Uncovering Student Ideas in Science : 25 More Formative Assessment Probes [1 ed.] 9781681408330, 9781681408323

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VOL 2. S E C O N D E D I T I O N

UNCOVERING STUDENT IDEAS IN SCIENCE

25 MORE FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PROBES

PAGE KEELEY

Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

By Page Keeley

Arlington, Virginia Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

Rachel Ledbetter, Managing Editor Andrea Silen, Associate Editor

Printing and Production Catherine Lorrain, Director

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Will Thomas Jr., Director Cover, Interior Design, and Illustrations by Linda Olliver

National Science Teaching Association

1840 Wilson Blvd., Arlington, VA 22201 www.nsta.org/store For customer service inquiries, please call 800-277-5300. Copyright © 2021 by the National Science Teaching Association. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. 24 23 22 21    4 3 2 1 NSTA is committed to publishing material that promotes the best in inquiry-based science education. However, conditions of actual use may vary, and the safety procedures and practices described in this book are intended to serve only as a guide. Additional precautionary measures may be required. NSTA and the author do not warrant or represent that the procedures and practices in this book meet any safety code or standard of federal, state, or local regulations. NSTA and the author disclaim any liability for personal injury or damage to property arising out of or relating to the use of this book, including any of the recommendations, instructions, or materials contained therein.

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Contents

Foreword ................................................................................................ vii Preface ....................................................................................................ix Acknowledgments ............................................................................. xvii About the Author ................................................................................. xix Introduction ............................................................................................ 1

Section 1. Physical Science Probes

Concept Matrix ......................................................................................................14

1 Comparing Cubes ...................................................................................................15 2 Floating Logs ..........................................................................................................23 3 Floating High and Low ..........................................................................................29 4 Solids and Holes ....................................................................................................35 5 Turning the Dial ......................................................................................................41 6 Boiling Time and Temperature .............................................................................47 7 Freezing Ice ............................................................................................................53 8 What’s in the Bubbles? .........................................................................................59 9 Chemical Bonds .....................................................................................................67 10 Ice-Cold Lemonade ................................................................................................73 11 Mixing Water ..........................................................................................................81

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Section 2. Life Science Probes

Concept Matrix ..................................................................................................... 90

12 Is It a Plant? ...........................................................................................................91 13 Needs of Seeds ......................................................................................................99 14 Plants in the Dark and Light ..............................................................................105 15 Is It Food for Plants? ........................................................................................... 111 16 Giant Sequoia Tree .............................................................................................. 119 17 Baby Mice .............................................................................................................127 18 Whale and Shrew .................................................................................................135 19 Habitat Change .................................................................................................... 141

Section 3. Earth and Space Science Probes

Concept Matrix ....................................................................................................148

20 Is It a Rock? (Version 1) ....................................................................................149 21 Is It a Rock? (Version 2) .................................................................................... 155 22 Mountaintop Fossil .............................................................................................. 161 23 Darkness at Night ................................................................................................167 24 Emmy’s Moon and Stars .....................................................................................173 25 Objects in the Sky ............................................................................................... 181

Index .............................................................................................................. 187

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Foreword While writing this foreword, I found myself revisiting the 50-odd years of my involvement in science education. I recalled the many ideas, techniques, concepts, and research findings that have passed through my experience and f lowed into my teaching repertoire like so much effluent through the filtering rushes in a stream. Some remain vital today and others still cling to the stalks, tried, tested, and found wanting. I remember so vividly the night of October 4, 1957, when as a nation we were alerted to the beeping of Sputnik as it circled our planet, totally unaware of the influence its presence would have on science education over the next decade. It marked not only the beginning of the space race but the beginning of the rapid and frantic attempts of our nation to “beef up” the science, math, and engineering skills of our students. Science finally had a real place in the school curriculum. The Russians had beaten us to space and we were worried about our future as a nation! The United States responded swiftly with the National Defense Education Act, which allowed teachers like myself to update our content at summer institutes and provided for the development of a different kind of curriculum for school science. Since then there have been many innovations in our field, including the famed “alphabet soup” curriculum projects of the 1950s and 1960s (e.g., SCIS, SAPA, COPES, Harvard Project Physics) and subsequent curriculum projects such as Insights, GEMS, AIMS, STC, and FOSS.

Then came the advent of the standards decade with Project 2061 and the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (A A AS 1993) and the National Science Education Standards (NRC 1996). We finally had a guide to what content should be taught and how it should be presented. Many of the states then developed their own versions of the standards, but there was uncertainty about how to use standards on the local level. In 2005, Page Keeley authored Science Curriculum Topic Study: Bridging the Gap Between Standards and Practice, which was the first comprehensive guide to help us bridge the gap between the two sets of national standards, research on student learning, and teaching practice. This was a timely, muchneeded book. Following the development of state standards, each state instituted ways to hold schools accountable for teaching to the standards. For many states, this resulted in “high-stakes” tests, which were enshrined in legislation. Schools gave these tests to students in the spring and received the results sometime during the next school year. The accountability factor was there, but it did little for the teachers who wanted to improve current learning for their students. Many school districts implemented a teaching unit for selected grades entitled “Review for the Test.” I thought to myself, “Maybe this really is a good time to retire!” Many of us believed that teachers needed a way to find out what their students knew, what kind of preconceptions students brought

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Foreword to the classroom, and what teachers could do with this information to improve instruction. Again, Page Keeley and her team from the Maine Mathematics and Science Alliance entered the picture, along with the National Science Teaching Association, with the first volume of Uncovering Student Ideas in Science: 25 Formative Assessment Probes, published in 2005. This book focused on helping teachers discern their students’ thinking about different science topics. It also helped teachers figure out what to do with this information and where to find help in moving their students to a new and deeper understanding of science concepts. A workable strategy for formative assessment was now available to the busy teacher. The probes published in the first volume of Uncovering Student Ideas in Science were a success, and teachers from all over the country began to find that formative assessment can help them become better teachers. This may indeed have been an example of the “tipping point” that Malcolm Gladwell (2000) talks about in his book The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. I knew it was mine. Finding this kind of innovation is exciting to me because teachers once again can be in charge of classroom instruction. The arrival of a truly inquiry-based focus on science education, coupled with assessment, is what I and so many others have been waiting for.

Well, doesn’t a successful book deserve a sequel? Here it is, with 25 new probes and accompanying teacher guides. This is the kind of innovation that is enough to keep an old dog like me barking out there in the field for a few more years. Woof! Dr. Richard Konicek-Moran Professor Emeritus University of Massachusetts, Amherst This foreword was written in 2007 for the first edition of Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Volume 2.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 1993. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. Gladwell, M. 2000. The tipping point: How little things can make a big difference. Boston: Back Bay Books. Keeley, P. 2005. Science curriculum topic study: Bridging the gap between standards and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Keeley, P., F. Eberle, and L. Farrin. 2005. Uncovering student ideas in science: 25 formative assessment probes. Vol. 1. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 1996. National science education standards. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

It’s been said that some people bring a light so great to the world that even after they have gone the light remains. This can certainly be said of Dr. Richard “Dick” Konicek-Moran. Dick’s light will forever shine on the thousands of teachers and former students he positively influenced throughout his extraordinary 60+ years in science education. Sadly, my dear friend, mentor, and inspiration passed away on November 10, 2019. He will forever remain in my heart and in my work. —Page Keeley, October 20, 2020

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Preface Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Volume 2, Second Edition: 25 More Formative Assessment Probes updates the 2007 version by including a Spanish version for each student probe page, adding current research summaries, linking to related disciplinary core ideas (DCIs) in A Framework for K–12 Science Education (the Framework; NRC 2012) and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS; NGSS Lead States 2013), adding new instructional suggestions and new National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) resources, and making minor changes to a few of the probes. Similar to the other books in the Uncovering Student Ideas series, this book provides a collection of unique questions, called formative assessment probes, that are purposefully designed to reveal preconceptions students bring to their learning and to identify misunderstandings students develop during instruction that teachers may not notice. Each probe is carefully researched to develop answer choices that mirror commonly held ideas students have about concepts or phenomena. Although suggested grade levels are provided, the probes are not grade-specific. They are designed to be used across multiple grade spans as well as with adults for professional learning or preservice education, especially because alternative science ideas that go unchallenged will often follow students from one grade to the next, and even into adulthood.

The Probes

This book contains a collection of 25 probes organized into three sections: Physical Science Probes (Section 1), Life Science Probes (Section 2), and Earth and Space Science Probes (Section 3). A concept matrix precedes each section. The matrix lists related concepts addressed by each probe and suggested grade levels for using each probe. There are two versions of each probe included in this book. The first is the English language student page. On the back side of the English language student page is a Spanish language version. This version can be used with English language learners or with students in Spanish language immersion programs.

Teacher Notes That Accompany the Probes

Each of the 25 formative assessment probes includes detailed background information for teachers. These “Teacher Notes” are a vital component of this book and should always be read before using a probe. This section describes the features of the Teacher Notes that accompany each probe. Purpose “Deciding what to assess is not as simple as it might appear. Existing guidelines for assessment design emphasize that the process should begin with a statement of the purpose for the assessment and a definition of the content domain to be measured” (Pellegrino, Chudowsky, and Glaser 2001, p. 178). This section

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Preface describes the purpose of the probe—that is, what you will learn about your students’ ideas as you use the probe. It begins by describing the overarching concept the probe elicits, followed by the specific idea that makes up the learning target. Before choosing a probe, it is important to understand what the probe is intended to reveal about students’ thinking. Taking time to read the Purpose section will help you decide if the probe will provide the information you need to plan responsive instruction and attend to students’ thinking. Type of Probe This section describes the format used to develop the probe. All probes in the Uncovering Student Ideas series are two-tiered, meaning they are made up of two parts. The first part is a selected answer choice, and the second part involves constructing an explanation to justify the selected answer. Similar to the crosscutting concept of structure and function, in which structure is related to function, the format of a probe is related to how a probe is used. This book uses the following probe types: • Friendly Talk Probe: This format uses the scenario of a group of friends or family members having a conversation. The answer choices are the statements each person makes. The probe models the importance of sharing ideas through talk and shows how people often have very different ideas. “Baby Mice” (p. 127) is an example of a friendly talk probe. • Justified List Probe: In this format, students are presented with a list of things or statements that are examples or non-examples of a concept or principle. Students select multiple answer choices from a list that match the concept or principle. This format is often helpful in finding out whether students can transfer what they learned to different contexts and whether

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they can develop generalizations. “Is It a Plant?” (p. 91) is an example of a justified list probe. P-E-O Probe (Predict-Explain-Observe): In this type of probe, students make a prediction, explain the reason for their prediction, and then launch into an investigation to test their prediction. When their observation does not match their prediction, students need to collect more information and evidence to develop a revised explanation. “Solids and Holes” (p. 35) is an example of a P-E-O probe. More A-More B Probe: This type of probe reveals whether students use a common, intuitive rule, in which they think that an increase in one thing results in an increase in another thing. “Whale and Shrew” (p. 135) is an example of a more A-more B probe. Familiar Phenomenon Probe: This type of probe uses a familiar, everyday phenomenon to elicit students’ ideas. “Ice-Cold Lemonade” (p.  73) is an example of a familiar phenomenon probe. Sequencing Probe: This format involves putting statements, objects, events, steps, or ideas in a logical sequence. “Emmy’s Moon and Stars” (p. 173) is an example of a sequencing probe. Opposing Views Probe: This type of probe provides an opportunity for students to engage in argumentation over two different points of view. “Freezing Ice” (p. 53) is an example of an opposing views probe.

If you are interested in learning more about each of these probe types and formative assessment classroom techniques (FACTs) that can be used with each of these formats, see Science Formative Assessment, Volume 1 and Volume 2, which are both available through NSTA Press (Keeley 2015, 2016).

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Preface Related Concepts Each probe is designed to target one or more concepts that develop across a learning progression. A concept is a one-, two-, or three-word mental construct used to conceptually name an object, characteristic, event, or process (Konicek-Moran and Keeley 2015). Concepts make up the DCIs in the Framework (NRC 2012) and the NGSS (NGSS Lead States 2013). Some examples of concepts addressed in this book include heat, density, inherited traits, transformation of matter, day/night cycle, plants, adaptation, chemical bonds, and weathering. Multiple probes may be used to address a concept. For example, three probes in this book can be used to address the concept of floating and sinking. A concept matrix is included at the beginning of each section (see pp. 14, 90, and 148). Explanation The best answer choice is provided in this section. Best answer is used rather than correct answer or right answer because the probes are not used to pass judgment on whether students are “right or wrong,” nor are they intended to be graded. Instead, they are used to encourage students to reveal their best thinking so far without the worry of being “wrong.” Sometimes there is no single “right” answer because the probe may uncover different ways of thinking that support an alternative answer choice. In many ways, the “best answer” mirrors the nature of science as scientists initially share their best thinking and modify their explanations as they gather more evidence. Additionally, science is not always black and white, and some students can justify the gray areas. A brief, simplified scientific explanation is provided for teachers to help them understand the scientific ideas that underlie the probe and clarify misunderstandings students (and teachers) may have related to the content. The explanations do not give detailed scientific

background knowledge. They are provided to support teachers’ basic understanding of science. Teachers who have limited coursework and few opportunities for professional learning in science, who are new to teaching science, or who are teaching outside their disciplinary major in science can use the explanations to check on and build their understanding. The explanations are carefully written to avoid highly technical language and complex descriptions so that teachers do not have to specialize in an area of science to understand the explanation. At the same time, the challenge is to not oversimplify the science. The probe explanations are carefully constructed to provide concise information anyone can use to understand and respond to students’ thinking. Curricular and Instructional Considerations The curricular and instructional considerations give insight into how concepts and specific ideas are addressed and how they progress at different grade spans. For example, elementary students may observe similarities between offspring and their parents and develop the idea of inherited traits, but it is not until middle school that students are able to explain the mechanism of inheritance. At the high school level, students learn more complex details about the mechanism of inheritance. Instructional experiences help them develop an understanding of how various gene combinations code for proteins and how the structure and function of proteins results in the expression of traits. Because the probes are not grade-level specific, this section helps determine where and how a probe fits into teaching and learning. For example, the information about students’ initial ideas might be useful for planning instruction when a DCI is a grade-level expectation, or it might be useful at a later grade to find out whether students have sufficient prior knowledge about the concept or idea to move on to

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Preface the next level in a learning progression. This section is also helpful in determining whether the probe, and its terminology, should be modified to appropriately assess the level of complexity expected at different grade levels. Administering the Probe This section provides suggested grade levels for using the probe, including modifications for administering the probe at different grade levels. This section may also include descriptions of response methods, ways to use props or demonstrate the probe scenario, modifications for special needs, and suggestions for extending the probe. Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) A Framework for K–12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting Concepts, and Core Ideas (NRC 2012) is the primary source document that has informed the development of many recent state standards, including the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States 2013). The Framework will continue to inform the development of most states’ standards as their standards come up for revision, regardless of whether those states adopt the NGSS. This section lists the DCIs from the Framework and the NGSS that are related to the probe. Because the probes are not designed to be summative assessments, this section is not considered an alignment. Instead, it identifies concepts or ideas in the DCI that are related in some way to the probe. Sometimes the DCI is an exact match to the probe at a specific grade level; other times, students may need ideas that surface when using the probe to develop an understanding of the DCI. Seeing a related DCI that precedes a grade level is helpful when using the probe so that teachers know what students were expected to understand at the previous grade level. It is also useful to know what the DCI will be that builds on students’

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ideas at the next grade level. In other words, teachers can see how the ideas they teach relate to a spiraling progression of understanding as students move from one grade level to the next. Although this section lists the DCIs that are most related to the probe, keep in mind that the probes also provide opportunities for students to use science practices as well as crosscutting concepts. For example, all of the probes include the practice of constructing scientific explanations because the second part of every probe asks students to explain their thinking. Students can be asked to draw a diagram to support their explanation, which provides an opportunity to use the science practice of developing and using models. Probes used in a discussion format support the practice of argumentation. Teachers can select a crosscutting concept and ask students to use it in their explanation. Additional ways to support the use of the science practices and crosscutting concepts may be included for each probe in the Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment section. Related Research Each probe is informed by research, when available. Much of the research on students’ “misconceptions” was conducted in the 1980s and 1990s and summarized by Rosalind Driver’s group at the University of Leeds in England. The commonly held ideas students have that are not completely consistent with the scientific way of thinking go by a variety of names: misconceptions, partial conceptions, alternative conceptions, naïve conceptions, facets of learning, conceptual misunderstandings, phenomenological primitives, and so on. In the Uncovering Student Ideas series, they are referred to as commonly held ideas. Two comprehensive sources of these research summaries that are available to educators and still relevant today are Chapter 15 in the Benchmarks for Science Literacy (AAAS 2009),

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Preface which is available online, and Making Sense of Secondary Science: Research Into Students’ Ideas (Driver et al. 1994). In addition to drawing upon these sources, recent research from science education journals, such as the Journal of Research in Science Teaching, is cited if studies are available. Although many of the research citations describe studies that have been conducted in past decades, as well as studies that include children outside the United States, most of these studies’ results are considered timeless and universal. Whether students develop their ideas in the United States or other countries, research indicates that many of these commonly held ideas are pervasive regardless of geographic boundaries and societal and cultural influences. For some concepts, few or no formal research studies have been conducted to identify and describe commonly held ideas or difficulties students may have related to the concepts or ideas in the probe. For probes that lack formal research studies on commonly held ideas, this section may describe common ideas that were identified during the field testing of the probe or by teachers who have used the probe. Although your students may have different backgrounds, experiences, and contexts for learning, the descriptions from the research can help you better understand the intent of each probe and the kinds of thinking your students are likely to reveal when they respond to the probe. The research also helps you understand why the distracters are written a certain way, as they are often intended to mirror research findings. As you use the probes, you are encouraged to seek new and additional published research, engage in your own classroom research to learn more about students’ thinking, and share your results with other teachers through presentations or published articles in the NSTA journals. To learn more about conducting classroom research using the probes, read the Science

and Children article “Formative Assessment Probes: Teachers as Classroom Researchers” (Keeley 2011), or read Chapter 12 in the book What Are They Thinking? Promoting Elementary Learning Through Formative Assessment (Keeley 2014), available through NSTA Press. Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment Uncovering and examining the ideas students bring to their learning is considered diagnostic assessment. Diagnostic assessment becomes formative assessment when the teacher uses the assessment data in a feedback loop to make decisions about instruction that will move students toward the intended learning target. These probes are intentionally labeled formative assessment probes, rather than diagnostic probes, because knowing the ideas students bring to their learning is not the primary goal or end point. Thus, for the probe to be used formatively, a teacher needs to think about how to choose or modify a lesson or activity to best address the ideas students bring to their learning or the misunderstandings that surface or develop during the learning process. A probe may also reveal whether students understand a concept or idea, which is a signal to the teacher that he or she can move forward with planned instruction. Making informed decisions about instruction is the essence of formative assessment. As you carefully analyze your students’ responses, the most important next step is to make an instructional decision that would work best in your particular context. This includes considering the learning goal, your students’ ideas, the curricular and instructional materials you have available, and the diverse learners you have in your classroom. The suggestions provided in this section have been gathered from the wisdom of teachers, the literature on effective science teaching, research on specific strategies used to address

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Preface commonly held ideas and conceptual difficulties, and the experiences of the author. These suggestions are not lesson plans, but rather brief recommendations that may help you plan or modify your curriculum or instruction to help students move toward learning scientific concepts and ideas. It may be as simple as realizing that you need to provide a relevant, familiar context, or there may be a specific strategy, resource, or activity that you could use with your students. Learning is a complex process, and most likely no single suggestion will help all students learn. But that is what formative assessment encourages—thinking carefully about the curriculum materials, instructional strategies, resources, and virtual or real-life experiences needed to move students’ learning forward. As you become more familiar with the ideas your students have and the multifaceted factors that may have contributed to their misunderstandings, you will identify additional strategies that you can use to teach for conceptual change and understanding. This section also points out other related probes in the Uncovering Student Ideas series that can be modified or used as is to further assess students’ conceptual understanding. It may also provide suggestions for ways to include science practices or crosscutting concepts to support three-dimensional learning when using a probe, especially when the probe is used again after the students have had the opportunity to develop their understanding, revisit their initial thinking, and construct a new explanation using scientific ideas. When applicable, this section includes safety notes for the proposed suggestions. These guidelines should be adopted and enforced to provide for a safer learning and teaching experience. Teachers should also review and follow local polices and protocols used within their school and school district. For additional safety information, read NSTA’s “Safety in the Science

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Classroom” article (http://static.nsta.org/pdfs/ SafetyInTheScienceClassroom.pdf ) or visit the NSTA Safety Portal (www.nsta.org/topics/safety). Related NSTA Resources This section includes updated resources available through NSTA that are related to each probe, including journal articles, NSTA Press books, online NSTA Science Objects, and archived NSTA webinars. If you are an NSTA member, you have online access to all the NSTA journals referenced in this section, regardless of which journal you subscribe to. This list is just a sampling of the many NSTA resources that may be related to each probe. You can search for additional resources on the NSTA website at www.nsta.org. References The final section of the Teacher Notes is the list of references cited in the Teacher Notes.

Other Formative Assessment Resources

Now that you have the background on the probes and the Teacher Notes in this updated version of Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Volume 2, remember that a probe is not formative unless you use the information from the probe to modify, adapt, or change your instruction so that students have the opportunity to learn the important scientific ideas. As a companion to this book and all the other volumes in this series, NSTA has co-published the books Science Formative Assessment, Volume 1, Second Edition: 75 Practical Strategies for Linking Assessment, Instruction, and Learning (Keeley 2016) and Science Formative Assessment, Volume 2: 50 More Strategies for Linking Assessment, Instruction, and Learning (Keeley 2015). In those books, you will find a variety of techniques to use along with the probes to facilitate elicitation, support metacognition, initiate investigation, encourage discussion, monitor progress toward conceptual

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Preface change and understanding, encourage feedback, and promote self-assessment and reflection. In addition, these formative assessment classroom techniques (FACTs) provide opportunities for students to use science practices such as modeling, designing investigations, argumentation, and explanation construction. If you are interested in developing your own formative assessment probes, the second edition of Science Curriculum Topic Study: Bridging the Gap Between Three-Dimensional Standards, Research, and Practice (Keeley and Tugel 2019) describes the process for developing probes that mirror research-identified commonly held ideas. Additionally, the sections of the Teacher Notes in this book are summaries of a curriculum topic study. This book is available through NSTA, and there is a website for further information: www. curriculumtopicstudy2.org. A primary purpose of formative assessment is to break away from teaching and assessing disconnected facts and overemphasizing activities that do not take into account students’ ideas. Formative assessment supports conceptual learning of science by helping teachers understand what students are thinking before, during, and after instruction. Because conceptual understanding is the underpinning of the Uncovering Student Ideas series, the NSTA book Teaching for Conceptual Understanding in Science (Konicek-Moran and Keeley 2015) is highly recommended as a resource to extend your learning. The book includes chapters on understanding the nature of students’ thinking; instructional models and strategies that support conceptual change; and ways to link assessment, instruction, and learning. Also, check the NSTA website for opportunities for professional learning. Page Keeley and her colleagues frequently present sessions at NSTA conferences on using formative assessment probes, and they conduct professional learning workshops for NSTA and for

school districts throughout the United States and internationally. Page can be contacted at [email protected] and followed on Twitter (@CTSKeeley). You can find current information on the Uncovering Student Ideas series and professional learning opportunities at www.uncoveringstudentideas.org. And finally, before you use the probes in this book, be sure to read the introduction (p. 1). Each book in this series includes an introduction that focuses on an aspect of using formative assessment probes. The introduction in this book focuses on linking instruction and assessment. It has been updated to reflect current shifts in instructional practice and formative assessment.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Chapter 15: The Research Base. In Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/ publications/bsl/online/index.php. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. New York: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2011. Formative assessment probes: Teachers as classroom researchers. Science and Children 49 (3): 24–26. Keeley, P. 2014. What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P. 2015. Science formative assessment, volume 2: 50 more strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Keeley, P. 2016. Science formative assessment, volume 1: 75 practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Keeley, P., and J. Tugel. 2019. Science curriculum topic study: Bridging the gap between three-dimensional

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Preface standards, research, and practice. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Konicek-Moran, R., and P. Keeley. 2015. Teaching for conceptual understanding in science. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

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NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Pellegrino, J., N. Chudowsky, and R. Glaser. 2001. Knowing what students know: The science and design of educational assessment. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

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Acknowledgments I would like to thank Francis Eberle and Joyce Tugel for their initial feedback and contributions to the first edition of this book. Thank you to Jose Rivas and Alejandra García for checking my Spanish translations. I would also like to give a huge shout-out to the many teachers across the United States and internationally who have used these probes, shared what they learned with me, and even published articles in the National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) journals about using a probe in the classroom. I will never tire of hearing how this

series has transformed teaching and learning in your K–12 and university classrooms! A huge thanks to Linda Olliver, an extraordinarily talented artist with an amazing knack for transforming the ideas in a probe into visual representations. And of course my heartfelt, deepest appreciation goes to Claire Reinburg, Rachel Ledbetter, Kate Hall, and the outstanding staff at NSTA Press who so artfully bring my work to fruition and publish the best books in science education!

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Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

About the Author Page Keeley is the primary author of the Uncovering Student Ideas series. Her assessment probes and FACTs (formative assessment classroom techniques) are widely used by K–12 teachers, university professors, and professional development and science specialists throughout the United States and internationally. In 2013, Page retired from the Maine Mathematics and Science Alliance (MMSA), where she had been the senior science program director since 1996. At MMSA, she developed and directed projects in the areas of instructional leadership, coaching and mentoring, linking standards and research, and science and literacy. She has been a principal investigator and project director for three National Science Foundation–funded projects: the Northern New England Co-Mentoring Network (NNECN), Curriculum Topic Study (CTS), and Phenomena and Representations for Instruction of Science in Middle School (PRISMS). Today, she works as an independent consultant, speaker, and author and provides professional development to school districts and organizations in the areas of formative assessment, understanding student thinking, teaching science for conceptual understanding, and designing effective instruction. Page is a prolific author and has written 22  national bestselling and award-winning books in science and mathematics education. Several of her books have received national

distinguished awards in educational publishing. She has authored more than 50 journal articles and contributed to several book chapters. She also develops formative assessment probes for McGraw-Hill’s middle and elementary school science programs. Before joining MMSA in 1996, Page taught middle and high school science for 15 years. At that time, she was an active teacher leader at the state and national levels, serving as president of the Maine Science Teachers Association and the National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) District II Director. She received the Presidential Award for Excellence in Secondary Science Teaching in 1992, the Milken National Distinguished Educator Award in 1993, and the AT&T Maine Governor’s Fellowship in 1994. Since leaving the classroom in 1996, her work in leadership and professional development has been nationally recognized. In 2008, she was elected the 63rd president of NSTA. In 2009, she received the National Staff Development Council’s (now Learning Forward) Susan Loucks-Horsley Award for Leadership in Science and Mathematics Professional Development. In 2013, she received the Outstanding Leadership in Science Education award from the National Science Education Leadership Association, and she received the NSTA Distinguished Service to Science Education Award in 2018. She has served as an adjunct instructor at the University of Maine, was a Cohort 1 Fellow in the National Academy for Science and Mathematics Education Leadership, was a science literacy leader for the AAAS/Project 2061 Professional Development Program, and has served on several national advisory boards.

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About the Author She has led science and STEM education delegations to South Africa (2009), China (2010), India (2012), Cuba (2014), Iceland (2017), Panama (2018), and Costa Rica (2019). Before entering the teaching profession, Page was a research assistant for immunogeneticist Dr. Leonard Shultz at the Jackson Laboratory of Mammalian Genetics in Bar Harbor, Maine. She received her BS in life sciences and preveterinary studies from the University of New Hampshire and her MEd in science education from the University of Maine. In her spare time, she enjoys traveling, reading, making fiber art, and photography.

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She also dabbles in modernist cooking and culinary art. A Maine resident for almost 40 years, Page and her husband now divide their time between homes in Fort Myers, Florida, and Wickford, Rhode Island. You can contact Page through her websites at www.uncoveringstudentideas.org and www. curriculumtopicstudy2.org or via e-mail at [email protected]. You can follow her on Twitter at @CTSKeeley or on Facebook through her Understanding Student Thinking Through Formative Assessment page.

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Introduction If [students’] initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom. —from the introduction to How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking 1999)

Probes as Assessments for Learning

Imagine a third-grade classroom where students are sharing ideas about things seeds need to germinate. Using think-pair-share with the probe “Needs of Seeds” (p.  99), the class is undecided about whether seeds require darkness to sprout. Some students describe how seeds need to be in soil and away from sunlight in order to sprout and grow into seedlings. When asked why they think seeds need to be kept away from light, several students describe their prior experiences planting seeds in a garden by covering them with soil. A few students think the soil is needed to provide moisture, not to keep out the light. One student speaks up and explains how dandelion seeds sprout

without darkness. She says that the seeds are carried by the wind and end up on top of the grass where they sprout and make more dandelions. She goes on to say, “That’s why we have so many dandelions in our yard.” The class takes a vote. Most students think darkness and soil are necessary and that seeds do not sprout unless they are in the dark. The teacher realizes that students need to have experiences germinating seeds under various conditions in order to confront their commonly held ideas. When asked how they could find out what seeds need, the students come up with several experiments that would test the ideas they have about what seeds need to sprout. The teacher provides the materials for students to test their ideas, after which they

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Introduction will come back together to share results and decide if their findings changed any of their ideas about the needs of seeds. In a middle school classroom, students individually complete the probe “Comparing Cubes” (p.  15) and then form small groups to discuss their ideas. They listen carefully to each other and try to reconcile their different ideas about how size affects the properties of objects made from the same material. The teacher observes several students trying to persuade their classmates that a larger cube needs a higher temperature to melt. She makes a mental note of which properties students think are affected by the amount of material and which properties they think are unchanged. In a high school chemistry class, students complete the “What’s in the Bubbles?” probe (p. 59). The teacher collects the student work and is surprised to find that most of the students thought the bubbles in boiling water were filled with air. Several students thought the water broke down into bubbles of hydrogen and oxygen gas. Although the students want to know the right answer, she assures them that they will discover it for themselves during their upcoming lessons on states of matter and phase change. She carefully plans her instruction so that students will encounter their ideas during their lab activities and use particle models to explain their results. The students complete the lab activities and explain their results using their conceptual models of what happens at the particle level. The students then critique each model with guidance from the teacher, and then the teacher returns the probe that they completed the week before and gives students an opportunity to revise or expand on their previous answer choice and explanation. In their reflections, students mention how their ideas changed because of evidence from their activities and their models that supported the idea that some form of water was in the bubbles, which they now call water vapor.

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What do all three of these examples have in common? Each of these teachers is using formative assessment probes as assessments for learning rather than assessments of learning. The probes enhance the interactions between students and between students and teachers by providing an engaging question and a familiar context to elicit the preconceptions students bring to their learning. Probes are also useful because they give students one question to focus on as they talk through their ideas. While the probes promote student thinking, they also provide valuable information the teacher can use to make informed instructional decisions. The teacher uses the students’ ideas to design or modify instruction that will build a bridge between students’ initial ideas and the scientific knowledge they need to understand and explain everyday concepts and phenomena. Building this bridge involves the process of conceptual change. The conceptual change model (CCM) of instruction was first described by Posner et al. in 1982. Several instructional models in use today are similar to CCM, and all have in common elicitation questions and strategies (such as the probes in this book) that are used to draw out students’ ideas and make students’ thinking visible to themselves, the teacher, and other students. Once ideas are exposed, teachers can design instruction in a way that gives students the opportunity to be confronted with their initial ideas and experience a process of conceptual change that will lead to revisions in their thinking. Several of the probes in this book provide an opportunity for students to test their ideas through investigation and discover that their observations did not match their predictions. The probes can also be used to pose questions for class discussion, which provides another opportunity for students to be confronted with ideas that may not match their own thinking. When students experience cognitive dissonance

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Introduction between the ideas and beliefs they hold and what they are experiencing or hearing from others, they need to resolve the dissonance and accommodate new ideas that may provide better explanations than the ones they previously held. Throughout CCM instruction, teachers are continuously monitoring student learning and adjusting instruction so that students can progress through the changes that will eventually lead to developing a solid and enduring scientific understanding.

Linking Probes, Teaching, and Learning

Formative assessment probes have a specific purpose that distinguishes them from questions used on summative assessments such as quizzes and tests. The probes in this book are designed to be seamlessly embedded into classroom instruction. They are used to uncover what students are thinking before, during, and throughout the teaching and learning process, rather than at an end point of instruction. Their primary purpose is to promote student thinking and improve opportunities to learn by providing valuable feedback to the teacher that is used to inform their instruction. The probes are so inextricably linked to teaching and learning that it is often difficult to determine whether a probe is used as an instructional or assessment strategy. The probes in this book offer stimuli that enable learners to interact with assessment in a variety of ways—through writing, drawing, speaking, listening, and designing and carrying out investigations. Unlike other types of assessments, probes are an unobtrusive part of teaching. The probes and their accompanying teacher notes can be used • to uncover students’ understanding about a science concept or idea before and throughout instruction, informing teachers in short-term lesson planning, long-term unit development, and even longer-term

• •

• •

•

•

•

•

•

review and modifications for units taught again the next year; as a teaching and learning activity to engage students, stimulate thinking, and create a desire to “figure it out”; to help teachers self-assess and reflect on their own teaching by examining how well students are progressing toward a conceptual understanding of a learning target; to determine whether students need to experience scientific concepts and ideas in new and varied contexts; to motivate and enhance student learning by helping students recognize their ideas are valued and taken into account to design instruction that meets their needs; to provide feedback to both teachers and students so that as teachers and students respond to others’ ideas, both teaching and learning are supported; to promote safe, rich discourse in the classroom that recognizes that everyone’s ideas are important regardless of whether they are right or wrong; to provide a familiar context for English language learners to develop language skills that support science discourse and science learning; to differentiate instruction for different groups of students that targets their preconceptions and takes into account their unique experiences and backgrounds that shape their thinking; and to stimulate and motivate teachers to try out new instructional practices that may be more effective in producing conceptual understanding.

Formative Assessment Probes and the Classroom Environment

The seminal research study How People Learn (Bransford, Brown, and Cocking 1999) describes four classroom environments that support

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Introduction research-based shifts in effective teaching and learning. When formative assessment probes and the accompanying Teacher Notes are used, these four classroom environments flourish: • Learner-Centered Environment: In a learnercentered classroom where teachers are using probes before and throughout instruction, teachers pay careful attention to the thinking of each student and know at all times where their students are in progressing toward meeting a learning target. Teachers make instructional decisions that are based on what students need in order to learn. A metacognitive approach to instruction helps students take control of their own learning and know when their ways of thinking need to be modified based on new information and observations. • Knowledge-Centered Environment: In a knowledge-centered environment, teachers know the goals for learning and make them explicit to students. They know the key concepts and ideas that make up the learning goals, the prerequisites on which prior and later understandings are built, the types of experiences that support conceptual understanding, and the assessments that will provide information about student learning. All of these considerations are described in the Teacher Notes that accompany each probe. • Assessment-Centered Environment: Ongoing assessments, such as the probes, are designed to make students’ thinking visible to both teachers and students. These assessments are learner-friendly and provide students with opportunities to revise and improve their thinking, help students see their own progress toward a learning target, and help teachers identify problem areas to focus on. • Community-Centered Environment: Probes are used to promote social interactions around learning ideas in science. Student

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learning is supported in classrooms where social discourse is encouraged and norms, such as accepting that it is okay not to know the right answer and that everyone’s ideas are important, create a sense of safety in academic risk-taking. Encouraging revision of ideas and reflection are supported. Classrooms where students feel part of an intellectual learning community that takes ownership of students’ ideas are places where students and teachers thrive.

Taking Students’ Ideas Into Account

Teaching science can be challenging because students have often already formed ideas about the natural world and how it works before coming to the classroom. Students are constantly developing and picking up new ideas through interactions in their immediate environment, conversations with family and friends, and information from books and the media. This highlights why the use of formative assessment probes is such an important instructional strategy. In situations where students’ ideas differ from the scientific view, changing students’ conceptions is very difficult if teachers are unaware of students’ ideas before and throughout instruction. In addition, it is not enough to identify and diagnose students’ misconceptions. Teachers need to employ deliberate strategies to work with students’ ideas and design opportunities for students to construct new understandings that will lead to conceptual change and understanding. Much of “school science” is contrary to students’ everyday experience and intuition; hence, students’ ideas may be highly resistant to change, even after several instructional experiences (Driver et al. 1994). Teachers may not recognize this unless they continuously check for that understanding on a regular basis and engage students in surfacing and examining their own thinking.

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Introduction The practical idea of using probes to uncover students’ ideas is a first step in embedding formative assessment into responsive instruction. Uncovering students’ ideas can be quite informative, but it is just the first step in responsive teaching. Once students’ ideas have surfaced, making informed decisions about what can be done to move students toward a scientific understanding is the next step. Rosalind Driver’s research group at the University of Leeds in England has been a long, highly regarded pioneer in understanding student thinking in science (Driver et al. 1994). She and her team suggest that the first step might be to consider the nature of the differences between students’ thinking and the scientific view. Driver and her colleagues explain that after using a probe and examining ideas individual students or the class have, teachers might do the following: • Develop existing ideas. Students’ ideas may be close to the scientific idea, but not fully developed. If so, instruction can be focused on developing a deeper understanding of the scientific idea. For example, teachers might use the probe “Floating Logs” (p. 23) and discover that students understand that the logs will float in the same way because the shape and material are the same. However, they may not be able to explain the phenomenon in terms of the unchanging property of density. Their notion of sameness can be further extended using the crosscutting concept of proportions, developing the concept of density as a constant proportional relationship between mass and volume. • Differentiate among existing ideas. Students may have similar ideas about objects or phenomena that cause them to overgeneralize or categorize too broadly. If so, instruction can be focused on helping students differentiate ideas. For example, teachers might use the “Is It a Rock? (Version 2)”

probe (p. 155) to find out if students think any rocklike material, whether geologic in origin or human-made, is considered to be rock. Teachers can use this information to help students differentiate between rocks formed by natural, long-term geologic processes and rocklike materials that were human-made from Earth materials and formed in a short time. • Integrate existing ideas. Students may form separate ideas, often in different contexts. For example, teachers might use the probe “Is It Food for Plants?” (p. 111) to help students integrate the idea of what food is, in a biological context, with the needs plants have in carrying out their life processes. They may have previously learned about food in the context of nutrition and studied the life processes of plants and animals, but they may have failed to integrate the idea that plants not only make their own food through photosynthesis but also use it in ways similar to animals’ use of food. • Change existing ideas. Students often have alternative ideas about objects, materials, or processes. For example, teachers might use the probe “Emmy’s Moon and Stars” (p.  173) to find out that students have different ideas about where stars are located. The information is used to design instruction that addresses the relative scale of vast distances between visible objects in the night sky. That information will help students change their existing ideas and accept the scientific view that stars, other than the Sun, are far away from our solar system. • Introduce new ideas. Students should have opportunities to demonstrate when they are ready for a new idea or ready to build more sophisticated understandings of an existing idea. For example, teachers might use the “Baby Mice” probe (p.  127) to learn that their students understand that

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Introduction both parents contribute information that determines an offspring’s traits. Teachers can build on this simple idea by introducing the more sophisticated genetic details about the mechanism for inheritance.

Using the Probes to Support Learning

Probes can be used at any point during an instructional sequence to provide an opportunity for students to surface their ideas and give the teacher a sense of where they are in their thinking before making instruction decisions. Probes are designed to challenge students’ existing beliefs or mental models, uncover common errors in terminology use or interpretation of representations, and expose faulty explanations of familiar phenomena. Using a probe for elicitation promotes learning by engaging students, activating their thinking, and setting the stage for the activities and/or discussion that will follow. As an assessment that informs instruction, a probe helps the teacher gauge student thinking, plan for enacting or modifying the lesson to follow, or choose a new lesson that better addresses where students are in their conceptual understanding. The probes in the Uncovering Student Ideas series are intentionally designed so every student can respond to the question, regardless of whether they are confident in their answer choice.

Suggestions for Safely Sharing Students’ Ideas

If probes are new to students, some students may feel uncomfortable publicly sharing their ideas in a class setting. This will eventually change as you work to establish a classroom culture that makes it safe to surface, discuss, and evaluate peer ideas. Your goal should be to eventually move students toward public sharing and critique of their thinking. In the meantime, you might consider using strategies that don’t

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identify students with their answers such as sticky bars; fingers under chin; or commit, fold, and pass (Keeley 2015; 2016). One way you can anonymously share students’ thinking as they are writing their responses is to say, “As I walked around the room, I noticed several of you wrote …” Or after you have collected the probes as exit tickets and scanned through them, you might say the next day, “I noticed several of you think  …” Or you might list students’ ideas on a chart as an initial record of class thinking without critique at this point. These anonymous techniques provide a way for students to see that not everyone thinks the same way and that you, the teacher, value their ideas. They also help students see that others share similar thinking. This eventually leads to students’ opening up and willingly sharing their answer choices and explanations.

Suggestions for Using Probes in a Class Discussion

The biggest challenge for teachers before and during a probe discussion is to refrain from giving the answer or passing judgment on students’ thinking. Provide an opportunity for students to talk in pairs or in small groups before facilitating a whole-class discussion. Circulate and listen as they discuss their ideas. When pairs or small groups are ready to engage in a whole-class discussion, the teacher must act as a facilitator who draws out the students’ ideas without giving indication of “right” or “wrong” answers. Once students are told or are cued to the best answer choice, their thinking stops. You want your students to keep thinking! Give students an opportunity to first surface and talk through their ideas with their partner or small group. Then let them share their ideas with the whole class before opening the discussion to a critique of the various ideas expressed. As you chart or make a visual record of the class ideas, make sure all students

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Introduction have an opportunity to share any thinking that may differ from the ideas already listed so that you have a complete record of the class’s thinking. If you noticed during pair or smallgroup talk any significant thinking that was not shared during the process of listing the class ideas, you might say something like, “I heard one group talking about …” and add that to the list. Now that you have generated a list of class ideas, facilitate a discussion to critique ideas by engaging the students in argumentation. The most productive classroom environments are those that are enriched by talk and argument (Michaels, Shouse, and Schweingruber 2008). The goal of argumentation is to seek understanding by putting forth ideas and persuading others to agree with your thinking by supporting it with evidence and sound reasoning. Encourage students to support their arguments in favor of, or in rebuttal to, one of the ideas listed by sharing evidence that is based on their previous experience, class activities, data from investigations, information from valid sources, logic, and so on. As they engage in discussion and critique arguments, students usually come to a consensus that some ideas can be discarded, narrowing the list to “our best thinking so far.” Sometimes the discussion helps the class come to an accepted common understanding of the best answer and why it is considered the best answer. Other times, students may have to leave class with unresolved ideas “hanging out in uncertainty” until the next class when the teacher provides an opportunity for them to re-examine their thinking, test ideas, or gather more information to resolve the differences in the list of class ideas. Some probes can be “figured out” in less than 45 minutes; others may take a few days of carefully designed lessons. The formative nature of probes allows the teacher to design learning experiences that will help students reshape and

refine their thinking, thus keeping students engaged in moving toward the learning target until they have the information and evidence needed to develop a scientific understanding. As Jim Minstrell of the Diagnoser Project explains, “Many well-intentioned teachers cannot resist telling the class the correct answer. As a result, the class has no incentive to do the follow-up activities and the lesson plan collapses” (2008). And most important, the probe should be revisited after students have had an opportunity to learn and can use what they learned to revise their initial probe and construct a scientific explanation that reflects their understanding. It is for this reason that probes should be used twice. Remember, learning is like crossing over a bridge. The probe surfaces where students are at the beginning of the bridge. The bridge is the connection between students’ initial ideas and the scientific way of explaining a concept or phenomenon. The instructional opportunities you provide will take them over the bridge—sometimes in leaps, sometimes in small steps. Eventually, you want students to end up on the other side of the bridge themselves, without being carried over the bridge by the teacher, although some students may need the guidance of peers or the teacher. It is that moment when students realize they have crossed over the bridge on their own, leaving ideas that no longer work for them behind, that results in enduring conceptual understanding!

10 Tips and Considerations for Using the Probes

1. Build and support a culture of “our best thinking so far” instead of “right” or “correct” answers. Refrain from immediately correcting students. Make it safe for students to surface their ideas, regardless of whether they are right or wrong, knowing that everyone will

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Introduction eventually discover the best answer. Change your own language to ask students for their “best” idea, rather than the correct answer, and let them know they may change their idea later. Many students have been raised in a school culture where they are expected to give the “right” answer. Thus, they hesitate to share their own ideas when they think they may be “wrong.” Hold off on telling students whether they are right or wrong, and give them an opportunity to work through the ideas, weighing various viewpoints and evidence, until they are ready to construct an understanding. The emphasis on testing and revising one’s ideas should take precedence over getting the right answer. Getting all ideas out on the table first may be frustrating and take longer, but doing so will develop deeper, more enduring understanding in the long run, and students will be less apt to revert to their previous conceptions after the unit of instruction ends. 2. Accept that students are not coming to class as blank slates. They already have ideas about basic concepts, principles, and familiar phenomena. Some of these ideas are highly developed. Sometimes, students aren’t even aware that they hold these ideas. Provide opportunities to draw out their thinking as well as opportunities to reflect on how their thinking has changed. Help them understand that everyone has commonly held ideas about science concepts and phenomena based on their experiences and intuition, even adults. 3. Encourage students to look at and “talk toward” each other when discussing their ideas, rather than looking at and responding to the teacher in the I-R-E (initiate-respond-evaluate) pattern of

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student-teacher interaction. Strategies such as “think-pair-share”—where students first think about their own ideas (perhaps even writing them down on the probe sheet), then pair up with another student to discuss their ideas, and finally share their ideas either in a small group or with the whole class— provide opportunities for students to be more involved in discussion about ideas and take an active role in developing a discourse community. Use the probes for “volleyball,” not “ping-pong.” In other words, the discussion should move back and forth between several students and groups of students before it comes back to the teacher for a new question or comment. The discourse must value alternative points of view and not just the authoritative view of the teacher. 4. Whenever possible, provide opportunities for students to test their ideas and engage in the process of “finding out.” Several of the probes are designed so that students can make predictions and test their ideas (e.g., “Solids and Holes,” p. 35). Ask students to share previous experiences or information they based their predictions on and design an investigation to test their predictions. However, not all probes lend themselves to this approach, especially ones that are more abstract or at a scale that can’t be tested. In some instances, students can turn to text or media for information, using the science practice of obtaining, evaluation, and communicating information. Teachers can also use explanatory models to help students develop their ideas. 5. Students’ alternative ideas about phenomena can be tenaciously held. Be

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Introduction aware that students often will not give them up fully until new evidence is convincing to them. Use the probes to draw out students’ thinking before and throughout an instructional sequence. The dissonance that results when new information and evidence do not support their original thinking is the pivotal point in helping students reject their former ideas in order to accommodate new ones. 6. Science often involves a gradual revision, refinement, and at times even a discard of existing models or theories when new ones with greater explanatory power are presented. The way students’ ideas evolve often mirror the nature of science. Expect that they will move toward accepting a scientific model or explanation gradually. 7. Encourage students to test, revise, and reason with the models and explanations they develop to support their answer choice. One way probes can be extended is to ask students to draw or describe a model that can be used to explain their thinking and then share it with others. Make sure students do not merely adopt someone else’s model or explanation without reasoning it through. 8. Encourage risk-taking in thinking and talking through ideas with others to get constructive feedback that will help students revise or refine their explanations. Create a climate where it is acceptable to go out on a limb with an idea without being put down by the teacher or other students. Develop the expectation that everyone has ideas worth sharing, no matter how tentative they are. Create norms of collaboration in the classroom so that everyone’s ideas are respected and acknowledged.

9. Encourage students to listen carefully. In a formative assessment classroom, different ideas are shared among pairs of students, small groups, and the whole class. Students need to learn to listen carefully to others’ ideas and weigh the evidence before changing their own ideas. They need to learn not to accept a new idea simply because the “smartest person in the class” or most of their peers think it is correct. They need to learn how to examine all the ideas, including evidence from an investigation and other relevant information sources, before accepting an idea or changing a previously held one. Formative assessment encourages students to think, rather than just accept ideas as they are presented. Critique explanations, arguments, reasoning, and models as a regular part of classroom discussions. 10. Encourage continuous ref lection. Encourage students to reflect on their initial ideas about the probe after a sequence of lessons in order to note evidence of their own conceptual changes or to identify areas where they are still struggling with an idea. Understanding is an evolving process. It takes time for students to move toward the accepted scientific view, and students need to understand that there are many steps along the way. Being aware of one’s thinking (metacognition) and knowing what one’s learning goal is will help students be more accountable for their own learning. Revisiting their initial responses to the probe and comparing them with where they are in their current understanding is a powerful metacognitive strategy.

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Introduction These tips and considerations for using the probes stem from best practices in science teaching and formative assessment. One might ask, “Well, what does it actually look like in

Vignette on Teaching Density

Before starting my unit on density, I talked with an elementary teacher in my district to find out what kinds of things students had experienced before middle school that my density unit could build on. She told me that the “Floating and Sinking” kit used by all teachers at her grade level focuses on predicting and testing whether objects will float or sink. This seemed like a good place for me to start with my eighth-grade students. By bringing back an experience from earlier grades, I would be able to build on their existing ideas and explanations. Before starting the lesson the next day, I asked students to share what they knew about how and why objects float or sink. Several recalled the activities they did in elementary school. When my students arrived in class the next day, I placed a 20 cm wooden dowel in a small tank of water. As it floated, I displayed a piece of another wooden dowel that was made out of the same material and explained that the length and diameter were double the size of the dowel floating in the tank. I distributed the probe “Floating Logs” (p. 23) and explained that the dowel in the tank of water represented the floating log portrayed on the probe. I asked them to envision what they thought would happen if I were to place the larger dowel in the water. Would it float in a similar way, or would it float differently? I asked them to respond to the probe, explaining their thinking. I assured them that I was not looking to see if their answer was right or wrong, but I wanted to know what they were really thinking would happen—and, most

10

practice?” The following middle school vignette is an example of how a teacher integrates assessment and instruction using a formative assessment probe.

important, why they thought it would happen. After they finished writing, they could talk through their ideas with their table group. The room became very quiet, and students began busily writing. I was surprised at how much time they took to describe their reasons because many of them have a difficult time with open-ended questions. In a few minutes, I noticed students were quietly talking with their neighbors, pointing to the dowels at the front of the room. I heard them using terms such as mass, length, volume, and heaviness, and some even used the term density. This seemed like a good time for some “science talk.” We placed our chairs in a circle. I asked them to fold their papers in half and pass them back and forth across the circle multiple times until I said “stop,” so other students could not identify the paper in their possession. They were asked to respect the student whose paper they had by not revealing the student’s name unless that student spoke up to acknowledge the ideas on the paper or to add to them if needed. I asked for a show of hands: “Who had a paper with response A? Response B? Response C?” I was surprised by the mixed responses, and so were they! I asked students to share some of the reasons that were on the papers they had in their hands, not their own paper. Some responses said that if you have more of something, then it is more dense. Others said heavier things sink. What I was hearing mirrored the summaries of the research on learning included in the Teacher Notes for the probe. As students continued to share their reasoning, they started

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Introduction asking questions. I heard “What would happen if  …?” kinds of questions, and I realized this was a golden opportunity to let students take ownership of the next steps in the lesson. We brainstormed a list of testable questions that could help us figure out the best answer to the probe, and the next day they formed teams. Each team designed an investigation to find out if the size of an object affects the way it floats. Although it was agreed that each team would keep the kind of material they used during their investigation constant, they didn’t all have to use the same material. It was interesting to see the variety of materials and ways students chose to quantify differences in size. Some measured volume by water displacement, some used mathematical calculations, and others measured mass. As I circulated around the room, I found that some students were changing their original ideas based on their observations and the evidence that was gathered. Others were somewhat reluctant to change their ideas and engaged in further discussion to try and figure out why their results were not matching their original prediction. As we gathered for an investigation wrap-up, the class results provided evidence that the amount of material, whether documented by mass or volume, did not affect the way the material floats. As the students’ conceptual understanding of floating and sinking with solid objects

made from the same material grew, I began to bring in the scientific terminology. We connected the proportional relationship of mass and volume to the property of density, and I was now ready to introduce the symbolic representations using a mathematical equation. We talked about how the property of density could be used to identify different materials. As I brought the lesson to a close, I asked students to conduct a 10-minute “quick write”: “Reread your original ‘Floating Logs’ explanation. Has any of your thinking changed? If so, what are you now thinking, and what led you to change your thinking? What ‘rule’ or reasoning are you now using to explain your new thoughts about the logs?” At the end of their quick write, I asked them to fill in the statement “I used to think _____, but now I know _____.” I brought their responses home to read that night and was struck by the power of written reflection. Students were able to use some of our classroom activities to formulate their new “rules” and construct a scientific explanation using a claimevidence-reasoning framework. I could see how their thoughts were influenced by their experiences. “Floating Logs” allowed my students to become aware of their own ideas and how they changed. By gathering evidence, they were able to resolve some of the conflict between their initial ideas and the scientific concept of density.

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Introduction References Bransford, J., L. Brown, and R. Cocking, eds. 1999. How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2015. Science formative assessment, volume 2: 50 more strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

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Keeley, P. 2016. Science formative assessment, volume 1: 75 practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Michaels, S., A. Shouse, and H. Schweingruber. 2008. Ready, set, science! Putting research to work in K–8 science classrooms. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Minstrell, J. 2008. The Diagnoser Project. FACET Innovations. www.facetinnovations.com/ daisy-public-website/fihome/resources/diagnoser. Posner, G., K. Strike, P. Hewson, and W. Gertzog. 1982. Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education 66 (2): 211–227.

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Section 1

Physical Science Probes

Concept Matrix............................................. 14

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Comparing Cubes..........................................15 Floating Logs................................................ 23 Floating High and Low................................. 29 Solids and Holes........................................... 35 Turning the Dial............................................ 41 Boiling Time and Temperature................... 47 Freezing Ice................................................... 53 What’s in the Bubbles?............................... 59 Chemical Bonds............................................ 67 Ice-Cold Lemonade...................................... 73 Mixing Water................................................. 81

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Physical Science Probes

GRADE LEVEL USE →

6–12 3–12

3–8

#11 Mixing Water

#10 Ice-Cold Lemonade

#9 Chemical Bonds

#8 What’s in the Bubbles?

Boiling Time and Temperature #6

#7 Freezing Ice

Turning the Dial #5

#4 Solids and Holes

Floating High and Low #3

#2 Floating Logs

#1 Comparing Cubes

PROBES

Concept Matrix for Probes #1–#11: Physical Science

6–12 6–12 6–12 6–12 3–12 6–12 6–12 5–12

RELATED CONCEPTS ↓ Atoms

X

X

Boiling

X

Boiling point Buoyancy

X

X

X

X

X

Characteristic properties

X

Chemical bond

X

Density

X

Extensive properties

X

Floating and sinking

X

X

X

X

X

Freezing point

X

Gas

X

Heat

X

Intensive properties

X

Mass

X

Melting point

X

X

X

X

X X

Molecules

X

Phase change Properties of matter

X X

X

X

X

Temperature

X

X

X

X

X

X

X X

Thermal energy

X

Thermal equilibrium X

Transfer of energy

X

Water vapor

14

X

Thermodynamics Volume

X

X

X

X

X X

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Physical Science Probes

1

Comparing Cubes Sofia has two solid cubes made of the same material. One cube is very large, and the other cube is very small. Put an X next to all the statements you think are true about the two cubes. ___ A. The large cube has more mass than the small cube. ___ B. The large cube has less mass than the small cube. ___ C. The large cube melts at a higher temperature than the small cube. ___ D. The large cube melts at a lower temperature than the small cube. ___ E. The density of the large cube is greater than the small cube. ___ F . The density of the large cube is less than the small cube. ___ G. The large cube has more volume than the small cube. ___ H. The large cube has less volume than the small cube. ___ I . The large cube has bigger atoms than the small cube. ___ J . The large cube has smaller atoms than the small cube. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to compare the cubes. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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1

Physical Science Probes

Comparando Cubos Sofía tiene dos cubos sólidos. Los cubos están hechos del mismo material. Un cubo es muy grande. El otro cubo es muy pequeño. Marque una X al lado de todas las afirmaciones que son verdaderas sobre los dos cubos. ___ A. El cubo grande tiene más masa que el cubo pequeño. ___ B. El cubo grande tiene menos masa que el cubo pequeño. ___ C. El cubo grande se derrite a una temperatura más alta que el cubo pequeño. ___ D. El cubo grande se derrite a una temperatura más baja que el cubo pequeño. ___ E. La densidad del cubo grande es más que el cubo pequeño. ___ F . La densidad del cubo grande es menos que el cubo pequeño. ___ G. El cubo grande tiene más volumen que el cubo pequeño. ___ H. El cubo grande tiene menos volumen que el cubo pequeño. ___ I . El cubo grande tiene átomos más grandes que el cubo pequeño. ___ J . El cubo grande tiene átomos más pequeños que el cubo pequeño. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razon que usaste para comparar los cubos. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 16

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Physical Science Probes

Comparing Cubes Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about properties of matter. The probe is designed to find out which properties students think will change if the size of an object made from the same material changes.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Atoms, properties of matter, extensive properties, intensive properties, mass, volume, density, melting point

Explanation

The best responses are A and G. Mass and volume are extensive properties that depend on the amount of matter. Mass is the amount of matter in an object, material, or substance. Volume is how much space the matter takes up. As the size of the cube increases, the mass and volume increase. Melting point and density

are examples of intensive properties of matter. These properties stay the same for the cubes (under the same conditions) regardless of the size of the cube. For example, density is the ratio of the mass to the volume. If the mass of an object increases, its volume also increases proportionally. The size of the atoms remains the same, regardless of how large the object is. The large cube has more atoms than the small cube, but the size of the atoms stays the same.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students describe observable properties of objects, such as their size, weight, and ability to float or sink. Mass is a concept that is not introduced until later in elementary grades or in middle school. Weight is a stepping stone to mass in the elementary grades. The idea that the properties of weight and volume can change when the size of an

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1

Physical Science Probes

object changes can be tested and observed by students. Melting point can be observed using familiar materials such as ice cubes or sticks of butter. Density and the size of atoms are concepts that should wait until middle school. Middle School Students In middle school, instructional experiences with the properties of matter progress from observational to conceptual, using a particle model of matter. Students learn that some properties, such as density and melting point, are useful in identifying and comparing different substances because they do not change with the amount of matter. Density is a particularly difficult concept at this level. An understanding of density progresses from the qualitative float and sink observations in the elementary grades to the quantitative proportional relationship between mass and volume at the middle school level. The particle model of atoms is still abstract for many students at this level. The probe is useful in determining whether students have preconceived ideas about atoms and whether students relate a macroscopic change in the size of an object, material, or substance to a microscopic change. High School Students Instruction at the high school level builds on the concept of characteristic properties of substances that was developed in middle school and integrates the details of atomic structure with how atomic architecture plays a role in determining the properties of materials. The terms intensive and extensive properties of matter are introduced. This probe is useful in determining if students are able to explain the distinction between intensive and extensive properties at a substance or particle level. The probe may reveal that high school students revert to their strongly held preconceptions even after they have been taught the concept of characteristic properties in middle school.

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Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 6–12. This probe intentionally does not mention the material that makes up the cubes because the type of material may influence students’ thinking. Be sure students understand that the cubes are solid and made up of the same type of matter. It may help to have visual props for this probe, such as two different sizes of blocks made from the same material or ice cubes. Make sure students do not focus on the particular type of material. They need to understand that the probe applies to any type of solid material, as long as both cubes are made of the same material (have the same composition) and are under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. Upper elementary teachers may find this probe useful if they substitute the word weight for mass and remove choices E, F, I, and J.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it.

Related Research

• Many students age 15 and older still use sensory reasoning about matter, despite being well advanced in thinking logically in other areas, such as mathematics (Kind 2004). • Ideas that interfere with students’ conception of density include the belief that when

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1

Physical Science Probes

•

•

•

•

•

you change the shape of something, you change its mass (Stepans 2003). An intuitive rule of “more A, more B,” may cause some students to reason that if you have more material, properties such as melting point or density increase (Stavy and Tirosh 2000). Although some students ages 14–22 relate density to compactness of particles, incomplete explanations may result from their conceptions of mass and volume, which require understanding of the arrangement, concentration, and mass of particles. Many students have misconceptions about volume that present difficulties for understanding density (Driver et al. 1994). Students of all ages show a wide range of ideas about particles. Some students will attribute macroscopic properties to particles (A A AS 2009). For example, they may believe the size of the atoms that make up the cube increases as the size of the cube increases. A study of 60 Australian 11-year-old students found that more than 80% had misconceptions about volume that led to difficulty in understanding density (Rowell, Dawson, and Lyndon 1990). A study by Smith, Carey, and Wiser (1984) found that students’ earliest ideas about density may be described by the phrase heavy for its size. However, students fail to bring together the two ideas of size and “felt weight” so that density and weight are not differentiated but rather are included in a general notion of “heaviness.”

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be followed up with the science practice of planning and carrying out investigations. Have students observe, measure, and discuss what is the same and what is different about the mass (or weight),

•

•

•

•

•

•

volume, melting point, and density of two different-sized cubes of a familiar substance (such as ice) that has a melting point that can be measured safely by students. The probe “Mass, Volume, and Density” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Physical Science, Volume 3 can be used to further uncover student thinking about these concepts (Keeley and Cooper 2019). Have students use the crosscutting concept of cause and effect to explain what happens to different properties when the size of an object changes. Probe further to determine if students use the same reasoning to explain what happens to different properties when the amount of a liquid or gas changes. Provide multiple and varied opportunities for students to observe and measure characteristic properties such as boiling point, melting point, density, and solubility using different amounts of the same substance. Have middle or elementary students test the idea that different volumes of the same substance usually have different masses (or weights, for elementary students). Then have them test the corollary that different masses (or weights) of the same substance usually have different volumes. Help middle school students relate each to a conceptual understanding of density, constructing their own understanding of the D = M/V proportional relationship (density equals mass divided by volume) before being given the mathematical equation. Have students use the crosscutting concepts of patterns and scale, proportion, and quantity to explain what happens to properties when the amount of matter changes. For example, identify patterns when comparing the density of the same substance when the mass changes and describe the proportional relationship.

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Physical Science Probes

• Be aware that teaching a specific characteristic property such as density by itself may not help students develop a unified idea of characteristic properties that includes density, boiling point, melting point, and solubility. Be explicit in developing and pointing out the idea that all these properties have something in common—they do not depend on the amount of the sample. Once students grasp this concept, introduce the terminology, intensive and extensive properties. • Have students conduct an investigation to determine the melting point of a small, medium, and large amount of the same substance, such as ice, butter, or wax (using appropriate safety precautions). • To help middle school students distinguish between characteristic and non-characteristic properties, hold a mystery object in your hand (closed). Ask students if they can tell you what the object is if you give them the weight or mass, color, shape, texture, length, volume, or other non-characteristic properties. Elicit ideas about what kinds of properties might be helpful to know in order to identify the mystery object. After developing the idea of characteristic properties through a variety of instructional experiences, revisit the mystery object in your closed hand. Ask the same questions about which properties would help them identify what the mystery object is. Use the information formatively to assess whether students have grasped an understanding of characteristic properties. • Have students practice using “if, then” reasoning with physical properties to examine cause-and-effect relationships. For example, prompt them to respond to statements such as, “If the volume of a substance increases, then its boiling point ____ because ____.” This can be practiced with elementary students using basic extensive properties of objects. For example, “If the shape of

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a clay ball changes, its weight will ____ because ____.”

Related NSTA Resources Grooms, J., P. Enderle, T. Hutner, A. Murphy, and V. Sampson. 2016. Argument-driven inquiry in physical science: Lab investigations for grades 6–8. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R.G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas— Matter and Its Interactions. Available at http:// learningcenter.nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/ NGSS/webseminar27.aspx. Peterson-Chin, L., and D. Sterling. 2004. Looking at density from different perspectives. Science Scope 27 (7): 16–20. Shaw, M. 1998. Diving into density. Science Scope 22 (3): 24–26. Talanquer, V. 2002. Minimizing misconceptions: Tools for identifying patterns of reasoning. The Science Teacher 69 (8): 46–49.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P., and S. Cooper. 2019. Uncovering student ideas in physical science, volume 3: 32 new matter and energy formative assessment probes. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Kind, V. 2004. Beyond appearances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. 2nd ed. Report prepared for the Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, U.K.

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Physical Science Probes

http://web.mst.edu/~gbert/JAVA/Desktop/ Misconceptions_update_tcm18-188603.pdf. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Rowell, J., C. Dawson, and H. Lyndon. 1990. Changing misconceptions: A challenge to

science educators. International Journal of Science Education 12 (2): 167–175. Smith, C., S. Carey, and M. Wiser. 1984. A case study of the development of size, weight, and density. Cognition 21 (3): 177–237. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press. Stepans, J. 2003. Targeting students’ science misconceptions: Physical science concepts using the conceptual change model. Tampa, FL: Idea Factory.

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Physical Science Probes

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Floating Logs A log was cut from a tree and put in water. The log floated on its side so that half the log was above the water surface. Another log was cut from the same tree. This log was twice as long and twice as wide. How does the larger log float compared with the smaller log? Circle the best answer: A. More than half of the larger log floats above the water surface. B. Half of the larger log floats above the water surface. C. Less than half of the larger log floats above the water surface. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or the reasoning you used for your answer. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Troncos Flotantes Un tronco fue cortado de un árbol y puesto en agua. El tronco flotaba de lado con mitad del tronco sobre la superficie del agua. Otro tronco fue cortado del mismo árbol. Este tronco fue el doble de largo y el doble de ancho. ¿Cómo flota el tronco más grande en comparación con el tronco más pequeño? Encierra en un círculo la mejor respuesta: A. Más de la mitad del tronco más grande flota sobre la superficie del agua. B. La mitad del tronco más grande flota sobre la superficie del agua. C. Menos de la mitad del tronco más grande flota sobre la superficie del agua. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razon que usaste para tu respuesta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Floating Logs Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about floating and sinking. The probe is designed to find out if students think changing the size of an object affects how it floats.

Type of Probe P-E-O

Related Concepts

Properties of matter, intensive properties, density, floating and sinking

Explanation

The best response is B: Half of the larger log floats above the water surface. The degree to which a solid object will float when placed in water depends on the density of the material. Density is an intensive property of matter, which means that it is independent of the amount of material. If one sample of material is very large and another sample of the same

material is very small, the proportion (ratio) of the mass to volume of each sample is still the same, so the density remains the same. The first and second logs were both cut from the same tree, so they are made of the same material and have close to the same density. (There may be a slight difference because the logs are a mixture and are not made of a homogeneous substance.) Because the densities are essentially the same, the two different-sized logs will float at equal levels. Half of the first (smaller) log floated above the water’s surface, so half of the second (larger) log will also float above the water’s surface.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students have observational experiences with floating and sinking objects of different sizes and shapes. They are able to describe observable properties of objects,

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Physical Science Probes

such as how much of an object floats above the water’s surface. They begin to connect the crosscutting concept of cause and effect to properties. Although some things may change (such as size), other things may stay the same (how an object floats). This probe may be useful in determining students’ ideas about floating objects and whether things made of the same material have the same properties. However, the concept of intensive properties, such as density, should wait until middle school.

substances, such as density, which was developed in middle school and integrates the details of atomic structure with how atomic architecture plays a role in determining the properties of materials. The terms intensive and extensive properties of matter are introduced in high school. By high school, students should be able to explain the distinction between intensive and extensive properties at both a substance and particle level.

Middle School Students In middle school, instructional experiences with density progress from observational (floating or sinking and heavy for its size) to a conceptual understanding of density as a characteristic property of matter that describes the proportional relationship between mass and volume. Students begin to use mathematics and the crosscutting concept of scale, proportion, and quantity to describe density of different amounts of matter. Middle school is a good time to make the distinction between not only properties such as volume, mass, or weight that change with amount but also properties such as density that are not affected by the amount of matter. By the end of middle school, students should understand that two objects composed of the same substance and in the same state (solid, liquid, gas) under the same conditions of temperature and pressure will generally have the same characteristic properties, which can be used to identify them or predict their behavior. Students can now use technical vocabulary such as mass, volume, and density. However, it is important to determine if they have a conceptual understanding of density before introducing the D = M/V mathematical relationship (density equals mass divided by volume).

This probe is best used with grades 3–12. You may wish to use props to help younger students visualize the manner in which the first log is floating with respect to the water’s surface and to show students what it means when logs float on their sides, rather than upright like a buoy. Place an object that floats in a clear container of water so that students can see what is meant by “above and below the water’s surface” and “floating on its side,” or draw a picture to explain it. Show students a second object composed of the same material that is longer and wider than the first object (such as a dowel of a different width), but don’t place this object in the water. The probe can be extended for middle and high school students by asking them to use mathematical reasoning in their explanation.

High School Students Instruction at the high school level builds on the concept of characteristic properties of

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Administering the Probe

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any

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bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it.

Related Research

• Some students age 15 and older still use sensory reasoning about matter, despite being able to think logically and use mathematics. They may recite a definition of density as mass over volume and perform density calculations yet hold a common belief that the more massive or heavy an object, the denser it is (Kind 2004). • Ideas that interfere with students’ conception of density include the belief that when you change the shape of something, you change its mass and the belief that heaviness is the most important factor in determining whether an object will sink or float (Stepans 2003). • Some students use an intuitive rule of “more A, more B.” They reason that if you have more material, density increases or makes an object sink more (Stavy and Tirosh 2000). • Students’ ways of looking at floating and sinking include the roles played by material, weight, shape, cavities, holes, air, and water. Also, researchers have found that some students have misconceptions about volume that present difficulties for understanding density (Driver et al. 1994). • In a study of 60 Australian 11-year old students, over 80% had misconceptions about volume that led to difficulty in understanding density (Rowell, Dawson, and Lyndon 1990). • Biddulph and Osborne (1984) conducted a study during which some students ages 7–14 suggested that things float because they are light. When asked why objects float, the students offered different reasons for different objects. The same study asked students ages 8–12 how a longer candle would float compared with a shorter piece;

many students thought the longer candle would sink or float lower.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be followed up using the science practice of planning and carrying out investigations. Give students wooden dowels of different lengths and thicknesses or different-sized wooden blocks of the same type of wood to determine if they float differently. Have students use their results to support their answer choice to the probe and explain the phenomenon. • The probe “Mass, Volume, and Density” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Physical Science, Volume 3 can be used to reveal further student ideas about these concepts (Keeley and Cooper 2019). • Try a different material to explain the phenomenon. Cut a very small piece of Ivory soap (a soap that floats) versus the rest of the bar of Ivory soap. Or cut off a tiny piece of a soap that sinks, and ask students if they think that piece of soap will float, sink, or float differently depending on its size. • Investigate the f loating and sinking of the same kind of material—for example, Styrofoam balls—with different sizes and the same shape. Similar investigations can be conducted with strawberries, blocks of wood, or rubber objects. Then have students investigate how different shapes of the same material float. • When middle school or high school students have developed the conceptual understanding of density, have them use the science practice of using mathematics and computational thinking to support their explanations with proportional reasoning and connect it to the crosscutting concepts of scale, proportion, and quantity. It is counterproductive to start by using

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Physical Science Probes

D = M/V if students have not developed a conceptual understanding of density first. • Connect the observation of how the wood floats in water to the concept of density. Have students discuss whether they can identify the type of wood based on its density. • Make the probe three dimensional by having students use the crosscutting concept of cause and effect in their explanation. When you change the size of an object made from the same material, what effect does it have on how the object floats? • Probe further to determine if students use the same reasoning to explain what happens to different properties when the amount of a liquid or gas changes.

Related NSTA Resources German, S. 2017. Creating conceptual storylines. Science Scope 41 (5): 26–28. Gomez-Zwiep, S., and D. Harris. 2007. Sinking and floating: Bringing math to the surface. Science Scope 31 (4): 53–56. Grooms, J., P. Enderle, T. Hutner, A. Murphy, and V. Sampson. 2016. Argument-driven inquiry in physical science: Lab investigations for grades 6–8. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P. 2010. “More A-more B” rule. Science and Children 48 (2): 24–26. Keeley, P. 2014. More A-more B rule. In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment, P. Keeley, 9–16. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Libarkin, J., C. Crockett, and P. Sadler. 2003. Density on dry land: Demonstrations without buoyancy challenge student misconceptions. The Science Teacher 70 (6): 46–50. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions, http://learningcenter. nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/NGSS/ webseminar27.aspx.

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Peterson-Chin, L., and D. Sterling. 2004. Looking at density from different perspectives. Science Scope 27 (7): 16–20. Shaw, M. 1998. Diving into density. Science Scope 22 (3): 24–26. Yin, Yew, M. Tomita, and R. Shavelson. 2008. Diagnosing and dealing with student misconceptions: Floating and sinking. Science Scope 31 (8): 34–39.

References Biddulph, F., and R. Osborne. 1984. Pupils’ ideas about floating and sinking. Paper presented at the Australian Science Education Research Association Conference, Melbourne, Australia. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P., and S. Cooper. 2019. Uncovering student ideas in physical science, volume 3: 32 new matter and energy formative assessment probes. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Kind, V. 2004. Beyond appearances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. 2nd ed. Report prepared for the Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, U.K. web.mst.edu/~gbert/ JAVA/Desktop/Misconceptions_update_tcm18188603.pdf. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Rowell, J., C. Dawson, and H. Lyndon. 1990. Changing misconceptions: A challenge to science educators. International Journal of Science Education 12 (2): 167–175. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press. Stepans, J. 2003. Targeting students’ science misconceptions: Physical science concepts using the conceptual change model. Tampa, FL: Idea Factory.

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Physical Science Probes

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Floating High and Low Sam put a solid ball in a tank of water. As shown by the ball on the left, it floated halfway above and halfway below the water level. What can Sam do to make a ball float like the ball on the right? Put an X next to all the things Sam can do to have a solid ball float so that most of it is below the water level. ___ A. Use a larger ball made out of the same material. ___ B. Use a smaller ball made out of the same material. ___ C. Use a ball of the same size made out of a denser material. ___ D. Use a ball of the same size made out of less dense material. ___ E. Add more water to the tank so it is deeper. ___ F . Add salt to the water. ___ G. Attach a weight to the ball. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to determine how to change how an object floats in water. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Flotando Alto y Bajo Sam puso una bola sólida en un tanque de agua. Como se muestra a la izquierda, flotaba a medio camino por encima y por debajo del nivel del agua. ¿Qué puede hacer Sam para hacer flotar una pelota como la de la derecha? Ponga una X al lado de todas las cosas que Sam puede hacer para tener una bola sólida flotante con la mayor parte debajo del nivel del agua. ___ A. Usa una bola más grande hecha del mismo material. ___ B. Usa una bola más pequeña hecha del mismo material. ___ C. Usa una bola del mismo tamaño hecha de un material más denso. ___ D. Usa una bola del mismo tamaño hecha de material menos denso. ___ E. Agregue más agua al tanque por lo que es más profundo. ___ F . Agrega sal al agua. ___ G. Adjunta un peso a la pelota. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razonamiento que usaste para determinar cómo cambiar la forma en que un objeto flota en el agua. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 30

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Physical Science Probes

Floating High and Low Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about density and buoyancy. The probe is designed to find out how students think an object can be changed to make it float differently.

Type of Probe P-E-O

Related Concepts

Properties of matter, buoyancy, density, floating and sinking

Explanation

The best responses are C and G. To make the solid ball float so that most of it is under the water, you can either use a ball of the same size made out of a denser material or attach a weight to the ball. The degree to which a solid object will float when placed in water depends on the density of the material. To be further submerged, the density of the object

must be increased. Density is defined as the ratio of the mass to the volume of an object. By using a ball of the same size made out of a denser material, the ratio of the mass to volume is greater, which causes the object to be further submerged. By attaching a weight to the ball, the proportion of the total mass relative to volume is increased, so the overall density is increased. This, too, will result in the object being further submerged. As more matter is attached to the ball, the buoyant force increases, which is indicated by the displacement of more water. Adding more water to the tank has no effect on how an object floats. An object floats the same way regardless of how deep or shallow the water is. Adding salt to the water actually makes the object more buoyant because salt increases the density of the water. For example, when you swim in the ocean, you float better than when you swim in fresh water because salt water is denser than fresh water.

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Physical Science Probes

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students typically have experiences with floating and sinking objects of different sizes and shapes. They are able to describe observable properties of objects that affect how they float. Although it is too early to expect them to quantitatively explain results and use the concept of density, they can make changes to objects and observe cause and effect. Upper elementary students may be more systematic in their investigation of floating and sinking objects and may make quantitative measurements of weight and volume. At this level, students can plan and carry out simple experiments that involve a fair test, which is a precursor to understanding independent and dependent variables. Middle School Students In middle school, students transition from having observational experiences that involve floating and sinking to developing a conceptual understanding of density and how it affects the buoyancy of an object. They use mathematics to understand how density is a proportional relationship between the total mass and volume of an object. Students also use ideas about pairs of interacting forces in fluids, such as the buoyant force that pushes an object upward and the gravitational force that pulls an object downward. High School Students Students build on their understanding of pairs of interacting forces (buoyant force and gravitational force) and use mathematics to predict the effect of changing the mass or volume of an object on its density and thus on how it floats in a liquid.

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Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 3–8. Consider using visual props as you introduce the scenario. Place a sphere that floats in a container of water. Then display objects and materials that represent each of the things that could be changed, and have students respond and explain their thinking. Remove answer choices that include terminology that is unfamiliar to younger students or simplify the terminology; for example, replace “made out of a denser material” with “made out of material that is heavier for its size.”

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it.

Related Research

• Students will often mistake buoyancy-related phenomena for characteristics of density (Libarkin, Crockett, and Sadler 2003). • Ideas that interfere with students’ conception of density include the belief that when you change the shape of something, you change its mass and the belief that heaviness is the most important factor in determining whether an object will sink or float (Stepans 2003). • When students investigate and explain sinking and floating, they typically focus on only the object they are testing and

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Physical Science Probes

•

•

•

•

ignore the liquid that the object is in (Houghton et al. 2000). Some students use an intuitive rule of “more A-more B.” They reason that if you have more material, density increases or makes an object sink more (Stavy and Tirosh 2000). Notions of weight and density develop as children begin to take account of viewpoints other than their own. At ages 9–10, students begin to relate density of one material to another. For example, they may say a material floats because it is “lighter than water.” Many students have misconceptions about volume that present difficulties for understanding density. Also, students’ ways of looking at floating and sinking include the roles played by material, weight, shape, cavities, holes, air, and water (Driver et al. 1994). In a study of 60 Australian 11-year-old students, more than 80% had misconceptions about volume, which led to difficulty in understanding density (Rowell, Dawson, and Lyndon 1990). Biddulph and Osborne (1984) conducted a study during which some students ages 7–14 suggested that things float because they are light. When asked why objects float, the students offered different reasons for different objects. The same study asked students ages 8–12 how a longer candle would float compared with a shorter piece; many students thought the longer candle would sink or float lower.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be used with the P-E-O (predict-explain-observe) strategy and the science practice of planning and carrying out an investigation. Have students predict, explain, and systematically test and observe how solid objects float in water

when changes are made to the object or the liquid. If observations do not match students’ initial predictions, have students further explore the phenomenon and revisit and revise their initial explanations. • This probe can be used with a station approach to investigate floating and sinking phenomena. Refer to the article Using Formative Assessment Probes to Develop Elementary Learning Stations (Keeley 2018) for more information on how to set up learning stations using formative assessment probes. • When dealing with density-related phenomena, use the terminology mass, volume, and density with middle and high school students. With elementary school students, use the more familiar terms size, weight, and heavy for its size. Research indicates that young students mistake the word mass for massive and confuse the term with the size of objects. In other words, a large foam ball is more “massive” to them, and thus they may think it has more mass than a small wooden ball. The Next Generation Science Standards also avoid using the term mass until middle school. • Change the object. Instead of using a ball, try other objects of different shapes and materials. Have students investigate whether cutting a banana into a variety of shapes and sizes will change how it floats in water. Put an orange in water and observe how it floats after the peel is removed, and then encourage explanations of the phenomena.

Related NSTA Resources Bell, R., and H. Banchi. 2008. The many levels of inquiry. Science and Children 46 (2): 26–29. Gomez-Zwiep, S., and D. Harris. 2007. Sinking and floating: Bringing math to the surface. Science Scope. 31 (4): 53–56. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core

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ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions, http://learningcenter. nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/NGSS/ webseminar27.aspx. Peterson-Chin, L., and D. Sterling. 2004. Looking at density from different perspectives. Science Scope 27 (7): 16–20. Shaw, M. 1998. Diving into density. Science Scope 22 (3): 24–26. Yin, Yew, M. Tomita, and R. Shavelson. 2008. Diagnosing and dealing with student misconceptions: Floating and sinking. Science Scope 31 (8): 34–39.

References Biddulph, F., and R. Osborne. 1984. Pupils’ ideas about floating and sinking. Paper presented at the Australian Science Education Research Association Conference, Melbourne, Australia. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Houghton, C., K. Record, B. Bell, and T. Grotzer. 2000. Conceptualizing density with a relational

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systemic model. Paper presented at the annual conference of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, New Orleans, LA. Keeley, P. 2018. Using formative assessment probes to develop elementary learning stations. Science and Children 55 (9): 20–23. Libarkin, J., C. Crockett, and P. Sadler. 2003. Density on dry land: Demonstrations without buoyancy challenge student misconceptions. The Science Teacher 70 (6): 46–50. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Rowell, J., C. Dawson, and H. Lyndon. 1990. Changing misconceptions: A challenge to science educators. International Journal of Science Education 12 (2): 167–175. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press. Stepans, J. 2003. Targeting students’ science misconceptions: Physical science concepts using the conceptual change model. Tampa, FL: Idea Factory.

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Physical Science Probes

4

Solids and Holes Lance had a thin, solid piece of material. He placed the material in water and it floated. He took the material out and punched holes all the way through it. What do you think Lance will observe when he puts the material with holes back in the water? Circle your prediction. A. It will sink. B. It will barely float. C. It will float the same as it did before the holes were punched in it. D. It will neither sink nor float. It will bob up and down in the water. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to make your prediction. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ U n c o v e r i n g S t u d e n t I d e a s i n S c i e n c e , Vo l u m e 2 , S e c o n d E d i t i o n Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

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Physical Science Probes

Sólidos y Agujeros Lance tiene una pieza de material delgada y solido. Puso el material en agua y flotó. Sacó el material y perforó agujeros a través de el. ¿Qué crees que observará Lance cuando vuelva a meter el material con agujeros en el agua? Pon un circulo al lado de tu predicción. A. Se hundirá. B. Apenas estará flotando. C. Flotará igual que antes de perforar los agujeros. D. No se hundirá ni flotará. Subirá y bajará en el agua. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razonamiento que usaste para hacer tu predicción. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Solids and Holes Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the density of a solid object. The probe is designed to find out whether students recognize that in this phenomenon, air is not displaced, such as when there is a hole in a boat.

Type of Probe P-E-O

Related Concepts

Properties of matter, density, mass, volume

Explanation

The best response is C: It will float the same as it did before the holes were punched in it. The degree to which a solid object will float when placed in water depends on the density of the material. Density is defined as the ratio of the total mass to the total volume of an object. This intensive property is independent of the amount of material. As holes

are punched uniformly throughout the solid object, regardless of what the material is, the amount of mass and volume that is removed is proportional, so the remaining material will have the same density because it has the same proportional relationship. Because the density remains the same, the object will continue to float in the same manner. In contrast, mixed density is a condition in which there is more than one substance making up the object. For example, a hollow plastic ball may contain air in it, which would give it a mixed density that includes the total mass of the plastic and the air and the total volume of the object (including the part filled with air). The example provided in this probe is not one of mixed density because the object is solid and does not contain air. The holes that are drilled go all the way through the material and do not displace air. When a boat has holes punched in its hull, it will sink because the air in the hull is displaced by water, thus adding mass and increasing the

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Physical Science Probes

boat’s density. Objects float in water when they are less dense than the water and sink when they are more dense.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students typically have experiences with floating and sinking objects of different sizes and shapes and are able to describe observable properties of objects. They do things to change the shape of objects to make them float. They also have experiences with floating objects that contain air as well as everyday knowledge about floating objects such as boats. Because of their experiences with objects of mixed density (objects that contain air in addition to solid material) such as floating boats, they may not recognize that it is the displacement of air by water that causes a boat or object to sink. Students are affected by their everyday knowledge that when a boat has a hole in the hull, it sinks. Middle School Students In middle school, observational experiences with floating and sinking progress to developing a conceptual understanding of density. The crosscutting concept of scale, proportion, and quantity can be applied to density problems by recognizing the proportional relationship between mass and volume. At this level, students encounter mixed-density phenomena and distinguish mixed density from density of an object made of one substance. They can apply an understanding of density to engineering design problems that involve flotation. High School Students Instruction builds on students’ basic understanding of density in middle school. Students apply a conceptual and mathematical understanding of density to living, physical,

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and designed systems. Students at this level can be expected to use a particle model to explain density-related phenomena and solve engineering problems that involve buoyancy.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 6–12. Consider using visual props for this probe. Place a thin block of wood in a container of water to show students how it floats. Then drill holes that go all the way through the wood, but don’t place the block of wood in the water. Ask students to commit to a prediction and share reasons for their prediction before making observations.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. [Note: The emphasis in this probe is on measurement of properties, not identification of materials.] 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it. [Note: The emphasis in this probe is on the physical property of density, not identification.]

Related Research

• Some students may use an intuitive rule of “less A, less B” to reason that if you have less material, the ability to float decreases (Stavy and Tirosh 2000). • Because of their everyday experiences, many children think that holes in objects affect the objects’ ability to float. Even when

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Physical Science Probes

taught that holes through solid objects do not change the object’s ability to float, students still firmly hold the idea (Driver et al. 1994). • A study by Grimillini, Gandolfi, and Pecori Balandi (1990) of children’s ideas related to buoyancy, found that children take into account four factors when considering how objects float: (1) the role played by material and weight; (2) the role played by shape, cavities, and holes; (3) the role played by air; and (4) the role played by water.

•

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be used with the P-E-O (predict-explain-observe) strategy and the science practice of planning and carrying out investigations. Have students predict, explain, systematically test, and observe how the object floats in water when holes are punched through it. If observations do not match students’ initial predictions, have students revisit and revise their initial explanations. Be aware that some students will not believe their observation and may think there needs to be more holes or the holes need to be larger. If so, allow them to test that as well. • The probe “Mass, Volume, and Density” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Physical Science, Volume 3 can be used to further uncover student thinking about these concepts (Keeley and Cooper 2019). • Ask a question about a similar phenomenon using a different object. For example, after observing that an apple floats in water, predict what will happen if a large hole is cut through the core of the apple and the apple is placed back in the water. • There is a solids-and-holes demonstration on YouTube (www.youtube.com/ watch?v=1llYHPd8GSg) that shows how fruits float in water when holes have been

•

•

•

cut through them. Show the video and relate it to this probe. Help students distinguish between mixed density and density of a single material. Have them reason why materials like metals can be made to float (such as iron ships), comparing and contrasting a mixed-density object with a pure-density object. For example, a hollow metal container filled with air would float because a large part of the volume of the object is made up of air, which decreases its density, whereas a container of solid metal without air trapped in it would sink because its density is greater than water. Once students have grasped the idea targeted by the probe, present them with a new situation. Contrast the “holes all the way through” model with the “cavity” model. Place an object that sinks, such as soap (not Ivory soap, as it is one of the few soaps that floats) in water. Take the soap out and carve or drill many holes uniformly (not all the way through, but rather holes that form cavities) so that much of its volume will be filled with air, causing it to float. Ask students to predict what will happen if you take the soap and continue making the holes so they go all the way through. Listen carefully to their ideas, noting if they base their predictions on the probe example, without considering that the object did not float to begin with. Have them test their predictions and construct an explanation for this counterexample. Have students apply their knowledge of mixed density to an engineering design problem, such as designing the hull of a boat to carry a heavy load or explaining why oil tankers are designed with double hulls. After students have had the opportunity to develop an understanding of this phenomenon, revisit the probe and have them construct a revised scientific explanation

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Physical Science Probes

using data from their investigation, scientific concepts, and appropriate terminology. Extend the probe to three dimensions by asking students to include the crosscutting concept of cause and effect or proportions in their explanation.

Related NSTA Resources Gomez-Zwiep, S., and D. Harris. 2007. Sinking and floating: Bringing math to the surface. Science Scope 31 (4): 53–56. Keeley, P. 2013. Using the P-E-O technique. Science and Children 50 (5): 24–26. Keeley, P. 2014. Using the P-E-O technique. In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment, P. Keeley, 150–160. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Konicek-Moran, R. 2013. Dancing popcorn. In Everyday physical science mysteries: Stories for inquiry-based science teaching, R. KonicekMoran, 123–124. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Peterson-Chin, L., and D. Sterling. 2004. Looking at density from different perspectives. Science Scope 27 (7): 16–20. Shaw, M. 1998. Diving into density. Science Scope 22 (3): 24–26.

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Yin, Yew, M. Tomita, and R. Shavelson. 2008. Diagnosing and dealing with student misconceptions: Floating and sinking. Science Scope 31 (8): 34–39.

References Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Grimillini, T., E. Gandolfi, and B. Pecori Balandi. 1990. Teaching strategies and conceptual change: Sinking and floating at elementary school level. Paper presented at the Australian Science Education Research Association Conference, Melbourne, Australia. Keeley, P., and S. Cooper. 2019. Uncovering student ideas in physical science, volume 3: 32 new matter and energy formative assessment probes. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Physical Science Probes

M

HIGH

LO W

Flora is boiling water on a stove. She turns the temperature dial up to high to boil the water. The water is boiling vigorously with large bubbles quickly forming and bursting at the surface. Flora then turns the dial of the stove down to low. The water is boiling gently, with smaller bubbles slowly forming and bursting at the surface. Flora wonders if the boiling temperature changes when she turns the dial. What would you tell Flora? Circle the best answer.

MEDIU

Turning the Dial

A. The boiling temperature is greater when the dial is set at high. B. The boiling temperature is greater when the dial is set at low. C. The boiling temperature is the same at both settings. Explain your thinking. What “rule” or reasoning did you use to select your answer? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Girando el Dial Flora está hirviendo agua en una estufa. Ella gira la llave de temperatura a alto para hervir el agua. El agua está hirviendo con burbujas grandes que se forman rápidamente y estallan en la superficie. Flora gira la llave de la estufa a bajo. El agua está hirviendo suavemente con pequeñas burbujas que se forman lentamente y estallan en la superficie. Flora se pregunta si la temperatura de ebullición cambia cuando gira la llave. ¿Qué le dirías a Flora? A. L a temperatura de ebullición es mayor cuando el dial está a alto. B. La temperatura en ebullición es mayor cuando el dial está en bajo. C. La temperatura de ebullición es la misma en ambas configuraciones. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razonamiento que usaste para seleccionar tu respuesta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

42

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Physical Science Probes

Turning the Dial

MEDIU

Teacher Notes

M

HIGH

LO W

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about a physical property of matter. The probe is designed to reveal whether students recognize that under the same conditions, boiling point remains the same.

Type of Probe

Familiar phenomenon, P-E-O

Related Concepts

Boiling point, characteristic properties, intensive properties, temperature, properties of matter

Explanation

The best answer is C: The boiling temperature is the same at both settings. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a system. When heat is transferred to a liquid, the molecules gain energy. The motion of the liquid’s molecules, and hence the temperature of the liquid, increases until the temperature of the liquid reaches its boiling point (each pure substance has a specific

temperature at which it will boil). Once a liquid is at its boiling point, the energy supplied to the system is used to overcome attractive forces between particles in the liquid. This results in the change from a liquid phase to a gas phase, allowing the molecules to escape into the air. The molecules that escape into the gas phase take away some energy from the liquid phase. Because the liquid continues to heat, molecules continue to escape and the temperature of the remaining liquid essentially stays constant as heating continues. In the case of pure water, the boiling point is 100°C (212°F). (Impurities in tap water may result in a slight temperature rise during an extended period of boiling as the remaining solution becomes more concentrated.) The temperature will not rise again until all the water changes to the gaseous state. If heat continues to be applied to the gaseous state, the temperature of the gas will rise. Whenever a pure substance undergoes a phase change, its temperature remains constant as long as the two phases are present.

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Physical Science Probes

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students’ experiences with materials are primarily observational. They observe changes in temperature by heating or cooling materials. Upper elementary students are familiar with the change in states of water from the solid to liquid to gas phase and vice versa. They learn how to use thermometers to measure the temperature of water. They may observe that water boils at 100°C under standard conditions, but the concept of the difference between heat and temperature and an explanation of why boiling point remains constant is beyond this grade level. Middle School Students In middle school, students shift their focus from properties of materials to the properties of the substances from which the materials are made. Students learn about the characteristics of different states of matter and the properties associated with phase changes from solid to liquid to gas. Opportunities to observe and measure characteristic properties such as boiling and melting points can be used to separate materials. Students identify characteristic properties that can be used to identify substances, such as boiling point, melting point, and density. They observe that pure substances have a constant boiling point and that this boiling point does not change under standard conditions, no matter how vigorously or gently the liquid boils. Students are beginning to connect the ideas of heat, temperature, and constant boiling point, although the distinction between heat and temperature is still difficult to understand at this grade level. High School Students During high school, instructional opportunities connect the macroscopic properties of

44

substances to microscopic properties, such as the attraction between water molecules. At this level, students can use particle ideas to explain the role of heat and temperature during phase changes. However, the distinction between heat and temperature is still a concept that eludes many high school students.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 6–12. Make sure students know that water from a tap contains small amounts of other substances such as minerals. For the purpose of the probe, have students assume the water is pure. Make sure students are familiar with the dial used to adjust burner temperature on a stove since they may have experienced a variety of stoves and dials in their home settings. It may be helpful to have visual props for this probe. While wearing safety goggles, bring a beaker of water to a vigorous boil. Lower the amount of heat supplied to the boiling water, and keep the water at a gentle simmer as students respond to the probe and explain their thinking.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it. 6–8 PS3.A: Definitions of Energy • Temperature is not a measure of energy; the relationship between the temperature and the total energy of a system depends

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5

Physical Science Probes

on the types, states, and amount of matter present. 9–12 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • The structure and interactions of matter at the bulk scale are determined by electrical forces within and between atoms.

Related Research

• Students may use the intuitive rule “less A, less B” to reason what happens when you turn down the dial of a stove and the water boils gently. Using this rule, students may think that when the temperature dial is turned down, the boiling temperature decreases (Stavy and Tirosh 2000). • Many students think that the boiling point of water increases when the setting on a stove is “turned up.” Much of this confusion is related to a misconception that heat and temperature are the same thing. Students argue that if you increase the amount of heat, you will increase the boiling temperature (Driver et al. 1994). • In a study of high school students’ understanding of basic chemical concepts, students were asked to explain a change from ice to water when two phases were present. Some students thought the reason for the constant temperature was because it takes a period of time for the thermometer to change, and others thought the heat was not hot enough (Abraham and Williamson 1994).

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be followed up with the science practice of designing and carrying out an investigation. Ask the question, encourage students to commit to a prediction, and then test it. The dissonance involved in discovering that the boiling temperature did not change should be followed with

•

•

•

• •

opportunities for students to discuss their ideas and resolve the dissonance. Encourage students to use the crosscutting concept of cause and effect in their explanation: When water boils, lowering the dial setting on a stove will _____ the boiling temperature of the water because ______. Have students use phase change graphs to analyze patterns and notice that when two phases are present (e.g., boiling water includes water in the liquid form and vapor), the temperature remains the same until there is only one phase present. Connect the idea of a constant boiling point to other characteristic properties of a substance that remain constant under the same conditions, such as melting point, solubility, and density. Be sure to explicitly develop the generalization that boiling point is a constant property for all liquid substances, not just water. Use caution when introducing the difference between heat and temperature in the context of this probe until students are ready to understand this difference.

Related NSTA Resources Cavallo, A. M., and P. Dunphey. 2002. Sticking together: A learning cycle investigation about water. The Science Teacher 69 (8): 24–28. Konicek-Moran, R. 2013. Pasta in a hurry. In Everyday physical science mysteries: Stories for inquiry-based science teaching, R. KonicekMoran, 185–193. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: “NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions.” Available at http:// learningcenter.nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/ NGSS/webseminar27.aspx.

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Physical Science Probes

Purvis, D. 2006. Fun with phase changes. Science and Children 32 (5): 23–25.

References Abraham, M., and V. Williamson. 1994. A cross-age study of the understanding of five chemistry concepts. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 31 (2): 147–165. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

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National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Physical Science Probes

6

Boiling Time and Temperature Ernesto is heating a pure liquid on a stove. He records the temperature a minute after the liquid starts to boil. After 20 minutes of boiling, he records the temperature again. When Ernesto compares the first temperature with the second, what do you think he will find? Circle your prediction. A. The boiling temperature did not change. B. The boiling temperature decreased. C. The boiling temperature increased. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to make your prediction. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Tiempo de Ebullición y Temperatura Ernesto está calentando un líquido puro en la estufa. Registra la temperatura un minuto después de que el líquido comienza a hervir. Después de 20 minutos de ebullición, vuelve a registrar la temperatura. Cuando Ernesto compara la primera temperatura con la segunda, ¿qué crees que observará? Encierra en un círculo tu predicción. A. La temperatura de ebullición no cambió. B. La temperatura de ebullición disminuyó. C. La temperatura de ebullición aumentó. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razonamiento que usaste para hacer tu predicción. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 48

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Physical Science Probes

Boiling Time and Temperature Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the boiling point of a pure substance. The probe is designed to find out whether students recognize that the boiling point of a pure substance stays constant no matter how long it boils.

Type of Probe

Familiar phenomenon, P-E-O

Related Concepts

Boiling point, temperature, characteristic properties, intensive properties, properties of matter

Explanation

The best answer is A: The boiling temperature did not change. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a system. When a liquid is heated, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases. The

motion of the liquid’s molecules, and hence the temperature of the liquid, increases until the temperature of the liquid reaches its boiling point (each pure substance has a specific temperature at which it will boil). Once a liquid is at its boiling point, the energy gained by the system is used to overcome attractive forces between particles in the liquid. This results in the change from a liquid phase to a gas phase, allowing the molecules to escape into the air. The temperature of the remaining liquid essentially stays constant as heating continues. In the case of pure water under standard conditions, this boiling point is 100°C. (Impurities in tap water may result in a slight temperature rise during an extended period of boiling as the remaining solution becomes more concentrated.) The temperature will not rise again until all the water is transformed into a gaseous state. If the heat continues to be applied to the gaseous state, the temperature of the gas will rise.

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Physical Science Probes

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students’ experiences with objects and materials are primarily observational. Students subject objects and materials to temperature changes through heating and cooling and observe which changes can go back and forth. Upper elementary students are familiar with the changes in states of water from the solid to liquid to gas phase and vice versa. They learn how to use thermometers to measure the temperature of water. They may observe that water boils at 100°C (or slightly more if there are impurities in the water), but understanding the difference between heat and temperature and the notion of boiling point as a characteristic property exceeds expectations for this grade level. Middle School Students In middle school, students shift from observable properties to explaining properties at the particle level, including transitions during phase changes. They learn that some properties, such as boiling point and density, can be used to identify a pure substance. They learn to distinguish between heat and temperature, although this distinction is still difficult to understand at this grade level. Opportunities to observe and measure characteristic properties such as boiling and melting points can be used to distinguish and separate one substance from another. Students have had experiences with boiling liquids, and this probe may be useful in determining students’ ideas about heat and temperature and whether they recognize that boiling temperature is a constant. Although students can identify the boiling point of pure water as 100°C under normal conditions, they may still intuitively believe that the temperature rises the longer heat is applied to a boiling liquid.

50

High School Students During high school, instructional opportunities connect the macroscopic properties of substances to microscopic properties, including the attraction between molecules. Students relate the particulate nature of liquids and gases to the role of heat during phase changes. By high school, students should distinguish between heat and temperature, although it is still a very difficult concept for most students to understand.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 6–12. Make sure students understand the difference between a pure substance and an impure one (e.g., distilled water versus tap water). Students may want to know what type of liquid is boiling. It may be helpful to have visual props for this probe. If you use water, make sure students realize that the probe is asking about any pure liquid. Bring a beaker of water to a full boil (while wearing safety glasses). Continue to heat the boiling water as students respond to the probe and explain their thinking.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it. 6–8 PS3.A: Definitions of Energy • Temperature is not a measure of energy; the relationship between the temperature

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6

Physical Science Probes

and the total energy of a system depends on the types, states, and amount of matter present. 9–12 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • The structure and interactions of matter at the bulk scale are determined by electrical forces within and between atoms.

Related Research

• Students do not make a clear distinction between heat and temperature, and they often believe that temperature is the measure of heat (AAAS 2009). • Students often will use a “more A, more B” type of intuitive rule for reasoning about what happens to the temperature the longer a liquid boils. Based on the everyday experience that the temperature of an object rises when heated, students may reason that the longer you heat a substance after the onset of boiling, the higher the temperature will be (Stavy and Tirosh 2000). • Some students think that the boiling point of water increases the longer it is allowed to boil. Much of this confusion is related to a misconception that heat and temperature are the same thing. Thus, students are apt to argue that the longer you heat something, the hotter it gets (Driver et al. 1994). • A standard laboratory exercise is to plot a time-temperature graph of water as it changes from melting ice to boiling water. Although students can readily see the steady temperature as they make their observations of the boiling water, the counterintuitiveness of the phenomenon often results in disbelief statements such as, “This thermometer is not working properly” (Erickson and Tiberghien 1985, p. 64).

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be followed up with the science practice of designing and carrying out an investigation. Ask the question, encourage students to commit to a prediction, and then test it. The dissonance involved in discovering that the boiling temperature did not change should be followed with opportunities for students to discuss their ideas and resolve the dissonance. However, be aware that tap water that contains impurities may change a little during 20 minutes of boiling. As water boils away, the remaining solution becomes more concentrated, and boiling temperature increases slightly. • Conduct a similar investigation to examine the effect of continuous heating on the temperature of a substance existing in two different phases, such as a container filled with water containing ice cubes, snow, an ice “slush,” or another familiar substance as it melts. Measure temperature at different time intervals while the substance is still melting. Contrast the findings from melting (a liquid and solid phase being heated over time) with heating just a liquid phase to boiling (a liquid and gas phase being heated over time). • When having students develop time-temperature graphs, be aware that they may be able to explain their findings as shown on the graph yet revert to their belief that the temperature does not remain constant. Be sure to provide sufficient time to discuss the graphs and what the data show. • Be explicit about developing the generalization that a constant, specific boiling point applies to all pure liquid substances, not just water.

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Related NSTA Resources Brockway, D., and M. Papaleo. 2009. Watching the pot to improve inquiry skills. Science Scope 33 (2): 37–43. Cavallo, A. M., and P. Dunphey. Sticking together: A learning cycle investigation about water. The Science Teacher 69 (8): 24–28. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Purvis, D. 2006. Fun with phase changes. Science and Children 32 (5): 23–25. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions, http://learningcenter. nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/NGSS/ webseminar27.aspx.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Chapter 15: The Research Base.

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In Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/ publications/bsl/online/index.php. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Erickson, G., and A. Tiberghien. 1985. Heat and temperature. In Children’s ideas in science, eds. R. Driver, E. Guesne, and A. Tiberghien, 52–84. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Freezing Ice Mia and Devon are planning a party. They need to make two sizes of ice—a large block of ice and a bag of small ice cubes. They wondered if the size affects the temperature at which the water freezes. This is what they think: Mia:

A large block of ice needs to freeze at a lower temperature than small ice cubes.

Devon: A large block of ice freezes at the same temperature as the small ice cubes. Whom do you agree with? ___________________ Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Hielo Congelado Mia y Devon están planeando una fiesta. Necesitan hacer dos tamaños de hielo: un bloque grande de hielo y una bolsa de cubitos pequeños de hielo. Se preguntaron si el tamaño afecta la temperatura a la cual el agua se congela. Esto es lo que piensan: Mia:

Un bloque grande de hielo se congela a una temperatura más baja que los cubitos pequeños de hielo.

Devon:

Un bloque grande de hielo se congela a la misma temperatura que los cubitos pequeños de hielo.

¿Con quién estás de acuerdo? ___________________ Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Freezing Ice Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about freezing point. The probe is designed to find out if students recognize that the temperature at which water freezes is independent of the volume.

Type of Probe Opposing views

Related Concepts

Freezing point, melting point, characteristic properties, intensive properties, temperature, properties of matter

Explanation

The best answer is Devon’s: A large block of ice freezes at the same temperature as the small ice cubes. It may take longer to freeze the block of ice, but the temperature at which pure water begins to turn to ice (its freezing point) is 0°C. It is the same temperature at which a solid (ice) begins to melt (its melting

point). Except for unusual situations, such as supercooling of liquids, melting point and freezing point are usually the same. This temperature is the same, regardless of how much water is being frozen or how much ice is being melted. Freezing point and melting point are characteristic properties of matter that are independent of the amount of matter. Each pure substance has a specific freezing or melting point under standard conditions.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students’ experiences with the properties of materials are primarily observational. The idea of change is connected to physical properties by subjecting materials to heating and cooling and observing what happens. In the primary grades, students become familiar with the change in states of water from solid to liquid and liquid to solid.

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Students learn how to use thermometers to measure the temperature of water. They may observe that water freezes at 0°C or 32°F and connect the temperature of freezing water to weather phenomena. Middle School Students In middle school, students shift their focus from general properties of materials to the characteristic properties of the substances. Students learn about the characteristics of different states of matter and the properties associated with phase changes from liquid to solid (freezing point) or solid to liquid (melting point). They also learn that these properties are the same for a given substance under ordinary conditions and can be used to identify substances. Students begin to develop the idea of intensive properties in which a property such as freezing point is independent of the mass or volume of a substance. High School Students During high school, instructional opportunities connect the macroscopic properties of substances to microscopic properties. Students can relate the particulate nature of liquids and solids to phase changes. They develop the idea that at the freezing point, particles of the liquid and the solid have the same kinetic energy. Students should be able to explain, using a particle model, why the water freezes at the same temperature regardless of how much water is in the sample. They should also be able to explain why the freezing point and the melting point is the same for pure substances.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 6–12. You may wish to use visual props for this probe, such as a small tray of ice cubes and a block of frozen ice in a container. Be aware that some students may focus on the time it takes the ice to freeze, rather than the temperature. You

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may need to remind them that the probe is asking for an explanation of how the amount of water determines the freezing temperature, not how long it takes the water to freeze.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Measurements of a variety of properties can be used to identify materials. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it.

Related Research

• In a study examining Korean students’ conceptions of differing ice cube sizes, the students were asked, ‘‘What will the temperature of ice cubes of two differing sizes be when taken out of a freezer?’’ The percentage of students who thought that larger cubes produce colder temperatures was highest among students ages 4–9. Those students tended to think that temperature is related to material size. Around age 10, students in the study generally thought that size and temperature were unrelated; however, a significant percentage of 11-yearold students (55%) still related temperature to the size of the ice cube (Paik, Cho, and Go 2007). • Students may use the intuitive rule “more  A, more B” to reason what happens when you freeze different volumes of water. Using this rule, students may think that when there is more water to freeze, more “cold” is needed and thus the freezing temperature needs to be lower (Stavy and Tirosh 2000).

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• Up to age 12, students are familiar with the term temperature and are able to use a thermometer to measure the temperature of objects or materials but actually have a fairly limited concept of temperature. They rarely use temperature to spontaneously describe the condition of an object. In certain experimental situations, some students believe that the temperature of an object is related to its size. In one study, more than 50% of 12-year-old students thought that “a larger ice cube would have a colder temperature, and hence the larger ice cube would take longer to melt” (Erickson and Tiberghien 1985, p. 61). • Cosgrove and Osborne (1980) interviewed students about their ideas related to changes in state and noticed that students generally do not regard a change in state as being related to a specific temperature.

•

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be followed up with the science practice of designing and carrying out an investigation. Ask the question, and encourage students to commit to a prediction and explain their reasoning behind their prediction. Then have students test their predictions by placing a thermometer in a small ice cube tray and a large container of water and recording the temperature as the ice forms. The dissonance involved in discovering that the freezing temperature is the same for both quantities should be followed with opportunities for students to discuss their ideas and resolve the dissonance. • Use two different volumes of water to collect and compare data, starting with a liquid to gas phase change. Begin by graphing two different volumes of boiling water and have students notice that when two phases are present (liquid and gas state), the

•

•

•

temperature remains the same, regardless of quantity. Allow the boiling water to cool, and observe that the temperature steadily decreases when only one phase is present (liquid), although the rate of cooling may differ in the two samples. Students can then use their graphs to hypothesize what would happen to the temperature of two different volumes once the water begins to freeze and two phases (liquid water and ice) are present, and they can then test their hypotheses. This investigation allows students not only to observe the patterns during change in state but also to notice that there are constants in the plateaus of these patterns, regardless of the volume of water. Explicitly connect the idea of a specific freezing point to a specific boiling point and other characteristic properties in order to develop the generalization that some characteristic properties are independent of the amount of a sample. Once students grasp this idea, introduce the term intensive properties. Compare freezing point to melting point to show that when two phases are present, the temperature is the same, regardless of whether you start by melting ice or start by freezing water. Be explicit about developing the generalization that freezing point is specific under standard conditions for all pure liquid substances, not just water. Connect this probe to everyday weather phenomena students may experience. Does the temperature at which water freezes to sleet or ice change with the amount of precipitation, or is the freezing point the same?

Related NSTA Resources Konicek-Moran, R. 2013. How cold is cold? In Everyday physical science mysteries: Stories for

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inquiry-based science teaching, R. KonicekMoran, 113–122. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press Link, L., and E. Christmann. 2004. Tech trek: A different phase change. Science Scope 28 (3): 52–54. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions, http://learningcenter. nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/NGSS/ webseminar27.aspx. Purvis, D. 2006. Fun with phase changes. Science and Children 32 (5): 23–25.

References Cosgrove, M., and R. Osborne. 1980. Physical change. LISP Working Paper 26, University

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of Waikato, Science Education Research Unit, Hamilton, New Zealand. Erickson, G., and A. Tiberghien. 1985. Heat and temperature. In Children’s ideas in science, eds. R. Driver, E. Guesne, and A. Tiberghien, 52–84. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Paik, S., B. Cho, and Y. Go. 2007. Korean 4–11-yearold student conceptions of heat and temperature. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 44 (2): 284–302. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press.

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8

What’s in the Bubbles? Hannah is boiling water in a glass tea kettle. She notices bubbles forming on the bottom of the kettle that rise to the top and wonders what is in the bubbles. She asks her family what they think, and this is what they say: Dad:

They are bubbles of heat.

Calvin:

The bubbles are filled with air.

Grandma: The bubbles are an invisible form of water. Mom:

The bubbles are empty—there is nothing inside them.

Lucy:

The bubbles contain oxygen and hydrogen that separated from the water.

Which person do you most agree with and why? _________________________ Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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¿Qué hay en las Burbujas? Hannah está hirviendo agua en una tetera de vidrio. Ella ve burbujas formándose en el fondo de la tetera. Las burbujas suben a la cima. Ella se pregunta qué hay en las burbujas. Ella le pregunta a su familia qué piensan y esto es lo que dicen: Papá:

Son burbujas de calor.

Calvin:

Las burbujas se llenan de aire.

Abuela:

Las burbujas son una forma invisible de agua.

Mamá:

Las burbujas están vacías, no hay nada dentro de ellas.

Lucy:

Las burbujas contienen oxígeno e hidrógeno que se separan del agua.

¿Con qué persona estás más de acuerdo y por qué? ___________________ Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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What’s in the Bubbles? Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about particles during a phase change. The probe is designed to find out if students recognize that the bubbles formed when water boils are the result of liquid water changing into water vapor.

Type of Probe Friendly talk

Related Concepts

Phase change, boiling, water vapor, gas, properties of matter

Explanation

The best answer is Grandma’s: The bubbles are an invisible form of water. This invisible water is called water vapor, a gaseous form of water that is not visible. Sometimes it is called steam. However, steam can contain very small droplets of liquid water, which allows it to sometimes be visible. When water is heated, the energy

supplied to the system results in an increase in molecular motion. If heated enough, the molecules have so much energy that they can no longer remain loosely connected and thus start to slide past one another. The increased energy now allows the attractive forces between water molecules to be overcome, and they form an “invisible” gas in the form of water vapor. Because the molecules in the gas phase are so much farther apart than in the liquid phase, they have a much lower density, are more buoyant (causing them to “bubble up”), and escape into the air. The bubble is the invisible water vapor that rises to the surface and escapes from the liquid.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students At the elementary level, students have experiences observing changes in state. The idea of change is connected to physical properties of

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materials by subjecting materials to heating and cooling. Water is often used as a familiar substance for observing phase changes. In the primary grades, the focus is primarily on solids and liquids. Elementary students describe change in states of water from the solid to liquid to gas phase and vice versa, although the change from liquid to gas phase is an abstract idea developed more fully in upper elementary grades. Children develop ideas about bubbles early on through their everyday experiences, so it is not too early to ask students their ideas about particles and bubbles. However, it is best to hold off on expecting a scientific explanation until middle school when students learn about kinetic molecular theory. Middle School Students In middle school, students use the kinetic molecular theory to explain what happens at the particle level during phase changes. They compare evaporation of a liquid under ordinary ambient conditions as well as in situations where increased application of heat is involved, such as boiling water. They are encouraged to use models to explain everyday phenomena such as the water boiling in a kettle. High School Students At the high school level, students connect ideas about energy to phase change. They develop the idea that the continuous addition of energy during the heating of a liquid overcomes the attractive forces between molecules of a liquid during the liquid-to-gas transition. They understand that a chemical change in which the water molecules break down into simpler substances does not take place.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–12. If used with elementary students, remove the last answer choice. You may wish to use

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visual props for this probe. Bring a beaker (or some other clear, boiling-safe container) of water or to a full boil so that students can see the bubbles forming and rising to the surface. Be sure students are wearing safety goggles and are not too close to the heat source if they are observing the boiling up close. Continue to heat the boiling water as students respond to the probe and explain their thinking.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Matter of any type can be subdivided into particles that are too small to see, but even then the matter still exists and can be detected by other means. A model showing that gases are made from matter particles that are too small to see and are moving freely around in space can explain many observations, including the inflation and shape of a balloon and the effects of air on larger particles or objects. 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Gases and liquids are made of molecules or inert atoms that are moving about relative to each other. • In a liquid, the molecules are constantly in contact with others; in a gas, they are widely spaced except when they happen to collide. 9–12 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • The structure and interactions of matter at the bulk scale are determined by electrical forces within and between atoms.

Related Research

• Because students cannot observe gases, they often do not think of a gas as being the

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Physical Science Probes

•

•

•

•

same type of matter that makes up solids and liquids (Mayer and Krajcik 2017). It has been well documented that secondary students think the gas produced from boiling water is a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen gas (Mayer 2011). Students’ understanding of boiling precedes their understanding of evaporation from surfaces such as dishes and roads. In a sample of students ages 6–8, 70% understood that when water boils, vapor comes from it and that the vapor is made of water. However, the same students did not recognize that when a wet surface dries, the water turns to water vapor (Driver et al. 1994). An analysis of middle school students’ test results showed that explaining changes of state in molecular terms was among the most difficult tasks for many students. Before instruction, almost none of the students in the study could give molecular explanations of changes of state. After instruction, significantly more students demonstrated understanding, although many students still had difficulties understanding changes of state in molecular terms. For example, one student thought that when molecules are in the water, they move farther apart, they move faster, and then they turn into air (evaporate) (Lee et al. 1993). Osborne and Cosgrove (1983) studied New Zealand students ages 8–17. An electric kettle was boiled in front of the students so they could see the bubbles in the boiling water. They were asked what the bubbles were made of. Heat, air, oxygen, hydrogen, and steam were common replies, with the percentage of students answering steam increasing between ages 12 and 17. However, most 17-year-old students thought that water can be split into its component elements by heating, or that heat is a substance in its own right, or that air is contained in

water. Osborne and Cosgrove attribute the idea that water molecules break up to knowing the formula of water is H2O, so naturally it comes apart.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• Use the phenomenon of bubbles to explain what happens to water molecules during a change in state from a boiling liquid to a gas. Extend the probe by having students use the science practice of developing and using models to explain what is happening at the particle level as the water forms bubbles and bubbles rise to the surface and burst. • Use the formative assessment classroom technique (FACT) called BDA drawing to explain what is happening as water boils (Keeley 2015). This type of model involves three drawings: B-before, D-during, and A-after. For B, have students draw their particle model of matter to show molecules in the liquid state before the water is heated. For D, they should show what is happening to the molecules during heating and as bubbles begin to form. For A, they should show what is happening when the bubbles rise to the surface and burst. Have students share and explain their representations. As they share, carefully note how students get to the bubble stage—do the bubbles appear spontaneously in their drawings, or does the act of drawing help them make sense of what is happening to the water to form bubbles? • Extend the probe by asking students to use the crosscutting concept of cause and effect to explain the phenomenon. • Students may have trouble accepting that water vapor is in the bubbles if they do not understand the idea that water vapor is invisible. Help students contrast the concept of invisible water vapor with visible water

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•

•

•

•

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in the air, such as clouds and fog, which are made of tiny suspended droplets rather than water molecules in the form of a gas spread far apart. Ask students to observe and describe what happens to the water level as the water boils. Encourage them to explain where the water went. How was it able to leave the glass container? Probe students to consider how the bubbles were involved in decreasing the water level. Challenge students who had the idea that the bubbles were air or nothing to explain how their model could account for the decreased water level. Consider how to present phase changes as reversible. Allow students to see heating and cooling cycles for themselves, so they can realize that phase changes do not result in a new substance being formed. This cycle may help them see that the water escapes as a gas in the bubbles and can be recovered again through cooling. By fifth grade, students should be using terminology such as water vapor. Using the correct terminology combined with an understanding that “invisible” water is in the air may help them overcome the idea that water changes into air rather than remaining the same substance but in a form that you cannot see. Be cautious when using the term steam with students to describe the gas or vapor form of water. What students are actually seeing over the boiling water when they refer to steam is a wispy mist—it is visible because it is water in a gaseous state that also contains tiny water droplets. Those tiny droplets scatter light at their surfaces, allowing us to “see” the “steam” in much the same way that we can see fog or clouds. The common use of the word steam is different from the way scientists or engineers use the word steam. To scientists and engineers, steam and vapor are both

invisible forms of water in the gaseous state. However, when students (and often teachers) use the word steam in the context of this probe, they are usually referring to the visible substance that forms above the boiling water—a gas. Technically, this common use of the word steam is incorrect because a gas is invisible. Use the term water vapor (not steam) to describe the invisible, gaseous form of water. Explicitly point out that clouds and fog are made up of tiny droplets of water in order to distinguish forms of water in the air that we can see from forms we cannot see, such as water vapor. After they have grasped the idea that substances in the gaseous state are not visible, older students may be introduced to the scientific use of the word steam and compare it with how it is used in our everyday language.

Related NSTA Resources Cavallo, A. M., and P. Dunphey. 2002. Sticking together: A learning cycle investigation about water. The Science Teacher 69 (8): 24–28. Dasgupta, A. 2008. Water in disguise: Demonstrations exploring water as a solid, liquid, or gas. Science and Children 46 (4): 28–31. Duncan, R., J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet. 2017. Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions, http://learningcenter. nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/NGSS/ webseminar27.aspx. Pentecost, T., S. Weber, and D. Herrington. 2016. Connecting the visible world with the invisible: Particulate diagrams deepen students’ understanding of chemistry. The Science Teacher 83 (5): 53–58. Peters, E. 2006. Building student mental constructs of particle theory. Science Scope 30 (2): 53–55. Purvis, D. 2006. Fun with phase changes. Science and Children 32 (5): 23–25.

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Physical Science Probes

Smith, P., C. Plumley, and M. Hayes. 2017. Much ado about nothing: How children think about the small particle model of matter. Science and Children 54 (8): 74–80.

References Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2015. Science formative assessment, volume 2: 50 more practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Lee, O., D. Eichinger, C. Anderson, G. Berkheimer, and T. Blakeslee. 1993. Changing middle school students’ conceptions of matter and molecules. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 30 (3): 249–270.

Mayer, K. 2011. Addressing students’ misconceptions about gases, mass, and composition. Journal of Chemical Education 88 (1): 111–115. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Osborne, R., and M. Cosgrove. 1983. Children’s conceptions of the changes of state of water. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 20 (9): 825–838.

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9

Chemical Bonds Three students were talking about chemical bonds. They each had a different idea: Janre:

I think a chemical bond is a substance produced by a molecule to hold the atoms together.

Will:

I think a chemical bond is an attractive force between atoms in a molecule.

Leta:

I think a chemical bond is a physical part of an atom that connects it to other atoms in a molecule.

Which student do you agree with the most? ___________________ Provide an explanation for your answer. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Enlaces Químicos Tres estudiantes estaban hablando de enlaces químicos. Cada uno tenía una idea diferente: Janre:

Creo que un enlace químico es una sustancia producida por una molécula para mantener unidos los átomos.

Will:

Creo que un enlace químico es una fuerza atractiva entre los átomos en una molécula.

Leta:

Creo que un enlace químico es una parte física de un átomo que lo conecta con otros átomos en una molécula.

¿Con qué estudiante estás más de acuerdo? ___________________ Proporciona una explicacion a tu repuesta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Chemical Bonds Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about chemical bonds. The probe is designed to find out how students interpret molecular models.

Type of Probe Friendly talk

Related Concepts

Atoms, molecules, chemical bond

Explanation

The best answer is Will’s: I think a chemical bond is an attractive force between atoms in a molecule. Two or more atoms in a molecule are linked together by chemical bonds. There are several types of chemical bonds, including covalent bonds, ionic bonds, metallic bonds, and hydrogen bonds. Covalent bonds are formed between atoms in a molecule as a result of an electrical attraction between their electrons. The bond exists as an attractive force between the

atoms, where one or more electrons are shared. Molecular models, such as the one shown in the picture, are representations of molecules. Models have limitations because they do not represent all aspects of the real thing. For example, a ball-and-stick model uses sticks to represent the attractive force between atoms. Structural diagrams use lines between symbols of atoms to represent bonds. The sticks and lines are physical structures intended to represent an attractive force, but the actual bond represented by the stick or line is not a physical structure.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students The concept of chemical bonds exceeds expectations for students at the elementary level. However, upper elementary students may have seen representations of molecules and may begin to form the idea that there is a structure or “glue” holding particles together.

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Middle School Students In middle school, students develop the idea that atoms join together to form molecules or crystalline arrays. They encounter the term chemical bond in both life science and physical science and have a concept of atoms being joined together. However, an understanding of the types of chemical bonds and the mechanism by which electrons are shared or transferred, resulting in an attraction that holds atoms or ions together, exceeds expectations at the middle school level. Students at this level see a variety of representations of molecules and ionic substances, including ball-and-stick models, which may contribute to their conception of a physical chemical bond. They should learn that models are representations that help us understand things but do not always represent all aspects of the real thing. High School Students Students at this level develop a deeper understanding of the microscopic nature of molecules, atoms, and parts of atoms, including the types of chemical bonds formed by the interaction of electrons. The nature of the atom, including electrical interactions with other atoms, is still an abstract, difficult idea for many students. Because representations of molecules and ionic compounds, including physical models and symbolic drawings, are commonly used in high school science, it is important to take the time to determine whether students have a conception of a chemical bond as a physical entity or a force of attraction. Many students can define the types of chemical bonds and the mechanism by which atoms are joined together yet still harbor the common misconception that a chemical bond is a structural component of an atom or a glue-like form of matter.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used in grades 6–12. If materials are available, consider demonstrating

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the probe scenario with a ball-and-stick model or a drawing of a structural formula.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 6–8 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Substances are made from different types of atoms, which combine with one another in various ways. Atoms form molecules that range in size from two to thousands of atoms. 9–12 PS1.A: Structure and Properties of Matter • Each atom has a charged substructure consisting of a nucleus, which is made of protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. • The structure and interactions of matter at the bulk scale are determined by electrical forces within and between atoms.

Related Research

• Some students adopt anthropomorphic language to describe why atoms “want” to form bonds. An extension of the idea that atoms “need” to form bonds is that atoms “make decisions” about forming bonds. This may come from analogies used in teaching, such as holding hands or finding a new partner (Barker 2004). • In general, students have difficulty developing an adequate conception of the chemical combination of elements until they can interpret combination at the molecular level (Driver et al. 1994). • Students have difficulty interpreting the use of ball-and-stick models for ionic lattices. Twenty-seven Australian 17-year-olds were interviewed in a study by Butts and Smith (1987) using a ball-and-stick model of sodium chloride. Students confused the

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Physical Science Probes

six sticks around each ball as “one ionic and five physical bonds.” Only two of the students mentioned that the sticks were used merely to hold the balls in place in the model.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• An additional probe that can be used to uncover students’ ideas about energy involved in chemical bonding is “Energy and Chemical Bonds” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Physical Science, Volume 3 (Keeley and Cooper 2019). • The use of anthropomorphic analogies to explain how bonds form should be avoided. These analogies give students false ideas about atoms “wanting” to form bonds, “needing” a certain number of electrons, or “finding a partner.” The analogies tend to confuse organisms’ behavior with chemical behavior (Taber 1996). • When using representations such as symbolic drawings of compounds and ball-and-stick models, explicitly state that the lines or sticks do not represent actual physical structures at the atomic and molecular levels. • Connect the idea of representations of chemical bonds to students’ understanding of how models are used to represent structures and phenomena. Provide an opportunity for students to critique the representations of molecules and ionic compounds, describing the limitations of representations in depicting an actual molecule or ionic compound. • Taber (1997) suggests that bonding should be taught from an electrostatic perspective—that all types of bonds are similar in that they all involve electrostatic attraction. Different bond types arise from the different particles involved. The point is to emphasize the commonalities between bonds rather than the differences.

Related NSTA Resources Burgmayer, P. 2011. A tale of four electrons. The Science Teacher 78 (2): 53–57. NSTA Science Object, Explaining matter with elements, atoms, and molecules: Evidence for atoms and molecules. http://learningcenter. nsta.org/resource/?id=10.2505/7/SCB-EAM.3.1. Hibbit, C. 2010. The romance of the atoms: Animated atomic attractions. Science Scope 34 (4): 48–51. Mayer, K., and J. Krajcik. 2017. Core idea PS1: Matter and its interactions. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 13–32. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Matter and Its Interactions, http://learningcenter. nsta.org/products/symposia_seminars/NGSS/ webseminar27.aspx. Robertson, W. C. 2010. Chemistry basics: Stop faking it! Finally understanding science so you can teach it. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

References Barker, V. 2004. Beyond appearances: Students’ misconceptions about basic chemical ideas. Report prepared for the Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, U.K. Butts, B., and R. Smith. 1987. HSC chemistry students’ understanding of the structure and properties of molecular and ionic compounds. Research in Science Education 17 (1): 192–201. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P., and S. Cooper. 2019. Energy and chemical bonds. In Uncovering student ideas in physical science, volume 3: 32 new matter and energy formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and S. Cooper, 189–193. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices,

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crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Taber, K. 1996. The secret life of the chemical bond: Students’ anthropomorphic and animistic

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references to bonding. International Journal of Science Education 18 (5): 557–568. Taber, K. 1997. Student understanding of ionic bonding: molecular versus electrostatic framework? School Science Review 78 (285): 85–95.

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Physical Science Probes

10

Ice-Cold Lemonade It was a hot summer day. Mattie poured herself a glass of lemonade. The lemonade was warm, so Mattie put some ice in the glass. After 10 minutes, Mattie noticed that the ice was melting and the lemonade was cold. Mattie wondered what made the lemonade get cold. She had three different ideas. Which idea do you think best explains why the lemonade got cold? Circle your answer. A. The coldness from the ice moved into the lemonade. B. The heat from the lemonade moved into the ice. C. The coldness and the heat moved back and forth until the lemonade cooled off. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used for your answer. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Limonada Fria Era un caluroso día de Verano. Mattie se sirvió un vaso de limonada. La limonada estaba tibia. Así que Mattie puso hielo en el vaso. Después de diez minutos, Mattie notó que el hielo se estaba derritiendo y la limonada estaba fría. Mattie se preguntó porque se habia puesto la limonada fría. Ella tenía tres ideas diferentes. ¿Qué idea crees que explica mejor por qué la limonada se enfrió? Encierra en un círculo tu respuesta. A. El frío del hielo entró en la limonada. B. El calor del hielo entró en la limonada. C. El frío y el calor se movían de un lado a otro hasta que la limonada se enfrió. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o racionamiento que usaste para tu respuesta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 74

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Ice-Cold Lemonade Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about transfer of energy. The probe is designed to determine whether students recognize that heat flows from warmer objects or areas to cooler ones.

Type of Probe

Familiar phenomenon

Related Concepts

Heat, transfer of energy, thermodynamics, thermal energy

Explanation

The best response is B: The heat from the lemonade moved into the ice. This probe uses the everyday, colloquial meaning of the word heat. However, heat has a more precise meaning in science. What is commonly called heat or heat energy in our everyday language is actually thermal energy. Thermal energy is associated with the random motion of molecules

in a substance. Heat refers to thermal energy in transit and is best used as a verb or when thermal energy is moving within or between systems. However, in this probe, the word heat is used to probe for conceptual understanding of energy transfer as students may not yet be familiar with the term thermal energy. Thermal energy is transferred from one place to another through the process of energy flow. Thermal energy can move only from a warmer object or area to a cooler object or area, never the other way around. In the case of the lemonade and ice, as the molecules of the warmer lemonade came in contact with the molecules of the cooler ice, thermal energy flowed into the ice from the lemonade. This process “cooled” the warm lemonade as it transferred energy to the ice and melted it. Common language contains many references to the idea of “cold” moving from place to place. Children are advised to close a refrigerator door so as not to “let the cold out,” and we complain about winter chills that

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“get into your bones.” Such phrases reinforce the common notion that something known as cold can move from place to place. Because what we sense as warm or cold simply refers to the average thermal energy of an object’s molecules, these references to cold moving are generally misnomers for the transfer of thermal energy from warmer to cooler objects or areas. Instead of asking for ice to cool off the lemonade, perhaps a better request would be, “May I please have some ice so my lemonade can heat the ice cubes?”

term thermal energy helps students distinguish between the internal energy of an object, heat, and temperature. Students’ experiences with transfer of energy via heat expand to include conduction, convection, and radiation. By the end of middle school, students should be able to connect the motion of molecules and heat to the transfer of thermal energy. Even with formal instruction, middle school students may still have difficulty understanding the direction of f low of thermal energy as the temperature changes in a system.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations

High School Students High school students encounter the laws of thermodynamics and use these laws to predict and explain energy phenomena. They quantitatively model how energy moves within a system until it is uniformly distributed. Energy is a crosscutting concept reaching into every discipline of high school science. The concepts of heat, thermal energy, temperature, and energy transfer are extended into other contexts, including nuclear reactions, energy that drives Earth cycles, and biological and chemical energy transfers.

Elementary Students In the elementary grades, students use the terms warm, hot, cool, and cold to qualitatively describe phenomena and interactions with objects and their surroundings. They have experiences mixing same and different amounts of hot and cold water together or putting ice in warm water and finding the resulting temperature. They talk about heat as a type of continuum from cold to hot, but they commonly associate heat with objects such as the stove, the Sun, or a fire. Developing the formal idea of heat as the movement or flow of thermal energy should wait until middle school. At this grade level, it is sufficient for students to know that energy moves from one place to another, which can be observed with their senses and tracked. They can observe how warmer objects cool down or how an object becomes warm when in contact with a hot object. The emphasis should be on tracking where the energy manifested as heat goes. Middle School Students Students enter middle school with a general concept of heat but still associate it more with the nature of objects rather than energy transfer. Developing understanding of the

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Administering the Probe

This probe is best used in grades 6–12. You may wish to use visual props for this probe. For example, pour a glass of warm lemonade. Place a thermometer in the glass of lemonade, and tell the class what the temperature of the lemonade is. Add ice to the glass of lemonade. After 10 minutes, tell the class what the temperature of the iced lemonade is and pose the question in the probe. Be aware that the language in the probe answer choices is intentional. The word moved is used instead of transferred to avoid memorized definitions of energy transfer, and the familiar word heat is used as a stepping stone to the term thermal energy, which they may not be familiar with yet. You may want to ask students to draw a

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picture to explain what is happening inside the glass of lemonade, noting whether they perceive heat as a substance that moves, similar to the historical “caloric” model, or use ideas about the motion of particulate matter.

9–12 PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer • Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transported from one place to another and transferred between systems.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013)

Related Research

3–5 PS3.A: Definitions of Energy • Energy can be moved from place to place by moving objects or through sound, light, heat, or electric currents. 3–5 PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer • Energy is present whenever there are moving objects, sound, light, or heat. When objects collide, energy can be transferred from one object to another, thereby changing their motion. In such collisions, some energy is typically also transferred to the surrounding air; as a result, the air gets heated and sound is produced. 6–8 PS3.A: Definitions of Energy • The term “heat” as used in everyday language refers both to thermal energy (the motion of atoms or molecules within a substance) and the transfer of that thermal energy from one object to another. In science, heat is used only for this second meaning; it refers to the energy transferred due to the temperature difference between two objects. • Temperature is not a measure of energy; the relationship between the temperature and the total energy of a system depends on the types, states, and amounts of matter present. 6–8 PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer • Energy is spontaneously transferred out of hotter regions or objects and into colder ones.

• Middle school students often do not explain the process of heating and cooling in terms of heat energy being transferred. When transfer ideas are involved, some students think that cold is being transferred from a colder to warmer object. Other students think that both heat and cold are transferred at the same time. Students do not always explain heat-exchange phenomena as interactions. For example, students may say that objects tend to cool down or release heat spontaneously without acknowledging that the object has come in contact with a cooler object or area (AAAS 2009). • In studies of fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade students, a commonly held idea was that heat transfers from a hot object and cold transfers from a cold object. Students who believe this conceptualize heat as a transferring material that is separated into categories of hot and cold (Choi et al. 2001). • Cold is often thought of as an entity like heat, with many children thinking that cold is the opposite of heat rather than being part of the same continuum (Driver et al. 1994). • Studies show that children have difficulty thinking of heat conduction when they feel a cold surface. They seem to think that the sensation of coldness is due to something leaving a cold object and entering the body. In a study of 300 15-year-old students, most thought of coldness as being the entity that was transferred (Brooks et al. 1984). • Researchers have found that children have difficulty understanding heat-related ideas

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(Harris 1981). It has been suggested that much of the confusion about heat comes from the words we use and that children tend to think of heat as a substance that flows from one place to another.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• Using the science practice of developing and using models, have students draw arrows to show and explain the transfer of thermal energy via heat to or from three different objects at different temperatures placed on a table in the classroom: a cup of hot chocolate, an ice cube, and a cup of water at room temperature. • The probe “Cold Spoons” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Physical Science, Volume 3 can be used to further probe students’ ideas using a conduction phenomenon (Keeley and Cooper 2019). • Have students use the concepts of heat and thermal energy to explain why a glass of water will get warmer when left out and why, in other instances, it will get colder. • In upper elementary grades, students can investigate warm and cold objects, observing how heat seems to spread from one area to another. Starting with objects that are warmer than their immediate environment to investigate how heat moves may make more sense than starting with objects that are colder than their surrounding environment. • Computer probeware may be more effective than ordinary thermometers in helping students observe small changes in temperature as an object is heated or cooled. • Be aware that many students think that cold moves. When developing the idea of heat moving from warmer to cooler areas, have students generate examples of everyday phrases that describe the movement

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•

•

•

•

of cold, such as “shut the door or you will let all the cold in.” Engage students in critiquing these everyday phrases in terms of how energy moves, and discuss how our everyday language is sometimes very different from the way we describe phenomena scientifically. Explicitly address the idea of interactions when teaching about energy transfer so that students do not develop the notion of energy transfer being a one-sided interaction. Have students identify the materials or objects involved in the interactions. Instruction on heat and transfer of energy should be carried out over the long term and not done in one short unit. These are difficult and abstract ideas, and it takes time and multiple experiences for students to use these ideas scientifically. High school students should have multiple opportunities to use ideas about heat in multiple contexts, including chemical, nuclear, geologic, and biological contexts. Revisiting ideas in different contexts reinforces the concept and helps students see how powerful and crosscutting the “big idea” of energy transfer is in explaining a range of phenomena. Heat and how thermal energy flows within and between objects is a fundamental concern of engineers in designing products or solutions to problems. Have students generate examples of how engineers use the idea that energy flows from warmer to cooler objects or areas when designing products or solving problems.

Related NSTA Resources Brown, P. 2020. Teaching about heat and temperature using an investigative demonstration. In Instructional sequence matters, grades 3–5: Explore before explain, P. Brown, 53–64. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

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Brown, P. 2011. Teaching about heat and temperature using an investigative demonstration. Science Scope 35 (4): 31–35. Colburn, A. 2009. The prepared practitioner: Understanding heat and temperature. The Science Teacher 76 (1): 10. Crissman, S., S. Lacy, J. Nordine, and R. Tobin. 2015. Looking through the energy lens. Science and Children 52 (6): 26–31. NSTA Science Object, Energy: Thermal energy, heat, and temperature. http://common.nsta.org/ resource/?id=10.2505/7/SCB-EN.3.1. German, S. 2016. Predicting, explaining, and observing thermal energy transfer. Science Scope 40 (4): 68–70. NGSS Archived Webinar: Core Ideas—Energy, www.youtube. com/watch?v=E-97mwnhl40&index=8&list=PL2pHc_ BEFW2JjWYua2_z3ccHEd6x5jIBK. Nordine, J. 2016. Teaching energy across the sciences, K–12. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Nordine, J., and D. Fortus. 2017. Core idea PS3: Energy. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Nordine, J., and S. Wessnigk. 2016. Exposing hidden energy transfers with inexpensive thermal imaging cameras. Science Scope 39 (7): 25–32.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press.

www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Brooks, A., H. Briggs, B. Bell, and R. Driver. 1984. Aspects of secondary students’ understanding of heat. Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education, University of Leeds, Leeds, England. Choi, H., E. Kim, S. Paik, K. Lee, and W. Chung. 2001. Investigating elementary students’ understanding levels and alternative conceptions of heat and temperature. Elementary Science Education 20: 123–138. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Harris, W. F. 1981. Heat in undergraduate education, or isn’t it time we abandoned the theory of caloric? International Journal of Mechanical Engineering Education 9: 317–325. Keeley, P., and S. Cooper. 2019. Cold spoons. In Uncovering student ideas in physical science, volume 3: 32 new matter and energy formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and S. Cooper, 201–206. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

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Mixing Water Melinda filled two glasses of equal size half-full with water. The water in one glass was 50 degrees Celsius. The water in the other glass was 10 degrees Celsius. She poured one glass into the other, stirred the liquid, and measured the temperature of the full glass of water. What do you think the temperature of the full glass of water will be after the water is mixed? Circle your prediction. A. 20 degrees Celsius B. 30 degrees Celsius

?

C. 40 degrees Celsius D. 50 degrees Celsius E. 60 degrees Celsius

50°C

10°C

Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used for your answer. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ U n c o v e r i n g S t u d e n t I d e a s i n S c i e n c e , Vo l u m e 2 , S e c o n d E d i t i o n Copyright © 2021 NSTA. All rights reserved. For more information, go to www.nsta.org/permissions. TO PURCHASE THIS BOOK, please visit https://my.nsta.org/resource/123090

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Mezclando Agua Melinda llenó dos vasos de tamaño igual medios llenos con agua. El agua en un vaso era de 50 grados centigrados. El agua en el otro vaso era de 10 grados centígrados. Ella vertio un vaso en el otro, mezclo los líquidos, y midió la temperatura del agua que estaba mezclada. ¿Cuál crees que será la temperatura del agua después de que el agua esté mezclada? Encierra en un círculo tu predicción. A. 20 grados centigrados B. 30 grados centigrados

?

C. 40 grados centigrados D. 50 grados centigrados E. 60 grados centigrados 50°C

10°C

Explica lo que piensas. Decribe la “regla” o razonamiento que usaste para tu respuesta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Physical Science Probes

Mixing Water Teacher Notes

? 50°C

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about temperature change in a system. The probe is designed to find out whether students recognize that heat moves from the warm water to the cool water until they both reach the same temperature. Additionally, students’ explanations reveal whether they use an addition, subtraction, or averaging strategy to determine the resulting temperature.

Type of Probe P-E-O

Related Concepts

Heat, transfer of energy, temperature, thermal equilibrium

Explanation

The best response is B: 30 degrees Celsius. (In actuality, it would be slightly less, because a small amount of energy is transferred from the water to the glass and the surrounding

10°C environment in the process.) Temperature is a measure of the average motion of the particles that make up the water. The two separate samples of water are at different temperatures, meaning the average energy of the particles is less in the cooler (10°C) sample. When the cooler water and the warmer water are mixed together, a transfer of energy occurs between particles when they come in contact with each other. The flow of thermal energy via heat moves from the molecules in the warmer water to the molecules in the cooler water until they have the same average energy (temperature). Because the two samples of water are identical in volume, the thermal equilibrium that is reached is an average of the two temperatures.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the elementary grades, students use the terms heat, warm, hot, cool, and cold to describe

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phenomena and interactions with objects and their surroundings. They have experiences mixing same and different amounts of hot and cold water together or putting ice in warm water and finding the resulting temperature. Their experiences with materials and temperature are primarily observational. They learn how to measure temperature with a thermometer. Mixing hot and cold water and predicting and observing the resulting temperature is observational and should initially be approached qualitatively using words like warmer, cooler, hotter, or colder. The emphasis should be on exploring how heat spreads from warmer objects or materials to cooler and how objects or materials of different temperatures can eventually come to the same temperature. Although students at this grade level are not expected to know the difference between heat and temperature, it is helpful to refer to energy transfers in terms of gaining or losing energy in order to help students overcome their intuitive notion that cold is a substance that spreads like heat. The emphasis should be on tracking where the energy manifested as heat goes. Middle School Students In middle school, students shift their focus from observing what happens when warm and cold water are mixed together to explaining what happens in terms of thermal energy moving from warmer objects or materials to cooler objects or materials via heat. This is also a time when the term thermal energy is introduced. Students begin to connect the idea of heat with a movement of thermal energy. As middle school students develop a model of particle energy transfer, they can begin to connect the movement of warmer matter to cooler matter to the concept of conduction and convections as mechanisms for the transfer of thermal energy between atoms or molecules. Energy transfer now shifts to quantitative measurements as students see that an energy

84

loss in one material is a gain in energy for the other and that the resulting temperature can be predicted and measured. This probe targets the grade-level expectation of understanding that energy is transferred from warmer regions or objects to cooler ones and that once energy is no longer transferred between objects or materials, they reach thermal equilibrium. High School Students Students at this grade level build on their experiences with energy transfer in middle school to investigate a variety of energy transfers more systematically and quantitatively, collecting evidence that confirms that energy is conserved during energy transfers and recognizing the loss of some energy through dissipation. They should be able to predict and quantitatively model how energy moves within a system and toward a more stable state.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 5–12 and can be modified for lower elementary grades by changing the answer choices to qualitative descriptors such as (A) A warmer temperature than both cups, (B) A cooler temperature than both cups, and (C) A temperature somewhere between the two cups, followed by asking students to predict the final temperature in their explanation. You may wish to use visual props for this probe to demonstrate the two equal volumes, the pouring of one cup into another, and mixing the combination of the two samples.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS3.A: Definitions of Energy • Energy can be moved from place to place by moving objects or through sound, light, heat, or electric currents.

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6–8 PS3.A: Definitions of Energy • The term “heat” as used in everyday language refers both to thermal energy (the motion of atoms or molecules within a substance) and the transfer of that thermal energy from one object to another. In science, heat is used only for this second meaning; it refers to the energy transferred due to the temperature difference between two objects. • Temperature is not a measure of energy; the relationship between the temperature and the total energy of a system depends on the types, states, and amounts of matter present. 6–8 PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer • The amount of energy transfer needed to change the temperature of a matter sample by a given amount depends on the nature of the matter, the size of the sample, and the environment. • Energy is spontaneously transferred out of hotter regions or objects and into colder ones. 9–12 PS3.B: Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer • Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transported from one place to another and transferred between systems.

Related Research

• Middle school students often do not explain the process of heating and cooling in terms of heat energy being transferred. When transfer ideas are involved, some students think cold is being transferred from a colder to warmer object. Other students think both heat and cold are transferred at the same time. Students do not always explain heat-exchange phenomena as interactions. For example, students may say that objects tend to cool down or release heat spontaneously without acknowledging that the

object has come in contact with a cooler object or area (AAAS 2009). • When considering the final temperature of two beakers of cold water at the same temperature mixed together, children ages 4–6 often judge the temperature to be the same. However, children ages 5–8 often say that the water will be twice as cold because there is twice as much water. At age 12, students describe the water as being the same temperature when mixed together, much like the very young children. One possible explanation for this progression is that young children do not consider amount and judge temperature as if it were an extensive physical quantity. Older children are better able to differentiate between intensive and extensive quantities, understanding that temperature remains unchanged despite the amount of water. It was also found that children tended to make more correct predictions of temperature when equal amounts of hot and cold water were mixed than when two equal amounts of cold water were mixed (Driver et al. 1994). • Researchers have found that difficulties experienced by students in response to questions that ask them to predict the final temperature of a mixture of two quantities of water, given the initial temperature of the components, depend on the form in which the temperature problems are presented. Qualitative tasks in which the water is described as warm, cool, hot, or cold are easier than quantitative ones in which specific temperatures are given. Erickson and Tiberghien (1985) found that younger students (ages 8–9) prefer an addition strategy, whereas older students are more apt to use a subtraction strategy, which at least acknowledges that the final temperature lies somewhere in between. However, students ages 12–16 were as likely

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to use an addition or subtraction strategy as they were to use an averaging strategy. Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment • This probe can be followed up with the science practice of planning and carrying out an investigation. Ask the question, encourage students to commit to a prediction, and then test it with the temperatures stated in the probe (use caution when students are handling hot liquids). The dissonance involved in discovering that their predictions and results may differ can lead to testing other combinations of temperatures, including mixing water at the same temperature, to resolve the dissonance and seek an explanation. • Depending on the age of the students, vary their experiences to include mixing same temperatures; mixing samples at two different cold, hot, warm, or cool temperatures; mixing two different temperatures that vary by less than 10 degrees or by more than 50 degrees; mixing unequal volumes at same temperatures and unequal volumes at different temperatures; mixing three of four different samples at same and different volumes; and so on. Ideally, have students come up with the various configurations to test. Have students discover the pattern that results from a variety of mixings, and allow them to use their discovery to develop an explanation. • Try juxtaposing two different representational systems. Give one probe in which the prediction is stated as mixing equal amounts of cold and hot water, and give the other stated in quantitative terms as in this probe. Use this conflict-inducing strategy to engage students in argumentation between students whose qualitative prediction differs from their quantitative

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one and students who predicted the same outcome for both probes. • Develop the concept of conduction by providing students with multiple opportunities to mix hot and cold objects and materials, not only liquids. For example, place a hot solid object in contact with a cold solid object. Have students discuss their findings and develop a particle model to support their explanation. • For older students, challenge them to predict and explain the outcome of mixing different volumes of water that are also at different temperatures and develop a mathematical model to predict the resulting temperature.

Related NSTA Resources Brown, P. 2011. Teaching about heat and temperature using an investigative demonstration. Science Scope 35 (4): 31–35. German, S. 2016. Predicting, explaining, and observing thermal energy transfer. Science Scope 40 (4): 68–70. Konicek-Moran, R. 2013. How cold is cold? In Everyday physical science mysteries: Stories for inquiry-based science teaching, R. KonicekMoran, 113–122. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press NGSS Archived Webinar: Core Ideas—Energy, www. youtube.com/watch?v=E-97mwnhl40&index= 8 & l i s t = P L 2 p H c _ B E F W 2 J j W Yu a 2 _ z3ccHEd6x5jIBK. Nordine, J. 2016. Teaching energy across the sciences K–12. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Nordine, J., and D. Fortus. 2017. Core idea PS3: Energy. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NSTA Science Object, Energy: Thermal energy, heat, and temperature. http://common.nsta.org/ resource/?id=10.2505/7/SCB-EN.3.1.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science

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literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Erickson, G., and A. Tiberghien. 1985. Heat and temperature. In Children’s ideas in science, ed.

R. Driver, E. Guesne, and A. Tiberghien, 52–84. Milton Keynes, England: Open University Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

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Section 2

Life Science Probes



Concept Matrix............................................. 90



Is It a Plant?................................................. 91 Needs of Seeds............................................. 99 Plants in the Dark and Light.................... 105 Is It Food for Plants?..................................111 Giant Sequoia Tree......................................119 Baby Mice.................................................... 127 Whale and Shrew.........................................135 Habitat Change............................................141

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

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Life Science Probes

#19 Habitat Change

#18 Whale and Shrew

#17 Baby Mice

#16 Giant Sequoia Tree

3–8

#15 Is It Food for Plants?

3–8

#14 Plants in the Dark and Light

Needs of Seeds

Is It a Plant?

#13

GRADE LEVEL USE →

#12

PROBES

Concept Matrix for Probes #12–#19: Life Science

3–12 6–12 6–12 5–12 6–12 3–12

RELATED CONCEPTS ↓ Adaptation

X

Behavioral response Biological classification

X

X

X

Carbon cycle

X

Cell division

X

Cells

X

Ecosystem change

X

Food Fungi

X

X

X

Genes

X

Germination

X

Glucose

X

Growth

X

X

X

Inherited traits

X

Interdependence

X

Life cycle

X

Mitosis

X

Photosynthesis

X

Phototropism Plant Seeds

X

X X X

Sexual reproduction

X

Sugar

X

Transformation of matter Tropism

90

X X

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Life Science Probes

Is It a Plant? Which of these living things are plants? Put an X next to the things that are plants. ___  fern ___  grass

___  moss

___  vine ___  grasshopper

___  tomato

___  mold ___ sunflower

___  tree

___  onion

___  weed ___  bush

___  cactus

___  water lily

___  mushroom

___  cabbage

___  dandelion

___  carrot

Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to decide if something is a plant. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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¿Es una Planta? ¿Cuáles de estos seres vivos son plantas? Pon una X al lado de las cosas que son plantas. ___  helecho

___  grama

___  musgo

___  vid ___  saltamontes

___  tomate

___  moho

___  girasol

___  árbol

___  cebolla

___  hierba

___  arbusto

___  cactus

___  lirio de agua

___  hongo

___  repollo

___  diente de león

___  zanahoria

Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razón que usaste para decidir si algo es una planta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Life Science Probes

Is It a Plant? Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the concept of a plant. The probe is designed to find out how students determine whether a living thing is considered to be a plant.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Plant, fungi, biological classification

Explanation

The items on the list biologically considered to be plants are fern, grass, moss, vine, tomato, sunflower, tree, onion, weed, bush, cactus, cabbage, dandelion, water lily, and carrot. Plants are multicellular organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis. Many plant cells contain pigments capable of absorbing light. Plants have a structure called a cell wall, which is made mostly of cellulose. Plants can

vary in size (from tall trees to short mosses), live on land or in water, and may be flowering or nonflowering. Some of the items on this list are “plantlike” but are not plants. For example, mushrooms and mold are classified as fungi. Their cell walls are generally made of chitin instead of cellulose, and they do not make their own food or contain light-absorbing pigments within their cells. Just because something is green does not mean it is a plant. The grasshopper is a green animal.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students Plants are a common organism for investigation into the characteristics of and processes that support life. Typically, young students learn to distinguish plants from other organisms by their structures, unique needs (such as light), observable functions, and outward appearance

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(green). Characteristics used for grouping plants or distinguishing plants from other organisms are based primarily on observations of external structures and characteristics. Details about their cell structures, photosynthesis, embryological development, and modern taxonomy exceed learning expectations for classifying plants at this level. Although students may have opportunities to observe and investigate plants and plant parts, their conception of a plant may be limited to the types of plants they have had experiences with—typically, flowering plants. Students may fail to develop a generalization of what a plant is if they are limited in experience to one type of plant. This probe is useful in determining whether students recognize that plants are a broad category for a variety of biologically diverse organisms. Middle School Students Current standards deemphasize biological classification schemes. However, students should be able to distinguish between major kingdoms or domains. They distinguish plants from other plantlike organisms, including fungi and green algae. They examine different types of cells with simple microscopes and can distinguish plant cells from animal cells by their observable structures. Middle school students are familiar with plant cell structures, such as cell walls and chloroplasts, but do not need to know the structural components of these organelles. Students recognize the ability of plants to make their own food through photosynthesis and the role of plants as producers in ecosystems. High School Students At the high school level, students use modern taxonomic criteria to distinguish among and between organisms. They can begin to use more sophisticated criteria to define plants, including embryological development, structures

94

such as plastids, autotrophism, and molecular substances found in plant structures such as chlorophyll. However, caution must be used with the extensive terminology students typically encounter in biology. Although they may “learn” these terms and criteria, they may still revert to their earlier concept of a plant.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grade 3–8 students. Be sure students understand that the living things on the list refer to the complete organism. For example, tomato refers to the complete tomato plant, not just the fruit. Make sure students are familiar with the items on the list; you may wish to remove or replace items that students have little or no familiarity with. High school teachers may add additional items such as algae, yeast, orchids, lichens, slime molds, euglena, and Venus flytraps.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) Note: This probe addresses the concept of a plant, which is a prerequisite to several disciplinary core ideas about the structures of plants, plant processes, needs of plants, and their role in ecosystems.

Related Research

• Elementary students hold a more restricted meaning of the word plant than biologists. Trees, vegetables, and grass are often not considered to be plants. Methods of grouping organisms vary by developmental level. For example, in upper elementary school, some students may group organisms such as plants by observable features, whereas others base their groupings on concepts. By middle school, students start to group organisms hierarchically when they are asked to do so. It is not until high school

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Life Science Probes

•

• •

•

•

•

that students use hierarchical taxonomies without being prompted (AAAS 2009). A study conducted by Barman et al. (2001) found that the characteristics elementary and middle school students strongly identified with plants were that plants have stems and leaves, are green, and grow in soil. Students frequently identified a flower, fern, and bush as being a plant. They were less sure about grass, oak tree, pine tree, and Venus flytrap. McNair and Stein (2001) found that when children and adults were asked to draw a plant, most drew a flowering plant. “Plant” is a familiar concept from everyday life, yet research suggests many school-age students struggle to define and apply the term according to the accepted scientific definitions (Driver et al. 1994). In a study by Leach et al. (1992), students used plant, tree, and flower as mutually exclusive groups. However, when students were given a restricted number of classification categories in a classification task, they assigned trees and f lowers to the plant category. Leach and his colleagues also found that students are more apt to rely on macroscopic features rather than cellular or physiological characteristics. In a study by Stead (1980), some children suggested that a plant is something that is cultivated; hence, grass and dandelions were considered weeds, not plants. Some children considered cabbage and carrots to be vegetables, not plants. They viewed vegetables as a comparable set, rather than a subset, of plants. Ryman’s early research (1974) found that 12-year-old English students had more difficulty classifying plants into taxonomic categories than they did classifying animals. It appeared that students learned a “school science” way of classifying but retained their intuitive ideas about plant classification in

everyday life. Ryman also found that students were likely to identify something as being a plant if it had plantlike structures, such as the stalk of a mushroom.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• A similar version of this probe is available for grade K–2 students in Uncovering Student Ideas in Primary Science, Volume 1 (Keeley 2013). • This probe addresses the concept of a plant. It is important to know whether students have a biological concept of a plant before expecting them to use disciplinary core ideas about plants. • This probe can be used as a card sort. In small groups, students can sort cards with the names of organisms into two groups— “plants” and “not plants.” Listening carefully to students as they discuss and argue about which category the organisms on the list belongs to lends additional insight into student thinking. An alternative sorting method is to use pictures of plants with or without names, including plants in natural settings, gardens, and pots. Pictures can also be combined with real examples of plants on the list. With younger elementary students, sorting can be done as a wholeclass group activity with discussion. • Provide opportunities for students to observe, identify, and investigate a variety of flowering and nonflowering plants, not just the typical flowering plants (e.g., bean plants) that are commonly used in classroom investigations. Students should observe varieties such as vegetable-yielding plants, flowering plants, aquatic plants, ferns, mosses, trees, vines, weeds, bushes, and grasses. • Alert students to the common use of the word plant versus the scientific use of the word so that students will recognize trees,

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Life Science Probes

• •

•

•

96

weeds, vines, cacti, and other plants that are referred to by names that do not include the word plant as also belonging to a larger group called plants. We don’t call a maple tree a maple plant, but it is still a plant. Use concept mapping to have students visually describe the concept of a plant and connect it to other concepts. Draw comparisons between familiar subsets of animal classifications (e.g., reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds, and mammals grouped under vertebrates, which are grouped under animals) and subsets of plant classifications so that students can develop the idea of “plant” as a broad category that includes a variety of subsets with common characteristics. For example, there are vascular plants and nonvascular plants. Vascular plants can be broken down into subsets that include plants that do not produce seeds and those that produce seeds. Seed-producing plants can be further broken down into subsets of flowering seed plants and nonflowering seed plants. This will help older students understand that plants include a variety of groupings. Some students use the color green as a criterion for a plant. Challenge students to come up with plants that are not green and research the function of the pigments. For example, does a red-leaf tree still produce chlorophyll for photosynthesis? Have students turn to text, using the science practice of obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information, to explain why some of the organisms on the list, such as trees, are considered plants. For example, the young readers book A Tree Is a Plant explains that a tree is a large plant (Bulla 2001).

Related NSTA Resources Barman, C., M. Stein, N. Barman, and S. McNair. 2002. Assessing students’ ideas about plants. Science and Children 40 (1): 46–51. Franklin, K. 2001. Bring classification to life. Science Scope 25 (3): 36–41. Keeley, P. 2017. Formative assessment probes: Uncovering young children’s concept of a plant. Science and Children 55 (2): 20–22. Lawniczak, S., T. Gerber, and J. Beck. 1994. Plants on display. Science and Children 41 (9): 24–29. Texley, J. 2002. Teaching the new taxonomy: Getting up to speed on recent developments in taxonomy. The Science Teacher 69 (3): 62–66.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Barman, C., M. Stein, N. Barman, and S. McNair. 2001. Students’ ideas about plants: Results from a national study. Science and Children 41 (1): 46–51. Bulla, C. 2001. A tree is a plant. New York: Harper Collins. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2013. Uncovering student ideas in primary science, volume 1: 25 new formative assessment probes for grades K–2. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Leach, J., R. Driver, P. Scott, and C. Wood-Robinson. 1992. Progression in conceptual understanding of ecological concepts by pupils aged 5–16. Leeds, England: University of Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and Mathematics Education. McNair, S., and M. Stein. 2001. Drawing on their understanding: Using illustrations to invoke deeper thinking about plants. Paper presented at the Association for the Education of Teachers of Science Annual Meeting, Costa Mesa, CA.

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National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

Ryman, D. 1974. Children’s understanding of the classification of living organisms. Journal of Biological Education 8: 140–144. Stead, B. 1980. Plants. LISP Working Paper 24. Hamilton, New Zealand: University of Waikato, Science Education Research Unit.

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Life Science Probes

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Needs of Seeds Seeds sprout and eventually grow into young plants called seedlings. Put an X next to the things you think most seeds need in order to sprout. ___  water ___  soil ___  air ___  food ___  sunlight ___  darkness ___  warm temperature ___  Earth’s gravity ___  fertilizer Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to decide what a seed needs in order to sprout. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Necesidades de Semillas Las semillas brotan y eventualmente crecen en plantas jóvenes llamadas plántulas. Pon una X al lado de las cosas que crees que la mayoría de las semillas necesitan para germinar. ___  agua ___  suelo ___  aire ___  alimento ___  luz del sol ___  oscuridad ___  temperatura cálida ___  gravedad de la Tierra ___  fertilizante Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o razón que usaste para decidir que necesita una semilla para poder germinar. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Needs of Seeds Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about seeds. The probe is designed to find out what students think most seeds need to germinate.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Life cycle, germination, growth, seeds

Explanation

Although there are some exceptions, the best answer is water, air, food, and warm temperature. Like other embryos of living things, the plant embryo inside a seed needs water, air, food, and a warm temperature to carry out the life processes that will support its germination and growth. The young plant embryo needs food as its source of energy and building material for growth. The food it needs is already contained within the seed. This food

was made by the parent plant and stored in seeds for later use by the embryo. As the seed germinates, it uses this food for growth and energy. On some emerging seedlings, such as bean plants, you can see the cotyledons that are the remaining part of the food in the seed. This food supports the growth of the seedling’s first leaves, which need light in order to make food for the seedling through photosynthesis. The cotyledon gradually “shrivels” as a result of the food being used by the seedling to grow and develop leaves so the plant can make its own food. Most seeds germinate best under dark conditions, and some are inhibited by light. However, there are some seeds, such as the seeds of poppies, lettuce, and geraniums, that germinate best when they are exposed to light. These seeds will often remain dormant when covered with soil. Air is necessary for seeds to respire. Seeds must take in oxygen to use and release energy from their food. Seeds also require a warm

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temperature and water for the life-sustaining chemical reactions that take place in the cells of the young plant embryo to occur. However, some seeds, such as acorns, need to go through a cold period before they germinate. Too much liquid water “drowns” seeds by preventing them from taking in oxygen and causes them to rot. Some seeds can sprout in very humid air without the need for a moist surface. The right amount of water needs to be available. Seeds can sprout without soil as long as they have a source of moisture and a surface to grow on. Sunlight is not needed by most seeds, as evidenced by the way most seeds germinate when covered by soil. Seeds have sprouted in microgravity in space. Gravity affects the ability of the sprout to send its early root structures downward, but seeds can sprout even in conditions where gravity is much less than that on Earth, such as on the International Space Station in conditions of microgravity. Fertilizers are not needed by seeds. They are used by plants once they have established roots and can take in these substances from the soil to contribute essential nutrients to the cells that make up plant structures.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students Elementary students typically have experiences germinating seeds and growing plants. Early experiences focus primarily on the seed’s need for water and a warm temperature. Because students often plant their seeds in soil and water them, they may not realize that soil is not necessary for a seed to germinate. Likewise, because the seeds are in soil, they may think darkness is a requirement and that sunlight would harm a seed. Investigations that involve germinating seeds under various conditions help students recognize that some factors are needed for germination and others

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are not. Students can eventually distinguish between the needs of seeds and the needs of the growing plant. Middle School Students Middle school students’ experiences investigating plants and their needs becomes more systematic. The seed’s cotyledon is recognized and investigated as a source of food for the developing embryo and seedling before it grows into a plant capable of making food within its leaves from carbon dioxide and water using energy from sunlight. As students develop an understanding that all living things carry out similar life processes and that seeds are living, they recognize that seeds also need oxygen to carry out cellular respiration. They may learn about specialized factors that can affect germination, such as the need for some seeds to travel through animals’ digestive systems in order to open the seed coat or the need for some conifers to be exposed to fire in order to release seeds. They may also investigate the concept of inhibitors where chemicals released by some plants will inhibit the germination of other seeds in their area. At this level, students should be able to distinguish between what seeds need to initiate growth and what complete plants need to function. High School Students Although experiences investigating germination are usually in the elementary and middle school curriculum, this probe may still be useful in determining if students retain commonly held ideas related to germination, particularly the idea that seeds don’t respire. At this level, students can measure the respiration rate of germinating seeds.

Administering the Probe

This probe is best used with grades 3–8. You may use visual props with the probe. Show students an ungerminated bean seed and a

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germinated bean seed, or show them a picture of a germinated seed and a seedling if they do not know what a sprout is. For older students, you may substitute the word germinate with sprout and replace air with oxygen. The probe can be extended by asking students to explain why the plant needs each of the things selected from the list.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) K–2 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants need water and light to live and grow. K–2 LS2.A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems • Plants depend on water and light to grow. 3–5 LS1.A: Structure and Function • Plants and animals have both internal and external structures that serve various functions in growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction. 3–5 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. 6–8 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Within individual organisms, food moves through a series of chemical reactions in which it is broken down and rearranged to form new molecules, to support growth, or to release energy.

Related Research

• Driver et al. (1994) studied a large sample of 15-year-olds and found that many of the students thought that respiration occurred only in the cells of leaves of plants because those cells have gas-exchange pores. They did not see things like seeds as exchanging gases. Driver and her team’s study also

revealed how students fail to recognize a seed as a living thing; therefore, they do not recognize that seeds have needs similar to those of other living things. • Russell and Watt (1990) interviewed younger students about their ideas related to conditions for growth, focusing on germination and vegetative growth. Ninety percent of the 60 children interviewed identified water as necessary. Only a few mentioned air, gases, “food” (which to them was soil nutrients), the Sun, light, or heat. • A study conducted by Roth, Smith, and Anderson (1983) found that students held strongly to the idea that light is always required by plants, even when presented with contrary evidence such as seedlings germinating in the dark.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• “Seeds in a Bag” is a related version of this probe focused on the need for water and is available for grade K–2 students in Uncovering Student Ideas in Primary Science, Volume 1 (Keeley 2013). • The part of the K–2 disciplinary core idea stating that “plants need light to live and grow” applies to plants once they grow true leaves. This does not apply to most seeds as they germinate or to seedlings, which use the food in their cotyledons before they grow true leaves and can photosynthesize. Have students argue, with evidence, whether the idea that all plants need light applies to every stage in the life cycle of a plant, including seeds. • This probe can be followed up with an inquiry-based investigation. Have students make predictions and test their ideas with seeds that germinate easily, such as bean or pea seeds. • Have students examine bean seeds soaked overnight. Dried lima beans work well for

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this. Help them see where water is taken in and food is stored for the young embryo. Rather than focusing on naming the parts of a seed, help students understand how the structure of a seed contributes to the growth and life functions of the young plant. • An interesting question for middle school students to discuss is, “Why do seeds and nuts have so many more calories than the stems and leaves of plants”? • Older students can investigate how environmental conditions affect the respiration rate of seeds. • Show videos of seeds grown in space to gather evidence of whether seeds need gravity. This video from NASA, called “Space Station Live: Cultivating Plant Growth in Space,” is a useful one: www.youtube.com/ watch?v=9Mf WARdoF-o.

Related NSTA Resources Barman, C., M. Stein, N. Barman, and S. McNair. 2001. Students’ ideas about plants: Results from a national study. Science and Children 41 (1): 46–51. Cavallo, A. 2005. Cycling through plants. Science and Children 42 (7): 22–27. Keeley, P. 2011. Needs of seeds. Science and Children 48 (6): 24–27. Keeley, P. 2014. Needs of seeds. In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through

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formative assessment, P. Keeley, 39–46. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Quinones, C., and B. Jeanpierre. 2005. Planting the spirit of inquiry. Science and Children 42 (7): 32–35. West, D. 2004. Bean plants: A growth experience. Science Scope 27 (7): 44–47.

References Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2013. Seeds in a bag. In Uncovering student ideas in primary science, volume 1: 25 new formative assessment probes for grades K–2, P. Keeley, 25–29. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Roth, K., E. Smith, and C. Anderson. 1983. Students’ conceptions of photosynthesis and food for plants. Working paper, Michigan State University, Institute for Research on Teaching, East Lansing, MI. Russell, T., and D. Watt. 1990. SPACE research report: Growth. Liverpool, England: Liverpool University Press.

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Plants in the Dark and Light Four friends wondered how darkness affected the growth of plants. They decided to test their ideas using young bean plants. One set of plants was put in a dark closet for eight days. The other set of plants was put on a shelf near a sunny window for eight days. The friends then measured the height of the plants after eight days. This is what they predicted: Carl:

I think the plants in the dark closet will be the tallest.

Monique: I think the plants by the sunny window will be the tallest. Jasmine: I think the plants will be about the same height. Drew:

I think the plants in the closet will stop growing and die.

Which friend do you agree with and why? ______________ Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Plantas en la Oscuridad y Luz Cuatro amigos se preguntaban cómo la oscuridad afectaba el crecimiento de las plantas. Decidieron probar sus ideas usando plantas jóvenes de frijol. Un grupo de plantas se puso en un armario oscuro por ocho días. El otro grupo de plantas se colocó en una ventana soleada por ocho días. Los amigos midieron la altura de las plantas después de ocho días. Aquí están sus predicciones: Carl:

Creo que las plantas en el armario oscuro serán las más altas.

Monique: Creo que las plantas junto a la soleada ventana serán las más altas. Jasmine: Creo que las plantas tendrán aproximadamente la misma altura. Drew:

Creo que las plantas en el armario dejarán de crecer y morirán.

¿Con quién estás de acuerdo? ¿Por qué? ______________ Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Plants in the Dark and Light Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about plant growth. The probe is designed to find out whether students recognize that plants use their stored food to grow in the absence of light.

Type of Probe Friendly talk

Related Concepts

Growth, behavioral response, tropism, phototropism, food

Explanation

Although there can be exceptions because plant growth depends on several conditions, the best answer is Carl’s: “I think the plants in the dark closet will be the tallest.” Plants may grow taller in a dark place for a limited time. They respond to the lack of light by growing “taller” and more spindly, and the plant stem and leaves may be yellow and not as leafy. The

growth in the dark is caused by auxins, which are plant hormones that regulate plant growth. Auxins are found in young tissue called the apical meristem, which is at the end of a shoot or stem, and are transported downward from the tip of the stem or shoot. Auxins stimulate plant cells to elongate, resulting in an increase in plant height. Light is the form of energy plants capture to make food from carbon dioxide and water. This food can be used to carry out life processes and to build new structures for growth or repair, or it can be stored for later use. The plant in the dark uses the food it has made to continue growing taller as the cells continue to elongate. It may grow faster than the plant on the windowsill, although the growth will be spindly and etiolated. If the plant is in the dark for an extended period of time, eventually its food will be used up because it cannot photosynthesize more food without light, and the plant will no longer have the energy and

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building material from food that it needs to live and grow.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students Elementary students have varied experiences investigating the growth of plants. Knowing that plants require light is a grade-level expectation in state standards. In later elementary grades, students begin to understand why plants need light beyond just knowing that they need it to survive. The idea that light is needed for survival may imply that plants stop growing and soon die when placed in the dark. Middle School Students In middle school, students design their own experiments with plants that allow students to identify, manipulate, and control variables. They develop an understanding that plants make food and that this food can be used immediately for energy and building material for growth and repair, or it can be stored and used by a plant later when needed. They also begin to learn about behavioral responses of animals and plants, including plant tropisms. This probe is useful in determining whether students can link ideas about storing food and making food for growth. High School Students At this level, students are more systematic in investigating plant functions. Their knowledge of plant physiology and behavioral response includes the role of auxins and plant tropisms. Although students may understand how plants respond to a lack of sunlight, they may still revert to their intuitive beliefs about plants being unable to grow in the dark.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–12. It can be extended by having students draw before and after pictures of the plant in the light and the plant in the dark. Have them use their drawings to explain what happened.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) K–2 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants need water and light to live and grow. K–2 LS2.A: Interdependent Relationships in Ecosystems • Plants depend on water and light to grow. K–2 LS1.D: Information Processing • Animals have body parts that capture and convey different kinds of information needed for growth and survival. Animals respond to these inputs with behaviors that help them survive. Plants also respond to some external inputs. 3–5 LS1.A: Structure and Function • Plants and animals have both internal and external structures that serve various functions in growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction. 3–5 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. 6–8 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Within individual organisms, food moves through a series of chemical reactions in which it is broken down and rearranged to form new molecules, to support growth, or to release energy.

Related Research

• Students appear to accept the idea that light is needed for all the stages of plant

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growth. However, they may not understand that light is used to make food for the plant and is not a condition for growth itself (Driver et al. 1994). • A study conducted by Roth, Smith, and Anderson (1983) found that students held strongly to the idea that light is always required by plants, even in the face of contrary evidence such as plants growing taller in the dark. • In a study conducted by Wandersee (1983), secondary students were asked to draw their predictions for a plant that was grown in a dark cupboard and one that was kept on a windowsill where the light could shine through. Almost 90% of the students drew the plant on the windowsill as large and healthy, leaning toward the light—which showed some understanding of phototropism. Eighty-five percent of the students drew the plant in the cupboard as being stunted. Only 11% of the students drew the plant in the cupboard as tall and spindly.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be followed up with an investigation in which students test their predictions. Once they have gathered and analyzed their findings, encourage them to explain their findings. Challenge them to revise their initial ideas based on their evidence and what they now know from their sensemaking discussion about plant growth and plant responses. • Revisit this probe after students have had the opportunity to investigate and learn about how plants respond to the absence of light and construct a scientific explanation. As they revise their initial explanation, ask them to use the crosscutting concept of cause and effect in their scientific explanations. • Provide students with an opportunity to test their ideas with different types of plants

so that their ideas about plant growth are not limited to only one kind of plant. • Ask students to describe situations in which they have seen plants growing in the absence of light, such as grass under a board or a houseplant left in a basement. Describe how the plant looks compared with a plant grown under ordinary light conditions. • Be careful when developing the idea that plants need light to live. Clarify the need for light to make food and that food is sometimes stored by plants and used later for growth, repair, and the energy to carry out life processes when the ability to carry out photosynthesis is limited. • Challenge older students to figure out and explain why a plant turns yellow in the absence of light.

Related NSTA Resources Barman, C., M. Stein, N. Barman, and S. McNair. 2001. Students’ ideas about plants: Results from a national study. Science and Children 41 (1): 46–51. Damonte, K. 2005. Plants on the move. Science and Children 42 (7): 49–50. Tolman, M., and G. Hardy. 1999. Teaching tropisms. Science and Children 37 (3): 14–17. West, D. 2004. Bean plants: A growth experience. Science Scope 27 (7): 44–47.

References Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

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Roth, K., E. Smith, and C. Anderson. 1983. Students’ conceptions of photosynthesis and food for plants. Working paper, Michigan State University, Institute for Research on Teaching, East Lansing, MI.

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Wandersee, J. 1983. Students’ misconceptions about photosynthesis: A cross-age study. In Proceedings of the international seminar: Misconceptions in science and mathematics, eds. H. Helm and J. Novak, 441–446. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

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Is It Food for Plants? Organisms, including plants, need food to survive. Put an X next to the things you think plants use as food. ___ sunlight

___ soil

___  plant food from a garden store

___  water

___ sugar

___ leaves

___ carbon dioxide

___ oxygen

___ minerals

___ chlorophyll

___ fertilizer

___ vitamins

Explain your thinking. How did you decide if something is food a plant uses? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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¿Es Alimento Para las Plantas? Organismos incluyendo plantas necesitan comida para vivir. Pon una X al lado de las cosas que plantas usan para alimentarse. ___  luz de sol

___  suelo

___ comida para plantas de una tienda de jardinería

___  agua

___ azúcar

___ hojas

___  dióxido de carbono

___  oxígeno

___ minerals

___ clorofila

___ fertilizante

___ vitaminas

Explica lo que piensas. ¿Cómo decidiste si algo es el alimento que usa una planta? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Life Science Probes

Is It Food for Plants? Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the product of photosynthesis. The probe is designed to reveal (1) whether students recognize that the food a plant makes is the food it uses and (2) whether students have a biological concept of food.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Photosynthesis, food, sugar, glucose

Explanation

The best response is sugar. It is the only thing on the list that is the food a plant uses. However, several of the things on this list meet students’ common-sense view of food as things a plant takes in from its environment or needs to live. Plants make their own food in the form of a simple sugar (glucose), which is a carbohydrate. This simple sugar can be transformed

into other sugars, such as fructose and sucrose, or stored for later use in the form of starch. Plants differ significantly from animals in that they are able to manufacture their own food through a process called photosynthesis, using energy from sunlight and matter from carbon dioxide and water that plants take in from their environment to produce sugar and give off oxygen. The food a plant uses is the food it makes through photosynthesis using the inputs of sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water. Plants do not acquire food from their environment; they make it. Part of the confusion among students (and adults) is due to how we define the word food colloquially and how we commonly use the words food and nutrients interchangeably. To be biologically defined as food, a substance must provide two things: (1) the energy an organism needs to sustain life and (2) the organic matter that provides the building blocks (atoms and molecules) for growth and repair.

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Foods contain carbon-based molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids (fats). Foods, in a colloquial sense, are often defined as nutrients taken in by organisms (such as animals eating or plants absorbing nutrients from the soil). Nutrients are also needed by living organisms to carry out their life processes, but not all nutrients are considered food. Nutrients can be organic or inorganic and are needed to carry out metabolic processes. Not all nutrients provide energy, a requirement to be considered food in a biological sense. Examples of inorganic nutrients essential to metabolic processes that do not provide energy are vitamins, minerals, and water. Plants take in minerals and water from the environment. All foods can be considered nutrients, but not all nutrients are considered food. The “plant food” commonly sold in plant stores is an example of the colloquial, or everyday, use of word food. This “plant food” that comes in a can or jar is not food in a biological sense. It provides a source of inorganic nutrients needed by a plant that may not be present in the soil. Likewise, soil is not food but rather a source of plant nutrients such as minerals and water. Other things on the list that are not food for the plant are sunlight, leaves, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide, and oxygen. Sunlight is the form of energy used by the plant during photosynthesis, but it does not contain the matter that provides the building blocks needed to grow or repair plant structures. Leaves are the plant structures where photosynthesis takes place. Leaves take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They may be food for animals that eat leaves, but they are not food for a plant. Chlorophyll is a substance contained in the plant’s chloroplasts that is involved in photosynthesis. It traps the light needed for photosynthesis.

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Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the elementary grades, students learn that plants need sunlight, water, and nutrients to grow and stay healthy. Upper elementary students learn that plants can make their own food and get their material (food) for growth from air and from water, but not from soil. However, it is too abstract an idea for them to understand the details of the transformation of matter that takes place during photosynthesis to make food. By fifth grade, students develop a concept that food provides energy and a source of material for growth and repair. Middle School Students In middle school, students transition from knowing plants need sunlight, air, and water to knowing how they use those elements. They learn that a plant takes in carbon dioxide in air and water from its environment and then rearranges the atoms to make an organic molecule called sugar. They learn that sunlight provides the energy for this process called photosynthesis and that another gas (oxygen) is released in the process. They learn that the sugar formed through photosynthesis can be used immediately by the plant to provide the energy it needs to sustain life through processes such as respiration, can be used for growth and repair, or can be stored for later use. They learn that plants take in nutrients from the soil, such as minerals and water. High School Students In high school, students learn details about the chemical process of photosynthesis. They learn that simple sugars (such as the glucose molecule) produced through photosynthesis can be transformed into other sugars or assembled into larger molecules. They learn how the sugars

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Life Science Probes

produced during photosynthesis fuel cellular respiration, releasing energy for the plant.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 6–12. It can be used earlier if students are familiar with sugar being the product of photosynthesis. This probe works well with the interactive card sort strategy (Keeley 2016). Print answer choices on cards and have pairs or small groups of students sort them into three columns: (1) things that are food for a plant, (2) things that are not food for a plant, and (3) things we don’t agree on or are not sure about yet. As students sort, they discuss their ideas about “food” and justify their reasoning and eventually come up with criteria for what is considered to be the food a plant uses. As the formative assessor, you can see at a glance whether there is only one card in the food column.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life • The energy released [from] food was once energy from the Sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that forms plant matter (from air and water). 3–5 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Food provides animals with the materials they need for body repair and growth and the energy they need to maintain body warmth and for motion. • Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. 6–8: PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life • The chemical reaction by which plants produce complex food molecules (sugars)

requires an energy input (i.e., from sunlight) to occur. In this reaction, carbon dioxide and water combine to form carbon-based organic molecules and release oxygen. 6–8 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants, algae (including phytoplankton), and many microorganisms use the energy from light to make sugars (food) from carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water through the process of photosynthesis, which also releases oxygen. These sugars can be used immediately or stored for growth or later use. • Within individual organisms, food moves through a series of chemical reactions in which it is broken down and rearranged to form new molecules, to support growth, or to release energy. 9–12 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • The process of photosynthesis converts light energy to stored chemical energy by converting carbon dioxide plus water into sugars plus released oxygen. • The sugar molecules thus formed contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen: their hydrocarbon backbones are used to make amino acids and other carbon-based molecules that can be assembled into larger molecules (such as proteins or DNA), used for example to form new cells.

Related Research

• The commonly held idea that plants take their food in from the environment, rather than making it internally, is highly resistant to change. Even when taught how plants make food by photosynthesis, students still hold on to the notion that food is taken in from the outside (AAAS 2009). • Before using computer simulations, some students thought that water is the source

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of energy for plants (Çepni, Tas, and Köse 2006).  Much of the research on students’ ideas about food for plants was conducted in the 1980s and still applies to students’ ideas today. Universally, the most persistent notion is that plants take their food from the environment, particularly the soil. Students also believe that plants have multiple sources of food and that carbon dioxide or even sunlight is food for a plant. Typically, students do not consider starch as food for plants. Their reasoning is that starch is something plants make, not something they eat. The everyday reference to fertilizers as “plant food” may promote the idea of fertilizer as being food for plants (Driver et al. 1994). In a study by Tamir (1989), some students thought sunlight, associated with energy, was the food for plants. Many students also considered minerals taken in from the soil as food or believed that minerals had a direct role in photosynthesis. In a study by Wandersee (1983) that surveyed 1,405 students ages 10–19 about the product of photosynthesis, most students selected proteins, relating them to food for growth rather than energy. Some students in this study also mentioned plants getting vitamins from the soil. Understanding that the food plants make is very different from other nutrients, such as water and minerals, may be a prerequisite for understanding the idea that plants make their food rather than acquire it from the environment (Roth, Smith, and Anderson 1983).

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Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• A similar probe, “Food for Corn,” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Life Science, Volume 1, can be used with this probe or

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as a follow-up after students have had an opportunity to discuss and revise their initial ideas (Keeley 2011b). If you are puzzled as to why students select chlorophyll, consider using the probe “Chlorophyll,” which is also in that book (Keeley 2011a). The advantage to using this probe in a talk format is that students discuss their ideas about food and what food is, which is an important concept that is often missing in science lessons. Take the time to elicit students’ definitions of the word food; many students use this word in a way that is not consistent with its biological meaning. Have students identify and discuss the difference between the everyday meaning and use of the word food and its scientific meaning and use. Contrasting the two and providing examples may help them see the difference and understand how everyday use of words affects our thinking about phenomena. Before introducing a chemical equation for photosynthesis, first help students understand that “an element, carbon (which is solid in its pure form), is present in carbon dioxide (which is a colorless gas in the air) and that this gas is converted by a green plant into sugar (a solid, but in solution) when hydrogen (a gas) from water (a liquid) is added using energy from sunlight which is consequently converted to chemical energy” (Driver et al. 1994, p. 30). High school students can often define photosynthesis and provide the equation, but questions that ask them to apply a basic understanding are often not asked of students. Ask questions that encourage students to use their ideas about photosynthesis to explain the food-, growth-, and energy-related needs of plants. Show a container of plant food (which is a mixture mainly of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus) and a container of vitamins

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for humans. Build an analogy between the two to show that their purpose is to provide essential inorganic nutrients, not provide energy. For example, vitamins would not provide you with a source of energy unless they were sugar coated.

Related NSTA Resources Aaron, R., B. Hug, and R. G. Duncan. 2017. Core idea LS1: From molecules to organisms: Structures and processes. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 123–144. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Bradley, S., S. Rybczynski, and D. Herrington. 2016. Food and energy for all: Turning a demonstration into an inquiry activity. Science Scope 40 (4): 49–56. Keeley, P. 2012. Food for plants: A bridging concept. Science and Children 49 (8): 26–29. Keeley, P. 2014. Food for plants: A bridging concept. In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment, P. Keeley, 113–120. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: Ecosystems, Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics, https://common.nsta. org/resource/?id=10.2505/9/WSNGSS14_Feb11. Weinburgh, M. 2004. Teaching photosynthesis: More than a lecture but less than a lab. Science Scope 27 (9): 15–17.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Ç epni, S., E. Tas, and S. Köse. 2006. The effects of computer-assisted material on students’

cognitive levels, misconceptions and attitudes towards science. Computers and Education 46 (2): 192–205. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2011a. Chlorophyll. In Uncovering student ideas in life science, volume 1: 25 formative assessment probes, P. Keeley, 51–56. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P. 2011b. Food for corn. In Uncovering student ideas in life science, volume 1: 25 formative assessment probes, P. Keeley, 69–74. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P. 2016. Science formative assessment: 75 practical strategies for linking assessment, instruction, and learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Roth, K., E. Smith, and C. Anderson. 1983. Students’ conceptions of photosynthesis and food for plants. Working paper, Michigan State University, Institute for Research on Teaching, East Lansing, MI. Tamir, P. 1989. Some issues related to the use of justifications to multiple-choice answers. Journal of Biological Education 11 (1): 48–56. Wandersee, J. 1983. Students’ misconceptions about photosynthesis: A cross-age study. In Proceedings of the international seminar: Misconceptions in science and mathematics, eds. H. Helm and J. Novak, 441–446. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

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Giant Sequoia Tree The giant sequoia tree is one of the largest trees on Earth. It starts as a small seedling and grows into an enormous tree. Five children can stretch their arms across the width of the trunk of one of the large sequoia trees! Where did most of the matter that makes up the wood of this huge tree originally come from? Circle the best answer. A. sunlight B. water C. soil D. carbon dioxide E. oxygen F. minerals G. chlorophyll Explain your thinking. How did you decide where most of the matter that makes up this tree came from? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Árbol de Sequoia Gigante El árbol de sequoia gigante es uno de los árboles más grandes en la Tierra. Comienza como una pequeña plántula y crece hacia un arbol enorme. ¡Cinco niños pueden estirar sus brazos a lo ancho del tronco de uno de los grandes árboles de sequoia! ¿Dónde se originó la mayor parte del material que constituye la madera de este enorme árbol? Encierre en un círculo la mejor respuesta. A. luz solar B. agua C. suelo D. dióxido de carbono E. oxigeno F. minerales G. clorofila Explica lo que piensas. ¿Cómo decidiste de dónde vino la mayor parte de la materia que compone este arbol? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Giant Sequoia Tree Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the transformation of matter. The probe is designed to reveal whether students recognize that most of the matter that makes up the wood of a tree can be traced back to carbon dioxide in the air.

Type of Probe

Familiar phenomenon

Related Concepts

Transformation of matter, photosynthesis, carbon cycle

Explanation

The best response is D: carbon dioxide. Plants take in carbon dioxide (a gas) through their leaves and water from the soil and use the energy from sunlight to rearrange the atoms into new substances—sugar and oxygen. This process happens inside the leaf of the plant. Sunlight provides the energy for this process

to happen. Chlorophyll is a pigment found within the leaf cells that absorbs the energy from sunlight used for the reaction. After food (a sugar called glucose) is made in the leaf, it travels to other parts of a plant, where it is used for energy, tissue repair, and growth or stored for later use. Most of the matter that makes up the structure of the tree can be traced back to the carbon and oxygen in carbon dioxide that was combined with hydrogen from water using energy from sunlight and transformed into a simple sugar (glucose) through photosynthesis. Although simplified for this explanation, a basic description of this reaction is as follows: A glucose molecule is made of 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen atoms. When the plant makes a molecule of glucose, it gets 6 carbon atoms and 6 oxygen atoms from the carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide doesn’t have any hydrogen in it, so the source of hydrogen is water. In order to get the hydrogen the plant needs to build a glucose molecule, it uses

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energy from the Sun to break water molecules apart, taking electrons and 12 hydrogen atoms from the 6 water molecules and releasing the 6 oxygen atoms. The 6 oxygen atoms from the carbon dioxide and the 6 oxygen atoms from the water are released into the air as diatomic molecules of oxygen (O2). The basic chemical equation is 6CO₂ + 6H₂O  C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂. The electrons are used to produce high-energy molecules called ATP that are used to build the glucose molecule. To trace back the atoms in a single glucose molecule, 6 of the carbon atoms come from the carbon dioxide, 12 of the hydrogen atoms come from the water, and 6 of the oxygen atoms come from the carbon dioxide. With an estimated atomic mass of 12 for carbon, 1  for hydrogen, and 16 for oxygen, clearly the mass contributed by the carbon dioxide is much greater than the mass contributed by water. When wood is burned, carbon dioxide and water vapor are released back into the air. When the wood is completely burned, the remaining ashes consist of the small amount of inorganic material—the minerals taken in from the soil.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the elementary grades, students learn that plants need sunlight, water, and nutrients to grow and stay healthy. Upper elementary students learn that plants make their own food in a chemical process and get their material for growth from air and water, but not from soil. However, it is too abstract an idea for them to understand the details of the transformation of matter that takes place during photosynthesis and growth of a plant. Both younger and older students have difficulty accepting the idea that something as seemingly light as air could make up the bulk weight or mass of a tree, partly because students lack opportunities

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to recognize air is a substance that has weight (the term mass should wait until at least fifth grade). It is critical for upper elementary students to have opportunities to accept the idea that air is made up of particles of matter and that plants do not get the material they need for growth primarily from the soil. By fifth grade, students develop a concept that food provides energy and a source of material for growth and repair. They begin to develop the idea that organisms cycle the materials they take from the environment. As organisms use food, their waste goes back into the environment in the form of solids, liquids, and gases. Understanding this cycle is a prerequisite for understanding the cycling of carbon dioxide and oxygen in middle school. Middle School Students In middle school, students learn about chemical reactions and the types of transformations of matter that occur during these reactions, although quantitative details of the chemical reactions can wait until high school. They transition from knowing plants need air to make food to knowing that it is the carbon dioxide in air that plants use to make an organic molecule called sugar and that another gas (oxygen) is released in the process. They use the idea of atoms to explain the rearrangement that happens when matter is transformed in a process like photosynthesis and that the process requires an input of energy. They learn that the sugar formed through photosynthesis can (1) be used immediately by the plant to provide the energy it needs to sustain life through processes such as respiration, (2) be stored for later use, or (3) be used for growth and repair. Although students can manipulate models to learn what happens during the transformation of carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen, they may still have difficulty accepting the idea that a gas in the air contributes the most mass to the growth

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of a tree. It seems counterintuitive to students that most of the mass of the matter of a tree comes from carbon dioxide in the air. At this level, students learn about the role of photosynthesis at the organism level as well as its role in cycling matter through an ecosystem. High School Students In high school, students learn details about the chemical process of photosynthesis. Students’ increasing knowledge of chemistry, particularly carbon-based molecules, comes in handy when quantitatively reasoning through a problem such as this one by using molecular masses. They learn that simple sugars (such as the glucose molecule) produced through photosynthesis can be assembled into larger molecules such as cellulose, which makes up the wood of a tree. At this level, students connect processes like photosynthesis and respiration to the carbon cycle.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 6–12. The sequoia tree was used as the subject of this probe because of its massive size, but a large familiar tree in your students’ environment may be substituted. You can also show students images of very large trees. Similar to the “seed and log” question in the Private Universe series (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 1995), you might show a maple seed or acorn and a log cut from a tree and ask students where most of the “stuff” of the log came from as it grew from seed to seedling to large tree. The common word stuff can be used intentionally in this probe to explore students’ ideas without being hindered by their misunderstanding of the concept of matter or mass.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life • The energy released [from] food was once energy from the sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that forms plant matter (from air and water). 3–5 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. 3–5 LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems • Matter cycles between the air and soil and among plants, animals, and microbes as these organisms live and die. Organisms obtain gases, and water, from the environment, and release waste matter (gas, liquid, or solid) back into the environment. 6–8 PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life • The chemical reaction by which plants produce complex food molecules (sugars) requires an energy input (i.e., from sunlight) to occur. In this reaction, carbon dioxide and water combine to form carbon-based organic molecules and release oxygen. 6–8 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • Plants, algae (including phytoplankton), and many microorganisms use the energy from light to make sugars (food) from carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water through the process of photosynthesis, which also releases oxygen. These sugars can be used immediately or stored for growth or later use. • Within individual organisms, food moves through a series of chemical reactions in which it is broken down and rearranged

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to form new molecules, to support growth, or to release energy. 6–8 LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems • The atoms that make up the organisms in an ecosystem are cycled repeatedly between the living and nonliving parts of the ecosystem. 9–12 LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms • The process of photosynthesis converts light energy to stored chemical energy by converting carbon dioxide plus water into sugars plus released oxygen. • The sugar molecules thus formed contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen: their hydrocarbon backbones are used to make amino acids and other carbon-based molecules that can be assembled into larger molecules (such as proteins or DNA), used for example to form new cells. • As matter and energy flow through different organizational levels of living systems, chemical elements are recombined in different ways to form different products. 9–12 LS2.B: Cycles of Matter and Energy Transfer in Ecosystems • Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are important components of the carbon cycle, in which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, atmosphere, oceans, and geosphere through chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes.

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Related Research

• Studies have shown that middle and high school students tend to think that matter is converted into energy and energy is converted back into matter. They describe this “cycling” of matter and energy as energy and matter being recycled through soil nutrients (Jin and Anderson 2012). • Studies have shown that high school and undergraduate students often struggle to

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understand the cycling and transformation of carbon. They cannot always account for the movement of carbon between photosynthesis and respiration, and some students think that photosynthesis requires human input of carbon dioxide (Brown and Schwartz 2009; Wilson et al. 2017). Students have a difficult time imagining plants as chemical systems. In particular, middle school students think organisms and materials in the environment are very different types of matter. For example, some students think plants are made of leaves, stems, and roots and the nonliving environment is made of water, soil, and air. Students see these substances as fundamentally different and not transformable into each other (AAAS 2009). The question in this probe is based on a similar question used in the Private Universe series, where Harvard graduates were shown a seed and a log and asked where most of the mass of the log came from. Very few mentioned carbon dioxide. The most common responses were that it came from sunlight, the soil, or water (Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics 1995). In a study of 759 15-year-old students who had studied photosynthesis, only 8% could relate photosynthesis to plant growth by describing how a tree makes tissue from the things it takes in from the environment. Only 3 students out of 759 said that tree tissue is made from carbon dioxide and water using light energy. Other studies have also found that students have a difficult time accepting that weight increase and growth in plants is attributed to the incorporation of matter from a gas (Driver et al. 1994). Barker and Carr (1989) found that many children regarded sunlight as one of the reactants in photosynthesis, along with carbon dioxide and water. Some students

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consider light to be made of molecules, thus contributing to the matter that makes up a plant. • In Wandersee’s study (1983) of 1,405 students ages 10–19, many thought that the soil in a plant pot would lose weight as the plant grows because the plant uses the soil for food.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• Before students can accept the idea that the mass of a plant comes mostly from the carbon dioxide in the air, they have to accept air as matter that has mass (or weight, for students who struggle with the concept of mass). Students need multiple opportunities to discover that gases have significant mass. • To understand the chemical change that happens during photosynthesis, students need to trace atoms, not the observable materials such as soil, air, and water (Anderson and Doherty 2017). • Students who understand that cells are about 70% water tend to pick that as an answer. High school chemistry students can use the equation for photosynthesis and molecular masses to show that even though water is taken in and transformed along with carbon dioxide, the carbon dioxide molecules contribute significantly more mass to the sugar than water molecules. • Manipulating physical models of molecules may help middle school and high school students see what happens to the atoms in the carbon dioxide and water molecules as they are rearranged to form glucose and oxygen. • Photosynthesis is a complex reaction that is frequently treated in high school as an equation to be memorized along with dark and light reactions. Students often have little opportunity to learn how the

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process contributes to the growth and energy needs of a plant. Ask students how the idea that plants get their material for growth from the soil can be challenged with evidence from everyday phenomena. For example, if a tree got its mass from soil, why is there not a hole around the tree? How do plants grow hydroponically when they are not in soil? If students fail to recognize that carbon dioxide as a gas has weight, show students dry ice and explain that it is a solid form of carbon dioxide. Have students put on protective gloves and hold a piece of dry ice to sense the “felt weight.” (Safety note: Students should touch dry ice only with heavy protective gloves.) Use Jean Baptist van Helmont’s experiment from the 1600s as a context to learn how scientists of the past explored the question of where plants get the materials they need to grow. The prevailing view at that time was that plants grew by taking material out of the soil. Have students evaluate the results of his experiment. Following discussion of the probe, have students examine the global significance (especially global warming and climate change) of trees being made mostly of carbon. What are the global effects of large-scale deforestation? What happens when trees are burned for clearing large tracts of land? What is released into the atmosphere and what effect does that have? Why is it important to plant trees? Share a quote from Nobel laureate Dr. Richard Feynman’s speech that he gave at the 14th annual National Science Teachers Association convention in New York City, which so beautifully captures the essence of this probe: “The world looks different after learning science. For example, trees are made of air, primarily. When they are burned, they go back to air, and in

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the flaming heat is released the flaming heat of the Sun, which was bound in to convert the air into tree. And in the ash is the small remnant of the part which did not come from air, that came from the solid earth, instead” (Feynman 1969). You can view a classic video of the late Dr. Feynman describing this phenomenon at www.youtube.com/watch?v=P1ww1IXRfTA.

Related NSTA Resources American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)/Project 2061. 2017. Toward high school biology: Understanding growth in living things. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Long, C. 2014. Matter and energy in organisms and ecosystems. In Hard-to-teach biology concepts: Designing instruction aligned to the NGSS, 2nd ed., S. Koba and A. Tweed, 171–188. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Penniman, L. 2011. How much carbon is in the forest? The Science Teacher 78 (1): 56–60. Petrosina, A., M. Mann, and S. Jenevein. 2018. Where does a tree get its mass? Science Scope 41 (9): 55–61. Taylor, M., K. Cohen, R. K. Esch, and P. S. Smith. 2012. Investigating students’ ideas about the flow of matter and energy in living systems. Science Scope 35 (8): 36–36. Thompson, S. 2014. Historical plant studies: Tools for enhancing students’ understanding of photosynthesis. Science Scope 37 (6): 43–53.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Anderson, C., and J. Doherty. 2017. Core Idea LS2: Ecosystems, interactions, energy, and dynamics. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping

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teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 123–144. Barker, M., and M. Carr. 1989. Photosynthesis: Can our pupils see the wood for the trees? Journal of Biological Education 23 (1): 41–44. Brown, M. H., and R. S. Schwartz. 2009. Connecting photosynthesis and cellular respiration: Preservice teachers’ conceptions. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 46 (7): 791–812. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Feynman, R. 1969. What is science? The Physics Teacher 7 (6): 320. (Reprinted from address given at the 14th annual convention of the National Science Teachers Association in 1966.) Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. 1995. Biology: Why are some ideas so difficult? Private Universe Project, Workshop 2, Annenberg/CPB Math and Science Collection, Burlington, VT. Jin, H., and C. Anderson. 2012. A learning progression for energy in socio-ecological systems. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 49 (9): 1149–1180. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Wandersee, J. 1983. Students’ misconceptions about photosynthesis: A cross-age study. In Proceedings of the international seminar: Misconceptions in science and mathematics, eds. H. Helm and J. Novak, 441–446. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Wilson, C., C. Anderson, M. Heidemann, J. Merrill, B. Merritt, G. Richmond, D. Sibley, and J. Parker. 2017. Assessing students’ ability to trace matter in dynamic systems in cell biology. CBE-Life Sciences Education 5 (4): 323–331.

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Life Science Probes

Baby Mice

Seif ’s pet mouse had babies. Five of the babies were black, and two were white. The father mouse was black. The mother mouse was white. Seif and his friends wondered why the mice were different colors. These were their ideas: Jerome: Baby mice inherit more traits from their fathers than their mothers. Alexa:

The baby mice got half their inherited information from their father and half from their mother.

June:

Male traits are stronger than female traits.

Seif:

Black mice have more traits than white mice.

Fiona:

The black baby mice are probably male, and the white baby mice are probably female.

Lydia:

Parents’ traits like fur color don’t matter—nature decides what something will look like.

Billy:

Blood type determines what traits babies will have.

Whom do you most agree with? ___________________ Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Ratones Bebé

El ratón mascota de Seif tuvo bebés. Cinco bebés eran negros y dos blancos. El ratón padre era negro. La madre ratón era blanca. Seif y sus amigos se preguntaban por qué los ratones eran de diferentes colores. Estas fueron sus ideas: Jerome: Los ratones bebés heredan más rasgos de sus padres que sus madres. Alexa:

Los ratones bebés obtuvieron la mitad de la información heredada de su padre y la otra mitad de su madre.

June:

Los rasgos masculinos son más fuertes que los rasgos femeninos.

Seif:

Los ratones negros tienen más rasgos que los ratones blancos.

Fiona:

Los ratones bebés negros son probablemente machos y los ratones bebés blancos son probablemente hembras.

Lydia:

Los rasgos de los padres, como el color del pelaje, no importan, la naturaleza decide cómo se verá algo.

Billy:

El tipo de sangre determina qué rasgos tendrán los bebés.

¿Con quién estás más de acuerdo? ___________________ Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 128

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Baby Mice Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about heredity. The probe is designed to reveal how students think organisms inherit observable traits.

Type of Probe Friendly talk

Related Concepts

Inherited traits, genes, sexual reproduction

Explanation

The best response is Alexa’s: The baby mice got half their inherited information from their father and half from their mother. The first step in the production of offspring from the two mice is fertilization of the female’s egg by the male’s sperm. Egg and sperm each contain half the number of mouse chromosomes. Genes are found on chromosomes. A gene is a segment of DNA on a chromosome that carries instructions for a particular trait, such as fur

color. During fertilization, matched pairs of chromosomes (half from the mother and half from the father) come together, and a single cell results (which will divide and eventually become the baby mouse). The baby mouse contains a full set of chromosomes—with half the genes on their chromosomes coming from the mother and half from the father. The combination that results determines the offspring’s traits. One way in which genes are expressed was described by Gregor Mendel, who believed that traits could be either dominant or recessive. When two genes for the same trait are paired and one of the genes is dominant, the dominant gene will be expressed. In applying Mendelian genetics to the example of the mouse fur color (a simplified way of looking at coat color), black fur color would be dominant. Even if the offspring had only one gene for black fur, the trait that would be expressed is black fur. White fur would be a recessive trait that is expressed when a dominant gene is not

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present. The white offspring would have two genes for white fur color. Mendelian genetics is a simplified first step in understanding how genes are expressed, but understanding genetics is much more complex, and the expression of a trait such as fur color in mice involves multiple genes. The key idea in this probe is that an organism’s inherited traits are determined by the pairing of genes from the mother and father, with each parent contributing 50% of the genes. The combination of genes determines which traits are expressed. It is not the result of one sex having more or stronger traits (or genes) as described in Jerome’s and June’s responses. Black and white mice have the same number of genes (contrary to Seif ’s response); they are just expressed differently. Coat color in mice is not determined by sex, as described in Fiona’s response. For example, some of the white mice could be male if they received a recessive gene from both the mother and father. Lydia’s response is a teleological argument that implies that some intentional force of nature directs the traits that offspring will exhibit, rather than traits being the result of gene expression. However, the expression of some traits can be affected by the environment. Billy’s response is similar to historical beliefs. Before Mendel, many people thought traits were passed on through the blood.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the primary grades, students are beginning to learn about inherited characteristics. They explore traits at the organism level. They develop a theory of “kinship” by observing that offspring are similar to their parents yet do not always look exactly like their parents or each other. In the later elementary grades, they begin to develop an understanding that

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traits are passed on from parents to offspring and that offspring can look or function differently because they have different inherited information. They can discuss how a mixedbreed puppy looks different from its parents yet has some similar characteristics of each parent. This phenomenon should be explored with a variety of organisms. However, it is too early to introduce the genetic mechanism of inheritance. By eliminating some of the distracters, this probe can be used to examine students’ early ideas about how traits are passed on to offspring before they encounter concepts such as genes, chromosomes, DNA, and proteins. Middle School Students In middle school, students learn core ideas about the mechanism of inheritance, combining ideas about reproduction, cell division, and basic genetics. The focus at this level is on cellular mechanisms. They develop an understanding of the role of chromosomes, genes, alleles, and proteins in passing on characteristics from one generation to the next, including the idea that genes control proteins, which can affect how a trait is expressed. At this grade level, it is important that students understand that half of their genes come from their mother and half from their father and that this random combination results in the inherited traits they may exhibit. Students should recognize the role of chance in determining which chromosomal pairs come together during fertilization and that probability can help predict the outcome of some inherited characteristics. Students may start with basic Mendelian genetics; however, it is important for them to know that not all traits are the result of the pairing of a single gene type. A more detailed mechanism of genetics can wait until high school. High School Students In high school, the link between genetic information and expression of traits is further

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developed and deepened. Students learn more complex details of the mechanism of inheritance and how various gene combinations code for proteins and that the structure and function of proteins results in the expression of traits. They should be able to explain why some traits are expressed and some are not. They can now delve into genetics at a molecular level. However, they are not expected to know the specific steps in transcription and translation of genes to proteins.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 5–12. If students have a conceptual understanding of genes, consider substituting the words traits and inherited information with the word genes.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits • Many characteristics of organisms are inherited from their parents. 3–5 LS3.B: Variation of Traits • Different organisms vary in how they look and function because they have different inherited information. 6–8 LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits • Genes are located in the chromosomes of cells, with each chromosome pair containing two variants of each of many distinct genes. Each distinct gene chiefly controls the production of specific proteins, which in turn affects the traits of the individual. • Variations of inherited traits between parents and offspring arise from genetic differences that result from the subset of chromosomes (and therefore genes) inherited. 6–8 LS3.B: Variation of Traits • In sexually reproducing organisms, each parent contributes half of the genes acquired

(at random) by the offspring. Individuals have two of each chromosome and hence two alleles of each gene, one acquired from each parent. These versions may be identical or may differ from each other. 9–12 LS3.A: Inheritance of Traits • Each chromosome consists of a single very long DNA molecule, and each gene on the chromosome is a particular segment of that DNA. The instructions for forming species’ characteristics are carried in DNA. All cells in an organism have the same genetic content, but the genes used (expressed) by the cell may be regulated in different ways. Not all DNA codes for a protein; some segments of DNA are involved in regulatory or structural functions, and some have no as-yet known function. 9–12 LS1.A: Structure and Function • All cells contain genetic information in the form of DNA molecules. Genes are regions in the DNA that contain the instructions that code for the formation of proteins.

Related Research

• When asked to describe how physical traits are passed from parents to offspring, elementary, middle, and high school students all exhibited misconceptions, including the idea that traits are inherited from only one of the parents and that certain traits come from only the mother or only the father (AAAS 2009). • Students often do not differentiate between genes and traits and may use the words synonymously (Lewis and Kattmann 2004). • Many secondary students are unfamiliar with the role of proteins in expressing genetic traits (Marbach-Ad and Stavy 2000). • Research has shown that students often initially conceive of genes as passive particles that are associated with traits rather than information-carrying entities (Venville and Treagust 1998).

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• Use of the word dominant in regard to dominant and recessive traits may contribute to several misconceptions. For example, students may think that dominant traits are “stronger” and “overpower” the recessive trait, that dominant traits are more likely to be inherited, that dominant traits are more prevalent in the population, that dominant traits are “better,” and that male or masculine traits are dominant (Donovan 1997). • Several studies have found that even before students receive formal instruction in genetics, they know the words gene and, less frequently, chromosome. Students may know these words, but they have little understanding of the nature or function of genes or chromosomes (Driver et al. 1994). • Engel Clough and Wood-Robinson (1985) found that some students had a tendency to favor the mother as the primary contributor of inherited traits and held a belief that daughters inherit from mothers and sons inherit from fathers. In some cases, this belief follows students right into adulthood, where it persists. • In a study by Hackling and Treagust (1982), 94% of 15-year-old students understood the concept that one’s characteristics come from parents, 50% understood that reproduction and inheritance occur together, and 44% understood that one gets a mixture of features from both parents. • In a study of ideas about the mechanism of inheritance among children ages 7–13, Kargbo, Hobbs, and Erickson (1980) found that half the children gave a naturalistic explanation, such as nature makes offspring look like their parents. Some thought traits were decided by the brain or blood. Only a few older children in the sample mentioned any genetic principle. In analyzing the students’ responses, the researchers found that they were not giving flippant, .

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unthought-through answers but rather were drawing on their own conceptual frameworks to make sense of inherited phenomena. • In an older study by Deadman and Kelly (1978) that sampled 52 students ages 11–14, researchers found that boys had a prevalent conception that characteristics from male parents were stronger in the way they were expressed.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• A driving question for middle and high school is, “How are observable traits passed on from parent to offspring?” • Starting in elementary grades, students should have observational experiences to compare how offspring of familiar animals resemble each other and their parents, describing and drawing examples of similarities and differences. • Several studies have suggested introducing explanations of heredity to elementary students using, initially, a very simplified idea of genetic material to serve as a “conceptual placeholder.” This can help children “hold in place” a rudimentary scientific explanation upon which more detailed explanations of inherited traits and the mechanism of inheritance can be built later (Ergazaki et al. 2015; Solomon and Johnson 2000). • Easily observable traits such as skin color, earlobe structure, and hairline (e.g., widows’ peaks) can be used as examples for discussing variation among siblings and the genetic contribution of both parents to the trait. • In middle school, combine learning about inherited traits with learning about sexual reproduction. • Use caution with terminology when teaching genetics, particularly with the concept

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of dominance so as not to imply the idea that some genes are “strong” and some are “weak.” It may be better to say that dominant traits are expressed over recessive traits. • Genetics terminology may hinder conceptual learning when terms are used imprecisely. If students are told, “Inherited traits are carried on chromosomes,” they may then confuse the terms trait and gene. Genes, not traits, are carried on chromosomes, and traits are the expression of a gene combination. Clear and consistent use of terms such as trait, gene, and allele is essential for constructing an accurate conceptual foundation of genetics (Bryant 2003). • Caution should be used when students are asked to develop or use models to represent the mechanism of inheritance. Some models oversimplify the process of random assortment, recombination, and pairing of genes and expression of traits. For example, modeling gene combinations and predictions with Punnett squares oversimplifies some inherited traits. As Bryant (2003) explains, The Punnett square works well for studying the inheritance of genetic traits controlled by a single gene, and can even be applied when two or more traits are considered simultaneously, as long as the genes are not located on the same chromosome (linked). Students often learn to use Punnett squares to obtain correct answers to genetics problems, but they fail to understand that a Punnett square represents two biological processes—gamete formation and fertilization. Students rely on Punnett squares as algorithms for getting the “right answer,” often at the expense of meaningful conceptual understanding.” (p. 11)

• During middle school and in high school, students transition from understanding that genes give instructions for traits to understanding that genes are instructions (“recipes”) for proteins and that proteins carry out the functions that result in traits. The instructional goal is for students to know why proteins are important.

Related NSTA Resources Fetters, M. K., and M. Templin. 2002. Building traits. The Science Teacher 69 (4): 56–60. Keeley, P. 2018. Uncovering student ideas about inherited traits. Science and Children 55 (6): 20–21. McElroy-Brown, K., and F. Reichmann. 2019. Genetics with dragons: Using an online learning environment to help students achieve a multilevel understanding of genetics. Psychology 42 (8): 62–69. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—Heredity, Inheritance, and Variation, www.youtube. com/watch?v=JTTD6oZnQFc&index=4&list= PL2pHc_BEFW2JjWYua2_z3ccHEd6x5jIBK. Shea, N. A., and R. G. Duncan. 2017. Core idea LS3: Heredity: inheritance and variation of traits. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 145–164. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Todd, A., and L. Kenyon. 2016. How do Siamese cats get their color? The Science Teacher 83 (1): 29–36.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Bryant, R. J. 2003. Toothpick chromosomes: Simple manipulatives to help students understand genetics. Science Scope 26 (7): 10–15.

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Deadman, J., and P. Kelly. 1978. What do secondary school boys understand about evolution and heredity before they are taught the topics? Journal of Biological Education 12 (1): 7–15. Donovan, M. 1997. The vocabulary of biology and the problem of semantics. Journal of College Science Teaching 26 (6): 381–382. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Engel Clough, E., and C. Wood-Robinson. 1985. Children’s understanding of inheritance. Journal of Biological Education 19 (4): 304–310. Ergazaki, M., E. Valinidou, M. Kasimati, and M. Kalantzi. 2015. Introducing a precursor model of inheritance to young children. International Journal of Science Education 37 (18): 3118–3142. Hackling, M., and D. Treagust. 1982. What lower secondary students should understand about the mechanisms of inheritance, and what they should do following instruction. Research in Science Education 12: 78–88. Kargbo, D., E. Hobbs, and G. Erickson. 1980. Children’s beliefs about inherited characteristics. Journal of Biological Education 14 (2): 137–146.

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Lewis, J., and U. Kattmann. 2004. Traits, genes, particles and information: Re-visiting students’ understandings of genetics. International Journal of Science Education 26 (20): 195–206. Marbach-Ad, G., and R. Stavy. 2000. Students cellular and molecular explanations of genetics phenomena. Journal of Biological Education 34 (4): 200–205. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Solomon, G., and S. Johnson. 2000. Conceptual change in the classroom: Teaching young children to understand biological inheritance. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 18 (1): 81–96. Venville, G., and D. Treagust. 1998. Exploring conceptual change in genetics using a multidimensional interpretive framework. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 35 (9): 1031–1055.

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Whale and Shrew The blue whale is the largest mammal in the world. The pygmy shrew is one of the smallest mammals in the world. How does the size of average cells compare between a blue whale and a pygmy shrew? Circle the answer that best matches your thinking. A. The average cell of a blue whale is smaller than the average cell of a pygmy shrew. B. The average cell of a blue whale is larger than the average cell of a pygmy shrew. C. The average cell of a blue whale is about the same size as the average cell of a pygmy shrew. Explain your thinking. Describe the “rule” or reasoning you used to choose your answer. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Ballena y Musaraña La ballena azul es el mamífero más grande del mundo. La musaraña pigmea es una de las más pequeñas mamíferos en el mundo. ¿Cómo se compara el tamaño promedio de las celulas entre una ballena azul y una musaraña pigmea? Pon un circulo a la respuesta que mejor se conecte a tu pensamiento. A. La celula promedio de una ballena azul es más pequeño que la celula promedio de un musaraña pigmea. B. La celula promedio de una ballena azul es más grande que la celula promedio de un musaraña pigmea. C. La celula promedio de una ballena azul es aproximadamente del mismo tamaño que la celula promedio de una musaraña pigmea. Explica lo que piensas. Describe la “regla” o el razonamiento que utilizaste para elegir tu respuesta. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 136

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Whale and Shrew Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about cell size. The probe is designed to reveal whether students think animal cell size is determined by the size of the animal.

Type of Probe More A-More B

Related Concepts

Cells, growth, cell division, mitosis

Explanation

The best answer is C: The average cell of a blue whale is about the same size as the average cell of a pygmy shrew. The size of average mammal cells (this excludes cells that are unusually large, such as neurons) is similar in all mammal species. Although some body cells can be very large and cells vary, the average body cells of most mammals range in size from 10 to 100 micrometers in diameter.

Interestingly, the earliest-stage embryos of the whale and pygmy shrew are also a similar size, even though a whale eventually reaches a mass of 150,000 kg, whereas the average pygmy shrew reaches only about 3 grams—about a 50-million-times difference! Cells are limited in how large they can be because the surface area-to-volume ratio does not stay the same as the size of a cell increases. Cells need to be able to move materials into and out of a cell, and it is harder for a large cell to pass materials in and out of the membrane and to move materials through the cell. Blue whales are larger than pygmy shrews because they have more cells as a result of cell division, not because their cells are larger.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the early elementary grades, the focus is on observable structures—body parts (such

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as arms, legs, and heads) and specific parts of body (such as eyes, feet, and fingers). In the intermediate grades, students learn about internal structures, such as tissues and organs. Students observe that larger animals have larger body parts (such as legs and teeth) and larger organs (such as heart, lungs, and stomach). This observation can lead to a later preconception that the cells of larger animals are also larger. Students learn about growth at the organism level, not as an increase in the number of cells.

cells made of gels, they can observe how the surface area-to-volume ratio affects the passage of materials into, around, and out of a cell, thus limiting the size of a cell.

Middle School Students In middle school, students shift from macroscopic structures to microscopic structures. Students learn that all organisms are made up of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of structure and function. They observe differences between plant and animal cells and extend their observations of cells to comparing similar cell types across animal species. Students develop the idea of similarities among species by examining internal structures as well as cells. They can also begin to recognize the very small size of most cells and that most cells repeatedly divide to make more cells. They know that organisms and the organs they contain generally grow in size from birth until they reach adulthood. Middle school is the time for students to understand that an increase in size is due to an increase in the number of cells and to link cell division to the growth of organisms.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013)

High School Students High school students have a deeper understanding of types of cells, cell size, and how body cells divide and multiply through mitosis. Mathematically, high school students develop an understanding of the relationship between volume and surface area and the way total surface area decreases with an increase in volume. Through lab experiences with model

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Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 6–12. Emphasize that animals have different types of cells that are different sizes, but students should focus on an average, typical cell that is not unusually large, such as a skin, blood, or bone cell.

3–5 LS1.A: Structure and Function • Plants and animals have both internal and external structures that serve various functions in growth, survival, behavior, and reproduction. 6–8 LS1.A: Structure and Function • All living things are made up of cells, which is the smallest unit that can be said to be alive. An organism may consist of one single cell (unicellular) or many different numbers and types of cells (multicellular). 9–12 LS1.B: Growth and Development of Organisms • In multicellular organisms, individual cells grow and then divide via a process called mitosis, thereby allowing the organism to grow. The organism begins as a single cell (fertilized egg) that divides successively to produce many cells, with each parent cell passing identical genetic material (two variants of each chromosome pair) to both daughter cells. Cellular division and differentiation produce and maintain a complex organism, composed of systems of tissues and organs that work together to meet the needs of the whole organism.

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Related Research

• Stavy and Tirosh (2000) asked students in grades 7–12 a question similar to the one in this probe, comparing muscle cells of a mouse to muscle cells of an elephant. The majority of students, especially in grades 7 and 8, thought that larger animals have larger cells. The common justification was that “according to the dimensions of the elephants and those of the mice, it is obvious that the muscle cells of the mice are smaller than those of the elephants” (p. 30). This is an example of the intuitive rule “more A, more B.” Most of the younger students who answered correctly explained the equality in terms of the cells having the same function and therefore being the same size. Most of the high school students who responded correctly used formal biological knowledge of cells and also described the elephant as having more cells. • Confusion about the differences between mitosis and meiosis, both functionally and in purpose, and where these two forms of cell division occur are common. This confusion may contribute to their failure to recognize that cell division contributes to growth (Flores, Tovar, and Gallegos 2003). • Available research on cell size conceptions is limited. However, in piloting this probe with more than 100 middle and high school students in 2006, many students chose answer B (the blue whale has larger cells than a shrew). Their reasoning matched Stavy and Tirosh’s results and was based on the idea that whales are much larger and therefore need larger cells.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• When students revisit this probe a second time after instruction and have the opportunity to revise their answer choice and explanation, encourage them to include the crosscutting concepts of scale, proportion, and quantity to explain their reasoning. • When students are examining the same cell types of different organisms, encourage them to look not only at the similarity in the shape of the cells but also at the similarity in size. For example, when comparing the red blood cells of frogs to the red blood cells of humans, notice the similar size. • Develop the idea that cell size is limited by the ability of molecules to pass in, around, and out of cells. Older students can test this idea by making model cells out of blocks of agar of different surface area-to-volume ratios and measuring the rate and depth of penetration of a dye into the model cell. Calculate the surface areato-volume ratios of the different cell sizes and compare the results of the diffusion based on the ratios. Connect their results to how materials get into and out of a cell and travel within it. • Have students investigate the question, “Is bigger always better?” in the context of a cell’s ability to carry out its life functions. Encourage them to develop a way to research and test their idea, and have them share their results. • Ask students why a single-celled organism, such as a paramecium, can never be the size of a human. Develop the idea of why single-celled organisms must be microscopic to carry out the same life processes carried out by multicellular organisms. • Have students research the largest and smallest animal cell and explain why there is a variation in size.

• A lesson to go with this probe can start with the driving question “Why don’t we see cells the size of basketballs?”

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Related NSTA Resources

References

Aaron, R., B. Hug, and R. G. Duncan. 2017. Core idea LS1: From molecules to organisms: Structures and processes. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 123–144. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas—From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes, www.youtube.com/watch?v=aAfzbxbp3go&index=2 &list=PL2pHc_BEFW2JjWYua2_z3ccHEd6x5jIBK. Rau, G. 2004. How small is a cell? The Science Teacher 71 (8): 38–41. Williams, M., M. Linn, and G. Hollowell. 2008. Making mitosis visible. Science Scope 31 (7): 42–49.

Flores, F., M. Tovar, and L. Gallegos. 2003. Representation of the cell and its processes in high school students: An integrated view. International Journal of Science Education 25 (2): 269–286. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Stavy, R., and D. Tirosh. 2000. How students (mis-) understand science and mathematics: Intuitive rules. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Life Science Probes

19

Habitat Change A small, short-furred, gray animal called a divo lives on an island. This island is the only place on Earth where divos live. The island habitat is warm and provides plenty of the divos’ only food—tree ants. The divos live high in the treetops, hidden from predators. One year, the habitat experienced a drastic change that lasted for most of the year. It became very cold and even snowed. All the ants died. The trees lost their leaves, but plenty of seeds and dried leaves were on the ground. Circle any of the things you think happened to most of the divos living on the island after their habitat changed. A. The divos’ fur grew longer and thicker. B. The divos switched to eating seeds. C. The divos dug holes to live under the leaves or beneath rocks. D. The divos hibernated through the cold period until the habitat was warm again. E. Most of the divos died. Explain your thinking. How did you decide what effect the change in habitat would have on most of the divos? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Cambio de Hábitat Un pequeño animal gris con pelaje corto llamado un divo vive en una isla. Esta isla es el único lugar en la Tierra donde viven los divos. El hábitat de la isla es cálido y proporciona un montón de la única comida de los divos: hormigas arbóreas. Los divos viven alto en las copas de los árboles, escondidos de los depredadores. Un año hubo un cambio drástico en el hábitat que duró la mayor parte del año. Hizo mucho frio y hasta nevó. Todas las hormigas murieron. Los árboles perdieron sus hojas, pero muchas semillas y hojas secas estaban en el suelo. Encierra en un círculo cualquiera de las cosas que crees que le sucedieron a la mayoría de los divos que viven en la isla después que su hábitat cambió. A. El pelaje de los divos se hizo más largo y más grueso. B. Los divos cambiaron a comer semillas. C. Los divos cavaron agujeros para vivir debajo de las hojas o debajo de las rocas. D. Los divos hibernaran durante el período frío hasta que el hábitat volvió a calentarse. E. La mayoría de los divos murieron. Explica lo que piensas. ¿Cómo decidiste qué efecto tendría el cambio en el hábitat en la mayoría de los divos? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 142

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Habitat Change Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about adaptation. The probe is designed to reveal whether students think individuals intentionally change their physical characteristics or behaviors in response to an environmental change.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Adaptation, behavioral response, ecosystem change, interdependence

Explanation

There is no completely right answer to this question, but the best answer is E: The divos died. In common, everyday usage, the term adapt is interpreted as any type of deliberate modification in response to a change.

Biologically speaking, individuals generally do not intentionally adapt to drastic changes in their environment by changing their physical characteristics (such as fur length or ability to eat certain foods based on teeth or mouth structure) or inherited behaviors (such as where they seek shelter or whether they hibernate). The process of adaptation does not involve effort, wanting, or trying. Some individual divos may have been born with variations that made them better suited to survive a change in the environment and to reproduce, passing on their traits to new generations that would be better adapted to the changed environment. However, most of the divos probably died because the physical structures, physiology, and behaviors they were born with no longer fit the changed environment. Populations may adapt over time, but individuals generally do not adapt to change during their lifetimes.

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Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the elementary grades, students build understandings of biological concepts through direct experience with living things and their habitats. The idea that organisms depend on their environment is developed. The focus in the early elementary grades should be on establishing the primary association of organisms with their environments. The emphasis in the upper elementary grades is on organisms’ dependence on various aspects of the environment and how the traits they were born with help them function in a particular environment. They observe variations in organisms and develop the idea that variations can sometimes help an organism survive changes in their environment. Middle School Students Students at the middle school level develop an understanding of the mechanism of inheritance that can result in variations that support an individual’s survival and reproduction. Adaptation as a characteristic the organism is born with that helps it survive in a changed environment now extends to populations and is linked to natural selection. The emphasis is on how the adaptation is passed on to offspring and through generations of offspring. High School Students At the high school level, students refine and deepen their understanding of inherited traits, variations, and natural selection. The idea of natural selection leads to the culminating idea of biological evolution, a major focus in biology. Students take their understanding of the mechanisms for evolution and apply it over large time scales. They extend their models to explain how new species form or how species become extinct.

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Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–12. Explain to students that the divo is an imaginary organism. However, the challenges it faces because of the drastic change in its environment would produce similar responses from real organisms. Consider adding additional distracters for structural changes (such as growing stronger teeth for cracking open seeds), behavioral changes (such as learning to swim so it could get off the island), or the divo becoming extinct.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 LS2.C: Ecosystem Dynamics, Functioning, and Resilience • When the environment changes in ways that affect a place’s physical characteristics, temperature, or availability of resources, some organisms survive and reproduce, others move to new locations, yet others move into the transformed environment, and some die. 3–5 LS3.B: Variation of Traits • Different organisms vary in how they look and function because they have different inherited information. 3–5 LS4.C: Adaptation • For any particular environment, some kinds of organisms survive well, some survive less well, and some cannot survive at all. 6–8 LS4.C: Adaptation • Adaptation by natural selection acting over generations is one important process by which species change over time in response to changes in environmental conditions. Traits that support successful survival and reproduction in the new environment become more common; those that do not become less common. Thus, the distribution of traits in a population changes.

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Life Science Probes

9–12 LS4.C: Adaptation • Natural selection leads to adaptation, that is, to a population dominated by organisms that are anatomically, behaviorally, and physiologically well suited to survive and reproduce in a specific environment. That is, the differential survival and reproduction of organisms in a population that have an advantageous heritable trait leads to an increase in the proportion of individuals in future generations that have the trait and to a decrease in the proportion of individuals that do not. • Changes in the physical environment, whether naturally occurring or human induced, have thus contributed to the expansion of some species, the emergence of new distinct species as populations diverge under different conditions, and the decline–and sometimes the extinction–of some species.

Related Research

• Current studies of students’ misconceptions about adaptation and natural selection continue to show that students think organisms deliberately adapt to changes in their environment (Coley and Tanner 2012; Keskin and Kose 2015; Nehm and Reilly 2007). • Middle school and high school students may believe that organisms are able to intentionally change their bodily structure to be able to live in a particular habitat or that they respond to a changed environment by seeking a more favorable environment. It has been suggested that the language about adaptation used by teachers or textbooks may cause or reinforce these beliefs (AAAS 2009). • Studies have found that children tend to view adaptation as an intention by an organism to meet its needs for survival and that organisms can change in major ways

in response to a change in their environment (Driver et al. 1994). • An older study by Brumby (1979) of Australian and English biology students showed that even after studying upper level biology, only 18% of the students could correctly apply natural selection to evolutionary change. Most believed that individuals can adapt to a change in the environment if they need to.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• Two similar probes about adaptation and a changing environment that can be used with this probe are “Changing Environment” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Life Science, Volume 1 (Keeley 2011) and “Adaptation” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Volume 4 (Keeley and Tugel 2009). • Revisiting the probe a second time gives students an opportunity to apply what they learned about adaptation and variation. Add a third dimension to the probe by asking students to use the crosscutting concept of cause and effect in their revised explanation. • Some intentions that are colloquially called adaptations are controlled by an organism. For example, we say a person adapts to the cold by putting on warmer clothing. When dealing with individual organisms, acclimatization would be a better term to use for noninheritable changes made by an organism during its lifetime in response to a change. In other words, people acclimate to the cold. • Be aware that Lamarckian interpretations of an individual’s adaptation to its environment may impede understanding of evolution through natural selection. • A common activity used in elementary and middle school science is to have students design an imaginary organism that is adapted to a particular habitat or to take

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an existing organism and make changes so it is adapted to a new environment. Be aware that these activities can perpetuate the common misconception that organisms intentionally adapt, and it is best to carefully evaluate adaptation activities before using them. • Compare and contrast with students the everyday use of the word adaptation with the scientific meaning of the word. Add this to students’ growing number of examples of the ways we use words in our everyday lives that are not always the same as the scientific use of the words. • Young children should have opportunities to observe organisms in their environment and notice how their inherited traits help them live in their environment. Stress that they are born with these traits. • Students can research the Galapagos finches to learn how even a slight variation in beak size helps some finches survive when food is scarce. Students can explore patterns and data on the Galapagos finches at http:// bguile.northwestern.edu.

Related NSTA Resources Fowler, F. 2015. For the love of infographics. Science Scope 38 (7): 42–48. Keeley, P. 2014. Habitat change: Formative assessment of a cautionary word. Science and Children 51 (7): 26–27. Kovak, A. 2003. Adapting to the environment. The Science Teacher 70 (2): 30–33. NGSS Archived Webinar: NGSS Core Ideas— Biological Evolution, www.youtube.com/wat ch?v=np_1G4Swut4&index=5&list=PL2 pHc_BEFW2JjWYua2_z3ccHEd6x5jIBK. Passmore, C., J. S. Gouvea, C. Guy, and C. Griesemer. 2017. Core idea LS4—Biological evolution: Unity and diversity. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 165–180. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

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Sisk-Hilton, S., K. Metz, and E. Berson. 2018. Jumping into natural selection. Science and Children 55 (6): 29–35.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Brumby, M. 1979. Problems in learning the concepts of natural selection. Journal of Biological Education 13 (2): 119–122. Coley, J. D., and K. D. Tanner. 2012. Common origins of diverse misconceptions: Cognitive principles and the development of biology thinking. CBE‐Life Sciences Education 11 (3): 209–215. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Keeley, P. 2011. Changing environment. In Uncovering student ideas in life science, volume 1: 25 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley, 109–115. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P., and J. Tugel. 2009. Adaptation. In Uncovering student ideas in science, volume 4: 25 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley, 113–118. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keskin, B., and E. Kose. 2015. Understanding adaptation and natural selection: Common misconceptions. International Journal of Academic Research in Education 1 (2): 53–63. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Nehm, R. H., and L. Reilly. 2007. Biology majors’ knowledge and misconceptions of natural selection. BioScience 57 (3): 263–272. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

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Section 3

Earth and Space Science Probes

Concept Matrix........................................... 148



Is It a Rock? (Version 1)............................149 Is It a Rock? (Version 2)............................155 Mountaintop Fossil.....................................161 Darkness at Night.......................................167 Emmy’s Moon and Stars............................173 Objects in the Sky.......................................181

20 21 22 23 24 25

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#23 Darkness at Night

#24 Emmy’s Moon and Stars

#25 Objects in the Sky

3–12

3–8

3–8

3–8

Mountaintop Fossil #22

3–8

Is It a Rock? (Version 2)

3–8

Is It a Rock? (Version 1)

#21

GRADE LEVEL USE →

#20

PROBES

Concept Matrix for Probes #20–#25: Earth and Space Science

RELATED CONCEPTS ↓ Day/night cycle

X

Daytime sky Earth materials

X X

X

Earth-Moon system

X

Fossil Grain size

X X

Light Minerals

X X

X

Moon

X

Mountain formation

X

Natural resources

X

Nighttime sky

X

Planets

X

Plate tectonics

X

Relative distances in the universe Rock

X X

X

Rotation Solar system

X

Stars

X

Uplift

148

X X

X

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Earth and Space Science Probes

20

Is It a Rock? (Version 1) Which things on this list could be rocks? How do you decide if something is a rock? Put an X next to the things you think could be a rock. ___  jagged boulder

___  smooth boulder

___  small stone

___  large stone

___  pebble

___  piece of gravel

___  piece of sand ___  dust from two stones rubbed together

Explain your thinking. What “rule” or reasoning did you use to decide if something is a rock? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Earth and Space Science Probes

¿Es una Roca? (Versión 1) ¿Qué cosas en esta lista son rocas? ¿Cómo decides si algo es una roca? Pon una X al lado de las cosas que crees que podrían ser una roca. ___  roca imensa

___  roca lisa

___  piedra pequeña

___  piedra grande

___  guijarro

___  pedazo de grava

___  pedazo de arena ___  polvo de dos piedras frotadas

Explica lo que piensas ¿Qué “regla” o razonamiento usaste para decidir si algo es una roca? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Earth and Space Science Probes

Is It a Rock? (Version 1) Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about rocks. The probe is designed to determine whether students recognize that rock is not a term for size and that rocks can come in many sizes and shapes.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Rock, minerals, Earth materials, grain size

Explanation

All of the items on the list could be a rock. Simply, a rock is defined as any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet and is formed over a long period of time (Lutgens and Tarbuck 2003). Rocks can be made up of one mineral or can be made up of two or more minerals. Rocks can be described by their size and shape. Rocks can range from huge boulders to single

grains of sand and rock dust formed through the process of weathering. They can be jagged or smooth. Words like boulder, gravel, and sand have specific scientific meanings related to the average size of rock fragments. Rocks can be broken and shaped by natural weathering processes or broken, cut, and shaped by humans, resulting in a variety of sizes and shapes. Sediments can contain very tiny pieces of weathered rock.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students Younger elementary students become familiar with their immediate surroundings, including the variety of rocks found in their local environment. Students observe the different shapes and sizes rocks come in. In upper elementary grades, students can observe details of rocks and can use magnifiers to identify grains of the rock material in sand. Students learn that

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the solid materials formed by Earth are rocks, soil, and sediments and that these make up a part of Earth called the geosphere. They learn that other Earth systems interact with the geosphere, such as water in the hydrosphere or air in the atmosphere wearing away rock into smaller pieces that can be moved around. Middle School Students Middle school students learn how rocks are formed, shaped, and broken apart by the action of both abrupt and slow natural processes. They begin to tie these processes to the idea of a rock cycle. They develop an understanding that sediments contain small particles of rock and that these sediments can be cemented together again to form solid rock. They develop an understanding of how landforms such as mountains are formed through the uplift of rock or the hardening of molten lava from volcanoes. They learn how these landforms break down into rocks of different sizes and shapes, including grains of sand found on beaches made from volcanic rock or rock from distant mountains. High School Students Students use ideas about rocks to understand the history of Earth and its formations and the structure of the interior of Earth. They refine and deepen their understanding of the rock cycle.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–8. Make sure students are familiar with the objects and materials on the list. It may be helpful to have props that show items on the list, including a picture of a large boulder. This probe can also be administered as a card sort. Place the words and/or pictures of the items on cards and ask students to sort them by “rock,” “not rock,” or “unsure” and to provide an explanation for each sorting decision.

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Related Disciplinary Core Idea (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 ESS2.A: Earth Materials and Systems • Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways to affect Earth’s surface materials and processes.

Related Research

• Children often fail to recognize that words like boulder, gravel, sand, and clay have specific meanings related to the average size of fragments. For example, children think of clay as being sticky, orange stuff found underground rather than as a very fine particle of rock (Driver et al. 1994). • Freyberg (1985) found that the word rock is used in many different ways in our common language, contributing to the confusion over what a rock is geologically. Many students think rocks have particular size, not too large and not too small, rather than being characterized by what they are made of. • Studies by Happs (1982, 1985) revealed that younger students often identify rocks by their weight, hardness, color, and jaggedness. Therefore, some students believe that rocks are larger, heavier, and more jagged than stones. They have difficulty with the idea of rock types being a range of sizes. They use words such as boulder, gravel, sand, and clay in ways related to where they are found, rather than seeing them as rocks of different sizes. For example, they say that boulders are larger than rocks and have rolled down a slope, gravel is something on the side of roads, sand is on beaches and in the desert, and clay is red and underground.

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Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• Younger students should be given ample opportunities to collect and examine a variety of rocks of different sizes and describe them according to their observable properties, while noting that they are all part of a group of Earth materials called rocks. • When elementary students describe physical properties of objects, include rocks as objects in their study of properties of matter. Have students observe that rocks come in different sizes, shapes, colors, and textures. • Provide opportunities for students to see that rocks can break down into very small pieces, including “rock dust.” This can be observed by rubbing two rocks together or filling a clean metal can with a few rocks and shaking it for an extended period of time. The dust comes from the pieces of mechanically weathered rock. Ask students what the dust is; encourage them to make the connection that it came from the rock and thus is the same material. • Compare and contrast different types of beach sand that contains rocks and minerals, and trace their origin. For example, the white quartz in some sands may have come from pieces of granite rock that were further weathered into mineral particles. Volcanic beach sand comes from the weathering of volcanic rock. • In 1922, geologist Chester Wentworth developed a classification chart for the size of rocks and their particles. This chart can be viewed on the Planetary Society’s website at www.planetary.org/multimedia/ space-images/charts/wentworth-1922-grainsize.html. Have students sort the rocks listed on the probe by decreasing size and compare their chart with Wentworth’s.

Related NSTA Resources Plummer, D., and W. Kulman. 2005. Rocks in our pockets. Science Scope 29 (2): 60–61. Rivet, A. E. 2017. Core idea ESS2: Earth’s systems. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A.  E. Rivet, 205–223. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Trundle, K., H. Miller, and L. Krissek. 2013. Digging into rocks with young children. Science and Children 50 (8): 46–51. Varelas, M., and J. Benhart. 2004. Welcome to rock day. Science and Children 40 (1): 40–45.

References Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Freyberg, P. 1985. Implications across the curriculum. In Learning in science, ed. R. Osborne and P. Freyberg, 125–135. Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann. Happs, J. 1982. Rocks and minerals. LISP Working Paper 204, University of Waikato, Science Education Research Unit, Hamilton, New Zealand. Happs, J. 1985. Regression in learning outcomes: Some examples from Earth science. European Journal of Science Education 7 (4): 431–443. Lutgens, F., and E. Tarbuck. 2003. Essentials of geology. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

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Earth and Space Science Probes

Is It a Rock? (Version 2) What is a rock? How do you decide if something is a rock? Put an X next to the things you think are rocks.

___  cement block

___  piece of clay pot

___  coal

___  dried mud

___  coral ___  brick

___  hardened lava

___  limestone

___  gravestone

___  asphalt (road tar)

___  iron ore

___  marble statue

___  glass

___  concrete

___  granite

Explain your thinking. What “rule” or reasoning did you use to decide if something is a rock? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Earth and Space Science Probes

¿Es una Roca? (Versión 2) ¿Qué es una roca? ¿Cómo decides si algo es una roca? Pon una X al lado de las cosas que crees que son rocas.

___  bloque de cemento ___  barro seco

__  pieza de una maceta de barro ___  coral

___  carbon ___  ladrillo

___  lava endurecida

___  caliza

___  una lápida sepucral

___  a sfalto (alquitrán de carretera) ___  vidrio

___  mineral de hierro

___  estatua de mármol

___  concreto

___  granito

Explica lo que piensas. ¿Qué “regla” o razonamiento usaste para decidir si algo es una roca? ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 156

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Earth and Space Science Probes

Is It a Rock? (Version 2) Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about an Earth material, rocks. The probe is designed to determine whether students can distinguish between humanmade, “rocklike” materials and geologically formed rock materials of various origins, even though it may have been shaped by humans. The probe reveals whether students have a geologic conception of a rock.

Type of Probe Justified list

Related Concepts

Rock, minerals, natural resources, Earth materials

Explanation

The items on the list that are rocks are coal, hardened lava, limestone, a gravestone, iron ore, marble statue, and granite. Simply, a rock can be defined as any solid mass of mineral

or mineral-like matter that occurs naturally as part of our planet and is formed over long periods of time (Lutgens and Tarbuck 2003). Some rocks, such as limestone, are composed almost entirely of one mineral—in this case, impure masses of calcite. Other rocks occur as aggregates of two or more minerals. For example, granite is a common rock composed of the minerals quartz, hornblende, and feldspar. A few rocks are composed of nonmineral matter. Chalk is a rock made from the shells of foraminifera. Coal is a rock formed over millions of years by the hardening of layers of decomposed plant material subjected to pressure. Some of the items on the list are rocklike in that they are similar to rock material but are not naturally formed through long-term geologic processes. The cement block, piece of clay pot, brick, asphalt, glass, and concrete are all made by combining some rock material with other materials and reshaping them through a human-made process, not a geologic one.

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The material itself is not “rock.” However, the gravestone and marble statue are rock, even though they have been reshaped and polished through a human-made process, because the material they are made of was formed through a geologic process and the original composition is unchanged. The material is still rock; only the shape and texture have changed. Coral is made by living processes, not geologic processes, and can form over relatively short time scales. Soft-bodied organisms secrete calcium carbonate to make hard, rocklike casings that protect their soft bodies. These “community casings” result in the formation of coral reefs. Mud is a mixture of silt, clay, and water. Silt and clay are fine rock fragments. Mud can dry out, forming hard cakes that appear rocklike. However, it takes long periods of geologic time for dried mud to harden (lithify) into solid sedimentary rock such as shale.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students Elementary students observe and classify objects and materials based on their properties. Students should have opportunities to become familiar with the variety of objects and materials in their local environment, including rocks and objects made from rocks. At this level, students begin to understand that rocks can come in natural forms and that rocks are considered natural resources that can be cut, shaped, and polished by humans for various uses. They begin to understand how some objects and materials exist naturally and others are made by humans combining materials from the environment in new ways, based on the properties of the materials.

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Middle School Students Students investigate how Earth materials such as rocks are formed. They develop an understanding of how rocks are formed through long-term geologic processes, resulting in a variety of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. Students can begin to trace the composition of rocks and minerals back to the geologic processes that formed them. They can contrast this formation with shortterm human processes developed through engineering design that result in rocklike materials such as cement. In their study of natural resources, they recognize that rock is a natural resource that can be reshaped by humans without changing its composition or can be crushed and combined with other materials to form a new, hard material. High School Students Students at this level refine their understanding of the geologic processes that form rocks and the chemical composition and origin of minerals that make up rocks. They have a greater awareness of the long-term, geologic processes that form rocks. They learn about chemical processes engineered by humans, which result in rocklike mixtures such as asphalt, concrete, and cement. In biology, they recognize living processes that form hard, rocklike casings such as coral and mollusk shells and link this to the idea of biogeochemical cycles. At this level, combined with their knowledge of chemistry, students have greater familiarity with synthetically produced materials and are more apt to differentiate them from materials produced through geologic processes.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–8. Make sure students are familiar with the materials and objects on the list. You may choose to show examples (actual or photographic) of the materials or objects or

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point out ones they are familiar with in their local environment, such as a cement sidewalk or asphalt road. Words can also be written on cards or combined with pictures and used as a card sort activity, sorting cards into “rock,” “not rock,” and “unsure.” For middle school students who are familiar with examples of igneous rocks, consider replacing the term hardened lava with basalt or pumice.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) K–2 ESS3.A: Natural Resources • Living things need water, air, and resources from the land, and they live in places that have the things they need. Humans use natural resources for everything they do. 6–8 ESS3.A: Natural Resources • Humans depend on Earth’s land, ocean, atmosphere, and biosphere for many different resources. Minerals, fresh water, and biosphere resources are limited, and many are not renewable or replaceable over human lifetimes. These resources are distributed unevenly around the planet as a result of past geologic processes.

Related Research

• Some students regard rock as being made of only one substance and thus have difficulty recognizing granite as rock (Driver et al. 1994). • Freyberg (1985) found that the word rock is used in many different ways in our common language, contributing to the confusion over what a rock is geologically. • Some students use “heaviness” to describe rocks. When students were shown different types of rocks and asked whether they were rocks, several students thought pumice was too light to be a rock (Osborne and Freyberg 1985).

• In studies by Happs (1982, 1985), students had difficulty making the distinction between “natural” things and those created or altered by humans. For example, some students considered brick a rock because part of it comes from natural material. Conversely, some students thought cut, smooth, polished marble was not a rock because humans made it smooth and so it was no longer natural.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• A related version of this probe, “Is a Brick a Rock?,” is available for K–2 students in Uncovering Student Ideas in Primary Science, Volume 1 (Keeley 2013). • When teaching about rocks, take time to elicit students’ conceptions of what a rock is. Although students may have had several opportunities to learn about rocks during their K–8 experiences, do not assume that they have a geologic conception of what a rock is. Students may be able to define rock, name types of rocks, and describe the geologic processes that formed them, but they may still identify human-made materials such as brick as rocks. • Emphasize the long periods of geologic time it takes to form rock and compare the long-term stages of the rock cycle with the short period of time it takes to make a brick or a cement block. • When elementary students describe physical properties of objects, include rocks in the study of properties. Rocks can be used to demonstrate how a physical property may change, but the material is still the same. For example, show students a rough piece of granite and a smooth, polished piece of granite, noting that they are still the same material, although humans have changed the property of texture.

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• Compare and contrast naturally formed objects with objects made or reformed by humans. In the latter category, have students place objects into two groups: (1) those objects made entirely from natural materials that have not been changed in composition when reshaped by humans (e.g., the marble statue) and (2) those that contain some natural material, combined with other materials to make new material with a different composition that does not exist in a natural state (e.g., concrete or brick). • Have students investigate the materials that make up brick, concrete, cement, and asphalt. Connect this to engineering and technology, noting how humans use natural resources and scientific knowledge about materials to design and make new types of materials for construction. • For older students, add more challenging items to the list, such as glacier ice, petrified wood, diamond, magma, fossilized bone, pearl, chalk, ceramic tile, salt, and copper.

Related NSTA Resources Keeley, P. 2013. Is it a rock? Continuous formative assessment. Science and Children 50 (8): 34–37. Keeley, P. 2014. Is it a rock? Continuous formative assessment. In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment, P. Keeley, 173–180. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Plummer, D., and W. Kulman. 2005. Rocks in our pockets. Science Scope 29 (2): 60–61. Rivet, A. E. 2017. Core idea ESS2: Earth’s systems. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and

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learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 205–223. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Varelas, M., and J. Benhart. 2004. Welcome to rock day. Science and Children 40 (1): 40–45.

References Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer. Freyberg, P. 1985. Implications across the curriculum. In Learning in science, ed. R. Osborne and P. Freyberg, 125–135. Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann. Happs, J. 1982. Rocks and minerals. LISP Working Paper 204, University of Waikato, Science Education Research Unit, Hamilton, New Zealand. Happs, J. 1985. Regression in learning outcomes: Some examples from Earth science. European Journal of Science Education 7 (4): 431–443. Keeley, P. 2013. Is a brick a rock? In Uncovering student ideas in primary science, volume 1: 25 new formative assessment probes for grades K–2, P. Keeley, 101–104. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Lutgens, F., and E. Tarbuck. 2003. Essentials of geology. 8th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Osborne, R., and P. Freyberg. 1985. Learning in science: The implications of children’s science. Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org.

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Mountaintop Fossil The Esposito family went hiking on a tall mountain. Mrs. Esposito picked up a shell fossil from the top of the mountain. The fossil was once a shelled organism that lived in the ocean. The family had different ideas about how the fossil ended up there. This is what they thought: Mrs. Esposito: A bird picked up the organism and dropped the shell as it flew over the mountain. Mr. Esposito: Water, ice, or wind eventually carried the fossil to the top of the mountain. Rosa:

A mountain formed in an area that was once covered by ocean.

Sofia:

The fossil flowed out of a volcano that rose up from the ocean floor.

Hector:

Mountains existed before the oceans formed.

Jose:

A strong undersea earthquake pushed the ocean floor up to form a mountain.

Whom do you think has the best idea about how the fossil ended up on a mountaintop? ___________________ Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Fósil en la Cima de una Montaña La familia Esposito fue de excursión por una montaña alta. Señora Esposito recogió un fósil de concha en la parte superior de la montaña. El fósil era un organismo sin cáscara que vivía en el océano. La familia tenía diferente ideas sobre cómo terminó el fósil allí. Esto es lo que pensaron: Señora Esposito: Un pájaro recogió el organismo y dejó caer la concha mientras volaba sobre la montaña. Señor Esposito: Agua, hielo, o viento eventualmente transporto el fósil hasta la cima de la montaña. Rosa:

Una montaña se formó en un área que una vez estuvo cubierta por el océano.

Sofía:

El fósil salió de un volcán que se levantó del fondo del océano.

Héctor:

Las montañas existían antes de que se formaran los océanos.

Jose:

Un fuerte terremoto submarino empujó el fondo del océano hacia arriba para formar una montaña.

¿Quién crees que tiene la mejor idea sobre cómo terminó el fósil en la cima de la montaña? _____________________ Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 162

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Mountaintop Fossil Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about mountain formation. The probe is designed to determine whether students recognize that some mountains are formed from the uplift of Earth’s crust over a long period of time as a result of tectonic plate interaction, including areas that were once covered by ocean.

Type of Probe Friendly talk

Related Concepts

Fossil, uplift, mountain formation, plate tectonics

Explanation

The best answer is Rosa’s: A mountain formed in an area that was once covered by ocean. Over long periods of geologic time, Earth’s crust goes through several changes. Where

oceans, shallow seas, and muddy marshes once existed, today there may be mountains. Ancient marine organisms died and were covered with sediments that, over time, hardened and formed sedimentary rock. The imprints left by the hard shells of mollusks and even mineralized parts of their shells remained in the sedimentary rock. Additional layers of sedimentary rock formed over the fossils. Over a long period of time, these layers of rock were uplifted through the movement of tectonic plates to form mountains. As mountains formed, the fossils were elevated along with the rock in which they were formed. Today, the processes of weathering and erosion expose the fossils in the rock that were formed millions of years ago. Marine fossils are found on some of the world’s highest mountain chains, such as the Himalayas, which are still increasing in height today as tectonic plates push the land upward.

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Curricular and Instructional Considerations

determining the story of Earth’s crust, climate, and evolving life-forms.

Elementary Students Elementary students should have the opportunity to learn about different types of landforms, rocks, and fossils with an understanding that there are processes that change the surface of Earth over long periods of time. Upper elementary students learn how rock layers are used as evidence to understand changes that happen to Earth over time. They use maps to look for patterns of surface features, such as mountain ranges, and begin to develop an understanding of processes related to plate tectonics.

Administering the Probe

Middle School Students The study of Earth’s history provides evidence about the evolution of Earth’s features, including the distribution of land and sea, features of the crust such as mountains, and the populations of living organisms that existed at different times. Students develop an understanding that Earth has gone through many changes and that where oceans once existed, mountains may exist today. Students use the theory of plate tectonics and its relationship to the rock cycle to explain changes to Earth. At this level, students move from recognizing patterns of mountain chain formation to understanding how tectonic processes created these mountain chains. Students use evidence from rock strata, fossils, and geologic mapping to better understand geological changes. High School Students At this level, students build on their middle school knowledge of Earth’s geologic history, developing an integrated understanding about the Earth system that includes the rock cycle, crustal dynamics, geochemical processes, and the expanded concept of geologic time. They understand and use the evidence base for

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This probe can be used with students in grades 3–12. It may be helpful to show students an example of a shell fossil. You might also show a picture of a tall mountain chain, such as the Andes, where shell fossils have been found.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) 3–5 ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions • The locations of mountain ranges, deep ocean trenches, ocean f loor structures, earthquakes, and volcanoes occur in patterns. Most earthquakes and volcanoes occur in bands that are often along the boundaries between continents and oceans. Major mountain chains form inside continents or near their edges. Maps can help locate the different land and water features of Earth. 3–5 ESS1.C: The History of Planet Earth • Local, regional, and global patterns of rock formations reveal changes over time due to earth forces, such as earthquakes. The presence and location of certain fossil types indicate the order in which rock layers were formed. 6–8 ESS1.C: The History of Planet Earth • The geologic time scale interpreted from rock strata provides a way to organize Earth’s history. Analyses of rock strata and the fossil record provide only relative dates, not an absolute scale. 6–8 ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and Large-Scale System Interactions • Maps of ancient land and water patterns, based on investigations of rocks and fossils, make clear how Earth’s plates have moved great distances, collided, and spread apart.

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9–12 ESS2.B: Plate Tectonics and LargeScale System Interactions • Plate movements are responsible for most continental and ocean-floor features and for the distribution of most rocks and minerals within Earth’s crust. • Plate tectonics is the unifying theory that explains the past and current movements of the rocks at Earth’s surface and provides a framework for understanding its geologic history.

Related Research

• A study by Horizons Research identified several misconceptions related to mountain formation: All changes to Earth’s surface occur suddenly and rapidly; earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain formation usually occur in the same general areas, but there is no explanation for this; and mountains form when earthquakes push the ground up (Ford and Taylor 2006). • Students have a difficult time understanding the magnitude of geologic time. Because their experience with time has been in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, and years, the concept of thousands, millions, and billions of years is almost incomprehensible (Trend 1998). • Some students have a landform and ocean basin conception that involves a progressively decreasing slope from the center of the continents to the center of the bottom of the ocean and then back up again (Marques and Thompson 1997). • Students may think of mountain-building as occurring only through catastrophic events such as earthquakes or volcanoes. They often fail to recognize the slow process of uplift over millions of years (Phillips 1991). • Students of all ages may hold the view that the world has always been the way it is now and any changes that occurred were sudden and comprehensive (Freyberg 1985).

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• The probe “Is It a Fossil?” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Earth and Environmental Science can be used to elicit students’ ideas about fossils and how they are formed (Keeley and Tucker 2016). • Have students use the analogy that Earth is like a puzzle to illustrate how evidence from our geologic past is pieced together to explain puzzling phenomena such as how a whale fossil ended up on top of an Andes mountain peak. • When revisiting the probe a second time, and after students have had the opportunity to learn about and use ideas and evidence about how mountains are formed, ask students to use the crosscutting concept of scale in their revised explanations. • Have students identify tall mountain chains, such as the Himalayas and Andes, research the type of fossils found on those mountains, and explain why they are found there. • Be aware that some students may use the biblical explanation of a huge global flood to explain how ancient marine organisms ended up on mountaintops. Share evidence first explained by Leonardo da Vinci as to why this explanation cannot explain how marine fossils ended up on mountaintops. For example, fossils on mountains are often in the same positions as they would be found when living. A flood would have scattered organisms and redeposited them (Gould 1998). • Challenge students to explain how marine fossils on mountain ranges get exposed. Link ideas about weathering and erosion to exposure of fossils that were once covered by rock layers. • Students should see many different types of landforms to determine and describe the different ways in which they formed.

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• Videos or internet simulations of mountainbuilding processes, particularly the slower uplifts and not the catastrophic types such as volcanoes, provide a vicarious way for students to observe long-term constructive processes.

Related NSTA Resources Keeley, P. 2015. Mountaintop fossil: A puzzling phenomenon. Science and Children 53 (4): 24–26. Rivet, A. E. 2017. Core idea ESS2: Earth’s systems. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 205–223. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Wheeler-Toppen, J. 2016. Once upon an Earth science Book: 12 interdisciplinary activities to create confident readers. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

References Ford, B., and M. Taylor. 2006. Investigating students’ ideas about plate tectonics. Science Scope 30 (1): 38–43. Freyberg, P. 1985. Implications across the curriculum. In Learning in science, ed. R. Osborne and P. Freyberg, 125–135. Auckland, New Zealand: Heinemann.

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Gould, S. J. 1998. Leonardo’s mountain of clams and the diet of worms. New York: Three Rivers Press. Keeley, P., and L. Tucker. 2016. Is it a fossil? In Uncovering student ideas in Earth and environmental science: 32 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and L. Tucker, 91–94. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Marques, L., and D. Thompson. 1997. Misconceptions and conceptual changes concerning continental drift and plate tectonics among Portuguese students aged 16–17. Research in Science and Technological Education 15 (2): 195–222. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Phillips, W. 1991. Earth science misconceptions. The Science Teacher 58 (2): 21–23. Trend, R. 1998. An investigation into understanding of geological time among 10- and 11-year-old children. International Journal of Science Education 20 (8): 973–988.

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Earth and Space Science Probes

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Darkness at Night Six friends were wondering why the sky is dark at night. This is what they said: Jeb:

The clouds come in at night and cover the Sun.

Talia:

Earth spins completely around once a day.

Nick:

The Sun moves around Earth once a day.

Becca:

Earth moves around the Sun once a day.

Latisha: The Sun moves underneath Earth at night. Yolanda: The Sun stops shining. Which friend do you think has the best reason for why the sky is dark at night? ___________________ Describe your ideas about why Earth is dark at night and light during the day. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Oscuridad en la Noche Seis amigos se preguntaban por qué el cielo está oscuro por la noche. Esto es lo que dijeron: Jeb:

Las nubes entran por la noche y cubren el sol.

Talia:

La Tierra gira completamente alrededor de una vez al día.

Nick:

El Sol se mueve alrededor de la Tierra una vez al día.

Becca:

La Tierra se mueve alrededor del sol una vez al día.

Latisha: El Sol se mueve debajo de la Tierra por la noche. Yolanda: El Sol deja de brillar. ¿Qué amigo crees que tiene la mejor razón por la cual el cielo está oscuro por la noche? ___________________ Describe tus ideas sobre por qué la Tierra está oscura por la noche y clara durante el día. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Darkness at Night Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the day/night cycle. The probe is designed to determine whether students recognize that Earth’s rotation explains why it is dark at night and light during the day.

Type of Probe Friendly talk

Related Concepts Day/night cycle, rotation

Explanation

The best answer is Talia’s: Earth spins completely around once a day. The reason for the day/night cycle is that Earth spins completely around on its axis approximately every 24 hours. When our location on Earth is turned away from the Sun, we have night (darkness). When our location on Earth is turned toward the Sun, we have day (daylight).

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the early primary years, students recognize that there is a repeating pattern of daytime and night, and that the amount of daylight changes throughout the year. At first, this is primarily observational with a focus on patterns. Observations of the Sun’s location make it look to them as if the Sun is the body that is moving, but it is important for students to trace this movement before introducing rotation. By third grade, students begin to learn about Earth’s motion to explain patterns. Now they can use models to move beyond their own location-based perspective to describe and explain how Earth’s rotation causes the day/night cycle. It is also important to make sure students have a concept of a spherical Earth before using models to explain Earth’s rotation. Gradually, the terms rotation and

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Earth’s axis are introduced when students are ready to link the concept to the phenomenon. Middle School Students Students’ understanding of the day/night cycle expands to include ideas about the effect of Earth’s tilt and the changing position of the Sun in the sky during different times of the year. They can look at patterns of sunrise and sunset and begin to recognize that the length of day (photoperiod) changes during different times of the year and with different locations on Earth. However, the orbital geometry involved in understanding this concept is still challenging. Students at this level may often confuse rotation with revolution. High School Students During high school, more complex and quantitative ideas about the Earth-Moon-Sun system are developed, along with the idea that other planets and their moons rotate at different speeds and have day/night cycles of varying lengths. They also examine changes in the tilt of Earth’s axis of rotation over a large time scale.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–8. Terminology like rotation, spinning on an axis, and revolution are intentionally avoided to probe for conceptual understanding. Make sure students understand that night refers to the period of darkness when the Sun is not visible and that day refers to the period of daylight when the Sun is visible in the sky. Don’t assume that older students can explain this phenomenon.

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Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) K–2 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • Patterns of the motion of the Sun, Moon, and stars in the sky can be observed, described, and predicted. 3–5 ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System • The orbits of Earth around the Sun and of the Moon around Earth, together with the rotation of Earth about an axis between its North and South poles, cause observable patterns. These include day and night; daily changes in the length and direction of shadows; and different positions of the Sun, Moon, and stars at different times of the day, month, and year.

Related Research

• Explanations of the day/night cycle, the phases of the Moon, and the seasons are very challenging for students. To understand these phenomena, students first should master the idea of a spherical Earth, itself a challenging task (AAAS 2009). • The two most common alternative conceptions are that the day/night cycle is caused by Earth going around the Sun once a day and that it is caused by the Sun going around Earth once a day (Danaia and McKinnon 2007). • Because the explanation for the daily cycle of light and dark has traditionally been taught at the early elementary grades, some researchers have attempted to teach the concept as early as preschool (ages 5 and 6). However, they have had little success (Valanides, Gritsi, and Kampeza 2000). • Mant and Summers (1993) interviewed primary school teachers in England. Although most could explain the day/night cycle in scientific terms, few could relate their explanations to observations of how

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the Sun appears in the sky. Some appeared to work backward from their explanation to describe what must be happening in the sky. That suggests it is important to have students first observe how the Sun changes its position during the daytime, before explaining why that happens from the viewpoint of a spinning Earth. • Some students at the secondary level may still believe that day and night occur because Earth goes around the Sun or the Sun goes around Earth (Schoon 1992). • An older study by Baxter (1989) identified six ideas about day and night and showed that students, starting in preschool, seem to move through these ideas as they get older: (1) the Sun goes behind the hills, (2) clouds cover the Sun, (3) the Moon covers the Sun, (4) the Sun goes behind Earth once a day, (5) Earth goes around the Sun once a day, and (6) Earth spins on its axis once a day.

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• The probes “What Causes Night and Day?” and “Where Did the Sun Go?” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Astronomy can be used to further elicit students’ ideas about the day/night cycle (Keeley and Sneider 2012b, 2012c). • When revisiting this probe a second time and after students have had an opportunity to learn about the day/night cycle, make the probe three dimensional by (1) asking students to describe a model they could use to explain their answer choice and (2) including the crosscutting concept of patterns in their explanation. • Make sure elementary students accept the idea of a spherical Earth, which is a precursor to understanding the spin of Earth on its axis. Because they visualize a flat, solid Earth beneath their feet, it is a transition

•

•

•

•

•

for students to visualize Earth as a huge ball in space. Primary grade students should also develop the idea of a repeated pattern of day/night before being expected to explain what causes the pattern. Use physical models made from common objects, such as a globe and a flashlight, to help students visualize the phenomenon of day and night experienced from different locations on Earth. Make sure students have the opportunity to manipulate their models rather than being passive observers of a teacher demonstration. Globe models can be followed by having students simulate the spinning Earth with their heads. Have the students slowly turn in place to see the “sunrise” as they just start to see the light, then have them observe how the Sun goes from one side of their field of view to the other side until they finally see “sunset” as the Sun disappears on the other side of their view. Students (and even adults) often confuse the terminology related to Earth’s motion. Introduce rotation before revolution. Start with the concept of an Earth spinning about an axis before introducing the terminology. Once students have grasped the idea of rotation, use a model to help them see that Earth rotates as it moves around the Sun in a nearly circular path. Help students recognize how our everyday language may lead to incorrect ideas about the day/night cycle. Have students critique the use of words and phrases like sundown, sunrise, the Sun is sinking, the Sun comes up in the morning, and sunset. Older students may know that Earth spins on its imaginary axis, but they may have never been asked to describe what direction Earth spins in—clockwise or counterclockwise, east to west, or west to east? Challenge students to figure it out

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based on their observations of sunrise and sunset. • Use the crosscutting concept of patterns with upper elementary or middle school students to analyze how and figure out why sunrise and sunset times differ throughout the year, especially in higher latitudes. • Middle and high school students can use the probe “How Long Is a Day on the Moon?” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Astronomy to elicit their ideas about the day/night cycle on the Moon and develop a model to explain it (Keeley and Sneider 2012a).

Related NSTA Resources Bogan, D., and D. Wood. 1997. Simulating Sun, Moon, and Earth patterns. Science Scope 21 (2): 46–48. Haverly, C., and K. Sedlmeyer. 2019. Making sense of day and night. Science and Children 56 (9): 28–37. Morgan, E. 2013. Next time you see a sunset. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Plummer, J. D. 2017. Core idea ESS1: Earth’s place in the Universe. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 185–203. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

References American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Baxter, J. 1989. Children’s understanding of familiar astronomical events. International Journal of Science Education 11 (5): 502–513.

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Danaia, L., and D. H. McKinnon. 2007. Common alternative astronomical conceptions encountered in junior secondary science classes: Why is this so? Astronomy Education Review 6 (2):32–53. Keeley, P., and C. Sneider. 2012a. How Long Is a Day on the Moon? In Uncovering student ideas in astronomy: 45 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and C. Sneider, 131–134. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P., and C. Sneider. 2012b. What causes night and day? In Uncovering student ideas in astronomy: 45 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and C. Sneider, 21–25. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P., and C. Sneider. 2012c. Where did the Sun go? In Uncovering student ideas in astronomy: 45 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and C. Sneider, 33–36. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Mant, J., and M. Summers. 1993. Some primary school teachers’ understanding of the Earth’s place in the universe. Research Papers in Education 8 (1): 101–129. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Schoon, K. 1992. Students’ alternative conceptions of Earth and space. Journal of Geological Education 40 (3): 209–214. Valanides, N., F. Gritsi, and M. Kampeza. 2000. Changing pre-school children’s conceptions of the day/night cycle. International Journal of Early Years Education 8 (1): 27–39.

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Emmy’s Moon and Stars Emmy looked out her window and saw the Moon and stars. She wondered how far away they were. Circle the answer that best describes where you think the Moon and stars are that Emmy sees. A. T here are no stars bet ween Earth and the Moon. B. One star is between Earth and the Moon. C. A few stars are between Earth and the Moon. D. There are many stars between Earth and the Moon. E. Several stars are between the Moon and the edge of our solar system. Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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La Luna y las Estrellas de Emmy Emmy miró por la ventana y vio la luna y estrellas. Ella se preguntaba qué tan lejos estaban. Encierra en un círculo la respuesta que mejor describe en donde crees que están la luna y las estrellas que Emmy ve. A. No hay estrellas entre la Tierra y la Luna. B. Una estrella está entre la Tierra y la Luna. C. Algunas estrellas están entre la Tierra y la Luna. D. Hay muchas estrellas entre la Tierra y la Luna. E. Varias estrellas están entre la Luna y el borde de nuestro sistema solar. Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Emmy’s Moon and Stars Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about the relative position of common objects seen in the night sky. The probe is designed to find out if students recognize how far away the stars are in relation to Earth and the Moon.

Type of Probe Sequencing

Related Concepts

Earth-Moon system, stars, solar system, relative distances in the universe

Explanation

The best response is A: There are no stars between Earth and the Moon. Even the Sun, which is the only star in our solar system, is located far beyond Earth and the Moon, not between it. The stars Emmy sees are located far away, outside our solar system. To put it all in perspective, the Sun is about 150 million

kilometers (93 million miles) from Earth. The next nearest star is about 40 trillion kilometers (25 trillion miles) away. The Moon is only about 383,000 kilometers (238,000 miles) from Earth. Distant stars, which are massive, appear as tiny points of light in the night sky because they are so far away. To a viewer on Earth, stars may seem closer because vast distances and enormous sizes in space are difficult to visualize. Agan (2004) described the difficulty in describing stellar distance this way: The vast distances between stars are difficult for astronomers to discuss in common language. Many astronomy educators use scale models to provide a sense of the distances between stars. For instance, if the Sun were 1 inch in diameter, the nearest star would be nearly 500 miles away. A formal measurement of astronomical distances, the light year, is the distance that light

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travels in one year, approximately six trillion miles. The nearest star to the Sun, Proxima Centauri, is roughly 4.2 light years away. (p. 87)

Curricular and Instructional Considerations Elementary Students In the early elementary years, students make regular observations of the night sky, taking inventory of the objects they see at night, including the Moon and stars. They are encouraged to draw what they see. The emphasis at this level should be on observing, describing, and looking for patterns. They learn how telescopes help us see more stars in the sky than we can with our eyes alone. In grades 3–5, students are developing an understanding of light and how it travels, and they begin to realize that the brightness of the light from objects very far away, such as stars, varies according to how far away the star is. They also notice that stars come in a variety of sizes and distances from Earth and the Sun. However, the magnitude of distance between objects in the night sky is still difficult for them to comprehend. Middle School Students Students at this level begin to add details to their model of objects in the solar system, extending out to the Milky Way galaxy and beyond. The crosscutting concept of scale is further developed, including much larger magnitudes and various methods and units of measurement for distant objects within and beyond our solar system. Students at this level use models to explain the apparent positions and movement of objects in the sky, including the solar system, stars, the Milky Way galaxy, and distant galaxies.

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High School Students High school is when a more complete picture of the vast universe develops. The study of the universe becomes more abstract. Huge magnitudes of scale make more sense to many students, although some are still at a level where abstractions and huge numbers are difficult to comprehend. Their knowledge of physics combines with astronomy to understand how the light spectra is used to determine distances from Earth.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–8. Ask students if they have ever looked up at the sky at night and seen the Moon and the stars. Be aware that some students who live in cities may have never seen the stars because of light pollution. It may help to have a photograph or picture that shows the Moon and stars as they would be seen if one looked at an evening sky in a dark location. If younger students are not yet familiar with the concept of a solar system, remove distracter E or describe the solar system as the place where Earth, other planets, and our Moon and Sun are found.

Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013) K–2 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • Patterns of the motion of the Sun, Moon, and stars in the sky can be observed, described, and predicted. 3–5 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • The Sun is a star that appears larger and brighter than other stars because it is closer. Stars range greatly in their distance from Earth.

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6–8 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • Earth and its solar system are part of the Milky Way galaxy, which is one of many galaxies in the universe. 6–8 ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System • The solar system consists of the Sun and a collection of objects, including planets, their moons, and asteroids that are held in orbit around the Sun by its gravitational pull on them. 9–12 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • The study of stars’ light spectra and brightness is used to identify compositional elements of stars, their movements, and their distances from Earth.

Related Research

• It is a common belief among elementarygrade children that stars are smaller than the Moon and located in the solar system or around the Moon (Plummer, Kocareli, and Slagle 2014). Even when provided with instruction about the actual size of stars compared with planets and the Sun, children accept the idea that there are very large stars located very far away from our solar system but still hold on to the idea that there are also very small stars inside our solar system. • Students’ grasp of many of the ideas about the composition and magnitude of the universe has to grow slowly over time. In spite of common depiction, the Suncentered system seriously conflicts with common intuition (AAAS 2009). • Agan (2004) interviewed high school and undergraduate college students to find out their ideas about distances between stars. Four out of eight high school students interviewed who had little astronomy instruction in their Earth science class and one undergraduate student out of five who received no formal astronomy instruction in high school or college described stars

as being dispersed within the realm of the solar system. • Dussault (1999) reported on a survey of 257 visitors to the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C., who were asked to name things found in the solar system. As expected, 82% named planets; surprisingly, 41% named stars and 18% named galaxies. Just 5% of the visitors named Earth as a component of the solar system. • Field-testing this probe with 64 fifth graders who had previously learned about the solar system revealed the following responses: 19% chose A, 15% chose B, 41% chose C, 10% chose D, and 15% chose E (Keeley 2011).

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• This probe can be combined with the probe “What’s Inside Our Solar System?” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Astronomy to see if students distinguish between objects that are found in our solar system and objects outside the solar system (Keeley and Sneider 2012). • This probe can be used to elicit students’ ideas about where stars are located after students have developed a model of where Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are relative to each other. • Encourage younger children to draw what they see in the night sky and talk about how near or far away those objects are. • Fiction books children read at this age can contribute to the development of an incorrect model of the night sky. Some of these books include illustrations that show a star within the curve of a crescent Moon (which means the star is in front of the Moon and nearby) or show stars that are greatly distorted in size compared with the Moon.

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• Show students an image of a night sky with a crescent Moon and several stars in the sky, including one that is inside the curve of the crescent. Challenge students to figure out what is wrong with the picture and why. • Some ideas about light and sight need to be developed before children can understand astronomical phenomena. Develop the idea that a large light source seen at a great distance looks like a small light source that is much closer. This phenomenon should be observed directly outside at night or with photographs (AAAS 2009). • Keep in mind that students’ understanding of the magnitude of the universe needs to develop slowly over time. Numbers like billions and trillions, even millions, do not make much sense to young children because the vast scale is too abstract to comprehend. Even adults have difficulty comprehending how large a billion is. • Begin developing the crosscutting concept of scale distance with familiar objects that students can see in the sky, such as the clouds, Moon, and Sun. Gradually introduce the nearby planets and then planets that are farther away. Once students are at a conceptual level where they can grasp the enormity of our solar system, introduce the distance between Earth and nearby stars outside our solar system in the Milky Way galaxy, gradually working outward to vast distances beyond our galaxy when students are ready to comprehend the magnitudes and measurement systems involved. • Using telescopes—or even a good pair of binoculars—instead of the naked eye reveals more stars and makes the stars seen with the naked eye seem much brighter. Link the idea of stars being seen as points of light very far away with how telescopes help us see things, such as stars, better at

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significant distances. However, students need to be aware that the distance between Earth and the stars cannot be determined with the eyes alone. • Middle school is a good time for students to create a model of the solar system using the same scale for both size and distance. Several modeling activities are available online, including PBS Learning Media’s “Earth as a Peppercorn” model at https://ri.pbslearningmedia. org/resource/mck14-pd-sci-ess-peppercorn/ earth-as-a-peppercorn.

Related NSTA Resources Keeley, P. 2011. Formative assessment probes: Where are the stars? Science and Children 49 (1): 32–34. Keeley, P. 2014. Where are the stars? In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment, P. Keeley, 69–76. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Plummer, J. D. 2017. Core idea ESS1: Earth’s place in the Universe. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 185–203. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Wiebke, H., M. Rogers, and V. Nargund-Joshi. 2011. Sizing up the solar system. Science and Children 49 (1): 36–41.

References Agan, L. 2004. Stellar ideas: Exploring students’ understanding of stars. Astronomy Education Review 3 (1): 77–97. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Dussault, M. 1999. How do visitors understand the universe? Studies yield information on planning exhibitions and programs. ASTC Newsletter (May/June): 9–11.

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Keeley, P. 2011. Formative assessment probes: Where are the stars? Science and Children 49 (1): 32–34. Keeley, P., and C. Sneider. 2012. What’s inside our solar system? In Uncovering student ideas in astronomy: 45 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and C. Sneider, 147–152. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices,

crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Plummer, J. D., A. Kocareli, and C. Slagle. 2014. Learning to explain astronomy across moving frames of reference: Exploring the role of classroom and planetarium-based instructional contexts. International Journal of Science Education 36 (7): 1083–1106.

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Objects in the Sky Different things can be seen in the sky, using only your eyes. Put a D next to the things that are seen only in the daylight. Put an N next to the things that can be seen only at night. Put a B next to the things that can be seen in both the daylight and at night. ___ clouds ___  the Sun ___  the Moon ___  stars (not including the Sun) ___  the planet Venus ___  the planet Saturn Explain your thinking. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________

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Objetos en el Cielo Se pueden ver diferentes cosas en el cielo, usando solo tus ojos. Pon una D al lado de las cosas que solo se pueden ver a la luz del día. Pon una N al lado de las cosas que solo se pueden ver por la noche. Pon una B al lado de las cosas que se pueden ver en ambos el día y la noche. ___ nubes ___  el Sol ___  la Luna ___  estrellas (sin incluir el Sol) ___  el planeta Venus ___  el planeta Saturno Explica lo que piensas. ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________ 182

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Objects in the Sky Teacher Notes

Purpose

The purpose of this assessment probe is to elicit students’ ideas about when objects can be seen in the sky. The probe is designed to reveal whether students consider light and distance in determining what they can see in the sky at different times.

Type of Probe

Familiar phenomenon

Related Concepts

Light, daytime sky, nighttime sky, stars, planets, Moon

Explanation

The best response is: B for clouds, D for the Sun, B for the Moon (except during a new Moon or full Moon that is not at sunrise or sunset), N for stars (not including the Sun), B for the planet Venus, and N for the planet Saturn. Much to some people’s surprise (including adults), the Moon can be visible

in the daytime blue sky when it is at a place in its orbit that puts it above Earth’s horizon during the daytime, although it is harder to see in the daytime because there is less contrast between the Moon and the day-lit sky. The Moon’s visibility during a bright day is due to its relative proximity to Earth and its reflection of sunlight. During the new Moon phase, the Moon is not observed during the day or night. The full Moon is visible only at night or just at sunrise or sunset. That is because the full Moon is always opposite the Sun in the sky, so it is just rising when the Sun is setting or just setting when the Sun is rising. Also, clouds can obscure the view of the Moon at night. Stars, other than the Sun, can be seen only at night because they are so far away. The only star visible to us in the daytime sky is the Sun, and it is not visible at night because of its location facing the opposite side of Earth, where it is daytime. Venus has been called “the morning star” because of its

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visibility in the morning, but it is not a star. It is a nearby planet that reflects light from the Sun. The other planets, including Saturn, are seen at night. However, on a very rare occasion, Jupiter and Mars have been seen in the daytime by some astronomers using only the naked eye. Clouds can be seen in the daytime and sometimes at night, especially in the light from the full Moon.

middle and high school students by adding other objects such as satellites, moons of other planets, comets, asteroids, the Milky Way galaxy, a nebula, meteors, and the International Space Station.

Curricular and Instructional Considerations

K–2 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • Patterns of the motion of the Sun, Moon, and stars in the sky can be observed, described, and predicted. 3–5 ESS1.A: The Universe and Its Stars • The Sun is a star that appears larger and brighter than other stars because it is closer. Stars range greatly in their distance from Earth. 6–8 ESS1.B: Earth and the Solar System • The solar system consists of the Sun and a collection of objects, including planets, their moons, and asteroids that are held in orbit around the Sun by its gravitational pull on them.

Elementary Students In the elementary years, students make regular observations of the sky, taking inventory of the familiar objects and their locations as seen during the day and night, including the Sun, Moon, and stars. They are encouraged to draw what they see. The emphasis at this level should be on observing and describing, including patterns of when and where the objects appear. In later elementary grades, students expand their observations and descriptions to include stars and planets. They also develop ideas about light reflection and light sources to explain how we see objects in the sky and why we cannot see stars in the daytime. Middle School Students Students at this level begin to add details to their model of objects in the solar system, extending out to the Milky Way galaxy and beyond. High School Students High school is when a more complete picture of the vast universe develops.

Administering the Probe

This probe can be used with students in grades 3–8. Be aware that students who live in cities may have never seen stars or planets in the nighttime sky. The probe can be extended for

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Related Disciplinary Core Ideas (NRC 2012; NGSS Lead States 2013)

Related Research

• A study of 20 first-grade students in a small Midwestern school revealed that 40% believed the Moon could be seen only at night. By third grade, 80% of the 20 students surveyed knew the Moon was visible during the daytime (Plummer and Krajcik 2010). • Children’s early ideas about the Moon include the belief that the Moon is visible only at night or is in some way connected with the occurrence of night (Vosniadou and Brewer 1994). • Researchers have identified several ideas that may help explain how students think about when sky objects can or cannot be seen: The Sun goes behind hills, clouds cover the Sun, the Moon covers the Sun,

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the Sun goes behind Earth once a day, Earth goes around the Sun once a day, and Earth spins on its axis once a day. It appears that at ages 15–16, many still hold covering and orbital theories of day and night (Driver et al. 1994).

•

Suggestions for Instruction and Assessment

• The probe “Seeing the Moon” in Uncovering Student Ideas in Astronomy can be used to elicit students’ ideas about when the Moon can be seen throughout the day and night (Keeley and Sneider 2012). • Some ideas about light and sight need to be developed before children can understand astronomical phenomena. Develop the idea that a large light source seen at a great distance looks like a small light source that is much closer. This phenomenon should be observed directly outside at night or with photographs (AAAS 2009). • It is not uncommon for children in the primary grades to be taught the idea, especially through picture books, that “the Sun is for the day, and the Moon is for the night,” even though that is not scientifically true. While the Sun does indeed define daytime as the hours between sunrise and sunset, the Moon can be seen during the daytime or nighttime. That is why it is important to take students outside when the Moon can be seen and have them observe it. • Some books and nursery rhymes even depict the Moon as a character ready to go to sleep wearing a nightcap. Show children a picture book with one of those images and ask them if the Moon would ever come out during the day. Follow up by going outside to see the Moon when it is visible in the daytime sky (Allen 2010). • Before students can discern planets in the night sky, it is necessary to help them distinguish between planets and stars in

•

•

•

terms of both how they are seen in the sky and the difference between emitting light and reflecting it. Use concrete objects for models, such as a ball and light. Have students observe and record how the ball looks from various locations around the light to learn how reflected light allows us to see the Moon and other planets. Take photographs of the sky during the day and at night or use available photographs on the internet to look at differences in the sky depending on time and season. Introduce students to the various types of technologies, including space telescopes, that enable us to see farther into our universe than we could with our naked eyes or land-based telescopes. Today’s students are not as personally connected to the sky as were people in the past. The sheer wonder of the sky has “inspired the expressive powers of poets, musicians, and artists” (AAAS 1993, p. 61). Help students to realize that knowing the sky and what it holds is a tribute to human curiosity and our zest for understanding our place in the cosmos.

Related NSTA Resources Keeley, P. 2014. The daytime Moon. In What are they thinking? Promoting elementary learning through formative assessment, P. Keeley, 99–104. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Keeley, P., and C. Sneider. 2012. Uncovering student ideas in astronomy: 45 new formative assessment probes. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Morgan, E. 2014. Next time you see the Moon. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. Plummer, J. D. 2017. Core idea ESS1: Earth’s place in the Universe. In Disciplinary core ideas: Reshaping teaching and learning, ed. R. G. Duncan, J. Krajcik, and A. E. Rivet, 185–203. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press.

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25

Earth and Space Science Probes

Wiebke, H., M. Rogers, and V. Nargund-Joshi. 2011. Sizing up the solar system. Science and Children 49 (1): 36–41.

References Allen, M. 2010. Misconceptions in primary science. Berkshire, England: Open University Press. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 1993. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). 2009. Benchmarks for science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press. www.project2061.org/publications/bsl/online/ index.php. Driver, R., A. Squires, P. Rushworth, and V. WoodRobinson. 1994. Making sense of secondary science: Research into children’s ideas. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

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Keeley, P., and C. Sneider. 2012. Seeing the Moon. In Uncovering student ideas in astronomy: 45 new formative assessment probes, P. Keeley and C. Sneider, 91–94. Arlington, VA: NSTA Press. National Research Council (NRC). 2012. A framework for K–12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org. Plummer, J. D., and J. Krajcik. 2010. Building a learning progression for celestial motion: Elementary levels from an Earth-based perspective. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 47 (7): 768–787. Vosniadou, S., and W. Brewer. 1994. Mental models of the day/night cycle. Cognitive Science 18: 123–183.

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Index A adaptation (LS4.C) Habitat Change, 144–145 administering probes, xii animals Baby Mice, 127–134 Habitat Change, 141–146 Whale and Shrew, 135–140 argumentation, engaging students in, 7 assessment-centered environment, 4 auxins, 107–108 B Baby Mice (probe), 5–6, 127–134 administering, 131 curricular and instructional considerations, 130–131 elementary students, 130 English version, 127 explanation, 129–130 high school students, 130–131 middle school students, 130 purpose, 129 related concepts, 129 related disciplinary core ideas, 131 related NSTA resources, 133 related research, 131–132 Spanish version, 128 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 132–133 teacher notes, 129–134 type of probe, 129 best answer choice, xi, 8 boiling point Boiling Time and Temperature, 47–52 Turning the Dial, 41–46 Boiling Time and Temperature (probe), 47–52 administering, 50 curricular and instructional considerations, 50 elementary students, 50 English version, 47 explanation, 49 high school students, 50

middle school students, 50 purpose, 49 related concepts, 49 related disciplinary core ideas, 50–51 related NSTA resources, 52 related research, 51 Spanish version, 48 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 51 teacher notes, 49–52 type of probe, 49 bridge analogy of learning, 7 buoyancy Floating High and Low, 29–34 C cells

Whale and Shrew, 135–140 Chemical Bonds (probe), 67–72 administering, 70 curricular and instructional considerations, 69–70 elementary students, 69 English version, 67 explanation, 69 high school students, 70 middle school students, 70 purpose, 69 related concepts, 69 related disciplinary core ideas, 70 related NSTA resources, 71 related research, 70–71 Spanish version, 68 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 71 teacher notes, 69–72 type of probe, 69 classroom environments, type of, 3–4 cognitive dissonance, 2–3, 9 commonly held ideas, ix, xii–xiii, xv, 1, 8, 102 community-centered environment, 4 Comparing Cubes (probe), 2, 15–21 administering, 18 curricular and instructional considerations, 17–18

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187

Index elementary students, 17–18 English version, 15 explanation, 17 high school students, 18 middle school students, 18 purpose, 17 related concepts, 17 related disciplinary core ideas, 18 related NSTA resources, 20 related research, 18–19 Spanish version, 16 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 19–20 teacher notes, 17–21 type of probe, 17 concept matrix Baby Mice, 90 Boiling Time and Temperature, 14 Chemical Bonds, 14 Comparing Cubes, 14 Darkness at Night, 148 Earth and Space Science Probes (section), 148 Emmy’s Moon and Stars, 148 Floating High and Low, 14 Floating Logs, 14 Freezing Ice, 14 Giant Sequoia Tree, 90 Habitat Change, 90 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 14 Is It a Plant?, 90 Is It a Rock? (Version 1), 148 Is It a Rock? (Version 2), 148 Is It Food for Plants?, 90 Life Science Probes (section), 90 Mixing Water, 14 Mountaintop Fossil, 148 Needs of Seeds, 90 Objects in the Sky, 148 Physical Science Probes (section), 14 Plants in the Dark and Light, 90 Solids and Holes, 14 Turning the Dial, 14 Whale and Shrew, 90 What’s in the Bubbles?, 14 conceptual change model (CCM) of instruction, 2–3

188

D Darkness at Night (probe), 167–172 administering, 170 curricular and instructional considerations, 169–170 elementary students, 169–170 English version, 167 explanation, 169 high school students, 170 middle school students, 170 purpose, 169 related concepts, 169 related disciplinary core ideas, 170 related NSTA resources, 172 related research, 170–171 Spanish version, 168 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 171–172 teacher notes, 169–172 type of probe, 169 day/night cycle Darkness at Night, 167–172 density Floating High and Low, 29–34 Floating Logs, 23–28 middle school vignette on teaching, 10–11 mixed, 37–39 Solids and Holes, 35–40 diagnostic assessment, xiii diagnostic probes, xiii disciplinary core ideas (DCIs), ix, xi–xii Baby Mice, 131 Boiling Time and Temperature, 50–51 Chemical Bonds, 70 Comparing Cubes, 18 Darkness at Night, 170 Emmy’s Moon and Stars, 176–177 Floating High and Low, 32 Floating Logs, 26–27 Freezing Ice, 56 Giant Sequoia Tree, 123–124 Habitat Change, 144–145 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 77 Is It a Plant?, 94 Is It a Rock? (Version 1), 152 Is It a Rock? (Version 2), 159 Is It Food for Plants?, 115 Mixing Water, 84–85

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Index Mountaintop Fossil, 164–165 Needs of Seeds, 103 Objects in the Sky, 184 Plants in the Dark and Light, 108 Solids and Holes, 38 Turning the Dial, 44–45 Whale and Shrew, 138 What’s in the Bubbles?, 62 discussion, using probes for class, 6–7 E Earth and Space Science Probes (section), 147– 186 concept matrix, 148 Darkness at Night, 167–172 Emmy’s Moon and Stars, 173–179 Is It a Rock? (Version 1), 149–153 Is It a Rock? (Version 2), 155–160 Mountaintop Fossil, 161–166 Objects in the Sky, 181–186 Earth and the solar system (ESS1.B) Darkness at Night, 170 Emmy’s Moon and Stars, 177 Objects in the Sky, 184 Earth materials and systems (ESS2.A) Is It a Rock? (Version 1), 152 ecosystem dynamics, functioning, and resilience (LS2.C) Habitat Change, 144 ecosystems, cycles of matter and energy transfer in (LS2.B) Giant Sequoia Tree, 123 ecosystems, interdependent relationships in (LS2.A) Needs of Seeds, 103 Plants in the Dark and Light, 108 Emmy’s Moon and Stars (probe), 5, 173–179 administering, 176 curricular and instructional considerations, 176 elementary students, 176 English version, 173 explanation, 175–176 high school students, 176 middle school students, 176 purpose, 175 related concepts, 175

related disciplinary core ideas, 176–177 related NSTA resources, 178 related research, 177 Spanish version, 174 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 177–178 teacher notes, 175–179 type of probe, 175 energy, conservation and transfer of (PS3.B) Ice-Cold Lemonade, 77 Mixing Water, 85 energy, definitions of (PS3.A) Boiling Time and Temperature, 50 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 77 Mixing Water, 84 Turning the Dial, 44 energy in chemical processes and everyday life (PS3.D) Giant Sequoia Tree, 123 Is It Food for Plants?, 115 energy transfer Giant Sequoia Tree, 119–126 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 73–79 Mixing Water, 81–87 extensive properties of matter, 17–18, 20, 26, 85 F Familiar Phenomenon (probe type) Boiling Time and Temperature, 49 format explained, x Giant Sequoia Tree, 121 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 75 Objects in the Sky, 183 Turning the Dial, 43 finding out, process of, 8 Floating High and Low (probe), 29–34 administering, 32 curricular and instructional considerations, 32 elementary students, 32 English version, 29 explanation, 31 high school students, 32 middle school students, 32 purpose, 31 related concepts, 31 related disciplinary core ideas, 32 related NSTA resources, 33–34

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189

Index related research, 32–33 Spanish version, 30 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 33 teacher notes, 31–34 type of probe, 31 Floating Logs (probe), 5, 23–28 administering, 26 curricular and instructional considerations, 25–26 elementary students, 25–26 English version, 23 explanation, 25 high school students, 26 middle school students, 26 purpose, 25 related concepts, 25 related disciplinary core ideas, 26–27 related NSTA resources, 28 related research, 27 Spanish version, 24 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 27–28 teacher notes, 25–28 type of probe, 25 vignette on teaching density, 10–11 formative assessment classroom techniques (FACTs), xiv formative assessment probes, ix, xiii–xv as assessments for learning, 1–3 classroom environment and, 3–4 linking probes, teaching, and learning, 3 probe types, x safely sharing students’ ideas, 6 taking students’ ideas into account, 4–6 tips and considerations for using, 7–10 using for class discussion, 6–7 using to support learning, 6 vignette on teaching density, 10–11 fossils Mountaintop Fossil, 161–166 A Framework for K–12 Science Education, ix, xi–xii Freezing Ice (probe), 53–58 administering, 56 curricular and instructional considerations, 55–56 elementary students, 55–56 English version, 53 explanation, 55

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high school students, 56 middle school students, 56 purpose, 55 related concepts, 55 related disciplinary core ideas, 56 related NSTA resources, 57–58 related research, 56–57 Spanish version, 54 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 57 teacher notes, 55–58 type of probe, 55 freezing point Freezing Ice, 53–58 Friendly Talk (probe type) Baby Mice, 129 Chemical Bonds, 69 Darkness at Night, 169 format explained, x Mountaintop Fossil, 163 Plants in the Dark and Light, 107 What’s in the Bubbles?, 61 G genes Baby Mice, 127–134 Giant Sequoia Tree (probe), 119–126 administering, 123 curricular and instructional considerations, 122–123 elementary students, 122 English version, 119 explanation, 121–122 high school students, 123 middle school students, 122–123 purpose, 121 related concepts, 121 related disciplinary core ideas, 123–124 related NSTA resources, 126 related research, 124–125 Spanish version, 120 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 125–126 teacher notes, 121–126 type of probe, 121 growth and development of organisms (LS1.B) Whale and Shrew, 138

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Index H Habitat Change (probe), 141–146 administering, 144 curricular and instructional considerations, 144 elementary students, 144 English version, 141 explanation, 143 high school students, 144 middle school students, 144 purpose, 143 related concepts, 143 related disciplinary core ideas, 144–145 related NSTA resources, 146 related research, 145 Spanish version, 142 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 145–146 teacher notes, 143–146 type of probe, 143 heat (heat energy) Boiling Time and Temperature, 47–52 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 73–79 Mixing Water, 81–87 Turn the Dial, 41–46 What’s in the Bubbles?, 59–65 heredity Baby Mice, 127–134 history of planet Earth (ESS1.C) Mountaintop Fossil, 164 I I-R-E (initiate-respond-evaluate) pattern of student-teacher interaction, 8 Ice-Cold Lemonade (probe), 73–79 administering, 76–77 curricular and instructional considerations, 76 elementary students, 76 English version, 73 explanation, 75–76 high school students, 76 middle school students, 76 purpose, 75 related concepts, 75 related disciplinary core ideas, 77 related NSTA resources, 78–79 related research, 77–78

Spanish version, 74 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 78 teacher notes, 75–79 type of probe, 75 ideas, commonly held ideas, ix, xii–xiii, xv, 1, 8, 102 “if, then” reasoning, 20 inheritance of traits (LS3.A) Baby Mice, 131 intensive properties of matter, 17–18, 20, 25–26, 37, 43, 49, 55–57, 85 Is It a Plant? (probe), 91–97 administering, 94 curricular and instructional considerations, 93–94 elementary students, 93–94 English version, 91 explanation, 93 high school students, 94 middle school students, 94 purpose, 93 related concepts, 93 related disciplinary core ideas, 94 related NSTA resources, 96 related research, 94–95 Spanish version, 92 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 95–96 teacher notes, 93–97 type of probe, 93 Is It a Rock? (Version 1) (probe), 149–153 administering, 152 curricular and instructional considerations, 151–152 elementary students, 151–152 English version, 149 explanation, 151 high school students, 152 middle school students, 152 purpose, 151 related concepts, 151 related disciplinary core ideas, 152 related NSTA resources, 153 related research, 152 Spanish version, 150 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 153 teacher notes, 151–153

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191

Index type of probe, 151 Is It a Rock? (Version 2) (probe), 5, 155–160 administering, 158–159 curricular and instructional considerations, 158 elementary students, 158 English version, 155 explanation, 157–158 high school students, 158 middle school students, 158 purpose, 157 related concepts, 157 related disciplinary core ideas, 159 related NSTA resources, 160 related research, 159 Spanish version, 156 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 159–160 teacher notes, 157–160 type of probe, 157 Is It Food for Plants? (probe), 5, 111–117 administering, 115 curricular and instructional considerations, 114–115 elementary students, 114 English version, 111 explanation, 113–114 high school students, 114–115 middle school students, 114 purpose, 113 related concepts, 107 related disciplinary core ideas, 115 related NSTA resources, 117 related research, 115–116 Spanish version, 112 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 116–117 teacher notes, 113–117 type of probe, 113 J Justified List (probe type) Comparing Cubes, 17 format explained, x Habitat Change, 143 Is It a Plant?, 93 Is It a Rock? (Version 1), 151

192

Is It a Rock? (Version 2), 157 Is It Food for Plants?, 113 Needs of Seeds, 101 K knowledge-centered environment, 4 L learner-centered environment, 4 Life Science Probes (section), 89–146 Baby Mice, 127–134 concept matrix, 90 Giant Sequoia Tree, 119–126 Habitat Change, 141–146 Is It a Plant?, 91–97 Is It Food for Plants?, 111–117 Needs of Seeds, 99–104 Plants in the Dark and Light, 105–110 Whale and Shrew, 135–140 listening, encouraging student, 9 M matter, structure and properties of (PS1.A) Boiling Time and Temperature, 50–51 Chemical Bonds, 70 Comparing Cubes, 18 Floating High and Low, 32 Floating Logs, 26 Freezing Ice, 56 Solids and Holes, 38 Turning the Dial, 44–45 What’s in the Bubbles?, 62 metacognition, 9 misconceptions, xii, 4 mitosis Whale and Shrew, 135–140 Mixing Water (probe), 81–87 administering, 84 curricular and instructional considerations, 83–84 elementary students, 83–84 English version, 81 explanation, 83 high school students, 84 middle school students, 84

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Index purpose, 83 related concepts, 83 related disciplinary core ideas, 84–85 related NSTA resources, 86 related research, 85–86 Spanish version, 82 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 86 teacher notes, 83–87 type of probe, 83 More A-More B (probe type) format explained, x Whale and Shrew, 137 Mountaintop Fossil (probe), 161–166 administering, 164 curricular and instructional considerations, 164 elementary students, 164 English version, 161 explanation, 163 high school students, 164 middle school students, 164 purpose, 163 related concepts, 163 related disciplinary core ideas, 164–165 related NSTA resources, 166 related research, 165 Spanish version, 162 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 165–166 teacher notes, 163–166 type of probe, 163 N natural resources (ESS3.A) Is It a Rock? (Version 2), 159 Needs of Seeds (probe), 1–2, 99–104 administering, 102–103 curricular and instructional considerations, 102 elementary students, 102 English version, 99 explanation, 101 high school students, 102 middle school students, 102 purpose, 101 related concepts, 101 related disciplinary core ideas, 103

related NSTA resources, 104 related research, 103 Spanish version, 100 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 103–104 teacher notes, 101–104 type of probe, 101 Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), ix, xi–xii, 33 O Objects in the Sky (probe), 181–186 administering, 184 curricular and instructional considerations, 184 elementary students, 184 English version, 181 explanation, 183–184 high school students, 184 middle school students, 184 purpose, 183 related concepts, 183 related disciplinary core ideas, 184 related NSTA resources, 185–186 related research, 184–185 Spanish version, 182 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 185 teacher notes, 183–186 type of probe, 183 Opposing Views (probe type) format explained, x Freezing Ice, 55 organization for matter and energy flow in organisms (LS1.C) Giant Sequoia Tree, 123–124 Is It Food for Plants?, 115 Needs of Seeds, 103 Plants in the Dark and Light, 108 P P-E-O (Predict-Explain-Observe) probe type Boiling Time and Temperature, 49 Floating High and Low, 31 Floating Logs, 25 format explained, x

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193

Index Mixing Water, 83 Solids and Holes, 37 Turning the Dial, 43 phase change What’s in the Bubbles?, 59–65 photosynthesis Giant Sequoia Tree, 119–126 Is It Food for Plants?, 111–117 phototropism, 109 Physical Science Probes (section), 13–87 Boiling Time and Temperature, 47–52 Chemical Bonds, 67–72 Comparing Cubes, 15–21 concept matrix, 14 Floating High and Low, 29–34 Floating Logs, 23–28 Freezing Ice, 53–58 Ice-Cold Lemonade, 73–79 Mixing Water, 81–87 Solids and Holes, 35–40 Turning the Dial, 41–46 What’s in the Bubbles?, 59–65 plants Giant Sequoia Tree, 119–126 Is It a Plant?, 91–97 Is It Food for Plants?, 111–117 Needs of Seeds, 99–104 Plants in the Dark and Light, 105–110 Plants in the Dark and Light (probe), 105–110 administering, 108 curricular and instructional considerations, 108 elementary students, 108 English version, 105 explanation, 107–108 high school students, 108 middle school students, 108 purpose, 107 related concepts, 107 related disciplinary core ideas, 108 related NSTA resources, 109 related research, 108–109 Spanish version, 106 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 109 teacher notes, 107–110 type of probe, 107

194

plate tectonics and large-scale system interaction (ESS2.B) Mountaintop Fossil, 164–165 predictions and testing, 8 probes. See formative assessment probes R reflection, encouraging continuous, 9 risk-taking in thinking, encouraging, 9 rocks Is It a Rock? (Version 1), 149–153 Is It a Rock? (Version 2), 155–160 rotation of the Earth Darkness at Night, 167–172 S safely sharing students’ ideas, 6 seeds Needs of Seeds, 99–104 Sequencing (probe type) Emmy’s Moon and Stars, 175 format explained, x solar system. See Earth and the solar system (ESS1.B) Solids and Holes (probe), 8, 35–40 administering, 38 curricular and instructional considerations, 38 elementary students, 38 English version, 35 explanation, 37–38 high school students, 38 middle school students, 38 purpose, 37 related concepts, 37 related disciplinary core ideas, 38 related NSTA resources, 40 related research, 38–39 Spanish version, 36 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 39–40 teacher notes, 37–40 type of probe, 37 space science. See Earth and Space Science Probes (section) stars. See universe and its stars (ESS1.A) steam, 61, 63–64

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Index structure and function (LS1.A) Baby Mice, 131 Needs of Seeds, 103 Plants in the Dark and Light, 108 Whale and Shrew, 138 summative assessments, 3 T taxonomy Is It a Plant?, 91–97 temperature Boiling Time and Temperature, 47–52 Freezing Ice, 53–58 Turning the Dial, 41–46 thermal energy Ice-Cold Lemonade, 73–79 Mixing Water, 81–87 think-pair-share strategy, 8 Turning the Dial (probe), 41–46 administering, 44 curricular and instructional considerations, 44 elementary students, 44 English version, 41 explanation, 43 high school students, 44 middle school students, 44 purpose, 43 related concepts, 43 related disciplinary core ideas, 44–45 related NSTA resources, 45–46 related research, 45 Spanish version, 42 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 45 teacher notes, 43–46 type of probe, 43 U universe and its stars (ESS1.A) Darkness at Night, 170 Emmy’s Moon and Stars, 176–177 Objects in the Sky, 184

V variation of traits (LS3.B) Baby Mice, 131 Habitat Change, 144 W water vapor, 2, 61, 63–64, 122 Whale and Shrew (probe), 135–140 administering, 138 curricular and instructional considerations, 137–138 elementary students, 137–138 English version, 135 explanation, 137 high school students, 138 middle school students, 138 purpose, 137 related concepts, 137 related disciplinary core ideas, 138 related NSTA resources, 140 related research, 139 Spanish version, 136 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 139 teacher notes, 137–140 type of probe, 137 What’s in the Bubbles? (probe), 2, 59–65 administering, 62 curricular and instructional considerations, 61–62 elementary students, 61–62 English version, 59 explanation, 61 high school students, 62 middle school students, 62 purpose, 61 related concepts, 61 related disciplinary core ideas, 62 related NSTA resources, 64–65 related research, 62–63 Spanish version, 60 suggestions for instruction and assessment, 63–64 teacher notes, 61–65 type of probe, 61

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195

VOL 2. S E C O N D E D I T I O N

UNCOVERING STUDENT IDEAS

NOW

WITH ALL PROBES IN SPANISH AND ENGLISH!

IN SCIENCE

25 MORE FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT PROBES

“Alternative science ideas that go unchallenged will often follow students from one grade to the next, and even into adulthood.” —From the preface to Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Volume 2, Second Edition “Leave no alternative science idea unchallenged!” could be the slogan of this second edition of Uncovering Student Ideas in Science, Volume 2. Like the others in the bestselling series, this book is loaded with classroom-friendly features to pinpoint what your students know (or think they know) so you can adjust your teaching accordingly. At the book’s heart are 25 “probes” to use before you start a topic or unit. These short, easily administered formative assessments will determine your students’ thinking on core science concepts in physical science, life science, and Earth and space science. Each section includes a matrix of key concepts and the suggested grade level for each probe. In this new second edition, the probes appear in both English and Spanish. In addition, each probe links to related disciplinary core ideas from A Framework for K–12 Science Education and the Next Generation Science Standards. The teacher-friendly features are updated too. The accompanying Teacher Notes sections include current research summaries, revised instructional suggestions, and new NSTA resources. As before, these teacher materials also explain science content, present developmental considerations, and suggest instructional approaches for elementary, middle, and high school students. Other books discuss students’ general misconceptions. Only this one provides reproducible pages you can use to challenge student thinking on everything from characteristic properties of matter to habitat change to objects in the sky. Each probe—field-tested across multiple grade levels—can be used at any point in an instructional cycle to help your students reveal, re-examine, and further develop their understanding of science concepts. Rather than assessments of learning, think of these probes as assessments for learning.

PB193X2E2 ISBN: 978-1-68140-832-3 Grades 3–12

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