling, 33-34. 59 Barend.J De Klerk, Friederich De Wet Ed., Gert Breed, Rantoa S. Letsosa and Hendrik Pieterse, Met Die Oog Op God. Voorveronderstellings Van Die

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__________________________________________________________________ Reformatoriese Invalshoek Op Praktiese Teologie Noordbrug, Potchefstroom, South Africa: Potchefstroom Teologiese Publikasies, 2013, 296-297; Mark R. McMinn and Clark D. Campbell, Integrative Psychotherapy. Towards a Comprehensive Christian Approach Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Press, 2007, 2325; Rebecca L. Propst, ‘The Comparative Efficacy of Religious and Non-Religious Imagery for the Treatment of Mild Depression in Religious Individuals,’ Cognitive Therapy and Research, 4 1980:167-178. 60 Mark R. McMinn, Psychology, Theology and Spirituality in Christian Counseling, 65-91. 61 Siang-Yang Tan, Counseling and Psychotherapy. A Christian Perspective Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, 2011, 359-362. 62 Peter .A. Boelens, Roy.R. Reeves, William Replogle and Harold.G. Koenig. ‘A Randomized Trial of the Effect of Prayer on Depression and Anxiety’. International journal of Psychiatry in Medicine, 39 4 2009:377-392; Paul.S. Bay, Daniel Beckman, James Trippi., Richard Gunderman and Terry Colin. ‘The Effect of Pastoral Care Services on Anxiety, Depression, Hope, Religious Coping, and Religious Problem Solving Styles: A Randomized Controlled Study’. Journal of Religion & Health, 47 1 2008: 57-69; Rebecca L Propst, Richard Ostrom, PhilipWatkins, Terri Dean and David Mashburn.’Comparative Efficacy of Religious and Nonreligious Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for the Treatment of Clinical Depression in Religious Individuals’. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60 1992: 94-103. 63 Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln eds., Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials Thousand Oaks: Sage Publishers Inc., 2003, 15. 64 David Silverman, Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. 2nd. London: Sage, 2001, 87. 65 Johann Mouton and Hein Marais, Basic Concepts in the Methodology of the Social Sciences Pretoria: Human Sciences Research Council, 1992, 166; Lawrence Neuman, Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1997, 13; David Silverman, Interpreting Qualitative Data, 87. 66 Rian S.Steyn and George Lotter, ‘Voorhuwelikse Verhoudings: ‘n Verkennende Kwalitatiewe Empiriese Ondersoek’. Praktiese teologie in Suid-Afrika: Practical Theology in South Africa, 21,1 2006: 107. 67 De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Christa Fouché and Delport, C.S.L., Research at Grass Roots. For the Social Sciences and Human Professions. Third edition. Pretoria: Van Schaik, 2006, 272. 68 Lutricia E. Maree, Die Rol Van Pastorale Berading In Die Bring Van Heil En Heilservaring Aan Die Geloofsvervreemde , 143. 69 Ibid.

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Timothy Keller Walking with God through Pain and Suffering Great Britain: Hodder & Stoughton, 2013, 165 . 71 Lutricia E. Maree, Die rol van pastorale berading in die bring van heil en heilservaring aan die geloofsvervreemde , 176-180. 72 Ibid. 73 Ibid., 196- 198. 74 Ibid., 198-202. 75 Ibid., 205-213.

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__________________________________________________________________ Robinson, Lawrence.R. Trauma Rehabilitation. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006. Saddock, Benjamin.J., Harold Kaplan and Virginia A. Sadock. Synopsis of Psychiatry. Behavioral Sciences/Clinical Psychiatry. 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 2007. Seamands, David A. Healing for Damaged Emotions. Colorado Springs, Co.: Life Journey, 2004. Seamands, David A. Healing of Memories. Colorado: Chariot Victor Publishing, 1995. Shapiro, Francine. ‘Efficacy of the Eye Movement Desensitization Procedure in the Treatment of Traumatic Memories’. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 2 1989:199223. Siegel, Daniel.J. The Mindful Brain. Reflections and Attunement in the Cultivation of Well-Being. New York: W.W.Norton & Co, 2007. Silverman, David. Interpreting Qualitative Data: Methods for Analysing Talk, Text and Interaction. 2nd. London: Sage, 2001. Skelton, Ann and Mike Batley. Restorative Justice: A Contemporary South African Review . Acta Criminologica, 213 2008: 37-51. Spies, Gloudien.M. Restorative Justice: A Way to Support the Healing Process of a Child Exposed to Incest . Acta Criminologica, 221 2009: 15-24. Steyn Rian S. and George.A Lotter. Voorhuwelikse verhoudings: ‘n verkennende kwalitatiewe empiriese ondersoek . Praktiese teologie in Suid-Afrika: Practical theology in South Africa, 211 2006:104-120. Tan, Siang-Yang. Counseling and Psychotherapy. A Christian Perspective. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, 2011. Thompson, Laura.Y., C.R .Snyder , Lesa Hoffman, Scott T. Michael, Heather N. Rasmussen, Laura S. Billings, Laura Heinze, Jason E. Neufeld, Hal S. Shorey, Jessica C. Roberts and Danae E. Roberts. Dispositional Forgiveness of Self, Others, and Situations . Journal of Personality, 732 2005:313-359.

Lutricia E. Snell (neé Maree)

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__________________________________________________________________ Tronvik Erling, Torgeir Sorensen, Mattias Linde, Lars Bendtsen, Ville Artto, Katarina Laurell, Mikko Kallela, John-Anker Zwart, Knut Hagen. The Relationship between Headache and Religious Attendance The Nord-Trondelag Health Study – HUNT . Journal of Headache and Pain, 15 2014:1. Van Der Kolk, Bessel. Developmental Trauma Disorder: Towards a Rational Diagnosis for Children with Complex Trauma Histories . Psychiatric Annals, 335 2005: 401-408. Van Der Westhuizen, B.M., Die Uitwerking Van Oorbevolking Binne SuidAfrikaanse Gevangenisse op Die Rehabilitasie Van Oortreders . Dlitt et Phil diss., University of South Africa, 2005. Welch, Edward.T. Counselor’s Guide to the Brain and Its Disorders. Knowing the Difference between Disease and Sin. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1991. West, William. Issues Relating to the Use of Forgiveness in Counselling and Psychotherapy . British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 294 2001: 415-423. Williams, Mary.B. and John F. Sommer Jr., eds., Simple and Complex PTSD. Strategies for Comprehensive Treatment in Clinical Practice. Binghamton, N.Y.: The Haworth Press, 2002. Wilson, John P., Matthew J. Friedman and Jacob D. Lindy. Treating Psychological Trauma and PTSD. New York, N.Y.: Guilford Press, 2001. World Health Organization. What Is Mental Health? Accessed September 13, 2009, http://www.who.int/features/qa/62/en/index.html. Wright, H. Norman. The New Guide to Crisis and Trauma Counselling. Ventura, Ca.: Regal, 2003. Wright, H. Norman. It’s Okay to Cry. Colorado Springs, Colorado: Waterbrook Press, 2004. Wright, H. Norman. Recovering from the Losses in Life. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Revell, a division of Baker Book House Company, 2006. Lutricia E. Snell is a post-doctoral research fellow and lecturer with North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa. She has expertise in practical theology,

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__________________________________________________________________ the social sciences, psychotherapy and consultancy to commerce on human behaviour in the workplace. Her research interests include the interface between spirituality and wellbeing within individuals, marriages, families, political and economic spheres, societal institutions and society at large.