Trends in Horticultural Entomology 9811903425, 9789811903427

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M. Mani Editor

Trends in Horticultural Entomology

Trends in Horticultural Entomology

M. Mani Editor

Trends in Horticultural Entomology

Editor M. Mani ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

ISBN 978-981-19-0342-7 ISBN 978-981-19-0343-4 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4

(eBook)

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Foreword

Horticulture is one of the major commercial ventures in India and elsewhere. Diversified climatic conditions in India ensure the productivity of fruits, vegetables, spices, medicinal plants and tuber and plantation crops. Pests are major limiting factors in the production of horticultural crops. Advancement has taken place in the identification and management of pests in the last two decades. This book covers all the basic and applied aspects of the insect pests ultimately useful to implement the integrated pest management in different horticultural crops. The book covers the information on molecular identification of horticultural crop pests, changing the pest scenario in relation to climate change in horticultural crops, role of insect pollinators in horticultural crops, ecological engineering in pest management in horticultural crops, biotechnological approaches for the pest management in horticultural crops, nanotechnology in the management of horticultural crop pests, recent trends in biological control of horticultural crop pests, organic pest management in horticultural crops, pest management in protected cultivation of horticultural crops, advances in the use of botanicals in the management of horticultural crop pests, host plant resistance to pests in horticultural crops, semiochemicals in horticultural crop pests, novel insecticides for the management of horticultural crop pests and the insecticide resistance and its management in horticultural crop pests. The second part of the book covers the current pest management practices in different horticultural crops, namely the fruit crops (mango, citrus, grapes, guava, sapota, pineapple, banana, papaya, jackfruit, pomegranate, ber, custard apple, litchi, fig, jamun, loquat, bael, phalsa, ker, lasora, pilu, karonda, Indian gooseberry, date palm, apple, pear, peach, apricot, cherry, persimmon, walnut, olive, kiwi fruit, strawberry, avocado, breadfruit, carambola, durian, karonda, langsat, longan, mangosteen, passion fruit), vegetables (tomato, brinjal, chillies, okra, crucifers, cucurbits, leguminous vegetables, tuber crops (potato, tapioca, sweet potato, carrot, yam, aroids), onion and garlic, leafy vegetables, drumstick), plantation crops (cashew, coconut, arecanut, cocoa, coffee, tea, rubber, oil palm, betelvine), spices (black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and nutmeg, coriander, cumin, v

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Foreword

fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajwain, nigella and anise), ornamentals (rose, jasmine, chrysanthemum, crossandra, marigold, tuberose, carnation, China aster, gerbera, gladiolus, hibiscus, etc.), orchids and several medicinal plants. In brief, this book Trends in Horticultural Entomology is a comprehensive one covering all aspects of latest developments in the field of Horticultural Entomology. The book will be a treasure island for crop growers, state govt. officials and other stakeholders related to horticultural industry, besides the researchers and students engaged in entomological research and development activities. ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, India June 2021

N. Bakthavatsalam

Preface

Intensive and extensive cultivation of horticultural crops (fruits, vegetables, tuber crops, plantation crops, spices, ornamental and medicinal plants) leads to serious pest problem in India and elsewhere. The change in climatic conditions in India alters the incidence of pests. Many new pests have been found emerging to cause severe damage to the horticultural crops. Several insects are introduced deliberately or fortuitously into India and elsewhere. Accordingly, the pest management tactics have also been changed. Up-to-date information on biology, damage, seasonal development, natural enemies of the key pests are covered in this book. Current pest management practices for almost all fruits, vegetables, ornamental, tuber, plantation crops and spices are included in this book. It is attempted to accommodate new developments in molecular identification of insect pests, nanotechnology in pest management, climate change and pest management, ecological engineering in pest management, satellite technology in pest management, biotechnological approaches for pest management, organic pest management, host plant resistance, botanicals in pest management, semiochemicals, bio-control technology, novel insecticides, insecticide resistance and the pest management in protected cultivation. The book also covers insect pollinators which play an important role in fruits in horticultural crop production. A complete list of pests occurring in these different horticultural crops is covered in this book which will be ready reckoner for the growers. It is expected that this book will provide useful information to many entomologists and the students working on horticultural crops and the growers in the country. It is a pleasure to thank all those people who gave help, suggestions and encouragement in the preparation of the book Trends in Horticultural Entomology. Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

M. Mani

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Introduction

Horticulture in India and elsewhere is fast emerging as major commercial venture because of higher remuneration per unit area and the realization that consumption of fruits, vegetables, plantation crops, spices, etc. is essential for health and nutrition. In the last one decade, export potential of horticultural crops has significantly increased to attract even multinationals into floriculture, processing and value-added products. Productivity of horticultural crops is hampered by pests and diseases. Insect pests are one of the chief limiting factors for horticultural productivity. It is estimated that herbivorous insects eat about 30% of potential food production. In the recent past, tremendous developments in many fields of horticultural entomology that includes molecular identification, host plant resistance, insecticide resistance management, forecasting, semiochemicals, climate change, natural enemies, novel methods of pest management have taken place. There was urgent need to find viable alternatives to pesticides so as to minimize the pesticide use and residues. In this context, there is very good progress made in fine-tuning the pest protection technologies with greater emphasis on eco-friendly management practices.

Molecular Identification With the advent of molecular biology and molecular tools identification of life forms including insects has become quick, precise and easy. DNA barcoding is an alternative way to accurately identify species that also complements conventional taxonomy. DNA barcoding enables even a non-specialist to identify a species using immature stages like egg, larva, nymph or pupa. The mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) region marker was used in the species diagnosis and genetic diversity research. The PCR method developed effectively identified biotypes of insect pests. Molecular identification is applied to a great extent in sucking pests including thrips, mealybugs, whiteflies, aphids, leaf hoppers besides fruit flies.

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Nanotechnology Nanoparticles often exhibit novel features like extraordinary strength, chemical reactivity and high electrical conductivity as a result of their reduced size. The outcome from nanotechnology is going to show imperative role in decreasing the non-targeted toxicity and enhances the efficiency on targeted organisms with less quantity. Nanopesticide products could tender a variety of profits including amplified efficacy, durability and a decline in the amounts of active ingredients that require to be used. A number of formulation types have been recommended including nanoemulsions, nanocapsules and the products containing immaculate engineered nanoparticles like metals, metal oxides and nanoclays. Nanotechnological deliverables like nanomaterials, encapsulated nanoscale and the plant protection inputs such as pesticides, herbicides, plant growth regulators and other formulations using surfactants, polymers, dendrimers, surface ionic attachments and other related mechanisms can be utilized in controlled release of agricultural, horticultural inputs. Nanoparticles present possibilities for well-organized, effective control of pests in crops and also transformation of green revolution to ever green revolution.

Climate Change and Pest Management Concentrations of atmospheric CO2 and temperature have both been rising very significantly for three decades influencing all sectors of agriculture. The anticipated influence of climate change on crop plants in turn would alter pest incidence and associated natural enemies affecting the crop yields. Global warming and climate changes will result in: (1) Extension of geographical range of pests; (2) In cooler latitudes, global warming brings new species or biotypes; (3) Increased risk of invasion by migrant pests; (4) Reduced effectiveness of crop protection technologies; (5) A 2.4–2.7-fold increase in pesticide use by 2050; (6) Increased probability of pests developing faster resistance to pesticides; (7) Warmer winter temperatures would reduce winter mortality, favouring the increase of pest populations. Due to the climate change, there can be an increase in the number of insect pest population, outbreaks of insects, increased number of generations and biotypes; (8) Rising temperatures extend the growing season; (9) Overall temperature increases may influence crop pest interactions by speeding up pest growth rates. The precise impact of climate change on insects and pathogens is somewhat uncertain because some climate changes may favour pathogens and insects while others may inhibit few insect and pathogen species.

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Ecological Engineering in Pest Management Habitat manipulation, which is also referred to as “Ecological Engineering”, focuses on reducing mortality of natural enemies, providing the supplementary resources and manipulating host plant attributes for the benefit of natural bio-agents. It is an emerging technology to enhance biological control in an agro-system by preserving or enhancing its plant diversity or providing adequate refugia for pest’s natural enemies. Ecological engineering for pest management focuses on the use of cultural techniques to bring about habitat manipulation and enhance biological control. Habitat for sustaining populations of natural enemies occurs primarily at field edges where crops and edge vegetation meet. Conservation and enhancement of natural enemies might include manipulation of plant species and plant arrangement, particularly at these edges; and consideration of optimum field sizes, number of edges and management practices in and near edges. Blending the benefits of agricultural and forestry (windbreak) systems is one promising approach to field edge management that has additional benefits of wind protection.

Insect Pollinators in Crop Production Since majority of horticultural crops including fruits, vegetables and plantation crops are cross pollinated, insect pollinators play a major role in fruit and seed production of these crops. There is increased fruit production with the cross pollination mediated by insects. In litchi, macadamia, avocado, mango, citrus and many temperate fruit crops, honeybees produce surplus honey also. Maximum fruit set, fruit weight, fruit volume, and seed weight are recorded in open pollinated crops. In vegetables, the most viable option for pollination is insect pollination. Insects can help in pollination of crops under protected vegetable cultivation of cucurbits, capsicum, tomato, strawberry as in open field. In greenhouse or in protected cultivation practices, bumble bees are the most utilized pollinators. Main insect pollinators include Aphis cerana, A. florea, A. dorsata, A. andreniformis, A. laboriosa, A. mellifera, stingless bees, carpenter bees, bumble bees, megachilids, syrphids, etc. Steps to be taken for the improvement of insect pollination include providing sufficient flora for off-season sustenance of pollinators, protecting and conserving nest sites of natural pollinators, ensuring connectivity of natural habitats in farming areas, so that bees can more easily disperse and make needed range shifts in response to changing climates, providing more non-crop flowering resources in fields, such as cover crops, strip crops or hedgerows, and avoiding insecticide applications during blossom period.

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Remote Sensing in Crop Pest Management Remote sensing refers to the use of ground, air- or space-borne platforms to provide digital data of pest infested areas. Use of remote sensing techniques for detection of crop pests and diseases is based on the assumption that stresses induced by them interferes with photosynthesis and physical structure of the plant and affects the absorption of light energy and thus alters the reflectance spectrum of the plants. In general, the healthy plants give a higher reflectance in the near-infrared region and a lower one in the visible region and opposite is the situation with the infected plants. Remote sensing is the technique that measures the changes in electromagnetic radiation due to pest infestation and provides better means of objectively quantifying biotic stresses in comparison to visual assessment methods besides repeated use to collect sample measurements non-destructively and non-invasively. Remote sensing platforms can be field based (ground based) or mounted on aircraft (air-borne) and satellites (space-borne). Remote sensing is useful to detect the incidence and spread of the pests on fruit crops like grapes, citrus, date palm, walnut, vegetables like potato, mustard, chillies, and ornamentals like gerbera and also field crops, namely cotton, rice, wheat, etc. thereby facilitating timely management of these pests. Crop maps for polyphagous insects like Bemisia tabaci and B. argentifolii that infest large agricultural systems can be constructed using satellite remote sensing data. Such maps are useful especially in area-wide pest management. Special purpose entomological radars are deployed to observe and quantify high altitude movements of migratory insect pests like Spodoptera exempta, Heliothis zea, and H. virescens. Satellite remote sensing has potential to survey ecological conditions and forecasting the desert locust activity.

Biotechnological Pest Management As the problems with chemical insecticides have mounted, so has the pressure to develop biotechnological alternatives. This pressure intensified with the advent of recombinant DNA technologies in the early 1970s, but two decades later very few biotechnological alternatives have yet become available, although several may do so within the next decade. The potential impact that molecular and other biotechnologies may have on three pest control strategies, involving biological insecticides, insect resistant hosts and genetically engineered insects, is discussed. The first of these involves the development of biological insecticides, which could be used like conventional chemicals and may or may not be genetically engineered. The second involves the development of hosts carrying inbuilt protection against insect attack, which could be achieved in non-heritable form by vaccination or in heritable form by the engineering of either plants or animals with protective genes. The third approach involves genetic manipulation of the insects themselves, which could lead to biotechnological versions of genetic control programmes but could have other

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applications as well. Genetic engineering now permits the transfer of various insecticidal delta endotoxin genes from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) to other bacteria with different ecological niches. Concerning insect-resistant hosts, genetic engineering offers the possibility of heritable protection against a wider range of pests in plants.

Organic Pest Management Organic farming is gaining popularity worldwide among the farmers, entrepreneurs, policymakers, scientists and other stakeholders as it minimizes dependence on chemical inputs, thus safeguarding quality of natural resources and environment. The main principles of pest management in organic farming system include prevention/avoidance, monitoring and suppression of pests. Monitoring of crop pests is done with visuals, use of nets, sticky traps and pheromone traps. Preventive measures include cultural practices (removal of alternate host plants, selection of cultivars, crop rotations, tillage, mulching, barrier crop, intercropping, rap cropping, planting/sowing time, soil nutrition management) and also conservation of natural enemies. Curative measures include the pinching and pruning, sanitation, fruit bagging, water management, mechanical control, insect traps, using of parasitoids and predators, insect pathogens, botanicals, insect growth regulators, insecticidal oils, insecticidal soaps, organic and organic insecticides and other synthetic substances allowed in organic farming. These practices when used in a compatible manner could make organic ecosystem unattractive to pest species.

Host Plant Resistance Host plant resistance (HPR) has offered the simple solution for insect pests and insect vector transmissible disease management on several agricultural and horticultural crops from time to time. Host plant resistance, tolerance and susceptibility to insect pests in fruit crops, namely mango, citrus, guava, sapota, banana, pomegranate, ber, custard apple, aonla, jackfruit, bael, date palm and apple; vegetables, namely tomato, brinjal, okra, chillies, onion, snake gourd, pumpkin, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, sponge gourd, ridge gourd, musk melon, watermelon, cowpea, cabbage and drumstick; tuber crops, namely potato, cassava, dioscorea, taro, elephant and elephant foot yam; ornamentals, namely rose, carnation, chrysanthemum and gerbera; spices, namely black pepper, turmeric, cardamom, cumin, coriander, fennel and fenugreek; plantation crops like tea, coffee, cashew are discussed. These resistant varieties can be cultivated without much change in normal practice of cultivation and tolerance and less susceptible varieties can also be incorporated into insect pest management practices.

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Botanicals in the Pest Management Chemical method using synthetic insecticides is well known and more widely used for insect pest control in horticultural crops. Conventional pesticides also caused various harmful and serious issues on the humans and animal health leading to cancer, neurological disorders, hormonal disturbances and reproductive issues. They also kill non-target organisms like beneficial insects, cause outbreak of secondary pests, etc. Botanical pesticides obtained naturally from plant-based chemicals are found to be an effective alternative to conventional pesticides. Neem, China berry, pongamia, essential oils, garlic, custard apple, cassava and pagoda tree as important botanicals in India used for the pest control. Neem-based pesticides are one of the most important botanical pesticides used widely in India for pest management. Botanical pesticides can play a very important role in the integrated pest management in horticultural crops. Therefore, there is a vast scope to explore botanicals in insect pest management.

Semiochemicals Semiochemicals have been exploited in several ways to manage insect pests. These include monitoring and detection, population suppression through mating disruption, mass trapping and attract-and-kill techniques. The male-produced aggregation pheromone is successfully used in food-baited traps for the area-wide integrated management of red palm weevil in date palm, coconut palm and Canary Island palm plantations. Although the pheromones are very effective, environment-friendly and economical, their use in the field still remains low. The development of new dispensers and cost-effective formulation will bring about a change in the usage pattern of pheromones. Awareness to farmers and developmental agencies is an important activity for increasing the pheromone intake in field. The future of pheromone technology depends on the smart delivery systems, highly effective pheromones at low doses, modified easy to use traps and cost-effective products.

Bio-Control Technology There has been a tremendous progress made in the biological control of the pests with their natural enemies—parasitoids, predators and pathogens. Several indigenous and exotic parasitoids have been utilized for the control of the mealybugs infesting many horticultural crops including fruits, ornamentals and vegetables, San Jose scale and woolly aphid on apple and the spiralling whitefly in several horticultural crops. Trichogramma spp. are found useful to control the fruit borers in tomato, brinjal, etc. Similarly, the parasitoids are also very effective in the suppression of

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coconut black headed caterpillar. Likewise, the indigenous predators Chilocorus nigrita for the scale insects infesting, citrus, guava, ber, etc. exotic Cryptolaemus montrouzieri for mealybugs on many fruits and ornamentals, vedalia beetle Rodolia cardinalis for cottony cushion scale in several horticultural crops. There is good scope of utilizing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) at 1 g or 1 mL/L. for the control of the lepidopterous pests of many fruits, vegetables and ornamental crops. The white halo fungus Lecanicillium lecanii is most effective for the control of several sucking pests including green scale Coccus viridis on coffee and citrus under favourable conditions. The green muscardine Metarhizium anisopliae is very useful to control mango hoppers, rhinoceros beetle, cabbage diamondback moth, gherkin fruit borer Diaphania indica, etc. The white muscardine fungus Beauveria bassiana plays a major role in the suppression of tea mosquito bug, coffee berry borer, tea looper caterpillar, etc. Sprays with nuclear polyhedrosis virus are found highly effective in the control of H. armigera and Spodoptera litura on tomato, chillies and many ornamentals, etc. The Oryctes rhinoceros nudivirus (OrNV) has been successfully utilized in the management of Oryctes rhinoceros.

Novel Insecticides The indiscriminate usage conventional insecticides has led to several problems like resistance, residue, resurgence and safety to environment. The focus on insecticide research has shifted to search for the development of new green chemistries having novel biochemical targets in the context of pest control and resistance management. Now it is in a renaissance of integrating chemicals and biologicals for sustainable pest control with human safety. In recent years, several new insecticide groups having new chemistries viz., neonicotinoids, oxadiazines, diamides, ketoenols, phenylpyrazoles, pyridines, flonicamid, mitochondrial electron transport inhibitor (METI), diafentiuron, tetrazines, thiazolidinones, oxazolines and insecticides from soil microorganisms such as avermectins, milbemycins, spinosyns, pyrrole insecticides and insect growth regulators like benzoylureas, triazines, diacylhydrazines, juvenile hormone analogues/mimics have been discovered and commercialized for uses in modern crop protection. Because of the relatively low risk to non-target organisms and environment, high target specificity and their versatility in application methods, these important classes of new insecticides play a greater role in the present context of environmental safety and their consequent uses in integrated pest management and insect resistance management programmes.

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Insecticide Resistance Insecticide resistance is a major obstacle in the control of agriculturally important pests. Types of insecticide resistance include single insecticide resistance, cross resistance and multiple resistances. Insecticide resistance can be divided into two major types: behavioural resistance and physiological resistance. The development of insecticide resistance is a dynamic and complex process, depending directly on genetic, physiological, behavioural, biological and ecological factors of the arthropod pests, and depending indirectly on operational factors including categories of insecticides used as well as the application timing, rate, coverage and method. As many as 1000 species of insect pests have developed resistance to different class of insecticides. Insecticide resistance was observed in several horticultural crop pests including some lepidopterans, thrips, aphids psyllids, whiteflies, mealybugs and the leafhoppers. Management of insecticide resistance requires a consideration of all aspects of crop production, including agronomic practices, physical and biological control methods and insect pest biology.

Pest Management in Protected Cultivation The losses caused due to insect, mite and nematode pests in greenhouses crops like tomato, okra, capsicum, gerbera, carnation, cucumber, lettuce, beans, strawberry, etc. are tremendous. Crop losses are mainly due to pests like whiteflies, thrips, leafminers, aphids, mites and nematodes. The most important components of pest management in greenhouse horticultural crops include preventive measures, scouting and early detection and curative measures. Exclusion techniques include the use of physical barriers, use of insect-proof nets, provision of double door, use of reflective or metalized mulches and ultra-violet radiation absorbing sheets. Preventive strategies also include humidity and temperature control, pre-season clean-up and inspection of personnel and planting materials entering into the net house. Curative measures involve with the cultural control, collection and destruction alternate host plants including weeds, hand-picking of pest stages, balanced use of fertilizer, pinching and pruning, trap cropping and crop rotation. By adopting suitable pest management technology, the growers can look forward to a better and additional remuneration for high quality produce of horticultural crops raised under protected cultivation.

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Pest Management Tactics The primary objective of the grower is to produce good quality with higher yields, and ultimately it should fetch good price in the market. Changes have taken place in the pest species identification, insect biology, population dynamics, knowledge on pest-resistant varieties, natural enemies, methods of effective management, etc. All these factors interact and must be weighed in the process of making decisions on treatment. Hence, the tremendous changes that have taken places in the pest management tactics are updated for the fruit crops, namely mango, citrus, grapes, guava, sapota, pineapple, banana, papaya, jackfruit, pomegranate, ber, custard apple, litchi, fig, jamun, loquate, bael, phalsa, ker, lasora, pilu, karonda, amla, date palm, apple, pear, peach, apricot, cherry, persimmon, walnut, olive, kiwi fruit, strawberry, avocado, breadfruit, carambola, durian, langsat, longan, mangosteen, passion, etc.; vegetables, namely tomato, brinjal, chillies, okra, crucifers, cucurbits, leguminous vegetables, tuber crops (potato, tapioca, sweet potato, carrot, yam, aroids), onion and garlic, leafy vegetables, drumstick, etc. plantation crops (cashew, coconut, arecanut, cocoa, coffee, tea, rubber, oil palm, betelvine), spices (black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and nutmeg, coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajwain, nigella and anise), ornamentals (rose, jasmine, chrysanthemum, crossandra, marigold, tuberose, carnation, China aster, gerbera, gladiolus, hibiscus, etc.), orchids and several medicinal plants. In brief, the purpose of the book is to update the information on various aspects of insect pests and their management in horticultural crops to ultimately aid the grower by providing necessary information for intelligent pest management.

Contents

Part I

Recent Advances in Horticultural Entomology

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops . . . . . . M. Mani, T. Venkatesan, and B. R. Chethan

3

Principles and Application of Nanotechnology in Pest Management . . . M. Kannan, M. Mohan, K. Elango, K. Govindaraju, and M. Mani

49

Climate Change and Pest Management Strategies in Horticultural and Agricultural Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Srinivasa Rao, M. Mani, Y. G. Prasad, M. Prabhakar, V. Sridhar, S. Vennila, and V. K. Singh

81

Ecological Engineering in Pest Management in Horticultural and Agricultural Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Josephrajkumar, M. Mani, K. M. Anes, and Chandrika Mohan

123

Principles and Application of Remote Sensing in Crop Pest Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Prabhakar, M. Thirupathi, and M. Mani

157

Biotechnological Applications in Horticultural Entomology . . . . . . . . . R. Gandhi Gracy, M. Mani, R. S. Swathi, T. Venkatesan, and M. Mohan

185

Organic Pest Management in Horticultural Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

211

Trends in the Biological Control of Horticultural Crop Pests in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani, A. Krishnamoorthy, and B. Ramanujam

243

Semiochemicals and Their Potential Use in Pest Management in Horticultural Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. Bakthatvatsalam, K. Subharan, and M. Mani

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Contents

Role of Botanicals in Pest Management in Horticultural Crops . . . . . . P. N. Krishna Moorthy, N. R. Prasanna Kumar, and M. Mani

313

Host Plant Resistance to Insect Pests in Horticultural Crops . . . . . . . . M. Mani, N. Natarajan, R. Dinesh Hegde, and M. Kishan Tej

335

Pest Management in Horticultural Crops Under Protected Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

387

Novel Insecticides and Their Application in the Management of Horticultural Crop Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. Bhuvaneswari, M. Mani, A. Suganthi, and A. Manivannan

419

Insecticide Resistance and Its Management in the Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. Venkatesan, B. R. Chethan, and M. Mani

455

Insect Pollination in Horticultural Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Venkata Rami Reddy, V. Varun Rajan, M. Mani, S. J. Kavitha, and K. Sreedevi Part II

491

Pest Management in Different Horticultural Crops

Pests and Their Management in Mango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Venkata Rami Reddy, M. Mani, and M. A. Rashmi

519

Pests of Citrus and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anjitha George, C. N. Rao, and M. Mani

551

Pests and Their Management in Banana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Padmanaban and M. Mani

577

Pests and Their Management in Guava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Gundappa and M. Mani

605

Pests of Grapevine and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

625

Pests and Their Management on Sapota/Sapodilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani and P. D. Kamala Jayanthi

655

Pests and Their Management on Papaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Kalyanasundaram and M. Mani

671

Pests and Their Management in Pineapple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mani Chellappan, Aswathy Viswanathan, and Lakshmi K. Mohan

689

Pests and Their Management in Jackfruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soumya Kallekkattil and M. Mani

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Pests and Their Management in Litchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kuldeep Srivastava and Jaipal Singh Choudhary

719

Pests and Their Management in Fig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

735

Pests and Their Management in Jamun (Syzygium cumini) . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

747

Pests and Their Management in Loquat (Eriobotrya japonica) . . . . . . . M. Mani

757

Pests and Their Management in Pomegranate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R. A. Balikai, Y. K. Kotikal, and M. Mani

763

Pests and Their Management in Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana) . . . . . . . . . . S. M. Haldhar, M. Mani, and P. L. Saroj

783

Pests and Their Management in Custard Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. N. Shylesha and M. Mani

803

Pests and Their Management in Indian Gooseberry/Amla . . . . . . . . . . S. M. Haldhar, V. K. Agarwal, and M. Mani

817

Pests and Their Management in Date Palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. M. Haldhar, C. M. Muralidharan, and Dhurendra Singh

833

Pests and Their Management in Other Arid Zone Fruit Crops . . . . . . S. M. Haldhar, Ankita Gupta, J. S. Gora, and M. Mani

847

Pests and Their Management in Minor Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

863

Pests and Their Management on Temperate Fruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Mahendiran, Shiv Lal, and O. C. Sharma

891

Pests and Their Management in Brinjal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. M. Shivalingaswamy, Amala Udyakumar, and M. Mani

943

Pests and Their Management in Tomato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. M. Shivalingaswamy, Amala Udayakumar, and M. Mani

959

Pests and Their Management in Chillies and Bell Pepper . . . . . . . . . . . T. M. Shivalingaswamy, Amala Udayakumar, and M. Mani

971

Pests and Their Management in Okra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. B. Rai and Jaydeep Halder

983

Pests and Their Management in Cruciferous Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . P. N. Krishna Moorthy, N. R. Prasannakumar, M. Mani, S. Saroja, and H. R. Ranganath

997

Pests and Their Management in Cucurbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1013

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Contents

P. Shivarama Bhat, N. R. Prasanna Kumar, H. R. Ranganath, and S. Saroja Pests and Their Management in Leguminous Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . P. N. Krishna Moorthy, N. R. Prasanna Kumar, M. Mani, and S. Saroja

1031

Pests and Their Management in Carrot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

1051

Pests and Their Management in Potato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Nagesh, J. Sridhar, V. Venkateswarlu, Kamlesh Malik, Anuj Bhatnagar, and Mohd Abas Shah

1057

Pest Management in Cassava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. A. Jayaprakas, E. R. Harish, Drisya Pavithran, and M. Mani

1081

Pest Management in Sweet Potato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. A. Jayaprakas, E. R. Harish, and Anjali Vinod

1097

Pests and Their Management in Minor Tuber Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. A. Jayaprakas and E. R. Harish

1109

Insect Pests and Their Management in Leafy Vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . N. R. Prasannakumar and M. Mani

1139

Pests and Their Management in Drumstick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . K. Suresh, B. Usha Rani, and R. K. Murali Baskaran

1163

Pests and Their Management in Onion and Garlic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. S. Srinivas

1177

Pests and Their Management in Ornamental Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. Sridhar, S. Onkara Naik, P. Swathi, and M. Mani

1189

Pests and Their Management in Orchids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. K. Meena and M. Mani

1239

Pests and Their Management in Medicinal Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Suganthy, R. K. Murali Baskaran, and M. Mani

1255

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Suganthy and M. Mani

1305

Pests and Their Management in Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Devasahayam, T. K. Jacob, Santhosh J. Eapen, and C. M. Senthil Kumar

1331

Pests of Seed Spices and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna Kant, S. R. Meena, N. K. Meena, and B. K. Mishra

1365

Storage Pests and Their Management in Spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Krishna Kant, S. R. Meena, S. Devasahayam, and M. Mani

1381

Contents

xxiii

Pests and Their Management in Cashew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T. N. Raviprasad and K. Vanitha

1389

Pests and Their Management in Coconut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chandrika Mohan, A. Josephrajkumar, P. S. Prathibha, M. Sujithra, Jilu V. Sajan, and K. M. Anes

1411

Pests and Their Management in Cocoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chandrika Mohan, A. Josephrajkumar, Shivaji H. Thube, E. K. Saneera, and M. Mani

1441

Pests and Their Management in Oil Palm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . P. Kalidas and A. R. N. S. Subbanna

1457

Pests and Their Management in Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mani Chellappan, K. K. Divya, Aswathy Viswanathan, and Lakshmi K. Mohan

1477

Pests and Their Management in Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. Radhakrishnan

1489

Pests and Their Management in Coffee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. V. Manjunatha Reddy, A. Roobak Kumar, B. V. Ranjeeth Kumar, and M. Dhanam

1513

Pests and Their Management in Arecanut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chandrika Mohan, A. Josephrajkumar, Shivaji H. Thube, E. K. Saneera, and Rajkumar

1529

Pests of Betelvine and Their Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Mani

1545

About the Editor

M. Mani is an Agricultural Scientist with over 40 years of research experience in entomological research. He has served in Tamil Nadu State Department of Agriculture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University and Indian Council of Agricultural Research. He has worked as Principal Scientist and Head, Division of Horticultural Entomology in ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR) and Emeritus Scientist at IACR-IIHR and ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resource (ICAR-NBAIR). His focal subject is eco-friendly pest management in horticultural crops. He got several awards including Lifetime Achievement Award for his contribution to research in Horticultural Entomology. He is associated with five scientific bodies. He has got more than 350 publications to his credit. He has authored three books, namely (1) A Wonderful Predator (Cryptolaemus) by Lap Lambert Academic Publishing Company (Germany); (2) The Grape Entomology by Springer; (3) Mealybugs and Their Management in Agricultural and Horticultural Crops by Springer, India.

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Part I

Recent Advances in Horticultural Entomology

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops M. Mani, T. Venkatesan, and B. R. Chethan

Abstract Accurate identification of species is fundamental to both basic and applied research. Classification and identification of various life forms, particularly insects, has been a major challenge to the scientific community with the dwindling interest in taxonomy and fund availability. In quarantine and plant protection activities, their immature stages are met with and diagnosis of these is important to foster a rapid, accurate species identification that is crucial in various spheres of pest management like biological control, insecticide resistance management, preventing the entry of invasive and alien species, and insect vector management that include identification of biotypes, cryptic species. With the advent of molecular biology and molecular tools, identification of life forms including insects has become quick, precise, and easy. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) barcoding is an alternative way to accurately identify species, which also complements conventional taxonomy. DNA barcoding enables even a non-specialist to identify a species even using immature stages like egg, larva, nymph, or pupa. The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) region marker was used in the species diagnosis and genetic diversity research. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method developed effectively identified biotypes of insect pests. Molecular identification is applied to a great extent in sucking pests including thrips, mealybugs, whiteflies, aphids, and leafhoppers, besides fruit flies.

1 Introduction Insects are one of the numerous life forms that have captured the attention of human beings since ancient times. In the same context, proper classification and identification of life forms has been a challenge, and a plausible method of classification was

M. Mani (*) ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, India T. Venkatesan · B. R. Chethan ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_1

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established by Carolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist who published Systema Naturae in 1758. However, the Linnaeus system of classification was not based on evolutionary relationships among the target groups. Later, Darwin’s The Origin of Species in 1859 changed the way life forms were classified, where the identification, description, and explanation of the diversity of the organisms had come to be known as systematics. Insects are the largest and most diverse group of organisms on Earth. In this context, identification of insects has been a monumental task, which calls for the availability of more specialists and funding. But with the dwindling interest in taxonomy and fund availability, the classification and identification of various life forms, particularly insects, has been a major challenge to the scientific community. With the advent of molecular biology and molecular tools, the identification of life forms, including insects, has become quick, precise, and easy. The development of species-specific markers enables even a non-specialist to identify insects to the species level.

2 Methods of Classification and Identification 2.1

Linnaean System

Taxonomists assess the physical characteristics that a set of species share and selects the most representative species to be the “type” for each genus, and the most representative genus to be the type of the family, and so on. Individual specimens are deposited in museums to serve as a reference for that species and genus. When new species are found with similar traits, they are categorized as part of a known species, as a new species, or as a new genus, depending on how closely the new specimens resemble the type. The reliance on type has resulted in dramatic changes if a taxonomist re-evaluates a group and decides that some members do not belong and suggest that the group name must be changed.

2.2

Cladistics

During the 1980s, another classification method called cladistics, which is based on the evolutionary histories of organisms, was proposed. This method is based on phylogeny, whereas the Linnaean system is not.

2.3

PhyloCode

In this system, the genus name is removed, and species name is shortened and hyphenated with their former genus name or given numeric identification.

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3 Shortfalls in Morphological Identification Current estimates suggest that the earth may have anywhere from 10 to more than 40 million species of organisms, but only about 1.7 million of them have actually been described. It includes over 750,000 insects, and it took 250 years for taxonomists to categorize all 1.7 million species, which comprise only 10% of the total species on earth (Hebert & Gregory, 2005). Further, we need about 15,000 taxonomists working for centuries to complete this monumental task of classifying the remaining 90% of the unidentified organisms. Economic development and increased international commerce are leading to higher extinction rates and introduction of invasive pest species. Therefore, there is a need for faster species identification and information about their biodiversity for conserving them before they vanish from the face of the earth. Undoubtedly, the contribution of morphological taxonomy is enormous, but it also has some drawbacks, such as the following: 1. Incorrect identification due to both phenotypic plasticity and genetic variability in the characters employed for species recognition. 2. There are many morphologically cryptic taxa that are common in many groups. 3. Morphological examination is time consuming, and is often effective only for a particular life stage or gender of the insects. As a result, many cannot be identified. 4. Moreover, the use of morphological taxonomic keys often demands a high level of expertise that often leads to misidentification. 5. Taxonomists have always looked for discontinuous character variations that could signal divergence between species. The debate on threshold values employing molecular identification for interspecific divergence is also true in the case of morphology-based identification. 6. Early identification of new invasions is an important aspect in preventing the spread. Rapid and accurate identification of many cryptic species of insects is not easily accomplished with conventional taxonomy. Taxonomy separation of many species occurring together can be difficult, particularly for the immature stages that are primarily involved. 7. The effectiveness of morphological keys may also be affected by geographic variations or by the loss of some morphological characters, such as color patterns, as a result of preservation processes. Thus the limitations in morphology-based identification systems and the dwindling pool of taxonomists urgently require a new robust approach for taxon recognition. Due to the difficulties associated with morphological identification of insects, it became necessary to resort to other identification tools, such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) barcoding, where the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) molecular marker is commonly used. Hence, there is a need for an adjunct tool that facilitates rapid identification of species where molecular identification, popularly called “DNA barcoding,” becomes handy. The concept of DNA barcoding was proposed by Hebert et al. (2003a, b) as a rapid and precise way for species

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discrimination of a broad range of biological specimens using a selected 658-bp fragment of the 50 end of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCOI) gene.

4 DNA Barcoding of Insects “DNA barcoding” is a method based on DNA sequencing of a standard gene region. In 2003, Paul Hebert, from University of Guelph in Ontario, Canada, proposed “DNA barcoding” as an alternative way to accurately identify species that also complements conventional taxonomy. Barcoding uses a very short genetic sequence from a standard part of the mitochondrial genome. The standard sequence employed for this purpose is the 50 region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I). Presently, DNA barcoding has been defined as the molecular identification of a species based on the reference sequence with the lowest genetic distance. It can be helpful in species diagnosis because sequence divergences are usually much lower among individuals of a species than between closely related species. Hebert et al. (2003b) focused this discussion by proposing that a DNA barcoding system for animal life could be based upon sequence diversity in the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene. In molecular identification, DNA sequences are considered as unique characters in the same way that morphological differences are used in conventional or matrixbased keys to separate relatedness of the specimens. DNA code is an arrangement of adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T) described as letters. The sequence in which these four letters occur over and over again remains unique enough to separate one organism from another and every species of insects possess this unique DNA code. These sequences can be used in a comparative way to know the degree of relatedness of a new or unknown specimen if compared to a reference library of sequence. Generally, these sequence verbatim the term marker. Genetic marker defines the genetic differences between the organisms or species. These markers would be a coding or non-coding stretches of DNA, which is generally conserved across the insects. Any mutation at these markers region in an evolutionary time scale would generally lead to a variation in the sequence within that region. All that we need is conserved sequences and a dissimilarity within them to deduce the lineage and unique patters between two individuals. The combination of four different nucleotide bases in DNA is enough to serve this purpose. Advantages of DNA Barcoding 1. DNA barcoding can identify a species from bits and pieces of insects. The effectiveness of morphological keys may also be affected by the loss of some morphological characters as a result of preservation processes. Also, species discrimination is possible with DNA barcoding for the damaged and archival specimens, which cannot be identified by conventional taxonomy.

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2. Developmental stage is not a limiting factor in molecular species identification. Some insects, especially beetles, take long time to reach adult stage in which morphological identification is done. DNA barcoding can identify a species in all its stages, namely the egg, larva/nymph, pupa, and adult. 3. DNA barcoding has appeared to be a useful tool in resolving issues like significant morphological similarities found within or in between species of insects making reliable taxonomic identification difficult. In this context, developing species-specific markers for the species in question will even enable a non-specialist to identify the species without the need for going in for sequencing. This also helps in discriminating closely related species and also in situations where two or more species co-occur on a crop. Barcoding can distinguish among species that look alike, uncovering dangerous organisms masquerading as harmless ones. 4. It is necessary to identify the invasive exotic species of the insect without ambiguity. Written as a sequence of four discrete nucleotides—CATG—along a uniform locality on genomes, a barcode of life provides a digital identifying feature, supplementing whether abundant or rare, native or invasive, engendering appreciation of biodiversity, locally and globally. 5. Accurate identification of species is fundamental to both basic and applied research. DNA barcoding proved to be an effective tool that can be employed for accurate species identification. DNA barcode method enables better quantitative analysis, provides more information for detecting and assessing false positives and false negatives, and uses a data set that can be easily shared and accessed by the greater research community. Currently, international consortium for barcode of life (iBOL) advocates the use of CO-I for species identification, as it exhibits reliable interspecific variation. 6. Several insect pest species like thrips, whiteflies, aphids, and leafhoppers are minute in size, and also show cryptic behavior. At this juncture, molecular identification of species based on CO-I comes handy. 7. Increased transboundary movement of horticultural produce resulted in the chance introduction of many invasive species. On the other hand, in plant consignments, rapid identification is important to prevent the introduction of new pests into non-infested areas. Quick and authentic identification of exotic and potentially invasive taxa with capability of causing high economic losses or detriments is essential pre-requisite for effective plant quarantine. Correct and quick identification of the insect up to species level is important from the plant quarantine view, where morphological identification has limited role, as it requires presence of adult specimens, availability of specialists, the lack of taxonomic keys for immature stages for many species. DNA barcoding is going to play a vital role in the quick identification of insect pests at the port of entry. At this juncture, molecular identification of species based on CO-I comes handy. 8. Success in classical biological control programs depend critically on accuracy of exotic species discrimination and identification. Molecular method confirms the morphological identification of many invasive species so that correct

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10.

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bio-management practices can be advised. DNA barcoding offers the potential not only for enhanced recognition and thereby control of harmful species in the immediate term, but also it promises to help us to understand the global movement of species in a level of detail never before attainable. Another area where molecular markers are likely to have an increasingly important role is in biosecurity. One of the crucial guidelines of the biosecurity framework is the rapid and accurate diagnosis of potentially invasive species and biotypes. Many government agencies are adopting risk analysis and management programs that will serve to prevent “alien species” from entering and establishing into new environments. All these issues can be solved with molecular identification. DNA barcoding is generally considered to be reliable, cost-effective, and an easy molecular identification tool with a wide applicability across animal taxa. As such, it could be very useful to routinely identify difficult taxa of economic importance such as insects that comprise large numbers of serious pest species or disease vectors. The morphological method of identification needs large number of experts and time but the molecular techniques are much efficient in proper identification within short period of time. Variation and polymorphism is common between insect species; nevertheless, it is often ignored by taxonomists. Molecular studies have the potential for detection of genetic polymorphism within species. Using random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR), genetic polymorphisms and genetic diversity in natural populations between the insect species have been studied. Molecular techniques include restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), arbitrary fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). In this connection, molecular identification employing CO-I barcoding has an advantage of not being limited by polymorphism, sexual form (asexual/sexual), and life stages of the target species. Some insect species like Bemisia tabaci are complex, composed of at least 41 biotypes. This makes the taxonomic identity of existing biotype difficult and sometimes ambiguous. Molecular techniques help in accurately identifying different biotypes that differ in their biology, host plant preference, insecticide susceptibility, and ability to transmit plant pathogenic viruses. Insect mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis is a powerful tool for the study of population genetics and phylogenetics. Molecular markers have paved the way for vital data in species identification and phylogenetic studies. RAPD marker is well suited for use in large samples throughout systems required for population genetics. Recently developed molecular marker techniques provide an important tool that ease the assessment of genetic diversity and facilitate genotyping, classification, inventorying, and phylogenetic studies. Molecular markers have paved the way for vital data in species identification and phylogenetic studies. Genetic differentiation and gene flow between the species can be analyzed by using various molecular markers, like RAPD, microsatellite, mitochondrial, and ribosomal markers, which facilitate basic biodiversity inventories like molecular

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phylogenetics for assembling tree of life and identifying clades and evolutionary relationships. Current applications of molecular genetics and genomics play an important role in the study of invertebrate pest invasions and outbreaks. Barcoding opens the way for an electronic hand-held field guide, the Life Barcoder: Barcoding links biological identification to advancing frontiers in DNA sequencing, miniaturization in electronics, and computerized information storage. Photo-documentation can be easily created for any future reference for the specimen under study. Barcoding demonstrates value of collections: Compiling the library of barcodes begins with the multimillion specimens in museums, herbaria, zoos and gardens, and other biological repositories. Barcoding speeds up writing the encyclopedia of life: Compiling a library of barcodes linked to the voucher specimens and their binomial names will enhance public access to biological knowledge, helping to create an online encyclopedia of life on earth, with a webpage for every species of plant and animal. Barcoding democratizes access: A standardized library of barcodes will empower many more people to call by name the species around them. It will make possible the identification of species characterized for each taxonomic group (2–12%), above which groups of individuals do not belong to the same species but form supraspecies taxon. Therefore, unknown individuals could be assigned to a species level. The development of simple diagnostics and their use alongside classical and molecular techniques for the early detection of resistant populations are of great importance for pest management strategies. The practical implications of molecular diagnostics are discussed in light of control of whitefly and other pests.

In brief, DNA barcoding proved to be an effective tool that can be employed for accurate species identification, elucidation of cryptic species and biotypes, and also in the discovery of new species. Molecular studies will be useful in the study of population genetics, evolutionary biology, evolutionary biology, biodiversity and conservation biology, ecology, vector transmission, insecticide resistance, and biological control and quarantine. All these kinds of data or information can lead to formulating correct strategies of insect pest control.

5 Mitochondrial DNA Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has a long history of use at the species level; recent analyses suggest that the use of a single gene, particularly mitochondrial, is unlikely to yield data that are balanced, universally acceptable, or sufficient in taxonomic scope to recognize many species lineages. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene sequence is suitable for this role because its mutation rate is often fast enough to distinguish closely related species, and also because its

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sequence is conserved among conspecifics and a lack of recombination. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene sequence differences are too small to be detected between closely related species; more than 2% sequence divergence has been detected between such organisms, proving the barcode effective. However, the rate of evolution of CO-I is very slow.

5.1

Genomic DNA Isolation

Total genomic DNA can be extracted from individual insects using a non-destructive method (Hajibabaei et al., 2006), while voucher specimens are required to be mounted on glass slides and deposited with any of the National Insect Repository such as the National Pusa Collection (NPC) or the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), Delhi. Various DNA isolation protocols are available, namely (1) direct TNES buffer method, (2) spot-PCR method, (3) phenol/chloroform method, and (4) salting-out method.

5.1.1

Direct Buffer Method

A single insect can be crushed in 50–200 μL YNES (50 mM Tris-HCI, pH 7.5, 0.4 M NaCI, 20 mM EDTA, 0.5% SDS), STE (0.1 M NaCI, 10 mM Tris, pH 8.61 mM EDTA), GES (0.1 M glycine, pH 9, 50 mM NaCI, 1 mM EDTA, 1% β-mercaptoethanol, 0.5% Triton X-100), or CTAB (100 mM Tris-HCL, pH 8, 1.4 M NaCI, 20 mM EDTA, 2% CTAB, 0.2% β-mercaptoethanol) buffer. The sample is to be incubated at 94  C for 12 min, with the cell debris to be precipitated by spinning it at 13,000 rpm for 1 min. The extracted DNA is to be stored at 20  C.

5.1.2

Spot-PCR Method

A single insect should be crushed on a positively charged nylon membrane soaked in a 50 mM NaOH and 2.5 mM EDTA solution, and then allowed to dry. A small portion (ca. 3 mm 2) of the spotted membrane is to be cut out and placed in 10–50 μL TNES, STE, GES, or CTAB buffer (described above). The sample can then be incubated at 95  C for 10 min and cooled on ice. Extracted DNA can be stored at 20  C.

5.1.3

Phenol/Chloroform Method

DNA from a single insect can be extracted using the modification of a general procedure for extraction with phenol. The insect is to be crushed and incubated at 40  C in 0.6 mg/mL proteinase K and 300 μL TNES buffer for 4–18 h. DNA can

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then be purified by washing with organic solvents: once with a chloroform:isoamyl mix (24:1 v/v); once with a chloroform:phenol mix (1:1 v/v), and once with chloroform only. DNA can then be precipitated with absolute ethanol. Extracted DNA can be stored at 20  C.

5.1.4

Salting-out Method

DNA from a single whole insect can be extracted using the protocol of Sunnucks and Hales (1996) with minor adjustments, including the following: the insect can be incubated at 40  C in 0.6 mg/mL proteinase K and TNES buffer, and the samples can be left for at least 1 h at 20  C during precipitation of the DNA with absolute ethanol. Extracted DNA can be stored at 20  C.

5.2

Polymerase Chain Reaction

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed by Kary B. Mullis (Mullis & Faloona, 1987) and has radically changed molecular research and diagnostics. PCR involves the in vitro synthesis of large amounts of DNA copies from a single starting molecule and employs short single strands of DNA (18–30 nucleotides) called oligomers or primers to select a region of specific interest from the DNA. Once the primers are annealed to the DNA, Taq DNA polymerase builds a complementary strand extending from the primer by incorporating free deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP: base + deoxyribose sugar + phosphate) molecules in the reaction mix. Two primers that anneal on complementary strands are used, with the Taq extending the region between them. The reaction mixture is cycled between different temperature optima for the different stages of reaction of denaturation, annealing, and elongation. This process is repeated in a number of cycles (usually 30–40), and the DNA thus produced increases exponentially.

5.3

Sequence Analyses and Submission

The amplified products can be eluted using an extraction kit according to the manufacturer’s protocol, and the sequencing can be done in an automated sequencer (ABI prism® 3730 XLDNA Analyzer; Applied Biosystems, USA) using PCR-specific primers, both in forward and reverse directions. Homology search and sequence alignment can be performed employing the NCBI BLAST and BioEdit versions 7.0 and 9.0, respectively. All the sequences generated in the respective studies need to be deposited in the NCBI GenBank and the Barcode of Life Data (BOLD) systems.

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Nuclear Copies of Mitochondrial Genes

There is a possibility that a pseudogene is being amplified if the study encounters the following anomalies (Zhang & Hewitt, 1996): 1. More than one bands, or different bands, are constantly produced during PCR amplification. 2. Background peaks or sequence ambiguities are constantly found when sequencing. 3. The DNA sequence contains data that will unexpectedly change the polymerase translation of the sequence, such as unusual frame shifts, insertion/deletion, or stop codons. 4. The DNA sequence is particularly more divergent than expected. 5. Phylogenetic analysis results in unusual, unexplained, or contradictory tree topology. In the recent past, DNA barcoding has gained importance in the species diagnosis of animal species, but has some difficulty with certain insects. This is probably due to its inconsistency in amplifying the 50 -mtCO-I region.

5.5

Advantages of Using Mitochondrial Genome

1. Haploid mode of inheritance and it supports less recombination. 2. Mitochondrial genome does not have introns. 3. Universal primers are robust, which can amplify 50 end in most of the animals, including insects. 4. Rapid evolution allows the discrimination of not only closely related species but also phylographic groups within a single species. 5. In animal mitochondrial genome, the 13 protein coding genes are better targets because of rare insertions and deletions (indels). 6. By identifying amino acid substitution patterns of mtCO-I, it is possible to assign any undefined organisms to a higher taxonomic group before examining nucleotide substitutions to determine its species identity.

6 Other Targets for Molecular Identification of Insects 6.1

Ribosomal DNA

Ribosomes are the major components of cells that are involved in translating the messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) into proteins. Ribosomes consist of both proteins and RNAs. The ribosomal RNA (rRNA) regions that are conserved and more

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variable regions can serve as both slow and fast clocks in identifying and unraveling the molecular phylogeny. In eukaryotes (including insects), the genes encoding both 18S and 28S rRNA are clustered as tandem repeats in the nucleolus; in most animals, there are 100–500 copies of ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in the nuclear genome in tandemly repeated transcription units. The repeated transcription unit is composed of a leader promoter region known as external transcribed spacer (ETS) region, 18S rDNA coding region, internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, 28S rDNA coding region, and an internal non-coding transcribed spacer (IGS) region. In addition to the above, R1 and R2 retrotransposable elements are found in specific locations. Different portions of the repeated transcription units evolve at different rates in the nuclear genome; a higher degree of polymorphism is found in the non-coding segments (IGS, ITS, ETS), and the most variable part of the repeated unit is IGS, which contains reiterated sub-repeats ranging from 50 to several hundred base pairs in length. The coding regions of the repeated unit change relatively less and can be used for systematic studies of higher taxa or for ancient lineages. Ribosomal RNA genes undergo concerted evolution so that the sequence similarity of the members of an RNA family is expected to be greater within species than between species. In addition to the above retrotransposons, R1 and R2 have been in the 28S rRNA genes of most insects, are associated with arthropods, and are usually precisely located at the same nucleotide position within the 28S rRNA gene. Most of the R2 elements are located about 74 bp upstream from the site of R1 insertions. R1 and R2 do not have long terminal repeats and block the production of functional rRNA, since there are many rRNA genes, and R2 are kept from invading by microRNA/small interfering RNA (miRNA/siRNA). Usually, R1 and R2 do not have accumulated mutations that would make them inactive.

6.2

Satellite DNA

Satellite DNA may consist of a large fraction of the total DNA in an insect. Microsatellites are usually species specific, and evolve at very high rates. Satellite DNA can also be used for species identification and analysis of populations.

6.3

Nuclear Protein Coding Genes

A variety of protein coding loci have been used in molecular systematics, and some of them are listed below: (1) alpha amylase, (2) acetyl choline esterase, (3) actin, (4) alcohol dehydrogenase, (5) arylphorin, (6) cecropin, (7) chorin, (8) DOPA carboxylase, (9) elongation factor 1 alpha, (10) esterase, (11) glycerol 3 phosphate, (12) glycerol 6 phosphate dehydrogenase, (13) guanylate cyclase, (14) Globin family genes, (15) histones 1 and 4, (16) hunch back, (17) Krüppel, (18) luciferase, (19) lysozyme intron, (20) myosin alkali light chain intron, (21) nullo and (22) opsin.

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7 Applications of Molecular Identifications Uses of molecular tools to discriminate insect populations, and insects’ adaptation to various stresses are wider in applications. However, the use of DNA barcoding databases is of a considerable advantage only when these databases are large enough to cover the range of intra- and interspecific genetic diversity observed in the field.

7.1

Mealybugs

Mealybugs are under a strict regulation at foreign trades of horticultural produce because they are one of the most economically damaging groups of insects on several horticultural crops. Morphological identification of mealybug species is usually time consuming, requires a high level of taxonomic expertise, and usually only adult females can be identified. DNA-barcoding-based approaches were proved to resolve problems related with morphological identification of mealybugs, particularly early life stages, and can provide valuable information for investigating mealybug associations and interactions with natural enemies. 1. The relationship of six mealybug species (Planococcus citri, Planococcus ficus, Planococcus ovae, Pseudococcus longispinus, Pseudococcus viburni, and Phenacoccus aceris) was studied using randomly amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) in Turkey. Cluster analyses of RAPD data clearly separated the species into two groups (Serce et al., 2007). 2. Seven species of mealybugs (Pseudococcus maritimus, P. viburni, P. longispinus, Pseudococcus calceolariae, Planococcus ficus, P. citri, and Ferrisia gilli) were identified using a multiplex PCR based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I gene (Daane et al., 2011). 3. There was a slight difference in morphological characters in the populations of Planococcus ficus, indicating that there are two different populations of the same species in Tunisian vineyards. Likewise, in the molecular analyses, two separate clades were revealed in the neighbor-joining (NJ) phylogenetic tree, supporting the morphological studies and suggesting there are two distinct populations of grape vine in Tunisia, which might be two different biotypes (Mansour et al., 2012). 4. The PCR method effectively identified five mealybug species of economic interest on grape in Brazil: Dysmicoccus brevipes, P. citri, P. viburni, Phenacoccus solenopsis, and P. ficus. Planococcus citri, D. brevipes, and P. viburni were the most frequently collected species. Ferrisia terani and Ferrisia meridionalis were reported for the first time in Brazil. This multiplex PCR proved useful for the rapid and cost-efficient identification of the above mealybug species (Pacheco da Silva et al., 2014).

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5. Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi is a native species of the neotropical region. P. jackbeardsleyi infesting Musa sp. in Costa Rica was identified by molecular method (Jiménez & Meneses, 2016). Molecular identification by sequencing the 50 mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase confirmed its identity as Jack Beardsley mealybug Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi for the first time in India. Successful and timely identification of the invasive pest P. jackbeardsleyi helped in emergency pest management plans, including biological control, by which further spread into other states were hindered or delayed to avoid economic losses (Mani et al., 2013). 6. There are a number of species in the Dysmicoccus genus, but Dysmicoccus brevipes is the most similar to Dysmicoccus neobrevipes, native to tropical America. In the molecular data, BLAST hits from GenBank, it was possible to associate it to the species Dysmicoccus brevipes. Until the date, this species had been associated to pineapple crop. Therefore, this study provided insight into the ability of dissemination of this polyphagous pest, present in Costa Rica in a different uncommon crop (Palma-Jiménez & Blanco-Meneses, 2017). 7. Molecular methods (mitochondrial genes for cytochrome c oxidase subunit I [CO-I]) confirmed morphological identification of the invasives Phenacoccus solenopsis and Paracoccus marginatus in mainland China. Identification information of these invasive species helped to strengthen quarantine programs so that inspectors and identifiers were able to determine the species at Chinese ports to make control decisions (Wu et al., 2014). 8. The genetic variation of cassava mealybug (Phenacoccus manihoti) populations collected from 28 major cassava-growing areas within 18 provinces in Thailand was determined using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence-based analysis. Although seven mitochondrial CO-I and six nuclear ITS1 haplotypes were found, low genetic-diversity indices were detected. These results suggested a high potential for population reproduction in this species (Rattanawannee & Chongrattanameteekul, 2016). 9. Two cassava mealybug species namely Phenacoccus herreni and Phenacoccus manihoti have high level of similarity in appearance, and it is difficult to differentiate them at species level. Two RAPDs were used to rapidly distinguish P. herreni from P. manihoti at Cali, Colombia (Cuervo et al., 2002). Both of RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) analyses using the operon primers H9 and H16 are useful for making a clear distinction among P. herreni, P. manihoti, and Phenacoccus madeirensis, especially in areas of Brazil (Calatayud & Le Rü, 2006). 10. The mealybugs infesting vineyards in four regions of Chile were accurately characterized by DNA sequencing for two markers (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and internal transcribed spacer 2 [ITS2]). Pseudococcus viburni was the most common species, followed by Pseudococcus meridionalis and Pseudococcus cribata. A comparison of haplotypes of P. viburni worldwide

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provides support for a recent hypothesis that this species is native to South America, a finding with direct consequences for management (Correa et al., 2012). By generating amplification products of different sizes, the three species-specific primers, along with universal CO-I primers, were successfully used in multiplex PCR tests to identify accurately all three mealybug species, namely P. citri, P. viburni, and Pseudococcus comstocki, infesting ornamental plants in Guilan Province (Iran) in a single reaction (Hosseini & Hajizadeh, 2011). Molecular identification using fragment of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I revealed the presence of six mealybug species, namely Phenacoccus madeirensis, P. solenopsis, Saccharicoccus sacchari, P. citri, Paracoccus burnerae, and Phenacoccus solani, in the Lubombo, Highveld, Middleveld, and Lowveld regions of Swaziland. There is a high diversity of mealybugs in crops, ornamentals, and wild host plant species in Swaziland. This first DNA-based characterization of mealybugs from Swaziland helped in decisionmaking while considering biological control programs (Assefa & Malindzisa, 2018). A polymerase chain reaction-based method for species identification was developed for six mealybug species known to infest Korean pears including two regulated insects, Planococcus kraunhiae and Crisicoccus matsumotoi. This molecular method has facilitated trade and export requirements, as well as identification of the species at any stage of mealybug being intercepted (Park et al., 2010). Identification of principal mealybug species namely Phenacoccus solani, Phenacoccus solenopsis, and Planococcus citri, infesting the major pumpkin-producing regions in Egypt, was confirmed by molecular and morphological characterization (Dewer et al., 2018). For an easy, user-friendly molecular laboratory technique, the mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtDNA CO-I) gene was developed to accurately identify mealybug eggs and crawlers to species level (Planococcus citri, Paracoccus burnerae, Pseudococcus longispinus, P. calceolariae, and P. viburni). The molecular method has facilitated export consignments of citrus fruits from South Africa to the USA, South Korea, and China, previously regularly refused based on the presence of unidentifiable mealybug nymphs or eggs (Pieterse et al., 2010). Morphological identification of the mealybug species Planococcus citri and Planococcus minor is often complicated by the existence of intermediate forms and a lack of knowledge of the intraspecific variation that occurs in each species in California. The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene, in combination with morphological and geographical data, has helped to accurately identify morphologically similar species, namely P. citri and P. minor. Molecular identification was used to accurately identify the P. minor clade, the P. citri clade, and the clade from the Hawaiian Islands in most cases (Rung et al., 2008).

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops

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17. Their high degree of morphological similarity makes Planococcus citri and Planococcus ficus difficult to distinguish. With a simple and fast PCR-based method with the use of a short DNA extraction method and species-specific primer pairs, Planococcus citri and P. ficus can be distinguished at any developmental stages within 3 h. Molecular diagnosis has served as a promising tool for distinguishing the two closely related species of P. citri and P. ficus (Tóbiás et al., 2012). 18. The single-step multiplex PCR developed here, based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene, is rapid, reliable, sensitive, accurate, and simple. The entire identification of three mealybug species (P. ficus, P. citri, and Pseudococcus longispinus) associated with grapevine in South Africa using the protocol (including DNA extraction, PCR, and electrophoresis) was completed in approximately 4 h (Saccaggi et al., 2008). 19. Four diverse methods (best close match [BCM], neighbor-joining [NJ] tree, Barcoding with LOGic [BLOG] formulas, Poisson Tree Process [PTP] Species Delimitation Method) were employed using two molecular markers (mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I [mtCO-I] and large ribosomal subunit gene [28S]) for the identification of 54 mealybug species that commonly occur in China. This study corroborates the utility of the CO-I and 28S genes in the rapid identification of mealybugs, and the barcode library provided will create an effective identification system for mealybug pest management in China (Wang et al., 2016).

7.2

Scale Insects

Armored scale insects (Diaspidids) display extreme sexual dimorphism; however, males are difficult to collect because of their brief time as adults and the lack of males in parthenogenetic species on which morphological identification is done. The paucity and delicate nature of morphological characters traditionally used to diagnose armored scales often require careful preparation of slide-mounted specimens and expert knowledge of the group, for their accurate identification. When scale insects are intercepted on imported produce, they must be rapidly and accurately identified, using morphology-based keys. This is time consuming, and requires extensive taxonomic experience. In addition, intercepted specimens are often immature or damaged, making morphological identification difficult or impossible. A reliable complementary tool is needed for identification. DNA barcoding is of great value for this purpose. 1. Two species of giant scale, namely Drosicha mangiferae and Drosicha stebbingi, lack diagnostic morphological differentiation between their nymphal instars. Sequence analysis of 18S rDNA and CO-I genes did not suggest the presence of two species with differing host plant preferences. We conclude that D. mangiferae and D. stebbingi are simply host races of the same species (Ashfaq et al., 2011).

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2. Four Indian populations of giant scales (mango, litchi, guava from Gurdaspur, and mango from Jalandhar) were analyzed. The mtCO-I region was amplified, cloned, and the nucleotide sequences were determined and analyzed. All the four species were found to be D. mangiferae. Genetic diversity in giant scale population was quite less over a large geographical area (Banta et al., 2016). 3. Molecular technique based on amplification of the internal transcribed spacer 2 of ribosomal DNA, by using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), revealed the presence of six diaspine species Abgrallaspis aguacatae, Hemiberlesia lataniae, Hemiberlesia sp. near latania, Hemiberlesia rapax, Acutaspis albopicta, and Pinnaspis strachani on Avocado, imported into California from Mexico. Two additional species, Diaspis miranda and Diaspis sp. near miranda, also are separated from the others. DNA-based method presented here allows quick and accurate identification of eight species of armored scale, resident on Mexican Hass avocado, regardless of size, life stage, or sex of the specimen (RugmanJones et al., 2009). 4. Genetic structure of the outbreak populations of the coconut scale insect pest, Aspidiotus rigidus using mitochondrial CO-I and nuclear EF-1α markers indicated clear differentiation among the A. rigidus populations separating the north from the southern regions of the Philippines. This study provides valuable information on the genetic differentiation of the two A. rigidus groups that would be useful for developing and implementing biological control strategies against this pest in the Philippines (Serrana et al., 2019). 5. Molecular identification revealed the presence of three diapine scales namely Lepidosaphes pistaciae, Suturaspis davatchi, and Melanaspis inopinata infesting pistachio in Kerman Province in Iran. A new species, Melanaspis pistaciae sp. n., is also described. Phylogenetic trees based on molecular analysis of CO-I and 28S rDNA fragments placed all the species in separated clades and confirmed M. pistaciae as a new taxon. Melanaspis pistaciae sp. n. has spread to most cultivated pistachio areas in Iran and has probably been misidentified as M. inopinata in the past. This study may lead to development of more effective approaches for controlling this pest (Hosseininaveh et al., 2018). 6. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD-PCR) was employed to identify six species under the genus Quadraspidiotus including the San-José Scale (SJS) Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, a quarantine pest in Switzerland. This key was able to identify males caught on pheromone traps in the field and to assess the speciesspecificity of the SJS-pheromone (Frey & Frey, 1995). 7. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) and the D2–D3 expansion segments of 28S rDNA were used for accurate identification of these two morphologically similar species, Eulecanium giganteum and Eulecanium kuwanai, infesting ornamental plants and fruit trees from 19 different locations in China. Differentiating between E. giganteum and E. kuwanai was challenging when using ecological and morphological traits. In contrast, identification using DNA diagnostics appears to be very effective, especially when slide-mounted specimens are difficult to obtain (Deng et al., 2016).

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8. The immature stages of greedy scale Hemiberlesia rapax and latania scale Hemiberlesia lataniae cannot be easily distinguished morphologically. A molecular diagnostic test that employs rapid DNA extraction using prepGEM® Insect followed by multiplex PCR utilizing sequence variation in the cytochrome c oxidase subunits I and II (CO-I and CO-II) genes for all the life stages of these three armored scale insects allows hundreds of samples to be processed in a day and has provided a detailed picture of the distribution and abundance of these pests across green and gold kiwifruit in orchards throughout New Zealand (Edwards et al., 2008). 9. With the nuclear regions 18S and 28S as complementary DNA barcodes to the mitochondrial CO-I gene, ten scale insect species under the families namely Asterolecaniidae, Coccidae, Dactylopiidae, Diaspididae, Eriococcidae, Kerriidae, Lecanodiaspididae, Margarodidae, Ortheziidae, and Pseudococcidae were identified. Combining multiple criteria, our results indicate that the concatenation of CO-I and 28S greatly improves the identification success rate of scale insects to 91.5%, demonstrating the utility of DNA barcoding in pest management (Sethusa et al., 2014).

7.3

Whiteflies

Whiteflies are inadvertently, but commonly, transported in international plant trade. Rapid, accurate identification is the essential first step when such insects are intercepted by quarantine authorities. Whitefly taxonomy, and identification, is almost entirely based on the fourth-larval instar or puparium, but often only the eggs, early larval instars, or adults are detected. This makes them excellent candidates for identification using DNA barcoding. Whitefly species like Bemisia tabaci contains morphologically indistinguishable biotypes or cryptic species or genetic groups making them difficult and sometimes ambiguous in identification. Genetic differentiation of different populations in the species complex was analyzed mainly based on the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 1 (rITS1) and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) sequences worldwide. 1. Mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I sequences were employed to determine the prevalence of genetic groups Bemisia tabaci on 30 host plants from different locations in India. Results revealed the existence of five genetic groups of B. tabaci in Karnataka, India, identified as Asia-I, Asia-II-7, Asia-II-8, MEAM-1, and a previously unreported genetic group, MEAM-K. This work will help in rapid and accurate identification of these putative genetic groups of B. tabaci, which in turn will help in further elucidating the epidemiology and management of Gemini viruses, and be of value in the operation of quarantines (Roopa et al., 2015). 2. Phylogenetic diversity analysis using two well-known markers, such as mitochondrial CO-I gene and the ribosomal ITS1, confirmed the presence of four putative species of Bemisia tabaci such as Asia-I, Asia-II-1, Asia-II-5, and Asia-

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II-8 in India. The Asia-I genetic group was found as most widely distributed and shows relatively polyphagus, which has mtCO-I consensus sequence identity of 84.32–86.76% with Asia-II subgroups. This work has shown the genetic boundary of B. tabaci, which helped in understanding host specificity across Karnataka, India. The patterns of spread and impacts on species diversity with host plant species will provide useful insights into the invasion process and in the discovery of newly evolving biotypes that would help in the management of pest (Ellango et al., 2014). The whitefly B. tabaci A-biotype was previously the predominant biotype in most regions of the Mediterranean (MED) and Middle East. Many of these populations had been displaced by the B-biotype. A new Q-biotype of whitefly spread rapidly into several states of the USA. Molecular techniques clearly indicated the dominance of B-biotype of the whitefly on crops grown in greenhouses in Al-Ahsa region of Saudi Arabia (Alhudaib et al., 2014). Nuclear markers and mtCO-I barcoding sequences of different populations of African cassava whitefly B. tabaci associated with epidemics of two viral diseases did not support the “invader” hypothesis. Our evidence shows that no new species or new population were found in 20 years; instead, the distribution of already present genetic clusters composing Sub-Saharan Africa 1 (SSA1) species have changed over time and that this may be in response to several factors including the introduction of new cassava varieties or climate changes. The practical implications are that cassava genotypes possessing both whitefly and disease resistances are needed urgently (Hadija et al., 2019). Sequences of mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtDNA CO-I) revealed the presence of six distinct genetic groups of B. tabaci, including three non-cassava haplotypes (Mediterranean [MED], Indian Ocean [IO], and Uganda) and three cassava haplotypes (Sub-Saharan Africa 1 subgroup 1 [SSA1-SG1], SSA1-SG3, and SSA2) in B. tabaci, infesting sweet potato and cassava in South Sudan. MED predominated on sweet potato and SSA2 on cassava in all the sampled locations. The Uganda haplotype was also widespread, occurring in five of the sampled locations. This study provides important information on the genetic diversity, geographical distribution, population dynamics, and host range of B. tabaci species in South Sudan, which is vital for its effective management (Misaka et al., 2020). Molecular studies through RAPD-PCR technique revealed the presence of B-biotype of whitefly Bemisia tabaci in the districts namely Rangareddy, Medak, and Chittoor districts in Andhra Pradesh with similar banding pattern to whiteflies (B-biotype) collected from Kolar district of Karnataka. There is every possibility that this biotype may spread to other parts of the state and may cause substantial losses to vegetable production (Rajasri et al., 2016). Molecular study with the mitochondrial DNA gene, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO-I) revealed the predominance of B-biotype in B. tabaci, infesting eggplant and squash and tomato in Philippines. Two other biotypes namely Asia biotypes I and II-6, were also found in B. tabaci samples infesting eggplant. This

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops

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is the first report on the presence of these B. tabaci biotypes in the Philippines (Sanchez & Caoili, 2016). Molecular study with PCR followed by an RFLP assay revealed the presence of insecticide-resistance-prone biotype Q whiteflies on poinsettia imported into Finland and Sweden, both protected zones for B. tabaci, emphasizing the importance of preserving the quarantine status of the pest to prevent permanent establishment (Lemmetty & Vänninen, 2014). Phylogenetic analysis of the whitefly mtCO-I sequence indicated the presence of the invasive B and Q biotypes of Bemisia tabaci in Japan. The Q-biotype was found at four locations: Mihara in Hiroshima, Nishigoshi in Kumamoto, and Miyanojo and Okuchi in Kagoshima prefectures; the remaining eight collections were identified as the B-biotype. This is the first report of the introduction of Q-biotype in Japan (Ueda & Brown, 2006). Analysis with random amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) markers confirmed that the cassava populations of B. tabaci populations were distinct from non-cassava populations of Sub-Saharan Africa. Results revealed that cassava-associated populations were restricted to cassava only, whereas B. tabaci from other hosts were polyphagous but did not colonize cassava. Hence, populations of B. tabaci from cassava in Africa represent a distinct group (Abdullah et al., 2003). Where morphological separation of two species is sometimes inconclusive, or impossible, identification can be achieved using four real-time PCR assays, designed and validated to distinguish between the four species. The assays are generic in their setup and can be multiplexed to form two reactions allowing discrimination of Bemisia afer and B. tabaci in one well, and Trialeurodes ricini and Trialeurodes vaporariorum in another (Malumphy et al., 2009). DNA barcoding using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences of ribosomal DNA among various populations of T. vaporariorum clearly indicated that there are no cryptic species or biotypes in T. vaporariorum in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh, India, in contrast to the studies of B. tabaci in which there is evidence for many biotypes. The phylogenetic analyses comprised of four Trialeurodes species showed two clades. Clade I is comprised of T. vaporariorum and Trialeurodes abutilonea, which are genetically close. Clade II consists of the remaining two species, viz., Trialeurodes lauri and T. ricini. Also, the current study provided evidence of the suggested emergence of biotypes T. ricini. Quick and accurate identification of whitefly vectors in the early life stages is important from the point of view of understanding the epidemiology of Crinivirus transmitted by Trialeurodes spp. and in their management and quarantine (Roopa et al., 2012). Molecular identification of whitefly adults sampled from the affected cassava field revealed the presence of a new whitefly species, Paraleyrodes bondari, infesting cassava in Uganda. This provides great impetus for a Uganda-wide survey to establish the host range, distribution, and pest status of this species,

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and is critical to understanding the threat to cassava posed by this pest and designing a suitable management strategy (Omongoa et al., 2018). The level and patterns of genetic variability in populations of exotic spiraling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus in India was studied using the simple sequence repeat-polymerase chain reaction (SSR-PCR) technique. About 66.0% of alleles were polymorphic in A. dispersus populations. The SSR survey clearly detected moderate levels of polymorphism among the whitefly populations; these populations from the Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu populations were distinct from each other (Boopathi et al., 2014). Molecular characterization of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene of Aleurodicus sp. collected from coconut indicated 100% similarity with that of mitochondrial CO-I sequence of Aleurodicus rugioperculatus reported from Florida, USA, thus confirming the molecular taxonomic identity as A. rugioperculatus in confirmation with species-specific morphological characters. On the other hand, Aleurodicus sp. collected from guava identified as Aleurodicus dispersus based on morphological taxonomic keys showed 100% similarity with CO-I sequences of A. dispersus, thus confirming the molecular taxonomic identity as A. dispersus. It is observed that A. dispersus and A. rugioperculatus are widely separated by molecular phylogeny; however, genetic closeness in having a common parasitoid Encarsia guadeloupae suppressing both the whitefly species is worth experimenting (Chandrika et al., 2017). A DNA barcoding cocktail to amplify the 50 end of the CO-I mitochondrial gene from fig whitefly (FW) Singhiella simplex, rugose spiraling whitefly (RSW) Aleurodicus rugioperculatus, and Bondar’s nesting whitefly (BNW) Paraleyrodes bondari species was developed. Besides FW, RSW, and BNW, two additional species of whiteflies were detected in collections, namely Paraleyrodes pseudonaranjae and a species provisionally designated Aleurodicinae sp1. RSW and BNW clustered with congeners within the phylogeny, and FW was resolved as a possible sister taxa to the genus Bemisia. The barcoding cocktail should allow sequencing of 50 CO-I from multiple genera and both subfamilies of whiteflies, and the primers developed for each species, will facilitate rapid identification of these three invasive whiteflies (Dickey et al., 2015). The development of simple diagnostics and their use alongside classical and molecular techniques for the early detection of resistant populations are of great importance for pest management strategies. Molecular assays were used to investigate the frequency of known resistance mutations. The practical implications of our results are discussed in light of whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum) control (Kapantaidaki et al., 2018).

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops

7.4

23

Thrips

Morphological identification of thrips using both adult and larvae is challenging due to their tiny size and cryptic behavior. Difficulty in identification of thrips not only exists in the developmental stage, but also between polyphagous thrips species; e.g., Thrips flavus is found to be morphologically very similar to Thrips palmi. Morphological examination of thrips to species level is restricted to adult specimens, as there are no adequate keys for identification of egg, larvae, or pupae. Morphological identification of thrips vectors is often a stumbling block in the absence of a specialist, and limited by polymorphism, sex, stage of development, etc. Molecular identification, on the other hand, is not hampered by the above factors, and can easily be followed by a non-specialist with a little training. The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) exhibits reliable interspecies variations as compared to other markers. Molecular studies can complement its morphological distinctions as it could be applied for identification of its intraspecific populations. Large-scale DNA barcode data for economically important taxa like Thysanoptera can provide a common platform to researchers from wide array of biological studies such as taxonomy, ecology, behavior, life histories, pest management, vector–virus relationship, etc. 1. Molecular identification of cardamom thrips Sciothrips cardamomi based on cytochrome c oxidase subunit I revealed the molecular diversity deciphered among the 45 intraspecific populations from ecotypes of cardamom, viz., Vazhukka, Malabar, and Mysore. The populations of S. cardamomi from various locations analyzed belong to a single species. There are no significant variations among these intraspecific populations occurring in cardamom. Such results on S. cardamomi show that there are no appreciable nucleotide differences in its intraspecific populations (Asokan et al., 2012d). 2. Molecular identification of Scirtothrips dorsalis based on internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2) sequences revealed that moderate variations among populations of S. dorsalis from the southern states of India, and the thrips populations have shown close evolutionary relationship with the Asian group. This marker provided a rapid and reliable molecular identification of S. dorsalis and was also valuable in understanding the molecular diversity and phylogeny (Latha et al., 2015). 3. DNA barcoding of 151 species of thrips based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene sequences revealed the existence of cryptic species in Thrips hawaiiensis and Scirtothrips perseae for the first time, along with previously reported cryptic species such as Thrips palmi, Thrips tabaci, Frankliniella occidentalis, and Scirtothrips dorsalis. This will in turn help in elucidation of the epidemiology of Tospoviruses, and in their management, and serve as a potentially valuable tool in quarantine at ports of entry (Rebijith et al., 2014). 4. There were differences in the mtCO-I partial sequence of morphologically identified specimens of Thrips tabaci and T. palmi collected from onion and

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watermelon, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses showed that both T. tabaci and T. palmi formed different clades as compared to other NCBI accessions. The implication of these variations in vector efficiency has to be investigated further. The result of this investigation is useful in the quick identification of T. tabaci and T. palmi, a critical factor in understanding the epidemiology of the Tospoviruses and their management and also in quarantine (Asokan et al., 2007). 5. Two species of thrips, Thrips palmi and Scirtothrips dorsalis, can be differentiated based on the PCR amplicon size. The phylogenetic analysis showed that there are two major groups in CO-I among 21 populations of T. palmi collected from Karnataka, India: one is clearly associated with Indian population of T. palmi, and the second is associated with the remaining countries (Japan, Thailand, Dominican Republic, China, and the UK). Our studies clearly refute the general belief that T. palmi is a single cosmopolitan and polyphagous species. On the contrary, by the standards of genetic and ecological differentiation in other species groups, the recognition of geographically associated and distinct T. palmi subspecies may be considered, similar to what has been observed in T. tabaci. Such similar results have been observed for S. dorsalis, where Indian and Chinese population of S. dorsalis form separate groups (Rebijith et al., 2011). 6. The phylogenetic analysis showed that thrips populations, collected from thrips insects collected from nine crops, viz., tomato, chili, onion, cabbage, cucumber, watermelon, Ethiopian mustard, French bean, and peanut in different countries, clustered with five distinct species groups designated as Thrips palmi group, T. tabaci group, Frankliniella occidentalis group, Scirtothrips dorsalis group, and an unclassified group. Higher intraspecific genetic variation was observed in S. dorsalis and T. palmi followed by T. tabaci and F. occidentalis. Thus, it was confirmed that the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO-I) gene could be useful in grouping different thrips species and genera that coexist in a particular cropping system. The study demonstrated that partial CO-I sequences provide a simple and accurate means of identifying four major thrips species (T. palmi, T. tabaci, S. dorsalis, and F. occidentalis). In addition to identification, this method was useful in grouping completely unknown thrips species and their populations collected from different vegetable and field crops (Kadirvel et al., 2013). 7. Results of molecular identification of thrips species of citrus orchards with ITS-RFLP technique of the amplified internal transcribed spacer regions of ribosomal DNA revealed the presence of four species, namely Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis, Frankliniella occidentalis, Pezothrips kellyanus, and Thrips tabaci, in the Mediterranean Region, whereas three species, Frankliniella bispinosa, Scirtothrips aurantii, and Scirtothrips citri, are considered quarantine species for the European Union (EU) territories. This study has shown that the use of genetic markers can be a valid alternative for quarantine workers and for epidemiological researchers, for whom the correct identification of pest species

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops

8.

9.

10.

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through classic morphological methods could be either difficult or time consuming or visually impossible (De Grazia et al., 2016). DNA barcoding confirmed presence of Thrips parvispinus in papaya plantations. Haplotyping data suggested that Indonesia may be a probable source of invasion of this pest to India (Tyagi et al., 2015). The results on DNA barcoding initiative on 370 sequences of 89 thrips morphospecies including 104 novel sequences from 39 morphospecies revealed that the type specimens of four species from multiple species delimitation methods (BIN, ABGD, GMYC, and bPTP) were consistent for 73 species (82%) with their morphological identifications. We detected more than one MOTU in 14 morphospecies indicating to have cryptic diversity, including two major vector species (Frankliniella schultzei and Thrips palmi). However, four morphospecies (Thrips moundi, Thrips carthami, Haplothrips andersi, and Haplothrips gowdeyi) showed low genetic distances between them with overlapping in barcode gap. Simultaneous use of multiple delimitation methods is advantageous for detection and identification of cryptic species (Tyagi et al., 2017). Molecular method based on nucleotide sequencing analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene for the identification of T. tabaci collected from four different sites of Mashhad, Iran, had revealed that phylogenetic analyses conducted by the neighbor-joining method yielded almost identical phylogenetic reconstructions of trees that separated thrips based on the geographic origin. Molecular data indicate that different thrips species are located in distinct groups. These results show that molecular keys can be a useful method to provide much-needed information on thrips identification for pest management officers and quarantine purposes (Karimi et al., 2010). Mitochondrial CO-I (mtCO-I) region was sequenced from population of Thrips tabaci collected from different locations of Hungary. Genetic analysis of the T. tabaci species complex based on mtCO-I gene confirmed the three wellknown biotypes (L1, L2, T) and a new biotype because the new molecular evidence presented in this study suggests T-biotype of T. tabaci forming two distinct (sub)clades (T1 and T2). The results demonstrated that the new marker effectively identifies the different T. tabaci biotypes. We believe that our reliable genotyping method will be useful in further studies focusing on T. tabaci biotypes and in pest management by scanning the composition of sympatric T. tabaci populations (Farkas et al., 2019). The rapid detection and differentiation between more and less harmful Frankliniella species on the quarantined list of the European Plant Protection Organization is important in order to combat the pests at the time of their appearance. The protocol is based on PCR amplification of ITS1 rDNA fragments of these insects using universal primers pair giving products of slightly distinct length for studied insects. The method was shown to be species-specific and sensitive. Even single specimens in either the larvae or adult stage could be distinguished (Przybylska et al., 2016).

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13. In southern Africa, a molecular identification tool, based on nucleotide sequencing analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene, allowed a rapid, accurate, and simple means of identifying the nine thrips species namely Frankliniella occidentalis, F. schultzei, Fulmekiola serrata, Haplothrips nigricornis, Haplothrips clarisetis, Heliothrips sylvanus, Scirtothrips aurantii, Synaptorthrips psoraleae, and Thrips tabaci. The molecular key will provide much-needed information on thrips’ identification for South African pest management officers and quarantine purposes. Much of this economic damage may be prevented by an accurate system for identifying pest thrips species (Timm et al., 2008). 14. DNA barcoding of two Scirtothrips species and distinctive clustering in BA phylogeny with high genetic divergence confirmed the presence of cryptic diversity in both S. dorsalis and Scirtothrips oligochaetus. These humble contributions of barcode data in global database also represent three major pest species and one vector species of thrips (Chakrabortya et al., 2019). 15. Molecular analysis with mtCO-I gene sequences confirmed the presence of Frankliniella occidentalis infesting chrysanthemum in the Nilgiris and Salem districts of Tamil Nadu by molecular markers. The confirmation of presence of F. occidentalis in India is of paramount importance considering its role as active vector of Tospoviruses present in the important ornamental high-valued crops (Suganthy et al., 2017). 16. In Iran, five primers used to simultaneously amplify a specific region of the mitochondrial DNA and produce species-specific fragments were capable of detecting four species, namely Thrips tabaci, Thrips palmi, Frankliniella intonsa, and Frankliniella occidentalis. This method is simple enough to be implemented by non-experts and also can be extended to any organism for which quick and reliable identification is needed (Sabahi et al., 2017).

7.5

Leafhoppers

Identification of leafhopper species requires dissection and examination of the male genitalia. Species differentiation is comparatively tedious as the only reliable morphological character is the structure of male genitalia. Some taxonomically problematic species apparently exhibit substantial intraspecific variation in male genital structures, and this causes confusion among taxonomists. The CO-I sequence is an effective tool to identify the leafhoppers in any stage of its life cycle. In addition, DNA barcoding is used to provide putative species identities for morphologically indistinct nymph specimen. The mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) region marker was used in the species diagnosis and genetic diversity research. 1. Species diagnosis of mango leafhoppers by the conventional taxonomy is limited by the morphological similarity among the various species namely Amritodus atkinsoni and Amritodus brevistylus, and Idioscopus clypealis and Idioscopus

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops

27

nagpurensis. Alternatively, species diagnosis of mango leafhoppers could be achieved employing CO-I, by which even a non-specialist could easily identify the species in question. Additionally, phylogenetic information could also be derived from the CO-I sequences. DNA barcoding employing a 658 bp fragment of 50 region of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene is an effective tool in addressing the rapid, accurate, and timely identification of mango leafhoppers (Asokan et al., 2015). 2. Molecular characterization by using cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO-I) gene confirmed that Idioscopus nitidulus of Raichur, Bramhavar, and Hyderabad population showed 99% similarity, A. atkinsoni of Dharwad and Shivamoga showed 99% similarity, and I. nagpurensis of Kerala showed 98% similarity. It is inferred that there was a considerable molecular diversity among the leafhopper populations of major mango-growing areas. The maximum identity of I. nitidulus and I. nagpurensis showed 91–99% variation indicating a higher genetic diversity in these two species, and in A. atkinsoni the variation was 97–99% (Manjunatha et al., 2018). 3. With use of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) region marker, six different leafhopper (China Aster, Marigold, and Chrysanthemum) species namely Sogatella furcifera, Homalodisca insolita, Amrasca biguttula, Balclutha incise, Balclutha abdominalis, and Japanagallia trifurcate were identified. This research contributes valuable knowledge to molecular biology and recognizes leafhopper species that serve as major phytoplasma vectors (Mahadevaswamy et al., 2019a, b). 4. The phylogenetic tree was prepared for mtCO-I gene sequences of different populations (number) of A. atkinsoni (1), A. brevistylus (2), Idioscopus niveosparus (1), I. nagpurensis (3), and I. clypealis (1) and populations from Punjab. The tree revealed two clades, i.e., first corresponding to A. atkinsonii and A. brevistylus, while, clade 2 consisted of three species of Idioscopus with three sub-clusters for each I. clypealis, I. niveosparus, and I. nagpurensis. Nucleotide pairwise distances ranged from 0.002 to 0.199. The analysis revealed very low genetic variations among the South and North Indian populations of A. atkinsoni (Vikas et al., 2016).

7.6

Aphids

The complex life cycles, significant polymorphism, immature taxonomy, and absence of trained manpower make the morphological identification of the aphids difficult. The identification of immature aphids is often difficult or impossible. In addition, their small size, presence of cryptic species, and damaged specimens dictate the need for a strategy that will ensure timely and accurate identification. A reliable, quick, accurate, and life-stage-independent method of identification of vectors such as Aphis gossypii and Myzus persicae is important with respect to

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virus transmission, insecticide resistance, and biological control. DNA barcoding is useful to identify many aphid species. 1. Molecular diversity analyses using both mitochondrial and nuclear markers showed that neither A. gossypii nor M. persicae has as much genetic variability as expected. An outcome of this investigation is the development of a technique that is useful for the quick identification of A. gossypii and M. persicae, a critical factor in understanding the epidemiology and management of the Potyviruses, and also in facilitating quarantines of these two pests (Rebijith et al., 2012a). 2. RFLP markers were developed for the identification of five aphid species, which are among the most damaging pest of vegetables in Kenya. DNA barcoding identified the morphologically indistinguishable Aphis craccivora and Aphis fabae and separated two subspecies of A. fabae. Our DNA barcoding results contribute to the growing database of DNA barcodes of aphid species in the world. With the availability of quick and accurate identification tools, monitoring and detection of potentially invasive species could be heightened, facilitating successful pest management strategies and contributing to effective phytosanitary management systems in Kenya and beyond (Kinyanjui et al., 2016). 3. Comparing mitochondrial gene sequences of rose aphids with extant sequences in gene bank shows high diversity of them, and then studied samples from various places of Isfahan (Iran) were classified in four groups: Aphis gossypii, Ericaphis scammelli, Macrosiphum rosae, and Wahlgreniella nervata. According to results, W. nervata is new for Isfahan aphid’s fauna and E. scammelli is new for Iran’s rose aphids. There were a little E. scammelli extant among samples and it seems that rose is not its main host in this region. This is the first report of this aphid on rose (Jalalizanda et al., 2012). 4. Molecular analysis based on a fragment of the mitochondrial DNA containing the 50 region of the cytochrome c oxidase 1 (mtCO-I) confirmed the presence of the invasive aphid species Wahlgreniella nervata in Bengaluru, India. The invasive species compendium developed by CAB International, 2013, has listed W. nervata as invasive in nature (Joshi et al., 2014). 5. Both molecular approaches, namely DNA mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene barcoding and microsatellite flanking region sequences, clearly distinguished two groups corresponding to the morphologically defined species, namely the green apple aphid (Aphis pomi) and the spirea aphid (Aphis spiraecola). Among Aphis pomi samples, microsatellite flanking region sequences were relatively uniform, whereas A. spiraecola exhibited much variability, which suggests that North American populations of the latter species are genetically much more complex (Foottit et al., 2009). 6. CO-I mitochondrial region as a variable region between species is able to differentiate between 25 aphid species that are commonly found in horticultural crops in Victoria, Australia. The restriction enzymes HpyCH4 IV, DraI, HinfI, TaqI, and SspI characterized 26 haplotypes that corresponded to 25 aphid species commonly found in southern Australian aphid surveys, including the currantlettuce aphid Nasonovia ribisnigri that has recently invaded Australia,

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presumably from New Zealand. Overseas specimens of Aulacorthum solani and N. ribisnigri showed no significant sequence difference when compared with their Australian counterparts. The CO-I gene provides a useful marker for diagnostic aphid surveys (Valenzuela et al., 2007). 7. DNA barcode was developed to identify 33 species of aphids infesting several horticultural crops in India (Asokan et al., 2011a, b). 8. Pentalonia nigronervosa samples on banana and Zingiberaceae and Araceae species from Micronesia and Hawaii, Florida, and Australia exhibit fixed differences in DNA sequence in mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I. Molecular identification confirmed presence of Pentalonia nigronervosa feeding on banana, and Pentalonia caladii feeding on the plants belonging to Zingiberaceae and Araceae (Foottit et al., 2010).

7.7

Fruit Flies

Increased transboundary movement of horticultural produce has resulted in the chance introduction of many invasive species including fruit flies mainly at immature stages. At quarantine checkpoints, fruit flies are most commonly intercepted at the larval stage; however, larvae have few diagnostic morphological features. At this juncture, molecular species diagnostics based on CO-I have become handy, because diagnosis is not limited by developmental stages. Polymerase chain reaction-based methods such as DNA barcoding and restriction fragment length polymorphism are being used for the identification of various fruit flies, their biodiversity, and genetic diversity. 1. Phylogenetic relationships among five subgenera, viz., Austrodacus, Bactrocera, Daculus, Notodacus, and Zeugodacus, have been resolved employing the 50 region of CO-I (1490–2198), where CO-I sequences for Bactrocera dorsalis, Bactrocera tau, Bactrocera correcta, and Bactrocera zonata from India were compared with other NCBI-GenBank accessions. Phylogenetic analysis employing Maximum Parsimony (MP) and Bayesian phylogenetic (BP) approaches showed that the subgenus Bactrocera is monophyletic. CO-I was very useful for the quick and accurate species diagnoses of eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of Bactrocera zonata, B. tau, and B. dorsalis. Furthermore, the utility of species-specific markers in differentiating B. zonata (500 bp) and B. tau (220 bp) was shown (Asokan et al., 2011a, b). 2. The phylogram for the Bactrocera spp. suggests that B. tau is phylogenetically distant from B. dorsalis, B. zonata, and B. correcta. Moreover, B. dorsalis, B. zonata, and B. correcta had maximum sequence identity (98%) with very few variable sites in the 28S rDNA sequences. It is inferred that 28S rDNA region will have high reliability for species identification in these species studied (Asokan et al., 2013). 3. PCR analysis using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene-based primers CO-I gene revealed the presence of three species,

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6.

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B. dorsalis, B. correcta, and B. zonata, on guava and mango orchards in Punjab (Pakistan). The sequencing results and phylogenetic analysis of collected Punjab specimens indicated that sequences of B. dorsalis, Bactrocera cucurbitae, and B. zonata have 99–100% similarity with fruit flies reported from other countries (Ahmad et al., 2019). The RAPD-PCR of 31 DNA samples of B. dorsalis collected in different districts of Karnataka has revealed polymorphism varying from 33.33 to 100%. UPGMA dendrogram generated by RAPD data indicated the segregation of populations into three clusters. The recorded genetic differences in terms of DNA profiles for the better understanding of the genetic diversity among B. dorsalis populations and information obtained will be useful for tracking the movement of this pest, and its analysis would provide knowledge in developing and improving management strategies (Rashmi et al., 2016). The study on the taxonomic status of Bactrocera spp. using the cytochrome oxidase I gene of mitochondrial DNA and its phylogenic has shown that sequence (435 bp) of the Bactrocera sp. had highest similarity to B. cucurbitae (100%) and 96% homology with Bactrocera calumniata. The phylogenetics clearly showed that Bactrocera sp. have the same common ancestor that came from Switzerland: B. cucurbitae (Indriyanti et al., 2017). Molecular characterization of fruit fly species (collected from four different agroclimatic zones of Bihar) associated with cucurbitaceous crops revealed the presence of Bactrocera cucurbitae, B. tau, Bactrocera caudata, Bactrocera nigrofemoralis, Bactrocera diversa, and Dacus ciliatus. Significant achievements of the study were: Bactrocera nigrofemoralis will be the first report from Bihar as a new fruit fly species, and it also identified new hosts D. ciliatus and B. diversa from pointed gourd and flowers of Cucurbita moschata, respectively. The present study provided a platform to make aware the proper management practices of different species of fruit flies and also provided a level of biodiversity of Tephritids in Bihar (Singh, 2017). By using restriction enzyme Alul and Msel, five Bactrocera species namely B. correcta, Bactrocera verbascifoliae, Bactrocera dorsalis, Bactrocera papayae, and B. zonata showed different restriction patterns in their DNA sequences. Using PCR amplification of DNA sequences, we can be able to show species identification from DNA sequences that will be helpful in quarantine work irrespective of their growth stage (Ukey et al., 2017). DNA-based barcode using mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtCO-I) gene was very useful to identify and confirm the new report of Bactrocera occipitalis as exotic fruit fly in Bali, Indonesia, and B. dorsalis specimens in fruit orchards in Europe. Ten fruit fly species of the genus Bactrocera was genetically characterized by using standard DNA barcoding region of CO-I gene. The characterization and identification of eight species were straightforward. Phylogenetic analysis formed separate clades for fruit and vegetable infesting fruit flies. Bactrocera aethriobasis, Bactrocera thailandica, and Bactrocera tuberculata have been reported for the first time from northeastern India. The information generated

Molecular Identification of Insect Pests of Horticultural Crops

10.

11.

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14.

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from this study would certainly have implications for pest management, taxonomy, quarantine, and trade (Manger et al., 2018). Considering the speed, specificity, as well as sensitivity of the assay, Taqman real-time PCR can be used as a swift and specific method for the peach fruit fly Bactrocera zonata (including various life stages) at ports of entry (Koohkanzade et al., 2018). The species-specific PCR analysis using mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtDNA CO-I) barcoding genes proved to be a robust single-step molecular technique for the diagnosis of guava fruit fly Bactrocera correcta, an invasive pest of fruit and vegetable crops in Southeast Asia (Jiang et al., 2013). Mitochondrial DNA cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (mtDNA CO-I) gene sequence has confirmed the presence of four species of fruit flies, namely Bactrocera minax, B. dorsalis, Bactrocera tsuneonis, and Bactrocera ruiliensis, infesting citrus fruits in China. In the regions surveyed, B. minax is the dominant fruit fly species that damages citrus fruits. The results of this study are helpful in monitoring and controlling citrus fruit flies (Zhong-Yi et al., 2020). Molecular genetic method using restriction enzyme digestions of PCR products from the mitochondrial gene, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (CO-I), provides a simple diagnostic marker for Korean fruit flies, namely pumpkin fruit fly Bactrocera depressa and pumpkin flower fruit fly Bactrocera scutellata, and widespread oriental fruit fly B. dorsalis and medfly Ceratitis capitata. The simplicity and relatively low cost of this molecular approach will facilitate rapid quarantine decisions concerning exotic fruit flies (HanSong et al., 2000). A PCR amplification technique was used to successfully establish RFLP patterns of the CO-I coding gene to differentiate the exotic Bactrocera invadens (syn. Bactrocera dorsalis) from the native Ceratitis species infesting sweet oranges in Nigeria. The molecular method will enhance easy monitoring, early detection of species involved, and implementation of appropriate management programs that effectively reduce yield losses in citrus production in Nigeria (Onah et al., 2015). In the Campania Region (southern Italy), molecular characterization with CO-I confirmed the presence of Bactrocera dorsalis. This is the first record of B. dorsalis specimens in fruit orchards in Europe; this finding can strongly affect both the production in Italian orchards and crops and the commercial exchanges of Italian fruits in Europe due to the existing quarantine measures (Nugnes et al., 2018).

Tea Mosquito Bugs (Helopeltis Spp.)

The species of Helopeltis closely resemble each other. Many oriental species of Helopeltis are often misidentified due to the variations in size, coloration, and the scutellar process. The problematic immature stages are most often encountered in

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import consignments. Identification is further complicated by the lack of morphological keys for immature stages, i.e., eggs, larvae, and pupae. Molecular species diagnostics based on CO-I have become handy in identifying various life stages, i.e., egg, nymph, and adult. Further molecular diversity analyses were also employing CO-I partial sequences for Helopeltis antonii to elucidate if biotypes or cryptic species exist. 1. The molecular identification has helped in quick, accurate, and timely identification of Helopeltis antonii and Helopeltis theivora, a critical factor in understanding the epidemiology of the crop losses in cashew, resistance management, and also in quarantine. The phylogenetic analysis did not show any geographic or host-associated genetic differences in H. antonii, which were collected on different host plants (Asokan et al., 2012c). 2. The usefulness of CO-I is measured for the species discrimination of mirids in India, viz., Helopeltis antonii, H. theivora, Helopeltis bradyi, and Pachypeltis maesarum, in their various life stages. Analysis of CO-I gene revealed 90% mortality of nymphs. Application of dichlorvos 0.05%, deltamethrin, triazophos 0.06%, imidacloprid at 0.0027%, spirotetramat and buprofezin is also effective against the whiteflies.

9.2

Serpentine Leaf Miner: Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Liriomyza trifolii is native of the USA (Florida), and it might have entered India accidentally probably during 1990–1991. Biology: The adult female makes punctures in the leaf tissue with its ovipositor for both feeding and oviposition. Eggs are into the leaf below the epidermis on the under surface of the leaves. Eggs are oval in shape and creamy white. Eggs hatch in 2–3 days. Maggots are minute orange in colour and mine the leaf surface. There are three active larval instars completing in 5–6 days. A fourth instar occurs between puparium formation and pupation. Pupation occurs inside the leaf mine. Puparium is initially golden brown and turns darker. Pupae are rectangular oval shaped narrowing at the ends. Pupal period is 8–10 days. Adults are small flies with yellowish head and reddish eyes. Thorax and abdomen are grey to black; legs are yellow. Life cycle is completed in 20–25 days.

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Maggot

Pupa

Adult

Leaf damage

Damage: Attack of leaf miner starts when plants are at three or four leaf stage. Female fly lays eggs by puncturing tender leaves. The larvae that hatch out from the eggs mine the leaf feeding on the mesophyll region leaving a serpentine structure and thus the common name. The severely affected leaves may drop. The larvae make irregular mines showing whitish lines over the upper surface of the leaves resulting in destruction of chlorophyll in the mesophyll tissues of the leaf. Under severe infestation, the infested leaves turn yellowish brown in colour resulting in drooping up of the leaves. Management: It involves with the plucking and burning of severely mined leaves and the application of 2–3 g of potassium nitrate (KNO3) or potassium silicate. In India, parasitism by the indigenous natural enemies goes up to 40% in India. Hemiptarsenus varicornis (Girault) is the most predominant one. Species composition of the parasite complex is least affected by avermectin. Foliar spray of neem seed kernel extract 5% at weekly interval helps in managing the insect damage. Spraying of abamectin and deltamethrin 0.0015% followed by triazophos 0.06% when infestation begins provides very good control of the leaf miner. Spraying of pongamia oil 1% is also very effective against the pest. The use of yellow sticky traps coated with chlorpyrifos 0.05% gives considerable protection from L. trifolii and encourages natural parasitization. Chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC is found to be the most effective treatment in reducing leaf miner infestation.

9.3

Thrips: Thrips palmi Karny and Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Thrips pose serious threat to the cultivation of gerbera. Biology: The egg is laid in the parenchymal cells of the leaves and flowers. Immediately after hatching, larvae begin to feed on the parenchymal cells and on the flower pollen. During the nymph phase, they grow, and their mobility increases. The adults live on average 30–40 days, and the female-male ratio is generally 3:1 or 4:1. Under suitable climatic conditions, the pest will have 12–14 generations in a single year. Damage: Heavy infestation of thrips is observed during September–November and March–May on gerbera. Adults and nymphs colonize along midrib on upper surface of leaves and petals of growing flowers and suck the sap. Damaged young leaves curl up, while matured ones become brittle and turn bronze. Affected buds get

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stunted and do not open properly. Discolouration, development of brown streaks and severe distortion of petals are seen on the damaged flowers. Management: Spraying of dimethoate 0.05% in combination with pongamia oil 0.5% or acephate 0.1% at early stages of infestation and drenching of beds with chlorpyrifos 0.1% check pest buildup and damage to plants. Application of imidacloprid 0.004% or profenophos 0.05% or ethofenprox 0.01%/ fipronil 5SC at 1.5ml/l or spinosad (0.02%) is highly effective against thrips.

9.4

Aphid: Myzus persicae Sulz. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Aphids mainly attack growing flowers. They colonize on the lower side of petals and spread to the entire flower in case of heavy infestation. Aphids suck the sap from petals leading to discoloration, withering and deformation of flowers. Development of sooty mould on honey dew excreted by the pest makes flowers look sticky with black patches. Aphids can be kept under check by parasitoid wasp Aphidius colemani (Alford, 2008). Spraying with pongamia oil or neem oil at 1%, dimethoate 0.06% and imidacloprid 0.007% also gives very good control of the pest.

Thrips damage on petals

9.5

Leaf damage

Aphids on gerbera

Leaf and Bud Caterpillars: Spodoptera litura (Fab.) and Helicoverpa armigera (Hubn.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Larvae cause severe damage to flower buds before they open as the larvae are protected by bracts on both open and greenhouse-grown gerbera plants. Damage results in dropping of petals, reduces quality of flowers due to excreta and causes severe flower loss. A mixture of deltamethin 15 g and triazophos 30 g/L spray applied gives 97% mortality of the caterpillars. Spraying with quinalphos or chlorpyrifos at 0.05% protects plants from caterpillar damage by S. litura. Spreading of poison bait (10 kg rice bran + 1 kg jaggery + 0.5 kg chlorpyrifos) where damage is noticed and installing pheromone traps after first showers are quite helpful in bringing down population of S. litura.

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Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae (Koch.) (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Two-spotted mite is one of the serious pests of gerbera. Moderate population may greatly affect crop production, and heavy infestation results in death of the plants. Colonies of mites are seen on both sides of the matured leaves and spread to flowers in case of heavy infestation. Nymphs and adults feed on the leaf sap resulting in bronzing and drying of damaged leaves. Severely damaged plants produce few and very small flowers which dry up consequently (Dharmishthabahen and Shukla, 2014). Acaricides like abamectin 0.0025%, diafenthiuron 0.025% or amitraz 0.05% or flufenoxuron 0.015% provide highly effective control of the mite.

9.7

Root-knot Nematode: Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) Chitwood

Due to nematode infestation, plant leaves become yellow growth will be stunted. Flowing dirty water from one field to another field in the rainy season carries nematodes, under favourable conditions the development and spread of nematode will be faster. Root-knot nematode M. incognita causes 20–30% yield loss in gerbera. Combined application of neem cake enriched with P. fluorescens [mixing 50 g Pseudomonas fluorescens (2  10 8 cfu/g) in 1 kg of neem cake] applied at 25 g/m 2 is found effective for the management of disease complex and increased the flower yield by 26% in gerbera.

9.8

Snails/Slug

Snails/slugs come to eat during the night hours, so the symptom of snails/slug is on the leaves and flowers petals through circular feeding holes.

9.9

Other Insect Pests

They include the mealybugs Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley and Ferrisia virgata (Ckll).

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Gladiolus

10.1

Gladiolus Thrips: Taeniothrips simplex Morison (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

This is a major pest in gladiolus and causes serious damage to the crop. Biology: Female lays eggs in slits on the surface of the plant. The eggs are opaque, white and kidney shaped. Eggs are deposited in the leaf tissue and corms. The two larval stages are light yellow and are usually found beneath the leaves or bracts but later turn to dark brown except the leg tips that are lighter in colour. The fully developed second instar larva is about the size of the adult. The first pupal stage is distinguished from the second pupal stage by having forward projecting antennae and short wing pads. The second pupal stage, which is a quiescent period, has the antennae folded over the back and much longer wing pads. Adults emerge milky white but soon turn brown and begin feeding. There are several generations during summer months. Damage: Thrips is a common pest of gladioli that usually appears during cloudy weather. The insect causes damage to leaves, flower stalks and buds by sucking. Yellow-coloured nymphs and dark-coloured adults are seen on the undersurface of leaves, between the petals of buds and flowers. They rasp epidermal layers and suck the plant sap resulting in silvering, browning and distortion of affected leaves and buds. Thrips also damage corms in storage, and attacked corms look sticky, shrivelled and produce weak plants.

Taeniothrips simplex

10.1.1

Flower damage

Leaf damage

Honey Suckle Thrips: Thrips flavus Schrank

Adults are yellow to orange in colour. Legs and forewings are yellow to pale yellow. Nymphs are white to pale yellow in colour. Nymphs and adults feed on the blossoms which shrivel and become dark.

10.1.2

Flower Thrips: Frankliniella spp.

Flower thrips often invade gladiolus and damage the florets.

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Management of thrips: Management involves with spraying of acephate 0.1% or dimethoate 0.05% when initial symptoms are noticed at 2 weeks interval that checks damage. Soil application of systemic insecticides like phorate/ carbofuran 1.0 kg a.i./ha controls the thrips.

10.2

Cutworm: Agrotis segetum (Schiff) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The pest attack is severe in hilly regions. Female moth lays eggs on stem, and hatched larvae feed on tender parts of the plant. Clay-coloured full-grown larvae hide in the soil during day time and cut the plants at ground level during the night. Plants are vulnerable to attack up to third leaf stage. Corms, cormels and emerging spikes are also damaged in severe cases. Management involves with deep ploughing of soil that exposes pupae to natural enemies; spreading of poison bait made out of rice bran, jaggery and chlorpyrifos 0.1% (10:1: 0.5 kg) in the field kills the larvae; spraying of quinalphos 0.05% at fortnightly intervals effectively controls cutworms on gladiolus.

10.3

Leaf Eating Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Female moth lays eggs in clusters of 200–300 on the lower surface of leaves. Blackish green young caterpillars with distinct black band on the first abdominal segment feed on leaves by scrapping. Grown-up caterpillars are greenish brown with series of yellow bands and feed voraciously during the night on flowers of developing spikes. Caterpillars feed voraciously on the leaves.

Caterpillars feeding on leaf

Management: Removal and destruction of infested leaves (eggs and young larvae), deep ploughing before planting to expose pupae to natural predators and

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spraying of neem seed kernel extract 4%, acephate 0.05% or quinalphos at 0.05% or dichlorvos 0.1% that reduces damage of caterpillar.

10.4

Striped Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Damage by the mealybug begins in the field on underground corms during dry conditions and carries onto storage. Nymphs and adults damage corms by sucking the sap causing shrivelling and drying of affected corms. Prompt collection and destruction of infested parts reduce spread of the pest. Crawling of ants on plants is the sign of beginning of mealybug infestation. Spraying should be taken up at this stage. Spraying of dimethoate 0.04% or acephate 0.1% at 15 days interval effectively controls mealybug infestation.

10.5

Tarnished Plant Bug: Lygus lineolaris (P. de B.) (Hemiptera: Miridae)

Nymphs are greenish. Adult bugs are mottled yellowish or reddish brown with flat, oval bodies. Bugs puncture the terminal shoot below the flower bud and inject toxic saliva. Flower drop occurs. Management involves with destruction of the weeds in the vicinity of the crop and spraying of dimethoate 30 EC at 2ml/L of water before flowering.

Bug feeding on flower

Adult L. lineolaris

10.6

Mites

10.6.1

Bulb Mite: Rhizoglyphus echinopus (Fumouze and Robin) (Acari: Acaridae)

This slow moving mite is about 0.5 mm long, globular and yellow-white with brownish legs. Infested corms produce stunted plants with yellow and distorted leaves. Early infestations are found around the basal plate of the old corm. Roots

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are destroyed first, and stems are attacked later. Corms can be completely destroyed by the combined action of the mites and microorganisms that invade the damaged tissue. Hot-water treatment will kill the mites, but good sanitation is very important when digging up, storing or planting out corms.

10.6.2

Spider Mite: Tetranychus equatorius McGregor (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Biology: The adult female of red spider mite lays 45–140 eggs on the ventral surface of the leaf as well as in webs. Eggs are spherical and translucent in colour. Both protonymph and deutonymph are green in color with dark specks on the dorsum, while adults are carmine coloured. The protonymph and deutonymph periods occupy about 2 days each, and the total developmental period of this mite occupies 10 days under tropical climate. Damage: Colonies of mite are seen on the undersurface of leaves. Nymphs and adults damage tissue and suck the oozing sap from leaves resulting in white spots. Damaged leaves look discoloured, gradually wilt and finally drop. Mites also infest bulbs during storage. Management: Spraying of profenophos at 0.05% or triazophos 0.06% causes significant morality of the mite. Spraying of neem or pongamia oil 1% also provides considerable control.

10.7

Nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita and Rotylenchulus reniformis

Meloidogyne incognita and R. reniformis are known to attack gladiolus. Root-knot nematode M. incognita is easily controlled by hot-water treatment at 53oC for 30 min. Other nematodes are also checked by this method. Soil fumigation and the use of nematicides like phorate at 4–10 kg and carbofuran are useful to reduce the population of nematodes. Application of 5 MT of FYM per ha enriched with Pseudomonas fluorescens (with 1  109 cfu/g) significantly reduces the nematode population.

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Other Pests

Several species of aphids are known to attack gladiolus. They suck sap from tender leaves and emerging spikes as well as florets. Other insects include spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Russell., the semilooper Plusia orichalcea Fab., loopers Trichoplusia ni (Hub.) and Pseudoplusia includens (Walker) (Noctuidae), blister beetle Mylabris sp. and the steel blue beetle Altica sp. Some other insects like leafhoppers and grasshoppers are also known to feed on gladiolus. Mites like Aleurodicus dispersus Russell, Tetranychus urticae and T. himacultus are also known to infest gladiolus.

11 11.1

Hibiscus Hibiscus Mealybugs: Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), Coccidohystrix insolita (Green), Planococcus citri (Risso), Phenacoccus solani Tinsley and Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink

M. hirsutus is also popularly known as pink hibiscus mealybug (PHMB) and is considered as a prolific pest that injects a toxin at the point of feeding, causing severe distortion of leaves and stunted growth. In general, all these mealybugs suck the sap from the leaves, flower and tender shoots. In India, Spalgis epeus Westwood and Scymnus coccivora Ayyar are the common natural enemies found feeding on mealybugs infesting hibiscus. To supplement them, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, when released at 20 grubs/plant, gives excellent control of all the mealybugs infesting hibiscus within 70 days. Aenasius arizonensis (Girault) (Aenasius bambawalei Hayat) for Ph. solenopsis and Acerophagus papayae (Noyes and Schauff) for P. marginatus are found very useful to control on the pests infesting Hibiscus.

Pl. citri

Ph.solenopsis

C. insolita

Ph.madeirensis

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Other Hibiscus Pests

They include Oxycarenus laetus, Aleurodicus dispersus, Anomis flava (Fabricius), Aphis gossypii Glover, Cerococcus indicus (Maskell), Cerococcus hibisci, Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus, Danaus chrysippus (Linnaeus), Euproctis lunata, Earias vittella (Fabricius), Eurybrachys sp., Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret), Howardia biclavis (Comstock), Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas), Indomias cretaceous (Faust), Monolepta signata Olivier, Mylabris phalerata, Neptis jumbah Moore, Obereopsis brevis (Swedenbord), Oxycarenus hyalinipennis (Costa), Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret), Pseudaonidia trilobitiformis (Green), Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel and Miller, Somena scintillans (Walker), Sphenarches caffer (Zeller), Theretra clotho (Drury), Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe) and Xanthodes albago (Fabricius) red ginger.

12 12.1

Other Ornamentals Red Ginger Green Shield Scale: Pulvinaria psidii Maskell

The green shield scale, P. psidii, has been reported causing damage to the leaves and flowers of red ginger (Alpinia purpurata K. Schum.) The green shield scale was found at high levels on red ginger (Alpinia purpurata). Following the release of the Australian ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant at 10/plant, the scale population declined from 174.60 scales/shoot on 15 June to 1.40/shoot on 1 September. Reduction in the population of P. psidii in the red ginger biocontrol plot was attributed mainly to the action of C. montrouzieri.

12.2

Lily Moth: Polytela gloriosae (Fabricius) (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera)

It is a sporadic and specific pest in India. Damage: Larvae feed on the leaves resulting in complete defoliation of lily plants. Bionomics: Adult has red, yellow and black mosaic pattern on the forewings with a row of black and yellow dots on the apical margin. The hind wings are black. Adult lays round and yellowish eggs in clusters on the apical portion of the undersurface of the leaves. Larvae emerge in 3–6 days, and they feed on leaves for 16–20 days. Larvae have chocolate brown head and possess black, white and red mosaic patterns on the body. They pupate in the soil in earthen cocoon, and adult emerge in

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15–20 days. Insect has two generations per year, and the pupae of second generation hibernate. Management: Spray malathion 0.05%.

12.3

Hollyhock Tingid Bug: Urentius euonymus Distant (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

It is known to attack Holly hock, Abutilon indicum and Sida cordifoliaDamage: Adults and nymphs suck plant sap from the under surface of leaves. The infested leaves become pale yellow and turn brown. Ultimately they shrivel and dry up. Bionomics: Bugs have densely reticulate body and wings. Nymphs are spiny in appearance. Adult lays eggs on the upper surface of leaves. Egg period 8–10 days, five nymphal instars completed in 15–27 days. Full development cycle is completed on a single leaf. Management: Spray dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/L.

12.4

Sunflower Lace Wing Bug: Cadmilos retiarius Distant (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

It is known to infest sunflower, gaillardia, chrysanthemum, marigold, vernonia, Argemone mxicana, etc. Damage: Nymphs and adults suck plant sap, and the infested leaves turn yellowish brown and finally dry up. Bionomics: Small bug, with transparent shiny reticulate wings and black body. Adult lays eggs mainly on the upper surface of leaves and are inserted slantingly into the plant tissue leaving the opercula exposed which appear like white or brown dots. Eggs hatch in 5–7 days and nymphal period is 2–3 weeks. Spraying with malathion 50 EC 500 ml in 500 L of water/ha. is useful to control the tingids.

12.5

Pests of Dahlia

Thrips parvispinus (Karny), Microcephalothrips abdominalis, F. virgata, Al. dispersus and T. urticae are known to attack dahlia.

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12.6

Snails and Slugs

12.6.1

Common Snail: Helix spp.

They are found in Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra and Orissa. Giant African snail: Achatina fulica—Found in coastal areas of Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Common garden slug: Laevicaulis alte—Found in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh and feeds on a number of ornamental plants like balsam, portulaca, pot marigold, verbena, dahlia, cosmos, narcissus and several other ornamentals.

Achatina fulica

Laevicaulis alte

Limax sp.

Damage: Snails and slugs appear as sporadic pests in those places where damp conditions prevail. They may also appear in large number on roads and runways, creating problems during the taking off or the landing of the aircraft. When their population is high, they may do serious damage. Bionomics: Snails and slugs are soft-bodied, asymmetrical, spirally coiled and enclosed in a shell. They have a large flat foot used for creeping and do not have separate sexes the common snail breeds in spring and summer. It makes a hole of 1.24 cm in diameter and 3 cm in depth in damp soil and lays eggs in a loose mass of about 60. The eggs hatch within 2 weeks, and the young snails start feeding upon tender plants. The shell increases in size with age, and the snail is full grown in about 2 years. Snails are seen at all hours, except during mid-day when it is hot and dry. In winter, they stay in colonies and are found among rockeries, loose boards of fences, at the bottom of hedges, in rubbish heaps, etc. Management: Low population can be collected and destroyed. Dust 15% metaldehyde dust or spray 20% metaldehyde liquid or sprinkle 5% metaldehyde pellets around infested fields.

12.7

Other Ornamentals and Their Pests

Alstonia scholaris: Pauropsylla tuberculata Crawford China rose: Aphis gossypii Glover Asclepias curassavica: Danaus chrysippus L Bauhinia purpurea: Aleurodicus dispersus Russell and Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.)

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Acalypha: Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.), Coccidohystrix insolita (Green) and A. dispersus Cassia: Aleurodicus dispersus, Ferrisia virgata and C. insolita Chempaka: Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus), G. doson (Felder) and Al. dispersus Bougainvillea: Oxycarenus laetus Kirby and Aleurodicus dispersus Coleus: Aleurodicus dispersus, F. virgata and Planococcus minor Canna indica: Aleurodicus dispersus Heliconia: Pulvinaria psidii (Maskell), Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) and Planococcus citri Ixora: Pulvinaria psidii (Maskell) and Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock Nerium indicum: Euploea core (Cramer), Saissetia coffeae (Walker) and Acanthodelta janata Oleander: Eutetranychus orientalis (Klein), Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe, Daphnis nerii (Linnaeus), Euploea core and Pinnaspis strachani (Cooley) Plumeria acuminata: Oxycarenus laetus and Aleurodicus dispersus Poinsettia: A. dispersus, F. virgata and Bemisia tabaci Ruellia indica: Mylabris phalerata (Pallas) Tecoma argentea: Planococcus citri (Risso) Thespesia tiliacea: Aleurodicus dispersus Clerodendrum philippinum: Planococcus citri Tabebuia avellaneda: Al. dispersus Zinnia: Tetranychus urticae Crotons: Planococcus minor (Maskell), Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Cerococcus hibisci (Green), Parasaissetia nigra (Niet) and Aleurodicus dispersus

References Ahmad, G. S., Hafeez, A., Devinder Sharma, K., Ramandeep, N. T., & Khaliq, N. (2018). Seasonal incidence and management of onion thrips Thrips tabaci L. on marigold. Indian Journal of Entomology, 80(3), 563–566. Alford, D. V. (2008). Pests and diseases of protected ornamental flower crops. In Pests and diseases management handbook (pp. 403–428). Dharmishthabahen, R. S., & Shukla, A. (2014). Seasonal incidence of spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Koch) (Tetranychidae : Acari) on gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) under polyhouse conditions. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 20(1), 26–29. Jhansi Rani, B., & Jagan Mohan, N. (1997). Pest management in ornamental crops. In S. Yadav & M. L. Choudhary (Eds.), Progressive floriculture (pp. 169–181). House of Sarpan. Preetee, K., & Usha, C. (1999). Extent of damage by the bud borer Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) to carnation in Himachal Pradesh. Pest Management and Economic Zoology, 5(2), 143–145. Reddy, P. P. (2010). Ornamental crops. In Insects, mites and vertebrate pests and their management in horticultural crops (pp. 201–237). Scientific Publication.

Pests and Their Management in Orchids N. K. Meena and M. Mani

Abstract The quality of orchid flowers is severely affected by the infestation of number of insect pests, viz. scale insects Pinnaspis buxi, Coccus hesperidum, Lecanium sp., Chrysomphalus aonidum, Diaspis boisduvali and Furcaspis biformis; aphids Macrosiphum luteum and Toxoptera aurantii; shoot borer Peridaedala sp.; thrips Dichromothrips nakahari Mound, Megalurothrips distalis, Anaphorathrips spp. and Chaetanaphothrips orchidii; mealybug Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi; grasshopper Oxya chinensis; whiteflies Trialeurodes vaporariorum, Aleurodicus dispersus and Aleurotulus anthuricola; Bihar hairy caterpillar Pilosoma obliqua; tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura; beetle Lema sp.; and the weevil Sipalinus sp.

1 Scale Insects Scales are the major pests of orchid in all the orchid-growing areas in India (Meena et al., 2010).

1.1

Ti Scale: Pinnaspis buxi Bouche (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

This species of scale insect feeds on Cymbidium, Cattleya, Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum, Vanda, Oncidium, Epidendrobium, Phaius, Rhynchostylis, Pholidota, Calanthe and Phalaenopsis on the old plants. Adult scales are sticky, pear shaped, small sized about 1–1.5 mm long, flat bodied, elongated without any permanent body organs like wings, legs or eyes. This scale multiplies quickly under N. K. Meena (*) ICAR-National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India M. Mani ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_53

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favourable climate in the polyhouses and produces many generations in a year (Nagrare, 2005).

P. buxi

1.1.1

Coccus hesperidum

Diaspis boisduvali

Florida Red Scale: Chrysomphalus aonidum L. (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

Florida red scale is more abundant on Cymbidium, Cleisostoma, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Liparis, Luisia, Phalaenopsis, Zygopetalum and many other broadleaved orchids. This species of scale is round or moderately convex in shape and dark reddish brown to almost black or somewhat ash grey in colour; size is about 2.0–2.5 mm in diameter (Meena et al., 2010). A white waxy concentric ring is found surrounding the encrusted body cell. Its infestation mostly occurs on aerial plant parts.

Chrysomphalus aonidum

1.2

Furcaspis biformis

Boisduval Scale: Diaspis boisduvali Sig. (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

It is a serious pest of many species and hybrid of orchids, i.e. Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Vanda, Aerides, Ascocentrum, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Eria, Liparis, Phalaenopsis, Paphiopedilum and Pholidota spp. Its infestation is more severe on

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orchids in winter season under low temperature and sunlight. Boisduval scales are circular to oval, thin flat, white to light yellow and semitransparent in appearance. Size is about 2–3 mm in diameter (Meena et al., 2010). The body is fully covered with white cottony growth. It is reported to cause 44% damage to the plants and flowers of Dendrobium nobile (Nagrare et al., 2009). Due to hidden infestation on roots and underground plant parts inside potting media, it is very difficult to control under protected conditions.

1.3

Armored Scale: Furcaspis biformis (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

The armoured scale makes a separate protective covering under which the insect lives, feeds and lays eggs. The female scales are circular, semicircular and oblong and vary in colour from white to dark brown. The adult female is always wingless and legless; while the adult male has functional wings. The hatched crawler is mobile and moves about in search of an ideal place to feed. The crawler inserts needle-like mouthpart into the plant and remains there as it develops into an adult. It does not excrete honeydew. Infested plants become yellowish with spot on leaves, loss of leaves and even death of the plant. Fucaspis biformis is found to infect Cymbidium iridioides and Cymbidium aloifolium.

1.4

Lecanium Scales: Lecanium sp. (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

The scales are usually bowl or dome or turtle shaped, slightly longer than wide, smooth and shiny brown in colour and about 4–6 mm in diameter. This scale mostly feeds on Epidendrum, Arundina, Phaius, Dendrobium, Calanthe, Pholidota and Eria under both open and greenhouse conditions. In the absence of proper maintenance, it causes heavy loss in terms of growth and quality of flowers (Nagrare, 2005).

1.5

Soft Brown Scale: Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Soft brown scale is worldwide pest that feeds on many important ornamental plants including orchids. In India, soft brown scales were reported on Cymbidium, Phalaenopsis, Cattleya, Ascocentrum, Bulbophyllum, Dendrobium, Eria and Liparis in greenhouses. Adults are oval and more flattened than either the black or

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hemispherical scales (Nagrare, 2005). They are pale brown, dirty white or greyish mottled with dark brown on the back (Meena et al., 2010). Nature of damage by scale insects: Nymphs and adult scales suck the cell-sap from infested plant parts. Leaves, shoots and flower buds are the most vulnerable portions of plant get affected. P. buxi and D. boisduvali are also attack roots and pseudo bulb inside potting media. Loss of cell-sap deteriorated the plant vigour. When there is a severe infestation, all leaves turn yellow and plant growth checked and some plant die. Scale insects excrete sticky honeydew on infested plant parts which attracts sooty mould and dust particle hamper the photosynthesis and lower the flower’s quality. Management of scales: Initially infestations restricted to one or a few plants can usually be removed manually rather than use of synthetic insecticides. Scale-free planting material is to be used to prevent early buildup of pest. If infestation is seen on few plants, manual rubbing of scales with cotton swab or toothbrush and dipping in 70% isopropyl alcohol or methylated spirit give good protection. When scale infestation reaches to extreme, crawlers dispersed into the roots and pseudobulbs inside the potting, and then careful replacing potting medium or repotting is only the way to control the scales. Drenching the infested plants with 2% solution of detergent powder prior to repotting in fresh potting media is to be done. If necessary, a very gentle cleaning of scale and spraying of the roots before repotting are essential. Initially at low population levels, some botanical products, i.e. azadirachtin 0.03% EC at 5 ml/L, neem oil 1500 ppm at 5 ml/L, Artemisia leaf extract at 10 ml/L or fish oil rosin soap 0.05 kg in 30 L of water, can be used for the management of scales. Foliar application of any one of the following insecticides, i.e. acephate 75 SP at 0.05%, malathion 50EC at 0.05%, fipronil 5SC at 0.035% (Meena et al., 2010) or imidacloprid 17.8 SL at 0.003%, would help to reduce scale infestation. Insect growth regulators, such as kinoprene (Enstar II), give satisfactory results, and there do not seem to be any plant health problems noted thus far.

2 Aphids Aphids cause significant damage to many species and hybrids of orchids.

2.1

Yellow Aphid: Macrosiphum luteum Buckton (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Nymphs of M. luteum have pale green to yellowish green colour in nymphal stage, whereas adults are greenish yellow to light yellow in colour. Aphids are oval shaped, small size about 2–3 mm in length. Adults are winged or wingless, and wingless

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forms have a brownish patch on the top of the abdomen. It is known to cause damage to orchids Acampe, Calanthe, Coelogyne, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Oncidium, Phaius, Thunia and Zygopetalum (Meena et al., 2010). In India, the occurrence of M. luteum was reported first time on Vanda coerulea (Nagrare, 2006) and estimated to cause 32% damage to the flowers of Dendrobium nobile (Nagrare et al., 2009).

Macrosiphum luteum

2.2

T. aurantii

Black Aphid: Toxoptera aurantii Boyer de Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Adult aphids are black in colour and small in size measuring 2–3 mm in length. Aphids form colonies on the flowers’ bud and flowers that resulted to inferior quality of flowers. It feeds on flowers of orchids, viz. Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Oncidium, Phalaenopsis, Vanda, Phaius, Paplionanthe and Pleione, and many other species (Nagrare, 2005). Aphid damage: The nymphs and adults suck the cell sap usually from tender leaves, new flower buds, spikes and bloomed flowers. Loss of cell sap from flower buds gets weakened and sometime dropped off. The affected plants retard growth and ultimately deteriorate the quality of flowers. They also excrete honeydew on which sooty mould develops that affects the photosynthesis. Sooty mould on opened flowers harshly affects the consumer’s choice and also caused economic loss to producers (Nagrare, 2001). Management of aphids: It involves with regular monitoring of plants, removal of weeds, maintaining proper distance between plants to disturb the microclimate which favour the past multiplication of aphid and spraying with neem oil at 5 ml/L of water to reduce the aphid population. If required, plants should be treated with one of the following insecticides like dimethoate 30 EC at 0.05%, acephate 75 SP at 0.035% or imidacloprid 0.003% at 10–15 days interval.

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Orchid Aphid: Cerataphis orchidearum (Westwood)

The aphid is dark reddish brown to black with a waxy fringe. Newly laid nymph is devoid of waxy fringe and motile, whereas the later instars (second, third and fourth) have waxy fringe. Apterea (wingless females) is 1.0–1.6 mm long and 0.7–1.2 mm broad, whereas alatae (winged females) is 1.0–2.0 mm in length. Congregation of insect was found to suck the sap from vegetative/reproductive buds and foliage of Vanilla. Severely affected buds shrivelled and fell off. Due to continuous depletion of the sap, the infested vine became pale and stunted. This resulted in the poor establishment of rooted cuttings in the nursery and plantations. It is also known to infest Cymbidium mastersii, Dendrobium gracilicaule, Cypripedium sp., Calanthe volkensii, Liparis sp., Epidendrum sp., Aerides fieldeingii and Vanda tricolor (Prakash et al., 2006).

Cerataphis orchidearum

Damage by Peridaedala sp.

3 Shoot Borer: Peridaedala sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) The orchid shoot borer is widely distributed almost in all orchid-growing state of Indian subcontinent. It feeds on several orchid species from Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Eria, Acampe, Aerides, Cymbidium, Agrostophyllum, Arachnanthe and Ascocentrum. Adults are small moth and black in colour with white spots on the wings; size is about 8–10 mm in length across the wings. Caterpillars are small in size with tiny black head and yellow to creamy in colour (Nagrare, 2005). Damage: Its infestation is confined in polyhouses, shade net houses and even greenhouse conditions. Newly hatched larvae bore into the shoots mainly at internodes and some time on the top of the shoots and make tunnel and feed inside by leaving excreta at opening hole. Shoot growth is checked and dead shoots are produced is called as “yellow shoot flag.” Due to the damage of flag shoot, the terminal growth of the plant is checked, and side shoots are developed which affect the quality of flower production. Management: It involves cutting and destroying the infested branches on which dead shoots are produced and spraying with azadirachtin 0.03EC at 5 ml/L of water

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or Econeem 3000 ppm at 3 ml/L or neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%. If necessary, the plants can be sprayed with malathion 50EC at 0.05% at 10 days interval (Meena, 2009; Meena et al., 2011).

4 Thrips 4.1

Dichromothrips nakahari Mound (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Dichromothrips nakahari is found to cause damage to Cymbidium, Calanthe, Coelogyne, Dendrobium, Epidendrum, Luisia, Oncidium, Thunia, Pholidota and Phalaenopsis orchids and many orchids. Its infestation is confined on orchids round the year under protected conditions. Adults are slender and dark brown to black in colour having apically pointed wings and measuring from 1 to 2 mm in length. Nymphs resemble the adult in shape but pale yellow in colour, wingless and smaller size with black eyes (Meena et al., 2011).

4.2

Flower Thrips: Megalurothrips distalis Karny (Thripidae: Thysanoptera)

It is found to cause severe damage to buds and flowers of Dendrobium at Thrissur, Kerala. They are deep black-coloured thrips measuring about 1.65 mm in length. Antenna is eight segmented. Both the larvae and adults cause damage in the form of elongated brownish streaks in buds and flowers of Dendrobium and Spathoglottis spp. They remain hidden in the buds and flowers resulting in distorted and disfigured buds and flowers (Kumari et al., 2001).

4.3

Thrips: Anaphorathrips spp.

Both nymphs and adult stages suck the sap from tender leaves, growing buds and flowers. Affected leaves develop brown streaks, while buds and flowers are distorted and discoloured causing flower loss.

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Anthurium Thrips: Chaetanaphothrips orchidii Moulton

This is a serious pest on anthurium which causes white streaks and distortion of spathes sucking the sap. Severe injury to flowers is caused during September. Life cycle of thrips is completed in about 27 days. Matured nymphs migrate and pupate in the growing medium. Management involves with the application of dimethoate and profenophos or acephate 0.1% that also provides effective control (Nagrare, 2001). Thrips damage: Thrips feed on leaves, flower buds and opened flowers. It damages the plants in their adult as well as in nymphal stages. They suck the cell sap from tender portion of the plants and on leaves, which become discoloured and shrivel. In case of severe infestation, there is a malformation of the whole plant. If thrips infestation occurred on plant at the time of bud formation, then flower buds dropped before opening the flowers. The attacked plants get stunted and finally dry up, and as a result, flower production gets affected.

Flower damage

Stem damage

Leaf damage

Thrips management: Management of thrips on orchids involves with the application of malathion 50 EC at 0.05%, fipronil 5 SC at 1.6 ml/L, acephate 75 SP at 0.035% or imidacloprid 17.8 SL 0.003% and repeating spray at 10 days interval. Neem oil 5 ml/L or Econeem 3000 ppm at 3 ml/L of water is also useful to reduce the incidence of thrips on orchids. Spraying of dimethoate or profenophos at 0.05% or imidacloprid 0.007% at 10 days interval is also found effective against the thrips.

5 Mealybug: Pseudococcus jackbeardsleyi Gimpel and Miller (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) The mealybug has been found to infest the orchid Cymbidium hybrids, Phaius flavus, Phaius tankervilliae and Cattleya hybrid and many orchid species and hybrids including Papilionanthe teres. The orchid mealybugs are soft bodied, filamentous and pink or yellow coloured, and the body is covered with white powdery wax like cottony growth in irregular shape.

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Pseudococcus sp.

Leaf damage

Damage: They have piercing and sucking mouthparts; both the nymph and adult suck the cell sap, stem, leaves, petioles and jointed portion of plants. Plants become weak, stunted or shrivelled. It also excretes honeydew that attracts ants and also promotes development of lead sooty moulds. The infested plant parts lose their natural colour and vigour. They target the leaves and petioles or any joint portion of plants. Due to loss of cell sap, plants become weak and produced inferior quality of flowers. They also excrete honeydew that attract the ants and also develop sooty moulds on infested portion of plant (Nagrare, 2005). Mealybugs were also found on roots and are a major cause of quarantine rejections for exported potted orchids. Management: Prompt collection and destruction of heavily infested plant parts reduce the further spread of the pest. Management of mealybugs also involves with the application of insecticides like profenophos 50EC at 0.05%, malathion 50 EC at 0.05%, fipronil 6EC at 0.035% or imidacloprid 17.8 SL at 0.003% that should be sprayed when crawling ants are noticed on plants. If needed, repeat the sprays at 10–12 days after first spray for successful management of mealybugs. Release of the coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri can also be tried against the mealybugs in general.

6 Grass Hopper: Oxya chinensis (Thunberg) (Orthoptera: Acrididae) They are green coloured and 40 mm in length, with a dark stripe dorsally, running laterally from each eye to the base of the wings. Both nymphs and adults cause damage by making elongate, irregular holes on the mature leaves of Spathoglottis spp. (Kumari et al., 2001).

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7 Whiteflies 7.1

Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Fourth-instar nymphs have very long waxy filaments and a marginal fringe. Adults have white wings and a yellow body. All stages feed by sucking plant juices from leaves and excreting excess liquid as drops of honeydew as they feed. Moth like insects attack buds, flowers, new shoot and leaves. Affected leaves become yellowish and later on turn brown. The whitefly is usually attracted to the lower surfaces of leaves. The plants become stunted in growth with loss of foliage and even become susceptible to viruses which in turn transmit viral diseases to certain vegetable crops. Trialeurodes vaporariorum was found to infest Pholidota alba.

Whitefly nymphs

7.2

Adult whitefly

Whitefly infestation

Aleurodicus dispersus Russell

Adults are pale yellow in colour. Females lay eggs on the underside of the Spathoglottis leaves in a loose spiral like finger print impression of wax deposits. Nymphs and adults congregate on the lower surface of the leaves and suck sap. As a result, leaves turn pale, and the vitality of the plants gets lowered. The pest has been recorded on a number of economically important plants including Spathoglottis spp. (Prathapan, 1996).

7.3

Anthurium Whitefly: Aleurotulus anthuricila Nakahara

Nymphs and adults colonize under flowers, petiole sheath and leaves and secrete white, powdery, waxy material. As a result of sucking the infested parts, they become yellow, deform and dry in severe cases. The life cycle of whitefly is completed in 35 days on anthurium sheaths. Whitefly management involves with

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the removal and burning of old and heavily infested leaves and spraying with acephate at 0.05%. A holistic spray schedule of dichlorvos 0.05% for adults, triazophos 0.06% or profenophos at 0.05% followed by a spray of pongamia oil 1% for nymphs and pupae effectively controls whitefly menace on anthurium.

8 Bihar Hairy Caterpillar: Spilosoma obliqua (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) Full-grown caterpillars are profusely covered with long greyish hairs. The caterpillars feed on the leaves of Spathoglottis spp. leaving the midribs. In case of severe infestation, the plants are completely defoliated (Kumari et al., 2001).

9 Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura Fabricius (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Full-grown larva is stout, pale greenish brown with dark markings. The caterpillar feeds gregariously on the flowers of Spathoglottis spp. and Dendrobium spp. (Kumari et al., 2001).

10

Beetle: Lema sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Adult is a small beetle, pale flavous, measuring about 9 mm in length. The grub is yellowish white with head, thoracic shield and legs black. The abdomen of the larva is swollen and humped. The grub is not easily recognizable in the field because it covers its body with faecal matter, which it carries on its back. Damage is caused by both grubs and adults feeding on the flowers of Spathoglottis spp. and Epidendrum spp. The beetle appears in the field with the commencement of rains (Kumari et al., 2001).

11

Yellow Beetle: Anomala sp. (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae)

It is known to feed on D. nobile during May when these orchids are flowering. The beetle appears with the onset of monsoon and disappears after the rainy season (Nagrare et al., 2009).

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Weevil: Sipalinus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Weevils are small, hard-shelled and beetle-like insects with long snouts adapted for boring; their body measures about 13–15 mm in length, are black in colour and have elytra with yellow spots. The grub is creamy white. Newly hatch larvae feed on internal plant tissues and thereafter feed on pseudobulbs resulting to rotting of pseudobulbs. Adult weevils also cause serious damage by boring holes into the growing new shoots, buds and leaves of Dendrobium primulinium and Cymbidium sp. (Meena et al., 2010).

13

Banded Blister Beetle: Mylabris pustulata (Thunberg) (Coleoptera: Meloidae)

They are black- and red-striped beetle, measuring 26 mm in length. The beetles cause injury to the flowers of Spathoglottis sp. (Kumari et al., 2001).

14 14.1

Mites False Spider Mite: Tenuipalpus pacificus Baker and Brevipalpus essigi Baker (Acari: Tenuipalpidae)

False spider mites are known as flat mites because most species are dorsoventrally flattened. They are usually found on the upper and lower surface of the leaves near the midrib or veins. They are pale yellowish green to orange red in colour and have often two or more black areas visible through their integument. Larvae, nymphs and adults are found feeding on Dendrobium brymerianum and Oberonia jenkinsii by sucking the cell sap of both sides of leaf surface. Plant injury is characterized by stippling and a silverish or bleached appearance resulting from the mite attack.

Sipalinus sp.

Damage by T.pacificus

Damage by T.urticae

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Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Tetranychus urticae is commonly found infesting on Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Cattleya, Oncidium, Epidendrum, Phaius, Thunia and Zygopetalum under (Meena et al., 2010). Adult mites are oval in shape, pale greenish to yellow in colour with a pair of distinct dark lateral patches from orange to brick red; nymphs are pale green with darker margins (Nagrare, 2005). In the protected conditions, mite infestation is more severe under high temperature and relative humidity causing 30–40% flower loss (Meena et al., 2013). Mite damage: They suck the cell sap from undersurface of leaves, tender shoots, flower buds and flowers. The loss of cell sap causes petite blotching and yellowing of leaves. The injuries due to feeding can be seen as silvery marks left on both the surface of leaves which usually turn brown or black after a period of time. In such condition, flower buds do not open properly, and flowers are usually abortive, turn brown and fall down before maturation. Management of mites: Clean cultivation, proper ventilation and balanced dose fertilizers and irrigation are the decisive cultural tools to curtail the mite population. If mite infestation is more severe, then immediately spray the crop with plain water twice a day to check the infestation for further time. Initially spray the orchid plants with azadirachtin 0.03EC at 5 ml/L of water to cut down the mite population. Aqueous extract of Artemisia sp. leaves that exhibited certain insecticidal properties against mites can be used under protection conditions. Use a foliar spray on plants in recommended dose with any one of the following insecticides alternatively, i.e. spiromesifen 24 SC at 0.65 ml/L. Ethion 50 EC at 0.05% or propargite 57 EC or bifenthrin 10 EC at 0.05% or imidacloprid 17.8 SL at 0.003% is useful to control the mites. If required, repeat the spray at 10–15 days interval to provide effective control against mites. Foliar application of Vertimec 0.009% or diafenthiuron 0.025% followed by profenophos 0.05% or amitraz 0.05% also reduces mite population effectively.

15

Slugs and Snail

Slugs and snail damage is confined mainly in rainy season.

15.1

Slugs

Slugs are devoid of shells and measure about 9–10 mm in length. They are nocturnal which hide during the day, found hidden in plants and plant debris, especially in moist weather, and active at night. They feed on the tender foliage, new buds, leaves,

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flowers and root tips and cause a lot of damage. The plant is punctured with ragged holes, and a slimy trail is visible where pests have passed. Two-striped slug Veronicella cubensis is known to feed on the tender foliage, new buds, leaves, flowers and root tips and cause a lot of damage in Dendrobium ochreatum, D. primullinum, Pholidota alba and Vanda coerulea. Slug Cryptaustenia verrucosa and C. heteroconcha are reported to cause damage on orchids Calanthe spp. by gnawing pseudobulbs (Nagrare, 2004). Slugs also are also known to feed on pseudobulbs of Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Eria, Phalaenopsis and Zygopetalum (Meena et al., 2010). Slug Cryptaustenia verrucosa damages the Calanthe spp. by gnawing pseudobulbs (Kumari et al., 2001). Black slug Arion sp. (Arionidae: Stylommatophora) and grey slug Limax sp. (Limacidae: Stylommatophora) are shell-less, and they lubricate their path with a trail of slime. They prefer young leaves and flowers (Kumari et al., 2001).

V.cubensis

15.2

Slug damaging

Snail damage

Oniscus asellus

Snails: Ariophanta sp., Zonitoides arboreus (Say) (Mollusca/Gastropoda/Gastrodontidae) and Achatina fulica (Ferussac) (Achatinidae)

The land snail Ariophanta sp. is a snail with a spiral shell. They are active during rainy season and nocturnal in habit. During the day, they hide in crevices or under pots with the head and foot withdrawn into the shell. They feed on tender leaves and flowers and also cut down the buds. Its slime trails leading towards the damaged plant are the most identical indication to detect pest infestation on orchid. They are mostly active at night, especially in moist weather, and hide during daytime in crevices and foot withdrawn into the shell. The snails are found to cause damage to Ascocentrum ampullaceum, Dendrobium crepidatum, D. ochreatum, D. primulinum, Thunia alba and Vanda coerulea. Damaged plant is punctured with ragged holes, and a slimy trail is visible where pests have passed. The snail Achatina fulica is observed during monsoon period on orchid. Adult and young stages devour the plants and feed on leaves during nights. They scrap the leaves leaving only veins and cut tender shoots. Nature of damage: In rainy season, extensive damage may be done to the orchids in the polyhouse. Both young and adult of slugs and snails feed on orchid leaves, flower buds and even opened flowers by cutting their mouth parts in irregular shape.

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The root damage is also done by the pest in ground orchids. The flower opens from affected buds will not be accepted by the consumer in market, causing economic damage to producers. Management: Hand picking of grown-up stages and killing them by dropping in 5% salt solution reduce the snail population. Spreading metaldehyde 1% on the floor at 20 days interval gives effective control. Spray application with some botanical products, i.e. azadirachtin 0.03EC at 5 ml/L. or neem oil 3.5 ml/L reduces snails on orchids, and use cabbage leaves as pest attractant and kill them using salt solution.

16

Sow Bug: Oniscus asellus L. (Isopoda: Oniscidae)

They are pale to slate grey coloured and body flat with 13 distinct segments. They hide in the potting media and feed on the tender roots of Dendrobium spp. It cuts the roots and makes a sleeve inside. As a result, the plant remains stunted, and later it dries off (Kumari et al., 2001).

17

Other Pests

They include the red ant Monomorium indicum Forel inhabiting the soil and damaging the plants by feeding on the roots, aphid Myzus circumflexus (Buckton), thrips Chaetanaphothrips orchidii (Moulton), whiteflies Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) and Aleurotulus anthuricola Nakahara, scale Aspidiotus destructor Signoret, melon aphid Aphis gossypii Glover, mealybugs Planococcus citri (Risso), Pseudococcus longispinus (Targioni Tozzetti), Ferrisia virgata (Cock) and Pseudococcus sp.

References Kumari, S., Lyla, K. R., & Kumari, S. (2001). A survey of the pests of orchids. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 39(1), 32–34. Meena, N. K. (2009). Organic control of shoot borer in orchid (Dendrobium nobile) through Meena, N. K. and Medhi, R. P. 2011. Bioefficacy of botanicals and biopesticides in management of shoot borer, Peridaedala sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) on Epidendrum sp. under polyhouse conditions. Pestology, 35(5), 47–51. Meena, N. K., Medhi, R. P., Pant, R. P., Pal, R., & Barman, D. (2010). Pest management in orchids (p. 13p). Technical Bulletin of National Research Centre for Orchids. Meena, N. K., Nagrare, V. S., & Medhi, R. P. (2011). Thrips Dichromothrips nakahari Mound (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) infesting the orchids in India - A new report. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 68, 587–588. Meena, N. K., Pal, R., Barman, D., & Medhi, R. P. (2013). Biology and seasonal abundance of two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae on orchids and rose. Phytoparasitica, 41, 597–609.

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Nagrare, V. S. (2001). Pests of orchids and their management in Sikkim- A survey. Journal of The Orchid Society of India, 15(1–2), 65–68. Nagrare, V. S. (2004). Occurrence of Mollusca Cryptaustenia verrucosa (Godwin-Austen) on Orchids Calanthe spp.- A new report. Science & Culture, 70(7–8), 289. Nagrare, V. S. (2005). New record of shoot borer Peridaedala sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and its host range of orchids. Entomon, 30(4), 359–360. Nagrare, V. S. (2006). Aphid Macrosiphum luteum (Bukton) infests the orchid Vanda coerulea-A new report. Entomon, 31(3), 225–227. Nagrare, V. S., Pal, R., & Barman, D. (2009). Pests associated with orchid Dendrobium nobile under mid-Altitude of Sikkim. Environment & Ecology, 27(2), 560–562. Prakash, K. V., Radhlka, N. S., & Sudharshan, M. R. (2006). Incidence of orchid aphid, Cerataphis orchidearum (Westwood) on vanilla, Vanilla planifolia Andrews. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 12(2), 159–160. Prathapan, K. D. (1996). Outbreak of the spiralling whitefly Aleurodicus dispersus Rusell (Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) in Kerala. Insect Environment, 2, 36–37.

Pests and Their Management in Medicinal Plants (Muskdana, Aonla, Ashwagandha, Black Datura, Black Nightshade, Coleus forskohlii, Gymnema sylvestre, Isabgol, Glory Lily, Long Pepper, Noni, Opium Poppy, Periwinkle, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri, Psoralea, Sarpagandha, Senna, Madhuca longifolia, Mimusops elengi, Wrightia tinctoria, etc.) M. Suganthy, R. K. Murali Baskaran, and M. Mani

Abstract Pests damaging the medicinal plants, namely, Abelmoschus moschatus, Emblica officinalis, Withania somnifera, Datura discolor, Solanum nigrum, Coleus forskohlii, Gymnema sylvestre, Plantago ovata, Gloriosa superba, Piper longum, Morinda citrifolia, Papaver somniferum, Catharanthus roseus, Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri, Psoralea corylifolia, Rauvolfia serpentina and Cassia angustifolia and management of major pests are discussed.

1 Ambrette/Muskdana (Abelmoschus moschatus) 1.1

Leaf Roller: Syllepte (=Sylepta) derogata (F.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Damage symptoms include drooping leaves rolled in the form of trumpets fastened by silken threads; leaves eaten away from the margin and each roll containing more than one, active glistening and green larvae with a black head; and stunting of plants. Management involves with the collection and destruction of rolled leaves with caterpillars and spraying of neem oil (3%) or pongamia oil (3%) with Teepol (0.1%).

M. Suganthy (*) Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatrore, India R. K. M. Baskaran ICAR-National Institute of Biotic Stress Management, Raipur, India M. Mani ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_54

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Caterpillar

1.2

Adult

Semilooper: Anomis flava (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The larvae feed on foliage and cause defoliation. Adult moth has reddish brown wings, and in male the colour is brighter. Larva is green with five longitudinal stripes on the body. It pupates on the leaf fold. Management involves with collection and destruction of growing stages of caterpillar and spray NSKE 5% or neem oil 3%.

1.3

Ash Weevil: Myllocerus viridanus (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Adult weevils cause notching of leaf margins. Grubs feed on roots resulting in wilting of plants. Adults are light green in colour. Management involves with the application of neem cake at 100 kg/acre at 15 days after planting.

1.4

Red Cotton Bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae)

The adults are red and black in colour with stripes ventrally on the abdomen. They suck the sap from fruits and tender leaves and stem resulting in drying of the plants. Bugs can be shaken out of the plant into a bucket of soapy water.

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Spiralling Whitefly: Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

It lays eggs in distinctive spiral patterns on the undersurface of leaves. Damage is caused by piercing the leaf and sucking the sap. This leads to premature death of the plant when infestations are high. Indirect damage is caused by the accumulation of the honeydew and the waxy, white, fluffy, woolly material produced by the whiteflies. Honeydew serves as a substrate for sooty moulds, which blacken the leaf and in turn retard photosynthesis. The parasitoid, Encarsia spp. is very useful to control the spiralling whitefly.

1.6

Leafhopper: Amrasca devastans Distant (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

Both nymphs and adults occur in large numbers on the young plants and suck the sap mostly by confining themselves on the undersurface of the leaves. The attacked leaves may show the so-called “hopper burn” symptom. Plants become stunted. The adults are green, wedge-shaped leafhopper. Nymphs are light green translucent found in between the veins of the leaves on the undersurface. When disturbed, they move in a diagonal manner. Management involves with spraying of dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L of water.

1.7

Fruit Borer: Earias vitella (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Nolidae)

Caterpillar bores into the fruits.

1.8

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Nymphs and adults are red in colour. Eggs are laid on the ventral surface of the leaves and are whitish, spherical in shape. White spots are developed on the feeding sites. In severe cases, the entire leaf becomes white, and further drying and wilting take place. Management involves with the spraying of wettable sulphur at 2 g/L of water.

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2 Aonla (Emblica officinalis) 2.1

Aonla Aphid: Schoutedonia emblica (Patel and Kulkarny) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

The nymphs and adult females suck the sap. Heavy attack of this pest affects the growth and vigour of the tree, ultimately affecting the flowering and fruiting. The aphid population is observed in large colonies on the midrib of the compound leaves and tender shoots. The infested leaves turn yellow and dry up. Infested shoots appear bended and twisted at the growing points. The coccinellid predator Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fab.) is able to clear the aphids within 60 days. Management involves with clipping off and destruction of affected leaf and shoot and spraying of dimethoate 0.05% or imidacloprid 0.005% or neem oil 3% or NSKE 5% that gives very good control of gooseberry aphid, Schoutedenia emblica populations on Indian gooseberry a week after spraying.

2.2

Spherical Mealybug: Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The mealybug population is higher during the month of April and May. Mealybug nymphs and females are mainly found confined to the inflorescence. Infested trees dry, resulting in dropping of leaflets and fruits. Naturally occurring parasitoids and predators are able to check the mealybug populations in the field. Release of coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri is useful to suppress the mealybugs on Aonla. Organic practices include the use of neem-based formulations such as neem oil 3% or NSKE 5% or fish oil rosin soap at 25 g/L for the management of sucking pests.

2.3

Striped Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The mealybug covers tender growing points with white mass. They suck the sap and vitality of the plant is reduced. Management involves the control of ants and release of the coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.

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Leaf Roller: Caloptilia (=Garcillaria) acidula (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

Larvae are slender, greenish yellow with thin, scattered hairs. Larvae mine the part or whole of the leaflets of compound leaves. The mining starts from the apical region as a narrow sinuous line which proceeds up to base of the leaflet. As a result, mined leaflets become blotched. Later instars move out from mine and roll the new leaflets. The infestation leads to withering and drying of leaves. Adult is small, brownish moth. Management involves clean cultivation. Collection and destruction of infested plant parts along with leaf roller and spray application of dimethoate 0.03% and quinalphos 0.025% were found effective against leaf roller.

2.5

Bark-Eating Caterpillar: Indarbela tetraonis Moore (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)

Incidence of bark-eating caterpillar occurs on aonla trees throughout the year. It bores on trunk and branches. This pest can be seen by the presence of a dirty elongated zigzag ribbon-like messy web containing the bits of bark pieces and excreta. The control of bark-eating caterpillars has remained a problem because its attack becomes noticeable when the conspicuous webbings appear on the tree trunks, i.e. the time by which the pest has already inflicted considerable damage. Management of this pest involves keeping the orchards clean and healthy to prevent infestation of this pest and detection of early infestation by periodically looking out for drying young shoots. In case of severe infestation, remove the webs and insert the swab of cotton wool soaked in 0.025% dichlorvos 100 EC or inject water emulsion of 0.05% chlorpyriphos 20 EC and plug the holes.

2.6

Pomegranate Butterfly: Virachola isocrates (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

Larva bores into the fruit in different phases. Matured fruits start decaying from one side, which gradually spreads all over, before they fall off. Management involves with collection and destruction of damaged fruits and spraying with neem oil 3% or NSKE 5% or spinosad 0.25 ml/L at pea size stage of aonla fruits. The spray may be repeated after 2 weeks, depending upon the intensity of attack.

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Fruit-Sucking Moths: Eudocima materna (Linnaeus) (Othreis materna), Eudocima homaena (Hübner) (Othreis ancilla) and Eudocima phalonia Linnaeus (Othreis fullonica) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Adult moth sucks the sap from fruits by making puncture. Management involves removal of weed plants such as Tinospora cordifolia and Cocculus pendulus, destruction of fallen and decayed fruits, smoking the field, collection of moths at evening by hand nets and foliar application of neem oil 3% or malathion 0.05% or dichlorvos 0.076% at 10–15 days interval during fruit maturity till harvest.

2.8

Whitefly: Trialeurodes rara (Singh) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Nymphs and adults suck sap from the undersurface of leaves. Yellowing of leaves on dorsal side in patches is the symptom of whitefly incidence. Management involves removal and destruction of alternate hosts, use of yellow sticky traps and spraying of neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil 3% or fish oil rosin soap 25 g/L.

2.9

Other pests

Pruning and destruction of affected parts followed by spraying of chlorpyriphos (0.05%) at the beginning of crop season can help to reduce gall midge and fruit midge, Clinodiplosis attack on Indian gooseberry. Spraying of quinalphos (0.05%) is effective against stone borer, Curculio sp. and fruit midge, Clinodiplosis on Indian gooseberry. Pruning and destruction of galls formed by the shoot gall maker, Betousa stylophora on Indian gooseberry effectively reduce the incidence.

3 Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) 3.1

Spotted Beetles: Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (F.) and E. dodecastigma Fab. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Biology: The spotted beetle, Epilachna dodecastigma is 12 spotted and H. vigintioctopunctata is 28 spotted. The black, dark spots are present on the elytron. E. dodecastigma is copper coloured, while H. vigintioctopunctata is deep red

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coloured. The body is hemispherical and smooth. A female lays about 150 eggs. Eggs are laid in the cluster of 45 on the lower surface of the leaves. The eggs are cigar-shaped, yellowish in colour and are arranged side by side on the surface of the leaves in erect position. Eggs hatch in 4–8 days. The grubs are oval, fleshy and yellow in colour bearing hairs and spines on the body surface. The larval period lasts for 9–18 days during which it passes through four different instars. Pupation takes place on leaf surface or on stem or at the base of the plants. Pupa is oval in shape and dark in colour. The pupal period lasts for 3–6 days. Life cycle is completed in 17–18 days in summer, but in winter it may prolong up to 50 days. Damage: The grubs and adults feed by scraping leaves. Damage is evident by skeletonization and drying of leaves. Natural enemy: Pediobius foveolatus (Crawford) is known to cause 30% parasitism on spotted beetles damaging ashwagandha. Management: Collection and destruction of eggs, grubs and adults bring down the population. Spraying malathion 0.1% protects foliage from the beetle damage. Neem oil 3% or neem seed kernel extract (5%) twice at 15 days interval during early stage of infestation also effectively reduces feeding of the beetle. Application of farm yard manure (FYM) (12.5 t/ha) + Azophos (2.5 kg/ha) + neem cake (250 kg/ha) was found to be very effective in reducing the damage of spotted leaf beetle by 70%.

Grub

3.2

Grub

Adult

Leaf damage

Brinjal Mealybug: Coccidohystrix insolitus (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The immature stages do not secrete a thick layer of mealy wax, the body being shiny yellow-green with sub-median grey spots on abdominal and thoracic segments. White and waxy coated nymphs and adults infest the lower side of leaves in colonies and suck the sap. Affected leaves get deformed, turn yellow and drop off in severe cases. Honeydew secreted by bugs favours the development of sooty mould which affects the plant growth. Removal and destruction of severely infested plant parts avoid further spread. Spraying of neem oil 3% or pongamia oil 3% or fish oil rosin soap at 25 g/L effectively checks mealybug infestation.

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Mealybugs with ovisacs

3.3

Female C.insolitus

Solanum Mealybug: Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

It is an important pest of S. nigrum. The colonies of mealy bugs are found colonized on the lower surface of the leaves and growing shoot. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from growing shoot and leaves resulting in distortion of leaves and wilting of terminal shoots. The encyrtid parasitoid Aenasius arizonensis (Girault) (¼Aenasius bambawalei Hayat) gives excellent control of P. solenopsis.

3.4

Green Shield Scale: Pulvinaria psidii Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves. The release of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri clears the scale insect within 2 months on ashwagandha.

Leaf damage

Scale insects on leaf

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Ash Weevil: Myllocerus viridanus (Fab.) and Myllocerus discolor Fab. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Adult weevils are dull ash grey in colour with long narrows snout. They cause damage to leaves by eating from edges in a characteristic manner resulting in severe foliage loss if populations are very high. Grubs are white in colour. Grubs feed on roots leading to wilting and drying of the plants. Management involves tapping of adults into insecticide solution that reduces their population, spraying of malathion that protects foliage from weevils attack, application of neem cake (250 kg/ha) while planting near the base of the plant or drenching the soil with neem seed kernel extract (5%) or chlorpyriphos 0.05%.

3.6

Cutworms: Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Adults are heavy bodied, greenish brown or dark with plump and greasy with forewing dark coloured with patches. Eggs are on the lower side of the leaves or in moist soil. Larva is nocturnal and dark brown coloured. Larvae attack tender seedlings cut at ground level and shoots of grown-up plants. Damage results in retardation of plant growth and yield loss. Management involves application of malathion dust before planting and spraying with chlorpyriphos.

Phenococcus solenopsis

3.7

Paracoccus marginatus

Oleander Hawk Moth: Daphnis (=Deilephila) nerii (Linn.) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Adults are large sized, green coloured with white patches on the abdomen. Eggs are laid on the lower surface of the leaves. Larvae are stout bodied, green coloured with horn-like projection on the dorsal side of the last abdominal segment. Larvae feed

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voraciously on leaves resulting in severe defoliation. Larval period is 5–9 days. Pupation takes place in the fallen leaves. Management involves with the collection and destruction of caterpillars and application of chlorpyriphos or quinalphos at 0.05%.

3.8

Root Grub: Holotrichia serrata (Fab.) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Adult beetles emerge from the soil soon after the monsoon showers in June. Adults feed on the leaves. The grubs feed on the roots and rootlets. Application of neem cake is effective against Holotrichia serrata.

3.9

Cowbugs: Oxyrachis tarandus Fab. and Gargara mixta Buckton (Hemiptera: Membracidae)

The cowbugs feed on apical portions of the stem, making them rough and woody in appearance and brown in colour that gradually leads to drying off and finally shedding.

3.10

Fruit Borer: Helicoverpa armigera Hübner (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Larva feeds on leaves and later bores into flower buds, flower and fruits.

3.11

Cotton Aphid: Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

It is observed on the whole plant of ashwagandha with more numbers on leaves. It sucks the sap from the lower surface of leaves, flower buds and fruits. Under severe infestation, the whole plant appears smoky due to secondary infestation of sooty mould.

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Other Insect Pests on Ashwagandha

Minor pests of ashwagandha include leafhoppers, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida, Nephotettix virescens (Distant), Aconurella prolixa (Leitherry), Balclutha incise (Matsumura), Penthina sp. and Balclutha saltuella Oshanin (Cicadellidae) on leaves, true bugs, Graptostethus servus (Fabricius), Spilostethus pandurus (Scopoli) (Lygaeidae), Coridius janus (Fabricius)(Dinidoridae), Nezara virudula (Linn.) (Pentatomidae), Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Pseudococcidae) on flower buds and fruits and tree hoppers, Otinotus oneratus (Walker), Tricentrus sp., Leptocentrus taurus Fabricius (Membracidae) on apical shoot of ashwagandha, Drosicha mangiferae (Green) (Monophlebidae) and Dysdercus cingulatus (Fabr.) (Pyrrhocoridae), defoliating insects of order Coleoptera (Cyrtozemia dispar Pascoe, Podagrica bowringi Baly. and Corynodes peregrinus Herbst (Chrysomelidae), Blosyrus maegualis (Curculionidae), semilooper, Hyposidra successaria (Geometridae), hairy caterpillar, Olepa ricini (Fab.) (Erebidae) and grasshoppers, Chrotogonus trachypterus (Blanchard), Trilophidia annulata Thunberg and Acrida exaltata (Walker) (Acrididae).

3.13

Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch. (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Feeding of mites from the lower surface of leaves initially results in yellow patches on the upper surface and later the leaves turn brown. Infested field resembles as if burnt. Growth of the plants will be stunted. Spraying of wettable sulphur is useful in the management of mites.

4 Black Datura (Datura discolor) 4.1

Green Bug: Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Green bugs suck the sap from tender leaves and shoots. Stunted growth of the plant and deformed leaves are the symptoms of damage. Management involves collection and destruction of the eggs and application of carbamate and organophosphorus compounds.

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Striped Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Mealybugs cover tender growing points with white mass. They suck the sap and reduces the vitality of plants. Management involves control of ants and the release of the coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri.

4.3

Black Bug

Bugs suck the sap from leaves and tender shoots by piercing which results in yellowing of leaves. Management involves collection and destruction of eggs, young ones and adults.

4.4

Leafhopper

Adults are green and wedge-shaped. Nymphs are light green translucent found in between the veins of the leaves on the undersurface and when disturbed move in a diagonal manner. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and cause yellowing. Management involves spraying of methyl demeton 25 EC at 2 ml or dimethoate 30 EC at 2 ml/L of water.

4.5

Other Insects

Other insect pests infesting black datura include Epilachna vigintioctopunctata Fab. (Coccinellidae) and Patanga succincta Linn. (Acrididae).

5 Black Nightshade (Makoi) (Solanum nigrum) 5.1

Mealybugs: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink and Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

P. marginatus: Nymphs and adult females are greenish yellow in colour with yellowish body fluid. Females are without dorsal stripes and dusted with mealy wax not thick enough to hide body colour and without discrete bare areas on the dorsum.

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P. solenopsis: Nymphs and adult females are reddish pink in colour with pinkish body fluid. Adult females are with dorsal stripes and dusted with mealy wax. Damage: Severe infestation resembles as patches of cotton all over the plant. Mealybugs excrete copious amount of honeydew that attracts ants and helps in the development of black sooty mould which inhibits the plants ability to manufacture food. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves causing withering and yellowing of leaves. Fruits may drop prematurely. Heavy infestation can cause defoliation and even death of the plant. Biology: Reproduction is mostly by parthenogenesis. Mature female lays eggs in an egg sac of white wax, usually in clusters on the leaves, terminal shoots, branches and fruits. Egg development takes between 3 and 9 days. Eggs hatch into nymphs called crawlers and are very mobile. In appearance, nymphs of both sexes resemble female adults. There are three nymphal instars in female and four in males which last for 22–25 days. The last instar of the male is an inactive stage with wing buds within a cocoon of mealy wax. Individual mealybugs may take 30 days to grow through all the nymphal stages under normal conditions. In warm climates, the insects stay active and reproduce round the year. Management: The encyrtid parasitoid, Aenasius arizonensis (Girault) (¼Aenasius bambawalei Hayat) gives excellent control of P. solenopsis. The parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae Noyes and Schauff is found to be highly effective against P. marginatus.

5.2

Aphids: Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Aphids have shiny black or dark brown body with prominent brown legs. Both nymphs and adults occur in colonies on the undersurface of leaves and terminal shoots. They suck the sap resulting in curling and crinkling of leaves. The nymphs and adults are dark blue in colour. The nymphs are wingless and adults are winged or wingless. Honeydew secretion and sooty mould are the typical symptoms of attack. Naturally occurring syrphids, ladybird beetles and green lacewings, aphid lions and parasitic fungi are able to regulate the aphid population. If necessary, dimethoate 2 ml/L or imidacloprid 0.3 ml/L can be applied for the control of aphids.

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Aphid infestation

5.3

Aphis craccivora

Thrips: Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

These are small, slender, yellowish brown with fringed wings. Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck the sap and cause upward curling of leaves. Thrips reproduces parthenogenetically. Female lays about 30–80 whitish eggs within plant tissue. There are two nymphal stages that last up to 14 days, after which the larva enters quiescence in a sheltered place. Pre-pupal stage is soon followed by the pupal stage. Adult females live for 14 days.

5.4

Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Nymphs are greenish yellow and oval shaped found along with puparia on the undersurface of leaves. Adults are minute with yellow body covered with white waxy bloom. Eggs are laid on the undersurface of the leaves. Total life cycle ranges from 18 to 22 days. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap and cause chlorotic spots on the leaves which later coalesce to form irregular yellowing on leaves. These leaves later dry and shed. If the plant is shaken, a cloud of tiny moth-like insects flutter out but rapidly resettle.

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Red Cotton Bug: Dysdercus cingulatus (Fab.) (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae)

Nymphs and adults are reddish bugs with white bands on the abdomen and black markings on wings. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from fruits, tender leaves and stem resulting in drying of the plants.

5.6

Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Small caterpillars congregate on the undersurface of leaves and cause severe defoliation. The caterpillars cause maximum damage during night time. During day time, they hide under the leaf litters and in cracks and crevices. The eggs are small and round and laid in clusters on leaf surfaces. Full-grown larvae are dark green to brown on their backs and lighter underneath; sides of body with dark and light longitudinal bands; dorsal side with two dark semilunar spots laterally on each segment. Adult moth is greyish brown. Forewings are grey to reddish brown with a strongly variegated pattern and pale lines along the veins. The hind wings are greyish white with grey margins, often with dark veins. Management involves collection and destruction of egg masses and larvae, use of poison baits consisting of rice bran, jaggery and chlorpyriphos, erection of pheromone traps at 12/ha and spraying of neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

5.7

Bihar Hairy Caterpillar: Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)

Eggs are laid in clusters on the lower surface of leaves; hatched larvae are gregarious in nature and they damage leaves by scraping resulting in skeletonization and drying of leaves. Later instars feed voraciously on leaves causing severe defoliation. Management involves collection and destruction of egg masses and larvae and spraying of chlorpyriphos 0.05%.

5.8

Fruit Borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Female moths lay eggs on tender leaf buds and fruits. The caterpillars feed on foliage initially and later bore into developing fruits by making holes and feed on internal contents. Management involves collection and destruction of bored fruits and spraying of quinalphos 0.05% coinciding with flowering.

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Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer: Leucinodes orbonalis Guenée (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera)

Larvae bore into the tender shoots causing drooping of terminal shoots. They also bore into the flower buds and berries and cause shedding of flower buds and unripened berries. The damaged fruits are seen with excreta. Eggs are laid singly on the lower surface of the young leaves, green stems, flower buds or calyces of the fruits. They are creamy white soon after they are laid but change to red before hatching. Eggs hatch in 3–6 days. Larva is pink in colour and prefers berries over other plant parts. Larvae pass through five instars. Larval period lasts for 12–15 days. Mature larvae come out of their feeding tunnels and pupate as greyish boat-shaped tough silken cocoon. The pupal period lasts for 6–11 days. Adults are white mediumsized moths with triangular brown and red markings on the forewings.

Larva

5.10

Adult

Semilooper: Argyrogramma signata (Fabricius) (Plusia signata) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves. Egg period varies from 2 to 3 days. Eggs are white and round in shape. Number of eggs laid by female varied from 300 to 350.

Larva

Adult

Larva undergoes five moults in 12–16 days. Larva is slender green with white wavy lines and stripes on the lateral sides. Pupa is fluorescent green in colour with

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the pupal period of 7–10 days. Adult is stout brown moth with wavy markings and two small golden colour spots on the forewings. Abdomen is covered with tuft of hairs in female. Larva causes defoliation.

5.11

Fruit Fly: Dacus latifrons (Hendel) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Adult flies lay eggs inside the young fruit by puncturing. Maggots enter into the fruit and feed on the pulp causing severe fruit loss. Management involves collection and destruction of fallen fruits and spraying of malathion 0.1%.

5.12

Hadda Beetle or Spotted Beetle: Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Spotted beetle is active from last week of September to mid-December with a peak population during second week of October. Both grubs and adult beetles scrap the chlorophyll of the leaves in between veins resulting in skeletonized patches on the surface of the leaves. The damaged leaves present a lace-like appearance, turn brown, dry up and fall off. Usually the adults feed on the upper surface of leaves, while the larvae feed on the lower surface. Both eggs and larvae are found only on the bottom side of leaves. The larvae are creamy white in colour with black spiny hairs and measures 10 mm in length. The pupa looks the same as that of larva except for dark colour. A week after pupation, they become adult beetle. The pest completes its life cycle in 20 days after passing through four larval instars. Adults are reddish orange in colour. There are 13 black spots on each wing cover, two spots on thorax and totally 28 spots.

Eggs

Grub

Pupa

Adult

Leaf damage

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Leaf Miner: Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Damage: Foliage punctures caused by females during oviposition make a stippled appearance on foliage. Larvae mine into the leaves causing serpentine mines. The irregular mine increases in width from about 0.25 mm to 1.5 mm as the larva matures. Larvae are often easily visible within the mine where they remove the mesophyll between the surfaces of the leaf. Severe infestation leads to drying of leaves. Biology: White, elliptical eggs are inserted into plant tissue just beneath the leaf surface and hatch in about 3 days. There are three active larval instars. Initially the larvae are nearly colourless, becoming greenish and then yellowish as they mature. Larval period is about 5 days. The mature larva cuts a semicircular slit in the mined leaf just prior to formation of the puparium. The larva usually emerges from the mine, drops from the leaf and burrows into the soil to a depth of only a few cm to form a puparium. After about 9 days, the adult emerges from the puparium. The adults are yellow and black in colour. Mesonotum is greyish black. Females are larger and more robust than males and have an elongated abdomen. Adult flies live for a month.

5.14

Blister Beetle: Mylabris pustulata Thunb. (Meloidae: Coleoptera)

Adults are elongate beetles with red cross bands on the elytra. Adults are problematic when present in large numbers. The buds, flowers and fruits are completely eaten away by these beetles.

5.15

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Symptoms of damage by red spider mite include yellowish white speckles, blotches, yellow bleaching of leaves and webbing on the undersurface of leaves. The adult female lives 2–4 weeks and is capable of laying several hundred eggs during its life. It is oval in shape and brown or orange-red in colour. The eggs are globular and attached to fine silk webbing and hatch in 3 days. The life cycle from egg to adult varies greatly depending on temperature.

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Yellow Mite: Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks (Tarsonemidae: Acari)

Yellow mites are light yellow to amber or green coloured with an indistinct, light, median stripe that forks near the back end of the body. They feed on the lower surface of young leaves. The infested leaves curl downwards at margin and tips. Severe infestation leads to elongation of petiole and stunted growth of the plant.

5.17

Root Knot Nematode: Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae)

Nematodes are endoparasitic; body is spherical with projecting neck. It takes 37 days to complete its life cycle. Leaves become pale yellow. Leaf size is reduced. Severe infestation results in stunted growth and wilting of plants in patches. Huge number of small knots will be seen on the roots. The larvae feed on the vascular system of the root. The nematodes are swollen and produce knots or galls on roots.

5.17.1

Management of Pests in Solanum nigrum

Integrated Pest Management strategy involves growing of cowpea in the borders to conserve the coccinellid predators and marigold for the management of root knot nematodes, installation of yellow sticky traps 50/ha for monitoring and mass trapping of sucking pests, installation of pheromone traps at 12/ha for S. litura and L. orbonalis, foliar application of neem oil 3% or neem seed kernel extract 5% and need-based application of dimethoate 30 EC at 1 L/ha for the management of sucking pests and profenophos 50 EC at 750 ml/ha for the management of sucking pest, defoliators, borers and mites with the safe waiting period of 21 days.

6 Coleus (Coleus forskohlii) 6.1

Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Adults and nymphs suck the cell sap of leaves, causing rolling of the leaf upwards and leaf size reduction. A severe infestation of thrips makes the tender leaves and buds brittle, resulting in complete defoliation and total crop loss. Silvering of the leaf surface, linear thickenings of the leaf lamina, brown frass markings on the leaves and fruits, grey to black markings on fruits often forming a conspicuous ring of scarred tissue around the apex, fruit distortion and early senescence of leaves are important symptoms.

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Adults are with dark wings and dark spots forming incomplete stripes which appear dorsally on the abdomen. The life cycle stages of S. dorsalis include egg, first and second instar larvae, pre-pupa, pupa and adult. Gravid females insert the eggs inside plant tissues above the soil surface. The eggs are microscopic, kidney shaped and creamy white in colour. The eggs hatch between 2 and 7 days, depending upon temperature. Larvae and adults tend to gather near the mid-vein or borders of the host leaf. The two larval stages are completed in 8–10 days and the pupal stage lasts for 2.6–3.3 days. The life span of thrips is influenced by the host plant species. Application of azadirachtin 0.15% EC at 1.5 ml/L at fortnightly interval starting from 45 days after planting of coleus is found to be effective in reducing the incidence of thrips.

6.2

Green Peach Aphid: Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Very high densities of green peach aphids on young plants cause wilting and reduce the plant growth. Prolonged aphid infestation cause appreciable reduction in foliage yield. Blemishes to the plant tissue usually in the form of yellow spots may result from aphid feeding. Aphids complete the life cycle in 10–12 days. Nymphs initially are greenish but soon turn yellowish, greatly resembling viviparous adults. There are four nymphal instars in this aphid, with the duration of each averaging 2.0, 2.1, 2.3 and 2.0 days, respectively. Females give birth to offspring 10 days after birth.

6.3

Citrus Mealybug: Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Most damage is caused by the young nymphs. Injury to young pods results in corky scars. Heavy infestation during summer, results in smoky appearance on the leaves

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due to the growth of sooty mould over the honey dew excreted on the leaves. This damage affects the yield and market value of the crop. This pest can be managed with the coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant at 600 beetles/ha.

6.4

Brinjal Mealybug: Coccidohystrix insolita (Green) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and tender shoots. Heavy clustering of mealybugs is seen on the lower surface of leaves as a thick mat with waxy secretion. They excrete copious amount of honeydew on which the fungus sooty mould grows. Affected plants appear sick and black. Body of the mealybug is covered with long glassy filaments. Females have reproductive potential of laying 200–300 eggs. Eggs hatch in 4–5 days. Total life cycle from egg to adult is 26–30 days. Management involves removal of severely affected plant parts followed by spraying of neem oil 3% or fish oil rosin soap 25 g/L in the early stage of attack and the field release of coccinellid predator, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri at 600 beetles/ha.

Cryptolaemus feeding

6.5

Coccidohystrix insolita

Cochlochila bullita

Lantana Bug: Insignorthezia insignis (Orthezia insignis) Browne (Hemiptera: Orthezidae)

The scale insect sucks the sap causing general host debilitation. The build-up of sticky honeydew deposits occurs on nearby surfaces, which may attract attendant ants. Unsightly sooty moulds grow on the sugary deposits, and badly fouled leaves may drop prematurely. Adults are small to medium sized, with membranous wings with black spots on the forewing. Adult females begin laying eggs when the ovisac has developed to a length of 1.5 mm. Eggs are inserted into leaves and other tender foliage. A female lays up to 58–95 eggs in her life. Nymphs are black and spiny. Egg, first, second and third instar last for 23–37, 15–34.5, 13–28 and 14–33 days, respectively, depending upon the temperature. Neem and pongamia oils at 4% are found effective against I. insignis. Fish oil rosin soap at 25 g/L is found to be effective against scale insects.

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Tingid Bug: Cochlochila bullita (Stål) (=Monanthia globulifera (Walker)) (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Nymphs and adults cause damage by sucking the sap from the leaves. Attacked leaves develop yellow patches, become brown, shrivel and dry up from margins in case of heavy infestations. Female bug inserts eggs on leaves and tender foliage. Eggs are usually laid either in cluster form or singly into the plant’s tissue leaving only the opercula exposed. The dark brown-coloured eggs are oblong and slightly tapered towards the opercula end. Eggs hatch in 5–7 days, and nymphal stages last for about 10 days. The nymph is yellowish with red eyes upon hatching but soon turns into pale brown. It goes through five instars. The adults are delicate minute bugs and have lacy wings with brown swollen part at the discoidal area. Adults have prominent hood-like pronotum covering their head. Body and wing’s lacework are dark brown in colour.

6.7

Spike Borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hub) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Adult is stout bodied, brown or yellowish brown moth, 20 mm long with dark black spots on the centre of the forewing. Eggs are laid on tender foliage. Larvae are greenish with dark broken grey lines on along the sides of the body. Larvae initially feed on tender leaves and later bore into developing spikes by making holes and feeding on buds and flowers. Management involves foliar application of azadirachtin 1% @ 500 ml/ha.

6.8

Defoliator: Orphanostigma abruptalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Orphanostigma abruptalis is a serious pest during May–June in South India and August–October in northern parts of India. The first and second instar larvae of O. abruptalis prefer to remain on the lower surface of the leaves of coleus and gnaw away the parenchyma, making very small patches of injury without making any webs of leaves. Third instar larvae remain on the lower surface of the leaves and make webs by joining the edges of upper and lower leaves with silken strands, whereas the fourth instar larvae are the most active and destructive stage. Life cycle of this insect lasts for 21–32 days, with the fecundity of 45–192 eggs per female. The sex ratio of male to female is 1:1. Ten rounds of application of azadirachtin 0.15%

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EC at 1.5 ml/L at fortnightly interval starting from 45 days after planting of coleus are found to be effective in reducing the incidence of defoliator.

6.9

Grasshopper (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Nymphs and adult grasshoppers attack the crop during the day. They cause damage by making irregular holes on leaves and cutting tender shoots. Management involves spraying of malathion 0.1% that offers protection to foliage from grasshopper damage. Spraying of neem oil 3% also checks the pest.

6.10

Other Insect Pests

Other insect pests of coleus include Oxyrachis tarandus Fab. (Membracidae), Myllocerus discolor Fab. (Curculionidae), Nezara viridula (Pentatomidae) and Chrysocoris stolli Wolf. (Pentatomidae).

6.10.1

Management of Pests in Coleus

Bio-intensive module for coleus comprising of basal application of vermicompost 2 t/ha + neem or karanj cake 250 kg/ha + bio-fertilizers 2 kg/ha + NPK (20: 60:50 kg/ha); field release of Trichogramma chilonis at 6.25 cc/ha (2 releases on 45 and 60 DAP); spraying of Bacillus thuringiensis at 1 kg/ha (3 sprays on 50, 80 and 140 DAP), spraying of fish oil rosin soap at 25 g/L (5 sprays on 35, 55, 75, 95 and 115 DAP) is effective in reducing the incidence of major pest of coleus.

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Root Knot Nematode: Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) (Heteroderidae: Tylenchida)

Leaves of nematode infected plants become pale yellow. Infected plants show stunted growth and wilting of plants in patches. Huge number of knots will be seen on the roots. The larvae feed on the vascular system of the root. The nematodes are swollen and produce knots or galls on tubers. It takes 36 days to complete its life cycle. Management involves soil application of Trichoderma viride at 2.5 kg/ ha + neem cake 250 kg/ha, dipping of stem cuttings in 0.1% Pseudomonas fluorescens or Bacillus subtilis at the time of planting, planting of marigold (Tagetes erecta) as intercrop and incorporation during earthing up and application of carbofuran 3G at 33 kg/ha in the soil around the plants within a week after planting.

7 Gymnema (Gymnema sylvestre) 7.1

Papaya Mealybug: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Nymphs and adults are present on the terminal shoots and suck the sap. Affected plants turn yellow, wilt and dry. Honeydew secretion causes sooty mould. Management involves removal of affected parts in the early stage of attack and field release of the parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae.

7.2

Indian Common Crow Butterfly: Euploea core (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae)

Eggs are laid on the underside of young leaves. The egg is shiny white, tall and pointed with ribbed sides. Just before hatching, the eggs turn greyish with a black top. The caterpillar is cylindrical, vividly coloured and smooth. It has alternate white and dark brown or black transverse bands. Just above the legs and prolegs, the entire body has wide orange red band. The caterpillar bears four tentacle-like appendages, three towards the front and one at the back. All of them are curved backwards at the tips. The pupa of this species is shiny golden in colour and later turns black. Adult is a glossy black butterfly with brown underside with white marks along the outer margins of the wing. Management involves collection and destruction of caterpillars and foliar application of neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

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Looper: Comostola pyrrhogona (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

Adult moths have pale blue-green wings with marginal red beading. The larvae feed on leaves voraciously and cause severe defoliation. Management involves collection and destruction of growing stages and spraying of NSKE 5% or neem oil 3%.

7.4

Hairy Caterpillar: Euproctis fraterna Moore (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)

Caterpillars are found in groups on the undersurface of the leaves and cause extensive defoliation to the crop by feeding the leaves. Adult moths have brown forewings with dark scales. The hind wings are yellow in colour. The hairy caterpillar is dark brown with a yellow band on the dorsal side. An orange-red line runs along the yellow band. Management involves collection and destruction of the eggs, larvae and pupae of this pest and spraying of neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

7.5

Oleander Aphid: Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Nymphs and adults are found on tender shoots and the lower surface of leaves sucking the sap. Infested leaves wilt, curl up and fall. Tender infested shoots get dried. Sooty mould is noticed on infested plant parts due to excretion of honeydew. Management involves spraying with neem oil (3%) or NSKE (5%) if required.

7.6

Lantana Bug: Insignorthezia insignis (Browne) (Hemiptera: Ortheziidae)

This bug damages the host plant by feeding on its phloem and excreting nutrients which promote the growth of sooty mould.

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Plant infestation

Female I. insignis

8 Isabgol/Blond Psyllium (Plantago ovata) The important pests of isabgol (Plantago ovata) include Aphis gossypii, Hyadaphis coriandri, Rhopalosiphum maidis, Spodoptera litura and Lasioderma serricorne besides the grasshoppers.

8.1 8.1.1

Aphids Cotton Aphid: Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

It is a major insect pest of this crop. Adult: Wingless adult are pale green to dark green with black cornicles and thorax. Nymphs are varying in colour, grey to green often marked with dark head, thorax and wing pad with green colour abdomen. Nymphs and adults suck the sap on tender shoots and lower side of leaves. Attacked leaves curl up, wither and fall. Reduction in the population of aphids due to the abundance of natural enemies has been reported from Western India. Naturally occurring predators, Coccinella septempunctata, Coccinella transversalis, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Chrysoperla sp. and Ischiodon scutellaris regulate the aphid population on isabgol. Management involves spraying of neem or pongamia oil at 3% or dimethoate 0.05%. Seed treatment with imidacloprid 600 FS at 5 g/kg of seeds managed the population of aphids and termites in blond psyllium.

8.1.2

Corn Aphid: Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

It is a major pest attacking the blond psyllium in the western region. Early sown crop (7th November) had lower aphid population density (25.2 aphids/tiller) than crop sown on 28th November (59.0 aphids/tiller).

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Coriander Aphid: Hyadaphis coriandri (Das) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Coriander aphids are yellow-green in colour, dusted with greyish wax. Aphids suck the sap from tender shoots and leaves. Management involves spraying of neem oil (3%) at the initial stage of infestation.

8.2

Epilachna Beetle: Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fab.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Collection and destruction of grubs and adults of Epilachna H. vigintioctopunctata, followed by spraying of neem oil 3% is effective.

8.3

beetle,

Papaya Mealybug: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Removal of infected plant parts during early stage of infestation combined with releases of biocontrol agents in the later stage of crop development effectively suppresses the mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus infesting blond psyllium.

8.4

Grasshopper

Both nymph and adult stages cause damage by making holes on leaves and cutting tender shoots. Management involves collection and destruction of the grasshoppers and spraying of neem seed kernel extract (5%) once or twice depending upon the infestation severity.

8.5

Cigarette Beetle: Lasioderma serricorne F. (Coleoptera: Anobiidae)

This is a serious pest of seed in storage. Both grubs and adults cause damage by feeding on the internal contents of the seed. Management involves with treatment of seed with neem or pongamia oil 2% or chlorpyriphos 0.05%.

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9 Glory Lily (Gloriosa superba) 9.1

Thrips: Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Thrips simplex (Morison) and Liothrips vaneeckei Priesner (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Thrips are serious pests on glory lily and transmit gloriosa necrosis virus. Flower petals will become discoloured and deformed. Virus-infected plants develop a bronze or purple discoloration. Leaves curl downwards and are distorted. Numerous small, dark spots develop on leaves. Affected leaves may wilt and die. Dark streaks often appear on stems near the growing point, leading to death of the plant. Adult is yellowish grey to dark grey in colour. Dark blotches are observed on the thorax and abdomen. Female lays about 30–80 whitish eggs within the plant tissue. The eggs are kidney shaped initially, but after a short time within the plant tissue, they swell and become elliptical and protrude slightly. There are two nymphal stages that last up to 14 days, after which the larva enters quiescence in a sheltered place. This pre-pupal stage (1–2 days) is soon followed by the pupal stage. Adult females live for 14 days. Thrips tabaci: adults are small, slender and yellowish to brown with fringed wings, and nymphs are very minute, slender and yellowish. Thrips simplex is a tiny insect, with a long slender brownish black body with a pale band at the base of the wings. The larvae are wingless and yellow or orange in colour.

Thrips tabaci

Thrips simplex

Thrips damage

Management involves installation of blue sticky traps at 50/ha for monitoring and trapping of thrips, growing two rows of maize as barrier crops around field border to avoid thrips damage, removal of necrosis-infected plants and spraying of fipronil 5% SC at 750 ml/ha or spinosad 45% SC at 160 ml/ha.

9.2

Lily Caterpillar: Polytela gloriosae (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

It is a serious pest on gloriosa during August–February from seedling stage to maturity. The early instars feed on chlorophyll of the leaves, but the later instars feed voraciously leaving only the hard stem of the plant resulting in its complete

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devastation. Eggs are small, round and dorsoventrally flattened. The freshly laid eggs are yellowish white in colour, but while hatching, they become dark brown. Incubation period is 4–6 days. Mosaic pattern of black, white and red becomes quite prominent all over the body in the larval stage. The larval stage lasts for 14–18 days, and the larva undergoes five moults to become pupae. Pupation takes place one inch deep in the soil, inside an earthen cocoon which is oval and reddish brown initially and changes dark red later. The duration of the pupal stage varies from 10 to 15 days. Adult: The forewings of adults have a mosaic pattern consisting of yellow, pink and black spots. The hind wing is black, and the margin is provided with a yellow lining with comb-like hairy pattern. Management involves application of Bacillus thuringiensis or azadirachtin 1% or chlorpyriphos 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05%.

Egg

9.3

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Semilooper: Argyrogramma signata (Fabricius) (Plusia signata) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

It is also a serious and regular occurring pest on gloriosa during vegetative and flowering stage. The caterpillars feed the leaves and growing tip voraciously and cause heavy defoliation. Defoliation up to 28% was recorded in the farmers’ holdings. Eggs are laid singly on the underside of leaves, and they are white and round in shape. The egg period varies from 2 to 3 days. Full-grown larva is prominent yellowish green colour. Larval period is 15–20 days. The larva pupates within the leaf folds, and sometimes the adjacent leaves are webbed, and pupation takes place inside. Pupa is fluorescent green in colour with the pupal period of 7–10 days. Adult is a stout brown-coloured moth with white spots on the forewing.

Larva

Adult

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Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Adults lay small, round eggs in clusters of several hundreds usually on leaf surfaces. Early instars are present under the leaves in groups and scrap the chlorophyll of the leaves. Then the later instars feed voraciously and cause defoliation. Adult moth is greyish brown. The forewings are grey to reddish brown with a strongly variegated pattern and pale lines along the veins. The hind wings are greyish white with grey margins, often with dark veins. Females are slightly bigger than males. The caterpillars cause maximum damage.

9.5

Red hairy Caterpillar: Amsacta lactinea Hampson (Lepidoptera: Erebidae)

Larvae feed voraciously on leaves. Management involves hand picking of larvae, collection of egg masses, summer ploughing, setting up of bonfire and spraying of chlorpyriphos 0.05%.

9.6

Management of Caterpillar Pests (P. gloriosae, S. litura and A. signata)

IPM involves collection and destruction of the infested plant parts, hand picking and destruction of the caterpillars, installation of pheromone traps at 12/ha for S. litura, foliar application of Bacillus thuringiensis at 2 g/L or neem oil 3% or neem seed kernel extract 5% or need-based application of quinalphos 25 EC at 1 L/ha or chlorpyriphos 20 EC 1.25 L/ha for defoliators.

9.7

Aphids: Myzus persicae (Sulzer) and Dysaphis tulipae (Boyer de Fonscolombe) (Hemiptera: Aphididdae)

They are found in cluster on the tender shoots, flowers and buds and suck the sap. Tender shoots wither, buds fall prematurely and flowers show fading. Nymphs and adults of Myzus persicae are yellowish green in colour. Dysaphis tulipae are grey in colour with waxy appearance. Management involves spraying of dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/L.

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Other Insect Pests

Other insect pests of glory lily include Diabolocatantops pinguis (Stal.) (Acrididae), Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall) (Acrididae), Monolepta signata (Olivier) (Chrysomelidae), Curculio sp., Myllocerus undecimpunctata L. and M. viridanus Fab. (Curculionidae), Utetheisa pulchella (Linnaeus) (Erebidae), Archips micaceana (Walker) (Tortricidae), Lygaeus hospes (Dallas) and Graptostethus servus (Fabricius) (Lygaeidae).

10 10.1

Long Pepper (Piper longum) Mealy Bug: Dysmicoccus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The root is infested by the mealy bug and the affected plant shows yellowing. This results in stunted growth of the plant. The mealybugs are light pink in colour and soft bodied covered with waxy filaments. Management involves soil application of neem cake at 100 kg/ac and soil drenching with dimethoate 2 ml/L or chlorpyriphos 0.05% near the root zone of affected plants.

10.2

Tea Mosquito Bug: Helopeltis antonii Waterhouse (Hemiptera: Miridae)

Adults are black and red, elongated insects with long process on scutellum. Nymphs and adults of tea mosquito bug severely attack the plant by feeding on the tender foliage. Necrotic lesions develop around the feeding puncture leaving shot holes on the lamina. The adults are black in colour with red thorax, black and white abdomen and greenish brown wings. Management involves spraying of neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

11 11.1

Noni (Morinda citrifolia) Melon Aphid: Aphis gossypii Glover. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Aphids are sap-feeding insects that cause stunting and slow growth of noni plants and leaf curling and deformity if aphid population is large. The sugary waste product that is excreted from aphid’s abdomen provides a substrate for the growth of a

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saprophytic fungus that causes “sooty mould.” Aphids have the most negative impacts on the growth of noni seedlings in nurseries. Aphids are controlled effectively by natural enemies (e.g. lady bird beetles, aphid lions) and parasitic fungi. If ants are controlled effectively, aphid population generally declines. Management involves removal and destruction of severely infested leaves and stems and spraying of approved insecticidal soaps and oils.

11.2

Castor Semilooper: Acanthodelta janata (Linnaeus) (=Achaea janata Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The caterpillars feed on leaves of noni seedlings. The caterpillars can consume most of the foliage, leaving large holes in the leaves with just the veins and petioles remaining. Castor and croton are preferred hosts for these caterpillars. Management involves collection and destruction of caterpillars.

11.3

Green Scale: Coccus viridis (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Scales are sap-feeding insects that cause stunting and slow growth of noni plants and leaf curling and deformity if scale population is large. They tend to feed along the primary veins on the underside of noni leaves. The sugary waste product that is excreted from their abdomen provides a substrate for the growth of a saprophytic fungus that causes “sooty mould.” If ants and scales can be controlled, the sooty mould usually disappears after a short time. Scales are controlled effectively by natural enemies and parasitic fungi. Management involves removal of affected plant parts and spraying of approved insecticidal soaps and oils.

11.4

Thrips: Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouché) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Thrips feed on noni leaves and the injured tissue takes a silvery or bleached appearance and eventually turns bleached initially and then dark brown coloured later. Large lesions may develop on leaves with bleached centres and irregular margins. Feeding on leaf tips may result in wilting and curling. Severely affected leaves may defoliate prematurely. The underside of infested leaves also may have large necrotic areas and silvery bleached regions that are spotted with small black faecal specks. Management involves removal and destruction of severely affected leaves and elimination of any alternate hosts for thrips.

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Leaf Miner: Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Feeding by leaf miners results in pale green coloured, irregular tunnels within the leaf tissue. Management involves the collection and destruction of infested leaves, covering the soil with plastic mulches to prevent larvae from reaching the ground and pupating and spraying of neem oil 3% to repel the larvae and adult.

11.6

Mealybugs: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink and Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The nymphs and adults infest leaves and fruits and suck the sap. Affected plant parts turn yellow. Honeydew excreted by mealybug favours development of sooty mould. Management involves release of the parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae for the management of papaya mealybug and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri for the management of citrus mealybug or spraying of fish oil rosin soap at 25 g/L and neem oil (3%).

11.7

Whitefly: Dialeurodes kirkaldyi (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Adults are very small. The wings are yellowish white and antennae are sevensegmented. The immature stage is flat, elliptical in shape and yellowish green in colour with a longitudinal brown median area. Three nymphal stages and one pupal stage occur in the life cycle. Damage includes leaf discolouration (dulling, browning, yellowing, necrosis), leaf distortion (curling, crinkling, stunting), slow and unthrifty plant growth and premature defoliation. Management involves removal of heavily infested leaves, canopy management (thinning) and removal of potential alternate host plants.

11.8

Noni Sphingid: Macroglossum hirundo Boisduval (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

The larvae are initially green with a black forward curving spine on the tail. Later, they become pale brown or green, with small white dots. Larvae feed voraciously on

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leaves resulting in severe defoliation. Sphingids can be well managed by collection and destruction of caterpillars.

11.9

Other Insect Pests

Other minor pests of noni include Acanthodelta janata (Linnaeus) (Noctuidae), Flata ocellata Fabricius and Hylamorpha hyala, Leptocentrus taurus Fab. (Membracidae), Orthacris maindroni Bolivar (Pyrgomorphidae), fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster Meigen (Drosophilidae), blackfly Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby (Aleyrodidae), Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fabricius), Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) (Pseudococcidae) and Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Aleyrodidae).

12 12.1

Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum) Capsule Borer: Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

It is a major pest of poppy and lays spherical, yellowish eggs on tender foliage. Larva is greenish with dark brown, grey lines along the sides of body. The larvae initially feed on tender foliage and later bore into developing spikes and capsules and feed on the seed. Management measures include collection and destruction of larvae, erection of pheromone traps at 12/ha, spraying of NPV 250 Larval Equivalents (LE)/ha, or Bacillus thuringiensis at 2 g or 2 ml per litre of water and the use of egg parasitoids Trichogramma chilonis at 5 cc/ha are effective. Neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil 3% are also effective in the management of H. armigera.

12.2

Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

It feeds on the lower surface of poppy leaves gregariously and cause severe defoliation. Management involves application of S. litura nuclear polyhedrosis virus at 250 LE/ha.

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Cutworms: Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), Agrotis segetum Denis and Schiffermüller and Agrotis sulfusa Hb. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Adult is brown in colour with black spots on the wings. Adult moths lay eggs on the lower side of leaves or moist soil. Dark brown larvae cut younger plants at ground level and shoots of the grown-up plants during December–January. Management involves collection and destruction of the caterpillars; deep ploughing during summer to expose the pupae; flood irrigation and application of entomophilic nematode, Steinernema carpocapsae at the rate of one billion infective juveniles (IJs)/ha in the soil under irrigated condition; spraying of NSKE 5% or chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2 ml/ L of water. Spreading of poison bait made with rice bran, jaggery and insecticide (10:1:0.5) in the field kills larvae.

12.4

Aphids: Aphis fabae Scopoli and Myzus persicae Sulzer (Hemiptera: Aphididdae)

These aphids suck sap from tender leaves and developing capsules. Management involves spraying of neem oil or pongamia oil at 3% or NSKE 5% or dimethoate 0.05%.

12.5

Root Weevil: Sternocarus fuliginosus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

This pest is known for maximum damage to poppy crop by boring into the upper parts of the roots which ultimately turns blackish. Larva mines the leaf lamina and causes withering. Control measures include dusting of malathion or chlorpyriphos.

12.6

Other Insects

They include Chrotogonus sp. (Acrididae) and Atmetonychus peregrinus Olivier (Curculionidae).

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Periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus) Oleander Hawk Moth: Daphnis nerii (Deilephila nerii) (Linn.) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Adults are stout and green-coloured body with white patches. Eggs are laid singly on the lower surface of the leaves. Larvae are stout bodied and green in colour with horn-like projection on the dorsal side of last abdominal segment. Larvae cause severe damage to plants by feeding extensively on leaves, buds and flowers. Management involves collection and destruction of larvae, deep ploughing to expose the pupae before planting and spraying of chlorpyriphos 0.05% or neem seed kernel extract (5%) or neem oil0.50%, if required.

13.2

Cotton Looper: Anomis flava (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Larvae are long and green with yellow bands between segments. The green semilooper feeds on leaves resulting in considerable foliage loss. Several species of parasitoids have been reported to regulate the semilooper population. The parasitoids, Trichogramma chilonis Ishii and Tetrastichus sp. are known to attack the eggs and the pupae of Anomis flava, respectively in the field. Management involves spraying of profenophos 50 EC at 2 ml/L.

13.3

Grasshopper: Acrida exaltata (Walker) (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Both nymphs and adults cause damage by making holes on leaves and cutting tender shoots. Management involves collection and destruction of the loopers and spraying of neem seed kernel extract (5%) once or twice depending upon the infestation severity.

13.4

Catharanthus Aphids: Myzus persicae (Sulzer) (Hemiptera: Aphididdae)

Aphids are pale green in colour. They are found in colonies on tender shoots and lower side of leaves sucking the sap. Infested leaves curl up, wither and fall. Aphid population can be regulated by the parasitoid, Diaeretiella rapae (McIntosh) and

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coccinellid predators. Management involves spraying of neem oil or pongamia oil at 3% twice at 15 days interval.

13.5

Blister Beetle: Mylabris pustulata Thunb. (Coleoptera: Meloidae)

The beetles are black with reddish/orange/yellow bands. Adults feed on the flower buds and leaves causing severe flower loss. Management involves collection and destruction of the beetles and spraying of malathion 0.10%.

13.6

Other Insects

They include grasshopper, Orthacris simulans Bolivar. (Pyrgomorphidae), leafhopper, Amrasca biguttula biguttula Ishida (Cicadellidae), green stink bug, Nezara viridula Linn. (Pentatomidae) and semilooper, Anomis flava Fab.(Noctuidae).

14 14.1

Phyllanthus (Phyllanthus amarus and Phyllanthus niruri) Potato Aphid: Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Aphids are either green with a darker green longitudinal stripe or red coloured. Adults are with elongated pear-shaped body, large red eyes and black cornicles. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves resulting in weakening and early wilting of the plants. Infested leaves show leaf chlorosis, withering and premature dropping of leaves and finally result in death of the plant. Management involves collection and destruction of infested plant parts and spraying of NSKE 5% (or) neem oil 3%.

14.2

Cotton Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves resulting in weakening and early wilting of the plants. Infested leaves show leaf chlorosis, withering and premature dropping of leaves and finally result in death of the plant.

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Onion Thrips: Thrips tabaci (L.) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Nymphs and adults lacerate the leaves and cause leaf curling, withering and death of the plants. Nymphs and adults are pale yellowish in colour. Management involves erection of blue sticky traps at 12/ha., collection and destruction of infested plant parts and the foliar application of NSKE 5% or neem oil 3%.

14.4

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Nymphs and adults are red in colour. They suck the sap from the leaves. White spots develop on the feeding sites. In severe cases, the entire leaves become white and further drying and wilting take place. Mites can be managed by foliar application of wettable sulphur at 2 g/L.

15 15.1

Psoralea (Psoralea corylifolia) Groundnut Leaf Miner: Aproaerema modicella (Deventer) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae)

Larva is green with a dark head and mines into young leaves. It also folds and brings together adjacent leaves and feeds on the leaf tissues from inside. Feeding by leaf miners results in pale green coloured, irregular tunnels within the leaf tissue, leading to necrosis and premature defoliation. Adult moth is very small, dark brownish with a conspicuous pale white spot on the anterior margin of forewings. Management involves collection and destruction of infested leaves, using yellow sticky traps to catch egg-laying adults, covering the soil under infested plants with plastic mulches to prevent larvae from reaching the ground and pupating and spraying of neem oil 3% to repel the larvae and adult.

Larva

Leaf damage

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Citrus Butterfly: Papilio demoleus (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Caterpillar is yellowish green with horn-like structure on the dorsal side of the last body segment. Young larvae are found on the upper surface of leaves and feed on the leaf lamina from margin to midrib. Grown-up caterpillar feeds even on matured leaves and causes severe defoliation. Adult butterfly is black and yellow coloured and swallow tailed. Management involves collection and destruction of the larvae and spraying of chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2 ml/L when the infestation is moderate to severe.

15.3

Spiralling Whitefly: Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Adult lays eggs in distinctive spiral pattern on the undersurface of leaves. Damage is caused by piercing the leaf and sucking the sap, which leads to premature death of the plant when infestations are high. Indirect damage is caused by the accumulation of honeydew and waxy, white, fluffy, woolly material produced by the whiteflies. Honeydew serves as a substrate for sooty mould which blackens the leaves, retarding photosynthesis and reducing plant health. Management involves release of the parasitoid, Encarsia guadeloupe Viggiani.

15.4

Green Stink Bug: Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Green bugs suck the sap from tender leaves and shoots. Stunted growth of the plant and deformed leaves are the symptoms of attack. Management involves collection and destruction of life stages of bugs and spraying of neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

15.5

Wax Scale: Drepanococcus (=Ceroplastodes) cajani Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Scale insects are most often associated with and tended by one of several ant species. Tender branches are covered with scales. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves, tender stems and branches. This results in stunted growth of the plants. Scales

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are controlled effectively by natural enemies and parasitic fungi. If ants are controlled effectively, scale population generally declines. Management involves removal and destruction of severely infested leaves and stem and spraying of approved insecticidal soaps and oils.

15.6

Other Insect Pests

They include Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Noctuidae), Tricentrus bicolor Distant (Membracidae), Haltica sp. (Halticidae) and Kolla sp. (Fulgoridae).

16 16.1

Sarpagandha/Indian Snake Root (Rauvolfia serpentina) Cutworm: Agrotis sp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Larvae attack the tender seedlings. Caterpillars are nocturnal in habit and found under debris around plants. Caterpillars cut seedlings near the ground level and eat the tender parts. Damage is more in low lying waterlogged areas. Eggs are globular in shape, ribbed and whitish in colour. Tiny caterpillars feed gregariously on the foliage for few days and then enter into the soil. Management involves with summer ploughing to expose larvae and pupae for avian predators, installation of light traps (summer) to attract adult moths, installation of pheromone traps at 12 per ha to monitor and attract male moths, irrigation of the field during day time to expose larva for predation by birds and drenching of collar region of the plants at 1 day after planting during evening hours with chlorpyriphos at 2 ml/L of water.

16.2

Oleander Hawk Moth: Daphnis nerii (Deilephila nerii) (Linn.) (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Caterpillar feed on the leaves and cause complete defoliation. Larva is stout with a spine in the anal region. Adult is robust green moth with yellow markings. Management involves with digging of the soil to expose the pupae for predation by birds, collection and destruction of caterpillars, installation of light trap at 1/ha. and planting of nerium around the bunds and taking up plant protection on nerium with chemical insecticides.

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16.3

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Spotted Beetle: Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (F.) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae)

Grubs and adults feed by scrapping chlorophyll from epidermal layers of leaves. Leaves are skeletonized and gradually dry away. Grubs are yellowish in colour and stout with spines all over the body. Adults are spherical, bluish brown and mottled with black spots. Management involves collection and destruction of grubs and adults and foliar application of chlorpyriphos at 2 ml//L.

16.4

Ash Weevil: Myllocerus viridanus (Fab.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Adults feed on the leaves from the edges in a serrated manner and cause notching of leaf margins. Female lays up to 500 eggs in the soil. Grubs are whitish in colour. Grubs feed on roots and cause wilting and withering of plants. Pupation takes place in the soil in earthen cocoon. Adult is a small weevil and light green in colour. Management involves collection and destruction of adults and spraying of malathion at 2 ml/L and drenching of soil with 0.10% chlorpyriphos.

16.5

Mealybugs: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink and Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Nymphs and adults are present on the lower surface of the leaves and suck the sap. Affected plants turn yellow, wilt and dry. Honeydew excretion causes sooty mould. Mealy bugs are small, oval, soft-bodied insects covered with white mealy wax. The encyrtid parasitoid, Aenasius arizonensis (Girault) (¼Aenasius bambawalei Hayat) gives excellent control of P. solenopsis. The parasitoid, Acerophagus papayae Noyes and Schauff is found to be highly effective against P. marginatus.

16.6

Hemispherical Scale: Saissetia coffeae (Walker) (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

Brownish black scale infests the lower surface of leaves along midribs and veins. They also infest petioles and tender shoots and deplete the sap from plant. Infested leaves turn yellow and drop off, while plants lose vigour and become stunted in

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growth. Management involves removing and burning of heavily infested plant parts that bring down scale population and spraying of chlorpyriphos at 005%.

16.7

Grasshopper: Orthacris simulans Bolívar (Orthoptera: Acrididae)

Both nymphs and adults damage the crop by making irregular holes on leaves and cutting tender shoots. Management involves spraying of neem oil 3% or neem kernel extract 5% and foliar application of malathion at 0.1%.

16.8

Leaf Folder: Glyphodes vertumnalis and Glyphodes suralis (Lederer) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Eggs are deposited on tender foliage. Larvae fold leaves together and feed on green tissue causing drying of leaves and stunted growth of the plant in case of severe infestation. Management involves collection and destruction of dried and infested plant parts and spraying of profenophos at 0.05%.

16.9

Large Brown Hawk Moth: Psilogramma menephron Cramer (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae)

Initially this caterpillar is green with a series of diagonal white stripes on its sides and a (harmless) curved spike on the tail. There are warts on the thorax, the tail spike and the hind claspers. The adult moth is dark brown with long narrow greyish forewings with variable darker grey and white wavy patterns. Caterpillar feeds voraciously on the leaves. Psilogramma menephron can be controlled by spraying of NSKE 5% or neem oil 3% at 15 days interval.

16.10

Mango Mealybug: Drosicha mangiferae (Green) (Hemiptera: Monophlebidae)

It is found damaging leaves and apical twigs of the plants. The adults/nymphs were recorded on inflorescence, apical stem and leaves. Population of mealybugs is concentrated on the apical portion of the plant, covering the plant with cottony mass and gradually resulting in drying up of plant.

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Chafer Beetle: Anomala polita (Blanchard) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Adults are small to medium sized and metallic green coloured beetles with exposed pygidium. Eggs are laid in earthen cell. Grubs are white in colour. Pupation takes place in the soil. Damage starts with the onset of first showers. Grubs infest the seedlings about 2 cm below the hypocotyls, resulting in drying up. Adults feed on foliage, buds and flowers at dusk. Management involves spraying of quinalphos 25EC at 2 ml/L of water during evenings to control the adults and application of neem cake in the soil at the time of nursery preparation to check the chafer beetle.

17 17.1

Senna (Cassia angustifolia) Thrips: Kurtomathrips morrilli Moulton (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves. Injured leaves appear silvery grey, often with a dark speckling of thrips faeces. The damage goes up to 13%. Female thrips are minute, usually wingless, with yellow body and legs with a pair of dark spots.

Nymphs

17.2

Adult

Leaf damage

Aphids: Aphis craccivora Koch. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Adult aphids are usually shiny black, while the nymphs are slate grey. Aphids inject a powerful toxin into the plant while feeding. When the population is large, makes the plants stunt or kill the plants. While feeding, this aphid produces considerable amount of honeydew upon which sooty mould grows. The black sooty mould reduces photosynthesis and may make leaves not suitable for medicinal purpose.

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The honeydew also makes the leaves sticky, which causes problems with harvest. The parasitoids, Lysiphlebus sp. and Diaretiella sp. and the predators, lady beetles, lacewings, big-eyed bugs and syrphid flies are known to attack the aphids. Management of thrips and Aphids: Application of azadirachtin 0.15% at 1.5 ml/L at fortnightly interval, starting from 30 days after sowing of crop is effective in reducing the infestation of sucking pests of senna. Need-based application of any one of the insecticides like acetamiprid 49 g a.i./ha, spinetoram 53 g a.i./ha and spinosad 88 g a.i./ha would reduce the population of thrips. Border harvesting or strip cutting is important for onserving the natural enemies of A. craccivora.

17.3

Pierid Butterfly: Catopsilia pyranthe (Linn.) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

Damage: Incidence of C. pyranthe is more during second fortnight of June to October and maximum during September and October coinciding with Southwest Monsoon (June–September). Larvae defoliate causing yield loss up to 50%. Biology: Eggs are laid singly on tender leaves. Incubation period is 3–4 days. The larva passes through five instars over a period of 12–17 days. Body colour is green, and the head is creamy white, segmentation is clearly visible and lateral side is yellow with black band. Pupa appears like a shell. Pupal period is 7–8 days. Adult butterfly is yellow, variable in tint from sulphur to rich lemon yellow according to locality with a light or heavy rainfall.

Egg

Larva

Pupa

Adult

Natural enemies: Majority of Catopsilia pyranthe eggs are parasitized by Trichogramma chilonis, larvae are parasitized by the ichneumonid, Charops obtusus and the braconid, Apanteles sp. which accounted for a maximum of 31 and 30% parasitism, respectively. The chrysopid and insectivorous birds, Passer domesticus indicus and Acridotheres tristis also prey on larvae. Management: Senna field applied with vermicompost + neem cake or karanj cake in split doses + bio-fertilizer (Azospirillum 2 kg/ha, phosphobacteria 2 kg/ha, silica-solubilizing bacteria 2 kg/ha) + NPK (40:40:40 kg/ha) (20:20:20 kg/ha) reduces the damage caused by C. pyranthe.

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Grass Yellow Butterfly: Eurema hecabe (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

Adult is yellowish butterfly with black markings in apical margin of the forewing. Larva is long, green, rough, cylindrical or slightly depressed, with a large head. Pupa is suspended by the tail and by a moderately long band. Ordinarily the pupa is solitary and green but sometimes found on a twig in large numbers. The main natural enemies of E. hecabe are the chalcidid, Brachymeria lasus, the ichneumonid, Coccygomimus sp. and scelionid wasps. The incidence of C. pyranthe and E. hecabe is noticed to be low in the plants applied with azadirachtin.

Egg

17.5

Larva

Pupa

Adult

Spiny Pod Borer: Etiella zinckenella (Treitschke) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Dropping of flowers and young pods is a common symptom of the attack of the pod borer. Old pods are marked with a brown spot where the larva enters. Larva looks greenish initially and turns pink before pupation. It has five black spots on the prothorax. Adult is a brownish grey moth with orange prothorax. Forewing has a white stripe along the anterior margin. Pod borer damage is common from 65 days after sowing and up to harvest. The damage goes up to 15%. Pod borer damage is found to be low when four rounds of Azadirachtin are applied in main and ratoon crop Murali Baskaran et al., 2009. Spraying of Bacillus thuringiensis on 30 DAS and during later part of the senna (75 days after sowing) would be helpful to kill the various life stages of insects. Pod borers can be managed by hand picking, destruction of infested pods along with larvae, field release of Trichogramma chilonis at 5 cc/ha. and the use of light trap at 1/ha.

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17.5.1

IPM in Senna

Bio-intensive module developed for senna ecosystem with vermicompost 2 t/ha + neem or karanj cake 250 kg/ha + bio-fertilizers 2 kg/ha + NPK (40:40:40 kg/ha); Chrysoperla zastrowi sillemi at 50000 eggs/ha (three releases on 15 and 30 days after sowing (DAS), 15 days after first harvest); Trichogramma chilonis at 6.25 cc/ha (three releases on 50 and 80 DAS, 50 days after first harvest); Bacillus thuringiensis at 1 kg/ha (three sprays on 50 and 80 DAS, 50 days after first harvest); neem oil 3% (three sprays on 20, 40 and 70 DAS); and NSKE 5% (two sprays on 30 and 70 days after first harvest) was effective in reducing the incidence of major insect pests of senna with high cost benefit ratio of 1:1.55 besides enhancing the phenol and ash contents and the maximum population of soil microflora and natural enemies’ activities.

18

Insect Pests of Other Medicinal Plants

Asparagus/shatavari (Asparagus racemosus Willd.): In asparagus, a red-coloured bug, Brachytes bicolor Westwood is known to cause damage. Populations of this occasional pest can be controlled by spraying neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%. Holy basil: It is regularly attacked by nymphs and adult tingid bugs, Cochlochila bullita (Stal.). They suck the sap from the shoot and tender leaves resulting in plant death and currently, these bugs are considered as major pest against for which foliar sprays of 3% neem oil or neem products containing 10000 ppm of azadirachtin at 2 ml/L are recommended and repeated every 2 weeks till pest disappears. Brahmi: Foliar sprays of 3% neem oil repeated every 2 weeks till pest disappears is recommended by CIMAP against polyphagous grasshoppers and larvae of army worm or swarming caterpillar, Spodoptera litura (Fb.) whose infestation results in excessive defoliation in brahmi plants.

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Musli: Leaves of musli are severely infested in central India by another armyworm Spodoptera mauritia Boisd, for which chlorpyriphos or quinalphos are recommended. Nerium oleander: The hawk moth caterpillar Daphnis (Deilephila) nerii (L.) is a minor defoliator. Aloe vera: In aloe plantations, farmers could successfully control all insect pests by using the juice of raw garlic, oil of neem (containing 10,000 ppm of azadirachtin) at 2 ml/L or tobacco decoction (20 ml/L). Spraying of insecticidal soaps or plant oils (3%), malathion 50 EC (0.05%) are useful to control the pests. Indian ipecac (Tylophora indica): The semilooper, Hypena sagitta (Fabricius) feeds on all the parts of the plant. The pest causes 50–70% defoliation when the incidence is severe. Occurrence of the pest was observed mainly during August– December, coinciding with flowering of the plant. Eggs are light yellow, spherical and net-like and are laid singly on leaves. Eggs hatch in 4–5 days. There are five larval instars in the life cycle of H. sagitta with total larval period of 25 days. The pupae are brown in colour and pupal period lasts for 7–9 days. The total developmental period was 37 days. Madhuca longifolia, Mimusops elengi and Wrightia tinctoria: In recent years, the green shield scale Chloropulvinaria psidii (Green) has become a serious pest of several medicinal plants viz., Madhuca longifolia, Mimusops elengi and Wrightia tinctoria. The scale insects suck the cell sap resulting in the loss of vigour of the medicinal plants. The nymphs and adults excrete honeydew resulting in the development of sooty mould and thereby hindering the photosynthetic activity of such scale-infested plants. The Australian ladybird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant was released at 10 beetles/plant. There was 95% reduction in scale population within 70 days after release of C. montrouzieri on the above medicinal plants. The list of insect pests damaging other medicinal plants is given in Table 1.

18.1

Mimusops elengi

Nephopteryx eugraphella Ragonot is found as a serious pest of Mimusops elengi Linn. from the eastern region of Uttar Pradesh. About 90–100% plants and 60–80% leaves were infested by this foliage feeder. Young larvae damaged the leaves by scrapping the chlorophyll content followed by webbing, while grown-up larvae damaged both by scraping and biting the leaves. Due to their severe feeding, damaged leaves were dried up and giving burning appearance of the trees. Amongst the tested conventional and biorational insecticides, quinalphos, profenophos, deltamethrin and cypermethrin at their recommended doses were found more promising. Among the different biopesticides, Beauveria bassiana IIVR strain at recommended dose was effective followed by Bacillus thuringiensis.

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Table 1 List of insect pests attacking other medicinal plants Medicinal plant Arctium lappa Angelica glauca Aegle marmelos Saussurea costus Picrorhiza kurroa Bacopa monnieri Digitalis lanata Justicia gendarussa Atropa belladonna Cannabis sativa Atropa acuminata Anethum graveolens Linn Azadirachta indica Artemisia annua Calotropis gigantea Mimusops elengi Madhuca longifolia Wrightia tinctoria Decalepis hamiltonii Angelica glauca Garcinia xanthochymus Terminalia chebula

Insect pest Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabr.) Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabr.) Papilio spp. Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabr.), Alcidodes crinalifer (Marshall), Condica conducta (Walker) and C. albigutta (Wileman) Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabr.) Spodoptera litura (Fabr.) Aphis nerii Boyer de Fonscolombe Saissetia oleae (Olivier) Agrotis flammetra (Fab.) Helicoverpa armigera Hubn., Pempheres affinis Fst., Diacrisia obliqua Walk., Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) and Mythimna separata Walk Agrotis flammatra Schf. and Gonocephalum sp. Papilio machaon Linn. and Hyadaphis coriandri Das. Myllocerus lartivirens Marshall, Helopeltis antonii Sign. Nysius ericae (Schilling), Plusia orichalcea (F.), Frankliniella sp. and Dolycoris indicus Stal. Danaus plexippus Linn. Pulvinaria psidii Maskell and Coccus viridis Green Pulvinaria psidii Maskell and Coccus viridis Green Pulvinaria psidii Maskell and Coccus viridis Green Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fabr.) Paradasynus rostratus (Distant) Ichocrocis sp.

Reference Murali Baskaran, R. K., Rajavel, D. S., Shanthi, M., Kumar, S., Suresh, K., & Senthilkumaran, S. (2009). Field evaluation of botanicals and fish oil rosin soap for the management of major pests of senna. In S. Ignacimuthu & B. V. David (Eds.), Ecofriendly insect pest management (pp. 184–189). Elite Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.. 333.

Further Reading Gahukar, R. (2017). Pest and disease management in important medicinal plants in India: A review. Nfs Journal. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nfs.2017.02.001 Jhansi Rani, B., & Sridhar, V. (2005). Record of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) and their natural enemies on some medicinal and aromatic plants. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystem, 11(1), 71–73.

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Joshi, K. C., Meshram, P. B. S., Kiran, S., Humne, U., & Kharkwal, G. K. (1992). Insect pests of some medicinal plants in Madhya Pradesh. Indian Journal of Forestry, 15, 17–26. Kumar, H. R. (2007). Survey of pests of medicinal plants with special reference to biology and management of Epilachna beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata Fabricius (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on Ashwagandha. M.Sc. (Agri) Thesis, Univ. Agric. Sci., Dharwad (India). Mani, M., & Krishnamoorthy, A. (2007). Biological suppression of the aphid Scoutedenia emblica (Patel & Kulkarni) on gooseberry Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Entomon, 32, 227–229. Mathur, A. C., & Anand, M. (1964). Pests of medicinal plants: entomology in India (pp. 271–277). Entomological Social of India. Mathur, A. C., & Srivastava, J. B. (1967). Record of insect pests of medicinal and aromatic plants in Jammu and Kashmir. Indian Forester, 93, 663–671. Murali Baskaran, R. K., Rajavel, D. S., Shanthi, M., Suresh, K., & Kumar, S. (2007). Insect diversity and damage potential in medicinal plants ecosystem. Insect Environment, 13(2), 76–79. Muralibaskaran, R. K., Rajavel, D. S., & Suresh, K. (2009). Yield loss by major insect pests in Ashwagandha. Insect Environment, 14, 149–151. Nigam, K. B., & Kandalkar, V. S. (1995). Ashwagandha. In K. L. Chandha & R. Gupta (Eds.), Advances in horticulture (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants) (Vol. 11, pp. 237–344). Malhotra Publishing House. Rajput, S. (2005). Insect pest scenario of major medicinal and aromatic plants with their succession and biology of leaf roller (Udaspes folus Cr.) on wild ginger (Asaram condence Rosc) Msc. (Ag.)Thesis, Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Raipur, p. 67. Ramanna, D., Kumar, P., & Basavana Goud, K. (2010). Pest complex of medicinal plants. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 23(1), 197–199. Sarma, S., Senthilkumar, N., & Satyam, K. R. (2008). Insect pests of medicinal and aromatic plants and their management: an overview. Indian Forester, 134(1), 105–119. Sharma, P. C., Kumar, A., Mehta, P. K., & Singh, R. (2014). Survey studies on insect pests associated with important medicinal plants in Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Scientific Research and Technology, 2(4), 2–7. Singh, V., & Singh, S. (2009). Coccid pest of flower and medicinal crops in Tamil Nadu. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 26(1), 46–53. Suchithra Kumari, M. H., Srinivas, M. P., Hanumatharaya, L., & Revannavar, R. (2018). A review on integrated pest management in medicinal and aromatic plants in India. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, SP3, 220–224. Suganthy, M., & Vijayakumar, R. M. (2013). Insect pests of medicinal and aromatic crops and their management (Tamil) (p. 95). A.E. Publications. ISBN: 93-81972-20-6. Usha Rani, B., & Kalyanasundaram, M. (2005). Insect pests of senna (Cassia angustifolia) and their management. Indian Journal of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 8(1), 7–9. Verma, J. S. (2006). Insect pest problem in medicinal plants—A review. Agricultural Reviews, 27(2), 130–136.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants (Basil, Davana, Jasmine, Lemongrass, Marjoram, Mint, Patchouli, Rosemary, Sage and Thyme) M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Abstract Pests of aromatic plants, namely, Ocimum spp., Artemisia pallens, Jasminum spp., Cymbopogon citratus, Origanum majorana, Mentha sp., Pogostemon cablin, Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis and Thymus sp., and their management practices are discussed.

1 Basil/Tulsi (Ocimum spp.) 1.1 1.1.1

Aphids: Aphis affinis Del Guercio and Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Aphis affinis

Small, dark grey-green to almost black aphids are usually clustered on stem apices and tender upper leaves and shoots. The aphids are dusted with light wax powder with clear inter-segmental lines. These aphids suck sap from tender leaves resulting in weakening and early wilting of the plants. Infested leaves show leaf chlorosis. Withering and premature dropping of leaves finally result in death of the plant.

M. Suganthy (*) Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, India M. Mani ICAR-Indian institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_55

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Aphis affinis

1.1.2

Aphis gossypii

Aphis gossypii

Adults are dark green, almost black. Nymphs are light green mottled with darker green, colonized on tender shoots, leaves and inflorescence. They damage plants by sucking sap resulting in yellowing and deformation of leaves. Attacked buds and flowers drop off. Management of aphids: Management involves with spraying of neem oil (3%) or pongamia oil (3%) or dimethoate at 2 ml/L or imidacloprid at 0.3 ml/L.

1.2

Whitefly: Dialeurodes sp. (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

White, elongated eggs are laid singly on the lower side of leaves. Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves causing curling, withering and drying of leaves. Sooty mould develops on heavily infested leaves. Nymphs and adults suck sap from leaves causing curling, withering and development of sooty mould resulting in leaf drop. Management involves spraying of neem oil 3% or neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) 5%.

1.3

Tingid Bug: Monanthia globulifera Walker (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

Spiny, black-coloured nymphs and lace-winged adults suck sap from the lower side of leaves resulting in yellowing, curling and drying of infested parts. Management involves spraying of neem or pongamia oil 3% that causes considerable mortality of the bugs.

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2 Davana (Artemisia pallens) 2.1

False Chinch Bugs (Seed Bugs): Nysius ericae (Schilling) (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae)

Management involves with the collection and destruction of small bugs found mainly at the flowering stage of the crop. The bugs suck the sap from leaves resulting in yellowing and drying of leaves.

Nysius ericae

2.2

Thysanoplusia orichalcea

Semilooper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fab.) (Hemiptera: Noctuidae)

Larvae feed voraciously on leaves and cause defoliation of the plants. Eggs are laid on the lower surface of leaves. The pest infests the crop throughout the year. It has four overlapping generations, and the life cycle is completed in 27–38 days. Management involves the collection and destruction of grown-up larvae and spraying of malathion 0.1%.

3 Jasmine (Jasminum spp.) 3.1

Jasmine Budworm: Hendecasis duplifascialis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Biology: The eggs are laid on young growing buds. Eggs are round, white in colour and fastened to flower buds. Eggs hatch in 4–5 days. There are five larval instars. The caterpillar is green with a black head and bores into immature buds. Pupation takes place in the soil. The mean duration of egg, larval, pre-pupal and pupal stages of budworm lasted for 4.4, 13.7, 2.5 and 10.1 days, respectively. The total life cycle

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was completed in 25–30 days. Adults are small white moth with black wavy lines on hind wings and abdomen. Damage: It causes damage to buds by making holes and feeding on inner contents leading to considerable flower loss. Caterpillars cause damage to an extent of 40–50%, which eventually reflects on the quality of the flowers and yield loss up to 30–70%. A single caterpillar attacks five to ten buds and leaves behind faecal matter entangled in silken strands. Management involves collection and destruction of the damaged buds with larvae, using light trap to attract and kill the adult moths and proper pruning and hygienic maintenance of bushes. Sprays of cypermethrin 0.05%, deltamethrin 0.0015% or methomyl or etofenprox or lambda-cyhalothrin 0.05%, malathion 0.10%, profenophos 0.05%, carbosulfan (0.05%) and fipronil (0.01%) provide effective control of the budworm. Spraying of neem cake extract or neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil 3% or Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki (2 g/L) also helps to reduce the borer population.

Adult

3.2

Caterpillar

Flower damage

Leaf Webworm: Nausinoe geometralis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Female moth lays eggs in one or two rows near the midrib on the lower surface of the leaf. Eggs are oval and are light yellowish in colour. Eggs hatch in 4 days. There are five larval instars completing in13–15 days. Larva is light greenish with blackish markings on the head. Pupation takes place in the webbing made by silken threads in between the twigs and excreta present within the webbings. Pupal period is 12–14 days. Adult is a medium-sized moth having light brownish wings with white spots.

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Adult

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Larval feeding

Damage: Immediately after hatching from egg, neonate larva began to scrape the leaf. Later, the caterpillar webs the leaves and branches, and skeletonize the leaves. The silken threads are seen as a web on the surface of the leaves. It is also found damaging the flower buds. Management involves collection and destruction of the damaged buds and use of light traps to attract and kill the adult moths. Spraying of quinalphos 0.05%, fenvalerate 0.01%, neem seed kernel extract 5% and malathion 0.10% is effective against the webber.

3.3

Gallery Worm: Elasmopalpus jasminophagus Hampson (Lepidoptera: Phycitidae)

The caterpillar in the early instars feeds inside the buds. The greenish larva with a red head and prothorax and lateral brown streaks on the body webs together the terminal leaves, shoots and flower head and feeds on them. Faecal matter can be seen attached to the silken web.

Caterpillar feeding

Adult

Pupation takes place in the web itself. The caterpillars are green with a red colour head and lateral brown streaks on the body. Adults are small with dark grey wings and body. Management involves collection and destruction of damaged buds along with silken tunnels, proper pruning and hygienic maintenance of bushes, using light traps to attract and kill the adult moths and spraying with NSKE 5% or malathion

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0.1%. Sprays with cypermethrin 0.05%, lambda-cyhalothrin 0.05%, deltamethrin 0.0015% and acephate 0.1% provide effective control of the budworm. Spraying of neem cake extract or neem seed kernel extract 5% or neem oil 3% is found effective against the pest.

3.4

Blossom Midge: Contarinia maculipennis Felt. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

This midge attacks J. sambac and J. auriculatum petals showing signs of purple discoloration 4–5 days after oviposition. Eggs are deposited in masses by the adult female into the open tips of flower buds. They are white to cream coloured, invisible to the naked eye, and hatch within 24 h into maggots that move into the bud. Maggots are dull white in colour and feed on inner one to four petals, anthers and stigma. Mature yellowish orange maggots fall down to the soil and pupate. Pupation occurs in a thin papery white case in the top layer of the soil. The egg, larval and pupal period lasted for 1–2, 4–5 and 7–8 days, respectively. The life cycle is completed in 13–18 days. The damage goes up to 24%. Management involves soil application of carbofuran 40 g/bush or foliar application of cypermethrin 0.005% a. i./ha, triazophos 0.06%, profenophos 0.05%, neem oil 3% mixed with Teepol 0.005%, fipronil 1 kg a.i./ha, carbosulfan 1 kg a.i./ha and cartap hydrochloride 0.5 kg a.i./ha.

Midge infested flower

3.5

Maggot

Adult

Shoot Borer: Sycophila sp. (Hymenoptera: Agaonidae)

The pest is observed on J. grandiflorum. Larvae tunnel inside shoots and cause a series of grooves and pupate inside the shoots. Series of holes are seen on damaged shoots. Management involves application of carbofuran granules at 1.0 kg a.i./ha or spraying of chlorpyriphos at 0.05% twice at fortnightly intervals for checking shoot borer attack.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

3.6

1311

Leaf Rollers: Palpita (=Glyphodes) unionalis (Hub.) and Palpita (Glyphodes) celsalis (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Eggs are usually placed on young leaves. Incubation period lasted for 3 days. Caterpillars are green in colour. Caterpillar rolls the leaves and feeds on them. The larval period ranges from 10 to 13 days, and pupal period is completed in 7–10 days. Adults are white moths with brown lines along the costal margin of forewings. Management involves collection and destruction of damaged buds with larvae and using light trap to attract and kill the adult moths. Spraying NSKE 5% or malathion 0.10% and proper pruning and hygienic maintenance of bushes are recommended.

Caterpillar

3.7

Pupa

Adult

Jasmine Bug: Antestia cruciata (Fabricius) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Nymphs and adults suck the sap from tender shoots and buds, preventing flower formation. Nymph is dark brownish black and round. Adult is dark brown coloured, shield shape, with orange and white marking on wings.

3.8

Thrips: Thrips orientalis (Bagnall) (Isothrips orientalis Bagnall), Haplothrips ganglbaueri Schmutz and Thrips hawaiiensis (Morgan) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Nymphs and adults attack the flowers. Brown streaks are seen on flower petals. Management involves spraying of NSKE 5% or dimethoate 0.05% or methyl demeton 0.05%.

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3.9

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Lacewing Bug: Corythauma ayyari (Drake) (Tingidae: Hemiptera)

It is sometimes serious on jasmine. The nymphs and adults suck the sap and cause yellowing of leaves which ultimately dry and drop off. Adults are having transparent lace-like wings. Management involves collection and destruction of the infested leaves along with life stages of insects and spraying of NSKE 5% or dimethoate 30 EC 2 ml/L.

3.10

Whiteflies: Dialeurodes kirkaldyi (Kotinsky), Aleurotrachelus spp. and Bemisia giffardi Kotinsky (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Nymphs, pupae and adults in large numbers are found covering almost the entire undersurface of the leaves. Hundreds of eggs in groups were found laid along the veins and midrib of leaves, and the honeydew excretion of the insect caused development of sooty mould on the leaves. Infested leaves turn yellow. Due to the drain of sap, infested leaves shed prematurely impairing the vigour of the plant. Management involves collection and destruction of the infested leaves along with life stages of insects and spraying of NSKE 5% or dimethoate 0.05% or triazophos that are found effective in controlling whiteflies.

3.11

Jasmine Eriophyid Mite: Aceria jasmini Channabasavanna (Acarina: Eriophidae)

Female is cylindrical vermiform with two pairs of legs. The typical symptoms include felt-like hairy outgrowth (erineum) on the surface of the leaves, tender stem and flower buds. The growth of plant becomes stunted and flower production is also affected. Management involves removal and destruction of the affected parts and spraying of wettable sulphur 0.2%, triazophos 0.06% or ethion 0.05%, fenpropathrin 0.01% or spray neem oil (3%) or pongamia oil (3%) with the onset of monsoon at 14 days intervals; repeating 2–3 times provides effective control of A. jasmine.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

3.12

1313

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus sp. (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Nymphs and adults are red in colour. Spider mites are seen on the undersurface of leaves and covered with silken webs. Due to feeding of mites, yellow spots appear on the upper surface and turn reddish. Mite population was maximum (14.65 mites/ leaf) during March –June. Management involves removal and destruction of the affected parts and spraying with wettable sulphur 0.2% or abamectin.

4 Rose Roses are highly susceptible to pest infestation, viz., thrips, Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood and Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), aphids, Macrosiphum roseae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae), scale insects, Aonidiella aurantii (Mask.) and Lindingaspis rossi (Mask.) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), bud borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), chafer beetles, Adoretus spp., Apogamia spp. and Anomala orientalis (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersus Russell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) and termite, Microtermes obesi (Holmgren) (Isoptera: Termitidae). Application of neem oil or pongamia oil 3% or NSKE (5%) or 1500 ppm azadirachtin (1%) along with insecticides like dimethoate offers effective control of the sucking pests. Spray application of 5% neem seed kernel extract is known to reduce the population of aphids. Newer molecules fipronil 5 SC at 0.15%, imidacloprid 17.8 SL at 0.02%, tolfenpyrad 15 EC at 0.1%, diafenthiuron 50 WP at 0.12%, spinosad 0.0015%, acetamiprid 0.006% are effective against insect pests of rose. Deep ploughing; spraying of neem seed kernel extract at 5%; spraying of chlorpyriphos at 0.05% during evening; application of phorate in soil at 1.0 kg a.i./ha are effective in the management of grubs. Management of caterpillar pests involves collection and destruction of leaves with egg masses and early instars followed by the sprays of quinalphos/chlorpyriphos 0.05%. Spraying of neem oil 3% or neem seed kernel extract 5% effectively checks damage. Application of Bacillus thuringiensis dust or spray also provides good control of these pests.

5 Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) 5.1

Shoot Borer: Chilo infuscatellus Snellen (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

It is a serious pest of lemongrass in India. The female moth lays eggs in batches on the lower side of the leaves. Larva cuts a hole on stem near the ground level and

1314

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

feeds inside the shoot. Attacked shoots wilt and dry consequently. Management involves cutting and burning of dried up shoots and earthing up to a height of 25 cm around stem to prevent further attack, releasing Trichogramma chilonis at the rate of 75,000/ha during the egg laying period and application of carbofuran granules at 1.5 kg a.i./ha and spraying of chlorpyriphos or etofenprox 0.01% if necessary.

5.2

Spittle Bug: Clovia bipunctata Kirby (Hemiptera: Cercopidae)

This is a commonly found pest on lemongrass. Eggs are deposited on leaves. Nymphs secrete frothy spittle mass and remain inside. They cause damage by sucking sap resulting in leaf crinkling and yellowing of leaves. Management involves collection and destruction of leaves with spittle bugs, a strong jet of water spray, use of insecticidal soap or horticultural oil with proper coverage, spraying of quinalphos 0.05% or soil drenching with systemic insecticides like imidacloprid 0.3 ml/L.

5.3

5.3.1

Aphids: Macrosiphum miscanthi (Takahashi) and Sitobion miscanthi (Takahashi) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Macrosiphum miscanthi

Infestation of the aphid is mainly found on tender growing shoots. They suck the sap and cause deformation and stunted growth of the attacked plant.

5.3.2

Sitobion miscanthi

The nymphs suck sap from leaves and tender shoots resulting in yellowing of leaves and shrivelling of tender parts. Management: It involves two sprays of pongamia oil 3% or neem oil 3% at 10 days interval that causes considerable mortality of the pest and if necessary, spray application of dimethoate at 0.05% will be effective.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

5.4

1315

Termite: Microtermes obesi Holmgren (Isoptera: Termitidae)

Termite infestation is severe during summer when dry conditions prevail. Termites damage roots and stem portion by building earthen galleries and feeding inside. Attacked plants show wilting and drying of leaves followed by death of the plant. Management involves frequent irrigation, scraping the earthen galleries on stems and spraying neem oil 3% or malathion or chlorpyriphos at 0.1% or drenching the soil with chlorpyriphos at 0.1% after racking up to kill soil-inhabiting stages.

5.5

Cycad Scale: Duplachionaspis divergens (Green) (¼Greenaspis divergens Borchsenius) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

It sucks the sap from the leaves and shoots.

6 Marjoram (Origanum majorana) 6.1

Melon Aphid: Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Aphids are most often associated with and tended by one of several ant species. Aphids cause stunting and slow growth of plants and leaf curling and deformity if aphid population is large. The sugary waste product that is excreted from aphid’s abdomen provides a substrate for the growth of saprophytic fungus that causes sooty mould. If ants and aphids can be controlled, the sooty mould usually disappears after a short time. Management involves spraying of insecticidal soap or neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

6.2

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

White spots are developed on the feeding sites. In severe cases, the whole leaf become white, and further drying and wilting take place. Nymphs and adults are red in colour. Eggs are laid on the ventral surface of the leaves and are whitish and spherical in shape. Mites can be managed by foliar application of wettable sulphur at 2 g/L.

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M. Suganthy and M. Mani

7 Mint (Mentha sp.) 7.1

Cutworms: Agrotis flammatra Fabricius and Peridroma saucia (Hubner) and Gram (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The larvae feed on all portions of the plant but are usually found under the canopy rather than on the top of the plants. Peridroma saucia: The mature larva is about 2 inches and varies from pale grey to dull brown. Females lay about 500 eggs on the undersurface of the leaves over a period of 2–3 weeks. They feed for 3–4 weeks and are fully grown to 1½ to 200 long. Cutworm larvae have six growth stages, or instars. The final instar lasts for about 10 days. Some species overwinter as pupa in the soil, while some continue to develop through winter. Duration of the pupal stage is normally 12–20 days. The adult pre-oviposition period is about 7–10 days. Adult period varies around 10–20 days.

Adult

Caterpillar

Dichagyris (Agrotis) flammatra: Moths of A. flammatra are much bigger in size compared to other cutworm species, with an average wing span of 56 mm. The forewings have characteristic markings and smoky patches, with two-third of the proximal areas being pale. On each wing, there is a semicircular spot below the pale area and a greyish brown, kidney-shaped spot towards the apical area. The caterpillars are dark grey or dull green, measuring 40–50 mm; the moths lay eggs on the undersides of leaves, on shoots, stems or in the soil. A female lays up to 980 eggs during her lifespan of 7–13 days. The eggs hatch in 4–7 days during summer and in 10–14 days during winter. Larvae complete their development in 4–7 weeks. The pupal stage lasts 12–15 days. The life cycle is completed in 7–11 weeks. Management: Soil treatment with phorate 10 g before planting.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

1317

Dichagyris flammatra

Caterpillar

7.2

Adult

Mint Flea Beetle: Longitarsus ferrugineus (Foudras) (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera)

The young larvae feed first on the fine hair roots and then tunnel into stolons, rhizomes and underground parts of the stem, where they continue to feed for about 4–5 weeks. Flea beetle larvae are very small, slender and worm like. A full-grown larva is only about 1/4 inch long. Larvae are white, with a shiny, pale brown head and three pairs of legs. Adults are small, about 1/8 inch long, elongate-oval beetles, with brownish yellow body, darker elytra, some with reddish brown heads. Flea beetles overwinter as eggs in the soil near the crown of mint plants. Eggs hatch early April through early May. Larval development is completed during late May and early June. Pupation is in the soil near the rhizomes. The pupal stage is completed in about 3–4 weeks.

Adult

Grub

Leaf damage

1318

7.3

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Aphids: Myzus persicae Sulzer and Aphis affinis Del (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Myzus persicae: Aphids are sucking insects that suck the sap by thrusting a long beak into the plant tissue. They withdraw great quantities of sap, some of which they excrete as “honeydew.” The honeydew makes the plant sticky. Sooty mould often develops with the honeydew makes the stem and foliage black. In temperate regions, these aphids overwinter during the egg stage. Nymphs are pale yellowish green in colour with three dark lines on the back of the abdomen that are not present on the adult. Nymphal development is completed in 6–11 days. The wingless adult aphids vary in colour from green to pale yellow. Winged adults are green with black or dark brown markings on their abdomens. Adult females give birth to approximately 50 nymphs. Aphis affinis: This pest is active during March–April when temperatures are low, and about 15 generations per year are reported on this crop. Colonies of the aphids are found on tender shoots and lower side of leaves. They suck the sap resulting in discolouration, deformation and falling of leaves. Affected shoots become stunted in growth and wither.

Myzus persicae

Aphis affinis

Management of aphids: It involves spraying of neem oil 3% or pongamia kernel extract 5% or dimethoate at 0.05% or imidacloprid at 0.3 ml/L.

7.4

Red Pumpkin Beetles: Raphidopalpa (Aulacophora) foveicollis Lucas and Aulacophora intermedia Jacoby (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Adults feed on growing leaves and buds. They bite holes on leaves. Grubs after hatching feed on the roots of the plants below the soil surface. Brownish elongate eggs are laid in the soil and each female may lay about 150–300 eggs singly or in groups of 8–9 near the base of the plants.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

R foevicollis

1319

A. intermedia

Egg period is 8–15 days. Grubs are creamy white with darker oval shield at the back. Grub period is 12–18 days. Pupation takes place in an earthen cocoon. Pupal period is 10–15 days. Adult: Raphidopalpa foveicollis has reddish brown elytra; A. intermedia has blue-black elytra; and A. cincta has grey elytra with black border. Total life cycle takes 27–56 days. There are five to eight generations/year. Spraying malathion at 1 ml/L of water is useful to control the pumpkin beetles.

7.5

Hairy Caterpillar: Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Young larvae feed gregariously mostly on the undersurface of the leaves. They feed on leaves and cause defoliation. In severe cases, only stems are left behind. Eggs are laid in clusters of 50–100 on the lower side of the leaves. Larva is orange coloured with broad transverse band with tufts of yellow hairs that are dark at both ends. Pupa: Forms a thin silken cocoon by interwoven shed hairs of the larvae. Adult is crimsoncoloured moth with black dots and a red abdomen and pinkish wings with numerous black spots. Application of malathion at 1.7 ml/L of water is useful to control the hairy caterpillars.

Caterpillar

Adult

1320

7.6

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Citrus Mealybug: Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

The bugs feed by sucking on the plant juices of new tender leaves; the leaves wither and turn yellow. They secrete a sticky substance called honeydew which attracts ants and reduces plant respiration. Eggs are deposited as white cottony masses called ovisacs. The glossy, light yellow eggs are oval. Nymphs emerge from the ovisacs and typically settle along midribs and veins on the underside of leaves and young twigs. Wax and honeydew secreted by crawlers are visible indicators of infestations. The nymphs are yellow, oval shaped with red eyes and covered with white waxy particles. The female nymphs resemble the adult female in appearance, while male nymphs are more elongated. Female nymphs have four instars. The females are wingless, white to light brown in colour, with brown legs and antennae. The body of adult females is coated with white wax and bears a characteristic faint grey stripe along their dorsal side.

P.citri on mint leaf

7.7

P.citri

Leaf Webber: Orphanostigma (Syngamia) abruptalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Infestation of leaf webber is severe during May–June and August–October. The female lays eggs at night, generally singly on the lower surface of tender leaves. Larvae web leaves together and feed on them resulting in skeletonization and drying of damaged leaves. Pupation takes place inside the web. The life cycle is completed in 31–43 days in different months. Management involves clipping and destruction of webs that reduces webber population and spraying of quinalphos 0.05% or neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

7.8

1321

Leaf-Eating Caterpillars: Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) and Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

They defoliate the plants. Management involves application NPV or Bacillus thuringiensis.

7.9

Gram Caterpillar: Helicoverpa armigera (Hub.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Eggs are laid singly on tender foliage. Larvae feed on leaves and cause defoliation. Management involves application of NPV or Bacillus thuringiensis.

7.10

Semilooper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The pest infests the crop round the year. It has overlapping generations and the life cycle is completed in 27–38 days. Eggs are found on the lower surface of leaves. First and second instar larvae cause injury by scraping the lower surface of leaves, while third and fourth instar larvae feed voraciously along the side of leaves. Management involves spraying of Bt 2g/L or quinalphos at 0.05% or neem oil 3% or neem seed kernel extract 5%.

7.11

Two Spotted Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves. Severe infestation leads to webbing and defoliation. Each female lays 10–20 eggs per day, 80–120 altogether during its lifetime of up to 4 weeks. They are mostly attached to the silk webbing. The six-legged larvae hatch after 3–15 days. They moult three times within 4–5 days, towards protonymph, then deutonymph and at last adult. These instars all have eight legs. Before each moult, there is a short quiescent stage. At favourable conditions, the life cycle can be completed in about 1–2 weeks, including a pre-oviposition period of 1–2 days. Often a change towards hot and dry weather leads to a very rapid increase of population density.

1322

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Stippling on leaves

Webbing and defoliation

Tetranychus urticae

7.12

Nematodes

7.12.1

Root Lesion Nematode: Pratylenchus penetrans Cobb (Nematoda: Pratylenchidae)

Root lesion nematodes are migratory endoparasites. Females lay about one to two eggs/day for about 35 days, with a maximum of 68 eggs laid by one female. Eggs are laid singly or in clusters in both soil and roots. Males are required for reproduction by P. penetrans. Root lesion nematodes prefer to invade roots 3–13 mm behind the root tip with some preference for the dense root-hair zone. Young feeder roots are generally selected, with a reduction in attack as tissues age. Feeding by P. penetrans produces lesions on roots, which initially appear as water-soaked areas at the root surface. These sites later become yellow and eventually develop dark brown centres. Discreet brown lesions of necrosis usually appear in 2–4 weeks. Field symptoms of damage generally occur as circular to irregular patches, perhaps 30–150 ft. in diameter that have thin stand and stunted plants. Mint often has a reddish colour. The presence of root lesion nematodes can be detected by looking for reddish brown lesions on roots.

7.12.2

Pin Nematodes: Paratylenchus hamatus Thorne and Allen, P. microdorus Andrassy, P. macrophallus (de Man) Goodey (Nematoda: Tylenchulidae)

They are also known to infect the roots of mint.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

1323

8 Patchouli (Pogostemon cablin) 8.1

Leaf Webber: Anania profusalis (Warren) (Pronomis profusalis (Warren)) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Caterpillars feed extensively on tender foliage leaving only veins and cause defoliation.

8.2

Leaf Roller: Psara stullalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

The larvae characteristically roll the leaves and feed inside which causes the affected leaves to become brown and dry up.

8.3

Patchouli Leaf Webber: Orphanostigma (=Syngamia) abruptalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Infestation of leaf webber is severe during May–June and August–October. The female lays eggs at night, generally singly on the lower surface of tender leaves. Larvae web leaves together and feed on them resulting in skeletonization and drying of damaged leaves. Management of caterpillar pests: Damage by these caterpillars affects the growth of the plant. Clipping and burning of webs and rolled leaves bring down the population. Spraying of neem seed kernel extract (5%) or neem oil (3%) or pongamia oil (3%) with Teepol (0.05%) at the initial stage of infestation followed by quinalphos at 0.05% if necessary.

8.4

Green Stink Bug: Nezara viridula (Linnaeus) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

The green bugs suck sap from tender leaves and shoots. Stunted growth of the plant and deformed leaves are the symptoms of damage. Management involves collection and destruction of egg masses and spraying of malathion at 0.1%.

1324

8.5

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Mirid Bug: Pachypeltis sp. (Hemiptera: Miridae)

The nymphs and adults feed on tender leaves and shoots resulting in necrotic interveinal patches that become punctures. In cases of severe infestation, reduction in herbage yield was observed. Management involves spraying of neem oil 3% or NSKE 5%.

8.6

Scale Insect: Cerococcus hibisci Green (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

They congregate and suck the sap from tender shoots resulting in drooping of the plants.

8.7

Other Pests

Minor pests on patchouli include Pachyzancla aegrotalis Zeller, Pachyzancla licarsisalis (Walker) and Pronomis profusalis (Warren) (Crambidae), Kolla ceylonica (Melichar) and Nirvana pallida Melichar (Cicadellidae) and Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) (Tenuipalpidae).

9 Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 9.1

Whitefly: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Nymphs are greenish yellow and oval shaped found along with puparia on the undersurface of leaves. Adults are minute with yellow body covered with white waxy bloom. Eggs are laid on the undersurface of the leaves. Total life cycle ranges from 18 to 22 days. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap and cause chlorotic spots on the leaves. Damage includes leaf discoloration (browning, yellowing, necrosis), leaf distortion (curling, crinkling, stunting), slow and unthrifty plant growth and premature defoliation. Use of strong jet of water will wash off aphid colonies.

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

9.2

1325

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Symptoms include yellowish white speckles, blotches, yellow bleaching of leaves and webbing on the under surface of leaves. The adult female lives 2–4 weeks and is capable of laying several hundred eggs during its life. It is oval in shape and brown or orange-red in colour. The eggs are globular and attached to fine silk webbing and hatch in 3 days. The duration from egg to adult varies greatly depending on temperature.

9.3

Other Insect Pests

They include the aphids, rosemary beetle, scale insects, psyllids, flea beetle, leaf hoppers and spittlebugs.

10 10.1

Sage (Salvia officinalis) Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

White spots are developed on the feeding sites. In severe cases, the whole leaf became white, and further drying and wilting take place. Nymphs and adults are red in colour. Eggs are laid on the ventral surface of the leaves and are whitish and spherical in shape. Management involves foliar application of wettable sulphur at 2 g/L.

11 11.1

Thyme (Thymus sp.) Cotton Aphid: Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

They are found in cluster on the tender shoots, flowers and buds and suck the sap. Tender shoots wither, buds fall prematurely and flowers show fading. Management involves spraying of neem oil (3%) or pongamia oil (3%) or dimethoate at 2 ml/L or imidacloprid at 0.3 ml/L.

1326

11.2

M. Suganthy and M. Mani

Red Spider Mite: Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae)

Mites are reddish brown. Tiny spots on the upper leaf surface and the occurrence of webs are signs of their presence. Sucking of sap from the leaf tissue by mites results in characteristic white to pale yellow speckling, usually between the main veins. Management involves foliar application of horticultural oil and soaps or wettable sulphur 2 g/L.

12

Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia)

A total of twelve arthropods were recorded as pests of vanilla. Almost all parts of vanilla plant, viz. stem, leaf, flower, bud, roots, pods, etc. were found to be attacked. Among the pests, white grubs are found to cause considerable damage followed by vanilla bug and shoot and leaf webber, while others were not at the economic level (Vanitha et al., 2011.)

12.1

White Grubs: Holotrichia serrata Fab. and H. rufoflava Brenske (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Two species of white grubs Holotrichia serrata and Holotrichia rufoflava are known to damage vanilla. H. serrata is the predominant one. Grubs of second and third instars consume the vanilla roots as well as the coiled stem found underneath the soil. Voracious feeding by the grubs resulted in the death of even well-established mature plants. Under severe infestation, the root system was completely lost, and the stem was cut at the site of feeding. As a result, the plants start developing dull ashy green leaves followed by yellowing, drooping and drying of leaves, and at last, the plants completely dry and die after 10–15 days of severe feeding. Drenching the spoil with chlorpyriphos is useful to reduce the incidence of white grubs.

12.2

Vanilla Bug: Halyomorpha picus Fab. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Vanilla bug, Halyomorpha picus Fab. is capable of causing damage to the vines. Vanilla bugs are variable in colour and size, dorsally greyish ochraceous or ochraceous or yellowish or reddish black, thickly and darkly punctate, head and anterior and lateral areas of pronotum marked with brownish spots, body beneath and legs pale yellowish, lateral areas punctate and lateral areas of head and sternum

Pests and Their Management in Aromatic Plants

1327

blackly punctate. Both nymphs and adults of the bug suck the sap from tender plant parts of vine, viz. shoot tips, tender leaves and inflorescence initials. Pin prick-like punctures were formed due to depletion of the sap and at later stage, necrosis and rotting were noticed. The affected shoot tips and inflorescence initials are rotten and dropped off within 3–5 days. The loss goes up to 40% only by vanilla bug in some parts of Kerala. Collection and destruction of egg mass help to reduce the incidence of vanilla bug.

12.3

Lepidopterous Caterpillars

12.3.1

The Shoot and Inflorescence Webber: Archips micaceana Walker (Tortricidae)

The larvae of the shoot and inflorescence webber were noticed mostly within the unopened shoot bud or in between the bud and the first leaf and sometimes in between the stem and the second leaf. The larva often forms webs and feed within by scrapping the epidermis of the leaves, which turn brown and appear scabby. The damaged leaves later become crinkled and malformed. The growth of the tender plants is affected due to severe feeding and as a result, plants become stunted. At later stages, the larvae scrape deeper towards inside, damaging the epidermis of the growing stem. Though the plant grows further, it breaks at the feeding site.

12.3.2

Hairy Caterpillars

The hairy caterpillars, viz. Euproctis scintillans Walker, E. bigutta and Pericallia ricini Fabricius and E. scintillans and E. bigutta are known to feed and damage vanilla. These caterpillars defoliate the tender leaves and the growing shoot tip both in the nursery and the main field.

12.3.3

Semilooper: Plusia aurifera (Noctuidae)

They are light greenish in colour. They are found feeding on tender leaves forming the web. Collection and destruction of the caterpillars help to reduce the incidence and damage.

12.4

Long Horned Grasshopper: Phaneroptera gracilis Burmeister (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae)

It makes ovipositional punctures in the lower stem region covered with mud. The affected tissues turn brown and found rotten. The infestation is found to spread from

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the lower region to the upper stem regions at the later period resulting in weakening of the plant. The incidence is severe during July to August and January to March, though found throughout the year.

12.5

Vanilla Weevil: Sipalus sp. (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae)

They are black-coloured weevils. Both the adult weevil and grub feed on vanilla, resulting in necrosis and rotting of the affected portion. While the adult weevils feed on vine and leaves, the grubs feed on the inner tissue of the vine by making tunnel. Collection and destruction of adults during November to December help to reduce the incidence of weevils.

12.6

Small Longicorn Beetle: Saula ferruginea Gerstaecker (Coleoptera: Endomychidae)

Adults cut through the leaf from the lower surface eating the entire leaf. Collection and destruction of adults and the use of malathion spray help to reduce the incidence of beetles.

12.7

Other Pests

The mirid bug, Helopeltis sp. is capable of causing intense damage to the vines. Apart from insects, seven species of molluscans are also found to be associated with vanilla in different vanillaries. Among the molluscan species, the giant African snail, Achatina fulica and the slug, Vaginulus sp. are the most voracious feeders. The feeding damage is observed in about 45% of the vanilla plants. Gastropods consumed the stem, leaves, beans and roots of plants making them amenable to sun scorch and to pathogenic attack. The main target of attack was the epidermis of the stem followed by the leaves, flowers and beans. Due to severe feeding by the giant African snail, the plant often cut off from the root and dried out at intense feeding sites. All the species of molluscans were observed to defoliate the plants, and the slugs besides defoliation fed on the vanilla roots. The slugs of the genus Mariaella are serious pests of the commercial vanilla crop and were endemic to the Western Ghats/Sri Lanka ranges. In addition, wild boars, Sus scrofa cristatus Wagner and elephants, Elephas maximus Blainville often visit the vanillaries because most of the vanillaries are located at the foot hills of mountains and forest areas. Elephants damage the crops by trampling, whereas, the wild boars damage the plants by digging through the soil, thus disturbing the more sensitive roots.

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Reference Vanitha, K., Karuppuchamy, P., & Sivasubramanian, P. (2011). Pests of Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) and their natural enemies in Tamil Nadu. India International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 3(4), 116–120.

Further Reading Butani, D. K. (1982). Insect pests of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum L) and their control. Pesticides, 16(12), 11–12. David, P. M. M., & Natarajan, S. (1998). Effect of insecticides on blossom midge – caused purple discolouration and drying of flower buds in Jasminum sambac cv. Gundumalli. Indian Perfumer, 32(4), 292–294. Mallikarjunappa, S., Misra, R. K., Mithyantha, M. S., & Sivasankaran, K. (1991). Bio-efficacy of pesticides against the eriophyid mite infesting jasmine. Current Research, 20(1), 242–243. Nalina, L., Suganthy, M., Meena, B., & Vijayakumar, R. M. (2013). Precision farming technologies for medicinal and aromatic plants (Tamil). A.E. Publications, Coimbatore., 111. (ISBN: 93-81972-18-4). Nelson, S. J., Venugopal, M. S., Janarthan, R., & Natarajan, S. (1993). Efficacy of certain plant products against jasmine budworm, Hendicasis duplifasialis Hmp. (Pyraustidae: Lepidoptera). Indian Perfumer, 37, 236–239. Premsagar, & Ramji. (1991). Life history of cabbage semilooper, Thysanoplusia orichalcea (Fab.) on Japanese mint in the Punjab. Indian Perfumer, 38(1), 23–25. Premsagar, & Singh, D. P. (1981). Chemical control of the aphid, Apis affinis Del (Homoptera; Aphididae), a pest of Japanese mint, Mentha arvensis Linn. in Punjab. Entomon, 6(1), 73–79. Regupathy, A., Vadivel, E., & Kulasekaran, M. (1979). Occurrence of leaf webber (Pachyzancla aegrotalis Zell.) on patchouli (Pogostemon patchouli Bentt) in lower Pulneys (Tamil Nadu). Indian Perfumer, 23(2), 131–132. Sandhu, G. S., & Shukla, G. K. (1984). Chemical control of jasminum leaf webworm. Pestology, 8(1), 17–19. Suchithra Kumari, M. H., Srinivas, M. P., Hanumatharaya, L., & Revannavar, R. (2018). A review on integrated pest management in medicinal and aromatic plants in India. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, SP3, 220–224. Suganthy, M., & Vijayakumar, R. M. (2013). Insect pests of medicinal and aromatic crops and their management (Tamil) (p. 95). A.E. Publications. ISBN: 93-81972-20-6. Usha Rani, V and Singh, UK. 2010. AESA BASED IPM Package. Mint. Directorate of Plant Protection. Quarantine and Storage. N. H. IV, Faridabad, Haryana. Retrieved from http://ppqs. gov.in/PDF/Revised%20IPM%20POP/Mint.pdf.

Pests and Their Management in Spices (Black Pepper, Cardamom, Ginger, Turmeric, Cinnamon, Clove, Nutmeg and Vanilla) S. Devasahayam, T. K. Jacob, Santhosh J. Eapen, and C. M. Senthil Kumar

Abstract Pests damaging major spice crops, namely, black pepper (Piper nigrum), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), turmeric (Curcuma longa) and tree spices (cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum), clove (Syzygium aromaticum), nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) in India, and their management are discussed.

1 Black Pepper (Piper nigrum L.) Nearly 60 species of insects are known to be associated with black pepper in India.

1.1

Pollu Beetle: Lanka ramakrishnai Prathapan and Viraktamath (Longitarsus nigripennis Mots.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

The pollu beetle is the most serious insect pest of black pepper and is mainly noticed in the plains and midlands in Kerala. Damage: The adult beetle feeds on tender leaves, shoots and spikes leading to the formation of small, irregular holes on the leaves and shoots and necrotic patches on the spikes. The larva bores into and feeds on tender berries making them hollow. Such hollow berries are called ‘pollu’ berries in Malayalam. The pest is reported to damage 30–40% of berries in endemic regions in Kerala (Premkumar, 1980; Devasahayam, 2000a). Biology: The adult beetle measures about 2.5  1.5 mm in size, with the head and thorax being yellowish brown and the abdomen brown; the elytra (forewings) is black. The femur of the hind legs is enlarged. The female beetle lays eggs on S. Devasahayam (*) · T. K. Jacob · S. J. Eapen · C. M. Senthil Kumar ICAR-Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Kerala, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_56

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terminal shoots, spikes and tender berries. Freshly laid eggs are oval and yellow, and they hatch into creamy white grubs in 5–8 days. There are three larval instars lasting for 30–40 days. Fully-grown grubs are creamy yellow and measure about 5.5 mm in length. Mature grubs pupate in the soil in earthen cocoons. The pupae measure about 3.0  1.5 mm in size, and pupal period lasts for 6–8 days. The entire life cycle is completed in 40–50 days, and many overlapping generations occur in a year. The pest population is higher during September to November in the field (Premkumar, 1980; Babu, 1994; Devasahayam, 2000a). Management: An integrated strategy involving regulation of shade in the plantation before the onset of the monsoon (April–May) and spraying quinalphos 0.05% during July and October or spraying quinalphos 0.05% during July followed by a neem-based insecticide (0.6%) during August, September and October is effective for the management of the pest (Devasahayam & Koya, 1999).

Adult

1.2 1.2.1

Grub

Berry damage

Leaf damage

Scale Insects Hard Scales (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

Various species of hard scale insects infest black pepper and they include, Lepidosaphes piperis (Green), Aspidiotus destructor Sign., Parlatoria pergandii Com., Pinnaspis aspidistrae Sign., P. marchali Ckll., P. strachani (Cooley), Chionaspis raricosa Green, Pseudaulacaspis sp., P. cockerelli (Cooley), Unaspis sp. and Anomalococcus indicus Ayyar. Among the hard scale insects, mussel scale Lepidosaphes piperis and coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor are serious pests especially at higher altitudes. Damage: The mussel scale encrusts stems of lateral branches, mature leaves and berries, leading to chlorotic spots, yellowing and drying of leaves and mortality of young vines. The coconut scale infests partly mature leaves and berries leading to chlorotic spots and yellowing of leaves (Koya et al., 1996). Biology: Adult female of mussel scale is elongated, mussel-shaped, dark brown and 3–4 mm in length. The eggs are white and are found under the scale cover of mature females. There are two larval stages in females, while males have two larval stages, pre-pupal and pupal stages. First and second larval stages last for 9–12 and 9–10 days, respectively. The pre-pupal and pupal stages last for 2–3 days each.

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Males are pale pink with a pair of wings and are short-lived (Koya et al., 1996). Adult female of coconut scale is circular, pale yellow and about 1 mm in diameter. The eggs are pale yellow and are found under the scale cover of mature females. First and second larval stages last for 9–12 and 9–10 days, respectively. In males, the pre-pupal and pupal stages last for 2–3 days each. Males have a pair of wings and are short-lived. Aspidiotus destructor is highly polyphagous and has been recorded on more than 20 host plants in India. Scale insect populations are higher during the postmonsoon and summer months in the field (Koya et al., 1996).

L.piperis

A.destructor

M.marsupialis

P.longivalvata

Management: Release of Chilocorus nigrita (Fab.) and C. circumdatus (Gyllen) (Coccinellidae) is beneficial in the suppression of scale insects. Natural products such as neem oil 0.3% and fish oil rosin 3% are promising when the infestation is mild. However, severe infestations are to be managed by spraying dimethoate 0.1% after clipping off severely infested branches after harvest of berries (Selvakumaran et al., 1996; Devasahayam & Koya, 1999).

1.2.2

Soft Scales (Hemiptera: Coccidae)

The soft scale Marsipococcus marsupialis (Green) (Coccidae) infests black pepper vines at higher elevations as a result of which the leaves turn yellow, wither and fall. When the infestation is severe, the infested vines wilt and dry. Adult females are oval and brown with a black border, whereas the juveniles are pale white. Protopulvinaria longivalvata (Green) is generally observed on mature leaves of older cuttings in the nursery. The pest infestation results in yellowing, wilting and sooty mould formation on affected plants. Adult females are pyriform and pale reddish brown (Koya et al., 1996).

1.3 1.3.1

Mealybugs Aerial Mealybugs: Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) and Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Aerial infestation of black pepper plants by mealybugs such as Ferrisia virgata and Planococcus citri is mainly seen on tender shoots and leaves in the nursery resulting

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in wilting of affected tissues. Ferrisia virgata and Pl. citri transmit piper yellow mottle virus which is a serious viral disease in Wayanad and Kodagu Districts in Kerala and Karnataka. Adult females of F. virgata are greyish white with two long waxy filaments at the posterior end and waxy hairs all over the body. Two dorsal dark stripes run longitudinally along its body. Adult females of Pl. citri are white to light pink, with short waxy filaments along the margins. Reproduction is by sexual and parthenogenetic means in both the species, but the latter is more common. Both the species are known to infest over 60 plant species including many economically important plants in India.

F.virgata

1.3.2

P.citri

D.brevipes

F.polysperes

Mealybug damage

Root Mealybugs: Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) and Formicococcus polysperes Williams (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Root mealybugs such as Planococcus sp., Pl. citri, Dysmicoccus brevipes and Formicococcus polysperes are serious pests in black pepper plantations at higher altitudes especially in vines infected with Phytophthora sp. and nematodes. These species infest roots and basal region of stems of black pepper vines in the field and rooted cuttings in the nursery resulting in defoliation, yellowing and wilting of leaves and lateral branches and mortality of vines (Devasahayam et al., 2009; Najitha, 2016). Adult females of D. brevipes are pale pink and convex. There are three instars, and males have not been recorded. Females are ovo-viviparous, and I, II and III instars last for 7–12, 4–6 and 5–9 days, respectively (Devasahayam & Jacob, 2015). Adult females of F. polysperes are oval and pink with short waxy filaments along the body margins. Females are ovo-viviparous, and the life cycle of female consists of three nymphal instars and that of male, two nymphal, a pre-pupal and pupal instars. Life cycle of male is competed in about 25 days and that of female in about 60 days. Males are winged with a pair of long waxy caudal filaments (Najitha, 2016). Management: Use of mealybug-free planting material, ploughing the interspaces in black pepper plantations and removal of weeds during summer help in lowering root mealybug populations. Soil drenching with botanicals such as tobacco extract (3%), custard apple seed extract (2%) and agro spray oil (3%) has great potential in bringing down the population of root mealybugs during initial stages of infestation. Release of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coccinellidae) and Leptomastix dactylopii

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(Encyrtidae) specific to Pl. citri is recommended for the management of aerial mealybugs. Dimethoate 0.05% is recommended against aerial mealybugs. Soil drenching with imidacloprid 0.0125%, acetamiprid 0.025%, chlorpyriphos 0.075% or carbosulfan 0.075% is effective against root mealybugs when the infestations are severe. Since ants disperse mealybug colonies in the field, ant control is important to achieve a satisfactory level of control of mealybugs in the field (Devasahayam & Jacob, 2015; Devasahayam et al., 2015).

1.4

Top Shoot Borer: Cydia hemidoxa Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The top shoot borer is a serious and widespread insect pest in young black pepper plantations. Damage: The larva bores into tender, terminal shoots and feeds on the internal contents resulting in decay and drying of infested shoots and affecting the growth of the vine. Biology: The adult is a small moth with a wingspan of 10–15 mm with yellow and orange-red forewings with black patches. There are five larval instars, and the larval period lasts for about 14 days. Fully-grown larvae are greyish green and measure 12–14 mm in length. Pupation occurs within the infested shoot, and the pupal period lasts for 8–10 days. The pest infestation is higher in the field during August–December when succulent shoots are available on the young vines (Visalakshi & Joseph, 1965).

Adult C. hemidoxa

Shoot damage

Infested shoot

Management: Spraying quinalphos 0.05% on tender terminal shoots of young vines during July to October is recommended for controlling the pest infestation (Devasahayam et al., 2015).

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Leaf Gall Thrips: Liothrips karnyi (Bagnall) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae)

The leaf gall thrips is a serious insect pest of black pepper especially on younger vines at higher altitudes. Damage: Leaf gall thrips infest tender leaves causing the leaf margins to curl downwards and inwards resulting in the formation of marginal tubular galls. The infested leaves later become crinkled and malformed. Growth retardation is observed in severely infested younger vines and rooted cuttings in the nursery (Devasahayam, 2000b). Biology: The adult is black with the distal segments of the antenna and legs light lemon yellow. The creamy white eggs are laid within the leaf galls, and they hatch in 5–8 days. Larvae are creamy white. The two larval, pre-pupal and two pupal stages last for 4–7, 4–7, 1–2, 2–3 and 2–3 days, respectively. The pest population is higher in the field during June–September when numerous tender leaves are produced on the vines (Devasahayam, 2000b).

Juvenile

Adult

Leaf damage

Management: Severe infestations in young vines and cuttings in nurseries can be managed by spraying dimethoate 0.05% during emergence of new flushes (Devasahayam et al., 2015).

1.6

Gall Midge: Cecidomyia malabarensis Felt. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae)

Maggots of the gall midge infest tender leaf petioles, leaf veins and shoots resulting in swelling of infested tissues. The pest infestation is more common in the nursery and on young vines in the field especially during the monsoon season. Fully grown maggots are pink and pupate in the soil. Spraying dimethoate 0.05% on tender shoots and leaves of young vines is effective for the management of the pest (Devasahayam et al., 2015).

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1.7

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Semilooper: Synegia sp. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

The larvae of the semilooper feed on tender shoots, leaves and spikes of young vines especially during the monsoon season. The larvae are stout and olive green. Spraying quinalphos 0.05% is effective for the management of the pest (Devasahayam et al., 2015).

1.8

Stem Borers: Diboma procera Pasc., Pterolophia annulata Chevr. and P. griseovaria Breuning (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Grubs of Diboma procera and Pterolophia spp. tunnel into stems around the collar region. The grubs prefer dead and drying tissues and are generally noticed in vines weakened by moisture stress and slow wilt disease. Amelioration of stress factors and pruning and destroying infested plant tissues help in reducing the pest infestation (Devasahayam, 2000a).

1.9

Root Knot Nematode: Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae) and Burrowing Nematode: (Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne) (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae)

Several plant parasitic nematodes are associated with black pepper vines in India among which root knot nematode and burrowing nematode are more serious and widely distributed in all black pepper areas. Damage: The root knot nematode penetrates growing root tips of the plants to feed resulting in the formation of elongated swellings and galls on the roots.

Nematode infested vine

Root damage by nematodes

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The leaves of infested plants turn yellow and droop, and the growth of the vine is also affected. The burrowing nematode causes necrotic lesions on the feeder roots resulting in foliar yellowing which become more pronounced during summer. Later the infected vines show defoliation and dieback leading to loss of vigour and finally death of the vine in 3–5 years. Though Radopholus similis and Meloidogyne incognita are primarily responsible for slow decline disease, fungi like Fusarium sp. and Phytophthora sp. are also associated with the disease (Ramana & Eapen, 2000). Management: Biocontrol agents like Pochonia chlamydosporia or Trichoderma harzianum should be applied at 50 g/vine (10 cfu/g) twice a year, during April–May and September–October. In areas severely infested with root knot nematodes, the resistant variety ‘Pournami’ may be planted (Devasahayam et al., 2015).

1.10

Other Insect Pests

The other insects infesting black pepper in India include Xenocatantops humilis (Serville) (Orthoptera: Acrididae), Amrasca devastans (Dist.) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Aleurocanthus piperis Mask., A. valparaiensis David and Subramaniam, Aleurodicus disperses Russell, Bemisia tabaci (Genn.) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), Disphinctus maesarum Kirk., Helopeltis antonii Signoret (Hemiptera: Miridae), Cyclopelta siccifolia Westw., Udonga montana (Dist.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), L. pallipes Karny, L. chavicae (Z.) (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), Holotrichia fissa Brenske (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Cylas formicarius F., Eugnathus curvus Faust., Myllocerus sp. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Tegyrius keralaensis Prathapan and Viraktamath, T. radhikae Prathapan and Viraktamath, Lanka sahyadriensis Prathapan and Viraktamath, Neculla pollinaria Baly., Pagria costatipennis Jacoby (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Latoia lepida Cram., Thosea sinensis Walk. (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae), Cricula trifenestrata Helf. (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), and Spodoptera litura F. (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) (Devasahayam, 2000a). The other species of aerial mealybugs recorded on black pepper include Pl. lilacinus Cockerell, Pl. minor (Maskell), Ps. longispinus (Targioni-Tozzetti), Ps. orchidicola Takahashi, Icerya sp. and I. aegyptiaca (Dgl.) (Pseudococcidae) (Devasahayam & Jacob, 2015).

2 Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) More than 50 insect species have been recorded on cardamom in India.

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2.1

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Cardamom Thrips: Sciothrips cardamomi (Ramk.) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Cardamom thrips is the most widespread and destructive insect pest occurring in all cardamom areas. Damage: The adults and larvae lacerate the tissues of shoots, leaves, panicles, flowers and immature capsules and feed on the exuding sap resulting in shedding of flowers and immature capsules and formation of scab-like encrustation on capsules. The infested capsules lose their aroma, and the formation of seeds is also affected leading to about 50% crop loss in endemic areas (Gopakumar & Chandrasekhar, 2002). Biology: The adults are minute and measure 1.5–2.0 mm in length. The head and abdomen are dark greyish brown, and the thorax and legs are pale yellowish brown. Reproduction is by sexual and parthenogenetic means. The eggs are kidney shaped and are laid on the panicles and leaf sheaths.

Adult thrips

Capsule damage

Eggs are 0.25–0.27 mm long and dirty white when freshly laid. The incubation period lasts for 8–12 days. The first and second larval stages last for 3–5 days and 7–9 days, respectively. The pre-pupal and pupal periods last for 2 and 4–6 days, respectively. The entire life cycle is completed in 27–33 days. The pest population increases during the post-monsoon months and reaches its peak during summer in the field (February–May) (Gopakumar & Chandrasekhar, 2002). Management: Regulation of shade in the plantation and pruning dried leaf sheaths during February–March before spraying, reduces the pest population and increases the efficacy of insecticides in the field. Four to eight rounds of sprays during February to October are required for controlling the pest infestation. The effective insecticides include quinalphos 0.025%, fipronil 0.005%, spinosad 0.0135% (Ankegowda et al., 2015), phosalone 0.07% and dimethoate 0.05%. Phytosanitization, spraying quinalphos 0.05% or spinosad 0.0135%, followed by three rounds of soil application of the entomogenous fungus Lecanicillium psalliote has been recently suggested for the management of the pest (Senthil Kumar et al., 2022).

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Shoot and Capsule Borer: Conogethes sahyadriensis (Shashank, Kammar, Mally and Chakravarthy) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

The shoot and capsule borer infests cardamom plants in nurseries and plantations in all cardamom areas. Damage: The early larval stages bore into panicles and immature capsules and feed on the developing seeds. The later stages bore into pseudostems and feed on the internal tissues resulting in drying of the central terminal leaf. The presence of boreholes with extruding frass on the pseudostems and capsules and the withered central shoot are characteristic symptoms of pest infestation (Gopakumar & Chandrasekhar, 2002). Biology: The adult is a medium-sized moth with a wingspan of about 24 mm; the wings are orange-yellow with black spots. A female moth lays about 20–35 eggs that are creamy white. There are five larval instars; fully grown larvae are pale pinkish brown and 30–35 mm in length. The pupa is 10–15 mm long. The egg and larval periods last for 6–7 and 21–32 days, respectively, during summer (March to May), and 6–8 and 40–62 days, respectively, during winter (November to February). The pre-pupal and pupal periods last for 2–3 and 10–12 days, respectively, during summer, and 4–7 and 17–27 days, respectively, during winter. Life cycle from egg to adult is completed in 41–57 days during summer and 84–123 days during winter (Varadasan, 1991).

Shoot damage

Capsule damage

Larva

Adult

Management: Cultural operations like removal of alternate host plants adjoining cardamom plantations, removal of infested suckers during September–October when the infestation is less than 10%, collection and destruction of adults, and spraying quinalphos 0.1%, during periods of new shoot and capsule formation, are recommended for the management of the pest (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.3

Cardamom Root Grub: Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

The cardamom root grub is a serious pest of cardamom in the nursery and field being distributed in all cardamom areas.

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Damage: The larva (grub) feeds on roots and basal region of rhizomes, and in severe cases of infestation, the entire root system is eaten away. The infested plants turn yellow and become stunted; severely infested plants succumb to the pest attack. Seedlings damaged by the root grub are subsequently infected by secondary pathogens resulting in rotting (Gopakumar & Chandrasekhar, 2002). Biology: The adults emerge in large numbers from the pupae after the receipt of pre-monsoon showers (April–May and September–October). They are metallic blue, bluish green or greenish brown measuring about 5.0  2.5 mm in size. The eggs are laid on dry leaf sheaths, weeds or mulch around the root zone of cardamom plants. Fully grown grubs are stout and ‘C’ shaped and pale white and measure about 1 cm in length. Pupation occurs in the soil in earthen cocoons. The egg, larval and pupal stages last for 8–10, 45–60 and 10–17 days, respectively (Thyagaraj et al., 1991).

Adult

Grubs

Root damage

Management: Collection and destruction of adult beetles during peak periods of emergence during April–May after summer showers and application of chlorpyriphos (0.075%) twice a year during May–June and September–October synchronizing with emergence of adults and egg laying periods are effective for the management of the pest (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.4

Cardamom Aphid: Pentalonia caladii (van der Goot) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

The cardamom aphid colonizes leaf sheaths of pseudostems feeding on plant sap. Though the direct damage caused by the aphid is not very serious, they are vectors or mosaic or katte disease. The adults are dark brown and measure about 1.4  0.7 mm in size. Reproduction is by viviparous and parthenogenetic means. The life cycle is completed in 10–15 days. Removal of partly dried pseudostems and alternate host plants reduces the pest population in field. The spray schedule undertaken to control cardamom thrips is sufficient for managing aphids (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

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Cardamom Whitefly: Singhiella cardamomi David and Subramaniam (Kanakarajiella cardamomi (David and Subramaniam) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

The cardamom whitefly was considered as a minor pest on cardamom earlier, but has become a major pest in certain area of Idukki District in Kerala in recent years. The nymphs are found in large numbers only on the adaxial surface of leaves and the adults on different parts of the plant. Both suck the plant sap resulting in yellowing and gradual drying up of plants leading to drastic decline of yields and in certain cases complete destruction of the plants. Nymphs produce a sugary secretion, which drop on lower leaves, where sooty moulds develop, obstructing normal light interception and photosynthesis. Adult is a small soft-bodied insect about 2 mm in length having two pairs of white wings. Male is smaller than female. Though adults are not active fliers, they fly about from plant to plant or even small distances and are often swept off by wind, which is a major mode of migration of the pest. Adults reproduce by parthenogenetic and sexual methods. The life cycle from egg to adult is completed in 50–53 days. The entomopathogenic fungi Verticillium lecanii and Aschersonia placenta are found infecting the nymphs and pupae of cardamom whitefly (Gopakumar & Chandrasekhar, 2002). Setting up yellow sticky traps and spraying neem oil 0.5% are effective against the pest (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.6

Scale Insect: Aulacaspis sp. (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

Among the scale insects recorded on cardamom, infestation by Aulacaspis sp. is more common during summer. Adults and nymphs suck the sap from pseudostems, leaves, panicles and capsules resulting in yellowing and drying of leaves and shrivelling of capsules. The adult female scale has a flattened, circular or pearshaped translucent white cover with an orange-coloured insect inside. The pest can be controlled by regulation of moisture in the plantation and spraying neem oil 0.5% (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.7

Rhizome Weevil: Prodioctes haematicus Chev. F. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The grubs of the rhizome weevil tunnel and feed on the rhizomes causing mortality of plants. The pest infestation is generally serious in the secondary nursery. The adult is a brown weevil 12 mm long with three black lines on the pronotum and three black spots on the elytron. Adults emerge immediately after summer rains and live for 7–8 months. The life cycle is completed in about 50 days. The pest can be controlled

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by destroying the affected plants and application chlorpyriphos 0.075% (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.8

Hairy Caterpillars: Eupterote cardamomi Renga., E. canarica Moore, E. undata Blanchard, E. fabia (Lepidoptera: Eupterotidae) and Lenodora vittata Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae)

Hairy caterpillars occur sporadically during certain years in large numbers and defoliate cardamom plants retarding their growth and affecting the yield. The moths are large and generally brown to ochre coloured, and the larvae are hairy. The life history is prolonged, and adult moths emerge with the onset of monsoon rains and lay eggs on shade and forest trees. The early instars feed on the foliage of forest trees, and the late instars migrate and feed on cardamom plants especially during night. Cultural operations such as maintenance of tree-less buffer zones around cardamom plantations, collection and destruction of eggs and larvae, using of light traps for attraction and killing of adults, selective pruning of branches of shade trees during May to deter oviposition by adults, and spraying of quinalphos 0.05% have been suggested for the control of hairy caterpillars (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

Caterpillar

2.9

Adult

Capsule Borer: Jamides alecto (Felder) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae)

The capsule borer is more common in Karnataka, and the larvae bore into and feed on flower buds, flowers and young capsules. The infested capsules turn yellowish brown and decay and drop during the rainy season. The adults are medium-sized butterflies with bluish brown wings with a white striations and a white spot at the distal region of the hind wings. The fully grown larva is flat with dense hairs. The life cycle from egg to adult is completed in 41–48 days. Regulation of shade, and

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spraying of quinalphos 0.025% are effective in controlling the pest infestation (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.10

Shoot Fly: Formosina flavipes Malloch (Diptera: Chloropidae)

The larvae of the shoot fly feed on the growing shoot of young cardamom plants in the nursery and plantations causing dead heart symptoms especially during the postmonsoon and early summer seasons. The adults are small black flies with yellow patches. The life cycle from egg to adult is completed in 20–25 days. Removal and destruction of affected shoots, provision of adequate shade, setting up of fish meal traps for attraction of adults, and application of quinalphos 0.05% are effective against the pest (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

2.11

Root Knot Nematode: Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae)

A number of nematodes have been recorded on cardamom, among which the root knot nematode causes serious damage in nurseries and plantations. Damage: In primary nurseries, the infested seedlings at the two-leaf stage show marginal yellowing and drying of leaves, and severe galling of roots. In secondary nurseries, the infested plants are stunted and yellow with poor tillering, drying of leaf tips and margins, and severe galling of roots. The incidence of rhizome rot and damping-off diseases caused by Rhizoctonia solani is increased in the presence of Meloidogyne incognita in the nursery. Severe root knot nematode infestations in the field cause stunting, reduced tillering, yellowing, drying of leaf tips and margins, narrowing of leaf blades, delay in flowering, immature fruit drop and reduction in yield. The infested plants exhibit a ‘witches broom’ type of excessive branching (Thomas & Bhai, 2002). Management: The nursery beds are to be disinfected under polythene cover using methyl bromide (to be undertaken under the supervision of experts approved by the Plant Protection Advisor to Govt. of India) for 3–7 days or by application of insecticide (carbofuran*) (*banned in Kerala). Planting of nematode-free seedlings should be ensured in the field. Mulching is to be provided particularly in exposed areas. Organic manures such as neem cake may be applied twice a year at 250–1000 g/clump. Granular pesticides like carbofuran 3G* at 50 g/plant (*banned in Kerala) may be applied twice a year during May–June and September, if the infestations are severe (Ankegowda et al., 2015).

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Rodents: Indian Mole Rat (Bandicota bengalensis Gray), Indian Field Mouse (Mus booduga Gray) (Rodentia: Muridae) and Indian Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (L.) (Rodentia: Sciuridae)

Among the rodents damaging cardamom, Indian mole rat, Indian field mouse and Indian palm squirrel are important especially in Karnataka. The rodents generally prefer mature capsules for feeding on the seeds with the mucilage. Trapping, dispensing of panicles in overlapped manner, timely harvest, clean cultivation and covering panicles with dried mulch after maturity are effective in reducing the damage caused by rodents (Chakravarthy & Srihari, 1982).

2.13

Rhesus Macaque: Macaca radiata L. (Primates: Cercopithecidae)

The rhesus macaque damages cardamom in the Malnad (hill) region of Karnataka. The monkeys peel the outer sheaths of pseudostems, cut open the central yellowwhite tissues and feed on it. They usually destroy more than they can feed and prefer young cardamom clumps for feeding. Trapping, watch and ward and selective de-branching of shade trees reduce monkey damage in susceptible areas (Chakravarthy & Srihari, 1982).

2.14

Wild Boar: Sus scrofa L. (Artiodactyla: Suidae)

The wild boar forages gregariously damaging cardamom clumps by trampling and uprooting them while in search of other root tubers and grubs. Fencing (including electric fencing) has been used successfully to exclude wild boar from areas where their presence is not desired (Chakravarthy & Srihari, 1982).

2.15

Other Insect Pests

The other insects recorded on cardamom include Orthacris sp., Aularches miliaris L. (Orthoptera: Acrididae), Panchaetothrips indicus Bagnall (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), Riptortus pedestris Fabr. (Hemiptera: Alydidae), Stephanitis typicus Dist. (Hemiptera: Tingidae), Eosocarta nilgiriensis, Cosmoscarta thoracica Dist. (Hemiptera: Cercopidae), Tettigoniella ferruginea Wlk., Bothrogonia sp. (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Diaspis sp., (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), Parasaissetia

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coffeae Walk. (Hemiptera: Coccidae), Aleurotuberculatus cardamomi David and Subramaniam, Dialeurodes citri (Ash.) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), Planococcus citri Risso. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Lema admiralis Jac., L. coromandeliana (F.), L. fulvimana Jac., Thammurgides cardamomi (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Onthophagus sp., O. coorgensis Arrow (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Holotrichia sp. (Coleoptera: Melonthidae), Chloropisca sp. (Diptera, Chloropidae), Hallomyia cardamomi Nayar (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), Acanthopsyche bipars Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Psychidae), Arcilasisa plagiata Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Euproctis lutifolia Hamp. (Lepidoptera: Lymantridae), Rajendra biguttata Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), Olepa ricini (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), Attacus atlas Linn. (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), Eupterote fabia Cram., E. testacea Wlk. (Lepidoptera: Eupterotidae), Lampides elpis G. (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), Eumelia rosalia Cram. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), Anisodes denticulatus Hamp. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) and Metapodistis polychrysa Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Glyphipterigidae) (Gopakumar & Chandrasekhar, 2002).

3 Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) About 60 species of insects are known to infest turmeric in the field in India among which shoot borer and rhizome scale are major insect pests.

3.1

Shoot Borer: Conogethes punctiferalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Shoot damage

Larva

Adult

The shoot borer is the most widespread and serious insect pest of turmeric in India. Biology: The adults are medium-sized moths with a wingspan of 18–24 mm; the wings and body are pale straw–yellow with black spots. The egg period lasts for 3–4 days; there are five larval instars, and they last for 3–4, 5–7, 5, 3–8 and 7–14 days, respectively. Fully grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs and measure 16–26 mm in length. The pre-pupal and pupal periods last for 3–4 and 9–10 days, respectively. The shoot borer is highly polyphagous and has been recorded in over 35 species of host plants in India (Jacob, 1981; Devasahayam & Koya, 2007).

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Management: Spraying of malathion 0.1% or lambda-cyhalothrin 0.0125% during July to October at 21-day intervals is effective in controlling the pest infestation (Jayashree et al., 2015b).

3.2

Rhizome Scale: Aspidiella hartii Sign. (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

The rhizome scale is a serious insect pest of turmeric especially on stored rhizomes. Damage: The rhizome scale infests rhizomes of turmeric both in the field and in storage. In the field, the pest infestation is seen as encrustations on the rhizomes during later stages of the crop, and severely infested plants wither and dry. Adult (female) scales feed on sap, and when the rhizomes are severely infested in storage, they become shrivelled and desiccated affecting its germination (Devasahayam & Koya, 2007).

Adult female scales

Infested rhizome

Biology: Female scales of Aspidiella hartii are circular (about 1 mm diameter) and light brown to grey and appear as encrustations on the rhizomes. Females are ovo-viviparous and also reproduce parthenogenetically. The life cycle from egg to adult is completed in about 30 days (Devasahayam & Koya, 2007). Management: Timely harvest, discarding of severely infested rhizomes, dipping of seed rhizome in quinalphos 0.075% after harvest and storage in dry leaves of Strychnos nux-vomica + saw dust in 1:1 proportion are effective in controlling rhizome scale infestation (Jayashree et al., 2015a).

3.3

Lacewing Bug: Stephanitis typicus Dist. (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

The lacewing bug infests the foliage of plants and sucks the sap causing them to turn pale and dry up during the post-monsoon period especially in drier parts of the

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country. The adults are pale greyish brown with transparent lace wings. The nymphs are pale white with a black head and thorax. Spraying of dimethoate 0.05% is effective in controlling the pest infestation (Jayashree et al., 2015a).

Stephanitis typicus

Nymphs

3.4

Panchaetothrips indicus

Adult

Adult

Turmeric Thrips: Panchaetothrips indicus Bagn. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

The turmeric thrips infests leaves of turmeric and sucks plant sap causing them to roll up, turn pale and gradually dry up. The pest infestation is more common during the post-monsoon period especially in the drier parts of the country. The adults are yellowish brown. Spraying of dimethoate 0.05% is recommended for controlling the pest infestation (Jayashree et al., 2015a).

3.5

Leaf Beetles: Lema praeusta Fab., L. signatipennis Jacoby, L. lacordairei Baly. and L. semiregularis Jac. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

Adults and larvae of the leaf beetles feed on leaves especially during the monsoon season forming elongated parallel feeding marks on the leaves. The adults are bluish black and about 6 mm long. Fully grown grubs have a dull white body with brown streaks, black head and disproportionately swollen abdomen, and carry their faecal matter on their back. The spray schedule undertaken for the management of shoot borer is effective in controlling the pest infestation (Jayashree et al., 2015a).

3.6

Nematodes: Root Knot Nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae), Burrowing Nematode Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne and Lesion Nematode Pratylenchus coffeae Goodey (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae)

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Nematode damage Among the various nematodes infesting turmeric in India, root knot nematode, burrowing nematode, lesion nematode and reniform nematode are important (Koshy et al., 2005). Damage: Nematode infestations cause lesions, galling and rotting of roots and rhizomes. The infested rhizomes exhibit brown, sunken, water-soaked areas on the outer tissues and also lose their bright yellow colour. Heavily infested plants are stunted with fewer tillers and chlorotic leaves with marginal necrosis and die prematurely, leaving a poor crop stand at harvest (Koshy et al., 2005). Management: Nematode-free seed materials should be selected from healthy fields. Increasing the organic content of the soil by applying decomposed cattle and poultry manure, compost or neem oil cake reduces the build-up of nematode populations. Pochonia chlamydosporia can also be applied to the beds at the time of sowing at 20 g/bed (106 cfu/g) (Jayashree et al., 2015a).

3.7

Wild Boar: Sus scrofa L. (Artiodactyla: Suidae)

Wild boar damages turmeric clumps by trampling and uprooting them while in search of other root tubers and grubs. Fencing (including electric fencing) has been used successfully to exclude wild boar from areas where their presence is not desired.

3.8

Other Insect Pests

The other insects recorded on turmeric include Letana inflata Bru., Phaneroptera gracilis Burm. (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae), Orthacris simulans B., Cyrtacanthacris ranacea Stoll. (Orthoptera: Acrididae), Oxyrachis tarandus F., Tricentrus bicolor Dist. (Hemiptera: Membracidae), Tettigoniella ferruginea Wlk. (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq., Uroleucon compositae (Theobald) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Planococcus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Cletus rubidiventris Westd., C. bipunctatus Westd., Riptortus pedestris F. (Hemiptera: Coreidae), Coptosoma cribraria Fab., Nezara viridula (L.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), Anaphothrips sudanensis (Trybom), Asprothrips indicus Bagn. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), Haplothrips sp. (Thysanoptera: Phlaeothripidae), Holotrichia serrata (F.) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Epilachna sparsa (Hbst.)

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(Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Chirida bipunctata F., Colasposoma splendidum F., Cryptocephalus rajah Jac., C. schestedti F., Psuedocophora sp., Monolepta signata (Olivier), Raphidopalpa abdominalis (Fab.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), Hedychorus rufomaculatus M., Myllocerus discolor Boheman, M. undecimpustulatus Faust., M. viridanus Fab. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Notocrypta curvifascia (C. and R. Felder) (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), Catopsilia pomona F. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), Spilarctia obliqua Wlk., Creatonotos gangis (L.), Amata passalis Fab. (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), Bombotelia nugatrix Gr., Spodoptera litura (F.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Euproctis lutifolia Hamp. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) (Devasahayam & Koya, 2007). Various species of dipteran maggots bore into rhizomes and roots of turmeric. They include Calobata sp., C. albimana Macq., Mimegralla coeruleifrons Macq., M. albimina (Doleschall) (Diptera: Micropezidae), Eumerus pulcherrimus Bru. (Diptera: Syrphidae), Libnotes punctipennis Meij. and Tipula sp. (Diptera: Tipulidae). These maggots are generally seen in ill-drained soils and also in plants affected by rhizome rot disease indicating the secondary nature of rhizome maggot infestations on turmeric on diseased rhizomes (Devasahayam & Koya, 2007).

4 Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) Around 25 species of insects infest ginger in the field in India among which shoot borer, rhizome scale and white grubs are important.

4.1

Shoot Borer: Conogethes punctiferalis (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

The shoot borer is the most serious and widespread insect pest of ginger in India. Damage: The larvae of shoot borer bore into pseudostems and feed on the internal shoot resulting in yellowing and drying of infested pseudostems. The presence of boreholes on the pseudostem through which frass is extruded and the withered central shoot are characteristic symptoms of pest infestation (Devasahayam & Koya, 2005). Biology: The adults are medium-sized moths with a wingspan of 18–24 mm; the wings and body are pale straw yellow with black spots. Fully grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs and measure 16–26 mm in length. The mean duration of I–V instar larva and pupa are 3.05, 4.25, 4.80, 5.15, 6.60 and 7.85 days, respectively (Stanley et al., 2009). The shoot borer is highly polyphagous and has been recorded on more than 35 species of host plants in India (Devasahayam and Koya, 2005).

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Larva

Shoot damage

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Adult

Management: An integrated strategy including pruning of freshly infested shoots during July to August and spraying of malathion 0.1% during September to October is effective for the management of shoot borer (Devasahayam & Koya, 1999).

4.2

Rhizome Scale: Aspidiella hartii (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

The rhizome scale infests rhizomes of ginger both in the field and in storage. Damage: In the field, the pest infestation is seen as encrustations on the rhizomes during the later stages of the crop, and severely infested plants wither and dry. The juveniles and adult female scales feed on plant sap, and when the rhizomes are severely infested, they become shrivelled and desiccated affecting its germination (Devasahayam & Koya, 2005). Biology: The adult female is minute, circular and light brown to grey measuring about 1.5 mm in diameter. Male is orange coloured with transparent wings. Females are ovoviviparous and also reproduce parthenogenetically. The life cycle from egg to adult is completed in about 30 days (Jacob, 1981).

Infested rhizome

Adult female scales

Management: The rhizome scale can be managed by timely harvest, discarding severely infested rhizomes and dipping the seed rhizomes in quinalphos 0.1% for

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5 min after harvest and before planting. The seed rhizome may be stored in sawdust + Strychnos nux-vomica leaves (dried) after seed treatment (Jayashree et al., 2015b).

4.3

White Grubs: Holotrichia fissa Brenske, H. seticollis Mosher, H. coriacea (Hope) and H. consanguinea Blanchard (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae)

Several species of white grubs cause serious damage to ginger especially in parts of Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala (Varadarasan et al., 1993, 2000). Damage: White grubs feed on roots and newly formed rhizomes leading to yellowing of leaves. In severe infestations, the pseudostem may be cut at the basal region, and the entire crop may be lost. At later stages of the crop, the grubs make large holes in rhizomes and reduce market value of produce (Varadarasan et al., 2000). Biology: The adults are dark brown beetles measuring about 2.5  1.5 cm in size. The eggs are white, almost round in shape. The grubs are ‘C’ shaped and creamy white. Pupation takes place in the larval tunnel. The egg, larval and pupal stages last for 10–15, 170–220 and 30–40 days, respectively. The adults emerge in large numbers with the receipt of summer showers during April and May (Varadarasan et al., 2000).

Grubs

Adult

Management: The adult beetles may be collected using light traps and destroyed. The adults also congregate on many trees around ginger fields and can be collected and destroyed. Application of Metarhizium anisopliae mixed with fine cow dung is effective for the management of the pest. However in severely affected fields, drenching with chlorpyriphos 0.075% may be necessary (Varadarasan et al., 2000; Jayashree et al., 2015b).

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Leaf Roller: Udaspes folus Cram. (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)

The larvae of the leaf roller cut and fold the leaves, remain within and feed on them. The adults are medium-sized butterflies with brownish black wings with white spots on the forewings and a large patch on the hind wing. Fully grown larvae are dark green with a black head. The control measures undertaken against the shoot borer are adequate for the management of the pest (Jayashree et al., 2015b).

4.5

Shoot Fly: Formosina flavipes Mall (Diptera: Chloropidae)

The maggots of the shoot fly feed on the base of the growing shoot resulting in dead heart symptom. The dried central shoot comes off easily when pulled out. The pest causes about 20% plant damage, (13%) symptoms (Chandramani & Chezhiyan, 2002).

4.6

Nematodes: Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White) (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae), Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne and Pratylenchus coffeae Goodey (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae)

Among the various nematode species infesting ginger, root knot nematode, burrowing nematode and lesion nematode are important. Damage: Stunting, chlorosis, poor tillering and necrosis of leaves are the common symptoms of nematode infestations in ginger. Root galls and lesions that lead to rotting are also generally seen in roots. The infested rhizomes have brown, watersoaked areas in the outer tissues. The affected ginger plants mature and dry faster and die sooner than healthy ones, leaving a poor crop stand at harvest. Nematode infestation also aggravates rhizome rot disease (Koshy et al., 2005). Management: The nematodes can be controlled by treating infested rhizomes with hot water (50  C) for 10 min, using nematode-free seed rhizomes and solarizing ginger beds for 40 days before planting. Pochonia chlamydosporia can also be applied to the beds at the time of sowing at 20 g/bed (106 cfu/g). In areas where root knot nematode population is high, the resistant variety IISR-Mahima may be cultivated (Jayashree et al., 2015a).

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Vertebrates: Wild Boar Sus scrofa L. (Artiodactyla: Suidae) and Porcupine Hystrix indica Kerr. (Mammalia: Hystricidae)

Vertebrate pests of ginger are common in fields raised near forest areas. Wild boars forage gregariously damaging ginger clumps by trampling and uprooting them while in search of other root tubers and grubs. Fencing (including electric fencing) has been used successfully to exclude wild boar from areas where their presence is not desired. Porcupines dig into the soil and feed on ginger rhizomes when the crop is mature. Timely harvest and provision of chicken mesh fences buried in the soil up to adequate depth may be provided to minimize the damage.

4.8

Other Insect Pests

The other insects recorded on ginger include Odontotermes obesus Holm. (Isoptera: Termitidae), Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq. (Hemiptera: Aphididae), Pseudococcus sp. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Hemiptera: Coccidae), Panchaetothrips indicus, Thrips tabaci Lind. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), Hedychorus rufofasciatus M. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Holotrichia consanguinea Blanch., H. corocea (Hope), H. fissa Brenske (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Agrotis ipsilon and Acrocercops irradians Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) (Devasahayam & Koya, 2005). Various species of dipteran maggots have been recorded to bore into rhizomes and roots of ginger and are generally seen in plants affected by rhizome rot disease. The maggots recorded on ginger include Calobata indica Rob.-Des., Mimegralla coeruleifrons Macq. (Diptera: Micropezidae), Chalcidomyia atricornis Mall., Merochlorops flavipes, Paracamarota sp. (Diptera: Chloropidae), Celyphus sp., (Diptera: Celyphidae), Gymnonerius sp. (Diptera: Neriidae), Eumerus albifrons Walk. and E. pulcherrimus Bru. (Diptera: Syrphidae). Many workers have investigated the association of rhizome maggots with diseased rhizomes and found that the maggots could infest only diseased ginger rhizomes and hence cannot be considered as a primary pest of the crop (Devasahayam & Koya, 2005).

5 Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl) Over 35 species of insects infest cinnamon in India, among which cinnamon butterfly and leaf miner are important.

Pests and Their Management in Spices

5.1

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Cinnamon Butterfly: Papilio (Chilasa) clytia Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

The cinnamon butterfly is the most serious insect pest of cinnamon in the nursery and field and is more serious during the monsoon season.

Adult

Pupa

Larva

Leaf damage

Damage: The larva of the cinnamon butterfly feeds on tender and partly mature leaves. In severe infestations, the entire plant is defoliated, and only the midribs of leaves with portions of veins are left on the plant (Singh et al., 1978). Biology: The adults are large-sized butterflies with a wingspan of about 90 mm and occur in two forms, namely, clytia and dissimilis. The form clytia has blackish brown wings with a series of white spots on the outer margins. The form dissimilis has black wings with elongated white spots and a series of marginal white spots. The adults lay spherical, orange-yellow eggs on the leaves, which hatch in 3–4 days. The newly hatched larva is pale green with a pale yellow dorsal line and irregular white stripes. The larval stage comprising of five instars is completed in 11–17 days. Fully grown larvae are dark brown and yellow with four rows of red spots on the sides and measure about 25 mm in length. The pupa is elongated and brownish black, and the pupal period lasts for 11–13 days (Singh et al., 1978; Anandaraj & Devasahayam, 2003). Management: Spraying of quinalphos 0.05% has been recommended for the management of the cinnamon butterfly (Anandaraj et al., 2005).

5.2

Leaf Miner: Conopomorpha civica Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae)

The leaf miner infests tender leaves of cinnamon plants in the nursery and also in the field and is generally more serious during the monsoon season. Damage: The larvae of leaf miner feed on the tender tissues between the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf resulting in the formation of linear and tortuous mines that end in blister-like patches. The infested leaves become crinkled and

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malformed, and later the mined areas dry up leading to the formation of large irregular holes on the leaves (Anandaraj & Devasahayam, 2003). Biology: The adult is a minute silvery grey moth with narrow fringed wings with a wingspan of about 5 mm. The larvae are pale creamy white and become pinkish red when fully grown measuring about 5 mm in length (Anandaraj & Devasahayam, 2003).

Conopomorpha civica Sorolopha archimedias

Leaf miner damage

Adult moth

Polyphagozera coffeae

Larval feeding

Management: Spraying of quinalphos 0.05% has been recommended for the management of leaf miner (Anandaraj et al., 2005).

5.3

Shoot and Leaf Webber: Sorolopha archimedias (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The larvae of shoot and leaf webber web tender shoots and leaves and feed from within and the pest infestation more serious during the post-monsoon season. The adult is a small grey moth with a wingspan of about 15 mm and with large deep brown markings on the forewings. Eggs are laid on newly emerged leaves, and they hatch in 3–4 days. The larvae are pale green, and the larval period lasts for 10 days. The pupal period lasts for 6–7 days (Singh et al., 1978).

5.4

Red Stem Borer: Polyphagozera (=Zeuzera) coffeae Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)

The larva of the red stem borer bores into the trunk and branches causing drying and breaking off of smaller branches. The adult is an orange-coloured medium-sized moth with spotted wings; eggs are laid in strings in cracks on the bark. Larvae are pink to brick red with a brown head and black thoracic shield (Singh et al., 1978).

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Chafer Beetle: Popillia complanata Newman (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

The chafer beetle feeds on tender leaves and is generally seen during the monsoon season. The adults are brown with a metallic green head and thorax. Eggs are laid near the root zone, and the incubation period lasts for 5 days. Newly emerged grubs are creamy white. The grubs also feed on cinnamon roots, and the grub period lasts for 10 days. Pupation takes place in the soil in earthen cocoons, and the pupal period lasts for 15 days (Singh et al., 1978).

5.6

Cinnamon Fruit Borer: Alcides morio Heller (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

The grubs of the cinnamon fruit borer bore into and feed on the inner contents of cinnamon seed. The mature grub has a brownish head with a whitish body and attains 8–10 mm in length. Pupation takes place inside the seed and lasts for 7–9 days. The adults are dirty black weevils and are not active (Singh et al., 1978). Management: The leaf-feeding caterpillars and beetles can be managed by spraying quinalphos 0.05%. The red stem borer can be managed by extraction of larvae and injection of suitable insecticide into the larval galleries (Anandaraj et al., 2005a).

5.7

Other Insect Pests

The other insects recorded on cinnamon include Paurapsylla depressa C. (Hemiptera: Psyllidae), Gargara extrema Dist. (Hemiptera: Membracidae), Bothrogonia sp. (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), Bemisia tabaci Genn. (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae), Ceroplastes rubens Mask. (Hemiptera: Coccidae), Chrysomphalus sp., Parasaissetia nigra (Nietner) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), Apogonia proxima Waterhouse, Singhala helleri Ohs., Leucopholis pinguis Burm. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), Apoderus scitulus Wlk. (Coleoptera: Attelabidae), Phyllocnistis chrysophthalma Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Phyllocnistidae), Latoia lepida (Cram.) (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae), Lopharcha sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), Graphium doson C and R Felder (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae), Sauris sp., Semiothisa sp., Hyposidra talaca Walk. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), Bharetta cinnamomea Moore (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae), Cricula trifenestrata Helf. (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae), Argina syringa Cram., Diacrisia obliqua Walk. (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae), Selepa celtis Moore (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Dasychira horsfieldi Saunders, D. mendosa Hab. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), Euproctis fraterna Moore and Arctornis submarginata Walk. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) (Anandaraj & Devasahayam, 2003).

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6 Clove (Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merrill and Perry) A few insects are known to infest clove in India. Among them, stem borer can be considered as a major insect pest.

6.1

Stem Borer: Sahyadrassus malabaricus (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae)

The stem borer is the most serious insect pest of clove and is generally seen in young clove plantations grown near forest clearings. Damage: The larva of the stem borer girdles the stem of young clove trees at the basal region and bores downwards into the root zone. The girdled portion and borehole are covered with a mat-like frass material. The infested trees wilt and defoliate and succumb to the pest attack subsequently (Nair, 1987). Biology: The adult is a large-sized moth with a wingspan of about 110 mm with greyish brown mottled forewings. The eggs are laid on weeds around the base of clove trees. The earlier instar larvae feed on the weed plants, and the later instars migrate to the clove trees and bore into the stem. The larvae are creamy white with a black head and measure about 90 mm in length when fully grown. The dorsal sclerites of the thoracic and abdominal segments are brown. Pupation occurs within the larval tunnel (Nair, 1987). Management: The base of clove trees has to be inspected regularly for symptoms of pest infestation. In case the infestation is noticed, the mat-like frass has to be removed and quinalphos 0.1% sprayed around and injected into the borehole. Swabbing the basal region of the main stem of young clove trees with chlorpyriphos and keeping the basins of clove trees free of weeds help in preventing the pest infestation (Anandaraj et al., 2005b).

Sahyadrassus y malabaricus

Adult

Larva

Stem damage

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Scale Insects

Various species of scale insects infest clove seedlings in the nursery and young plants in the field. These include, wax scale Ceroplastes floridensis Com., masked scale Mycetaspis personata (Com.), coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor Sign. (Hemiptera: Diaspididae), nigra scale Parasaissetia nigra (Nietn.), soft scale Kilifia accuminata (Sign.) and shield scale Pulvinaria psidii Mask. (Hemiptera: Coccidae). The scales are generally seen clustered together on tender stems and the lower surface of leaves. Scale insects feed on plant sap and cause yellow spots on leaves, defoliation and wilting and drying of shoots. Spraying of dimethoate 0.05% has been recommended for the management of various species of scale insects (Anandaraj et al., 2005b).

7 Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) Very few insects have been recorded on nutmeg in India. They include various species of scale insects infesting seedlings in the nursery and young plants.

7.1

Scale Insects: Parasaissetia nigra Nietn., Pulvinaria psidii Maskell (Coccidae), Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli (Cooley) and Mycetaspis personata (Comstock) (Diaspididae)

Various species of scale insects infest nutmeg seedlings in the nursery and young plants in the field. These include black scale Parasaissetia nigra, white scale Pseudaulacaspis cockerelli, shield scale Protopulvinaria mangiferae, green scale Pulvinaria psidii and masked scale Mycetaspis personata. The scales are generally seen clustered together on tender stems and the lower surface of leaves. Scale insects feed on plant sap and cause yellow spots on leaves, defoliation and wilting and drying of shoots. The black scale is brownish black, oval and dome shaped. The white scale is greyish white, flat and shaped like a fish scale. The shield scale is brown and oval shaped. The green scale is ovoid, green to yellow and covered with a white powdery wax. The masked scale is greyish black, circular and convex (Anandaraj et al., 2005c).

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Parasaisettia nigra

Pseudalacaspis cockerelli

Management: Spraying of dimethoate 0.05% has been recommended for the management of various species of scale insects (Anandaraj et al., 2005c).

8 Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews) A few insects have been recorded to damage vanilla in India. Among them the vanilla bug is the most serious insect pest (Anandaraj et al., 2005d).

8.1

Vanilla Bug: Halyomorpha picus F. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

The vanilla bug is a serious insect pest of vanilla in most of the vanilla areas. Damage: Adults and nymphs suck sap from shoot tips, peduncles and flower buds which subsequently turn necrotic and rot. Pin prick-like punctures at the site of feeding and subsequent necrosis and rotting are typical symptoms of pest damage (Varadarasan et al., 2003). Biology: The adult bugs are approximately 1.5  1.5 cm in size, shield shaped and variegated brownish grey. The female bug lays spherical eggs in clusters on the lower surface of vanilla leaves. The eggs are white when freshly laid, and the incubation period lasts for 5–6 days. There are five nymphal instars. The first instar nymphs are gregarious and do not feed. They are grey initially but turn red later. The second to fifth instar nymphs are black. The nymphal period lasts for about 60 days (Varadarasan et al., 2003). Management: The eggs and first instar nymphs which are seen on the lower surface of leaves may be physically removed and destroyed. Spraying dimethoate 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05% may be undertaken when the infestation is high (Varadarasan et al., 2003).

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Inflorescence Webber: Archips micaceana Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

The shoot and inflorescence webber is mostly observed in Tamil Nadu, and the larva webs the unopened shoot bud and young leaves and feeds from within by scrapping the epidermis. The emerging leaves later become crinkled and malformed. The larva sometimes feeds on the stem tissues leading to breakage of the vine at the feeding site. The adults are pale brown moths with dark brown markings. Spraying dimethoate 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05% may be undertaken when the infestation is high (Vanitha et al., 2011).

8.3

Plusia sp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Plusia sp. occurs in vanilla gardens in Kerala. The larva of the moth feeds on tender shoots forming a web in between the shoot bud and the first leaf, leading to rotting of terminal buds. The adult moth is reddish brown with a broad bright yellow band across the forewings; the hind wings and body are grey. The pest may be controlled by spraying dimethoate 0.05% or quinalphos 0.05% if the incidence is high (Varadarasan et al., 2003).

8.4

White Grubs: Holotrichia serrata (Fab.) and H. rufoflava (Brenske) (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

Among the two species of Holotrichia sp. recorded from Tamil Nadu, H. serrata is predominant. White grubs fed on vanilla roots as well as basal stem regions under the soil leading to death of vines. The adults are dark brown beetles measuring about 2.5  1.5 cm in size, and the grubs are ‘C’ shaped and creamy white. Collection and destruction of beetles during peak periods of emergence and drenching chlorpyriphos 0.075% around the plant basins are effective for the management of white grubs (Vanitha et al., 2011).

8.5

Vanilla Vine Weevil: Sipalus sp. (Coleoptera: Dryopthoridae)

The vanilla vine weevil occurs in Idukki District of Kerala. The adults scrape and feed on young shoots and leaves leading to necrosis of affected portions. The grubs tunnel into the tender stems causing them to rot. The adult weevil measures about 10  3 mm in size and is light to dark black with two wavy white cross bands on the

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elytra. Freshly laid eggs are white and subsequently turn yellow before hatching. The first instar grub (larva) is yellow, and the final instar grub is creamy white. The grub period lasts for 35–40 days, and the pupal period lasts for 19–21 days. The adult weevils are not very active and may be handpicked and destroyed (Varadarasan et al., 2003).

8.6

Molluscs: Giant African Snail Achatina fulica (Férussac) (Gastropoda: Achatinidae) and Slug (Vaginulus sp.) (Gastropoda: Veronicellidae)

A number of molluscan species have been recorded to feed on vanilla among which the giant African snail and the slug, Vaginulus sp., are important. The molluscs feed on stems, leaves and beans of vines making them more susceptible to sun scorch and pathogenic infection. Due to severe feeding by the giant African snail, the vines are often cut off at the basal region. The slug also feeds on the roots. Hand collection and destruction and spreading a mixture of rice bran and metaldehyde (5%) are effective in managing snail and slug infestations (Vanitha et al., 2011).

References Anandaraj, M., & Devasahayam, S. (2003). Pests and diseases of cinnamon and cassia. In P. N. Ravindran, K. N. Babu, & M. Shylaja (Eds.), Cinnamon and cassia. The genus Cinnamomum (pp. 239–258). CRC Press. Anandaraj, M., Devasahayam, S., Krishnamoorthy, B., Mathew, P. A., & Rema, J. (2005a). Cinnamon-extension pamphlet (7 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Anandaraj, M., Devasahayam, S., Krishnamoorthy, B., Mathew, P. A., & Rema, J. (2005b). Cloveextension pamphlet (4 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Anandaraj, M., Devasahayam, S., John Zachariah, T., Krishnamoorthy, B., Mathew, P. A., & Rema, J. (2005c). Nutmeg-extension pamphlet (7 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Anandaraj, M., Rema, J., Sasikumar, B., & Bhai, S. (2005d). Vanilla-extension pamphlet (11 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Ankegowda, S. J., Biju, C. N., Jayashree, E., Prasath, D., Praveena, R., Senthil Kumar, C. M., & Srinivasan, V. (2015). Cardamom-extension pamphlet (23 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Babu, S. (1994). Some aspects of biology of Longitarsus nigripennis Mots. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), a serious pest on black pepper Piper nigrum L. Entomon, 19, 159–161. Chakravarthy, A. K., & Srihari, K. (1982). Vertebrate pests of cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton) in hill region of Karnataka, South India. Pest Management in Tropical Ecosystems, 6, 139–148. Chandramani, P., & Chezhiyan, N. (2002). Evaluation of ginger varieties for resistance to shoot fly Formosina flavipes (Diptera: Chloropidae). Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 8, 131–132. Devasahayam, S. (2000a). Insect pests of black pepper. In P. N. Ravindran (Ed.), Black pepper Piper nigrum (pp. 309–334). Harwood Academic Publishers.

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Devasahayam, S. (2000b). Bioecology of leaf gall thrips Liothrips karnyi Bagnall infesting black pepper. PhD Thesis (199 p). University of Calicut. Devasahayam, S., & Jacob, T. K. (2015). Spices. In M. Mani & C. Shivaraju (Eds.), Mealybugs and their management in agricultural and horticultural crops (pp. 573–578). Springer. Devasahayam, S., John Zacharaiah, T., Jayashree, E., Kandiannan, K., Prasath, D., Eapen, S. J., Sasikumar, B., Srinivasan, V., & Suseela, B. R. (2015). Black pepper-extension pamphlet (24 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Devasahayam, S., & Koya, K. M. A. (1999). Integrated management of insect pests of spices. Indian Journal of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants, 1, 19–23. Devasahayam, S., & Koya, K. M. A. (2005). Insect pests of ginger. In P. N. Ravindran & K. N. Babu (Eds.), Ginger. The genus Zingiber (pp. 367–389). CRC Press. Devasahayam, S., & Koya, K. M. A. (2007). Insect pests of turmeric. In P. N. Ravindran, K. N. Babu, & K. Sivaraman (Eds.), Turmeric. The genus Curcuma (pp. 169–192). CRC Press. Devasahayam, S., Koya, K. M. A., Anandaraj, M., Thomas, T., & Preethi, N. (2009). Distribution and bio-ecology of root mealybugs associated with black pepper (Piper nigrum Linnaeus) in Karnataka and Kerala, India. Entomon, 34, 147–154. Gopakumar, B., & Chandrasekhar, S. (2002). Insect pests of cardamom. In P. N. Ravindran & K. J. Madhusoodanan (Eds.), Cardamom. The genus Elettaria (pp. 179–206). Taylor and Francis. Jacob, S. A. (1981). Biology of Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen. on turmeric. Journal of Plantation Crops, 9, 119–123. Jayashree, E., Kandiannan, K., Prasath, D., Sasikumar, B., Senthil Kumar, C. M., Srinivasan, V., Suseela Bhai, R., & Thankamani, C. K. (2015a). Turmeric-extension pamphlet (12 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Jayashree, E., Kandiannan, K., Prasath, D., Pervez, R., Sasikumar, B., Senthil Kumar, C. M., Srinivasan, V., Suseela Bhai, R., & Thankamani, C. K. (2015b). Ginger-extension pamphlet (12 p). Indian Institute of Spices Research. Koshy, P. K., Eapen, S. J., & Pandey, R. (2005). Nematode parasites of spices, condiments and medicinal plants. In M. Luc, R. A. Sikora, & J. Bridge (Eds.), Plant parasitic nematodes in subtropical and tropical agriculture (2nd ed., pp. 751–791). CABI Publishing. Koya, K. M. A., Devasahayam, S., Selvakumaran, S., & Kallil, M. (1996). Distribution and damage caused by scale insects and mealybugs associated with black pepper (Piper nigrum Linn.) in India. Journal of Entomological Research, 20, 129–136. Nair, K. S. S. (1987). Life history, ecology and pest status of the sapling borer, Sahyadrassus malabaricus (Lepidoptera, Hepialidae). Entomon, 12, 167–173. Najitha, U. (2016). Bionomics and management of root mealybugs on black pepper. PhD Thesis (124 p). Kerala Agricultural University. Premkumar, T. (1980). Ecology and control of pepper pollu beetle Longitarsus nigripennis Motschulsky (Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera). PhD Thesis (160 p). Kerala Agricultural University. Ramana, K. V., & Eapen, S. J. (2000). Nematode induced diseases of black pepper. In P. N. Ravindran (Ed.), Black pepper Piper nigrum (pp. 269–295). Harwood Academic Publishers. Selvakumaran, S., Mini, K., & Devasahayam, S. (1996). Natural enemies of two major species of scale insects infesting black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) in India. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 2, 79–83. Senthil Kumar, C. M., Jacob, T. K., Devasahayam, S., D’Silva, S., & Geethu, C. (2022). Field evaluation of Lecanicillium psalliotae and development of an integrated pest management strategy against Sciothrips cardamomi. Biological Control, 165, 104822. Singh, V., Dubey, O. P., Nair, C. P. R., & Pillai, G. B. (1978). Biology and bionomics of insect pests of cinnamon. Journal of Plantation Crops, 6, 24–27. Stanley, J., Gnanadas, P., & Chandrasekharan, S. (2009). Conogethes punctiferalis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), its biology and field parasitization. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 79, 906– 909.

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Thomas, J., & Bhai, S. (2002). Diseases of cardamom (fungal, bacterial and nematode diseases). In P. N. Ravindran & K. J. Madhusoodanan (Eds.), Cardamom. The genus Elettaria (pp. 160–179). Taylor and Francis. Thyagaraj, N. E., Chakravarthy, A. K., Rajagopal, D., & Sudarshan, M. R. (1991). Bioecology of cardamom root grub Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby (Eumolpinae: Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera). Journal of Plantation Crops, 18(Suppl), 302–304. Vanitha, K., Karuppuchamy, P., & Sivasubramanian, P. (2011). Pests of vanilla (Vanilla planifolia Andrews) and their natural enemies in Tamil Nadu, India. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 3, 116–120. Varadarasan, S., Gopakumar, B., Chandrasekhar, S. S., Ansar Ali, M. A., & Prakash, K. V. (2003). Pests and their management. In J. Thomas & Y. S. Rao (Eds.), Vanilla, the prince of spices (pp. 42–54). Spices Board. Varadarasan, S., Singh, J., Pradhan, L. N., Gurung, N., & Gupta, S. R. (2000). Bioecology and management of white grub Holotrichia seticollis Mosher (Melolonthinae: Coleoptera), a major pest on ginger in Sikkim. In N. Muraleedharan & R. R. Kumar (Eds.), Recent advances in plantation crops research (pp. 323–326). Allied Publishers Limited. Varadarasan, S., Sivasubramonian, T., Manimegalai, R., & Naidu, R. (1993). Integrated management of cardamom root grub Basilepta fulvicorne Jacoby (Eumolpinae: Chrysomelidae: Coleoptera). Journal of Plantation Crops, 27(Suppl), 191–194. Varadarasan, S. (1991). Dynamics of life cycle of cardamom shoot borer, Conogethes punctiferalis Guen. Journal of Plantation Crops, 18(Suppl), 302–304. Visalakshi, A., & Joseph, K. V. (1965). The biology of the pepper shoot borer Laspeyresia hemidoxa Meyr. (Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera). Agricultural Research Journal of Kerala, 3, 48–50.

Pests of Seed Spices and Their Management (Coriander, Cumin, Fennel, Fenugreek, Dill, Ajwain, Nigella, and Anise) Krishna Kant, S. R. Meena, N. K. Meena, and B. K. Mishra

Abstract The major pests of seed spices coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, dill, ajwain, nigella and anise include the aphids—Hyadaphis coriandri, Aphis gossypii, Brevicoryne brassicae, Myzus persicae, Aphis spiraecola & Aphis craccivora, Thrips—Aeolothrips collaris, Scirtothrips oligochaetus, Haplothrips spp., Frankliniella schultzei, Diarthothrips nimbus, Thrips tabaci & Scirtothrips dorsalis, defoliators—Spodoptera litura, Spodoptera exigua & Agrotis sp., Seed midge Systole albipennis, Cotton white fly Bemisia tabaci, mired Lygus sp., Pentatomid bug Agonoscelis nubilus, Mites Petrobia latens & Tetranychus cinnabarinus, T. neocaledonicus & T. telarius and the Root knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp.

1 Coriander As many as 20 insect species are known to attack coriander in India.

1.1

Aphids: Hyadaphis coriandri (Das), Aphis gossypii Glover, Brevicoryne brassicae L., Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Aphis spiraecola Patch. & Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

The coriander is found severely infested with several species of aphids. Hyadaphis coriandri is main aphid pest of coriander. Adults are found infesting tender shoots and under surface of the leaves. Symptoms of damage include the curling and crinkling of leaves, stunted growth and development of black sooty mould due to the excretion of honeydew by the aphids. The population start developing on the crop during vegetative stages, but heavy population develop during flowering and K. Kant (*) · S. R. Meena · N. K. Meena · B. K. Mishra National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Tabiji, Rajasthan, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_57

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fruiting stages, thereby causing significant losses in yield at harvest of the crop. The heavy infestation of aphid on coriander is found in December–March and causes the loss of more than 50% of yield. Severe infestations result in complete failure of crop. H. coriandri: The adults of H. coriandri are pear shaped, 2-mm long and light yellowish green. Reproduction is by parthenogenetic and viviparous means. There are three nymphal instars. The mean duration of I, II and III instar nymphs varies from 1.4 to 2.4, 1.6 to 3.7 and 1.7 to 6.0 days, respectively. Aphid H. coriandri is found remained active from December to June on coriander crop. M. persicae: The adults of M. persicae are with a black head and thorax and yellow-green abdomen with a dark patch on the dorsal side. The green peach aphid reproduces asexually during the warmer months.

Hydaphis coriandri

M. persicae

Aphis gossypii

Aphis gossypii: Aphids are yellowish brown o shiny black, and are found in the crevices of bud and stems of the plant. Nymph and adults of thrips congregate at the leaf sheath or in the flowers resulting in drying of the leaves and drying flowers and production of shrivelled fruits. Several generations are completed in a year.

1.2

Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)

Newly hatched larvae scrape the chlorophyll from the leaves turning them into a papery white structure. Fully grown larvae are cylindrical and greenish brown with dark spots and feed voraciously on the entire leaves, tender twigs, shoots and also inflorescences and fruits of the plants (Mittal & Butani, 1994). An integrated approach involving the planting of trap crops such as castor on the boundaries, collection of egg masses and newly hatched larvae and setting up of light traps for attracting moths is effective for reducing the population in the field. Application of nuclear polyhedrosis viruses (NPV) is also found promising. If necessary, two sprays of fenvalerate (0.02%) or quinalphos (0.05%) at pre-flowering and flowering stages are done. Natural enemies: Coccinellids Coccinella septempunctata, Cheilomenes sexmaculata, Brumus suturalis, green lacewing Chrysoperla carnea, syrphids

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Episyrphus balteatus and Ischiodon scutellaris are found feeding on H. coriandri. Beauveria bassiana is found to cause significant reduction of population of H. coriandri and A. craccivora. Management: Yellow sticky trap proved effective in monitoring and trapping of the aphids (Mittal & Butani, 1994). Early sown crop in October escapes from severity of pest damage. Incidence of coriander aphid is reduced to the lowest extent with maximum yield, and net profit in the crop treated with neem oil (1%) and Malathion (0.10%) spray is found effective in the control of the aphids populations in coriander If necessary, spray application of the insecticides fenvalerate (0.01%)/ dimethoate (0.03%)/imidacloprid (0.005%) is recommended to control the severe aphid infestation on coriander (Mittal & Butani, 1994).

1.3

Thrips—Aeolothrips collaris Priesner, Scirtothrips oligochaetus Karny, Haplothrips spp., Frankliniella schultzei Trybon, Diarthothrips nimbus Ananthakrishnan, Thrips tabaci and Scirtothrips dorsalis (Thysanoptera:Thripidae)

I recommended for the effectiveness of the management of the pest in coriander ((Mittal & Butani, 1994; Judal & Upadhyay, 1989).

1.4

Seed Midge: Systole albipennis Walker (Eurytomidae: Hymenoptera)

It is a major pest of coriander in Rajasthan (Krishna Kant et al., 2011). Seed wasp is an emerging problem in coriander, sometimes causing 15–20% yield loss in coriander. The infestation starts from flowering stage, and the pest remains active throughout the reproduction phase of coriander up to seed maturity. The female lays eggs inside the developing seed. The larvae feed and develop inside the seed. The colour of the infested seed looks different from normal seed because of its orange to yellow tint. The developed seed wasp exits the seed through an emergence hole. The duration of development from egg to adult stage lasts for 25 days in February on an average. Most of the adults emerge out from the seeds in storage during September and October (Patel et al., 1986). Coriander entries H-116, H-6, H-39, H-13, HE-29 and HC-143 had less than 5% infestation by midge S. albipennis.

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Adult female of the seed wasp

Exit hole on seed

Damaged lot of coriander seeds laying eggs on coriander seed

Natural enemies: The parasitoids recorded on S. albipennis include Liodontomerus indicus and Dinormus basoils. Management: The seed midge infestation is very less in the coriander crop sown in the first week of November. Insecticides fenvalerate (0.01%), dimethoate (0.03%), thiamethoxam (0.025%) and imidacloprid (0.005%) are effective against the seed midge.

1.5

Cotton White Fly: Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Adults are yellowish white in colour, and their yellowish bodies are slightly dusted with white waxy powder. The white fly is sometimes a serious pest of coriander. The nymphs are sessile, elliptical and pale greenish yellow to deep yellow. Nymphs and adults of the white fly infest the leaves and suck the sap resulting in chlorotic spots and premature leaf-drop. The pest infestation also leads to development of sooty mould which interferes with photosynthesis of leaves. In case of severe attack, the growth of the plants is adversely affected, and yield reduced considerably. Fish oil soap (2%) and neem oil (0.5%) are found effective in the management of white fly (Mittal & Butani, 1994; Singh & Tamil Selvan, 2004a).

1.6

Cutworm: Agrotis sp. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The adult is fairly large in size, with a wingspan of 40–55 mm. The forewing, especially the proximal two-thirds, is uniformly dark brown. The larva cuts the plants from ground level and makes them to fall down. Infestation of this pest starts at the initial stage of plants resulting in heavy loss to the crop.

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Indigo Caterpillar: Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

In early stages, the caterpillars are gregarious and scrape the chlorophyll content of leaf lamina, giving it a papery white appearance. Irregular holes are produced on leaves initially, and later skeletonisation occurs, leaving only veins and petioles. Female lays about 300 eggs in clusters. Caterpillar when full grown is velvety, black with yellowish-green dorsal stripes and lateral white bands with incomplete ring-like dark band on anterior and posterior end of the body.

1.8

Mirid Bug: Lygus sp. (Hemiptera: Miridae)

During their feeding, they pierce many cells and suck cell fluid. If Lygus feeding occurs in early stage of seed development, both endosperm and embryo are destroyed, and whole of the endoplasm remains unaffected (Gupta, 1962).

1.9

Pentatomid Bug: Agonoscelis nubilus (F.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)

Adult and nymphs suck the sap from leaves and stem. Heavily infested plants show stunting. Adults are yellowish. Life cycle is completed in 40–60 days. Spray application of dimethoate or quinalphos (1.5 mL/L) is useful to control the bugs.

1.10

Mites: Petrobia latens Muller & Tetranychus cinnabarinus Boisduval, T. neocaledonicus Andre & T. telarius Linn. (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

The brown wheat mite, P. latens, was first reported feeding on coriander. The larva, nymphs and adults feed on upper as well as the lower surface of leaves, leaf sheaths and floral parts. Infested leaves started withering from top downwards. Heavily infested plants show sickly yellowish or bronzing appearance. In seed spices, mite infestations are seen on the undersides of leaves, and they feed on plant sap causing yellowing and bronzing of leaves. Leaves infested by mites are covered with webs, affecting photosynthesis and causing the leaves to dry and fall off. The insecticides dimethoate and sulphur (0.02%) are effective against spider mites infesting seed spices (Gupta, 1990; Reddy et al., 1980; Kumaresan et al., 1988).

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Root Knot Nematodes—Meloidogyne spp. (Tylenchida: Heterodidae)

Infested plants appear in patches in the field. Formation of galls on host root system is the primary symptom. In severely infested plants, the root system is reduced, and the rootlets are almost completely absent hampering their function of uptake and transport of water and nutrients. Plants wilt during the hot part of day, especially under dry conditions, and are often stunted.

2 Cumin 2.1

Aphids: Myzus persicae (Sulzer), Aphis gossypii Glover, Brevicoryne brassicae L., Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) & Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Myzus persicae and Aphis gossypii are the main aphids found damaging in cumin in Rajasthan and Gujarat (Singh & Tamil Selvan, 2004b). Adults and nymphs suck the sap from plants and also excrete honeydew on which the sooty moulds develop resulting in failure of seed production. Aphids appear in November and remain active till April. In cumin, aphids alone cause up to 40% damage to the crop. Yellow sticky traps are effective for monitoring and trapping of aphids (Mittal & Butani, 1994). In early sown crop in the first fortnight, there is least population build-up of aphid Myzus persicae on cumin, whereas late sown crop suffers heavy losses in yield due to aphids infestation. Cumin UC 187, UC 154, UC 150, UC 88 and UC 33 are found to be less susceptible aphids in Rajasthan (Gupta & Yadav, 1986). Application of thiamethoxam at 12.5 g ai/ha or carbosulfan 25 EC at 1250 mL/ha gives significant control of Aphis gossipy in cumin, and imidacloprid (0.005%) or acephate (0.037%) reduced more than 90% of the aphid Myzus persicae.

2.2

Thrips: Aeolothrips collaris Priesner, Scirtothrips oligochaetus Karny, Haplothrips spp., Frankliniella schultzei Trybon, Diarthothrips nimbus Ananthakrishnan, Thrips tabaci Lindeman & Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Cumin crop suffers heavy damage since thrips colonise on plant very early and last up to flowering stages. Nymph and adults of thrips congregate in between the leaf sheath and stem of fennel, resulting in drying of the leaves and drying flowers. Two

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sprays of carbosulfan 25 EC at 1250 mL/ha are found an optimum dose for effectively control of sucking pest population in cumin.

2.3

Seed Midge: Systole albipennis Walker (Eurytomidae: Hymenoptera)

The seed midge is a major pest of seed spices infesting cumin. The larva feeds the embryo and endosperm of cumin. The duration of development from egg to adult stage lasts for 24.5 days in February on an average. Most of the adults emerged out from the seeds by making a hole in pericarp of fruits under storage conditions during September and October. The insecticides fenvalerate (0.01%), dimethoate (0.03%), neem oil (2%), thiamethoxam (0.025%) and imidacloprid (0.005%) are effective against S. albipennis.

2.4

Lepidopteran Caterpillars: Spodopter litura (Fabricius) and Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Noctuidae)

Caterpillars feed on the leaves and pods of cumin. Effective control of these caterpillars on cumin is achieved by application of fenvalerate (50 g ai/ha) (Judal & Upadhyay, 1989). Applications of neem oils and karanj oils are also useful to control early instars larvae of H. armigera and S. litura (Sharma et al., 2007).

2.5

Other Pests

They include Lygus sp. (Miridae), Mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. (Tetranychidae) and the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

3 Fennel 3.1

Aphids: Hyadaphis coriandri (Das), H. foeniculi (Pass) & Aphis fabae Scopoli (Homoptera: Aphididae)

In fennel crop, Hyadaphis coriandri is main aphid species in India. Aphids appear in November and remain active till April. Cloudy and moist weather favours rapid multiplication of this pest. Nymphs and adults of H. coriandri suck the sap from leaves, flowers and fruits of and fennel. The pest infestation during early stages of

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development results in withering of flower stalks, and when the infestation occurs at flowering and fruit stage, fruit formation is affected, resulting in shrivelled and poorquality fruits. The pest infestation favours the growth of sooty mould, affecting the growth of plants and quality and quantity of fruits. Severe infestations result in complete failure of crop. Mittal and Butani (1989) reported 903 kg/ha loss of fruit yield due to infestation of the aphid in fennel. The crop loss caused by the pest was reported to be 18.9%. The population of coccinellid predators (Coccinella septempunctata and Cheilomenes sexmaculata) had positive effect on the population of aphids. Yellow sticky trap proved effective in monitoring and trapping of aphids. Fennel RC-7b, RC-9 and RC-31b are tolerant to the aphids in Rajasthan (Bharagava et al., 1971), and Rumanian Collection escaped from aphid infestation being early flowering and maturing types. UC 187, 154, 150, 88 and 33 are least susceptible to M. persicae. Application of Verticillium lecanii + vegetable oil (0.2%), neem oil (2%) and sulphur extract of karanj (1%) gives good control of aphids and yield of seed fennel at harvest (Kant et al., 2013). Insecticidal control of aphid Hyadaphis coriandri on fennel is achieved with the spray application of 0.05% dimethoate and 0.01% fluvalinate (Butani & Mittal, 1992).

3.2

Thrips: Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood and Thrips flavus Schr. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Among the species of thrips attacking seed spices, Thrips flavus and Scirtothrips dorsalis are important on fennel. The pest population is higher in the field from the last week of March to the first week of April (Sagar, 1989). Nymph and adults of thrips congregate in between the leaf sheath and stem of fennel, which results in drying of the leaves, and infection is also found in seedling of fennel in the nursery. In later stages, damage is caused in the inflorescence. Severe infection causes drying flowers and production of shrivelled fruits (Sagar & Mehta, 1991; Sagar, 1989). Dimethoate (0.05%) is effective against the thrips on fennel (Mittal & Butani, 1994).

3.3

Caterpillar Pests: Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

They are polyphagous pests causing 15–20% crop loss in fennel (Nagalingam et al., 1984). Effective management of Spodopter litura and Helicoverpa armigera is achieved by application of fenvalerate (50 g ai/ha) (Judal & Upadhyay, 1989).

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Seed Midge: Systole albipennis Walker (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae)

Larvae feed the embryo and endosperm of fennel. In fennel, the infestation varies from 16 to 19% and yield loss up to 40% (Butani & Mittal, 1989). October-sown crops have the lowest seed infestation and the greatest yield. Management involves with the application of fenvalerate (0.01%), dimethoate (0.03%), thiamethoxam 0.025% and imidacloprid 0.005%. Neem oil (2%) is also useful to reduce the damage by the seed midge in fennel.

3.5

Cotton White Fly: Bemisia tabaci Gennadius (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Heavy infestation of white fly is reported from Andhra Pradesh in fennel crop. Hot and humid conditions generally induce rapid multiplication of white fly. Nymphs and adults of the white fly infest the leaves and suck the sap resulting in chlorotic spots and premature leaf drop. The pest infestation also leads to development of sooty mould which interferes with photosynthesis of leaves. In case of severe attack, the growth of the plants is adversely affected, and yield reduced considerably (Rao et al., 1983).

3.6

Other Pests

They include Lygus sp. (Miridae), Mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. (Tetranychidae) and the Root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

4 Fenugreek 4.1

Aphids: Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) & Aphis craccivora Koch, Myzus persicae & Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Aphids appear in November and remain active till April. Cloudy and moist weather favours rapid multiplication of this pest. Myzus persicae and Aphis gossypii are the main aphids species reported from Rajasthan and Gujarat (Sharma et al., 2007; Patel et al., 2007) besides Acyrthosiphon pisum. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the umbels of fenugreek leading to sooty mould formation, which results in poor

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development of fruits. Maximum aphid control in fenugreek crop gives highest yield (Kumawat & Singh, 2001). Fenugreek lines Rmt 1, UM 129 and PRT 4 are least susceptible to the aphids in Rajasthan (Baloda et al., 2004). Selection 95–13 is resistant in Maharashtra (Pawar et al., 2001). Management of aphids involves installation of yellow sticky trap and the application of dimethoate at 0.05% (Mittal & Butani, 1994).

A.pisum

4.2

Leaf Damage

Thrips: Thrips tabaci Lindeman, Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood and Thrips flavus Schr. (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Thrips are known to attack fenugreek. Nymph and adults lacerate and suck the sap from the leaf sheath and tender stem, resulting in drying of the leaves. Severe infection causes drying flowers and production of shrivelled fruits.

4.3

Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

It is a polyphagous pest infesting fenugreek causing 15–20% crop loss (Nagalingam et al., 1984). Two sprays of fenvalerate (0.02%) or quinalphos (0.05%) at pre-flowering and flowering stages were effective for the management of the pest.

4.4

White Fly: Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

Serious infestation has been reported in fenugreek (Singh & Tamil Selvan, 2004a). Heavy infestation of white fly is reported from Andhra Pradesh on fenugreek (Rao

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et al., 1983). Its infestation commences on seed spice crops at early vegetative growth stage nearby 45 days after sowing in semi-arid conditions in Rajasthan. In case of severe attack, the growth of the plants is adversely affected and yields reduced considerably.

4.5

Leaf Hopper: Empoasca kerri Pruthi (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

It is one of the serious pests of fenugreek at early stages of crop growth. Its infestation starts in November during early stage of crop growth. It has been reported from all major fenugreek-growing areas of India including Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka (Mittal & Butani, 1994). It develops in large numbers on fenugreek crop and causes considerable losses. The adults are wedge-shaped, yellowish green in colour, with hemi-elytra being long, narrow, semi-transparent and pale green in colour. The damage is caused by nymphs and adults by sucking the cell sap usually from the under surface of the leaves and injecting toxins, causing curling of leaf edges and leaves to turn red or brown. The leaves dry up and shed. In case of severe infestation, some brown spots appear on leaf margins, which get rolled up and subsequently die away, producing hopper burning symptoms on leaves (Singh et al., 1991).

4.6

Soybean Looper: Thysanoplusia orichalcea Fabr. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Adult is a pale brown moth with golden patches on fore wings, and the hind wings are grey brown, somewhat darker at the margin. Larva is pale yellowish green with five white lines on dorsal surface. The larva feeds on leaves by making small holes in leaf lamina, and under severe infestation, it may even skeletonise the plant.

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Leaf Miner: Liriomyza spp. (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Leaf miner is widely distributed in all fenugreek-growing areas in India. Leaf miner starts attacking on fenugreek crop at very early stages. It continues to mine the leaves of fenugreek till full vegetative stages to flowering stages. Excessive mining at early growth of the plant retarded the growth and vitality of the plants. The pest is generally active from December to May. The rest of the period passes in the soil as a pupa. The adults emerge at the beginning of December, and after mating, they start laying eggs singly in leaf tissue. The incubation period is 2–3 days. After hatching, the larvae feed between the lower and upper epidermis by making zigzag tunnels. They are full-fed in about 5 days and pupate within the galleries. Pupal period lasts for 6 days. The insect completes one generation in about 13–14 days and passes through several generations during the period of its activity.

4.8

Defoliators: Spodoptera litura (Fab.), Spodoptera exigua (Hübner), Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) & Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Noctuidae) and Hypera postica (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera:Curculionidae)

S. litura infestation is known to damage fenugreek in Andhra Pradesh. Infestation of Spodoptera litura on fenugreek causes reduction of 15–20% yield in Andhra Pradesh (Nagalingam et al., 1979). H. armigera is reported on fenugreek in Gujarat (Judal & Upadhyay, 1989). Cut worm Agrotis ipsilon is another pest found in fenugreek crop. Hypera postica is reported from southern states infesting fenugreek crops from the first week of February until mid-March (Singh, 2007). Effective management of Spodoptera litura and Helicoverpa armigera on fenugreek was achieved by application of fenvalerate (50 g ai/ha) (Nagalingam et al., 1979; Judal & Upadhyay, 1989).

4.9

Other Pests

They include Lygus sp., mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. and the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

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5 Dill The pests of dill include Hyadaphis coriandri (Das) H. foeniculi (Pass) & Aphis fabae Scopoli, Thrips tabaci and Scirtothrips dorsalis, Lygus sp., mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. and the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

6 Ajwain The pests of ajwain include Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris) and Aeolothrips collaris Priesner, Scirtothrips oligochaetus Karny, Haplothrips spp., Frankliniella schultzei Trybon, Diarthothrips nimbus Ananthakrishnan, seed wasp Systole albipennis Walker, Lygus sp., mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. and the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

7 Nigella The pests of nigella include Acyrthosiphon pisum (Harris), Lygus sp., mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. and the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

8 Anise The pests of Anise include Aeolothrips collaris Priesner, Scirtothrips oligochaetus Karny, Haplothrips spp., Frankliniella schultzei Trybon, Diarthothrips nimbus Ananthakrishnan, Seed wasp Systole albipennis, Lygus sp., mites Petrobia latens Muller, Tetranychus telarius Linn. and the root knot nematode Meloidogyne spp.

References Baloda, R. S., Lal, G., & Manohar, S. S. (2004). Sereening of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum— graccum L.) cultivars against aphids (Acyrthosiphom pisum H.). Annals of Agri Bio Research, 9(1), 79–82. Bharagava, P. D., Mathur, S. C., Vyas, H. K., & Anwar, M. (1971). Note on screening fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) varieties against aphid (Hyadaphis coriandri (Das)) infestation. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 41, 90–92.

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Butani, P. G. & Mittal, V. P. (1989). Efficacy of certain insecticides against fennel seed midge (Systole albipennis Walker). In: Abstract of first national seminar on seed spices, Jaipur, 24–25 October 1989, p. 40. Butani, P. G., Mittal, V. P., & Goel, S. C. (1992) Management of aphids with conservation of coccinellid predators in fennel crop. In: S. C. Goel (Ed.), Proceeding of the National Symposium on growth, development and control technology of insect-pests. Uttar Pradesh Zoological Society, Meerut, India, pp. 205–211. Gupta, S. C. (1962). Occurrence of exembryonate seeds in the Umbelliferae. Current Science, 31, 203–205. Gupta, B. M. (1990). Occurrence of brown wheat mite. Petrobia Latens (Miller) on cumin in Rajasthan. Indian Cocoa- Arecanut and Spice Journal, 13(4), 143. Gupta, B. M., & Yadav, C. P. S. (1986). Susceptibility of released and elite cumin germplasm to aphid. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 9(3), 174–176. Judal, G. S., & Upadhyay, V. R. (1989). New host of Heliothis armigera in India. Tropical Pest Management, 35(2), 213. Kant, K., Sharma, Y. K., Meena, S. R., Meena, S. S., & Mehta, R. S. (2011). Management of seed wasp Systole albipennis Walker (hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) in coriander. International Journal of Seed Spices, 1(1), 53–55. Kant, K., Sharma, Y. K., Mishra, B. K., Vishal, M. K., & Meena, S. R. (2013). Management of chalcid wasp (Systole albipennis) (Eurytomidae: Hymenoptera) in coriander: A pest of field and quarantine significance. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 83(10), 1043–1045. Kumaresan, D., Regupathy, A., & Baskaran, P. (1988). Pest of seed spices. Rajalakshmi Publication, 241p. Kumawat, K. C., & Singh, S. P. (2001). Bio efficacy of some insecticide against aphids, Acyrthosiphon pisum on fenugreek. Annals of Plant Protection Science, 9(2), 320–322. Mittal, V. P. & Butani, P. G. (1989). Effeacy of some insecticides against aphid attacking fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill). In: Abstracts first national seminar on seed spices, Jaipur, 24–25 October 1989. p 41. Mittal, V. P., & Butani, P. G. (1994). Pests of seed spices. In K. L. Chadha & P. Rothinan (Eds.), Advances in horticulture (Plantation and spice crop part-2) (Vol. 10, pp. 825–855). Malhotra Publishing House. Nagalingam, B., Narasimha Rao, B. N., Rosaiah, B., & Narasimha, R. B. (1979). First record of Spodoptira litura Fabricius on certain minor spices. Current Research, 8(10), 171–172. Nagalingam, B., Narasimha Rao, B. N., Rosaish, B., Krishnamurthy, B. H., Laxminarayana, K., & Narasimha, R. B. (1984). Effect of some recent insecticides on Spodoptera litura Fabricius on coriander. Pesticides, 18(6), 24–25. Patel, N. R., Patel, K. D., Agalodiya, A. V., & Patel, P. K. (2007). Testing of bio efficacy and phytotoxic effect of thiomethoxam 25 WG against cumin aphid (Aphid gossipy, L.). Paper presented in National Seminar on production, development, quality and export of seed spices. Feb 2–3, 2007. NRC Seed Spices, Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, pp. 326–337. Patel, R. C., Yadav, D. N., Dodia, J. F., & Patel, A. R. (1986). On the occurrence of Systole albipennis Walker (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) infesting fennel in Gujarat. Gujarat Agriculture University Research Journal, 12, 51–52. Pawar, D. B., Warade, S. D., Joshi, V. R., & Patel, S. K. (2001). Reaction of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum—graecum Linn.) entries against aphid (Aphis craccivora koch) (Aphididae: Homoptera). Insect Environment, 6(4), 164–165. Rao, D. M., Ahmed, K., & Rao, T. S. R. (1983). Relative efficacy of different insecticides on the control of major pests of coriander. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spice Journal, 7(1), 15–16. Reddy, A. S., Rao, G. S., Rao, B. H. K. M., & Laxminarayana, K. (1980). Insecticidal control of the red spider mite, Tetranychus telarius L. on coriander. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spice Journal, 4(1), 9–11. Sagar, P. (1989). Population dynamics of thrips, Thrips flavus schr. A pest of fennel in Punjab. Indian Perfumer, 33(4), 266–267.

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Sagar, P., & Mehta, S. K. (1991). Population build-up patterns of thrips, Thrips flavus schr. on fennel and dill crop of Ludhiana. Journal of Research P.A.U., 28(2), 219–221. Sharma, K. L., Kumawat, K. C., & Yadav, S. R. (2007). Relative bio efficacy of different insecticide against aphids Myzus persicae Sulzer on cumin. Paper presented in national seminar on production, development, quality and export of seed spices. Feb 2–3, 2007. NRC Seed Spices, Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, 336p. Singh, M. P. (2007). Integrated pest management (IPM) in seed spice. Paper presented in National Seminar on production, development, quality and export of seed spices. February 2–3, 2007. NRC Seed Spices, Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, pp. 139–148. Singh, T. V. K., Singh, K. M., & Singh, R. N. (1991). Host range of groundnut Jassid Empoasca kerri Pruthi. Indian Journal of Entomology, 53(1), 1–17. Singh, J., & Tamil Selvan, M. (2004a). Integrated pest management (IPM) package for fennel. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spice Journal, 6(3), 89–92. Singh, J., & Tamil Selvan, M. (2004b). Integrated pest management (IPM) package for cumin. Indian Cocoa Arecanut and Spice Journal, 6(2), 67–69.

Storage Pests and Their Management in Spices Krishna Kant, S. R. Meena, S. Devasahayam, and M. Mani

Abstract Seed spices are generally stored for a year or more at farmers’ level. The most cases of insect infestation come from field, and another source is the store house. The insect infestation generally remains undetected until adults are seen. By the time these adults are detected, much of seeds are already damaged. Storage pests in store are common for fennel, coriander, cumin, ajwain, etc. The most common species infesting seed spices during storage are cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne, drug store beetle Stegobium paniceum and Seed wasp Systole albipennis. Other insects include red rust flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, rice moth Corcyra cephalonica and almond moth Cadra cautella. Management of key pests of seed spices is also discussed.

1 Seed Wasp: Systole albipennis Walker (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) Its infestation starts in the grains on the field. The female lays eggs inside the developing seed. The larvae feed and develop inside the seed. The duration of development from egg to adult stage lasts for 25 days. Most of the adults emerged out from the seeds by making a hole in pericarp of fruits under storage conditions (Patel, 2007).

K. Kant (*) · S. R. Meena ICAR—National Research Centre on Seed Spices, Tabiji, Rajasthan, India S. Devasahayam Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kozhikode, Kerala, India M. Mani ICAR—Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_58

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Adult female of the seed wasp laying eggs on coriander seed

Exit hole on seed

Damaged lot of coriander seeds

During the development of seeds in the field, insecticides fenvalerate (0.01%), dimethoate (0.03%), thiamethoxam (0.025%) and imidacloprid (0.005%) are to be applied to reduce the damage during the storage of coriander seeds.

2 Cigarette Beetle: Lasioderma serricorne (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) It is known to feed on a variety of stored spices, viz., cardamom, cumin aniseed, coriander, ginger, turmeric and chillies, garlic bulb, etc. The larvae of cigarette beetle tunnel into dry ginger and contaminate it with an abundant production of frass. The larvae and adults also make extensive holes in the produce. The light brown round beetle with smooth elytra that have fine hairs has its thorax and head bent downwards, and this presents a strongly humped appearance to the insect. The eggs are creamy white, and the larvae are whitish grey with dense hairs. Eggs hatch in 9–14 days. The larvae are very active when young but become sluggish as they age. There are 4–6 larval instars completing in 17–29 days, and the later instars are scarabaeiform. Pupation occurs within a silken cocoon, and the pupa is brown. Pupal period lasts for 2–8 days Total development is completed in 52 days (Joseph, Nalinakumai, & Amritha, 2001; Naveena et al., 2019). Drying of seeds, fumigation with aluminium phosphide tablets at 20–30 tablets for 28 cu. m. for 96 h, aeration of tobacco for 72 h, storing at 16–18  C, and fogging with pyrethrum (1%) oil mist at 3 fl. Oz/28 cu. m. or DDVP aerosol at 1–2 g a.i./28 cu. m. once or twice a week are recommended to reduce the damage by the cigarette beetle.

Adult

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3 Drug Store Beetle: Stegobium paniceum (L.) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) It is known to infest black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, clove, nutmeg, coriander, cumin and fennel in storage. It causes up to 60% infestation in ginger and turmeric. Infestation of stored cardamom by S. paniceum goes up to 25–30% loss in essential oil content. It lays the eggs in batches of 10–40. Grub is not hairy but is pale white, fleshy with the abdomen terminating in two dark horny points. The larvae tunnel into dry ginger and contaminate it with an abundant production of frass. The drug store beetle resembles the cigarette beetle superficially but is smaller with striated elytra, and the distal segments of the antenna are clubbed. The larvae are pale white with the abdomen terminating in two dark horny points in fully grown specimens. The eggs are cigar-shaped and hatch in 6 days. The larval period lasts for 50 days, and the pupal period lasts for 8–12 days (Abraham, 1975).

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Grub

4 Coffee Bean Weevil: Araecerus fasciculatus (DeGeer) (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) It is a small grey, stout beetle with pale marks on the elytra and with long, clubbed antennae. The eggs are oval and are laid in small pits dug on the rhizomes by the female beetles. Pupation takes place within the infested rhizomes. The entire life cycle lasts for 21–28 days. Both adults and larvae of coffee bean weevil are injurious to dry ginger rhizomes that are completely fed, and only the outer covering is left intact. The damage caused by storage pests to ginger in Kerala indicated that the weight loss to the stored produce by the pest infestation increases gradually from the second month onwards (Joseph, Nalinakumai, & Mohan, 2001).

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Adult

Grub

5 Saw-Toothed Grain Beetle: Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) (Coleoptera: Cucujidae) It is known to infest ginger and turmeric in storage. The damage is caused by the larva and adult which bore into the produce. The adults are slender brown beetles with a short clubbed antennae; the prothorax has saw-tooth like projections on the sides. The larvae are white, elongate and flattened and measure 4–5 mm when fully grown. There are 2–4 larval instars lasting for 16–19 days. Pupation takes place in the produce and lasts for 6–8 days (Abraham, 1975).

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6 Almond Moth Cadra cautella (= Ephestia cautella) Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) It is known to attack stored spices. Adult females lay around 300–400 eggs during the first week, usually starting 20–25 days after adult emergence. The larvae are of an off-white colour with purple spots. The caterpillars web together the grains and feed on them. They will be fully grown in 25 days. Pupal period is completed within 12–15 days. Adults are small moths, with forewings being grey-brown and banded with lighter and darker colours.

Adult

Larva

7 Rice Moth: Corcyra cephalonica Stainton (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) The adult moth is greyish brown. The caterpillars web together the grains and feed within.

8 Red Flour Beetle: Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) It causes considerable damage to a wide range of spices including black pepper, cardamom, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin and fennel, and is generally secondary in nature following infestation by other storage pests. The adults are small flat elongate reddish brown beetles 3–4 mm long. The larvae are slender, cylindrical and wiry in appearance covered with fine hair, with the terminal segments bearing an appendage. The eggs and pupae are often cannibalized by adults. The larval period lasts for 27–90 days, and the total life cycle is completed in 6 weeks (Abraham, 1975).

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Grub

Damaged Turmeric

Adult

Rhizome scale on ginger

Damaged Ginger

9 Coffee Bean Weevil: Araecerus fasciculatus (De Geer) (Coleoptera: Anthribidae) It is a stored product pest of nutmeg. The larvae damage the nut mug in the storage, and adults make circular holes on emergence. The adult beetle is small with a humped body outline and long legs. The dorsal side is mottled with dark and light brown, and the antennae are long with a three-segmented club, darker than the rest of the segments.

9.1

Management of Pests of Storage Spices

Seed spices are generally stored for a year or more at farmers’ level. The most cases of insect infestation come from field, and another source is the store house. The insect infestation generally remains undetected until adults are seen. By the time these adults are detected, much of seeds are already damaged. Storage pests in store are common for fennel, coriander, cumin, ajwain, etc. Excess moisture and mould are mainly responsible for the deterioration in quality of stored materials. Insect and mite infestation in stored seed spices occurs at temperature ranging between 3 and 30  C and above 12% moisture content in stored seeds (Malhotra, 2007). Infestation level during storage is highly dependent on temperature, humidity, seed moisture and type of storage (Abraham, 1975; Patel, 2007; Rees, 1995; Sharma, 1976). Various strategies have been suggested for the management of storage pests,

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including storage in suitable containers, fumigation, radiation and the application of insecticides. Plant Products: Various natural plant materials and vegetable oils can be used for protection against storage pests especially in household situations. Storage of dry ginger in PET containers with leaf powder of Glycosmis cochinchinensis or Azadirachta indica is promising (IISR, 2002). After 3 months of storage, banana leaf ash followed by coconut oil treatment was promising in turmeric and coriander. Similarly, in black pepper and fennel, treatment with coconut oil and banana leaf ash is promising (Maity, 2004). However, adequate precaution should be taken that the aroma and other intrinsic qualities of spices are not affected by using these plant products. Sanitation: Store hygiene or sanitation procedures help to reduce pest populations in the store, which would be easier to control adopting other techniques. The building or structure for storage should be compact and weather proof with tight fitting doors. Wooden structures are to be treated suitably to resist insect attack. Concrete and metal structures, though expensive, are ideal on a long-term basis. Store cleanliness involves sweeping, removal and destruction of produce residues, spillage and wastes. Careful inspection and cleaning of nooks and crevices where many storage insects generally hide and lay eggs are also important. Sacks and bags should be thoroughly cleaned between uses and should be arranged in such a way as to allow adequate ventilation and moving space for periodical inspection. Inner and outer sides of old gunnies meant for storage and godown walls, roof and floor have to be disinfested by spraying 50 EC malathion at 30 ml/3 L to cover an area of 10 m2, and the gunnies are dried in the next day. Physical Control: The produce that is to be stored should be clean and dry, and the optimum temperature to which it should be dried depends on the type of produce. Sun drying is the most common method adopted to dry the produce, but driers are more efficient since they dry the produce within a shorter period and more efficiently and are useful during inclement weather. Storage in airtight containers also kills storage pests after a certain period, and it is more effective to fill the sealed container with inert gas such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen. Storage in jute bags line with alkathene film also affords sufficient protection which can be rendered more effective by impregnating the bags with a suitable insecticide. Storage in bags of low-density poly ethylene and aluminium foil laminated with low-density poly ethylene also affords protection against storage pests. Chemical Control: Various pesticides are used to disinfest storage premises when they are empty and also as produce protectants. An empty store house or container should be first cleaned thoroughly, and all debris are removed and destroyed. Contact insecticides are then applied as a spray so as to thoroughly wet the walls and floor. Bagged produce can be sprayed outside with suitable contact insecticides. However, the insecticides should be used in such a way that they do not leave pesticide residues in the produce. Fumigation is a useful method of disinfestation, and whole store fumigation is very effective if the premises can be sealed completely. Fumigants should be used with great care as per the instructions of regulatory bodies, and aeration is necessary for 72 h after use.

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Impregnation of jute bags lined with alkathene (500 gauge) with malathion (0.2%) or fumigation with methyl bromide for 6 prevents the pest infestation (Abraham, 1975). Most of the seed spices crop during storage can be controlled by fumigation of aluminium phosphide, at 3 tablets per metric ton of grin or at 21 tablets per 28 cubic tonne for closed space. Fumigation with aluminium phosphide tablets in an airtight store for 2–3 days is done to control the pest infestation (Jacob, 1986). The turmeric-filled bags in godowns must be sprayed with the malathion spray fluid once in 2–3 months. Instead of malathion spray, fumigation with Ethylene Dibromide (EDB) ampules at 3 mL per 100 kg rhizomes can also be done by making godown airtight. The tip of the ampule is cut and put in between the bags in godown and closed. Rhizomes can be stored without beetle infestation for 1 year with the fumigation (Malhotra, 2007). In storage, Systole albipennis infests coriander and fennel seeds. Methyl bromide (64 mg/L) and hydrocyanic acid gas at 27  C for 2 h at reduced pressure are found effective against the seed midge S. albipennis. Microware exposure of the eggs of Lasioderma serricorne and Stegobium paniceum for 10 min above resulted in no adults emerging from seeds of coriander. The beetles Lasioderma serricorne could be controlled with heat treatment of fumigation (Singh, 2007).

References Abraham, C. C. (1975). Insect pests of stored spices and their control. Arecanut Spices Bulletin, 7, 4–6. IISR. (2002). Annual report 2001–2002. Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research, 131 p. Jacob, S. A. (1986). Important pests of ginger and turmeric and their control. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices Journal, 9, 61–62. Joseph J, Nalinakumai T and Amritha V.S. 2001. Occurrence and distribution n of cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricone Fab. on stored ginger. Insect Environment 7:73. Joseph, J., Nalinakumai, T., & Mohan, P. (2001). Extent of damage by insect pests on stored ginger, turmeric and pepper. Insect Environment, 7, 71–72. Maity, B. K. (2004). Effect of botanicals in protecting stored spices against cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne Fab. Journal of Plant Protection and Environment, 1, 62–64. Malhotra, S. K. (2007). Safety dimension for exportable seed spices production. Paper presented in National Seminar on production, development, quality and export of seed spices. Feb 2–3, 2007. NRC Seed Spices, Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India, pp. 109–118. Naveena, K., Roseleen, S., & Roseleen, J. (2019). Studies on the biology of cigarette beetle, Lasioderma serricorne (F.) (Coleoptera: Anobiidae) in turmeric powder. International Journal of Chemical Studies, 7(4), 2792–2794. Patel, N. (2007). Management of storage pests of seed spices. Paper presented in National Seminar on Production, Development, Quality and Export of Seed Spices. Feb 2–3, 2007. NRC seed spices, Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. pp. 149–161. Rees, P. D. (1995). Coleoptera. In B. Subramanyam & D. W. Hagstrum (Eds.), Integrated management of insects in stored products (pp. 1–39). Markel Dekker. Sharma, B. D. (1976). Occurrence of Gibbium Sylloides Czenp in stored foods in Jammu and Kashmir state. India Journal of Entomology, 36, 365. Singh, M. P. (2007). Integrated pest management (IPM) in seed spice. Paper presented in National Seminar on Production, Development, Quality and Export of seed spices. Feb 2–3, 2007. NRC seed spices, Tabiji, Ajmer, Rajasthan, India. pp. 139–148.

Pests and Their Management in Cashew T. N. Raviprasad and K. Vanitha

Abstract More than 180 insect pests have been reported to cause damage to cashew. Major pests include Tea mosquito bugs Helopeltis antonii, Helopeltis bradyi, Helopeltis theivora and Pachypeltis maesarum and stem and root borers Neoplocaederus ferrugineus, Neoplocaederus obesus and Batocera rufomaculata. Regionally occurring/sporadic insect pests include the leaf miner Acrocercops syngramma, leaf and blossom webbers Lamida moncusalis and Orthaga exvinaceae, shoot tip caterpillars Hypatima haligramma Meyick and Anarsia epotias, leaf folders Sylepta aurantiacalis, S. derogata and Caloptilia tiselaea, apple and nut borers Thylocoptila paurosema, Hyalospila leuconeurella and Nephopteryx sp., leaf beetles Monolepta longitarsus and Microserica quadrinotata, leaf thrips Selenothrips rubrocinctus, Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus and Retithrips syriacus, flower thrips Scirtothrips dorsalis and Frankliniella schultzei, Rhynchothrips raoensis, Haplothrips ganglbaueri and H. ceylonicus, mealybug species, viz., Ferrisia virgata, Planococcus citrii, Planococcus lilacinus, Planococcoides robustus, Planococcus minor, Crisicoccus hirsutus, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Phenacoccus solenopsis, and Paracoccus marginatus, Aphids Toxoptera odinae and Aphis gossypii, and bark borer Indarbela tetraonis. Management for the important pests is discussed.

T. N. Raviprasad (*) · K. Vanitha ICAR—Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur, Karnataka, India e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_59

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1 Tea Mosquito Bugs (TMB): Helopeltis antonii Signoret, H. bradyi Waterhouse, H. theivora Waterhouse and Pachypeltis maesarum Kirkaldy (Hemiptera: Miridae) The bug resembles mosquito in sitting position, and hence, this pest is known as ‘mosquito bug’. Tea mosquito bug is a major insect pest that occurs during cropping season and can cause 36–75% damage. Losses in nut yield to the tune of 25–50% have been reported. In India, in addition to the predominant species, H. antonii, three more species, viz., H. theivora, H. bradyi and Pachypeltis maesarum, are also known to cause similar damage in certain locations (Sundararaju & Sundarababu, 1999). H. antonii: The female bug lives for about 7 days, while the longevity of male is 9–10 days. The adult bug is reddish-brown, about 6–8 mm long with a black head, red thorax, and black and white abdomen. The pest can easily be recognized by its peculiar pin-like, knobbed process projecting on the dorsal side of its mid thorax. Nymphs are also reddish brown, elongate bug with black head, red thorax; black and white abdomen. H. theivora: The adult is small bug measuring 6–8 mm in length. The body is slender and elongated with yellowish-brown or olive green head, dark red thorax and yellow and greenish-black abdomen. Appendages are long, dark and delicate. The thorax bears a characteristic dorsal knobbed process. They have brownish yellow pronotum and greenish abdomen colouration. H. bradyi: Male is 5.6–7 mm in length, and general colouration are as in H. theivora except pronotum uniformly black. Females are larger than male, with length being 6.7–8.8 mm and similar general colouration with pronotum sometimes brown and red. Pachypeltis maesarum: They lack scutellar process and can be easily distinguished from Helopeltis. Males exhibited brownish yellow and dark brownish colour variants, while females were brownish yellow. Different species p of TMB infesting g cashew

a

a) H. antonii

b

b) H. bradyi

c

c) H. theivora

d

d) P. maesarum

Biology: Female bug lays reniform and creamy white eggs singly by deeply inserting them into the tender tissues of new shoots, leaf petioles and veins. The

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adults survive for more than a month, and a female bug could lay up to 259 eggs during its life time. Occasionally, the eggs are laid on the flower buds, flowering inflorescences, peduncle, rachis and immature fruits as well as nuts, resulting in small raised brownish black pustules. The presence of chorionic threads projecting outside the tissues is indicative of the presence of eggs inside. The nymphs go through five instars in 10–15 days. The first instar is completed in 1.9 days, second instar in 2.2 days, third in 2.8 days, fourth instar in 2.8 days and fifth instar in 3.2 days, and thus, nymphal period completes within 13 to 15 days. The life cycle is completed in 25–32 days (Maruthadurai et al., 2012). Different life-stages of TMB

Respiratory tubes of eggs

Eggs

Nymph

Adult

Damage: The nymphs on hatching feed on tender portions of the plant by sucking the plant sap, and the typical feeding damage symptoms occur as brownish or dark-brown necrotic lesions. The lesions are striate on shoots and roundish on tender fruits. Both nymphs and adults suck sap from tender shoots, petioles, midribs and laminae of tender leaves, inflorescences, flower buds and immature fruits. The feeding activity results in drying up of new flushes and inflorescences leading to a scorched appearance of the trees, shrivelling and abortion of immature nuts. The feeding injury by the bug leads to the infection and manifestation of die-back disease caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and Botryodiplodia theobromae (Pillai et al., 1976). Seasonal incidence: Initiation of population build-up of H. antonii and its damage symptoms commence during September–October onwards synchronizing with the emergence of new Flush and inflorescence after the cessation of monsoon rains. In young plantations, the pest is noticed continuously with a higher intensity during February and March (Sathiamma, 1977). A maximum shoot damage of 50% during November and high inflorescence damage of 70% from December to February with a peak pest population during February are noticed (Sundararaju, 1984).

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Feeding damage symptoms

Leaf damage

Flower damage

Nut damage

Tree damage

Natural Enemies: Naturally occurring parasitoids include Erythmelus helopeltidis Gahan, Telenomus sp., Chaetostricha sp., Gonatocerus bialbifuniculatus Subba Rao and Ufens sp. The bugs are found to be attacked by the several predators including the arboreal ant Crematogaster wroughtoni Forel and Oecophylla smargdina (Formicidae), several species of spiders and reduviid bugs. The bugs are also found infected by entomopathogenic fungi, viz., Aspergillus flavus and A. tamarii (Bhat et al., 2013). Management: They avoid the growing of alternate host plants around cashew plantations; though most of the cashew varieties are highly susceptible to this pest, mid-season or late season flowering varieties could escape from the severity of the pest infestation. A cashew accession, Goa 11/6, exhibited consistently moderate level of pest incidence due to mid–late season flowering and also had a satisfactory nut yield of 2.0 t/ha. Hence, this accession has been later released as ‘Bhaskara’ from the ICAR-Directorate of Cashew Research, Puttur (Sundararaju et al., 2006). L-cyhalothrin (0.003%), prophenophos (0.05%) and triazophos (0.05%) are found to be effective against nymphs and adults of TMB (Sundararaju, 2004).

2 Cashew Stem and Root Borers (CSRB): Neoplocaederus (=Plocaederus) ferrugineus (L.), Neoplocaederus (=Plocaederus) obesus Gahan and Batocera rufomaculata De Geer (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Plocaederus ferrugineus is the most destructive pest species that infests cashew in all the cashew-growing tracts in India along with two other species, viz., P. obesus and B. rufomaculata (Rai, 1984). Plocaederus ferrugineus: The adults of P. ferrugineus are reddish dark brown, medium-sized beetles (25–40 mm in length). Adults of P. obesus are chestnut coloured, longicorn beetles, measure about 40 cm in length and have slight pubescence on elytra. P. obesus: Adult beetle is medium sized, reddish-chestnut or testaceous colour. B. rufomaculata: Adults of B. rufomaculata are greyish, measure 50 mm in length and have yellowish or orange spots on the elytra and on the pronotum.

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Plocaederus ferrugineus

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P. obesus

B. rufomaculata

Biology: The adult beetles are sluggish on the day of emergence, mating starts on the second day and repeated matings occur during the life time of the adults. Eggs are generally laid in the bark crevices of the main trunk up to 1 m from ground level and also on the exposed roots as well as in the soil close to the collar region of the tree. Eggs are pale white, ovoid and smooth measuring about 3.5  1.5 mm. Incubation period is 4–6 days. The nascent first instar grubs feed on the tissue near the site of oviposition, and extrusion of fine pinkish frass with or without gum exudation is noticed within few days of hatching. The grub duration in case of P. ferrugineus and P. obesus lasts for about 6–8 months. The grubs of Plocaederus spp. have three pairs of thoracic prolegs, while in case of B. rufomaculata, the grubs are apodus. The fully fed grubs descend to root zone through tunnels, bore into the heartwood and form an oval-shaped chamber with a circular exit hole for the emergence of adult beetles. The chamber is tightly packed with fibrous tissues and frass, providing protection to the calcareous cocoon within which the grub undergoes pupation in case of P. ferrugineus and P. obesus, while the grubs of B. rufomaculata pupate without forming any cocoon. Though the adults develop fully within 45–60 days, they stay quiescent in the cocoon and emerge after 75–90 days. It takes about 340 days to complete the life cycle. Sexual dimorphism was observed in adult beetles, wherein the males had antennal length greater than the body length, while in females, it was equal or shorter to the body length (Mohapatra & Jena, 2007). Life stages of Plocaederus ferrugineus

Eggs

Grubs

Calcareous cocoon

Adult

Damage: The symptoms of damage include the presence of small holes in the collar region, having gummosis and extrusion of frass through these holes. The subsequent stages of infestation lead to gradual yellowing and premature shedding of leaves and drying of twigs and, finally, the death of the CSRB-infested cashew tree. The grubs tunnel inside the bark extensively in the collar region, progressively increasing in body size. The tunnels extend from 65 to 185 cm in length, based on the

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direction and nature of tunnelling. The tunnelling in several cases extends deep below the soil, completely damaging lateral and taproots up to 90 cm below the ground level. These tunnels are tightly plugged with chewed fibres, frass and excreta, and an air pocket occurs only at the spot where the grub feeds. At later stages of pest infestation, extrusion of white powdery frass due to tunnelling into the xylem (heartwood) is generally noticeable at the base of the tree trunk. As a result of damage by numerous grubs in a single tree, the bark of the collar region withers away and shows severe splitting. Occurrence of termite galleries can be seen at this stage, wherein they feed on the old frass and dead bark. The pest is capable of causing death of 6–10% of the productive trees annually if they are left untreated (Bhat et al., 2002). Seasonal abundance: Even though occurrence of the pest is noticed throughout year in both East and West Coast, relatively large population of CSRB grubs and severe infestation could be seen in the coastal Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh during February–May and March–July, respectively The maximum occurrence of CSRB eggs was during March–May, the early larvae were seen from March to July and old larvae from June to October, while the pupal stages were prevalent from October to December. Maximum egg laying was observed between February to May, which indicates maximum adult emergence during these months. However, there is a meagre and random adult emergence extending from September to June. There was no adult emergence during the monsoon season (June to August) in any of the cashew-growing states (Ramadevi & Krishna Murthy, 1983). Symptoms of damage by cashew stem borer

Gummosis

Frass exudation

Yellowing of plants

Natural enemies: Avetianella batocerae (Ferrière) is found parasitizing the eggs of P. ferrugineus, and M. anisopliae is also found infecting the grubs of P. ferrugineus. Management: It is vital to implement surveillance activity for early detection of pest infestation symptoms adopting phytosanitation by uprooting the trees beyond recovery. Management of these pest species on cashew is achieved by postextraction prophylaxis after mechanical removal of the immature stages of the pest and later by swabbing and drenching the infested portions with chlorpyriphos (0.2%) as well as the remaining zone of pest incidence adoption of phytosanitation could not only reduce the number of freshly infested cashew trees in the subsequent year, but

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also significantly reduce the mean number of CSRB grubs encountered in each infested cashew tree (Sundararaju, 1985; Raviprasad et al., 2009). Application of M. anisopliae spawn 250 g/tree along with neem cake (500 g) was most effective with least infested trees (7.40%) followed by application of B. bassiana spawn 250 g/tree along with neem cake (500 g) with 11.11% infested trees (Sahu & Sharma, 2008). The infective juveniles (IJs) of entomopathogenic nematodes of the genera Steinernema and Heterorhabditis, which were found to be pathogenic to grubs of CSRB under laboratory conditions, had a long survival in field situations. They could survive for up to 150 days in cashew ecosystem under shaded conditions (Vasanthi & Raviprasad, 2012). The volatile concentrates and extracts of frass were found to elicit positive response from the female beetles. The compounds in the response-inducing fractions have been synthesized, and bucket traps and cross-vane traps are installed in CSRB to reduce the borer incidence.

Infection on grub

Bucket trap

Cross-vane sticky trap by M.anisopliae

3 Leaf Miner: Acrocercops syngramma Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) The cashew leaf miner, A. syngramma, is one of the important pests of cashew which occurs all over the country, causing considerable damage on young flushes during post-monsoon period (Sundararaju, 1984; Pathummal Beevi et al., 1993). Biology: Adult moth is very small, with characteristic silvery bands on fore wings. Eggs are laid on tender leaves. Eggs hatch in 5 days. The larvae of leaf miner are dull white and turn pinkish before pupation. Larval period is of 10 days. The fully grown larvae fall on to the soil and pupate, and the pupal period lasts for 8–9 days. The total life cycle lasts between 20 and 40 days (Athalye & Patil, 1999).

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T. N. Raviprasad and K. Vanitha Life stages of Acrocercops syngramma

Larva within the mine

Larva

Pupa

Adult

Damage: The larvae after hatching start mining below the dorsal epidermal layer of the tender leaves. The mining leads to narrow silvery mines which form extensive leaf blisters. Infested portions turn silvery grey and dry up causing distortion, browning and curling of the leaves, thereby reducing the photosynthetic area. Young plants are more prone to incidence by this pest. The population build-up of leaf miner shows a gradual increase from August till October, reaching the peak during mid-November and then declining abruptly (Vanitha et al. 2015a, b; Athalye & Patil, 1999).

Leaf miner damage

Management: Need-based applications of triazophos (0.05%) and cypermethrin (0.0075%) were reported to be effective against leaf miner larvae (Athalye & Patil, 1999).

4 Leaf and Blossom Webber: Lamida (=Macalla) moncusalis Walk. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Biology: The male moths are dark and fuscous, and the females are greener. Eggs are deposited ventrally on leaves and occasionally on tender shoots singly or in groups of six. The fecundity varied from 50 eggs per female. Incubation period is of 4–7 days. Freshly laid eggs are yellowish green in colour, ovoid and somewhat flat on the surface, but three broad pink bands appear across the surface a day later. The caterpillar is dark green in colour with yellow longitudinal bands and pinkish dorsal lines. Five larval instars are recorded, which last for 2.4, 3.93, 4.33, 4.87 and 5.87 days. Pupation takes place within the webbed leaves in a silken cocoon. Freshly formed pupa is light yellow with greyish tinge at the thoracic region. Pupal period is of 9–15 days respectively. Adult emerges by making a rupture in the pupa. Males

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have peculiar habit of resting on the dorsal side of the leaves with the tip of the abdomen raised and bent upwards. Males are dark, while the females are olive green. Life cycle is completed in 35–40 days (Rao et al., 2002).

Adult

Caterpillar

Leaf webbing

Damage: Leaf and blossom webbers attack new flushes and inflorescences. The caterpillars of this pest web the shoots and inflorescences together, remain inside and feed on them. Subsequently, the webbed portions of the shoots and blossom dry up. Hence, it is called shoot and blossom webbing caterpillar. The galleries of silken webs reinforced with castings and scraps of plant parts are indicative of the presence of caterpillars inside the webbed portion. The incidence is found severe mostly on young trees (Bhat et al., 2002). Management: Only during severe incidence of this pest in young plantations, spraying with insecticides, viz., L-cyhalothrin (0.003%), is to be done.

5 Shoot Tip Caterpillars: Hypatima (=Chelaria) haligramma Meyick and Anarsia epotias Meyr. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) The shoot tip caterpillars H. haligramma and A. epotias cause damage to shoot tips of cashew trees during active growth period. The larvae of both these species also damage the inflorescences subsequently. Extent of damage caused by the shoot tip caterpillar revealed 13.0% incidence in newly emerging post-monsoon flushes in October and 10.5% in pre-monsoon flushes in May (Babu et al., 1983). H. haligramma: The tiny, yellowish to greenish-brown larvae of the moth, H. haligramma, damage the shoot tips by folding the fresh leaves and feed within. Tender shoot tips are bored occasionally up to 25–35 mm, leading to drying up of shoot tips. This pest is regularly reported from the East Coast tracts (Mohapatra et al., 1998).

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Damaged shoot tip

Split shoot with larvae

A. epotias: The egg, larval and pupal period lasts for 3–4 days, 12–16 days and 7–10 days, respectively, and the life cycle is completed in 25–29 days. The pale yellowish green young caterpillars with black head web together the tender leaves and feed within it at the early stage. Later on, they bore in to the terminal shoots and tunnel inside up to 2–3 cm. A gummy substance oozes out from the infected tips and finally the attacked shoots dry up. Management: L-cyhalothrin (0.003%) is recommended for the management of the major cashew pest tea mosquito bug and was found to also offer effective control of the flower/inflorescence infesting lepidopteran pests.

6 Leaf Folder: Sylepta aurantiacalis Fisch (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) It is a major pest. Its activity is seen from September to January synchronising with flushing and flowering seasons of cashew. Eggs hatch in 3–4 days. The neonate larvae are pale green, and full-grown larvae are a glistening green with brownish head and measure 30.0–35.0 mm in length. The total larval period lasts for 18–30 days.: Pupation occurs in the leaf fold itself, and the pupal period ranges from 8 to 12 days. Adult: The adult is a yellowish, medium-sized moth with brownish wavy lines running across both the wings. Female moths lay several eggs singly on emerging flush leaves. Besides, S. Caloptilia tiselaea M. is also found to fold the leaves and feed.

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Sylepta aurantiacalis

Leaf folder damage

Adult

7 Apple and Nut Borers: Thylocoptila paurosema Meyrick, Hyalospila leuconeurella R. and Nephopteryx sp. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) The apple and nut borers cause up to 10% yield loss during years of severe infestation in certain tracts. These borers tunnel near the joint of apple and nut and cause shrivelling and premature fall of fruits. The infested fruits can be easily identified as they have frass exuding from the apple–nut joint. T. paurosema generally infests tender apples and nuts. When immature apples are infested; they are partially eaten and drop prematurely. Damaged nuts get deformed and dry off. Variable degree of damage by this species has been reported from different cashew-growing tracts. The damage goes up to 20%. The larvae are dark pink, sparsely hairy and very active; they initially damage flowers by webbing the inflorescences and feed on unopened flower buds. Later, they bore inside the tender nuts and developing apples resulting in shrivelling and premature fruit drop (Reddy et al., 2016). H. leuconeurella also causes damage by boring through the apple from one end to the other and remain inside the apple till the fruit drops. Attacked apples generally fall to the ground, and the nuts when infested become severely deformed.

Infested fruit

Larval feeding

Damage by Nephopteryx

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T. paurosema: The female adult lays single eggs on apple fruits and inflorescence. There are 5 larval instars which are completed in 15–23 days. The larvae are dark pink, sparsely hairy and very active. The fully grown larvae drop to the ground and pupate in earthen cocoons. The pupal period lasts about 8–10 days. The adult is a medium-sized moth with dirty black fore wings and pale dark hind wings, with a wing span of about 15–20 mm in length. H. leuconeurella: The egg, larval and pupal period lasts for 4–5, 12–17 and 9–12 days, respectively. In a single apple, up to six caterpillars of different sizes are seen (Jena, 1990). Nephopteryx sp.: It is commonly found infesting tender fruits in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh by attacking fruits at all stages of development causing up to 60% of nut damage (Ayyanna et al., 1985). Management: The pest could be effectively managed by application of L-cyhalothrin (0.003%), acetamiprid (0.05%) and quinolphos (0.05%) (Reddy et al., 2016).

8 Leaf Beetles: Monolepta longitarsus Jacoby (Chrysomelidae) and Microserica quadrinotata Moser (Melolonthidae) Monolepta longitarsus: It is an important foliage pest damaging shoots of cashew. Adult beetles are generally reddish in colour and measure about 3.2–4.2 mm in length. The beetles are hemispherical shaped and smooth, and the abdomen is not fully covered by elytra. Initial damage symptoms are seen as small skeletonized patches on one side of leaves, and as the damage progresses, the leaves are totally skeletonized, and damaged tender shoots dry off. Rapid spread of population results in a burnt up appearance of cashew trees within a short period. These beetles appear in large numbers after south-west monsoon showers (June), and infestation continued up to August on cashew. Beetles in groups of 60–75 are capable of causing complete drying of cashew shoots within 2–3 days leading to rampant skeletonization and drying of shoots (Sundararaju et al., 1999; Vanitha et al. 2015a, b).

Shoot skeletonization

Leaf beetles feeding on the lamina

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Microserica quadrinotata: Microserica quadrinotata feeds cashew leaves from June to October, leading to 30% leaf damage during peak infestation in September. The adults of these beetles skeletonize the leaf by scraping chlorophyll, and the infested leaves finally dry up (Jena et al., 1986).

9 Thrips 9.1

Leaf Thrips: Selenothrips rubrocinctus Giard, Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood and Retithrips syriacus (Mayet) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

Thrips cause damage by rasping and sucking the plant sap, and their attack on tender foliage of cashew results in silvery appearance of the leaves. The honeydew secreted by the thrips causes extensive sooty mould. S. rubrocinctus: It is a very important pest in cashew nurseries and young plantations. Adults of S. rubrocinctus are dark brown and about 1–2 mm in length. Nymphs are pale yellowish with a dark red band around the middle of their body. Tiny eggs are laid singly into the lower epidermis and hatch in about 3–10 days depending on ambient temperature. Nymphs are wingless, vermiform and carry a drop of honeydew at the anal end. Nymphal, pre-pupal and pupal period lasts for 10, 1, and 3 days, respectively. Nymphs of S. rubrocinctus prefer the older leaves, while the adults occur both on young and old leaves. Its attack on seedlings starts on the lower leaves, causing premature leaf fall, stunting and finally drying up of seedlings. In case of trees, it damages young leaves, as well as shoots, inflorescences and flowers, and is more active during the summer months. The infested leaves become pale brown and slightly crinkled with roughening of the upper surface (Jena, 1990). R. cruentatus: The nymphs of R. cruentatus are whitish on hatching and gradually develop pale red markings. The female thrips are 1.2–1.5 mm long, blackish brown in colour and have yellow-coloured legs and antennal segments, and the fore wings are pale with yellowish veins. R. syriacus: Leaves infested by R. syriacus turn silvery white to pale brown and crinkle with roughening of upper surface and are shed prematurely.

S. rubrocinctus

Scirtotrhips dorsalis

S. rubrocinctus

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Flower Thrips: Scirtothrips dorsalis H. and Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) (Thripidae), Rhynchothrips raoensis G., Haplothrips ganglbaueri (Schmutz) and H. ceylonica (Phlaeothripidae)

The flower thrips attack floral buds, flowers, immature apples as well as developing nuts, thereby causing shedding of flowers, immature fruit drop (up to 25%), formation of scabby and malformed apples and nuts. Occurrence of the flower thrips, S. dorsalis and R. raoensis is restricted to the East coast regions of India; however, in the West coast regions, H. ceylonicus and F. schultzei are commonly encountered (Patnaik et al., 1987). In Karnataka, S. dorsalis (75.4%) is dominant than R. raoensis (24.6%), and their population build up occurs at the time of flower bud initiation in cashew and peaks during February. Rhynchothrips raoensis

Eggs

Fruit damage

Nymph

Leaf Damage

Adult

Fruit damage

The pest population subsequently reduces after May due to non-availability of flowers. Cashew varieties that bear off-season flowers have continuous infestation of thrips (Gowda et al., 1979). In Odisha, that population of flower thrips increases from October onwards and reaches its peak during first fortnight of December. Management: Spray application L-cyhalothrin (0.05%) or dimethoate (0.05%) is effective against thrips.

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Mealybugs: (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Species

Mealybug species, viz., Ferrisia virgata Cockrell, Planococcus citrii Risso, Planococcus lilacinus Cockrell, Planococcoides robustus Ezzat and Meconnel, Planococcus minor (Maskell), Crisicoccus hirsutus (Newstead), Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green) and Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink are found injurious to cashew plantations in India. Ferrisia virgata and Planococcus citri are dominant across the cashew-growing areas (Godse et al., 2003; Ambethgar, 2016). Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley is found on young tender leaves, twigs, inflorescence panicles and fruit peduncles of cashew. Drying and curling of inflorescences, tender leaves and twigs are observed due to sucking of sap or saliva injection by nymphs and adults of mealybugs. The peak infestation of 20 mealybugs/ 5 cm twig is observed in the months of April and May. The endoparasitoid Aenasius bambawalei is found parasitizing of P. solenopsis (Maruthadurai & Singh, 2015).

F. virgata

P. citrii

P. marginatus

P. solenopsis

Damage: All the commercially available grafted cashew varieties are susceptible to the mealybug infestations at varying extent. Mealybugs have syringe-like sucking mouth parts that feed on plant’s phloem, which contains the nutrients needed for mealybug development. As mealybugs digest their food, they excrete sugar-rich fluid called ‘honeydew’. Mealybugs also exude fibrous, white waxy beard that hangs from the tree trunk and branches. In cashew, mealybug infestations are more often confined to short periods synchronizing with flushing through fruiting season (February–May) rather than remaining periods of dormant season. Both nymphs and adults prefer to feed on the tender shoots, nodes, petioles, leaves, inflorescence, flower panicles or developing fruits clusters which are soft and succulent. Mealybugs, while desaping the plants, injected into the plant a salivary toxins that resulted in malformed leaf, reduced plant vigour, stunted growth and occasional death of branches. Severely infested cashew trees could be easily sighted even from the distance by their sickly appearance. If flower blossoms are attacked, the fruit could set poorly. When fruits are infested, they could be entirely covered with the waxy white coating of the mealybug. More importantly, the direct sap feeding on developing fruit clusters results in ill-filled nut meal/kernel formation, improper shell-split and reduced shelling out-turn which ultimately impair the market value of cashew nut. Besides, mealybug causes indirect physical damage as they excrete the carbohydrate-rich clear sticky honeydew which can accumulate on the foliage and

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fruit clusters and supports the growth of black sooty mould fungus. When mealybug populations are severe, honeydew can accumulate to form a hard, wax-like layer that covers the infested plant, which clogs stomatal openings and impedes gas exchange and respiration. Undoubtedly, honeydew serves as a substrate for the development of black sooty mould fungi (Capnodium species) that can result in further plant damage, because it hastens the germination of sooty moulds, which block light from the leaves and impede photosynthetic efficiency of plants. The honeydew and sooty mould contamination may also impair the quality of cashew nut (Ambethgar, 2011).

Mealybug damage

F virgata

P. citri

P. marginatus

F.virgata

Seasonal occurrence of mealybugs: Temperature is the driving force for mealybug upsurge. The maximum mealybug population was found when dry and humid conditions prevail from March to May. The population of F. virgata is abundant during January–May coinciding with active new flushing, flowering and fruit development periods of cashew in cashew orchards. The rapid population increase in summer is followed by an equally rapid decline after harvest. Association of ants with mealybugs: Ant species, viz., Anoplolepis longipes Jerdon, A. gracilipes (Smith), Tapinoma indicum Ingar and T. melanocephalum (Fabricius), and seven species namely Camponotus compressus Fabricius, C. sericeus Fabricius, Crematogaster sp., Diacamma rugosum Le Guill., Monomorium latinode Forel, Oecophylla smaragdina (Fabricius), and Technomyrmex sp. are found associated with mealybugs in cashew ecosystem. These ants are known to attack the natural enemies of mealybugs while attending the pests. Thus, ants can exacerbate mealybug pest problems by disrupting natural enemy activity in cashew (Ambethgar, 2002).

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M. hirsutus attended by O.samaragdina

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F.virgata attended by C.compressus

Management: If only a few plants are infested, selective removal and elimination of mealybug colonies at the initial pest infestation (January–February) can reduce the pest load and prevent further attack (Ambethgar et al., 2000). Post-harvest sanitation pruning of cashew trees by judicial shearing of lanky and unthrifty twigs during dormant periods in June–July, and their prompt clearing may help to improve overall health of orchards. In cashew orchards, F. virgata was found parasitized by Blepyrus insularis (Cameron) with 15% parasitism. Release of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri can give excellent control of Ferrisia virgata as in the case on guava ecosystem. Similarly, P. citri on cashew was found parasitized by Angyrus pseudococci under field conditions with a mean parasitism of 23.0% on cashew in Tamil Nadu. Planococcus citri was also found causing very severe damage to the inflorescence in North Bangalore, India. Two parasitoids, namely Leptomastix dactylopii and Anagyrus sp., and two predators, viz., Cryptolaemus montrouzieri and Spalgis epeus, were recorded on P. cirti infesting cashew. The Brazilian encyrtid parasitoid, Leptomastix dactylopii, can be utilized in the suppression of the mealybug Planococcus citri infesting cashew. Foliar application of neem seed kernel extracts (NSKE, 10%) at weekly intervals provided good control of F. virgata on cashew (Ambethgar, 2011). Foliar spray of neem oil-soap emulsion at 3% at weekly intervals is reported to control mealybugs on cashew. Many organophosphates are effectively used for control of mealybugs. Spray application of dichlorvos (75 WSC) at 1.5 mL/L in combination with fish oil resin soap at 25 g/L is found to be effective in controlling the striped mealybug F. virgata on cashew (Ambethgar et al., 2000). Use of chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2.5 mL/L offered adequate control of the mealybugs in cashew (Ambethgar, 2011). Currently, newer insecticides in the group of neonicotinoids with more novel modes of action have also gained in popularity for control of mealybugs. Thiamethoxam (0.003%) and imidacloprid (0.005%) were at par and recorded 91.2–92.5% reduction of mealybug over control with nut yield of 1100–1125 kg/ha (Ambethgar, 2011).

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Aphids: Toxoptera odinae van der Goot and Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

The aphids are found in clusters during December–April and June. They reproduce both by parthenogenetic vivipary and sexual reproduction. Nymphs complete four instars in 9–16 days. A single female can give rise to around 35–50 nymphs in a short period of 3–4 days. Though aphids are seen abundantly on leaves, shoots, inflorescences and immature nuts, their feeding seldom results in conspicuous damage and the population general eliminated by indigenous natural enemies. Higher population levels can cause sooty mould growth and consequent withering of infested inflorescence. Removal and destruction of infested parts can help in minimizing the spread of aphid populations. There are several predators like syrphids (Paragus sp.), coccinellids (Pseudospidemerus circumflexa Mots., Cheilomenus sexmaculata, Coccinella transversalis and Scymnus sp.), lace wing bugs, mantispid flies, etc. which check build-up of this pest. Spraying of dimethoate (2.0 mL/L) or imidacloprid can be taken up, if found necessary.

Inflorescence damage

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Adult aphid

Bark Borer: Indarbela tetraonis Moore (Lepidoptera: Metarbelidae)

Damage: Young trees succumb to the attack. Caterpillars bore into the trunk, or junction of branches makes zigzag galleries. The presence of gallery made out of silk and frass is the key symptom. They remain hidden in the tunnel during day time, come out at night and feed on the bark. Under severe infestation, flow of sap is hindered, plant growth arrested and fruit formation is drastically reduced. Bionomics: Adults emerge in summer and lay 15–25 eggs in clusters under loose bark of the trees. Eggs hatch in 8–10 days. Larvae make webs and feed making zigzag galleries on the wood filled with frass and excreta and later bore inside the wood. Larval period is of 9–11 months and then pupates inside the stem. Pupal stage is of 3–4 months.

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Management: It involves the killing the caterpillars by inserting an iron spike into the tunnels, injecting ethylene glycol and kerosene oil in the ratio of 1:3 into the tunnel by means of a syringe and then sealing the opening of the tunnel with mud or dipping in any of the fumigants like chloroform or petrol or kerosene, and then introducing a small piece of cotton dipped in any of the fumigants like chloroform, petrol or kerosene into the tunnel and then sealing the opening with clay or mud.

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Hairy Caterpillar: Metanastria hyrtaca (Cramer) (Lepidoptera: Lasiocampidae)

M. hyrtaca assumes serious proportions occasionally. Biology: Eggs are spherical in shape and ash grey to black in colour with an average diameter of 1.83 mm. They adhere to each other closely. The surface is smooth with three deep brown, circular spots, arranged in a triangular pattern. The eggs hatch in 9 days. The larval period is 40–45 days. The larvae start spinning a silicon cocoon on leaves with brown silk and larval hairs and then the larvae pupate inside. Pre-pupal period takes 2–3 days, and the pupal period ranges from 12 to 18 days. The adult is a stout moth exhibiting sexual dimorphism. The female moth is fairly bigger (body length 29–31 mm) than adult male (body length 25 mm). Male moths have a black patch with a small white spot in the centre of fore wing and two angulated transverse lines on either side of the patch, but there are no black patches present on the fore wings of the females, except short wavy lines running across. The abdomen of the male is long and slender, whereas it is stout with tuft of anal hairs in female. The antennae of both male and female are pectinate. Mating generally takes place after sunset. The longevity of the adult ranges from 2 to 7 days. Egg laying commences within 24–36 h after mating. The moth lays eggs in clusters on the lower surface of cashew foliage or on tender twigs, and the oviposition continues for about 48 h. Its fecundity ranges from 180 to 300 with an average of 250 eggs. The total life cycle would be 55–75 days with an average of 66 days from eggs to adult.

Life stages of M.hyrtaca

Eggs

Larvae

Pupa

Adult

Damage: The caterpillars are nocturnal feeding. They are gregarious and congregate on the lower surface of leaves. Initially, they feed on fresh leaves starting from petiole and continue half way on a leaf, leaving the midrib intact. In later stages, the caterpillars feed voraciously on mature leaves and tender twigs leading to

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complete defoliation leaving only the bare branches. After feeding, they hide at the base of the tree trunk, shaded branches and on the ground under dry leaves during day time. Dark green, pea-size faecal pellets littered in mass, on the soil under tree canopy, reveal the presence of the pest in the orchard. The pest appears during early monsoon and continues up to December.

14

Other Insect Pests

They include Orthaga exvinaceae Hamps. (Noctuidae), Bombotelia jacosatrix Guen. (Noctuidae), Lymantria sp. (Lymantriidae) and Thalassodes quadraris Guen. (Geometridae). The slug caterpillar Parasa lepida (Cochlididae) and leaf feeder Cricula trifnestrata Helfer (Saturniidae) appear in large numbers sporadically and cause extensive defoliation of trees reducing panicle emergence. Larvae of the looper Oenospila flavisucata Wlk. (Geometridae) is known to feed on tender leaves by rolling them. The weevil Apion amplum F. is nibbling the shoot tips of cashew. Myllocerus discolor B. and Myllocerus viridanus F. are known to feed on fresh leaves of young plants. Apoderus tranguebarius F. is common at the time of new flush, and the adults are found folding the leaves along the midribs. Ashy weevil Peltotrachelus pybes F. is found throughout the year, but it is very active from September to November. The weevil Amblyrhinus poricollis Bohemen is known to feed on cashew in Andhra Pradesh. Apion tumidum Gerstaeker (Apionidae) is found as a pest of cashew in Orissa during March to October. The tiny jet black adults nibble growing apical shoots.

References Ambethgar, V. (2002). Insect visitors of cashew in North-Eastern Zone of Tamil Nadu. Progressive Horticulture, 34(2), 223–229. Ambethgar, V. (2011). Field evaluation of some insecticides against white-tailed mealybug, Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) infesting cashew. In: Souvenir and abstract of the international symposium on cashew, 9–12 December 2011, Madurai, India, pp. 131–132. Ambethgar, V. (2016). Cashew in mealybugs and their management in agricultural and horticultural crops Srongere, New Delhi, pp. 561–568. Ambethgar, V., Lakshmanan, V, & Naina Mohammed, S. E. (2000). Managing mealybugs in cashew. Science and Technology, The Hindu. Athalye, S. S., & Patil, R. S. (1999). Bionomics, seasonal incidence and chemical control of cashew leaf miner. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 23(1), 29–23. Ayyanna, T., Tejkumar, T., & Ramadevi, M. (1985). Distribution and status of pests on cashew in coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh. Cashew Causerie, 7(2), 4–5. Babu, R. S. H., Rath, S., & Rajput, C. B. S. (1983). Insect pests of cashew in India and their control. Pesticides, 17(4), 8–16. Bhat, P. S., Srikumar, K. K., & Raviprasad, T. N. (2013). Seasonal diversity and status of spiders (Arachnida: Aranae) in cashew ecosystem. World Applied Sciences Journal, 22(6), 763–770.

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Bhat, P. S., Sundararaju, D., & Raviprasad, T. N. (2002). In H. P. Singh, P. P. Balasubramanian, & V. N. Hubbali (Eds.), Integrated management of insects, pests and diseases in cashew. Indian Cashew Industry. DCCD. Godse, S. K., Bhole, S. R., Munj, A. Y., & Gurav, S. S. (2003). Chemical control of mealybugs (Ferrisia virgata Cockerell). The Cashew, 17(2), 15–17. Gowda, G., Ramaiah, E., & Reddy, C. V. K. (1979). Scirtothrips dorsalis (Hood) (Thysanoptera: Terebrantia: Thripidae) a new pest on cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Current Research, 8(7), 116–117. Jena, B. C. (1990). Pests of cashew apple and nuts and their control. The Cashew, 4(2), 19–20. Jena, B. C., Satapathy, C. R., & Satpathy, J. M. (1986). Seasonal varietal response of cashew to foliage feeding beetle, Microserica quadrinotata M. Cashew Causerie, 8(4), 9–10. Maruthadurai, R., Desai, A. R., Prabhu, H. R. C., & Singh, N. P. (2012). Insect pests of cashew and their management. Technical bulletin no. 28, ICAR Research Complex for Goa, Old Goa, 18p. Maruthadurai, R., & Singh, N. P. (2015). First report of invasive mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley infesting cashew from Goa, India. Phytoparasitica, 43, 121–124. Mohapatra, L. N., Behara, A. K., & Satapathy, C. R. (1998). Influence of the environmental factors on the cashew nut shoot tip caterpillar, Hypotima haligramma Meyr. Cashew Bull, 35, 17–18. Mohapatra, R. N., & Jena, B. C. (2007). Biology of cashew stem and root borer, Plocaederus ferrugineus L. on different hosts. Journal of Entomological Research, 31(2), 16–19. Pathummal Beevi, S., Abraham, C. C., & Veeraraghavan, P. C. (1993). Occurrence of parasitoids in association with pests of cashew. Journal of Plantation Crops, 21(2), 110–117. Patnaik, H. P., Satapathy, C. R., Sontakke, B. K., & Senapathy. (1987). Flower thrips of cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) their seasonal incidence and assessment of damage in coastal Orissa. The Cashew, 1, 11–13. Pillai, G. B., Dubey, O. P., & Singh, V. (1976). Pests of cashew and their control in India—A review of current status. Journal of Plantation Crops, 4, 37–50. Rai, P. S. (1984). Handbook on cashew pests (p. 124). Research Co. Publication. Ramadevi, M., & Krishna Murthy, P. R. (1983). Schedule of pest occurrence on cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.). Cashew Causerie, 5(1), 14–16. Rao, A. R., Naidu, V. G., & Prasad, P. R. (2002). Studies on the biology of cashew shoot and blossom Webber (Lamida moncusalis Walker). Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 30(2), 167–171. Raviprasad, T. N., Bhat, P. S., & Sundararaju, D. (2009). Integrated pest management approaches to minimize incidence of cashew stem and root borers (Plocaederus spp.). Journal of Plantation Crops, 37(3), 185–189. Reddy, N. A., Subramanyam, B., Vasudeva, K. R., & Rajendra, B. N. (2016). Population dynamics and management of cashew apple and nut borer, Thylacoptila paurosema (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in maiden parts of Karnataka. In Nat. Sem. Strategies for development of Cashew, 19–20 Feb 2016. RFRS, Dr. BSKKV, Vengurla. Sahu, K. R., & Sharma, D. (2008). Management of cashew stem and root borer, Plocaederus ferrugineus L. by microbial and plant products. Journal of Biopesticides, 1(2), 121–123. Sathiamma, B. (1977). Nature and extent of damage by Helopeltis antonii S., the tea mosquito on cashew. Journal of Plantation Crops, 5, 58–62. Sundararaju, D. (1984). Cashew pests and their natural enemies in Goa. Journal of Plantation Crops, 12, 38–46. Sundararaju, D. (1985). Chemical control of cashew stems and root borers at Goa. Journal of Plantation Crops, 13(1), 63–66. Sundararaju, D. (2004). Evaluation of promising newer insecticides in large plots for management of tea mosquito bug on cashew. Journal of Plantation Crops, 32, 285–288. Sundararaju, D., Raviprasad, T. N., & Shivarama, B. P. (1999). Pests of cashew and their integrated management. In K. Rajeev, K. G. Upathyay, & O. P. D. Mukerji (Eds.), IPM system in agriculture (Cash crops) (Vol. 6, pp. 525–544). Aditya Books Pvt Ltd..

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Sundararaju, D., & Sundarababu, P. C. (1999). Helopeltis spp. (Heteroptera: Miridae) and their management in plantation and horticultural crops of India. Journal of Plantation Crops, 27, 155–174. Sundararaju, D., Yadukumar, N., Bhat, P. S., Raviprasad, T. N., Venkattakumar, R., & Dixit, S. (2006). Yield performance of “Bhaskara” cashew variety in coastal Karnataka. Journal of Plantation Crops, 34, 216–219. Vanitha, K., Bhat, P. S., & Raviprasad, T. N. (2015b). Pest status of leaf miner, Acrocercops syngramma M. on common varieties of cashew in Puttur region of Karnataka. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 21(1), 55–59. Vanitha, K., Bhat, P. S., Raviprasad, T. N., & Srikumar, K. K. (2015a). Occurrence, damage, colour morphism and natural enemies of Monolepta longitarsus Jacoby (Coleoptera: Chrysomellidae), a defoliating pest of cashew. Indian Forester, 141(6), 687–692. Vasanthi, P., & Raviprasad, T. N. (2012). Relative susceptibility of cashew stem and root borers, (CSRB), Plocaederus spp. and Batocera rufomaculata (De Geer) to Entomopathogenic nematodes. Journal of Biological Control, 26(1), 230–228.

Pests and Their Management in Coconut Chandrika Mohan, A. Josephrajkumar, P. S. Prathibha, M. Sujithra, Jilu V. Sajan, and K. M. Anes

Abstract Important pests of coconut include Rhinoceros beetle Oryctes rhinoceros Linn., red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, black headed caterpillar Opisina arenosella, white grub Leucopholis coneophora, coreid bug Paradasynus rostratus, hard scales Aspidiotus destructor, Aonidiella orientalis, Lepidosaphes megregori and Chionaspis sp., soft scales Ceroplastes floridensis, Coccus hesperidum and Vinsonia stellifera, mealybugs Palmicultor palmarum, Pseudococcus coccotis, Pseudococcus longispinus, Pseudococcus cryptus, Planococcus lilacinus, Pseudococcus microadonidum, Nipaecoccus nipae and Dysmicoccus finitimus, root mealybugs Rhizoecus cocois and Xenococcus acropygae, termite Odontotermes obesus, slug caterpillars Parasa lepida, Contheyla rotunda and Macroplecta nararia, coconut defoliator Phalacra sp., whiteflies Aleurocanthus arecae, Aleurodicus dispersus and Aleurodicus rugioperculatus, coconut skippers Gangara thyrsis thyrsis and Suastus gremius gremius and the lace wing bug Stephanitis typicus. The other minor insect pests include the Bombay locust Patanga succincta, grasshopper Aularches miliaris, leaf beetle Callispa minima, caterpillars Batrachedra arenosella, Coconympha iridarcha, Tunaca acutantidae and Manatha albipes, aphids Cerataphis brasiliensis, Hysteroneura setariae, Haplothrips ceylonicus and Cyclodes omma, shot-hole borers Xyleborus parvulus and Xyleborus similis, weevils Diocalandra stigmaticollis and Amorphoidea coimbatorensis, red tree ant Oecophylla smaragdina, eriophyid mite Aceria guerreronis, rodent Rattus rattus wroughtoni and the nematode Radopholus similis. Various methods of management practices of the key pests are also discussed.

C. Mohan (*) · A. Josephrajkumar · K. M. Anes ICAR—Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kayamkulam, Kerala, India P. S. Prathibha · M. Sujithra · J. V. Sajan ICAR—Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_60

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1 Rhinoceros Beetle: Oryctes rhinoceros Linn. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Rhinoceros beetle is a ubiquitous pest that bores into the spear leaf, young petioles and developing spathes. It is known to attack over 30 species of palms. Biology: Rhinoceros beetles breed in moist, decomposing organic matter such as rotting wood or dead standing palm stems, felled logs and stumps particularly of the coconut palm but also of other trees. They also lay their eggs in heaps of sawdust, and decaying compost or manure piles. The adult is a stout black beetle with a cephalic horn which is larger in males. The pygidium is densely covered with reddish brown hairs in the female. Fecundity is 140–150 eggs per female. The hard shelled globular creamy-white eggs measure 3 mm diameter and hatch in 8–18 days. The grubs are creamy white in colour. They feed on the decaying matter in the breeding grounds, and become full grown in 75–190 days. There are three larval instars. The full-grown larva is stout and strongly arched body. Pupation takes place for about 14–29 days in loose shell like cocoon made of the food material. The life cycle from egg to adult stage takes about 5–6 months. The adults have a long lifespan extending up to 5 months (Abraham, 1994). Damage: Adults are active during night and remain hidden during daytime in the feeding or breeding sites. Though the pest is found in the field almost round the year, peak period of pest infestation is observed during June to September coinciding with the peak period of adult emergence from the breeding site. The adult beetle feeds on soft tissues of the spindle and releases out the fibrous material as frass protruding through the bore holes. Pest infestation causes breaking of spear leaf and drying of inflorescence. When damaged spear leaf does not break, the cuts on the adjacent leaflets form a ‘V’ shape while unfurling.

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Attack on young seedlings and young palms results in stunted growth and delayed flowering and repeated attacks in growing point lead to the death of the seedlings. Petiole damage results in breaking of fronds. Damage on the spathe causes direct crop loss, many times extending up to 10% (Rajan et al., 2010a, b). Management: Integrated pest management is practiced for management of the pest. Beetles have been traditionally removed from feeding holes in young palms with GI wires that are hooked or barbed at the end, but often only after damage has been done. But usually this causes more damage and the wounds attract more beetles or the secondary pest Rhynchophorus ferrugineus or fungal diseases, hence beetle hooking has to be practiced with care without causing further injury to the growing point of the palm and any such wounds should be dressed with fungicide suspension. Treating the possible breeding sites of the beetle, viz., manure pits, compost tanks, dead and decaying organic manure with a contact pesticide has been in use since late 50s. This was dispensed with as insect predators which feed on the eggs and early instar grubs of the beetle, viz., Santalus parallelus Payk., Pheropsophus occipitalis Macleay, Pheropsophus lissoderus and Chelisochesmorio (Fab.), and species of Scarites, Harpalus and Agrypnus are abundant in the natural breeding grounds of the beetle, and conservation of these predators has to be ensured. Application of oil cakes of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss.) or marotti (Hydnocarpus wightiana Bl.) or pongamia cake (Pongamia pinnata Linn.) in powder form at 250 g mixed with equal volume of sand, thrice a year to the base of the spindle leaf of coconut palm is an effective prophylactic method against rhinoceros beetle and red palm weevil (Chandrika et al., 2001; Josephrajkumar et al., 2014a). Incorporation of the weed plant Clerodendrum infortunatum Linn. at 10% w/w in the compost pit is suggested as a probable management strategy for rhinoceros beetle (Mohan & Nair, 2000) as this plant exerts insecticidal properties on O. rhinoceros. Placement of 10 g naphthalene balls in the inner leaf axils with sand coverings to prevent quick evaporation of the compound is also found to be effective in preventing the pest incidence in young palms (Sadakathulla & Ramachandran, 1990). Placement of two perforated sachets containing chlorantraniliprole (3 g) or fipronil (3 g) was found effective in monsoon phase for successful seedling establishment and warding off rhinoceros beetle attack (CPCRI, 2016). Biological control method is the most viable and ecologically safe component in the IPM of O. rhinoceros and two microbial pathogens, viz., Oryctes rhinoceros nudivirus (OrNV) and green muscardine fungus are widely used for management of this pest. Mohan et al. (1983) reported 54% natural virus infection in adults for the first time in India from Kerala. This virus gains entry in to the host only orally through contaminated food. On infection the grubs become lazy, stop feeding and come to the surface of the food. As the virus multiply in the midgut epithelium, the fat body disintegrates and the haemolymph content increases. This causes translucency of the thoracic region, which is an important exopathological symptom for identification of the disease. In certain cases, increased turgor pressure may cause extroversion of the rectum. On dissection, the midgut filled with white fluid is clearly seen in advanced infection stage. The infected grubs die within 15–20 days and do not pupate. The healthy grubs on the other hand are active and feed vigorously and

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remain in the lower part of the feed. Their thoracic region does not show translucency but show a dark midgut line showing the gut filled with feed. Giemsa staining (3%) of the midgut fluid and its epithelial tissue for 45–60 min show pink coloured enlarged nucleus with vacuoles under light microscope. In the advanced stage of infection, dark pink colour ring is also observed around the nucleus of the infected cells. The viral particles are seen only under Electron Microscope (Mohan et al., 1983). The simplest and the most economical method of dissemination of OrNV is by releasing laboratory-inoculated beetles (10–15 No./ha) preferably during dusk. The infected beetles transmit the pathogen in breeding/feeding sides by excreting viral contaminated faeces after third to ninth days post OrNV inoculation, where it is picked up by healthy susceptible Oryctes. Horizontal spread of this virus was reported to be 1 km/month (Jacob, 1996). This viral pathogen produces 100% reduction in the egg laying capacity of female beetles and 40% reduction in lifespan of affected population (Nair et al., 2008). Creditable control of O. rhinoceros has been achieved in many coconut-growing countries by using this viral agent. The percentages of petiole damage and spathe damage show significant reduction after 6–8 months. Reduced site occupancy of the pest in breeding places, reduction in the pest incidence in the field and presence of OrNV-infected grubs with typical visual symptoms of the viral infection in the breeding grounds are the indicators of the establishment of the viral pathogens in the induced areas. Extensive studies on the use of OrNV to suppress rhinoceros beetle population in Islands of Lakshadweep and Andaman-Nicobar had shown encouraging results during the last three decades (Mohan et al., 1989; Pillai et al., 1993; Jacob, 1996). The Green muscardine fungus, Metarhizium anisopliae, causes epizootics in O. rhinoceros population during period of low temperature and high relative humidity. It is pathogenic to all life stages of the Oryctes rhinoceros. This fungus gains entry into the body of host through the cuticle region. Fungus-infected grubs become sluggish and ultimately die after 12–15 days post infection and get mummified which turn green in colour because of the production of spores externally. Mass culturing of this fungal pathogen using cheaper substrates, viz., rice, grain millet, dried cassava chips, crushed maize, etc. has been achieved, and application of fungal spores at 5  1011 spores/m3 of breeding area of O. rhinoceros gives a successful establishment of this fungus (Dangar et al., 1991) and will survive in the site for more than 2 years. Currently, M. anisopliae is multiplied on semi-cooked rice-based media for field application in organic manure as well as vermicompost pits at 100 g/m3. Largescale demonstration of M. anisopliae as well as OrNV conducted at in Kerala, India in 2400 ha homestead coconut gardens reduced O. rhinoceros damage on spear leaf and spathe by 95.8% and 62.5%, respectively (Nair et al., 2008). Aggregation pheromones have been identified for the O. rhinoceros as ethyl-4 methyl octonate (Hallett et al., 1995), and this is commercially available. Specially designed PVC tube trap employing synthetic pheromone ethyl 4-methyl octonate has been found to be quite feasible for trapping black beetles in good numbers. Installing pheromone traps at 1 trap/ha is recommended for collection and destruction of adult beetles. The collected beetles can also be used for virus inoculation and re-release to the pest infested areas (Rajan et al., 2010a, b; Nair et al., 2010).

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2 Red Palm Weevil: Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) It is one of the key pests of coconut causing mortality of young palms to the tune of 7–10% in different tracts of country. Young and dwarf palms are more susceptible to the pest infestation. Biology: The adult red palm weevil is medium sized measuring 35 mm long and 20 mm wide with ferruginous brown colour. Snout is elongated and the dorsal apical half of the rostrum in males is covered with a tuft of brown hairs, whereas rostrum is females are bare and longer. Mean fecundity is 275 eggs/female, and the incubation period is 3–5 days. The creamy white oval eggs are laid in small holes scooped out on soft tissues or on cuts, wounds or other decaying parts of the palm trunk/crown. Even petiole cut ends act as oviposition sites. The odour of plant sap exuding from injuries or fermenting sell of fungal infections attract adult females for egg laying. Grubs of this internal tissue borer feed on the soft tissues of the palm crown. The fullgrown grub is stout, fleshy and apodous; body bulged in the middle and creamy white in colour with a brownish black head. Larval period is the destructive phase and lasts for 55–60 days.

The full-grown grubs measure 50 mm in length and 20 mm in width. They pupate near the periphery of the palm in elongate fibrous cocoons for 12–20 days. The weevil takes about 3–6 months for completion of the life stages from egg to adult depending up on weather conditions and type of food source. The adults have a prolonged lifespan extending up to 76–133 days (Abraham, 1994). Damage: Being an internal tissue feeder with all the life stages inside the palm tissues, it is very difficult to detect the pest attack during early stages. Wilting of central spindle, presence of chewed up fibres in the leaf axils, presence of holes in the crown or soft trunk portion with oozing out of a brown viscous fluid, splitting of leaf bases and gnawing sound produced by feeding grubs enable the detection of pest infestation, etc. are characteristic symptoms of pest attack. Severe infestation results in toppling of the crown (Faleiro, 2006).

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Management: Being the internal tissue borer, it is very difficult to identify pest infestation symptoms at an early stage; hence, close palm surveillance has to be stressed for early pest detection and management. An IPM for managing red palm weevil has been worked out and currently practiced with the following important components, viz., phytosanitation, prophylactic treatments, curative chemical treatments and pheromone trapping. Coconut palms dead due to red palm weevil and retained in the field serve as ideal food source for second generation of red palm weevil or it acts as a source of inoculum for further build-up of the pest in the field. Hence, the importance of field sanitation is very important to protect the palms (Rajan & Nair, 1997). The pest is attracted to kairomones emanating from fresh injuries inflicted on the palms. Due to mechanical farm operations such as ploughing, cutting of steps for climbing the palms, toddy/neera tapping, etc., and the injured palm becomes more susceptible to weevil infestation and avoiding physical injury to palms is very critical to reduce pest incidence. While cutting fronds leaving at least 1.2 m from trunk need to be emphasized as oviposition on closely cut frond surface give access of grubs to palm trunk in a very short time (Josephrajkumar et al., 2014b). RPW has been managed in several countries employing an integrated pest management (IPM) strategy including the use of food-baited pheromone traps. Abraham et al. (1989) reported that by adopting IPM package in coconut plantations in Kerala, a reduction in RPW infestation level from 6.86% to almost nil was achieved. Prophylactic leaf axil filling with repellents recommended to prevent rhinoceros beetle damage reduces red palm weevil infestation also. Early detection of infestation in the field is important for any RPW-IPM programme. Recently a prototype of red palm weevil Detector was developed and field tested with 80% accuracy at Kayamkulam (Josephrajkumar et al., 2021). Current investigations on the effect of new molecules for the curative treatment of red palm weevil have given promising results. Three molecules, viz., imidacloprid (Confidor 200% SL) at 0.02%, Spinosad at 0.013% (Success 2.5% SC) and Indoxacarb at 0.04% (Avaunt 14.5% SC) when field tested against red palm weevil have given more than 80% recovery of infested palms (Rajan et al., 2010a, b). Because of the cryptic habitat of the boring stages of this weevil, chemical insecticides have to be applied right to the infested site for effective management of the established populations. With the synthesis and availability of ferruginol-based pheromone lure for RPW, the IPM programme was modified to incorporate pheromone traps and it was successfully utilized to combat the pest in coconut and date palm (Faleiro, 2006). Studies have proved that trapping of red palm weevil using pheromone lures (4-methyl 5-nonanone (Ferrugineone) and 4-methyl 5-nonanol (Ferruginol) in food baited bucket traps can be one of the effective IPM tools to manage red palm weevil provided all the precautionary steps involved in the use of pheromone traps are meticulously followed by the user. Care is to be taken for the placement of trap on the outskirts and frequent change of food baits to avoid slippages. Synergistic interaction of H. indica (1500 IJ) with imidacloprid (0.002%) against red palm weevil grubs was reported for the first time (Josephrajkumar et al., 2013).

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A pest suppressive coconut-based agro-ecosystem could be designed through ecological infrastructure within the cropping system such as defenders, volatile cue repulsion, refuge site, predatory birds, etc. Such crop-habitat diversification approach could avoid pest entry into the system through stimulodeterrent diversionary strategy. Growing intercrops such as nutmeg, rambutan, curry leaf, papaya, banana, etc. distracts weevils from egg laying in coconut due to volatile confusion in host location. Planting coconut with correct spacing and proper light is very critical for adequate growth and pest repulsion as closer spacing infuses more volatile cues favouring the pest orientation (Josephrajkumar et al., 2018a). Knowing the symptoms keenly, adoption of cultural techniques systematically and intervention using prophylactic as well as timely curative measures would reduce the incidence of red palm weevil. It is more important to keep in mind that to achieve a tangible result on management of red palm weevil an effective combination of all recommended practices with focus on sanitation and preventive strategy is to be practiced (Nair et al., 2010).

3 Black Headed Caterpillar: Opisina arenosella Walker (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) The black headed caterpillar, Opisina arenosella is a serious defoliator pest of coconut in India causing the crop loss of up to 45% in terms of nut yield (Mohan et al., 2010b). Biology: The adult moth is 10–15 mm long, 20–25 mm wide (wing expanded) and ash grey in colour. The male is smaller in size, with a slender abdomen ending in a short brush of scales, while in the females the abdomen is stouter and pointed towards the tip. Eggs are laid on the lower surface of leaflets near old larval galleries. Adult moth lays on an average of 137 eggs. The eggs are oval with irregular sculptures and measuring 0.6 mm long. As it is embedded inside the larval galleries, it is difficult to locate the eggs until closely examined. Eggs hatch in about 5 days. Larval body is cylindrical, slightly compressed with a tapering hind end with three longitudinal reddish brown stripes dorsally and with the black head. Final instars measure about 154 mm long. Average larval period is 42 days. As the larvae enter the pupal stage, its length gets reduced and acquires light pinkish colour. This pre-pupal stage lasts for 2 days. The pre-pupa spins a whitish cocoon around its body and enters the pupal stage. Adult moth emerges out in about 12 days. The adult moths live for about 5–7 days. The total life cycle from egg to adult takes about 60 days (Mohan & Sujatha, 2006).

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Damage: The caterpillars are voracious feeders and feed on the chlorophyll containing leaf tissues leaving the thin upper epidermis. They live in galleries made up of silken webs with scraped leaf bits and excreta on the lower side of leaves. The affected portions get dried and form conspicuous grey patches on the upper surface of the leaves. From a distance the crown of such palms appears burnt. Management: Cutting and burning the heavily infested and fully dried outermost two to three leaves remove the pupae and other life stages of the pest and hence reduces spread of the pest. Parasitoids and predators play an important role in the natural biological suppression of O. arenosella (Sujatha & Singh, 1999). Successful field biocontrol of this pest by release of parasitoids is well documented (Chandrika & Sujatha, 2006). Among the 40 parasitoids recorded from India, the larval parasitoid Goniozus nephantidis Mues. (Bethylidae), the pre-pupal parasitoid Elasmus nephantidis Rohw. (Elasmidae) and the pupal parasitoid Brachymeria nosatoi Habu. (Chalcididae) are the most promising ones. Techniques were developed for the mass production of the promising parasitoids. Initial assessment of the pest population is necessary for the release of known doses of larval and pupal parasitoids for the control of O. arenosella (George et al., 1984) and also the stage of the pest in the field is to be ascertained for the release of the suitable stage-specific parasitoid. Arbitrary release of parasitoids often failed to bring about effective control of the pest and at other times the released parasitoids were unable to reach the proper target stages of the host. The larval parasitoid G. nephantidis is released if the pest is at third larval stage or above at 20 parasitoid/palm and B. brevicornis at 30 parasitoid/ palm. The pre-pupal parasitoid E. nephantidis and the pupal parasitoid B. nosatoi are also very effective in managing the pest. They are released at 49 and 32% for every 100 pre-pupae and pupae, respectively, estimated to be present on the palm (Sathiamma et al., 1987). Before field release, the parasitoids should be fed with

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honey and newly emerged parasitoid can be released after 3 days of emergence. Feeding the parasitoids with honey and exposing the newly emerged parasitoids to the host odours (smell of the volatiles of the injured O. arenosella larvae and gallery volatiles) is found to improve the host searching efficiency of G. nephantidis (Subaharan et al., 2005). G. nephantidis adults could be released at the trunk (at 1.2 m height from the ground level) of the coconut palm for the management of O. arenosella instead of releasing at the crown region of the palm or arbitrarily on unit area basis. Releases may be repeated at fortnightly intervals till the pest population is suppressed (Venkatesan et al., 2003). Management of black headed caterpillar through the mass release of stage specific parasitoids has been field validated in various endemic tracts of the pest both in peninsular India and it has been a big success story with highly significant reduction (94%) in O. arsenosella population (Mohan et al., 2010a). Insect and spider predators are abundant in the coconut ecosystem. The dominant insect predators are the carabid beetles Paren anigrolineata (Chaud) and Calleida splendidula (F), anthocoreid Cardiastethus exiguous Poppius, Chrysopids Ankylopteryx sp. And Chrysopa sp., etc. A total of 26 species of spiders are recorded with the pest of which Rhena, Sparassus and Cheiracanthium are the major predators. Predatory ants also play major role in population reduction of O. arenosella in the field. These predators exert significant degree of biological suppression of the pest. With regard to the predators, conservation of the fauna is quite relevant. Although some pathogens like species of Serratia and Aspergillus were reported on O. arenosella they are not so far exploited as effective biocontrol agents (Sathiamma et al., 2000). Nutritional management of the palm with balanced dose of recommended fertilizers and proper irrigation to rejuvenate the pest-affected palms are essentially required to regain the yield potential of pest infested palms.

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4 White Grub: Leucopholis coneophora Burm., Adoretus lasiopygus Burm. and A. lithobius Ohaus. (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae) Biology: Adult beetles Leucopholis coneophora are chestnut brown coloured and they emerge out of soil after pre-monsoon showers in May–June. Adult emergence from soil was observed in the field after 4–5 rainy days combined with a sudden fall in soil temperature, which invariably begins after sunset and completes within half an hour. Eggs are laid in soil and the hatched out grubs feed on the root of coconut and intercrops. Average fecundity is 23 eggs. Incubation period is 24 days, and I, II and III larval stages are completed in 40, 55 and 175 days, respectively, followed by pupal period of 25 days. Grubs are creamy white in colour with a brown head. Pest completes its life cycle in 300–310 days. Female cockchafers are larger in size (3.2 cm and 1.51 cm length and width) than males (2.89 cm length and 1.41 cm width). Males outnumber the population with a sex ratio of 1:5. Adult emergence initiated during last half of May continued at low level up to early part of June. There has been a huge shift in the emergence pattern of L. coneophora. Climate change pertaining to rainfall pattern, distribution and soil temperature could be the major reason for this (Prathibha et al., 2013). Damage: In nursery seedlings, the grubs feed on tender roots and also tunnel into the bole and collar regions resulting in the drying of the spindle leaves followed by gradual death of the seedlings. In older coconut plantations, continuous infestations by the grubs result in yellowing of leaves, premature nut fall, delayed flowering, retardation of growth and reduction (Chandrika & Vidyasagar, 1993).

Life stages of Leucopholis coneophora

Eggs

Grub

Pupa

Adult

Management: Deep ploughing and digging of the soil during pre and post monsoon periods for exposing grubs to predators. Mechanical capture and destruction of cockchafers between 6.35 p.m. and 7.15 p.m. for 2–3 weeks commencing from the first day of monsoon is advisable as a mechanical tool in IPM (Chandrika & Vidyasagar, 1993; Prathibha, 2015). Chemical treatment involves drenching the coconut basin with neonicotinoid insecticide imidacloprid at 120 g a.i. ha 1 or fourth-generation synthetic pyrethroid bifenthrin at 2 kg a.i. ha 1 when first instar stage of grubs dominate in the field was recommended as part of IPM followed by drenching aqua suspension of EPNs Steinernema carpocapsae in the interspaces

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(5–10 cm depth) at 1.5 billion IJ ha 1 during September and October and also during November and December. The insecticide has to be applied in the active root zone of the palm evenly leaving a distance of 60 cm from base of the trunk. Insecticidal applications have to be continued for at least three consecutive years for effective management of the pest.

5 Nut Crinkling Coreid Bug: Paradasynus rostratus Dist. (Hemiptera: Coreidae) Paradasynus rostratus is a serious emerging pest on coconut. The bug causes heavy crop loss by shedding of developing buttons and immature nuts up to 60% (Rajan & Nair, 2005). Biology: Adults are brown or chocolate brown in colour with a body size of 2 cm in length and 0.5 cm width. Female bugs lay eggs in clusters of four to five rows closely apposed end to end on leaf petiole, spathe, spadix or young nuts. On an average 54 eggs are laid by a bug. The freshly laid eggs which are oval shaped with a yellowish tinge turn into reddish colour with golden tinge just before emergence of nymph. The nymphs emerge out within 8–10 days. The first and second instar nymphs are ant-like, reddish in colour and are seen to congregate on spadix or buttons. Total nymphal period which includes five-instars is completed within 30 days. The newly hatched adults can be seen on the new inflorescence and young bunches. Adults survive on an average for 50 days.

Nymphs and adult of coreid bug

Infestation symptom on tender buttons and mature nuts

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Damage: Nymphs as well as adults feed on female flowers and tender nuts. The insect thrust their long needle like proboscis into the tender meristematic region of the coconut buttons through the perianth and suck the sap. Usually, coconut buttons of 1–3 months old are attacked by the pest. While feeding, the saliva is injected into the feeding site through the proboscis and the toxin present in the saliva damaged the tissues around the feeding site. These feeding punctures develop into necrotic lesions and these eye-like depressions can be clearly seen if the perianth of the shed button is removed. When female flowers are attacked prior to pollination such flowers gets dried and can be seen attached to inflorescence on the crown resulting in production of barren buttons. Most of the infested buttons and tender nuts shed down. The retained nuts on the bunches develop furrows and crinkles on their husks and are malformed. In many cases, gummosis can be seen on such nuts. In severe infestation, the kernel of infested nuts become thin, malformed and cannot be used for edible purposes. Dehusking of infested nuts becomes difficult due to hardening of husk as a result of corky formation of fibre. Guava, cashew, cocoa, tamarind, annona and neem are alternate hosts of P. rostratus. Populations build up starts from first rainy period (last week of May or first week of June) and there is a steady increase in the population reaching a peak during October–December (Ambily et al., 2009). Management: Crown cleaning to destroy eggs and immature stages of the pest along with pesticide application on the affected young bunch is recommended for coreid bug management. Among the natural enemies, the weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina is found to be the most efficient predator of coreid bug in the field Application of neem seed oil plus garlic emulsion 2% was found effective in the suppression of the pest. Spraying of azadirachtin 300 ppm (Nimbecidine) at 0.0004% (13 mL/L) reduced the pest incidence at the highest level. Two rounds of azadirachtin spray on young coconut bunches of 1–5 months old during May–June and September–October are quite essential for satisfactory control of the pest in the field. In gardens where coreid infestation persists, a third round of spraying is recommended during December–January. Among the various botanicals and new generation molecules evaluated against coreid bug in coconut, palms-treated neem oil (0.5%) and Chlorantraniliprole (0.018%) recorded highest reduction of 74% (Mohan et al., 2016). Among the natural enemies, the weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina Fab. is found to be the most efficient predator of coreid bug in the field. This ant is found predating on all stages of the bug and is observed on coconut as well as all alternate host plants. It has been observed that coconut and other collateral host plants where ant colonies exist; such plants are free from coreid bug incidence. The coreid bug management involves with the crown cleaning to destroy eggs and immature stages of the pest along with pesticide application on the affected young bunch.

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6 Coconut Scale: Aspidiotus destructor Signoret (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) Biology: The eggs are yellow and very small. They are laid under the scale around the body of the female. Females have two nymphal stages, while males have two feeding nymphal stages, followed by non-feeding pre-pupal and pupal stages (four immature stages together). The first-instar larvae are about 1 mm long, yellowishbrown, oval and translucent. Second-instar females become immobile and secrete a translucent wax scale cover. The second-instar males are smaller than the females. They group together, secrete a filamentous waxy material and become immobile. The male pre-pupal and pupal stages are spent under the scale produced by the second instar stage. The scale cover of the adult female is oval to circular, 1.5–2.0 mm across, fairly flat, very thin and translucent. The pale yellow exuviae are more or less central on the scale. The yellow adult female under the scale is 0.6–1.1 mm long. The adult male scale cover is redder than the female’s, smaller and more oval. The male has one pair of wings and is motile. The egg stage lasted for 5 days, the larval stage lasted 17 days, the pre-oviposition stage in adult females lasted 25 days, the female generation lasted 44 days and the male generation lasted 38 days. Damage: The undersurface of the leaves is mainly attacked, but frond stalks, flower clusters and young fruit can also be affected. In extreme cases, the leaves dry up, entire fronds drop off, the crown dies and the whole crop is los. Management: As the pest is naturally suppressed by predators especially coccinellid beetles, conservation of them in the ecosystem is recommended Cryptognatha nodiceps, Rhyzobius pulchellus, Chilocorus nigrita and Rhyzobius lophanthae are potential predators for A. destructor (Jalaluddin & Monhanasundaram, 1989). Aphelinid parasitoids also play a key role in suppression of scales along with predators (Josephrajkumar et al., 2010). Destruction of highly infested plant parts at the initial stages of infestation and removal of alternate weed hosts in the immediate vicinity is practiced for pest management. In case of pest outbreak, regular monitoring and spot application twice with imidacloprid and pyriproxyfen/thiamethoxam 0.02% at 20 days interval during summer was recommended to avoid further spread of mealybugs from infested fields. Scale insects are spread by transport of infested plants or plant parts. Surveillance should be strict on the movement of planting material to avoid spread of scale insects across the transcontinental borders. Plants need to be provided with good growing conditions and proper cultural care, especially appropriate irrigation so they are more resistant to scale damage. In case of outbreaks, three sprays of 2.5% fish oil rosin soap were found to be effective in reducing the population of A. destructor.

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Aspidiotus destructor

Scale infestation on leaf

Nuts infested with scale

7 Mealybugs: Palmicultor palmarum Ehron., Pseudococcus coccotis Maskell, Pseudococcus longispinus Targ., Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, Planococcus lilacinus, (Cockerell), Pseudococcus microadonidum (Beardsley), Nipaecoccus nipae Maskell, Dysmicoccus finitimus Williams (Pseudococcidae), Rhizoecus cocois Williams and Xenococcus acropygae Williams (Rhizoecidae) In general, mealybugs suck the sap from young seedlings, spindle leaves, spathes and floral parts perianth of immature nuts in coconut. Rhizoecus cocois and Nipaecoccus nipae are known to infest roots of coconut plants. Damage symptoms include yellowing and loss of vigour and discolouration of the roots at the point of feeding and then the drying up of such roots.

P. cocotis on spear leaf

Mealybug on nut

P. palmarum on inflorescence

D. finitimus

Nipaecoccus nipae infestation

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Management: The most important natural enemies on coconut mealybugs are Pullus sp., Scymnus sp., Spalgis epeus, Bergineus maindroni, Dicrodiplosis sp. (Cecidomyiidae) and Homalotylus oculatus. These natural enemies exert good control of the pest in nature. In case of severe infestation only, insecticides are to be applied systemic insecticides can provide excellent options for mealybug control. Application of 0.1% malathion and 0.025% methomyl caused 100% mortality within 7 days, and Palmicultor sp. on coconut leaves (Jalaluddin & Mohanasundaram, 1993). Regular monitoring and spot application twice with dimethoate 0.05% at 20 days interval during summer to avoid further spread of mealy bugs from infested coconut plantations.

8 Termite: Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) (Isoptera: Termitidae) Termites damage coconut seedlings and about 20% of them are destroyed. Application of chlorpyrifos at 50 a.i 100 m2 in the nurseries may prevent damage by termites. While planting apply chlorpyriphos 10% dust in the pits to prevent attack by termites. Management also involves with the destruction of termite mounds in or near the coconut nursery or garden, swabbing with neem oil 5% once on the base and up to 2 m height of the trunk, and application of chlorpyriphos at 3 mL/L of water in termite mound or plant infested with termites. The following diluted chemicals imidacloprid at 1–2 mL/chlorpyriphos at 3–5 mL in 1 L of water could be drenched around the seedlings after transplanting.

9 Slug Caterpillars: Parasa lepida (Cramer), Contheyla rotunda Hampson and Macroplecta nararia Moore (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) Parasa lepida: Flat shiny eggs on the under surface of leaves. It pupates in a compact elliptical chocolate brown shell like cocoon, which is convex above and flat ventrally as stems. Cocoons are covered with irritating spines and hairs. Adult moth has green wings with prominent dark patch at the base of each.

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Life stages of Parasa lepida

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Contheyla rotunda: The incidence of coconut slug caterpillar C. rotunda on a severe scale in Tamil Nadu. Larvae are Black or grey. Adults are small greyish brown moths. Forewings have slight dark in colour and series of black points. Hind wings are slightly darker. Macroplecta nararia: Outbreak of coconut slug caterpillar M. nararia was observed in East Godavari and West Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh. Adults are small and yellowish in colour. The moths laid tiny scale like eggs singly on the leaf. Eggs hatch in 4–5 days. Caterpillars are yellowish green in colour with a series of tubercles on dorsal and lateral Larval period is 30 days. Pupation takes place in the corners of the leaflets or crown region. Pupae are round brownish shell like. Adult emerges in about 15 days from the pupa. Damage: Young caterpillars feed on leaf tissue. Grown up caterpillars eat away entire drying of entire foliage drooping of leaves and bunches falling of buttons and nuts are ultimate symptoms of the pest attack laminar portion of leaving the midribs. The slug caterpillar is a sporadic out break pest on coconut and the larvae feeding on leaf lamina results in development of necrotic spots in early stage. In severe cases, caterpillars feed on the coconut leaves sparing only the midrib, leaf stalks as well as nuts and in severe out break gumming on the nuts was also observed. Management: Establishment of light traps in endemic tracts could help in monitoring of the pest as well as reduce the population of moths (Sujatha et al., 2011). Spraying Bacillus thuringiensis formulations at 2 g/L. on the infested fronds reduces pest population. Larvae of M. narariaare parasitized by Eurytoma tatipakensis Kur., Euplectromorpha natadae Kur. and Secodesna rariae Kur under natural condition. Good nutrition as well as irrigation is required to recoup the infested palms which take about 20–24 months.

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Coconut Defoliator: Phalacra sp. (Lepidoptera: Drepanidae)

Adults are medium sized ash coloured moths. Eggs are cream coloured. They turn to red colour before hatching. Larvae are deep red colour with hairs over the body and slowly turn to light green colour. Larval period is about 25 days. Pupal period is 10 days. Life cycle is completed in 40 days. Young larvae scrape the leaf longitudinally along the veins giving a silt like appearance or a line cut by a blade. Slowly the larvae feed on lamina leaving the midrib. Caterpillar starts feeding from the tip of the leaf lets on the top portion of leaf and proceeds downwards. Management involves installation of light traps for mass trapping the adult moths and the application of contact insecticides.

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11.1

Whiteflies: Aleurocanthus arecae David Manjunatha, Aleurodicus dispersus (Russell) and Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Areca Whitefly: Aleurocanthus arecae

It is known to infest mature coconut leaflets as well as coconut seedlings in nursery. Adult whiteflies are small (1–3 mm), fly-like, fragile and smoky-greyish in colour laying eggs in spiral rings on the abaxial surface of leaves. Nymphs and adults feed on the phloem sap and excretes honeydew supporting the growth of sooty mould fungus. Lady beetles, viz., Serangium parcesetosum and Jauravia pallidula, and a hump-backed nitidulid predator, Cybocephalus sp., were found predaceous on adults and nymphs of A. arecae. Eggs of A. arecae are also consumed by an anthocorid bug in Kerala (Chandrika et al. 2007). Naturally occurring predators Chilocorus subindicus, Scymnomorphus sp. and Chilocorus nigrita are able to check A. arecae (Josephrajkumar et al. 2010a, b, c).

Aleurocanthus arecae colony on coconut foliage

Adults and puparia enlarged view

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11.2

Spiralling Whitefly: Aleurodicus dispersus Russell

This polyphagous pest has never assumed a pest status on coconut (Josephrajkumar et al., 2010a). It is a polyphagous pest with a characteristic spiralling pattern of oviposition on the underside of leaves. Female whitefly lays up to 60 yellowish white eggs hatching in 5–8 days. There are four nymphal instars, which are greenish, white and oval. Fourth instar nymphs are covered with heavy wax material. The total nymphal period normally lasts for 12 to 14 days and pupal period lasts for 2 to 3 days. Development from egg to adult occupies about 25 days. Adults are very much larger with dark reddish brown eyes and fore wings with characteristics dark spots. Adults live for 13 to 22 days. Heavy incidence of spiralling whitefly was observed on coconut in Madurai. It damages plants by sucking the sap of leaves and excreting a sticky honeydew and white waxy flocculent substance which affects the photosynthesis and overall appearance of the plants. The parasitoids, Encarsia haitiensis sp. nr. and Encarsia guadeloupae Viggiani, are able to suppress the spiralling whitefly. Life stages g of Aleurodicus dispersus

Eggs

11.3

Nymphs

Adult

Rugose Spiralling Whitefly (RSW): Aleurodicus rugioperculatus

The adult whitefly with a body length of about 2.5 mm is relatively larger than common whiteflies. Wings of adults are white and have dark spots on the forewings. Presence of a pair of irregular light brown bands across the wings is one of the identifying features of RSW. Adults have greyish eyes. The males are slightly smaller than females and have elongate claspers at the distal end of the abdomen. Eggs are elliptical and yellowish in colour, 0.3 mm long, translucent with a short stalk and are laid singly and associated with irregularly spiralling deposits of white flocculent wax surrounding each egg in a semi-circular spiralling fashion. The spiralling of waxy material is the feature from which its common name, spiralling whitefly is derived.

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Diversity y of exotic whiteflies

(a, b) Nymphs and adult of Aleurodicus rugioperculatus; (c, d) Nymph and adult of Paraleyrodes bondari; (e, f) Nymph and adult of Paraleyrodes minei; (g, h) Nymphs and adult of Aleurotrachelus atratus

Damage: The prevalence of the pest was noticed from the outer whorls and slowly progressed towards the inner whorls, whereas, the emerging fronds were not

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infested. Feeding from under surface of palms leaflets, RSW excretes higher amount of honey dew which gets deposited on the upper surface of leaflets just beneath and/or under storey crops attracting tremendous growth of black sooty moulds (Leptoxyphium sp.) impairing photosynthetic efficiency of palms. Appearance of black coating on the palm leaflets is the characteristic symptom of pest attack which is explicitly visible from a long-distance aiding in identification of pest damage. Occurrence of enormous spiralling egg colonies and adult whiteflies on under surface of palm leaflets is visibly explicit upon examination. Adult whiteflies are larger with conspicuous brown patches on dorsum as well as pseudo pupae possessing rugose operculum and acute triangular lingula are the characteristic identification features. Invasion of A. rugioperculatus was followed by three species (Paraleyrodes bondari Peracchi, Paraleyrodes minei I Accarino and Aleurotrachelus atratus Hempel) in coconut ecosystem (Josephrajkumar et al., 2019). At present, all are found to co-exist on coconut in South India. The Bondar’s nesting whitefly, P. bondari is associated with rugose spiralling whitefly in most districts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, whereas the nesting whitefly, P. minei is interlinked with A. rugioperculatus in Kasaragod, Kerala, and also found to co-occur with the palm whitefly, A. atratus, in Mandya, Karnataka. Management Strategies: Observations from different parts of RSW prone tracts of Kerala, India indicated more than 50% of the RSW nymphs parasitized by a tiny hymenopteran parasitoid, Encarsia guadeloupae Viggiani confirming the natural build of the parasitoids. This is one of the classical biological control strategies and any disturbance in the build-up of E. guadeloupae would invariably affect the long term approach in pest biosuppression. In addition, lady beetles belonging to Jauravia sp., Sasajiscymnus sp., and a wide array of spiders were also noticed naturally suppressing RSW. A sooty mould feeding Leiochrinid beetle Leiochrinus nilgirianus Kaszab and its immature stages was discovered from Kayamkulam, Kerala that could feed on the sooty mould deposits on palm leaflets during early hours before sunshine (Josephrajkumar et al., 2018b). These bioscavengers are involved in biocleansing process making palms revitalize from black sooty mould deposits improving the photosynthetic efficiency of palms. Application of 1% starch solution on leaflets to flake out the sooty moulds; Installation of yellow sticky traps to trap adult whiteflies; Introduction of parasitized pupae is a good strategy in the emerging pest inflicted zones for effective biosuppression of whitefly. In severe case, spray neem oil 0.5% and no insecticide is recommended. Pesticide holiday approach aiding in the conservation biological control using the aphelinid parasitoid, Encarsia guadeloupae and the chrysopid predator, Apertochrysa sp. as well as in situ preservation of the sooty mould scavenger beetle, Leiochrinus nilgirianus were found pivotal in the biosuppression of the exotic whiteflies (Josephrajkumar et al., 2018b). This strategy was mainly preferred to avoid indiscriminate use of insecticide in coconut system to conserve the pollinators, aforesaid natural defenders and the bioscavenger beetles which were actively involved in the regulation of A. rugioperculatus. The predator, Apertochrysa sp. and the parasitoid, E. guadeloupae co-occurred along with the pest and in a period of 4–5 months of pest introduction, these natural enemies

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subdued the pestilence potential of RSW, which is normally observed in coconut belts experiencing less precipitation, humidity as well as high temperature coinciding summer period. In addition, during the monsoon phase the sooty mould scavenger beetle, L. nilgirianus devoured the sooty mould encrusted on palm leaflets and completely cleaned the palms reviving back the photosynthetic efficacy in toto. In this conservation agriculture approach, the RSW population got reduced by 80% and parasitism reached as high as 85% in a period of 5–6 months. This forms a success story in tackling an invasive pest through conservation biological suppression and bioscavenging programme using natural enemies to knock down the pest and scavenging beetles to cleanse the palms. This natural suppression strategy could pay enormous dividends to the farming community as well as to the environment.

Colonies of Rugose Spiralling Whitefly

Leaf damage by the Whitefly

Natural enemies of Rugose Spiralling Whitefly

Parasitised whitefly nymph

12 12.1

E. guadeloupae

Jauravia sp.

Coconut Skippers Gangara thyrsis thyrsis F. (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)

They roll the leaves and feed within. Gangara thyrsis: Larva is pale green with reddish markings. Body concealed in a covering of white waxy Markings; Adult butterfly is brownish in colour; Chocolate brown wing with yellow spots. Typical damage symptoms include the rolling of individual leaflets of seedlings or young palms into spiral tubes distally and the tubes harbouring cream coloured robust caterpillars having a constricted neck and red

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marking, concealed by long, prominent waxy filaments; greenish brown pupa with white bloom inside the tube makes rattling sound by its vibration when disturbed.

Life stages g of Gangara g thyrsis thyrsis

Egg

12.2

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Suastus gremius

Larva: Smooth, green, tapering at either end with a constriction between head and body; Adult: Chocolate brown with yellow spots on forewings One half of the leaflets are cut and rolled into a case. Spray dichlorvos 76 WSC 2 mL/L.

Life stages of Suastus gremius

Egg

13

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Lace Wing Bug: Stephanitis typicus (Dist.) (Hemiptera: Tingidae)

The nymphs and adults of the lace-wing bug feed by sucking the sap from the under surface of leaflets causing white spots on the upper surface. Damage symptoms in coconut include yellowish patches on either side of the midrib of the leaflets which later turn into brown necrotic patches; presence of colonies of lace like white adult bugs having transparent, shiny reticulated wings and black body and black spiny nymphs on the undersurface of leaves, especially in the middle region of the affected leaflets. It is suspected to be a vector of the wilt disease of coconut in Kerala.

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Stephanitis typicus

Chlorotic spots on leaf

14

Nymphs

Adult

Greater Coconut Spike Moth: Tirathaba rufivena Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Pest incidence is found increasing especially in young and dwarf coconut palms in East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh and Bastar tribal belt of Chhattisgarh state causing nearly up to 12% nut loss to the coconut palms (Patel et al., 2018). In coconut, the caterpillar bores at perianth portion in small size to large size buttons and causes nut drop. The affected nuts can be recognized by the presence of excreta and oozing gummy substances. Generally a single larva is found in an infested nut but in case of severe infestation more than one larva can be seen. Male flowers are especially attacked by the larvae which are very active and move quickly when disturbed. Infestation causes abortion of young, underdeveloped nuts. Spike moth larvae (10–15 mm size) are found effectively paralyzed by Goniozus nephantidis Muesebeck (Chalapathi Rao et al., 2018).

Feeding damage

15

Nut damage

Non-Insect Pests

Non-insect pests including eriophyid mites, rodents, nematodes monkeys and palm civet (Pradoxurus hermaphrodites) are important.

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Eriophyid Mite: Aceria guerreronis Keifer

It is a serious pest noticed in many parts of India.

Mite colony

Mite damage to nuts

Biology: Coconut mite is a microscopic creamy white, vermiform organism measuring 200–250 μm in length and 36–52 μm in breadth. The body is elongated, cylindrical, finely ringed and bears two pairs of legs at the anterior end. Mites attain sexual maturity within a week’s time and start laying eggs. An adult mite lays about 100–150 eggs. The eggs hatch into protonymphs, deutonymphs and finally to adults. The total life cycle is completed in 7–10 days. Damage: The pest activity has been observed throughout the year with the population peak during the summer months. The mite infestation symptoms are observed approximately 1 month after the initial colonization of the mite inside the fertilized buttons. Appearance of elongated white streaks below the perianth is the first external visual symptom on young buttons. In many cases, a yellow halo develops around the perianth. Within a few days, this halo develops into yellow triangular patch pointing towards the distal end of the button. This can be clearly seen in 2- to 3-month-old buttons. In a short time, the yellow patch turns into brown and show necrotic patches on the periphery of the perianth. As the nut grows the injuries form warting and longitudinal fissures on the nut surface. In severe infestation, the husk develops cracks, cuts and gummosis. Shedding of buttons and young nuts and malformation of nuts as a result of retarded growth are the other indications associated with severe attack of the pest. Mite infestation goes up to 70% of nuts reduction in crop loss up to 30.94% in terms of copra and 41.74% in husk production (Mallik et al., 2003; Mohan et al., 2007). Management: Currently botanical pesticides, viz., neem-based biopesticides are recommended for management of the pest in the field. Spraying of neem oil–garlic soap mixture at 2% or commercial botanical pesticides containing azadirachtin 10,000 ppm at 0.004% or root feeding with neem formulations containing azadirachtin 50,000 ppm (7.5 mL) or azadirachtin 10,000 ppm (10 mL) mixed with equal volume of water is recommended for mite management (Mallik et al., 2003; Rajan et al., 2009). The fungal pathogen, Hirsutella thompsonii has received

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considerable attention throughout the world as the most effective natural enemy of eriophyid mite of coconut. Conservation of the predatory fauna in the ecosystem is beneficial to regulate the coconut mite in nature.

15.2

Rattus rattus wroughtoni Hinton

The black rat, Rattus rattus wroughtoni is the most important one. The damage caused by rats on the nuts was found to be 30–40% in several parts of India. The more effective and economic way of managing this pest is by the use of single-dose anticoagulant rodenticide. Bromadiolone (0.005%) is wax cake formulation. In coconut, application of 10 g Bromadiolone (0.005%) blocks two times at an interval of 12 days on the crown of one tree out of every five trees is recommended for effective control of black rat.

15.3

Nematode: Radopholus similis (Cobb)

The burrowing nematode, R. similis, occurs coconut palms in coconut plantations in South India recorded 24% incidence of R. similis in coconut. Burrowing nematode infested coconut palms exhibit general decline symptoms such as stunting, yellowing, reduction in leaf number and size, delayed flowering, button shedding and reduced yield. The cultural practices such as application of oilcakes, farmyard manure and growing of sun hemp in the basins and interspaces, and their incorporation as green manure help in the inhibition of nematode multiplication. Application of neem cake at 5 kg/palm is recommended in infested areas to eliminate R. similis. Raising coconut seedlings in plastic bags containing potting mixture enriched with bioagents such as Paeceilomyces lilacinus, Pasturia penetrans and mycorrhizae have shown that these microorganisms could suppress nematode population and are useful control agents.

16

Other Pests

They include the scales insects Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead), Lepidosaphes megregori Ali, Chrysomphalus ficus Ashmead, Chionaspis sp., Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret) (Dispididae: Homoptera); Ceroplastes floridensis Comstock, Ceroplastes actiniformis Green, Lecanium acutissimum Green, Coccus hesperidum (Linnaeus) and Vinsonia stellifera (Westwood) (Homoptera: Coccidae); locust Patanga succincta (L.), grasshopper Aularches miliaris (L.) and the leaf beetle Callispa minima Gestro (Hispidae) and Tunaca acuta Walker (Notodontidae: Lepidoptera); bagworm Manatha albipes Moore, aphids Cerataphis brasiliensis

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(Hempel) and Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas), Haplothrips ceylonicus Bagnall, the caterpillars of Batrachedra arenosella (Wlk.) (Batrachedridae) and Coconympha iridarcha Meyrick (Gelechiidae) and the nut borer Cyclodes omma (Hoeven) (Noctuidae) and shot-hole borers Xyleborus parvulus Eichhoff and Xyleborus similis Ferrari (Scolytidae: Coleoptera); and weevils Diocalandra stigmaticollis Hust., Myllocerus undatus Marshall and Amorphoidea coimbatorensis Subramaniam and red tree ant Oecophylla smaragdina (F.).

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Third International Symposium on Coconut Research and Development (ISOCRAD 3), December 10–12, 2016, ICAR-CPCRI, Kasaragod. Mohan, C., & Sujatha, A. (2006). The Coconut leaf caterpillar, Opisina arenosella Walker. Cord. 22 (Special Issue): 25–78. Nair, C. P. R., Rajan, P., Mohan, C., & Gopal, M. (2008). Management of rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros Linn., in coconut gardens by biocontrol method. In H. P. Singh & G. V. Thomas (Eds.), Organic horticulture: Principles, practices and technologies (pp. 342–347). ICAR-CPCRI. Nair, C. P. R., Rajan, P., Mohan, C., & Josephrajkumar, A. (2010). Rhinoceros beetle and Red Palm Weevil-two major pests of coconut palm in India. In C. V. A. Bose (Ed.), In a nutshell—Essays on Coconut (pp. 178–184). Coconut Development Board. Patel, R. K., Salam, P. K., & Singh, B. (2018). New record of coconut spike moth (Tirathaba rufivena Walker) from Bastar tribal belt of Chhattisgarh. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 6(1), 1117–1118. Pillai, G. B., Sathiamma, B., & Dangar, T. K. (1993). Integrated control of rhinoceros beetle. In M. K. Nair, H. H. Khan, P. Gopalasundaram, & E. V. V. Bhaskara Rao (Eds.), Advances in Coconut Research and Development (pp. 455–464). Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Prathibha, P. S. (2015). Behavioural studies of palm white grubs, Leucopholis spp. (Coleoptera: Scareabaeidae) and evaluation of new insecticides for their management. Ph.D thesis submitted to UAS Bangalore. 119 p. Prathibha, P. S., Kumar, A. R. V., & Subaharan, K. (2013). Ethology of coconut root grub chafer, Leucopholis coneophora Burmeister (Melolonthinae: Scarabaeidae). International Journal of Agriculture and Food Science Technology, 4(2), 24–28. Rajan, P., Josephrajkumar, A., Mohan, C., & Subaharan, K. (2010a). Emerging pests of coconut. In: G. V. Thomas, V. Krishnakumar, & B. A. Jerard. Improving productivity and profitability of Coconut farming (pp. 348–356). Proceedings of the international conference on Coconut biodiversity for prosperity. ICAR-CPCRI. Rajan, P., Mohan, C., & Josephrajkumar, A. (2010b). Have coconuts without pest infection. Indian Horticulture, 55(5), 33–37. Rajan, P., Chandrika Mohan, Nair, C.P.R., & Josephrajkumar, A. 2009. Integrated pest management in coconut. Technical bulletin no. 55, CPCRI, Regional Station, 20p. Rajan, P., & Nair, C. P. R. (1997). Red palm weevil, the tissue borer of coconut palm. Indian Coconut Journal, 27(12), 2–4. Rajan, P., & Nair, C. P. R. (2005). Coreid bug of coconut. Indian Coconut Journal, 36(6), 11–12. Rao, N. B. V. C., Rao, G. K., & Ramanandam, G. (2018). A new report on parasitisation of coconut spike moth, Tirathaba rufivena Walker by Goniozus nephantidis Muesebeck. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 24(2), 181–184. Sadakathulla, S., & Ramachandran, T. K. (1990). Efficacy of naphthalene balls on the control of rhinoceros beetle attacks in coconut. Cocos, 8, 23–25. Sathiamma, B., Mohan, C., & Gopal, M. (2000). Biological potential and its exploitation in coconut pest management. In R. K. Upadhay, K. G. Mukerji, & B. P. Chamola (Eds.), Biocontrol potential and its exploitation in sustainable agriculture (Vol. 2, pp. 261–283). Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. Sathiamma, B., Pillai, G. B., Jose, A., Bhat, S. K., Jayapal, S. P., & Nair, K. R. (1987). Norms for release of larval, prepupal and pupal parasitoids of Opisina arenosella Wlk. the leaf-eating caterpillar of the coconut palm. Journal of Plantation Crops, 15(2), 118–122.

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Pests and Their Management in Cocoa Chandrika Mohan, A. Josephrajkumar, Shivaji H. Thube, E. K. Saneera, and M. Mani

Abstract Cocoa is known to be attacked by about 50 pests in India. Mealybugs Planococus lilacinus, Planococcus citri, Maconellicoccus hirsutus, Ferrisia virgata, Paracoccus marginatus and Xenococcus annandalei pose serious threat to the cultivation of cocoa. Tea mosquito bugs Helopeltis antonii, H. theivora and H. bradyi are known to attack cherelles, shoot and pods of cocoa. The other sucking insects include red-banded thrips Selenothrips rubrocinctus, Margarodid Drosicha mangiferae, Aphids Toxoptera aurantii and Aphis gossypii and Hopper Idioscopus clypealis. Defoliating beetles include Indian rose beetle Adoretus versutus, black chaffer beetle Apogonia blanchardi and ash weevils Myllocerus viridanus and Myllocerus maculosus. Leaf-eating caterpillars include Olena mendosa, Euproctis fraterna, Somena scintillans, Euproctis subnotata and Lymantria obfuscate, castor hairy caterpillar Pericallia ricini, Bihar hairy caterpillars Spilosoma oblique and Metanastria hyrtaca, slug caterpillar Parasa lepida, brown looper Hyposidra talaca and leaf caterpillar Argina syringa. Borers include red borer Zeuzera coffeae and the castor capsule borer Conogethus punctiferalis. The other insect pests also include bag worms Pteroma plagiophelps and Clania sp., bark borer Indarbela quadrinotata and stem girdler Sthenias grisator. Vertebrate pests include Black Rat (Rattus rattus), Bandicoot Rat (Bandicota spp.), Western Ghats squirrel (Funambulus tristriatus), Striped squirrel (Funambulus palmarum), Jungle cat (Felis chaus), Jackal (Canis aureus), Monkey (Macaca radiata), Indian Bison (Bibos gaurus) and Stag (Cervus canis). Methods of management of key pests are also discussed.

C. Mohan (*) · A. Josephrajkumar ICAR—Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Kayamkulam, Kerala, India S. H. Thube · E. K. Saneera ICAR—Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal, Karnataka, India M. Mani ICAR—Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_61

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1 Mealy Bugs: Planococus lilacinus Ckll., Planococcus citri Risso, Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), Ferrisia virgata (Cockerell) and Paracoccus marginatus Williams & Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Mealybugs colonize on the tender parts of the plant such as growing tips of the shoots, the terminal buds, the flower cushions, the young cherelles and mature pods. When infestation occurs in the apical region, growing shoots and tender leaves deform into hairy structures typical to that of brush-like appearance. Infestation on flower cushion leads to drying and abortion of flowers. The mealy bugs colonize on the pedicel causing the characteristic wilt symptom. Sunken patches in the developing pods result in the formation of scabs. Brown patches, irregular cracks and pits can be seen on mature pods. The adults excrete honey dew on the leaves over which a sooty mould develops which in turn inhibits photosynthetic activities of the plant. The peak pest population is found during summer months.

1.1

Oriental Mealybug: Planococcus lilacinus

In India, it is reported as a serious pest causing damage to cocoa and is present in all cocoa tracts of the country. Both nymphs and adults of mealybug occur in colonies and suck the sap from growing tender shoots, terminal buds, flower stalks, foliage and pods. Body is conspicuously round in lateral view and brownish red or tan. Mealy wax covers body, ovisac is absent, and ovoviviparous, with first instars being pale maroon. It is present throughout the year. A female can lay around 200 eggs which hatch into nymphs within 6 h. Nymphal period lasts for 20–25 days. Peak population is reported in April–May and low level of activity is recorded during rainy and post monsoon seasons (Ayyar, 1940; Abraham & Remamony, 1979; Nair, 1981).

Planococcus lilacinus

Ant association with the mealybug

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Citrus Mealybug: Planococcus citri

It is known to infest cocoa in Nilgiris and Kerala. This specie infests shoot tips, flower stalks, foliage, stem tissues, cherelles and pods. Severe infestation of cherelles results in drying up. Infestation on mature pods results in irregular sunken necrotic lesions. Population peak occurs in July to October (Ayyar, 1940; Abraham & Padmanbhan, 1967).

1.3

Root Mealybug: Xenococcus annandalei Silvestri (Hemiptera: Rhizoecidae)

Yellowing followed by wilting is the general symptom observed on the mealybug infested plants. On severe infestation the infested plants were completely dried. Ants are always found attending mealybug colonies. Some construct tents over mealy bug colonies while some others make covered nest over colonies with mud particles. Though about seven species of ants are found associated with mealy bug colonies of cocoa in India, the Asian weaver ant, Oecophylla smaragdina (Fab.) and Technomyrmex sp. are seen attending the mealy bug colonies infesting cocoa in Southern Karnataka. Colonies of Technomyrmex are more prevalent on mealy bug colonies of flower cushions. The black ant Dolichoderus bituberculatus (Mayr) is also known to attend P. lilacinus (Daniel, 2002). Management: An integrated pest management is recommended to suppress the mealybugs on cocoa. (a) The control of mealy bug by insecticide is usually difficult because of its habits, water-repellent nature of their body covering and the protection provided by the ant-constructed nests. Hence, destruction of initial foci of infection before attaining severe proportion is very important. Destruction of highly infested plant parts and removal of alternate weed hosts in the immediate vicinity aid in reducing the mealybug population. Locate ant colonies and drench them with chlorpyriphos 0.05% to destroy the colonies. Proper pruning of cocoa branches also helps some way in preventing colony build-up of the ant O. smaragdina (Daniel, 2002). By checking the activities of ants, the naturally occurring parasitoids and predators, chiefly coccinellids and lycaenid Spalgis epeus, play a major role in the suppression of the mealybugs. (b) In the area where P. marginatus alone occurs, field release of the encyrtid parasitoid Acerophagus papayae Noyes and Schauff at 100 per hamlet is recommended as the best management strategy. (c) After the complete control of ants, release predatory ladybird beetle, particularly Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant, is to be considered to check the mealybugs in general on cocoa.

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(d) After the checking of ant activity, the local encyrtid parasitoid Tetracnemoidea indica (Ayyar) can be introduced into cocoa ecosystem for the management of P. lilacinus. Tetracnemoidea indica plays a significant role in reducing the population of P. lilacinus on pomegranate in India (Mani & Krishnamoorthy, 2000). (e) When the infestation is low; spraying neem oil 0.5% or fish oil rosin soap 25 g/L for the suppression of the pest. In case of severe incidence, spraying of imidacloprid (0.3 mL/L) is recommended (Hausrao et al., 2016). The insecticide must be applied only after collecting the pods which are ready for harvesting. Soil drenching of dimethoate 0.05% is also found to be effective (Jayaraj & Ananthan, 2008). Spot application on the pest colony with 0.5% neem oil emulsion along with 5% soap solution two times at fortnightly intervals and need-based application of imidacloprid at 0.3 mL/L of water is recommended for mealy bug management (Apshara et al., 2018). Chemigation (application of chemicals through irrigation) is an environmentally safe and most effective to control the mealybugs. Imidacloprid (0.002%) a systemic trans-laminar insecticide and also thiamethoxam (0.002%) (applied through in the irrigation water and taken by the vine roots) has been used in several countries and excellent control of mealybugs has been obtained for a longer time.

2 Tea Mosquito Bugs: Helopeltis antonii Signoret and H. theivora Westwood and H. bradyi Waterhouse (Hemiptera: Miridae) Nymph and adults of H. antonii are reddish brown, elongate bug with black head, red thorax, and black and white abdomen. Mirids are reported as the most devastating pest of cocoa in the recent years attacking cherelles, shoot and pods of cocoa. Circular and blackish feeding lesions are developed on the cherelles and pods of cocoa. In severe cases, fissures are developed on the pods and the beans become warty losing the market value, though many a times, the beans are not affected. Attacks can also occur in young shoots. The young leaves are attacked usually within a few days immediately withered, dried up, and eventually die. The leaves will eventually fall and twigs will dry and will become like a stick. Due to severe feeding on shoots, dieback symptoms will be seen on canopy. Life cycle starting from the egg stage lasts for 6–7 days followed by the nymph phase lasts for 10–11 days, and the imago phase for 14–20 days. Eggs are white and usually placed by imago in the skin tissue of fruit or leaf. After the eggs hatch, the young insects (nymphs) out of the fruit skin tissue will undergo five instars (4 times moulting) to finally become an adult (imago) (Daniel, 2002).

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H. bradyi

H.antonii

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H. theivora

Pod damage by mirids

Management: Shade regulation through proper pruning and training will reduce TMB damage. Removal of alternate hosts like neem, cashew, and guava in the surroundings helps in pest reduction. Spray application of Beauveria bassiana (1  109) gives good control of Helopeltis antonii. Low level of infestation can be managed by neem oil spray (3%) and in persisting damage, spraying has to be repeated at 20–30 days interval, one spray each during flushing, flowering and fruiting seasons. Spraying shall be resorted during morning hours. If infestation is noticed at severe intensity, need based spray application of insecticides viz., Lambda cyhalothrin 5 EC (0.003%) 0.3 mL/L or Imidacloprid 17.8 SL (0.004%) 0.25 mL/L is recommended for pest management (Apshara et al., 2018; Thube et al., 2019).

3 Red-Banded Thrips: Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Thrips prefer young foliage, and their feeding cause leaf silvering, leaf distortion and leaf drop. Honeydew excretion from thrips falls on the fruit leading to the development sooty mould on the fruits. The female is about 1.2 mm in length and has a dark brown to black body underlain by red pigment primarily on the first three abdominal segments; the anal segments retain a reddish black colour, and the wings are dark. The nymph and pupa are light yellow to orange with the first three and last segments of the abdomen bright red. After hatching, there are two nymphal stages lasting 9–10 days. Fully-grown second stage nymphs are about 1 mm long. The two nymphal stages are followed by two resting stages (pre-pupal and pupal stages). The resting stages last 3–5 days before adults emerge. Large number of natural predators such as spiders and mites, lacewings, predatory thrips, and Predatory bugs, especially minute pirate bugs preyed upon thrips and bring a natural population check (Chin & Brown, 2008; Funderburk et al., 2007). Severe infestation can be

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managed by the application of spiromesifen 22.9% SC at 0.5 mL/L water (Thube & Apshara, 2021).

Adult

Nymph

Leaf infestation Damaged pod

4 Mealybug Alike: Drosicha mangiferae Green (Hemiptera: Margarodidae) They cause damage by sucking the sap and excrete honey dew on which sooty mould develops. Severe infestation causes distorted growth.

5 Aphids: Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe) and Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae) The aphids congregate on the tender shoots, flower buds and leaves. Aphids’ colonies on terminal and growing shoots cause leaf deformation during summer, and colonization on succulent stem, flower buds and small cherelles causes premature shedding of flowers and curling of leaves. It is often more serious in nurseries. However, extensive damage is not reported. They excrete honey dew on which sooty mould develops on the plant parts. Spraying neem oil (0.5%) will reduce the incidence and spread. If recurrence of the pest is noticed, second spray may be given after an interval of 20–30 days. A number of natural enemies feed on aphids and exert natural check in low pest intensity. Natural enemies include coccinellid beetles (Coccinella septempunctata, Scymnus coccivora and Chilocorus nigrita), syrphids (Eristalis spp. and Volucella spp.) and chrysophids (Chrysoperla carnea).

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Aphid leaf infestation

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Aphid flower infestation

6 Hopper: Idioscopus clypealis (Lethierry) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Nymphs and adults suck phloem sap from the inflorescences and leaves.

6.1

IPM Strategy Against Sucking Pest Complex

IPM strategy was the most effective treatment against the sucking insect pest complex of cocoa. IPM strategy includes the proper pruning and clean cultivation, erection of yellow sticky light traps at 10 traps per hectare; field release of C. montrouzieri at 10 beetles per tree coinciding with the population build-up of Planococcus lilacinus and P. citri; field release of Acerophagus papayae at 100 beetle per hamlet coinciding with the population build-up of Paracoccus marginatus; foliar application of Beauveria bassiana (2  108 cfu/mL) at 5 kg/ha coinciding with the population build-up of tea mosquito bugs; foliar application of azadirachtin 10,000 ppm at 500 mL/ha coinciding with peak flowering (to conserve pollinators); and foliar application of thiacloprid 21.7% SC at 750 mL/ha during pod formation stage. IPM strategy was significantly superior to farmer’s practice in reducing the population of aphids (Toxoptera aurantii), mealybugs (P. marginatus and P. citri) and tea mosquito bugs (Helopeltis bradyi and H. antonii) with the per cent reduction of 91%, 94% and 84%, respectively (Srinivasnaik et al., 2017).

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7 Indian Rose Beetle: Adoretus versutus Harold (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) Adults measure 12.8  6.8 mm, with a dark-brown body covered with dense greyish-white scales dotted with brown-red hairs surrounding small blackishbrown alveoles on the wing cases. Adults feed on cocoa plant foliage at night resulting in shot hole appearance on leaves. They feed on plant tissue between leaf veins. In severe cases, most of the leaves are skeletonized (Emmanuel, Sujatha, & Gautham, 2011b).

8 Black Chaffer Beetle: Apogonia blanchardi Ritsema (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) The beetle is known to feed on coca foliage during night time. Adults feed on the leaf from peripheral region Adults are black in colour (Emmanuel, Sujatha, & Gautham, 2011b).

9 Adoretus versutus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) It is observed feeding on the cocoa foliage during night times confirming them to be nocturnal. The adult A. versutus is 10  12 mm long. It feeds on the central laminar portion of the leaf in a zigzag way leaving the veins intact in a skeletonized manner (Emmanuel, Sujatha, & Gautham, 2011b).

10

Ash Weevils: Myllocerus viridanus Fab. & Myllocerus maculosus Desbrochers, J. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

They are known to feed on cocoa leaves (Emmanuel, Chalapathi Rao, & Gautham, 2011a).

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Leaf-Eating Caterpillars Olena (=Dasychira) mendosa (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)

The caterpillar feeds on the foliage. Adult moth is pale yellow with hind and fore wings irregularly patterned with various shades of brown, lays masses of eggs. Larvae are with reddish head and greyish body with stripes of red and long dense dorsal tufts of white hairs (Emmanuel, Chalapathi Rao, & Gautham, 2011a).

11.2

Euproctis fraterna (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)

It is a leaf feeder. The yellowish moth with pale transverse line on fore wings lays flat, circular, yellowish eggs in masses on the lower surface of leaves and covers them with yellow hairs. The full grown larva possesses a red head with white hairs around and a long pre-anal tuft. It pupates on the plant itself in a cocoon of yellowish hair. The total life cycle occupies about 45–57 days, and the egg, larval and pupal periods, respectively, are of 5–9, 29–35 and 10–12 days (Emmanuel, Chalapathi Rao, & Gautham, 2011a).

11.3

Somena scintillans Walker (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)

The larvae are known to feed on the leaves. Adult has yellowish brown head, a yellow dorsal stripe with a central red line on the body and tufts of black hairs dorsally on the first three abdominal segments. The adult is yellowish with spots on the edges of (Emmanuel, Chalapathi Rao, & Gautham, 2011a).

11.4

Euproctis subnotata Walker (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae)

The larvae are known to feed on the tender leaves as well as on the surface tissue of young pods. The yellowish moth lays eggs in masses of 8–10 on the lower surface of leaves and covered with hairs. Caterpillars are small with dark brown in colour with yellow bands and minute hairs. Pupation takes place in soil. Adults are brownish in colour. Forewings are fibrous and hind wings are yellowish in colour. The egg, larval and pupal stages last for 5, 4–7 and 8–10 days, respectively (Sujithra & Alagar, 2018).

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Other Leaf-Eating Caterpillars

The defoliators include Lymantria obfuscate Walker (Lymantriidae), Castor hairy Caterpillar Pericallia ricini Fabricius (Arctiidae), Bihar hairy caterpillar Spilosoma obliqua Walker (Arctiidae), Metanastria hyrtaca (Cramer) (Lasiocampidae), slug caterpillar Parasa lepida (Cramer) (Limacodidae), brown looper Hyposidra talaca Walker (Geometridae) and leaf caterpillar Argina syringa (Cramer) (Erebidae).

Leaf eating caterpillars feeding on cocoa leaves

12

Bag Worms: Pteroma plagiophelps Hampson and Clania sp. (Lepidoptera: Psychidae)

The caterpillar builds silky bag in narrow cone shape with plant materials live in this mobile case and rest by sticking top opening of the case to the cocoa leaves and hang their bag vertically. Whereas the self-enclosing bags of Clania sp. are made of sticks of similar size, there are about 9–13 sticks arranged parallelly around the silk case except one or two of their sticks used are much longer than the other. The caterpillar lives inside the case and feeds on the cocoa foliage. Both the P. plagiophelps and Clania sp. feed the cocoa leaves from the central leaf lamina in a circular to irregular holes (Emmanuel et al., 2010).

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The Bark Borer Indarbela quadrinotata (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)

Large dark-brown webby masses, comprising chewed wooden particles and faecal matter, are conspicuously seen plastered loosely on tree trunks or main branches, especially near the forks. The larva bores into the trunk or branches, usually at forks or angles; if enough bark is eaten away, drying of the branches occurs, resulting in poor flowering. Orchard should be kept clean and overcrowding of trees should be avoided. Inject larva holes with quinalphos (0.01%) or fenvalerate (0.05%) or dichlorvos. During September and October, inject 0.1% dichlorvos in the bore hole with the help of a syringe or wash bottle and plug the hole with mud.

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Castor Capsule Borer: Conogethes punctiferalis Guenee (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

Recently, Conogethes punctiferalis has been found to be an emerging pest in cocoa and was found to feed and bore into cocoa pods. The larvae feed on the rind of cocoa cherelles/pods, later bore into pods, feed the internal contents of the pods, the granular faecal pellets are seen outside the pods. When pods/cherelles touch each other, it is easy for the larvae to damage more than one pod/cherelle. Pods damaged by Conogethes are exposed to secondary infection by pathogens that lead to pod rot. The larvae sometimes feed on flower buds and flowers cushions. The damaged flower cushions may dry and shed prematurely. The damage of C. punctiferalis on cocoa is observed from December, and peak incidence is noticed during March to May. The medium-sized adult moth measures about 3 cm, with small black dots on pale yellowish wing, and eggs are laid in between wart and grooves of pods/ cherelles/flower cushions of cocoa. Total larval period is about 24 days and adults have longevity of 6–7 days. Larvae were seen under a cover of silk and frass or excreta throughout their development. Total life cycle completes in 25–33 days. Clearing off the damaged orchards and debris, scraping off the fruit tree bark in which larvae overwinter, and burning the crop after harvest reduce the overwintering pest population (Alagar et al., 2013). Collection and destruction of infested pods and planting preferred hosts such as castor along the field borders as a trap crop reduce pest incidence. During severe infestation spraying of Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC at 1 mL/L water is recommended (Thube & Apshara, 2021). The damage of C. punctiferalis was observed from December to May. The infestation of C. punctiferalis started immediately after monsoon and the peak incidence was observed during March to May. On an average, 2% damage was observed. Adults are medium sized adult moth with small black dots on pale yellowish wing, Female moth lay pinkish oval flat eggs singly or in groups of 2 or 3 mostly in between wart or grooves of pods/cherelles/flower cushions of cocoa. The incubation period of eggs was 2.9 days. The full grown larva is reddish brown, having brown marks on each

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segment with pinkish tinge, fine hairs on the body with dark head and prothoracic shield. The total larval period was 23.82 days.

Infestation of Conogethes punctiferalis on pods The larvae after hatching feed on flower cushions, flower buds and rind of cocoa cherelles/pods later bore and feed the internal contents of the pods, and granular faecal pellets were seen outside the pods. Wherever pod/cherelle touches each other, it is easy for the larvae to damage more than one pods/cherelles. Pods damaged by C. punctiferalis are sometimes exposed to secondary infection by pathogens that lead to pod rot. The attacked cushions dry off and shed prematurely. The total developmental period was 34.7 days. The larvae throughout their life were seen under a cover of silk and frass or excreta which was on damaged pods and cherelles. The full grown larva has pupated inside the damaged pods or cherelles or in a thin silken cocoon outside the damaged pods/cherelles. Adult emerged in 7–10 days. The life cycle at laboratory condition ranged from 25 to 33 days (Jacob, 1981; Alagar et al., 2013).

15

Coffee Red Borer: Zeuzera coffeae Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)

This pest is found distributed in all the cocoa growing areas. Caterpillars bore into branches of mature cocoa plants and causes conspicuous leaf necrosis and dieback of branches. The full-grown larva has a brownish head and is predominantly reddish brown in colour, with an average length of 6.5 cm. Grown up caterpillars move down the stem, and attack the older stem. A characteristic yellowish or reddish mixture of fluid and frass particles is present on the attacked portion. Presence of excreta in lumps sticking on to the bark or in a heap on the ground below is another symptom of pest attack. The larval period lasts for 60–100 days, and the life cycle takes about 4–5 months (Sujithra & Alagar, 2018). Proper pruning of affected and dried branches and killing of larvae should be practiced. If the branches are not dried, killing larvae through a bore hole by inserting sharp iron needle can be tried. Applying insecticide solution (2 mL of

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chlorpyrifos/l of water) by swabbing with cotton lint and keeping it in the bore hole will be effective control the pest (Sujithra & Alagar, 2018; Apshara et al., 2018). As this pest is protected inside the branches, direct application of insecticides into the bore holes is required for management of the caterpillar (Keane & Putter, 1992).

Z. coffeae larva boring into cocoa stem

16

Stem Girdler: Sthenias grisator (Fabr.) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Damage is done by female beetle which girdles the branches and inserts whitish spindle shaped eggs singly into the tissue in a slanting manner. Due to mechanical injury caused by girdling and oviposition, the branches above the girdle wither and dry. During later stages of infestation, grubs bore into the stems leading to wilting of younger seedlings. Pest can be managed by following strategies: mechanical killing of grubs with iron hook; clean the webs, excreta, etc., and plug holes with cotton wool soaked with petrol, seal it with mud and swabbing of coal tar + kerosene at 1:2 in basal portion of the trunk at 3 feet height after scraping the loose bark to prevent laying of eggs by adults (Thube & Apshara, 2021).

Stem girdle

Adult

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Vertebrate Pests

Vertebrate pests include Black Rat Rattus rattus (Muridae: Rodentia), Bandicoot Rat Bandicota spp. (Muridae: Rodentia), Western Ghats Squirrel Funambulus tristriatus (Sciuridae: Rodentia), Striped Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (Sciuridae: Rodentia), Jungle Cat Felis chaus (Felidae: Carnivora), Jackal Canis aureus (Canidae: Carnivora), Monkey Macaca radiata (Cercopithecidae: Primates), the Gaur/Indian Bison Bibos gaurus (Bovidae: Artiodactyla) and Stag Cervus canis (Cervidae: Artiodactyla). Rattus rattus wroughtoni is a major rodent pest of cocoa in South India. Squirrels, viz., Western Ghats squirrel F. tristriatus and South Indian palm squirrel F. palmarum also contribute to major crop loss in cocoa. Pods are scrupulously fed by the rodents leading to premature fall and losing market value as well. While rats gnaw the pods at stalk, the squirrels feed from the centre. Rats damage both mature and immature cocoa pods, whereas squirrels damage only mature pots. Rodents prefer the mucilage covering of beans rather than the bean itself. Timely harvest of the pods will help in reducing the damage caused by rodents. The rats can be controlled by keeping 10 g of bromadiolone (0.005%) wax cakes on the branches of cocoa twice at an interval of 10–12 days. Trapping with wooden or wire mesh single catch live trap with ripe coconut kernels as bait is another important squirrel management technique (Bhat et al., 1981; Bhat & Sujatha, 1993).

Rat damage

Squrril damage

Monkey damage

References Abraham, E. V., & Padmanbhan, M. D. (1967). Pests that damage cocoa in Madras. Indian Horticulture, 11, 11–12. Abraham, C. C., & Remamony, K. S. (1979). Pests that damage cocoa plants in Kerala. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices Journal, 2, 77–81. Alagar, M., Rachana, K. E., Keshava, B. S., Shafeeq, R., & Rajesh, M. K. (2013). Biology, damage potential and molecular identification of Conogethes punctiferalis Guenee in cocoa (Theobroma cacao Linn.). Journal of Plantation Crops, 41(3), 350–356. Apshara, S. E., Thube, S. H., Pandian, T. P. R., Naduthodi, N., & Suchithra, M. (2018). Cocoa guide. Technical bulletin no.134, CPCRI, and DCCD, 53 p. Ayyar, T. V. R. (1940). Handbook of economic entomology for South India. Government Press. 548p.

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Bhat, S. K., Nair, C. P. R., & Mathew, D. N. (1981). Mammalian pests of cocoa in South India. Tropical Pest Management, 27, 297–301. Bhat, S. K., & Sujatha, A. (1993). Rodent and other vertebrate pest management in coconut and cocoa. Technical bulletin no. 26. CPCRI, 13 p. Chin, D., & Brown, H. (2008). Red-banded thrips on fruit trees. Agnote. Retrieved August 19, 2008, from http://www.nt.gov.au/dpifm/Content/File/p/Plant_Pest/719.pdf. Daniel, M. (2002). Pests. In D. Balasimha (Ed.), Cocoa (pp. 108–130). CPCRI. Emmanuel, N., Chalapathi Rao, B. V., & Gautham, B. (2011a). New record of defoliator pests of cocoa in Godavari districts of Andhra Pradesh and their management. The Cashew and Coconut Journal, III, 11–12. Emmanuel, N., Sujatha, A., & Gautham, B. (2010). Occurrence of bagworms Pteroma plagiophelps and Clania sp. on cocoa crop. Insect Environment, 16(2), 60–61. Emmanuel, N., Sujatha, A., & Gautham, B. (2011b). Record of leaf chafer beetles Adoretus versatus Harold and Apogonia glanchardi Ritsema on cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Andhra Pradesh. Insect Environment, 16, 23. Funderburk, J., Diffie, S., Sharma, J., Hodges, A., & Osborne L. (2007). Thrips of ornamentals in the southeastern U.S. EDIS. (19 August 2008). Hausrao, T. S., Saneera, E. K., & Prathibha, P. S. (2016). Pests of cocoa and their management. The Cashew and Cocoa Journal, V(4), 34–38. Jacob, S. A. (1981). Biology of Dichocrosis punctiferalis Guen. on turmeric. Journal of Plantation Crops, 9, 119–123. Jayaraj, J., & Ananthan, M. (2008). Controlling cocoa mealybug. The Hindu. Keane, P. J., & Putter, C. A. J. (1992). Cocoa pest and disease management in Southeast Asia and Australasia. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper, 112, 213. Mani, M., & Krishnamoorthy, A. (2000). Biological suppression of mealybugs Planococcus citri (Risso) and Planococcus lilacinus (CK11) on pomegranate in India. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 28(2), 187–189. Nair, C. P. R. (1981). Investigations on insect pests of cocoa Theobroma cacao L. in Kerala with special reference to the mealy bug Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae). Ph.D. thesis (Kerala Agricultural University), 150p. Srinivasnaik, S., Suganthy, M., Mohan, K. S., & Jegadeeswari, V. (2017). Development and evaluation of integrated Pest management strategy against sucking Pest complex of cocoa, Theobroma cacao L. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(2), 859–867. Sujithra, M., & Alagar, M. (2018). Cocoa. In P. Chowdappa, C. Mohan, & A. Josephrajkumar (Eds.), Pests of plantation crops (pp. 97–118). Daya Publishing House. Thube S. H., & Apshara, E. (2021). Cocoa care card (insect pests). Extension leaflet no. 292. CPCRI. Thube, S. H., Kumar, M. G., Chandrika, M., Thava Prakasa Pandian, R., Elain, A., & Jose, C. T. (2019). Biology, feeding and oviposition preference of Helopeltis theivora, with notes on the differential distribution of species of the tea mosquito bug species complex across elevations. Animal Biology, 70(1), 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1163/15707563-20191083

Pests and Their Management in Oil Palm P. Kalidas and A. R. N. S. Subbanna

Abstract As many as 55 insect pests are known to damage the oil palm in India. Insect pests of oil palm include the spindle bug Mircarvalhoia arecae, Tussock caterpillar Olene mendosa, shoot borer Sesamia inferens, Rhinoceros beetle Oryctes rhinoceros, red palm weevil Rhynchophorus ferrugineus, bag worms Metisa plana, Manatha albipes, Crematopsyche pendula and Pteroma pendula, leaf web worm Acria meyricki, slug caterpillars Darna catenatus and Darna jasea, coconut skipper Gangara thyrsis, and Termites Odontotermes obesus, Pericapritermes sp. and Hypotermes sp. Minor pests include the root grub Leucopholis burmeisteri, Cockchafer beetles Apogonia spp. and Adoretus spp., tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera litura, leaf hopper Proutista moesta, aphids Schizaphis rotundiventris, Mysteropneura setariae and Astegopteryx rhaphides, mealybugs Pseudococus citricutus, Palmicultor sp. and Dysmicoccus brevipes, scale insects Hemiberlesia lataniae, Chrysomphalus aonidum, Pinnaspis aspiodiotus and Ischnaspis longirostris and the cottony cushion scale Icerya aegyptiaca. Besides, a recent invasion by exotic whitefly species like rugose spiralling whitefly, Aleurodicus rugioperculatus and bondar nesting whitefly, Paraleyrodes bondari, has become serious concern for oil palm cultivation. Methods of management of key pests are also discussed.

1 Whiteflies: Rugose Spiralling Whitefly Aleurodicus rugioperculatus Martin and Bondar Nesting Whitefly Paraleyrodes bondari Perracchi (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) It is a serious pest of both nursery and main plantations. In India, the pest was first observed at Pollachi, Tamil Nadu, during August 2016 on coconut. Due to its polyphagous nature, the pest has attained a key pest status in horticulturally important crops. Moreover, its especial preference to plantation crops made oil palm as a

P. Kalidas (*) · A. R. N. S. Subbanna ICAR—Indian Institute of Oil Palm Research, Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_62

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preferential crop, after coconut causing substantial damage. Rugose spiralling whitefly is the major damaging species on oil palm, whereas the bondar nesting whitefly is confined to some palms in a given plantation. Biology: A female whitefly lays around 50 eggs in circular fashion and covers with white waxy material. After emergence, the nymphs settle nearby and continue to feed on the cell sap in groups. The nymphs also secrete white waxy material/ filaments from the lateral glands. The nymphal, pupal and adult periods last about 24, 12 and 23 days, respectively. The nymphal and adult stages of bondar nesting whitefly. Damage: It causes significant damage to both nursery seedlings and adult palms by sucking the sap from the underside of leaflets. Except the rainy season, the pest is seen throughout the year with its peak incidence from late winters to late summer months (November to May). After emergence from the egg, the newly hatched nymphs settle just few millimetres away from the egg, become sedentary and suck the sap from the leaves in a congregated manner. Besides this direct sap drain, formation of sooty mould on lower leaves also poses problem of reduction in photosynthetic ability (Kalidas, 2019). Natural enemies: Under field conditions, the nymphal stages are parasitized by an aphelinid parasitoid, Encarsia guadeloupae (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae), to the extent of 54%. The parasitized nymphs are readily identified by their dark colour and especially by the circular exit holes made by the adults. One green lace wing predator, Pseudomallada astur (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae), is also found to feed on all the stages of whiteflies. Besides, some spider species and coccinellids are also found feeding on the different life stages of invasive whiteflies are located sparsely with individuals located centrally among the heavy secretion of waxy material. Management: Due to the invasive nature of the pest, no insecticidal management is recommended against the pest especially on adult plantations. However, in nursery, the pest can be managed by spraying spiromesifen (280 SC) at 0.7 mL/L. An entomopathogenic fungi, Isaria fumasorosea pfu 5 identified by ICAR-NBAIR, Bengaluru, was found to be highly effective against the pest which can be applied at 5 mlL/L of spray fluid along with 5% of any detergent powder. Installation of yellow sticky traps to trap the flying adults during dawn and dusk times also reduces the pest intensity. During early stages of infestation, application of neem oil at 2.5 mL/L along with detergent reduces the severity and development of the pest. Conservation and release of mass produced predators or parasitoids is also an effective strategy for management of the pest.

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Infested leaves

Nymphs with exit holes

2 Spindle Bug: Mircarvalhoia (=Carvalhoia) arecae Miller and China (Hemiptera: Miridae) It is a major a pest of seedlings and young plants. Biology: Eggs are laid singly between the leaflets of the spindle. The incubation period ranges from 10 to 12 days. Nymphs are light violet brown, greenish yellow with border of the body. There are five nymphal stages. The total nymphal duration of the bug ranges from 22 to 28 days. The light violet brown nymphs have greenish yellow border. Adults are bright red and black coloured. The bug completes its life cycle in 30–39 days. The pre-oviposition and oviposition period occupy 3 and 2 days respectively. The bug has the fecundity rate of 10–18 eggs. The adult male and female live for 20 and 25 days. Damage: Both the nymphs and adults suck the sap from the tender spear leaves causing typical linear brown lesions. Spear leaves fail to open fully when the infestation is severe. The infested portions develop necrotic patches, which turn brown and subsequently dry up. Mircarvalhoia arecae

Nymphs

Adult

Damage

The central portions of the necrotic patches drop off forming numerous holes on the leaves. Due to severe infestation the leaves are shredded and the palms become stunted (Nair & Daniel, 1982). Infestation is noticed throughout the year with the highest incidence during June and the lowest in February. The percent infestation declines with the increase in the age of the palms (Dhileepan, 1992). Existence of low temperatures may be the critical factors for the pest incidence.

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Management: The bugs are naturally suppressed by an entomopathogen, Aspergillus candidus Link., during the rainy season, coinciding with the peak period of its incidence (Dhileepan et al., 1990). Placing of phorate 10 G granules at 20 g/sachet in perforated polythene sachets within the innermost two leaf axils is an effective management practice (Jacob, 1985). The sachets are transferred over and again to the innermost leaf axils as and when new spindles emerge. The longevity of the sachet is about 8–10 months. Plantation with infestation could also be sprayed with thiamethoxam 0.02%/dimethoate (0.06%)/profenophos 0.2% in and around the spindle and inner whorls of leaves.

3 Tussock Caterpillar: Olene (=Dasychira) mendosa Hb. (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) It is a serious pest of seedlings. Biology: A female moth lays about 300 eggs in its life time in confinement. The female has a pre-oviposition period of 4–5 days and an oviposition period of 3–4 days. The incubation period is about 5–8 days. Larvae are greyish with yellowish tufts and a longitudinal reddish stripe on dorsal side, feeding on leaves irregular. There are 6–8 larval instars completing in about 40 days. Pupal period is 7–8 days. The moth is yellowish brown. The total period for developing from egg to adult stage is about 55–60 days. Damage: It causes significant damage to nursery seedlings. The pest is noticed throughout the year with the highest incidence during June and July, coinciding with the onset of heavy rains. Initially, the young larvae scrap the leaves in congregation, and disperse in later stages and start defoliating the tender leaves severely (Dhileepan, 1992).

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Natural enemies: Under field conditions, the larvae are parasitized by tachinid flies to the extent of 10%, and pupa are parasitized by Brachymeria albotibialis (Ashmead) to the tune of 40.0%. Management: The pest can be managed with one or two sprays of quinalphos 0.05%.

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4 Shoot Borer – Sesamia inferens Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) The pest is found on oil palm seedlings in the nurseries in all the southern states of the country including Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Kerala (Jacob & Kochu Babu, 1995). Biology: The larvae that hatch out from the eggs enter the leaf sheath and bore into the stem. The larva becomes full grown in 25–54 days and is pink brown, smooth and cylindrical with a reddish brown head. A larva may migrate and attack a number of tillers and in a tiller sometimes up to five larvae can be met with. It pupates inside the stem and emerges as adult in 8–12 days.

Eggs

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Damage: Caterpillars tunnel into the stem through the spindle leaf rachis and reach the meristematic tissues and feed causing dead heart and little leaf symptoms thereby arresting the growth. Severe infestation causes mortality of nursery plants. Management: Application of chlorpyriphos 0.05% at bimonthly intervals will bring down the pest incidence.

5 Rhinoceros Beetle: Oryctes rhinoceros L. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) It has attained the major pest status in all the oil palm growing states of India. Biology: The adult beetle lays oval, yellowish white, seed like eggs 5–10 cm below the soil surface in decaying organic matter. The early stages of the beetle are generally passed in manure pits, decomposing organic matter such as cattle dung, compost; rubbish heaps, rotting palm logs and stumps. The beetles also breed in the leaf axils of oil palm, rotting inflorescences and on monocarp heaps dumped in the plantation. A female lays about 100–150 eggs that start hatching in 8–18 days, and the grubs start feeding on the decaying matter. The larval stages are usually yellowish white in colour. The larvae pass through 3 instars to complete their development in 100–180 days depending on weather factors. Pupation takes place in a chamber at a depth of about 30 cm and Pupa is yellowish brown in colour. The beetle emerges after 10–25 days. They remain in pupal cell for about 10–20 days before coming out of the soil. Stout-looking adults, dark brown to black, shiny, 35–50 mm long and 20–23 mm wide, with a prominent horn on head. They lay eggs after 20–60 days.

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Beetles are active at night and attracted to a source of light. Adults can live for more than 200 days. Generally, one generation is completed in a year (Ponnamma et al., 2001).

Grub

Adult

Damage

Damage: Adult beetles bore into the palms at the base of the spear cluster to consume the sap and tender parts of the leaves when it is not opened. Through the outermost petiole of the spear cluster, the beetles penetrate to the interior, leaving it permanently marked with a hole. The wedge-shaped gap in the leaf silhouette and a hole in the petiole are the common characteristic symptoms. Young palms exhibit much more severe damage at the base of the spears as compared to mature palms. The damaged spindle may collapse or expanded fronds may snap off or be truncated. Adult rhinoceros beetles are found boring and chewing the male and female inflorescence. Infestation by O. rhinoceros goes up to 10% of the palms in Kerala and 40% in Karnataka. The entry holes of beetles can be recognized by the presence of chewed up fibrous tissues. Secondary rotting to the bud is commonly seen due to the entry of fungi and bacteria through the injuries made to the heart of the palm by the pest. The injuries made on the petioles and female inflorescences serve as sites for egg laying of red palm weevil. Peak period of adult emergence is seen during SouthWest Monsoon (June to September) period. Incidence is more in oil palm plantations adjoining coconut gardens (Kalidas, 2012). Natural enemies: Predators such as Santalus parallelus, Harpalus sp., Scarites sp., Pteropsophus occipitalis and Agrypnus bifoveatus sp. nr. are known to attack the immature stages of rhinoceros beetle. Management: Detection of all possible breeding sites of the pest and monitoring the beetle population on the crown of the palm are essential components of the pest management technology. All potential breeding sites are to be eliminated from the plantation. Those breeding sites which cannot be eliminated/destroyed are to be sprayed with chlorpyriphos. The beetles, which burrow deep into the crowns of young palms, are to be extracted by means of a hooked pointed metal rod (beetle hook). After extraction of the beetle, the leaf axils around the injured spindle/leaf are to be filled with mixture of mancozeb and sterilized fine sand at a ratio of 3 g:1 kg. Prophylactic leaf axil filling is to be done to protect young palms from beetle attack. The innermost 2–3 leaf axils may be filled with a mixture of fipronil granules (25 g) + fine sand (200 g) per palm during April and May, September and October and December and January. Since oil palm produces more than two leaves per month, the granules that are applied in the crown portion proved ineffective unless it is removed and placed in the new spindle every month. As the leaves are having

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spines at their bases, it is found laborious and time taking. In the recent years, application of second-generation synthetic pyrethroid, lambda cyhalothirn, is found very effective in reducing the pest population throughout the world. Application of Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschn.) in the breeding sited is found effective against the immature stages of the pest (Sundarababu et al., 1993). The Baculovirus of Oryctes is one of the most successful microbial control agents employed for the biosuppression of rhinoceros beetle infesting coconut. The viral infection causes reduction in the longevity of the beetles by 40% and total reduction in the fecundity. Wherever the virus was introduced into the habitat of the pest, an initial epizootic decimated the larval and beetle populations resulting in drastic reduction in the pest incidence and crop damage. Release of the infected beetles is the most economical, effective and easy method for dissemination of the viral inoculum into the natural population of the beetles (Dhileepan, 1994). Pheromone traps: Rhinolure/oryctalurte sachets placed in bucket vane traps and kept in the oil palm plantation at a height of 10 ft at one trap/2 ha is very effective in trapping the floating population. However, high temperatures and low humidity are found to be detrimental for the attraction of the beetle to the pheromone (Kalidas, 2004a, 2004b). Oryctes rhinoceros is an economically important problem of young oil palm in South East Asia. The optimum trap for O. rhinoceros is a pheromone baited, elevated bucket trap containing vanes that protrude into the bucket. Trapping adults using 1 of these traps/2 ha lowers damage by over 90% within a few weeks and is competitive with insecticide application (Oehlschlager, 2007).

6 Bag Worms: Metisa plana Walker, Manatha albipes Moore and Crematopsyche pendula Joannis (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) Nine species of caseworms infesting oil palm have been recorded in India. Metisa plana, Manatha albipes, Crematopsyche pendula are the common species observed. The case/bags have a shape and appearance characteristic for each species. Manatha albipes is potential pest of palm oil. Metisa plana is most important pest on the seedlings and field palms. Biology: Adult females lay 60—80 eggs in the pupal cocoons concealed in bags. Incubation period is 16 days. Immediately after hatching, they start feeding on the mother’s bag and thereby form its own bag. Larvae are black in colour. Larval period is 100–125 days. As the caterpillars mature, they turn around in the bag, changing from a feeding position with their heads oriented towards the plant surface. Caterpillars inhabit in a case throughout their development. The pupae are simple cocoons and are found inside the bags. The pupal stage lasts for 26 days. Adults are black in colour with pectinate antennae. Female adults are wingless. The males are winged and capable of flying.

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Manatha albipes

Pupa

Adult

Metisa plana

Damage

Damage: The pest is found feeding on the undersurface of the old leaves of the seedlings. Caterpillar nibbles the chlorophyll making brown patches. These patches ultimately form into holes. In the old palms, the early stage caterpillars scarify the abaxial surfaces of fronds. Caterpillars of later instars chew the entire leaf tissue; making holes, finally feed at the leaf margins, causing notches. There is progressive necrosis adversely affecting the yield of the palm. Psychid incidence is observed during July–March. Young gardens of less than 5 years recorded less incidence compared to middle aged ones. Lack of penetration of sunlight into the aged gardens due to overlapping/intermingling of leaves of adjacent palms is observed as the main reason for the increased incidence compared to young gardens where such conditions are lacking. Natural control: There is natural mortality of psychid that during summer and rainy period. One pupal parasitoid Goriphous bunoh and two larval parasitoids Brachymeria spp. and Dolichogenidea metesae (Nixon) are recorded on the bagworms in the oil palm plantations (Brachymeria spp. is observed as the main parasitoid causing up to 65.23% parasitism in November (Kalidas, 2012). Management: Cutting and burning the badly affected and dried leaves having insect stages at regular interval bring down the population. In severe case of infestation, application of lambda cyhalothirn 0.05% is recommended as aerial spraying. Spraying should be timed to coincide with the maximum occurrence of young larvae, which are more sensitive to insecticides. If the palms attain too tall and not accessible for spraying, stem injection or root feeding may be carried out using systemic insecticides like imidacloprid.

7 Case Worm: Pteroma pendula (de Joannis) (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) Pteroma pendula is the dominant bagworm species infesting oil palm plantation. This species had six larval instars. Dimorphism is observed in pupa and imago stages. Female emerges as apterous and vermiform-like, and male emerged as moth. P. pendula has a lifespan of 50 days. Damage symptoms include presence of holes on the leaves, occasional defoliation and cone shaped bags on the underside of leaves.

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Cone shaped bags

8 Leaf Web Worm: Acria meyricki P.R. Shashank and Ramamurthy (Lepidoptera: Depressariidae) It has become a regular pest becoming endemic in the areas where the palms attained tallness and the leaves of adjacent palms are intermingled creating congenial climate for the pest development. The infestation was further aggravated in those orchards where the palms were given basin as well as flood irrigation with excess quantity than the required. A yield loss of up to 34% is reported for leaf web worm A. meyricki. Pest incidence is observed during the winter months. As the temperature increases, the pest disappears. The incidence is generally observed from October to April (Kalidas, 2004a, 2004b; Shashank et al., 2015). Biology: A female moth lays about 60 eggs. The incubation period ranges from 4 to 6 days. The larval stage passes through 6–7 instars in a period of 20 days. When the larva is full grown, it stops feeding and reduces in size and enters to pre-pupal stage, which lasts for 1 day. The pupal stage lasts for 5.8 days. Adult lives for about 5.4 days. The total life period from egg to adult stage is ranging from 30 to 44 days (Saravanan et al., 2012). Damage: The larvae are found feeding on the undersurface of the old leaves inside the silken web. Caterpillar is the damaging stage which nibbles the chlorophyll content making brown patches. These patches ultimately coalesce and form into holes. Severe incidence causes drying of leaves and affects the growth of the seedlings. The caterpillar is the damaging stage which stays inside a web on the underside of the leaves. Early instars scrap the leaves and later instars cause defoliation. Initially they are found feeding on the older leaves causing heavy defoliation. After complete defoliation of the lower leaves the caterpillars migrate to the next upper leaves. Due to severe infestation, the leaflets are dried and give burnt up appearance. Intermingling of palm fronds in the garden paves way for easy spread of infestation. Natural enemies: Under field conditions, larvae are found parasitized by Apanteles hyposidrae Wilkinson (Braconidae) and Elasmus brevicornis Gahan (Eulophidae) and the percent parasitism on larvae goes up to 35%. The pupae are

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found parasitized by Brachymeria albotibialis (Ashmead) with a percent parasitism ranging from 20 to 80. Management: The lower fronds having pest stages need to be pruned at the beginning of the pest activity period and burn them. Pest is effectively controlled with the application of the microbial organisms, namely, Beauveria bassiana (Bals.Criv.) Vuill., Metarhizium anisopliae (Metschn.) and Lecanicillium lecanii R. Zare and W. Gams. Of these Beauveria bassiana, check the pest population effectively. Aerial spraying of quinalphos 0.05% or lambda cyhalothrin 0.02% twice during pest activity period at 15 days interval is proved effective in controlling the pest. Stem injection with imidacloprid is also effective in case of tall palms.

9 Slug Caterpillar: Darna catenatus Snellen and Darna jasea Swinoe (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) It is potential pest of oil palm. High summer temperatures do not help in the pest build up but high relative humidity is the important factor for natural suppression. Biology: Each female lays about 250–350 eggs. The eggs are laid in row on the abaxial surfaces of the more mature fronds, often near the tips of leaflets. These eggs hatch in about a week. The caterpillars are green with urticating spines. Presence of bluish tinge on the dorsal side of the caterpillar is the conspicuous identification mark of the pest. The first instar caterpillars feed only on the epidermis, forming translucent window-like areas. Caterpillars of later instars feed from the margin of the lamina inwards leaving the mid vein. The larva takes 3–7 weeks for development. Caterpillars crawl down to the base of the trunk or among herbaceous vegetation to spin cocoons and pupate. Pupal period lasts for 2–4 weeks. Damage: Young caterpillars scrape the leaves. As they become mature, caterpillars feed on the leaf lamina causing heavy defoliation leaving only midribs. The incidence is very heavy on the lower whorl leaves making them completely dried. Presence of faecal droppings on the ground level/cover and gnawing sound indicates the pest severe outbreak. During severe outbreak, the fronds are severely defoliated leaving midrib alone. Natural enemies: Under natural conditions, large number of parasitoids, viral and fungal pathogens Beauveria bassiana regulate the pest populations. Management: The lower fronds having pest stages are to be pruned at the beginning of the pest activity period and burn them. Spraying of chlorpyriphos at 0.05% is recommended for the control. Aerial spraying of quinalphos 0.05% or lamda cyhalothrin 0.05% twice during pest activity period at 15 days interval can effectively control the pest. Stem injection with imidacloprid is also effective to the tall plants.

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Coconut Skipper: Gangara thyrsis Fab. (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae)

It is a potential pest of oil palm nurseries. Caterpillars roll the leaves and feed within. Larva is pale green with reddish markings. Body concealed in a covering of white waxy Markings; Adult butterfly is brownish in colour; Chocolate brown wing with yellow spots. Typical damage symptoms include the rolling of individual leaflets of seedlings or young palms into spiral tubes distally and the tubes harbouring cream coloured robust caterpillars having a constricted neck and red marking, concealed by long, prominent waxy filaments; greenish brown pupa with white bloom inside the tube makes rattling sound by its vibration when disturbed. Dichlorvos 76 WSC at 2 mL/L is found effective against the skipper.

Life stages of Gangara thyrsis thyrsis

Egg

11

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Termites: Odontotermes obesus (Rambur), Pericapritermes sp. and Hypotermes sp. (Isoptera: Termitidae)

In Karnataka, two species of termites, Pericapritermes sp. and Hypotermes sp. feed on the roots of the seedlings maintained in polybags, resulting in stunted growth of the seedlings. In India, Odontotermes spp. is the commonly found pest in all the oil palm growing areas. Termite infestation is mainly noticed in oil palm plantations without adequate irrigation. The pest is found feeding on the trunk as well as on the other dried material in the plantations. Infestation is observed at initial levels during the winter period and reached to peak by the end of March–April. Termite infestation is noticed on seedlings maintained in polybags and also on spear leaves, inflorescences and young plants. Termites are found to cause mortality to the young nursery seedlings by feeding on the collar portion of the plant with characteristic earthen sheathings on the stem portion. Adult yielding palms are also found dead due to termite incidence in completely neglected plantations (Kalidas & Lavanya, 2014). Application of Entomopathogenic fungi such as Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae have shown great potential for the management of various insect pests (Inglis et al., 2001). Drenching with chlorpyriphos 0.05% is a recommended practice (Nair et al., 1997).

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Root Grub: Leucopholis burmeisteri (Brenske) (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae)

These beetles lay eggs in soil mostly up to 10 cm depth. Eggs hatch out in about 3 weeks. The grub period with three instars is completed within 7–8 months. The pupation is in soil in cocoons of mud. This period lasts about 1 month. The adult beetle is chestnut brown in colour. Root grubs or white‟ grubs occur mostly in sandy and sandy loam soils. They are voracious feeders on roots. Adult beetles emerge during May and June few days after receipt of pre-monsoon showers, between 6.30 and 7.30 p.m. The early instar grubs feed on the roots of grasses and other humus. The second and third instar grubs of these beetles feed on tender and mature roots of the palm. In severe cases, the bole of the palm is also eaten up. In oil palm seedlings, the feeding on roots results in dropping and drying of leaves. Affected seedlings come off easily since the entire root system is usually eaten up. Palms with few years of infestation show a sickly appearance, with yellowing of leaves, tapering of stem, and reduction in yield. The palms may topple in case of severe loss of root system.

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Cockchafer Beetles: Apogonia spp. and Adoretus spp. (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)

The incidence of adults is observed during the onset of monsoon, whereas the grubs are observed all-round the year, preferably during the first 2–3 months of planting. Both the grubs and adults cause damage to oil palm. Grubs feed on the roots of young seedlings of 1–2 months old, which leads to the seedling mortality. Adults feed on the leaves causing defoliation. Application of 20 g of phorate 10 G granules into each nursery bag reduces the incidence of grub stage where as application of contact insecticides like quinalphos (0.05%) will effectively reduce the adult incidence.

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Tobacco Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura Fab. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Stray incidences of the pest feeding on the oil palm nursery leaves are observed during the months of February–March. It is more common in nurseries which are raised adjacent to maize/tobacco fields. The pest might be migrating from the adjoining maize fields after the harvest of the later. Defoliation of new leaves and feeding symptoms on the primordial region are the damaging symptoms. The pest can be brought under control with the application of contact insecticides like quinalphos (0.05%).

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Leaf Hopper: Proutista moesta Westwood (Hemiptera: Derbidae)

Incidence of leaf hopper is observed during the months of September and October and again in January and February on one-year-old nursery plants. It is the carrier of many viral/MLO diseases particularly the Spear rot (Kochu Babu, 1989).

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Aphids: Schizaphis rotundiventris (Signoret), Mysteropneura setariae (Thomas) and Astegopteryx rhaphides (Van der Goot) (Homoptera: Aphididae)

Aphids are known to infest the oil palm seedlings in Karnataka especially in areas where the nurseries are surrounded by sugarcane fields. Astegopteryx rhaphides is found encrusting the oil palm leaves in Little Andaman. Due to feeding on nursery seedlings, twisting and distortions of the spears are caused. Sooty mould is developed due to honey dew secretion. Spraying of dimethoate 0.05% on the undersurface of the leaves is recommended for the control of aphids (Nair et al., 1997).

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Mealybugs: Pseudococus citricutus Green, Palmicultor sp. and Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae)

Mealybugs are potential pests of oil palm. Both nymphs and adult females suck sap from the tender spear leaves, inflorescence and fruits (Dhileepan & Jacob, 1996; Kalidas, 2016). Both Pseudococus and Palmicultor species attack on spindle leaves of young plants results into the yellowing of unfolding leaves and stunted growth of the palm. Dysmicoccus spp. infests the oil palm fruits of fresh fruit bunches by sucking the sap from mesocarp. These pests feed on plant sap and excrete honey dew which will attract ants and sooty mould development. Since mealybugs are often carried by ants, elimination of the pest can easily be done by control of ants and keeping hygienic conditions in the garden. The mealybugs are regulated by natural enemies like coccinellid beetles. Poor hygienic conditions/sanitation practices are the major criteria for endemic infestation. Leaf pruning and weeding at regular intervals are found to keep the plantation free from the pest attack. Chemicals are to be applied through soil or can be sprayed to check the mealybug populations. Imidacloprid, a systemic trans-luminar insecticide and also thiamethoxam (applied through in the irrigation water and taken by the vine roots) has given excellent control of mealybugs for a longer time. Foliar application of diafenthiuron at 800–1600 g/ha is also useful to control the mealybugs.

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Scale Insects: Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret), Chrysomphalus aonidum Linn., Pinnaspis aspiodiotus (Signoret) and Ischnaspis longirostris (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae)

They are potential pests of oil palm. Both nymphs and adult females suck sap from the tender spear leaves, inflorescence and fruits. Attack by these scales results in appearance of chlorotic spots on leaf tissues. They are classified as potential pests of oil palm.

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Cottony Cushion Scale: Icerya aegyptiaca (Douglas) (Hemiptera: Monophlebidae)

It is potential pests of nurseries. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from the leaves. Icerya aegyptiaca is parthenogenetic and occurs the year round. A generation requires 3–4 months, the pest annually completing two full generations and sometimes a partial third, and its populations peak in summer. A female lays an average of 100 eggs. The crawlers settle along the midribs and larger veins on the underside of leaves. Dispersal is by moving to other leaves or by being wind-borne. Heavy infestations may kill the seedlings, but more often the trees are partially defoliated. In addition, the excreted honeydew is colonized by sooty mould that covers the leaves of heavily plants and interferes with photosynthesis. The honeydew may be gathered by ants that hamper pest control by its many natural enemies. Prolonged dry weather favours its numerical build-up. Management involves with the removal or low pruning of infested tree parts and destruction of nearby ant nests. They are also regulated by its natural enemies.

Icerya aegyptiaca

Leaf infestation

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Black Slug: Laevicaulis alte (Férussac) (Mollusaca, Gastropoda and Veronicellidae)

It is an occasional pest found feeding on the primordial portion of nursery plants. Its incidence is severe during rainy season. During this period, it is found migrating long with the stream of water. During night time, they come to the nursery and feed on the just planted sprouts. This pest can be managed by plugging the entry points for the pest in the green house, application of salt pellets on raised bunds on all sides of the green house and by keeping the lights on during night in the green house, etc. (Kalidas et al., 2006).

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Birds

Birds are the major pests found feeding on the mesocarp of Fresh Fruit Bunches and cause direct losses to the yield. Crows Convus splendens protegatus and Corvus macrorhynchus cuiminatus), mynah Acridotheres tristis, babbler Turdoides affinis affinis and parrots Psitticula krameri manillensis are known to feed on the mesocarp of fruits, causing an estimated fruit loss up to 2.8 t/ha/year. Of these, Indian mynah, Jungle crow, house crow and parakeets cause heavy fruit loss. The attack is observed throughout the year round, and no seasonal variation in damage intensity is evident (Dhileepan, 1990). Crow pheasant, pariah kite, white-headed babbler and the large pied wagtail occasionally feed on oil palm fruits. Infestation is more (76%) in ripe bunches compared to unripe (5.6%) bunches. Among the ripe bunches, Duras are more susceptible (84%) compared to Teneras (63%). However, damage to Pisifera bunches is uncommon, which is due to low population of palms and poor fruit setting due to sterility. In Tamil Nadu, observations of high incidence (>20–30%) of avian pests were recorded in Trichy and Karur districts where oil palm is cultivated in isolated patches. Incidence of mynah was observed heavy (20–30%) compared to crow. It is observed heavy incidence of bird damage in the oil palm gardens of isolated areas with 100% damage even after the bunches are covered with oil palm leaves. The bird activity is more in oil palm gardens during the rainy and summer seasons since no other food material is available to them during the above periods. Damage: Feeding damage by birds is specific feeding exclusively on mesocarp leaving only fibres on the seeds. Damage by birds is either partial or complete. In partially damaged fruit, 40–50% total weight of individual fruits is eaten away by birds. In bunches with total fruit damage, weight loss of 68–73% can be observed. In many ripe fruit bunches, all the fruits are lost resulting 100% loss of fruit weight. Partial fruit damage is more common during the initial stages of the fruit ripening (130–150 days old) whereas the complete fruit damage is seen with the progress in ripening of fruits progressed. Fruit loss is very high in fully ripened bunches of 160–180 days. The damage due to birds is higher palms in border area (24.8%) compared to interior of plantations (11.4%). The average weight of fruits lost per

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bunch due to bird damage was reported at 2.3 kg in the border palms and 1.3 kg in the interior palms. In each harvested bunch, an average of 1.8 kg corresponding to 4% mesocarp was lost due to bird damage. The loss estimate due to these pests is 30% in Malaysia. In India, it is estimated to be a loss of 2.8 tonnes of Fresh Fruit Bunch (FFB) per ha per year, which is on par with 420 kg of palm oil (Dhileepan, 1990). Management: The ripe fruit bunches after 150 days of fruit set are to be covered with wire net of 1.25 cm mesh (60  90 cm size), reed baskets, plaited coconut leaf baskets or oil palm leaves to avoid bird damage (Dhileepan & Jacob, 1996). Covering the bunches with oil palm leaf tips and tying with a piece of rope to keep them firm and impenetrable by the bird beak are found to be effective and cheap. Tying nylon fishnets of 9  1 m size in between two palms is found to be most effective to manage the menace. Nets having 5 cm2 size holes are best fit to trap all the birds. An average of five nylon nets per ha could give maximum benefit, and are found optimum to make the plantation free from bird infestation. Green and violet coloured fishnets are more effective in trapping more number of birds and thereby reducing the percent infestation to zero within one month of implementation (Kalidas & Vasudevarao, 2005; Kalidas, 2006).

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Mammalian Pests

Black rat Rattus rattus wroughtoni Hinton, House rat Rattus rattus rufescens (Gray), Lesser bandicoot Bandicota bengalensis (Gray), Larger Bamboo rat Cannomys badius (Hodgson) Bamboo rat Cannomys badius (Hodgson) and Tatera indica (Hardwicke) (Muridae), Western Ghat squirrel Funambulus tristriatus Robinson (Sciuridae), Procupines Hystrix indica Kerr. (Hystricidae) and Wild boar Sus scrofa Wagner (Suidae). Mammals are known to attack oil palm at various stages of its development. Wild boar S. scrofa is reported as an important mammal causing heavy damage to the nursery plants. Wild boars dig up newly planted seedlings and chew them up. They come in groups during the dusk period and feed on the seedlings. They also eat away the fruits from the bunches on the tree when they are accessible. Rodents feed on the pericarp with their incisors leaving characteristic gnawing marks on fruits. Rats also destroy spikelets of the male inflorescences while feeding on the grub and pupae of pollinating weevils. Black rat Rattus rattus is found feeding on the kernel portion of the nuts causing mortality to the seedlings. Burrowing rat T. indica and bamboo rat Cannomys badius are common pests feeding on roots of the newly planted oil palms. Black rat is mainly observed feeding on the immature fruit bunches of 2 to 3 months old. They are found attracted to feed on the apical part of mesocarp and kernel portion of the fruit which is semi solid. The symptoms of attack depict as half cut of the fruits. In mature palms, rats eat the ripe and unripe bunches and gnaws the exposed pericarp of unripe and ripe fruits (Kalidas, 2002).

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Management: Damage to young seedlings can be prevented by placing barriers consisting of 1.25 cm mesh (Chickenwire mesh) collars around their base. They must be tightened around the palm and well fastened down to prevent the rats getting inside or underneath the ground. Traps such as iron live traps, deadfall trap, bow trap, etc. may be used as an integrated approach to minimize the rodent damage to oil palm. Baiting with zinc phosphide and bromadiolone are found effective against rat menace. Baiting with zinc phosphide using banana leaves as packets with hand gloves proved 33% more effective in managing the rat problem compared to used newspaper without hand gloves. A local wild boar scaring device has been developed to scare away wild boar from entering nurseries and young oil palm plantations. The plantation border is fenced with 18-gauge G.I. wire at 20 cm height on two lines parallel to the ground, supported on poles and kept in position with the help of guide hooks. The poles are positioned at 3–10 m spacing depending upon the terrain of the land. Junction boxes are made with the help of 4 poles, two crushing slabs, the two oval plays and cracker. This may be spaced at 5–15 m apart depending on the landscape boundaries, roads, etc. The two fencing lines arriving at the junction boxes from opposite sides are joined on to the oval plays and pulled closer and held in position with the help of a crushing slab hung from a third play kept on the first two plays. Underneath this crushing slab a cracker is kept. When the animal hits the fence, it will because the first plays to pull apart resulting in the fall of the crushing slab with the cracker on to the second crushing slab kept directly underneath, making the cracker burst. The method has been found very effective in scaring away the animals (Jacob, 1993; Nair et al., 1997).

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Other Pests

The other pests include the sucking insects Aspidiotus destructor (Signoret), Hemeberlesia palmae (Cockrell), Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead), Mycetaspis personata (Comstock) (Diaspididae), Eucalymnatus tessellates (Signoret), Coccus acccutissumus (Green), Coccus hesperidum Linn., Cerplastes actniformis Green, Cerplastes russci Linn. (Coccidae), Icerya formicarum Newstead, Icerya menoni Rao, Icerya saychellarum (Westwood) (Monophlebidae), Ricania speculum Wlk. (Recanidae), Riptortis pedestris F. and Hydarella sp. (Cireidae), lepidopterans Thosea andamanica (Holloway) (Limacodidae), Kophena minor Heylaerts (Psychidae), Kotocephalia doubledayi Westwood, Manatha scotopepla Hampson, Acanthopsyche cana Hampson, Thosea asperiens Walker (Limacodidae), Elymnias hypermnestra Linn. (Nymphalidae), Batrachedra arenosella (Walker) (Cosmopterigidae), Antigestra bubo (Pyrausidae), chrysomelid Hoplasoma unicolor Liliger, Orthoperans Blabolocatantops innotablis (Walker) (Acrididae), Neothacris sp. and Attractomorpha crenulata (F) (Pyrgomorphidae) and the mite Tetranychus piercei (McGergor) (Tetranychidae).

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References Dhileepan, K. (1990). Trials on the protection of oil palm fruit bunch from bird damage in India. The Planter, 66, 171–177. Dhileepan, K. (1992). Insect pests of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in India. The Planter, 68, 183–191. Dhileepan, K. (1994). Impact of release of Baculovirus oryctes into a population of Oryctes rhinoceros in an oil palm plantation in India. The Planter, 70, 255–266. Dhileepan, K., & Jacob, S. A. (1996). Pests. In Oil palm production technology (pp. 49–58). CPCRI. Dhileepan, K., Nair, R. R., & Leena, S. (1990). Aspergillus candidus Link, as an entomopathogen of spindle bug, Carvalhoia arecae M & C (Miriidae; Heteroptera). The Planter, 66, 519–521. Inglis, G. D., Goettel, M. S., Butt, T. M., & Strasser, H. (2001). Use of Hyphomycetous fungi for managing insect pests. In T. M. Butt, C. Jachson, & N. Magan (Eds.), Fungi as biocontrol agents: Progress, problems and potential (pp. 23–69). CABI Publishing. Jacob, S. A. (1985). Spindle bug of arecanut extension folder no 10. Kasaragod: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute. 4p. Jacob, S. A. (1993). A simple device for scaring away wild boar (Sus scrofa) in newly planted oil palm fields. The Planter, 69(811), 475–477. Jacob, S. A., & Kochu Babu, M. (1995). Sesamia inferens, a new pest of oil palm seedlings. The Planter, 71(831), 265–266. Kalidas, P. (2002). Incidence of leaf eating caterpillars on oil palm and strategies to be adopted for their management. PLACROSYM XV, 10–13th December, 2002, Mysore. Programme and Abstracts, p. 100. Kalidas, P. (2004a). Effect of abiotic factors on the efficiency of rhinoceros beetle pheromone oryctalure in the oil palm growing areas of Andhra Pradesh. The Planter, 80(935), 103–115. Kalidas, P. (2004b). Susceptibility of oil palm (Tenera hybrid) planting material for rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L. Journal of Plantation Crops, 32(Suppl), 385–387. Kalidas, P. (2006). Avian pest menace in oil palm and the impact of novel technologies on its management. Journal of Plantation Crops, 34, 172–178. Kalidas, P. (2012). Pest problems of oil palm and management strategies for sustainability. Agrotechnology., S11, 1. https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9881.S11-001Meilke Kalidas, P. (2016). Oil palm. In M. Mani & C. Shivaraju (Eds.), Mealybugs and their management in agricultural and horticultural crops (pp. 569–571). Springer. Kalidas, P. (2019). The inference of the impact of rugose spiraling whitefly on oil palm fresh fruit bunch yield in India. Planter, 95(1115), 83–89. Kalidas, P., & Lavanya, P. (2014). Termite management of in oil palm ecosystem using microbial organisms. Indian Journal of Soil Biology and Ecology., 35(1 & 2), 257–265. Kalidas, P. & Vasudevarao, V. (2005). New technology for the management of bird menace in oil palm. Proceedings of the National Seminar on Research and development of Oil palm in India, 19–20th Feb 2005 held at NRC for Oil palm, Pedavegi, p. 173. Kalidas, P., Venkateswara Rao, C. H., Ali, N., & Kochu, B. M. (2006). New pest incidence on oil palm seedlings in India—a study of black slug (Laevicaulus alte). The Planter, 82(960), 181–186. Kochu Babu, M. (1989). Spear rot of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) in India. Journal of Plantation Crops, 16(Suppl), 281–286. Nair, C. P. R., & Daniel, M. (1982). Pests. In K. V. A. Bavappa, M. K. Nair, & T. Premkumar (Eds.), The Arecanut palm, a monograph. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute. Nair, C. P. R., Daniel, M., & Ponnamma, K. N. (1997). Integrated pest management in palms. In: K. Nambiar, & M. K. Nair. Kochi: Coconut Development Board, 30p. Oehlschlager, C. (2007). Optimizing trapping of palm weevils and beetles. Acta Horticulturae., 736, 347–368. https://doi.org/10.17660/ActaHortic.2007.736.33

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Ponnamma, K. N., Lalitha, N., & Sajeeb Khan, A. (2001). Oil palm mesocarp waste a potential breeding medium for Rhinoceros beetle, Oryctes rhinoceros L. International Journal of Oil Palm, 2(1), 37–40. Saravanan, L., Kalidas P., & Phani Kumar, T. (2012). Investigations on oil palm leaf web worm, Acria sp.: An emerging serious pest of oil palm. Abstracts: “Global conference on Horticulture for food, nutrition and livelihood options”. 28–31st May, 2012, Bhubaneswar, Orissa. pp. 233–34. Shashank, P. R., Saravanan, L., Kalidas, P., Phanikumar, T., Ramamurthy, V. V., & Chandra Bose, N. S. (2015). A new species of the genus Acria Stephens, 1834 (Lepidoptera: Depressariidae: Acriinae) from India. Zootaxa, 3957(2), 226–230. Sundarababu, P. C., Balasubramanian M., & Jayaraj, S. (1993). Studies on the pathogenicity of Metarhizium anisopliae (metschnikoff) Sorokin var. Major Tulloch on Oryctes rhinoceros (L) Research Publication. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University 1:32.

Pests and Their Management in Rubber Mani Chellappan, K. K. Divya, Aswathy Viswanathan, and Lakshmi K. Mohan

Abstract The pests of rubber include the scale insects Aspidiotus destructor, A. cyanophylli and Saissetia nigra, mealybugs Ferrisia virgata and Paracoccus marginatus, green weevil Hypomeces squamosus, white grubs of the species Holotrichia serrata, Holotrichia rufoflava, Holotrichia fissa and Anomala varians, bark-eating caterpillars Aestherastis circulata, Comocritis pieria, Acanthopsyche snelieri and Ptochoryctis rosaria, shot-hole borers Xyleborus biporus, Xyleborus parvulus and Xyleborus perforans, litter-dwelling beetle Luprops tristis, and rubber termite Coptotermes curvignathus. Noninsect pests include the mites Hemitarsonemus dorsalis, slug and snail Mariaellae dussumieri and Crytozona bistralis and beck and the wild boar Sus scrofa. Management of major pests is discussed.

1 Scale Insects: Aspidiotus destructor Sign. and A. cyanophylli Sign. (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and Saissetia nigra Nietn (Hemiptera: Coccidae) Scale insects are seen generally in young plantations and nurseries in almost all rubber areas. They are commonly found infesting the twigs, leaflets, petioles and tender shoot portions and suck the sap. Severely affected portions dry up and die. Scale insects excrete honey dew on which sooty mould develops. Ants and sooty mould are associated with soft scale. Naturally occurring parasitoids and predators are able to keep this pest under check.

M. Chellappan (*) · K. K. Divya · A. Viswanathan · L. K. Mohan Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_63

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Scale infestation When severe infestation is noted, spraying organophosphorus insecticides like malathion 50 EC (0.05% concentration) is recommended (Nair, 1999; Rubber Board, 2017).

2 Mealybugs Mealybugs are seen mostly in nurseries in all rubber areas and suck sap from tender plant parts, and their attack is severe in prolonged drought periods. Early signs of a mealybug infestation include drooping or dry-looking leaves and the appearance of cotton-like masses along leaf attachment sites and on the lower surface of the leaves (Rubber Board, 2017).

2.1

Striped Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

These have oval-elongated, dark grey body, with dark brown legs covered by white mealy wax and a pair of dark dorsal stripes on the body measuring 4–5 mm in length with two long tails. Body is covered with long slender crystal-like filaments/glossy threads in all directions without lateral filaments. They are usually ovoviviparous, and the eggs hatch immediately after being laid.

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2.2

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Papaya Mealybug: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

Ferrisia virgata

Paracoccus marginatus

Newly emerged nymphs of P. marginatus are greenish yellow with oval-shaped body. Their body is light yellowish white, 2–3 mm long, with many lateral (side) wax filaments. Ovisacs are seen with greenish yellow eggs. Wax pattern on body lacks any stripes on its upper surface (i.e. dorsum). Ovisac position is beneath and behind the body and can be as much as twice as long as the body; female adults also possess a series of short waxy caudal filaments less than a quarter of the length of the body around the margin. When preserved in alcohol (80%), P. marginatus turn black within 24–48 h.

Mealybug infestation on rubber

Damage: Both crawlers and adult female mealybugs feed on the sap of rubber plants by inserting their stylets into the epidermis of the leaf, tender shoots, main stem, inflorescence as well as the fruit. Due to the feeding, the leaves showed chlorosis, plant stunting, leaf deformation, early leaf and fruit drop, a heavy buildup of honeydew and consequent sooty mould development on all plant parts, and drying of worst-affected branches (Chellappan, 2010). Spread: Crawlers disperse after emergence from the ovisac and start feeding. Dispersal is through Active crawling of the early nymphal instars, wind-aided dispersion, phoretic ants, infested fallen leaves and cover crops. All vegetation in and around the rubber plantation, viz., Eupatorium odoratum (Chromolena oderata), Berrari sp., Lantana aculeata, Mimosa pudica and lmpertala cylindrica and a variety of other plants had the papaya mealybug infestation including

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glyricidia. Die back of twigs follows. On older leaves, white patches appear causing necrotic spots affecting flower and tender fruits which are shed. Affecting seed production suppressed the actual symptom of the mealybug on rubber (Chellappan, 2010). Management: Cultural management includes the inspection of all papaya, temple trees and other susceptible hosts in and around rubber plantations, burning and destroying the severely infected trees/parts of trees immediately, avoiding transportation of infested plant material, avoiding pruned, infested plant parts being left unattended or being placed in garbage bins or vehicles, washing the insects off the plants with a powerful water jet, wrapping polythene/spongy tapes impregnated with insecticides around tree trunks to exclude ants from the canopy and unsettling the crawlers with a jet of water. Chemical: Spray soap solution (5%) to dissolve the wax and expose the mealybug body to various methods of management and use of tobacco decoction (2%) or fish oil rosin soap or neem oil emulsion (1–2%) as spray were recommended to control the mealybugs. Application of thiamethoxam (25% WG at 1 g/L), imidacloprid (480 SL at 1 mL/L), acetamiprid (20% at 1 g in 1 L of water) and mineral oil (at 5 mL/L) was recommended to control P. marginatus, and clorpyrifos, malathion and white mineral oils/imidacloprid 20% (1 mL in 1 L of water)/ thiamethoxam 25% (1–2 g in 1 L of water)/acetamiprid 20% (1 g in 1 L of water) are recommended to control P. marginatus on rubber (KAU, 2013; Chellappan, 2010). Biological control: Biological control includes release of aphelinid Acerophagus papayae Noyes and Schauff. The parasitoid was found highly successful in suppressing P. marginatus on rubber (Mathew, 2011; Chellappan, 2010). The Australian ladybird beetle Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant is very useful to suppress the mealybug.

3 Green Weevil: Hypomeces squamosus (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) It is also called gold dust weevil. The infestation is observed on tender leaves of bud wood nursery. The adult weevil is variable in colour, with the body covered with glittering metallic green to blue green scaling with orange powdering. The weevils are making holes on the leaves, and they feed from the leaf margins towards the midrib and complete defoliation of tender leaves in severe infestation (Mondal et al., 1995; Mazumder et al., 2015). It can be managed by spraying with chlorpyriphos.

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4 White Grubs White grubs of the species Holotrichia serrata Fabricius, Holotrichia rufoflava Renske, Holotrichia fissa Brenske and Anomala varians Olivier besides Leucopholis pinguis Burm (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) are serious pests of rubber causing severe damage to rubber seedlings in nurseries and rendering them unfit for transplanting from the nursery to the main field. The most predominant and destructive among the four species is H. serrata. Grubs are feeding on roots and adults on leaves. In severe stage of root grub damage, reduction of entire feeder root system of the nursery plants/younger plants leads to death of the plant, while in matured plants, continuous attack will decrease the economic yield and total lifespan of the tree (Nair, 1999). The damage, in general, is greatest when the voracious third instar grubs are abundant in the nursery. In endemic areas of high infestation, the estimated quantum of losses to nursery rubber seedlings ranges from 50% to 80%. At times, the damage caused by grubs is so much so that the entire stand of the crop is destroyed. Hypomeces squamosus

Holotrichia serrata

Plant damage

Grub

Adults

Adult

Application of phorate 10G is proved to be effective in managing the population of white grubs. Application of Beauveria brongniartii, B. bassiana and Bacillus popilliae is efficient for biocontrol of agents under field condition (Nehru & Jayarathnam, 1993). Entomopathogenic nematode Heteorhabditis bacteriophora is also effective to control the white grubs.

5 Bark Eating Caterpillars The caterpillars which are commonly seen in India are Aestherastis circulata Meyr (Lepidoptera: Hyponomeutidae), Ptochoryctis rosaria Meyr, Comocritis pieria Meyr (Lepidoptera: Hyponomeutidae), Acanthopsyche snelieri Heye (Lepidoptera: Psychidae) and Ptochoryctis rosaria Meyr.

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Aestherastis circulata

Damage by bark feeding caterpillar

5.1

Adults

Aestherastis circulata

It is considered as sporadic pest of rubber. Females lay eggs on the crevices of bark on stem. The larvae hatch out from the egg within 2–4 days and pass through a larval stage for 3 weeks. The caterpillar is bright red in colour with a dorsoventrally compressed body. It grows up to length of 2.5 cm in their larval period and pupates in a silken web under a piece of bark for about 10 days. The adult is white-coloured black-spotted small moth. The feeding galleries with deep scars are filled with faecal matter and silk in all over the trunk region and branches of trees. In general, they prefer to attack on dead bark. The feeding scars on live bark trigger the exudation of latex (Nehru et al., 1985; Nehru & Jayarathnam et al., 1991; Nair, 1999; Atwal & Dhaliwal, 2015).

5.2

Comocritis pieria

The larva is pale yellow colour and measures about 12 mm in length. Generally, the first instars hatch out in January, and they complete development within 120–130 days and pupate from the third week of July onwards. Caterpillars bore into the bark, make silken galleries and pupate probably on the base of the attacked region. In the case of plants below 10 years, pupation may occur in the branch scars of the tree. During severe infestation, bark area will extend with silken galleries. The insect-built burrows on the tree trunk are generally observed between 5 and 30 ft above ground level (Nair, 1999).

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Acanthopsyche snelieri

It feeds on recently tapped panels and makes feeding scars on the tapped surfaces leading to the free flowing of latex. The pest is regularly observed in rubber plantations with weak population and generally confined to lichens of the outer bark (Nair, 1999). Management of bark-eating caterpillars: These caterpillar pests can be managed with the use of plant-resistant clones and by avoiding the susceptible clones like PB 86, PB 235 and PB 311. When the infestation is severe, application of chlorpyriphos (0.05%) or Fenval (0.4%) dust (at 7 kg/ha) is useful to control the bark-eating caterpillars. Spraying the trunk with fenvalerate (0.02% at 1 mL/L) is also effective.

6 Stem Borer: Batocera rufomaculata De Geer (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) The stem borer B. rufomaculata is a large grey brown-coloured longicorn beetle with two curved reddish markings and massive spines on either sides of the thorax. Females lay eggs singly in semilunar incision made on bark. A female lays about 200 eggs, and incubation period is of 7–13 days. The larval and pupal periods of the beetle are 140–150 days and 19–36 days, respectively. In some cases, larval stage will extend up to 2 years. The grub bores in to the branches of rubber and feed the internal content, and in severe infestation, branch may die (Nair, 1999).

Borer damage

Adult

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Management includes the cleaning the tunnel with hard wire, pouring kerosene oil, petrol, crude oil or formalin, and subsequently closing entrance of the tunnel with mud or plugging it with cotton wool soaked in any of the above substances kills the grub.

7 Shot-Hole Borers: Xyleborus biporus, Xyleborus parvulus Eichhoff and Xyleborus perforans (Wollaston) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) They make shot holes on the bark and interfere with the latex flow. Occurrence of this pest is generally noticed in diseased trees or they enter into the plant through the cuttings of canker patches in the trees. Management involving swabbing quinalphos (0.25%) on the borer-infested region of the bark thrice at an interval of 1 week is highly effective, resulting in 99% control within 2 months (Jose & Thankamony, 2005; Rubber Board, 2017).

8 Litter-Dwelling Beetle: Luprops tristis Fabr. (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) In India, they are distributed throughout the rubber plantation tracts along the western sides of Western Ghats (Sabu et al., 2008). The pest has been reported as a very serious nuisance pest in households during rainy season. Overnight invasion of huge beetle swarms towards the light in residential buildings will make a nuisance feeling to the local people, and their body contains an irritating odoriferous phenolic secretion which causes skin burn when they are disturbed during mechanical removal or pressed against while sleeping.

Eggs

Grub

Pupa

Adult

Biology: The adult beetle is black in colour. Female oviposits single or batches of 2–8 eggs under the lower surface of dry leaves, preferably on middle litter layers to avoid desiccation of eggs. The incubation period is of 3–4 days, and the larval stage occupies 5 instars. First instar grub is delicate, with body colour similar to egg, while

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other instars are moderately rigid and dark, flat, elongate, oval in shape and swift movers. The emerging beetles will undergo three distinct phases of dormancy.

Natural aggregation of Luprops tristis under boulder

Management: Weaver ants Oecophylla smaragdina are the effective biocontrol agents for controlling the beetles. The defensive gland secretion of L. tristis will avoid the initial attackers. While in weaver ants, a group of ants surrounding the beetle in a defensive mode for a long time will make the beetle defenceless by empting their glands (Aswathi et al., 2012).

9 Termites: Coptotermes curvignathus Holmgren (Rhinotermitidae) and Odontotermes obesus Rampar (Termitidae) The infestation occurs internally through the roots. With a layer of mud on the trunk, the bark texture becomes fissured and rough. The bark can be seen to be riddled with holes. Leaves are yellowing and wilting. Finally, the tree will die. Termites can be managed by drenching the soil at the base of affected plants with chlorpyriphos (0.1% solution). When mulch is present, spray must be given on the mulch also.

Soldiers (S), workers (W) and nymphs (N).

Felled tree attacked by termites

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Mites: Hemitarsonemus dorsalis

Hemitarsonemus dorsalis is a sporadic pest on young rubber plants in nurseries. Mites suck sap from the leaves resulting in crinkling and shedding. Application of sulphur 80 WP (at 2.5 g/L) or ethion is useful to control the mites.

11

Slug and Snail: Mariaellae dussumieri Grey (Stylommatophora: Ariophantidae) and Cryptozona (Xestina) bistralis Beck (Stylommatophora: Ariophantidae)

Slugs and snails scrape the tender leaves and buds by radula and also feed the exuding latex from the new scars. Infestation of terminal shoots stimulates the growth of side shoots, resulting in bunchy appearance of the plant. The pest is predominant in nursery stages and tapping plantation. They drink latex from the tapping cut and collecting cup also. Management involves the collection or trap, destroying them by dipping in 10% salt solution or boiling water, broadcasting metaldehyde bait pellets (2.5%) at the base of the infested plants or seedling beds and brushing around the stem above the bud union to a length of 30 cm with Bordeaux paste (10%) to repel slugs and snails (Deepak et al., 2013; Rubber Board, 2017).

12

Wild Boar: Sus scrofa Linnaeus (Artiodactyla: Suidae)

It is a prolific breeder that breeds in all season. The gestation period is of 4 months, and average size of a litter is 4–6 young ones, which are protected by the female (Atwal & Dhaliwal, 2015). The wild boar is black rusty brown colour with a sparse coat of white hairs and black coarse bristles on the body. The younger ones are brown with black stripes. The wild pigs have tusks, straight tails, erect ears and elongated tails. The head of the animal measures around one-third of the body length with a powerful neck muscles. The adult males are larger than females, with two pairs of well-developed canine teeth (tusks) for their feeding habit and defence mechanism (Atwal & Dhaliwal, 2015; Animal Corner, 2017). They are highly intelligent and courageous, and lives in near-forest area. They are nocturnal, foraging from dusk to dawn of the day (Atwal & Dhaliwal, 2015; Animal Corner, 2017). Wild boar attack can be identified by their four-toed food prints, broken younger plants and furrows or holes made on the attacked field (Asian Topics, 2017). Management: Management includes constructing and maintaining electric fences, and using wild boar repellent (BoRep, place 25 g BoRep tied in muslin clothe and hang such packets around the field at 10 cm height at 2–3 m intervals).

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Physical barrier with nylon fish net can be tied around the field at 3 ft height and spread on the ground up to 2 ft distance and fixed firmly on the ground with pegs. Nematodes: Root knot nematodes Meloidogyne incognita attack the roots of rubber seedlings in the nursery. The infected lateral roots show swellings. Plants become stunted and discoloured, and the leaves shed. Systemic insecticides like Carbofuran (3G at 15 kg/ha) are effective for control of nematodes. Rats: The Indian mole rat Bandicota bengalensis, the large bandicoot rat Bandicota indica and field rat Rallus meltada destroy the nursery plants and young plants in the field by eating the tap root. For control of rats, baits containing zinc phosphide are used. This poison can be placed inside a food material like tapioca and used as bait. Prebaiting (without the poison) will be necessary. Bromadiolone (0.005%, Roban) bait is as effective as single-dose anticoagulant bait. Porcupine: Porcupine gnaws away the bark from the base of rubber trees and rings them. Such trees dry up. They also pull out young plants and feed on their tap root. The common species found in India is Hystrix indica. Zinc phosphide bait in salt meats or applied as slurry with wheat flour at the base of plants is effective for control. Phorate (10G at 10–15 g/plant) applied at the base repels porcupine. Wild animals: Other wild animals like rabbit, wild boar, elephant, etc., may also cause damage to rubber plants. These are serious problems in plantations nearer to forests. They can be kept away by installing electric fence.

References Animal Corner. (2017). Wild boar—Facts, diet & habitat information—Animal Corner. Retrieved October 14, 2017 from https://animalcorner.co.uk/animals/wildboar/ Asian Topics. (2017). Northern Asian and European animals. Aswathi, P., Jobi, M. C., & Sabu, K. T. (2012). Biocontrol of home invading rubber litter beetle, Luprops tristis with weaver ants (Oecophylla smaragdina). Journal of Biopesticides, 5, 177–179. Atwal, A. S., & Dhaliwal, G. S. (2015). Agricultural pests of South Asia and their management (8th ed., 678 p). Kalyani Publishers. Chellappan, M. (2010). Status of papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink in Kerala. In A. N. Shylesha, S. Joshi, R. J. Rabindra, & B. S. Bhumannavar (Eds.), Classical Biological Control of Papaya Mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus in India—Proceedings of the National Consultation Meeting on Strategies for Deployment and Impact of the Imported Parasitoids of Papaya Mealybug (pp. 40–42). NBAII (ICAR). Deepak, P., Alexander, R., Jayashankar, M., & Ramakrishna, S. (2013). Studies on the morphometry of the terrestrial slug Mariaellae dussumieri Grey (Stylommatophora: Ariophantidae). Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences, 3(4), 10–13. Jayarathnam, K., Nehru, C. R., & Jose, V. T. (1991). Field evaluation of some newer insecticides against bark feeding caterpillar Aetherastis circulata infesting rubber. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber Research, 4(2), 131–133. Jose, V. T., & Thankamony, S. (2005). Borer control on rubber trees using insecticides. Natural Rubber Research, 18(1), 63–66. KAU. (2013). Centre for E learning Kerala Agricultural University. Retrieved April 2013 from http://www.celkau.in/Crops/Plantation%20Crops/Rubber/pests.aspx

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Mathew, J. (2011). Status of papaya mealy bug on rubber in Kerala. In Proceedings of the National Consultation Meeting on Strategies for Deployment and Impact of the Imported Parasitoids of Papaya Mealybug, Classical Biological Control of Papaya Mealybug (Paracoccus marginatus) in India (p. 60). NBAII (ICAR). Mazumder, A., Gogoi, S., Purnima, D., & Bora, P. (2015). A new record of mango weevil Hypomeces squamosus (F) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on young mango plant from Assam. Biotic Environment, 2–3, 21. Mondal, G. C., Jose, V. T., Jayarathnam, K., & Sinha, R. R. (1995). Occurrence of Hypomeces squamosus (Coleoptera Curculionidae) on Hevea rubber: A new record from India. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber Research, 8(2), 91–93. Nair, M. R. G. K. (1999). A monograph on crop pests of Kerala and their control (3rd revised ed., pp. 123–124). Directorate of Extension, Kerala Agricultural University. Nehru, C. R., & Jayarathnam, K. (1993). Biological and chemical control strategies against the white grubs (Holotrichia serrata) infesting rubber seedlings. Indian Journal of Natural Rubber Research, 1–2, 159–162. Nehru, C. R., Jayarathnam, K., & Pillai, P. N. R. (1985). Incidence of bark-feeding caterpillar Aetherastis circulata Myer on rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.). Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 11(1–2), 150. Retrieved from https://eurekamag.com/research/001/387/00138781 7.php Rubber Board. (2017). Diseases and pests—Rubber Board. Manage cultivation. Retrieved October 7, 2017 from https://rubberboard.org.in Sabu, T. K., Vinod, K. V., & Jobi, M. C. (2008). Life history, aggregation and dormancy of the rubber plantation litter beetle, Luprops tristis, from the rubber plantations of moist South Western Ghats. Journal of Insect Science, 8, 1–17.

Pests and Their Management in Tea B. Radhakrishnan

Abstract Insect pests of tea include tea mosquito bugs Helopeltis theivora, Scirtothrips bispinosus and Scirtothrips dorsalis, citrus aphid Toxoptera aurantii, spherical mealybug Nipaecoccus viridis, leaf hoppers Empoasca flavescens, Empoasca onukii and Empoasca vitis, green scale Coccus viridis, brown scales Saissetia coffeae, Drepanococcus chiton and Ceroplastes spp., oriental yellow scale Aonidiella orientalis, coconut scale Aspidiotus destructor, tea flush worm Cydia leuocostoma, tea tortrix Homona coffearia, tea leaf roller Caloptilia theivora, fringed nettle grub Darna nararia, white banded nettle grub Thosea recta, saddle backed nettle grub Thosea cervina, large gelatin grub Belippa lalaena, large faggot worm Eumeta crameri, red slug caterpillar Eterusia aedea virescens, tobacco leaf eating caterpillar Spodoptera litura, coffee red borer Zeuzera coffeae Nietner, hepialid borer Sahyadrassus malabaricus, lobster caterpillar Neostauropus alternus, bunch caterpillar Andraca bipunctata, tea looper Biston suppressaria, leaf miner Tropicomyia theae, tea shot hole borer Euwallacea fornicatus, white grub Holotrichia sp. and the termites Odentotermes sp. and Microtermus obesi. Methods of management of key pests are also discussed.

1 Tea Mosquito Bug: Helopeltis theivora Waterhouse (Hemiptera: Miridae) It is an important pest of tea in certain tea growing areas in India. Damage: Adults and nymphs of tea mosquito, with their rostrum, pierce the tender leaves, young buds and stems and suck the cell sap causing considerable crop loss varying from 30% to 100% during the periods of attack. At the time of feeding, toxic saliva is injected into the plant. Within 2 or 3 h, a circular ring forms around the point of injury. The interior of the ring becomes light brown within a day. These rings appear as dark brown sunken spots after a few days. Gradually they dry up and

B. Radhakrishnan (*) UPASI Tea Research Institute, Valparai, Tamil Nadu, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_64

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holes appear in their place. Severely infested leaves become deformed and curl up. Infestation leads to retardation of shoot growth. In severe cases, reduction in photosynthetic rate up to 50% was also observed. Crop loss can be near total if the attack is very severe. Tea made out of TMB infested shoots scored significantly lower values on organoleptic evaluation (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: Eggs of tea mosquito are laid singly or in small batches into the tender stems, petioles and mid-rib of leaves. Usually, the respiratory horns of eggs are exposed. The incubation period varies from 5 to 7 days. There are five nymphal instars and the total nymphal period ranges from 9 to 12 days. The first and second instar nymphs are yellowish green while the later instars are green in colour. Adults are dark brown with pale markings on head, thorax and abdomen. The scutellar process is very prominent in the adult.

Eggs

Nymph

Adult

Leaf damage

Natural enemies: The eggs of Helopeltis theivora are parasitized by the mymarid Erythmelus helopeltidis Ghan. The incidence of parasitism in the field ranges from 52% to 83% (Sudhakaran & Muraleedharan, 2006). Management • Pheromone traps at 15 traps/ha is to be used for monitoring and effective management of this pest. • Plucking every 10–15 days will be helpful for reducing the infestation as the eggs are removed during plucking. Try to pluck out all the badly damaged buds which will stimulate the growth of new shoots. Light or moderate pruning will limit the population in the seriously affected fields. • Weed and alternate host plants (wild plants having feeding stains) should be removed from and around the tea fields. Regulation of shade is important as the heavily shaded and moist areas are relatively more damaged. • Spray application of the chemicals quinalphos at 1000 mL/ha, thiamethoxam at 100 g to 125 g/ha, deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 500 mL/ha, clothianidin 50 WDG 120 g/ha, thiacloprid 21.7 SC at 375 mL/ha, profenofos 50% EC at 2 mL/L and bifenthrin 8 SC at 750 mL/ha is useful to control the tea mosquito bug.

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2 Thrips 2.1

Scirtothrips bispinosus (Bagnall) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

It is an endemic species of peninsular India, causing severe damage to tea plantations (Ananthakrishnan, 1963). Thrips are mostly dry season pests though they may occur on a limited scale even during the rainy seasons. Damage: Thrips prefers young tea leaves and buds and the continuous feeding by adult and larva causes lacerations of the tissue, which appears as large number of streaks. The feeding marks on the unopened buds appear as to parallel brown lines on the leaves. Thrips are weak fliers and are greatly helped by wind in their dispersal. The crop loss caused by thrips varies from 30% to 55% during the periods of attack. Fields recovering from pruning are more prone to the attack of this pest, which leads to an inordinate delay in tipping and consequent crop loss (Hazarika et al., 2009).

Nymphs

Adult

Leaf damage

Biology: After an incubation period of 3–4 days, eggs hatch into first instar larvae (1–3 days) which are creamy white in colour with prominent eyes, which then moults in to second instar larvae (5 days). Then it falls to the ground and transforms itself in to the pre-pupa. This instar is marked by the presence of wing pads. Both the pre-pupa and pupa are found in the leaf litter and soil. Adult emerge from the pupa after 3–5 days. Adults are characterized by their brown colour abdomen. Total duration of life cycle of S. bispinosus varies from 14 to 20 days.

2.2

Scirtothrips dorsalis Hood

Thrips prefer tender/mature leaves, buds and flowers. It undergoes through five developmental phases: egg, two active larval instars that feed, followed by two relatively inactive pupal instars and winged, feeding adults. The first and second larval stages are found on the green plant parts from which the second stage larvae seek out some sheltered place (leaf litter or crevices of bark) and then pass through two resting stages called pro-pupa and pupa, respectively. Winged adults, male and female, are found normally on the green plant parts, where they feed. Eggs are

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inserted into young and soft tissues of leaves, stems and fruit. Eggs hatch after 7–8 days. Both nymphs and adults lacerate and suck the sap on leaves, buds and flowers. The underside of the affected leaves become silvery with black spots. Feeding marks on the unopened buds and parallel brown lines on the leaves which affect the quality. The growing shoots are stunted with shortened internodes and defoliation often occurs. Management: Timely pruning of tea bushes is to be followed to avoid thrips infestation. Yellow/blue sticky traps are promising tools for monitoring and trapping thrips population in tea fields. Thiamethoxam 25 WG at 125 g/ha, quinalphos 25 EC at 1000 mL/ha, deltamethrin 2.8% EC at 0.3 mL/L and profenofos 50% EC at 2 mL/ L are found effective to contain thrips population. Spray neem formulation containing azadirachtin 1% at 3 mL/L or azadirachtin 5% at 1 mL/L. Spray application of the entomopathogen Lecanicellium lecanii at 1500 g along with jaggery at 1500 g/ha is also useful to reduce the thrips population (Radhakrishnan, 2013).

3 Citrus Aphid: Toxoptera aurantii Boyer de Fonscolombe (Hemiptera: Aphididae) This is a polyphagous species attacking several economically important plants such as coffee, tea, cocoa, and citrus. T. aurantii is recorded from almost all the tea growing countries (Hazarika et al., 2009). Damage: Colonies of aphids are seen on tender shoots of tea, especially on young plants and bushes recovering from pruning. Aphids suck the sap from tender shoots by inserting the rostrum into the phloem vessels. Due to feeding by aphids, leaves curl up and shoot growth is stunted. Their attack on young buds delays the recovery of pruned bushes. However, serious outbreaks of this pest are seldom noticed. Biology: Colonies of T. aurantii consist of dark brown alate and apterous adult females and nymphs. Aphids are attended by ants. The honeydew, secreted by the aphids falls on the leaves and this encourages the growth of sooty moulds. Reproduction is by parthenogenesis and adult females give birth to young ones.

Toxoptera aurantii

Aphid infestation

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Natural enemies: Tea aphids are to a very large extent, naturally regulated by biocontrol agents. The chief among them are the larvae of syrphids Paragus tibialis, Episyrphus balteatus, Betasyrphus serarius, Allobaccha nubilipennis and Ischiodon scutellaris, the coccinellids Jauravia pubescens and Cheilomenes sexmaculatus and the neuropteran Micromus timidus are another important predators. Three species of aphidiids, viz., Trioxys indicus, Lipolexis scutellaris and Aphidius colemani are known to parasitize the aphids throughout south India (Radhakrishnan, 1989). Management: Collect and destroy the affected parts of plants to prevent the further spread. Tea aphids are to a very large extent naturally regulated by the biocontrol agents. Encourage predatory coccinellids beetles to reduce the population. Spray any commercial botanicals insecticides containing azadirachtin 5% (1 mL/L) or azadirachtin 1% (3 mL/L) or neem seed kernel extract 4%. Spray application of dimethoate at 1000 mL/ha and quinalphos at 750 mL/ha is useful to control the aphids.

4 Spherical Mealybug: Nipaecoccus viridis (Newstead) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) N. viridis is an economically important pest of tea. Besides other tea growing regions of the country, this pest was reported in Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh (Gupta & Shanker, 2007). Mealy bugs are covered with white powdery substances and waxy filaments. Females are soft bodied sluggish oval, flattened and dark brown colour. Males undergo four and female three nymphal instars. Both nymphs and adults congregate on shoot, stem, branches and suck the sap which results in drying of branches. In severe cases, the mealy bugs secrete honeydew on the plant parts from which black sooty mould develops, which affects the photosynthesis and quality of tea leaves. In severe cases, it leads to death of the tea plants. Juvenile mealybugs can crawl from an infected plant to another plant and small ‘crawlers’ are readily transported by wind, rain, birds, ants, clothing, vehicle and may settle in cracks and crevices, usually on new plants. Ants, attracted by the honeydew carry mealybugs from plant to plant helping in their spreading and invading into new areas and fields. Plant protection products are not very effective in controlling mealy bugs because of waxy covering on their body and their habit of hiding in crevices. Systemic insecticides are found effective and used to control during severe infestation. Management involves destruction of colonies by drenching soil with quinalphos 25 EC at 2 mL/L, removal of weeds and alternate host plants like Hibiscus spp., okra, custard apple, guava, etc., encouraging the naturally occurring parasites and predators, and also release of Australian ladybird, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri, to suppress mealybugs population. Spray commercially available entomopathogenic fungus, Lecanicillium lecanii (5 g/L), to reduce mealy bug population at weekly intervals.

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Spraying insecticides like chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2 mL/L or imidacloprid 200 SL at 0.5 mL/L or buprofezin during severe infestation (Nadda et al., 2013).

5 Leaf Hopper: Empoasca flavescens F. (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) The adults are wedge-shaped, pale green insects. They have fully developed wings with a prominent black spot on each forewing. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from the lower leaf surfaces through their piercing and sucking mouthparts. While sucking the plant sap, they also inject toxic saliva into the plant tissues, which leads to yellowing. When several hoppers suck the sap from the same leaf, yellow spots appear on the leaves, followed by crinkling, curling, bronzing, and drying, or ‘hopper burn’.

6 Scale Insects: Green Scale Coccus viridis (Green), Brown Scale Saissetia coffeae (Walker), Drepanococcus chiton (Green) and Ceroplastes spp. (Coccidae), Oriental Yellow Scale Aonidiella orientalis (Newstead) and Coconut Scale Aspidiotus destructor Signoret (Diaspididae) Scale infestation is usually localized. They tend to remain confined to the individual bush and start feeding by sucking the sap by inserting their mouth parts. Feeding may lead to severe defoliation, stunting and dieback on young tea (Das, 1965). However, the effects may not be very serious in case of mature tea. Soft scales feed on green stem or on the underside of the leaves mainly along the midrib, and produce honeydew. Sooty mould grows on the honeydew which affects the photosynthesis of the plant. Yellow feeding spots appear on the upper side of the leaves, the damaged leaves eventually drop off. The ants feeding on honeydew are sometimes the only sign of their presence. Scales insects are some of the most difficult pests to control because their scales protect them from contact with chemicals and their mouth parts are inserted in the plant tissue. Select planting material free from scale insects from mother plants. Scale insects are well regulated by the locally occurring natural enemies. An epizootics of entomofungal infection of C. viridis by Paecilomyces lilacinus resulted in 100% mortality of the pest. This is the first report globally of a member of genus Paecilomyces infecting scale insect.

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7 Tea Flush Worm: Cydia leuocostoma (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Flush worm is an important caterpillar pest of tea especially in young tea and fields recovering from pruning (Nadda et al., 2013). Damage: The flush worm make nests by webbing the leaves, one above the other, and feed from inside. They feed on the upper epidermis of leaves and sometimes the entire portion of the bud is destroyed. The affected leaves become rough, crinkled and leathery. Since the terminal buds are damaged, shoot growth is arrested. Teas made from flush worm-infested shoots will be of poor quality. Biology: The adult moth is very small, less than 1 cm long and blackish brown in colour. Eggs are pale yellow and laid singly on the undersigned of mature leaves. Incubation period is 4–6 days, and the newly emerged caterpillar moves into a bud by making a small hole. It takes nearly 2 days to start stitching the margins in to a leaf case. The larva takes 19–25 days for development inside the leaf case. The full grown larva is about 1 cm long and brown in colour. Before pupation, the caterpillar moves out and pupates at the petiole region of the outermost leaf of the leaf case or sometimes on an old leaf. Pupal period varies from 8 to 10 days. Moths are active during morning and evening hours. Natural enemies: Apanatelas aristaeus Nixon, is the most common parasitoid and percentage of parasitism by this species may reach nearly 17% (Muraleedharan & Selvasundaram, 1989). A mermithid Hexamernis sp. is also known to attack the flush worms in South India (Subbiah, 1986).

Leaf damage

Adult

Management: In the initial stages of attack, flush worms can be easily controlled by hand picking of infested shoots during plucking. However, in untipped fields, insecticide application becomes necessary. Application of chemicals like quinalphos 25 EC at 750 mL/ha or deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 200 mL/ha gives satisfactory control (Nadda et al., 2013).

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8 Tea Tortrix: Homona coffearia Nietner (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Damage: The caterpillars make nests by webbing the leaves, often one above the other, using silken threads, and freed from inside. During larval period, several leaf cases are made. The young larvae prefer tender leaves while the older larvae are seen more in leaf cases made of slightly mature foliage (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: Adult moth is brown coloured and bell shaped in outline while at rest. Males are slightly smaller in size. Eggs are laid in masses on the upper surface of mature leaves. Incubation period is 6–8 days, and the young larvae, on emergence, start constructing leaf nests and feeding from inside. They are greenish in colour and about 2 cm long, when fully grown. Larval period lasts for 20–30 days. Pupation takes place inside the leaf cases. The pupa, initially greenish in colour, gradually turns light reddish brown. Pupal period ranges from 9 to 15 days.

Caterpillar feeding

Adult

Natural enemies: The populations of tea tortrix are controlled by two parasitoids, an ichneumonid wasp, Phytodietus spinipes (Cameron) and a tachinid fly, Palexorista solennis (Walker). In Sri Lanka, great success has been achieved in the biological control of H. coffearia by introducing the parasitoid Macrocentrus homonae Nixon from Indonesia.

9 Tea Leaf Roller: Caloptilia (Gracilaria) theivora (Walsingham) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) The young caterpillar first mines into the leaf. The older larvae roll the leaves from tip downwards and feed from inside. Normally young leaves are preferred. Biology: Adult moths are very small, with narrow wings. Mating usually occurs at night and eggs are deposited on the under surface of leaves. More than 300 eggs are laid by a female during the course of 14–15 days. Larvae hatch out in 2–3 days and the young caterpillar mines into the leaf tissue, and the other instars form a fold

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by side mining the tunnel. The total larval period is 24–20 days. Finally the mature larva comes out of the leaf roll and constructs’ a small silken cocoon. Pupation is either on the leaf margin or near the midrib. The adult moth emerges from the pupa in 7–14 days.

Caterpillar feeding

Adult

Natural enemies: Sympiesis dolichogaster (Ashmead) (Eulophidae) is the most important larval parasitoid exerting considerable natural regulation of the pest population (Selvasundaram & Muraleedharan, 1987). Management: Normally, leaf rollers are not a problem in tea fields and can be easily removed during plucking. Chemicals such as quinalphos at 750 mL/ha or deltamethrin 2.8% EC at 200 mL/ha against leaf roller can be used for the control of this pest.

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Fringed Nettle Grub: Darna nararia Moore (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

The fringed nettle grub is another common species occurring in south India. Damage: The young caterpillars feed on the under surface of leaves, scraping off small areas leaving the upper epidermis intact. Slightly mature larvae eat off large portions of leaves. When the outbreak is severe, the leaves are completely eaten off, leaving the bush frames bare (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: The pale brown adult moths rest during the day and become active at night. Oviposition starts soon after emergence. Eggs are oval, flattened, and shiny and laid singly on leaves. Incubation period is about a week, and the young caterpillars are seen on the under surface of leaves. Older larvae are about 1.5 cm long and pale green in colour. There is a median stripe of dark green bordered by pale yellow. On each side, there are nine tubercles from which setae arise. The larvae moult five times and larval period lasts for 5 weeks. Pupation takes place in the soil. Cocoon is spherical and dark brown in colour. Pupal stage extends for 3 weeks.

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Fringed nettle grub

Fringed nettle grub Adult

Control: Chemicals used for the control of other caterpillars can be used against this pest also.

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White Banded Nettle Grub: Aphendala (Thosea) recta Hampson (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

The young larvae scrape off the under surface of leaves while the mature larvae eat away large portions of leaves (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: Adult moths are greyish brown and measure about 2.5 cm across wings. Eggs are laid on leaves and the larvae, when fully grown are about 2.5 cm long. They are green in colour with a silvery white band on the dorsal side. The brown oval cocoons are seen attached to leaves or twigs.

White banded nettle grub

Adult

Control: Chemicals used for the control of other caterpillars can be used against this pest also.

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Saddle Backed Nettle Grub: Thosea cervina Moore (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

Larvae feed on the leaf tissue on the under surface; severe cases of infestation completely strip off the leaves; adult moth is dark reddish brown; mature larvae are 4 cm long, greenish colour with three brown markings; central marking is saddle shaped, other two are look like pear; larvae pupate in the soil; pupae are dark brown, globular and resemble tea seeds. Chemicals used for the control of other caterpillars can be used against this pest also (Hazarika et al., 2009).

Larva

13

Adult

Large Gelatin Grub: Belippa lalaena Moore (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae)

The large gelatin grub is a polyphagous species feeding on several cultivated plants like pear, coffee and cocoa besides tea.

Larva

Adult

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Damage: The damage is confined to mature leaves. The larvae eat off large portions of leaf. Biology: The grubs are pale bluish, 1.5 cm long, rounded and resemble a bulb of jelly. Larval period is about 2 months. The cocoons are whitish, rounded and seen attached to bushes. Management: Hand picking is an easy way to reduce larval population. Chemicals used for the control of other caterpillars can be used against this pest also.

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Large Faggot Worm: Eumeta crameri (Westwood) (Lepidoptera: Psychidae)

Older leaves are usually attacked, and at times, bark of tea bushes is also eaten by this caterpillar. When pruned bushes are attacked, damage will be severe (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: Adult moths are reddish brown. As many as 500 eggs are laid by the female inside the case. The eggs hatch in 10–15 days. The young caterpillars, characterized by their large anterior end and slender abdomen, start constructing their silken bags, covering it with particles of bark and dry twigs, arranged parallel to one another, is 30–35 mm long. Larval duration is 9–10 months. Before pupation, the bag is suspended from the branch of a bush and the open end of the bag is closed. The larva turns round within the bag and pupates inside. The male pupa pushes through an opening made at the original posterior end and the moth emerges out. The female remains inside the case. The tachinid fly Nealsomyia rufella Bezzi is parasitic on the larvae of E. crameri. Control: Manual removal of faggot worms will be an easy method of controlling them. Chemicals like quinalphos are effective against this pest.

Caterpillar

Adult

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Red Slug Caterpillar: Eterusia aedea virescens Butler (Lepidoptera: Zygaenidae)

The red slug caterpillar is known from the early days of planting (Hazarika et al., 2009). Damage: The slug caterpillar prefer mature foliage, eating small bits of leaves from the margin and gradually consuming the entire leaf. When the attack is severe, the leaves are completely eaten off, leaving the bush frames naked. Biology: Adult moths are brightly coloured in hues of black and pale yellow and are attracted to light at night. Eggs pale white in colour and oval in shape, are laid on the under surface of leaves or on branches. Incubation period ranges from 10 to 12 days. The caterpillars resemble nettle grubs in their general appearance and slug like movements. Full grown larva is 2.5 cm long and brick red in colour. There are six rows of tubercles on the body; the larva ejects a viscous fluid through these pores, apparently as a defensive mechanism against its natural enemies. However, the fluid causes no irritation on human skin. There are five larval instars and larval development is completed in 4–5 weeks. Before pupating the caterpillar spins a cocoon on the leaf fold or stem and emergence of adults takes place after 3 weeks. A tachinid Peribaea sp. is parasitic on this caterpillar (Nadda et al., 2013).

Caterpillar feeding

Adult

Control: Hand collection will be very useful in controlling this caterpillar. Spraying of chemicals like quinalphos will be an effective control measure.

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Tobacco Leaf-Eating Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Fabricus) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The caterpillars feed on foliage of tea bushes. Feeding is characterized by the irregular holes made on tea leaves (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: Adult months have greyish brown forewings marked with silvery lines and white hind wings, Eggs, Laid in clusters, batch out in 3–4 days. Larvae are dull olive green in colour with sublateral whitish lines. They activity feed for about 3 weeks and enter the pupal stage. Pupae are found on the spoil and adult emergence takes place after a week.

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Control: Against the early instars, chemicals like quinalphos, and against mature caterpillars, the pyrethroids and deltamethrin, will be very effective. Pheromone traps are available for this species and these can be effectively used for its control.

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Coffee Red Borer: Zeuzera coffeae Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)

It is mostly a problem in young tea plants (Hazarika et al., 2009). Damage: Usually, young stems are bored by the caterpillar. As the larvae grow, the tunnel is also extended and holes are made at intervals to eject the excreta and wood particles in the young plants. The tunnel may run through the main stem, even up to root level. Such badly affected plants cannot be saved. Biology: Adult months have white wings with many black sports. Eggs are laid in a string and appear like beads on a thread. These strings of eggs are deposited on stems, often in crevices and the young caterpillars emerge in 10 days. They suspended themselves by silken threads and get dispersed with the aid of wind. The larvae landing on tea bushes bore into young stems. Usually, the larvae tunnel downwards, developing the woody parts, especially the pith. In course of time, the tunnels are extended to thicker branches. The mature larva is about 3.5 cm long and purplish brown or reddish brown in colour, larval development is completed in 4–5 months. Pupation takes places in especial chamber with the head of pupa pointing towards the future exit hole pupal period lasts for month.

Caterpillar

Adult

Management: The affected branches may be cut to sound wood. The larvae maybe killed in situ by pouring a strong solution of an insecticide like quinalphos by using an ink filler and plugging the holes.

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Hepialid Borer: Sahyadrassus malabaricus (Moore) (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae)

It is endemic to south India and often attacks several forest trees (Hazarika et al., 2009). Damage: The young caterpillars bore into the stems and excavate long cylindrical tunnels. The top end of the tunnel opens into extensive cankers formed by the eating of bark and sapwood. The bottom end is closed. The bark and callus tissue around the tunnel mouth form the food of the larva. Feeding takes places at night. Normally, the larvae rest with the head towards the tunnel mouth. It can move forward and backward with equal ease. Borer attacked bushes can be easily located by the frassy mat, found of powdered wood and silk, hanging near the holes. Biology: The moths become active at dusk and eggs are broadcast by the female in flight. The caterpillars tunnel the tea stems, and at times these tunnels extend even up to roots. The entrance hole is covered by a mat of wooden practices, excreta and silk. The full grown larva is pale yellow, pencil thick and reaches 6–10 cm long. It can move up and down the tunnel rapidly. Larval development is completed in 10 months. Pupation takes place in the lower part of the tunnel and pupal period lasts for 3–5 weeks. Pupa is armed with ridges and tooth like Structures, used for wriggling up to the entrance hole. Half projecting out of the pupal case splits and the moth emerges out.

Caterpillar feeding

Adult

Management: The larvae may be killed in situ by pouring a solution of quinalphos into the tunnel as in the case of the red coffee borer. Spraying quinalphos at 0.125% or NSKE or B. bessiana on the infestation gives good control.

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Lobster Caterpillar: Neostauropus (=Stauropus) alternus Walker (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae)

It is commonly seen in the nurseries. It completely devours all the leaves from a small plant. Forewings of moths are greyish white with few reddish brown spots. Eggs are whitish, finely sculptured and laid in small clusters. Incubation period is

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5–10 days. Caterpillars are black grotesquely shaped and resemble dry leaves. Larval period is 3–4 weeks. Pupation takes place inside a woolly cocoon. Adults emerge after 10–14 days (Hazarika et al., 2009).

Caterpillar

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Adult

Bunch Caterpillar: Andraca bipunctata Walker (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae)

Biology: The eggs are yellowish and are arranged in linear order by the female moth. Incubation period is 7–11 days. Young caterpillars feed upon their egg shell, then they lacerate the leaf surface tissues and finally consume the whole leaf blade. The caterpillars remain clustered in characteristic bunches and hence are called ‘bunch caterpillars’. Larval development is completed in 3–4 weeks. The larva is tawnyyellow with reddish tinge and broad blackish-brown transverse strips. For pupation the larvae descend down from the host plant and pupate on the ground among dried leaves. The pupal period varies in different season. In summer, it is 16–29 days; in rainy season, it is about 46 days; and in winter, it is 68–120 days. The pupa is reddish-brown in colour and about 25 mm in size. The adult moth is brown in colour. The damage is caused to the host plant by the caterpillars. The caterpillars eat the foliage of the host plant. Initially, they feed upon the surface tissues only but later on the whole blade is consumed.

Eggs

Caterpillars

Pupae

Adult

The caterpillars move in groups and before going down for pupation a bunch of caterpillars may destroy several bushes of tea plantation (Hazarika et al., 2009). Management involves with the collection and destruction of affected plant parts and spray application with quinalphos 2 mL/L (Nadda et al., 2013).

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Tea Looper: Buzura suppressaria Guenée (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

It is the major chewing pest of tea causing severe damage in April–May (Hazarika et al., 2009). Young caterpillars feed on young leaves and mature larvae prefer older leaves; they made series of small holes along and a little away from the margin. In severe cases of attack, tea bushes completely denuded. Female looper deposits up to 200 eggs in batches on the tree trunks. Incubation period is 7–10 days. On emergence, caterpillars suspend by silken threads and get dispersed by wind; larvae dark brown with pale greenish white lines on the back and side; on the leaves, they move like leeches; after 4–5 weeks, they pupated in the soil for a period of 3–4 weeks; pupa brownish, 2–2.5 cm long, life cycle completed in 8–10 weeks. Adults are greyish moth with black and yellow bands and spots. Apanteles taprobanae is known to cause heavy parasitism in April –May. Management involves with the collection and destruction of affected plant parts and spray application with quinalphos 2 mL/L (Nadda et al., 2013).

Larva

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Adult

Leaf Miner: Topicomyia theae (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Leaf miner infests young plants in the nursery, whereas in matured plantations, infestation occurs after pruning particularly during new flush. Incidence is more in tender leaves compared to matured leaves. Initially, adult female punctures the leaves and feeds on oozing sap. After hatching, maggots/larva mines the leaves and feed by leaving characteristic mines. In severe incidence, affected leaves bears extensive mines, turn brown, dry and drop down. Severely affected mined leaves become unfit for consumption (Hazarika et al., 2009). Management involves with the collection and destruction of the affected leaves, Spray application with any commercial botanicals insecticides containing azadirachtin 5% (1 mL/L)/ azadirachtin 1% (3 mL/L) or deltamethrin 2.8 EC (1 mL/L) for effective control.

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Larva

23

Adult

Tea Shot-Hole Borer: Euwallacea fornicatus (Eichoff) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

It was originally described as Xyleborus fornicatus Eichhoff. It is an important stemboring pest of tea in the mid and low elevation areas of Southern India (Hazarika et al., 2009). Damage: Females of these beetles construct galleries in tea stems, leading to branch breakage and consequent crop loss. The galleries are mostly seen in the primary branches, formed after pruning. However, in many places, attack is also found on the old wood, even at the collar region. Fresh infestation vigorously starts from the end of second year (Muraleedharan, 1983).

Shot hole

Adult feeding

Grub feeding

Biology: Eggs are white, elongated oval, and laid inside the galleries. Oviposition period extends up to 20 days. Eggs hatch in 4–6 days, and the grubs feed on the fungus, Fusarium bugnicourtii, growing in the galleries. There are three larval instars, and larval development is completed in 16–18 days, depending on weather conditions. Pupae are whitish and this stage lasts for 7–9 days. Total developmental

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period is 27–33 days under south Indian weather conditions. Immediately after emergence, adults are pale white with a brownish tinge and they assume black colour in 9–10 days.

Eggs

Grub

Pupa

Adult

Control: Management involves with removal and destruction of all the infested twigs/branches to avoid breeding. Immediately after pruning, it is desirable to apply an insecticide such as deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 500 mL/ha and quinalphos 25 EC at 1000 mL/ha. Direct the spray with Deltamethrin 2.8 EC at 500 mL/ha or fipronil 5% EC at 1 mL/L or quinalphos 25 EC at 1000 mL/ha reduces the borer infestation. When motorized sprayers used, the spray volume may be 300–350 L/ha and for high volume spraying the quantity of water may be increased to 450–500 L/ha. Spraying may be done in April, may, October and December. Spraying lanes will be highly useful in the application of chemicals since bush frames are the target (Radhakrishnan, 2013).

24

White Grubs: Holotrichia sp. (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae)

White grubs eat away the roots of young plants and at times they gnaw the bark of stems near the ground causing a ‘ring barking’ effect. This type of damage results in the death of plants. In the earlier stages of attack on roots, the leaves turn yellow and the plants gradually defoliate (Hazarika et al., 2009). Biology: Adults of Holotrichia are brownish in colour and the eggs are deposited in the soil. Incubation period is 12–18 days. The fleshy grubs are creamy white in colour and move actively in the soil. Normally, they are found within 15–20 cm of the top soil, though during dry weather they may migrate still further down. Larval duration is 8–10 months. Pupation takes place in an earthen cell and this period lasts for 3 months. Adult cockchafer beetles feed on the leaves of various plants and are attracted to light at night.

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Grub

Adult

Management: It involves collecting the beetles during night and destruction to avoid further infestation, digging the soil around the base of the stem to expose grubs to the natural enemies, setting up light traps (2–3 traps/ha) or bone fire to attract the beetles during evening hours for monitoring and mass trapping, spraying with quinalphos or any commercial neem-based insecticides containing azadirachtin 5% (1 mL/L)/azadirachtin 1% (3 mL/L), application of neem cake at 100 kg/acre or neem-based granules at 5 kg/acre to the soil or in severe infestation, or drenching the soil with quinalphos 25% EC at 2 mL/L at the base of the tree to kill grubs in severe infestation.

25

Termites

Termites feed on the roots and stem in all stages and cause wilting and drying. Odentotermes sp. builds cylindrical closed mounds above the ground level, whereas Microtermus obesi Holmgren constructs their nests underground. If infestation occurs in the nursery stage, it causes sudden wilting and death of the plant. Termite attack is more in dry conditions. Ancistrotermes spp. feed on crop debris and woody litter. The termites enter the roots or the collar at below ground level, and often penetrate stems and branches. Roots are completely eaten out or tunnels are made into the stem. Management involves with proper water management in reducing the termite damage in tea plantation and destruction of termite mounds in the field followed by drenching the soil with quinalphos or chlorpyriphos at 2 mL/L (Nadda et al., 2013).

26

Root Knot Nematodes: Meloidogyne javanica (Treub)

It attacks tea plants in nurseries in north-east and south India. Young nursery plants are affected and the infected roots develop knots or galls. These plants show symptoms of nutrient deficiency and have stunted growth. During gall formation

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in roots, the normal differentiation of cells into vascular tissue is blocked and the transport of water and solutes is impaired. The roots are penetrated by the infective juveniles and they migrate through the cortex to the xylem. On entry to the roots, gall formation is induced. The juveniles enlarge in size and feed on the transformed giant cells. Subsequently, they stop feeding and undergo three moults to become adults. The slender, elongate adult males leave the roots and are seen free in the soil, near the galls. Females are characterized by the narrow movable head and enlarged posterior. Egg, found in the sac like posterior is liberated into the soil. Soil used in the nursery may be heated to 60–62  C for killing the injective juveniles (Rao, 1976).

27

Mites

Mites are serious dry weather pests of tea and they damage the green tissue of leaves, thereby reducing the photosynthetic surface resulting in yield reduction. Six species of mites are commonly associated with tea in southern India. They are the pink mite, Acaphylla thea (Watt), the purple mite Calacarus carinatus (Green), pale mite Acephyllisa parindiae Keifer Eriophyidae), scarlet mite Brevipalpus australis (Tucker) (Tenuipalpidae) (Scarlet red in colour and ovate), the red spider mite Oligonychus coffeae (Nietner) (Tetranychidae) and the yellow mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Tarsonemidae). Mite infestation can be reduced greatly by following good agricultural practices. Management practices involve the use of shade and mulching to increase humidity, as mites are favoured by dry and hot weather conditions. Spraying foliage with water (or water mixed with a little soap) might be helpful in reducing mite population. Pruning greatly reduces the population of scarlet mites. Removal of alternate host plants provides food for spider mites. Use less toxic pesticides to encourage the natural enemies to reduce the mite population. In severe cases, spray dicofol 18.5% EC at 1000 mL/ha or fenazaquin 10% EC at 1000 mL/ha, propargite 57% EC at 500 mL/ha or hexythiazox 5.45% EC at 400 mL/ha or ethion 50% EC at 750 mL/ha for effective control of mite.

O. coffeae

B. australis

C. carinatus

P.latus

Leaf infestation

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Other Insect Pests

The other insect pests include the black inch worms Hyposidra talaca (Walker) and H. infixaria (Walker) (Geometridae), twig caterpillar Ectropis bhurmitra (Geometridae) and Adoxophyes honmai (Yasuda) (Tortricidae), hairy caterpillars Euproctis pseudoconspersa (Strand), Orgyia postica (Walker), Olene mendosa Hubner, Euproctis fraterna (Moore) and Somena scintillans (Walker) (Lymantriidae), bag worms Cryptothelea sp. (Psychidae), Asota caricae Fabricius (Erebidae), Attacus atlas Linnaeus (Saturniidae), Carea chlorostigma Hampson (Nolidae), Cricula trifenestrata (Helfer) (Saturniidae), Spatulifimbria castaneiceps Hampson., Parasa lepida (Cramer), Darna sp. (Limacodidae), Psalis pennatula (Fabricius) (Erebidae) and Theretra alecto (Linnaeus) (Sphingidae), leaf webber Ereboenis saturata Meyrick (Pyralidae) and Chalcocelis albiguttatus (Snellen) (Limacodidae), gross hoppers Hieroglyphus banian (Fab.) (Acrididae), Orthacris incongruens Carl, Orthacris robusta Kevan, Atractomorpha crenulata (Fabricius) and Aularches miliaris (Linnaeus) (Pyrgomorphidae), sucking insects Bagrada cruciferarum Kirkaldy (Pentatomidae), Brahmaloka sp. (Fulgoridae), Helopeltis antonii Signoret, Helopeltis bradyi Waterhouse and Lygus sp. (Miridae), Dysmicoccus sp. and Rastrococcus iceryoides (Green) (Pseudococcidae), Pinnaspis aspidistrae (Signoret), Hemiberlesia lataniae (Signoret) (Diaspididae), Hishimonus phycitis (Distant) and Penthimia compacta Walker, Empoasca onukii Matsuda and Empoasca vitis (Göthe) (Cicadellidae), Phymatostethus sp. (Cercopidae), Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis (Bouché) and Mycterothrips setiventris (Bagnall) (Thripidae), leaf eating beetle Mimela xanthorrhina Hope (Scarabaeidae), leafeating weevil Myllocerus sp. (Curculionidae), white grub Schizonycha sp. (Scarabaeidae) and the cricket Brachytrupes portentosus (Lichtenstein) (Gryllidae).

References Ananthakrishnan, N. R. (1963). Biology and control of Scirtothrips bispinosus (Bagnall). Ann. Rep. UPASI Sci. Dept. for 1962–63. Appendix, pp. 37–43. Das, G. M. (1965). Pest of tea in north east India and their control. Tocklai Experimental Station, 115p. Gupta, M., & Shanker, A. (2007). Bioefficacy of imidacloprid and acetamiprid against Nippaecoccus vastator and Toxoptera aurantii in tea. Appl Entomology, 21(2), 75–78. Hazarika, L. K., Bhuyan, M., & Hazarika, B. N. (2009). Insect pests of tea and their management. Annual Review of Entomology, 54, 267–284. Muraleedharan, N. (1983). Tea entomology: An overview. Occ. Publ., Ent. Res. Inst., Loyola College, Madras, 14p. Muraleedharan, N., & Selvasundaram, R. (1989). Life history and seasonal abundance of Apanteles aristaeus, a larval parasitoid of Cydia leucostoma, the flushworm of tea. Entomon, 14, 139–142. Nadda, G., Eswara Reddy, S. G., & Shanker, A. (2013). Insect and mite pests of tea and their management. In P. S. Ahuja, A. Gulati, & R. D. Singh (Eds.), Science of tea technology (pp. 317–333). Scientific Publishers.

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Radhakrishnan, B. (1989). Studies on the aphid, Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and its natural enemies in southern Indian tea plantations. Ph.D. thesis, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore, 154p. Radhakrishnan, B. (2013). Bio-ecology and management of tea thrips. Planters’ Chronicle, 109(1), 5–9. Rao, G. N. (1976). Control of nematodes in nursery soil. Planters’ Chronicle, 71, 257–259. Selvasundaram, R., & Muraleedharan, N. (1987). Life history and seasonal abundance of Sympiesis dolichogaster Ashmead (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) a larval parasitoid of the leaf roller. In K. J. Joseph & U. C. Abdurahiman (Eds.), Advances in biological control research in India (pp. 106–109). Calicut University, 258p. Subbiah, K. (1986). New record of Hexamermis sp. (Mermethidae: Nematoda) from the larva of Cydia leucostoma (Eucosmidae: Lepidoptera). Current Science, 55, 1047. Sudhakaran, R., & Muraleedharan, N. (2006). Biology of Helopeltis theivora (Hemiptera: Miridae) infesting tea. Entomon, 3, 165–180.

Pests and Their Management in Coffee G. V. Manjunatha Reddy, A. Roobak Kumar, B. V. Ranjeeth Kumar, and M. Dhanam

Abstract The major pests include coffee white stem borer Xylotrechus quadripes, coffee berry borer Hypothenemus hampei, shot-hole borer Xylosandrus compactus, mealybugs Planococcus citri, P. lilacinus, Dysmicoccus brevipes, and Geococcus coffeae, soft green scale Coccus viridis, coffee brown scale Saissetia coffeae, white grub Holotrichia spp., red borer Zeuzera coffeae, hairy caterpillars Eupterote mollifera and E. fabia, coffee bean beetle Araecerus fasciculatus, the root lesion nematode Pratylenchus coffeae and the snail Ariophanta solata. Management of key pests is also discussed.

1 Coffee White Stem Borer: Xylotrechus quadripes Chevrolat (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Coffee white stem borer is the most serious pest of Arabica coffee in India. The insect is considered to be one of the important pests of coffee in India. The insect causes severe damage to Arabica coffee and rarely attacks robusta coffee. Biology: The adult stem borer female lays eggs in the cracks and crevices present on the stem and thick primaries of Arabica coffee plants. The eggs are oval and milky white, and they are 1.25–1.28 mm long. The eggs hatch within 3–15 days depending on the climatic conditions. The larvae pass through five instars; the mature larva is yellow in colour with dark brown head capsule. The grub stage lasts up to 10 months. Pupa is pale yellow in colour with free appendages. Pupation period lasts for about 30 days after which adult beetle emerge out. There are two peak flight periods (Emergence season of adults, i.e., one during April and May, and the other from October to December). However, emergence of beetles in small numbers during other months is also possible, except during the monsoon season (Reddy & Bhat, 1987). The adult is slender and black with characteristic white markings. Male is smaller in size compared to female. Depending on the size and age

G. V. M. Reddy (*) · A. R. Kumar · B. V. R. Kumar · M. Dhanam Central Coffee Research Institute, Chikmagalur, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_65

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of the plants, the life cycle can vary from 142 to 390 days in the field (Veeresh, 1993; Seetharama et al., 2005). Damage: Larvae enter into the hardwood and make the tunnels may extend even into the roots. Tunnels are tightly filed with the excreta of the grubs. Infested plants show visible ridges around the stem. Such plants may also exhibit signs like yellowing and wilting of leaves when severely infested. The young plants (7–8 years old) attacked by the borer may die in a year, while older plants withstand the attack for a few seasons. However, such plants are less productive and will become the source for further spread of the pest to new plants. Conditions like very low rainfall, improper shade, highly defoliated plants due to leaf rust, exhaustion of plants due to heavy cropping, etc. are ideal for stem borer infestation. Cloudy and wet weather during the flight periods is detrimental to the activity of the adult borer. In plantations situated in low elevation and low rainfall areas, and also when the north-east monsoon fails, conditions become favourable for the breeding and multiplication of the pest.

Stem borer infested plant

Adult beetle

Natural enemies: They include the parasitoids Apenesia sahyadrica, Sclerodermus vigilans, Allorhogas pallidiceps, Campyloneurus sp., Dorcyctes compactus, Dorcyctes coxalis, Iphiaulax sp., Avetinella sp., Eurytoma sp. and fungal pathogens Aspergillus tamarii and Beauveria bassiana. The use of biological control agents was less effective because of the immature stages of CWSB are enclosed in the tunnel of coffee stems. However, augmentative field releases of laboratory-reared Apenesia sahyadrica in the field caused 20–100% parasitization of stem borer larvae (Seetharama et al., 2008). Management: It involves providing optimum shade with Erythrina spp. to the coffee plants, removal of the loose bark (Scrubbing) of the main stem and thick primaries using coir glove or coconut husk to kill the eggs and grubs present in the bark region, spraying of 10% lime solution (20 kg spray lime + 200 mL sticking agent in 200 L of water) on the main stem and thick primaries just before the flight period or hot spot sprays with chlorpyrifos 20 EC at 3 mL/L of water along with any wetting agent just prior to the flight periods or during the early part of the flight period (Venkatesha & Seetharama, 1999), installing pheromone traps (2-hydroxy-3-

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decanone) at 25 traps/ha, which have proved to be very useful to reduce the borer incidence (Hall et al., 2006). Application of first spray in the first week of April, second spray in the first week of October and third spray in the last week of October, with the maximum control observed in chlorpyriphos 20 EC + azadirachtin 1% EC at 3 mL + 1 mL, is very useful to control the stem borer (Manikandan et al., 2019).

A. sahyadrica y

Grubs

Allorhogas g pallidiceps p p

Adults

Adult

2 Coffee Berry Borer: Hypothenemus hampei (Ferrari) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) The coffee berry borer was first noticed in India during 1990 in the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu (Vinod Kumar et al., 1990), and now, it is prevalent in coffee in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu and has not spread to Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and NorthEastern India. Robusta fruits are likely to have more infestation than Arabica as the robusta fruits ripen slowly and remain for a longer period on the field.

Adult

Grub

Beetle entering the bean

Berry damage

Biology: The female beetle lays about 30–50 eggs. Eggs elongate oval, translucent white laid inside ripe berries. Eggs hatch in about 10 days. Larvae are creamy white, legless. They feed on the beans, making small tunnels. Larval development is completed in about 20 days. Pupae are exarate and the pupal period is about a week. Development from egg to adult takes about 1 month. The adult berry borer is a small black beetle with a sub-cylindrical body covered with thick hairs. The ratio of female to male is approximately 10:1. Mating takes place inside the berries. Though females are capable of short distance flight, dispersal is mainly through wind currents. Males

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cannot fly. Female beetles may take shelter in the seeds of a variety of plants like Crotalaria, Lantana, Maesopsis, tea, etc., without feeding and breeding. The short life cycle enables the pest to complete several generations in a year in quick succession under favourable conditions (Sreedharan et al., 1994). Natural enemies: The parasitoid Cephalonomia stephanoderis was introduced from Mexico and Columbia in 1955. It was multiplied and released in the field. Though field recovery has been achieved from release and non-release sites, the impact is very poor (Anonymous, 2014). The fungal pathogen Beauveria bassiana has been found to be a good control agent for the management of the coffee berry borer (Balakrishnan et al., 1994). B. bassiana required only 8 days to colonize and kill the H. hampei. Spray of B. bassiana spore suspension at 1  107 spores/mL containing 0.1% sunflower oil and 0.1% wetting agent reduces 50–60% berry borer. Damage: The female beetle bores into the berries through the navel region. A typical pin hole at the tip of the berries (navel region) indicates the presence of the pest. In case of severe infestation, two or more holes may be seen, either on the navel or on the sides of the fruit. A powdery substance, pushed out through the holes, reveals the active tunnelling and feeding within the beans. Minute tunnels, often with a bluish tint, are seen in infested parchment. The pest damages young as well as ripe berries. Infested tender berries may fall due to injury or secondary infection by fungus or decay due to rain water entering the tunnel. Breeding occurs in developed berries from the time the bean becomes hard and continues in the ripe and over-ripe berries either on the plant or on the ground. In case of severe infestation, 30–80% of the berries may be attacked, resulting in heavy crop loss up to 80%. The beetles in the leftover berries after harvest, either on the plant or those fallen on the ground, can survive for more than 5 months. This enables the pest to carry over from one season’s crop to the next. Population of beetle increases during August, reaches the peak in September/October and starts declining from December onwards. Management: In November 1992, the pest act was invoked by the Government of India restricting movement of coffee from infested areas to uninfested areas. The rule is still in force with regard to seed supply to non-traditional areas and N.E. region. Proper adoption of cultural and phyto-sanitary measures is foremost in the management of coffee berry borer. As the pest breeds only in coffee, a considerably longer period without berries in the field will reduce the carryover of inoculum. Timely harvest is very important. No berries should be left over, either on the plant or on the ground. Dipping infested berries in boiling water for 1–2 min kills all the stages inside. After dipping in boiling water, the coffee may be dried as usual on the drying yards. Beetles could be attracted and trapped using alcohol-based traps. Hen traps are installed during the post-harvest period, and 25 traps were recommended per hectare. Chlorpyrifos 20 EC at the dosage 3 mL/L along with 1 mL wetting agent is very effective and can be used for hot spot spray. Spray application of quinalphos 0.0125% is suggested. The timing of the spray is very critical and so for getting good control the spray should be given when most of the beetles are still at the tip of the navel region of the fruit before entering in to the beans. This usually occurs about 120–150 days after blossom (Balakrishnan et al., 2001). Another interesting method is use of broca traps—a funnel or bottle trap with

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the lure, a combination of methyl and ethyl alcohol (1:1), set up in the plantations to trap beetles escaping from the gleanings and left over fruits, with 67 traps/ha.

3 Shot-Hole Borer: Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff) (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) It is commonly called as shot-hole borer or black twig borer and is a serious pest on robusta coffee and to some extent on Arabica (Venkataramaiah & Sekhar, 1964). Biology: Main factor that favours the development of shot hole borer is high humidity and rains without break in south-west monsoon in south Indian conditions which is a favourable condition for fungal growth also. Adult beetle is brown to black with a short, sub cylindrical body. Females are darker and larger, whereas males are dull and small, without functional wings. Female beetle bores into the bark of tertiary branches and suckers and lays up to 50 eggs. Eggs hatch in 2–3 days, grub period is 13–20 days. The grub feeds on ambrosia fungus, a fungal growth developed in the tunnel. Grubs pupate as cocoons within the tunnel. Pupal period is about 11 days and the lifecycle is completed in about 4–5 weeks. The short life cycle enables the pest to complete several generations in quick successions (Ngoan et al., 1976).

Colony inside twig

Plant damage

Adult

Damage: Heavy shade, poor drainage, retention of unwanted shoots and suckers on coffee plants by improper pruning are the factors favouring the pest incidence. Adult female mainly attacks seedlings, shoots, small twigs and suckers. Small holes can be seen on the under surface of young succulent branches between nodes. Attacked branches dry up. Leaves above the point of attack fall prematurely. Terminal leaves droop and dry. Withering is faster in young branches and delayed in older twigs. Severe infestation results in the loss of productive branches. Due to the loss of primaries, establishment of young plantations is delayed. The incidence is low before the onset of southwest monsoon, reaches peak from September to January and gradually declines during the dry period. There is symbiotic relationship between ambrosia fungus and beetles, the fungus weakens the wood, facilitating the excavation of the tunnel by developing larvae, and beetle avoids the attack of the defence mechanisms present in the phloem (Batra, 1967). Natural enemies: Several natural enemies of the shot-hole borer have been recorded from India and elsewhere. Parasites Tetrastichus xylebororum and

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Pyemotes herfsii, predators Callimerus sp., Eupelmus sp. and Asynapta sp. and the fungus Beauveria bassiana are known to attack shot-hole borer. Management: It involves with maintaining thin shade, good drainage and pruning of the affected twigs 2–3 in. beyond the shot hole from September onwards. Spraying of systemic fungicide propiconazole 20 EC during August and September at 1 mL/L of water to kill the fungus on which the larvae of the shot-hole borer feed, is able to gives indirect control.

4 Areal Mealybugs: Planococcus citri Risso and P. lilacinus Ckll. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) The mealybugs Planococcus citri and P. lilacinus are distributed throughout the coffee tracts of India and can be noticed quite often during the summer months. Biology: Mealy bugs are small, soft bodied insects. Adult female is wingless; the oval body is clothed with a mealy secretion. Males are rare, smaller and winged. Reproduction is mainly parthenogenetic. Each female is capable of laying about 1000 eggs. P. citri lays eggs in an ovisac of fine wax filaments. Eggs hatch in about 10 days. P. lilacinus does not possess an ovisac and the eggs hatch within a few minutes after they are laid. The first instar nymphs crawl away, settle in a place for feeding and secrete the mealy covering over the body. The nymphs are disseminated by wind also. There are three nymphal instars for females. The male nymph forms a white cocoon after the second instar and transforms into a winged adult. Life cycle is completed in about a month.

P citri with ovisac

Mealybug damage

P. lilacinus

Damage: Heavy infestation of mealybugs (P. citri) around the floral buds leads to deformity of the flowers and also sometimes total arrest of the blossom process. The mealybugs can be usually seen infesting the tender twigs, fruits and leaves. They suck the sap leading to debilitation of the plant and crop loss. Crop loss can be enormous depending upon the level of infestation. Heavy infestation leads to development of fungus, Capnodium sp., on the honey dew excreted by the mealybugs which forms a black coating on the surface of the leaves. This can hinder the photosynthesis process as well as raise the surface temperature of the leaves. Sometimes the infestation is on the roots leading to serious damage to young seedlings in the field. This mealybug is very destructive to the roots of young plants.

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Seasonal development: Mealybug population increases if warm and humid conditions prevail. Continuous monsoon, high humidity and low temperatures are detrimental to mealybug development. The migration of mealybugs starts in September/October from the ground to the aerial parts of the coffee plant along the main stem. The attack of mealybugs becomes severe during summer and with intermittent showers/irrigation. Two peaks were in February–March and January– March; there was a positive correlation between maximum temperature and adults and nymphs and a negative correlation with relative humidity and nymphs. Ant association with mealybugs: Mealybugs produce honeydew, a sweet excretory product, to which ants are attracted. Ants provide mealybugs’ sanitation and protection from natural enemies. The ants feed on the honeydew and act as clearing agents. The common ants found in association with the mealybugs are Crematogaster sp., Anaplolepis longipes, Myrmica brunnea, Plagiolepis sp., Paratrechina longicornis, Camponotus rufogalaucus, Anoplolepis gracilipes, Tapinoma melanocephalum, Oecophylla smaragdina, Acropyga sp., Technomyrmex albipes, Solenopsis geminata and Monomorium sp. Ant control aids to tackle any mealybug on coffee. Natural enemies: Naturally occurring predators and parasitoids play a major role in the suppression of foliage mealybugs if they are not disturbed. On Planococcus citri, the parasitoids on Planococcus citri include Alamella flava, Aprostocerus purpureus, Anagyrus agraensis, Anagyrus inopus, Cryptochetum sp., Leptomastix nigrocoxalis, Prochiloneurus sp. and Coccidoxenoides perminutus are known to parasitize in coffee ecosystem in India and the predators include Spalgis epeus, Cryptochaetus sp., Dicrodiplosis sp., Pseudoscymnus pallidicollis, Pullus pallidicollis, Spalgis epeus and Domomyza perspicax. On Planococcus lilacinus, the parasitoids are Anagyrus sp., Apenteles sauros, Gonatocerus sp., Gyranusoidea sp., Alamella flava, Tetracnemoidea india, and Leptacis sp. and the predators are Dicrodiplosis sp., Hyperaspis maindroni, Leucopis luteicornis, Pullus pallidicollis, Scymnus severini, Spalgis epeus, Brumiodes suturalis, Horniolus vietnamicus and Pseudoscymnus pallidicollis. Management: It starts with the control of ants and the removal of alternate host plants. Control of mealybugs on coffee using insecticides is to control the mealybugs on coffee. In the case of severe incidence, quinalphos 20 EC at 300 mL in 200 L of water plus 200 mL of any wetting agent is recommended as hot spot application and not as a blanket spray (Prakasan et al., 1992). Imidacloprid at 0.01% is also known to cause 94% mortality of P. lilacinus on coffee after 21 days of spraying in India (2000). Several indigenous natural enemies on their own are capable of keeping the mealybug population in check. This is particularly true in the case of P. lilacinus, the dipterans Triommata coccidivora Felt are able to suppress the mealybug population up to 96% (Prakasan et al., 1992). In India, severe infestations of mealybugs (Planococcus spp.) occurred in many estates in South Wayanad, Kerala. At Shevaroy hills, adults and grubs of C. montrouzieri were seen on San Ramon hybrid coffee where mealybug infestation was virtually cleaned up (Chacko, 1979). A release rate of five beetles per mealybug-infested Robusta coffee, three beetles per Arabica coffee and two beetles per San-ram Coffee plants has been recommended to

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control the coffee mealybugs in India (Singh, 1978). Leptomastix dactylopii, a parasitoid of P. citri, was introduced into India during 1983 from Trinidad through the then Project Directorate of Biological Control, now the National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects, Bangalore. A total of 15,000 Leptomastix parasitoids were released at 11 locations in Kodagu district having mixed plantations of coffee with oranges against P. citri. The parasitoid has established within 2 months of release. Parasitism reached as much as 100% in some colonies (Nagarkatti et al., 1992). The parasitoid L. dactylopii has established in the robusta coffee fields in the Wayanad district of Kerala state, and is bringing about appreciable reduction in the population of the mealybugs (Abdul Rahiman & Naik, 2009).

5 Root Mealybugs: Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell), Geococcus coffeae Green and Planococcus citri (Risso) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) and Xenococcus annandalei Silvestri (Rhizoecidae) Dysmicoccus brevipes and Geococcus coffeae are the root mealybugs found below the soil surface, and feed on root, basal stem touching the soil and root hairs of plants (Najitha, 2016; Rao et al., 1974). The obligate myrmecophilus root mealy bug Xenococcus annandalei Silvestri (Rhizoecidae: Hemiptera) is also known to attack coffee plants in Kerala. Yellowing followed by wilting is the general symptom observed on these plants. On severe infestation the infested plants were completely dried. In areas where replanting is taken up, the roots of the young coffee plants are usually observed to be infested by the mealybug Planococcus citri leading to debility of the plants, with the plants exhibiting stunted growth and yellowing of leaves. The roots are sometimes encrusted with mycelia of a fungus, Diacanthodes sp., in association with the mealybugs. The mealybugs are visible beneath the fungus when the encrustation is peeled away (Chacko & Sreedharan, 1981). White, cottony-like masses containing egg-laying females and/or eggs are normally visible on the outside of the root mass when an infested plant is lifted. Slow plant growth and leaf deterioration are the symptoms of mealybug infestation. The mealybugs are found particularly the new feeder roots in the upper layer of the soil. The resulting damage stifles the ability of roots to absorb water and nutrients. The only outward sign of root mealybug feeding may be a decline in the health of infested plants. Soil drenching with imidacloprid 0.0125%, chlorpyriphos 0.075%, acetamiprid 0.0125% and carbosulfan 0.075% or dimethoate 30 EC at 3 mL/L helps to reduce the root mealybugs in coffee estates.

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6 Soft Green Scale: Coccus viridis (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) The green scale is a serious sucking pest of coffee, particularly Arabica. Biology: The adult female is shiny pale green with a conspicuous black, irregular U-shaped internal marking that is dorsally visible. Reproduction is parthenogenetic. Each female can produce up to 600 progenies. The nymphs develop when the eggs are inside the body, and hatch out at the time or immediately after extrusion. Nymphs are pale yellow. There are three nymphal instars with a total duration of 4–6 weeks. Nymphs are disseminated on their own, or through wind. The green scale is a summer pest, proliferating during hot dry weather. The insect sucks sap form the tender parts, congregating down on the under surface of leaves close to the midrib and veins, on the green shoots, spikes and berries. Heavy loss of the sap causes debility or even death of the plant. The infested leaves may curl up and tender twigs droop. The honeydew excreted by the scale forms a layer on the leaves and acts as a medium for the growth of the ‘sooty mould’. This hinders photosynthesis, thereby weakening the plant (Reddy et al., 2011).

Coccus viridis

Berry damage Leaf damage

Natural enemies: Several parasitoids, predators and a few fungal pathogens attack the green scale. Of these, the parasitoids Coccophagus bogoriensis and C. cowperi and the pathogenic fungi Lecanicillium lecanii and Empusa lecanii exert a great degree of control of the pest. The white fungus L. lecanii makes its appearance early during the South-West monsoon and continues to be active during the humid months. Infected scales turn pale yellow, and the fungus forms a white halo around the bug in course of time. Management: It starts with the collection and destruction of scale. In Kodai Hills, application of L. lecaniii at 16  106 spores/mL is known to cause mortality of the green scale infesting coffee up to 96% (Easwaramoorthy & Jayaraj, 1978). In case of severe infestation, spraying the affected patches with either quinalphos 0.05% or dimethoate 0.05% at 0.85 mL/L of water is useful to control the scales. An epizootics of entomo-fungal infection of C. viridis by Paecilomyces lilacinus resulted in 100% mortality of the pest.

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7 Coffee Brown Scale: Saissetia coffeae (Walker) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) Biology: The adult female is hemispherical and its body is covered by a brown hard shield. Each female lays about 1800 eggs under the body. When the eggs are all extruded, the abdomen of the scale shrinks, leaving only the shell to protect the eggs. The eggs are pale pink and hatch in 9–12 days. The nymphs are yellow, greenishbrown or dark pink, flat and oval. Half-grown scales show an ‘H’-shaped yellow mark which disappears in the adult stage. There are three nymphal instars for the female, with a total duration of about a month. The male forms a cocoon after the second moult and become a winged adult. The nymphs are mobile and the adults sedentary. The life history follows the same lines as those of green scale in general. The pest is active during summer months (Reddy et al., 2011).

Shoot damage

Nymph

Female scale

Damage: Hemispherical scales are found clustered on the shoots, leaves, and young fruit of plants. They are often arranged in an irregular line near the edge of the leaf blade. The scale insects suck the sap from the plant parts. Symptoms of damage include the spots on the foliage due to toxins in the scale saliva, deformation of infested plant parts, and development of sooty mould fungus loss of leaves, retarded plant growth, and even death of the plant. Natural enemies: A predatory cecidomyiid, Dicrodiplosis sp., the parasitoids, Coccophagus cowperi and the fungus Lenticilium lecanii often keep the brown scale populations under check. Management: Spray the affected patches with quinalphos 25 EC at 1.5 mL/L of water control ants as in the case of mealy bugs. Remove and burn weeds harbouring the pest.

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8 White Grubs: Holotrichia spp. (Coleoptera: Melolonthidae) The grubs feed on roots of many plants. Adult cockchafers are reddish brown beetles. They feed on leaves of crop plants or forest trees and are attracted to light in the night. The adults emerge from March to June after the first summer shower. After mating, female beetle lays eggs in the soil near the root zone. A single female can lay 60–80 eggs. Eggs hatch in 8–10 days. The hatched out grub is creamy white. It feeds on the roots of coffee seedlings and grown up plants. The grub stage lasts for about 6 months. The full grown grub is dirty white with dark brown head. It goes deep into the soil for pupation. The pupal period lasts for 3–4 months. Damage: Grown up coffee plants normally withstand the attack. The young plants (1–5 years old) attacked by white grubs show yellowing of leaves and stunted growth. Such plants will wilt and die in summer period. Attacked plants can be easily pulled out as they are left with only the tap root. Management: In white grub-infested areas, incorporate 5 g of phorate 10G into the soil in the pit at the time of planting. Management also involves with collection and killing of the grubs encountered while taking up digging and other farm operations and installing light traps after the first summer showers during March to June and kill the trapped adults.

9 Red Borer: Zeuzera (=Polyphagozerra) coffeae Nietner (Lepidoptera: Cossidae) Red borer is a minor pest of Arabica and robusta coffee which bores into the young stem. Biology: The adult of red borer is a medium-sized moth with steel blue or black spots on dirty white wings. Eggs are laid in strings on the bark of the tree. Incubation period is 8–12 days. The larva is orange red smooth caterpillar with black head, prothroax, and hence the name red borer. After entering through the junction of leaf stalk and twig, the larva constructs a tunnel which may, in young plants, even extend to the roots. Pupation takes place inside the bore hole. Larval and pupal stages together last for about 12–24 months. After the moth emergence, the pupal skin protrudes outside through the exit hole.

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Zeuzera coffeae

Adult

Larva

Damage: The larva causes damage by boring the stem or branches to feed on the wood. In early stages of attack, young plants/branches usually show signs of wilting. The infested part usually bears one or two holes through which the pellet-like excrement of the larva hangs out and accumulates at the base of the plant. In advanced cases, the branch or the whole plant dries up. Management: When red borer attack occurs, affected twig should be cut and burnt.

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Hairy Caterpillars: Eupterote mollifera Walker (=Eupterote canaraica Moore) and E. fabia Cramer (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae)

Caterpillars feed on leaves of Arabica coffee and cause severe damage by defoliating the plants. Badly affected plants take 2–3 years to recover. Caterpillar is pale yellow colour. Adult is brownish yellow moth, two diagonal bands and zigzag lines on the wings. Male is smaller than the female. Management involves with collection and killing of the caterpillars and pupae from January to May, installing light traps (June/ July) and spraying with quinalphos 25 EC at 320 mL, along with 100 mL of an agricultural wetting agent in 200 L of water.

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Coffee Bean Beetle: Araecerus fasciculatus (De Geer) (Coleoptera: Anthribidae)

The coffee been beetle is a pest of coffee berries in the field and of beans in storage. Infested coffee beans show circular holes (bigger than made by the coffee berry borer). Attacked fruits in the field shrink and become black. Infestation results in loss of weight increase in triage and reduction of market value. Adult is pale grey with black spots and the entire body clothed of fine hair; Forewings with few longitudinal lines. Wings do not cover the tip of the abdomen. Management involves with

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maintain optimum temperature, relative humidity and moisture content (less than 8%) in the storage room, Impregnation of the gunny bags with a mixture of malathion 50 EC at 10 mL + pyrethrum colloid at 2 g/L of water.

Adult

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Damaged coffee beans

Root Lesion Nematode: Pratylenchus coffeae (Zimmermann) (Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae)

There are several species of nematodes attacking coffee. Of these, the root lesion nematode, Pratylenchus coffeae has been found to be highly destructive to Arabica coffee. Robusta is tolerant to the attack of this nematode. P. coffeae lays eggs in the root lesions. Development from egg to adult takes about a month. All stages of the nematode are attracted by the young and vigorously growing roots but only the second stage juveniles enter the roots. P. coffeae causes ‘juvenile foot-rot’ of young Arabica plants and dieback or spreading decline of bearing plants. Affected bearing plants show thinner main stem. Leaves on the branch become yellow and drop during August/September. Nematodes feed and destroy the cortical parenchyma cells of the tap root, secondary roots and feeder roots impairing water and nutrient absorption. Affected plants have a tendency to put forth adventitious roots at the collar region during rainy season. Such plants have loose anchorage and could be easily dislodged. Affected old plants lack secondary and tertiary roots. Higher population is noticed during the months of July, August and September when there is heavy rainfall and increased root activity. The population declines form December to March. Management involves with digging up the soil to the sun during summer, drenching the seedlings in the nursery bags with carbosulfan 25 EC at the rate of 2.4 mL/L of water.

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Snail: Ariophanta solata (Benson) (Gastropoda: Ariophantidae)

Adult is a medium-sized snail, long and covered with a cream coloured spiral shell. The snail feeds on the leaves of Arabica coffee and bark of tender braches and fruits. Management involves the application of fish manure may attract snails, hand picking of the snails and dipping in hot water or salt solution, using heaps of leaves to trap the snails, broadcasting of the poison bait ‘snail kill’ (metaldehyde) of 25–35 kg/ha and spreading of lime, soot and wood ash repels snails.

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Other Insect and Mite Pests

The other mealybugs infesting coffee include Coccidohystrix insolita (Green), Crisicoccus hirsutus (Newstead) India, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell), Dysmicoccus debregeasiae (Green), Dysmicoccus subterreus Williams, Formicococcus robustus (Ezzat & McConnell), Maconellicoccus hirsutus (Green), Paracoccus cognatus Williams, Paraputo sp., Planococcus angkorensis (Takahashi), Planococcus minor (Maskell), Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, Planococcus ficus Signoret and Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Pseudococcidae). The larvae of Agrotis segetum (Schiffermuller) (Noctuidae) and the flush worm Homona coffearia Nietner (Tortricidae) attack the leaves. The aphid Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe) infests tender shoots. The leaf is mined by the maggots of the fly Melanagromyza coffeae Hering (Agromyzidae). The tender leaf is sometimes damaged by the thrip Scirtothrips ispinosus (Bagnall). The other pests include Stromatium barbatum (Fabricius) (Cerambycidae), Euproctis fraterna (Moore), Somena scintillans (Walker) and Olene mendosa Hubner (Lymantriidae), Neostauropus alternus Walker (Notodontidae), Ischnaspis longirostris (Signoret) (Diaspididae), Insignorthezia insignis (Browne) (Ortheziidae), Euwallacea fornicatus (Eichhoff) (Scolytidae), Eumeta crameri (Westwood) (Psychidae), Darna sp. (Limacodidae), Aloa lactinea (Cramer) and Creatonotos gangis (Linnaeus) (Erebidae), Coccus hesperidum Linnaeus (Coccidae), Clinteria imperialis truncata Arrow (Scarabaeidae), Ceroplastes ceriferus (Fabricius) (Coccidae), Cephonodes hylas (Linnaeus) (Sphingidae), Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel (Tripetidae), Aularches miliaris (Linnaeus) (Pyrgomorphidae), Archips micaceana (Walker) (Tortricidae), Antestiopsis cruciata (Fabricius) (Pentatomidae), Aleurocanthus woglumi Ashby (Aleyrodidae), Pulvinaria polygonata Cockerell (Coccidae), Parasa lepida (Cramer) (Limacodidae) and the mite Oligonychus coffeae Nietner (Tetranychidae).

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References Abdul Rahiman, P., & Naik, P. R. (2009). Field performance of mealy bug parasitoid Leptomastix dactylopii (How.) in coffee ecosystem of Wayanad district in Kerala. Journal of Coffee Research, 37(1–2), 10–15. Anonymous. (2014). Coffee guide (pp. 116–119). Central Coffee Research Institute, Coffee Board Research Department. Balakrishnan, M. M., Sreedharan, K., & Bhat, P. K. (1994). Occurrence of the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana on certain coffee pests in India. Journal of Coffee Research, 24, 33–35. Balakrishnan, M. M., Abhayan, K. J., & Sreedharan, K. (2001). Comparative efficacy of endosulfan 35 EC and chlorpyrifos 20 EC against coffee berry borer. Journal of Coffee Research, 29, 78–80. Batra, L. R. (1967). Ambrosia fungi: A taxonomic revision and nutritional studies of some species. Mycologia, 59, 976–1017. Chacko, M. J. (1979). The recovery of Cryptolaemus montrouzieri on the Shevaroy hills. Journal of Coffee Research, 9(3), 80–81. Chacko, M. J., & Sreedharan, K. (1981). Control of Planococcus lilacinus and Diacanthodes sp. associated with coffee roots. Journal of Coffee Research, 11(3), 76–80. Easwaramoorthy, E., & Jayaraj, S. (1978). Effectiveness of the white halo fungus, Cephalosporium lecanii against field populations of coffee green bug, Coccus viridis. Journal of Invertebrate Pathology, 32(1), 88–96. Hall, D. R., Cork, A., Phythian, S. J., Chittamuru, S., Jayarama, B. K., Venkatesha, M. G., Sreedharan, K., Kumar, P. K. V., Seetharama, H. G., & Naidu, R. (2006). Identification of components of male-produced pheromone of coffee white stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 32(1), 195–219. Manikandan, K. R., Muthuswami, M., Chitra, N., & Ananthan, M. (2019). Management of coffee white stem borer Xylotrechus quadripes (Chevrolat, 1863) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) in the lower Pulney Hills, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 8(6), 1703–1713. Nagarkatti, S., Singh, S. P., Jayanth, K. P., & Bhusmannavar, B. S. (1992). Introduction and establishment of Leptomastix dactylopii How. against Planococcus species in India. Indian Journal of Plant Protection, 19, 102–104. Najitha, U. (2016). Bionomics and management of root mealybugs on black pepper. Ph.D. thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur, India, 124p. Ngoan, N. D., Wilkinson, R. C., Short, D. E., Moses, C. S., & Mangold, J. R. (1976). Biology of an introduced ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus compactus, in Florida. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 69, 872–876. Prakasan, C. B., Vinod Kumar, P. K., & Balakrishnan, M. M. (1992). Biological suppression of the mealy bug Planococcus lilacinus Cockerell (Homoptera: Pseudococcidae) on coffee by Triommata coccidivora (Felt) (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae). PLACROSYM, IX, 140–141. Rao, P. V. S., Rangararan, A. V., & Basha, A. A. (1974). Record of new host plants for some important crop pests in Tamil Nadu. Indian Journal of Entomology, 38, 227–228. Reddy, G. V. M., Uma, M. S., & Kumar, P. K. V. (2011). Summer pests of coffee and their management. Indian Coffee, LXXV(1–2), 26–28. Reddy, K. B., & Bhat, P. K. (1987). Studies on the flight periods of coffee white stem-borer, Xylotrechus quadripes Chev. in Pulney and Shevaroy hills. Journal of Coffee Research, 17, 26–30. Seetharama, H. G., Kumar, P. K. V., Sreedharan, K., & Vasudev, V. (2008). Field release of Apenesia sahyadrica against coffee white stem borer. Journal of Coffee Research, 36, 57–59. Seetharama, H. G., Vasudev, V., Kumar, P. K. V., & Sreedharan, K. (2005). Biology of coffee white stem borer Xylotrechus quadripes Chev. (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). Journal of Coffee Research, 33, 98–107.

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Singh, S. P. (1978). Propagation of a coccinellid beetle for the biological control of citrus and coffee mealybugs. In Scientific Conference, CPA, December 1978, 2p. Sreedharan, K., Balakrishnan, M. M., Prakasan, C. B., Bhat, P. K., & Naidu, R. (1994). Bioecology and management of coffee berry borer [Hypothenemus hampei]. Indian Coffee, 58, 5–13. Veeresh, G. K. (1993). Bioecology and management of coffee white stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes Chevr. University of Agricultural Sciences, 56p. Venkataramaiah, G., & Sekhar, P. (1964). Preliminary studies on the control of the shot hole borer, Xylosandrus compactus (Eichhoff), Xyleborus morstatti (HGDN). Indian Coffee, 28, 208–210. Venkatesha, M. G., & Seetharama, H. G. (1999). Incidence of coffee white stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes (Chevr.) (Coleoptera : Cerambycidae) on teak, Tectona grandis L. Pest Management in Horticultural Ecosystems, 5(2), 142–144. Vinod Kumar, P. K., Prakasan, C. B., & Vijayalakshmi, C. K. (1990). Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei (Coleoptera: Scolytidae): First record from India. Journal of Coffee Research, 20(2), 161–164.

Pests and Their Management in Arecanut Chandrika Mohan, A. Josephrajkumar, Shivaji H. Thube, E. K. Saneera, and Rajkumar

Abstract More than 90 species of insect and non-insect pests are reported from arecanut. The major insect pests of arecanut include the spindle bug Mircarvalhoia (¼Carvalhoia) arecae, inflorescence caterpillar Tirathaba mundella, brown marmorated stink bug Halyomorpha marmorea, root grubs Leucopholis burmeisteri and Leucopholis lepidophora. Minor insects include oriental yellow scale Aonidiella orientalis, mussel scale Ischnaspis longinostris, soft Cerplastes rubens, cottony cushion scale Icerya aegyptiaca, mealybugs Dysmicoccus brevipes, Paracoccus marginatus, Pseudococcus cryptus and Dysmicoccus finitimus, stem weevils Diocalandra stigmaticollis and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus, aphid Cerataphis brasiliensis and the whitefly Aleurocanthus arecae. Storage pests include arecanut beetle Caccotrypes carpophagus, coffee bean weevil Araecerus fasciculatus, cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne and rice moth Corcyra cephalonica. Non-insect pests include white mite Oligonychus indicus, red mite Raoiella indica, burrowing nematode Radopholus similis, lesser bandicoot Bandicota bengalensis and palm rat Rattus rattus. Various methods of management of key pests of arecanut are also discussed.

C. Mohan (*) · A. Josephrajkumar ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Kayankulam, Kerala, India S. H. Thube · E. K. Saneera ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Regional Station, Vittal, Karnataka, India Rajkumar ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kasaragod, Kerala, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_66

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1 Spindle Bug: Mircarvalhoia (=Carvalhoia) arecae Miller and China (Hemiptera: Miridae) The arecanut spindle bug M. arecae is considered as an endemic species of southern India. The miridbug is known to cause up to 80% damage to spindle (Kantharaju et al., 2011; Yeshwanth & Prathapan, 2014). Biology: Eggs are laid singly between the leaflets of the spindle. The incubation period ranged from 10 to 12 days. Nymphs are light violet brown, greenish yellow with border of the body. There are five nymphal stages. The total nymphal duration of the bug ranged from 22 to 28 days. The light violet brown nymphs have greenish yellow border. Adults are bright red and black coloured. The bug completes its life cycle in 30–39 days. The pre-oviposition and oviposition periods occupy 3 and 2 days, respectively. The bug has the fecundity rate of 10–18 eggs. The adult male and female live for 20 and 25 days (Kantharaju et al., 2011). Damage: The peak incidence of the pest is from June to October with maximum population in August and September. Both nymphs and adults hiding in leaf axils suck the sap from the emerging spindle and tender leaflets. Fresh feeding marks appear as watery streaks on the infested leaflets and spindle. These linear lesions turn brown and become necrotic resulting in small shot holes. As a result of feeding, the spindle often dries and fails to open. Complete decay and death of the spindle during rainy season is also noticed. In severe cases, the leaves are shredded and palm becomes stunted persistent incidence of this pest would be detrimental to the general health and longevity of palm. Seedling and young palms under such condition may die (Nair, 1964). Management: Spraying fish oil rosin soap (1 kg in 80 L of water) and quinalphos (1 mL in 1 L of water) are found effective in the suppression of the pest (Kantharaju et al., 2009). Periodical removal of dried and diseased leaflets, regulation of shade in the garden and placement of thiamethoxam 25 WG of (2 g) in perforated polysachets in the inner most two leaf axils of areca palms during April–May or spraying with thiamethoxam 25 WG (0.25 g/L water) in and around the spindle and inner whorl of leaves is also recommended (Prathibha & Thube, 2018).

Mircarvalhoia arecae

Nymphs feeding on spindle leaf

Nymph

Adult

Damage symptom on unfurled leaf

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2 Root Grubs: Leucopholis burmeisteri Brenske and L. lepidophora Blanch (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) White grubs associated with arecanut-based cropping system in India encompass three closely related species of genus Leucopholis, viz. L. burmeisteri, L. lepidophora and L. coneophora. L. burmeisteri and L. lepidophora are known as arecanut white grubs, and have biennial life cycle. L. coneophora was observed in coconut system 200 msl (Prathibha & Thube, 2018). Leucopholis burmeisteri: L. burmeisteriis one of the key pests of areca palms in Karnataka. Life cycle is complex, and takes 2 years to complete its life cycle. Mating takes place immediately after emergence and eggs are laid by a female at 5–10 cm depth in the soil. Eggs hatch in 12–15 days. There are three larval instars completing 30–40, 35–60 and 400+ days, respectively. The grubs feeding on roots of arecanut are active up to April–May. The pupation takes place in soil in cocoons prepared with mud. The pre-pupal stage is 25–30 days. Pupation takes place in the soil at a depth of 45–50 cm and the pupal period is 10–12 days. The adults emerge after a couple of rains in May–June and emergence takes place around 6 p.m. Adult beetle is chestnut brown in colour. Adult longevity is 20–45 days (Veeresh et al., 1982).

Life stages of Leucopholis burmeisteri

Eggs

Grub

Pupa

Adult

Leucopholis lepidophora: L. lepidophora is the predominant species present in arecanut cultivated in hill tracts and along Western Ghats areas of Karnataka and Maharashtra (Theurkar et al., 2012; Kalleshwaraswamy et al., 2015). Adult basic colour black, body covered with flat oval and white scales; adults are more oval and robust. Adults emerge during the first week of August, i.e., 10–12 weeks after the monsoon set. Larva is with two parallel rows of elongate, conical thorn like scales. Scales are longer than the distance between two rows.

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Life stages of Leucopholis lepidophora

Eggs

White grub feeding on root

Grub

Pupa

Adult

Tapering and Yellowing of palms

Damage: Root grubs are polyphagous and feed on the tender feeding roots affecting nutrient uptake potential of the palms. Severe infestation by root grubs causes seedling mortality and the affected seedlings come off easily since the entire root system is usually eaten up. Second and third instar grubs were voracious feeder which fed about 2.3 g arecanut root tissue/grub/day (Padmanabhan & Daniel, 2003). Gradual yellowing of leaves, delayed flowering, reduction in production of inflorescence, immature nut fall, reduction in nut yield are major symptoms associated with white grub infestation in arecanut. Root grub infested palms can be easily pulled out with a small jerk as the entire root system in eaten away by the grubs. Single grub damage is sufficient to kill young arecanut palms. Significant yield reduction was recorded in arecanut due to white grub infestation. Continuous pest infestation of 4 years with a grub population of 3–12 grubs/palm had recorded 71.42% yield loss (nut yield reduced to 0.8 kg from 2.8 kg dry nuts/palm) in Sullia Taluk and yield loss of 83.33% (nut yield reduced to 0.5 kg from 3.0 kg dry nuts/palm) was reported over a period of 4–6 years of continuous infestations with 3–15 grubs/palms at Puttur Taluk in Karnataka. The affected arecanut gardens also showed more than 50% yellowing of palms (Rajkumar, 2021).

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Application of aqua suspension of EPN in affected arecanut palm basins

Kalpa EPN aqua formulation of S.carpocapsae

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Infective Juveniles of S. carpocapsae

View of field demonstration of EPN against root grub managemnt in Arecanut gardens

Soil application of aqua formulation of EPN, S. carpocapsae {Kalpa EPN (CPCRI–SC1)} at 1.5 billion IJs/ha twice in a year (June–July and September– October) with other integrated practices resulted in reducing root grub population by 91% in 3-year period (Rajkumar et al., 2019a, b; Gangadhara Naik et al., 2019). Incorporation of neem cake at 2 kg/palm/year in the palm basin is helpful in improving the soil structure and rejuvenating roots (Rajkumar et al., 2018).

3 Oil Palm Bunch Moth/Inflorescence Caterpillar: Tirathaba mundella Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Biology: Eggs are white, circular and slightly flat and approximately 0.8 mm in diameter. Eggs are laid on flowers from emergence to the end of flowering. Egg period is 5 days. The red-coloured caterpillar penetrates the inflorescence and remains in the tissue for 15 days, tunnelling and destroying the tissue. After this phase, it moves to the base of the peduncle changing into a pupa. As the caterpillar destroys the tissues of the inflorescence, a resin coloured liquid gum is exuded from the fruitlets, which upon exposure to air becomes reddish coloured and as it solidifies turns dark brown. Larval period is 14–16 days. Pupa is 12 mm long and 5 mm wide with a brown colour and a few dark spots. Moth emerges from pupa in 9–12 days. The adult moth has a greyish upper wing surface and a cream colour underneath with a wingspan of 28–35 mm. The adult can be found during the day or night, flying in a rapid and haphazard fashion. Adults live for 10 days.

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Tirathaba mundella

Caterpillar

Pupa

Adult

Damage: Larvae bore into unopened spathes and feed on the tender floral parts. They also attack tender nuts. Caterpillars web the inflorescence and the feeding area dries up in due course of time. Burrowing and feeding activities produce visible damage symptoms in the form of frass production and a sticky, gummy exudate. Delayed spathe opening, yellowing of spadices, presence of small holes with frass and drying patches on the spathe are the external symptoms of attack. Management: Spadices showing external indication of damage by slugs or traces of oozing out of brownish sap or fluid may be force opened and if all female flowers have been damaged the inflorescence can be removed and burnt. If damage is partial, affected portions are removed and the inflorescence shall be sprayed with Malathion (0.05%) just after the appearance of the symptoms and one more spray after 30 days if damage symptoms persists/spreading Arecanut palm can be sprayed with Malathion 0.05%/cypermethrin is recommended. Chlorantraniliprole is found most effective to control bunch moth T. rufivena up to 80 days after first spraying in Malaysia. Spray at 2-week intervals with Bacillus thuringiensis at 1 g/L water also helps to control the caterpillar (Nair & Rawther, 1969; Abraham, 1994). Two pupal parasitoids namely Brachymeria nephantidis and Elasmus puctulatus were recorded from the pupae of Inflorescence caterpillar, Tirathaba mundella from Vittal which could induce field level parasitism to the tune of 8.5% and 5.7%, for B. nephantidis and E. punctulatus, respectively. Conservation of these natural enemies is very important in pest suppression (Saneera et al., 2019a).

4 Brown Marmorated Stink Bug: Halyomorpha marmorea (Fab.) (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) It was first reported by Vidyasagar and Bhat (1986) that its infestation had caused dropping of tender nuts. Wherever the intensity of attack was severe in a plot it was surrounded by secondary jungles of different trees, shrubs, etc. especially in locations in the south and southeast parts of Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka (Daniel, 2010). Biology: The white or pale green barrel-shaped eggs are laid in clusters (25 eggs) on the lower surface of leaves. Egg period is about 4–5 days. Nymphs lack fully developed wings and are tick-like in appearance, ranging in size from 2.4 mm (first

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instar) to 12 mm (fifth instar). First instars are orange or red in colour and remain clustered around the egg mass. The second instars appear black in colour and subsequent instars (third, fourth and fifth) resemble adults in colour. Each nymphal instar lasts from 10 days to 45–50 days. Adults are 12–17 mm long (approximately 1/2 in.), and have a mottled appearance. Alternating dark and light bands occur on the last two antennal segments. Additionally, the head and pronotum are covered with patches of coppery or bluish metallic-coloured punctures and the margins of the pronotum are smooth. The exposed lateral margins of the abdomen are marked with alternate bands of brown and white. Faint white bands are also evident on the legs (Vidyasagar, 1991).

Adults of Halyomorpha

Kernal browning

Tendernuts drop

Damage: Nymphs and adult bugs pierce the tender nuts and suck the kernel sap resulting in drying of kernels. Feeding by H. marmorea was identified as a cause for immature fruit drop with shrinking and browning of kernels. Characteristic pinprick black marks are seen at the feeding sites, which subsequently enter into the kernel (Vidyasagar, 1991). Management: Collection and destruction of various stages of the insect on collateral hosts near areca garden viz., cowpea, okra, etc. is recommended to reduce spread of pest incidence in arecanut. Application of neem oil emulsion (0.5%) two times in fortnightly intervals reduces pest infestation. In severe cases, spray application of clothianidin 50 WDG (0.24 g/L) or thiamethoxam 25 WG (0.4 g/L) on bunches was found to reduce nut drop by 92% (ICAR-CPCRI, 2019). An egg parasitoid Anastatus bangalorensis is known to attack the pentatomid bug H. marmorea.

5 Scale Insects: Aonidiella orientalis Newstead, Ischnaspis longinostris, Parasaissetia nigra (Neitner) and Wax Scale Chrysomphalus aonidum (Linnaeus) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) and Cerplastes rubens Maskell (Hemiptera: Coccidae) The scale insects are seen feeding on nuts, rechillae and leaves. The damage is done by sucking the sap from the plant tissues, and as a result of continuous sucking, the tissues become yellow in colour, and severe feeding leads to withering and shedding

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of buttons/fruits. The damage is heavy during drought situation. In the early stage of the crop, scales and mealybugs suck sap from leaves thereby inhibiting the growth and in the later stage they interfere with pollination and photosynthesis thereby severely affecting the yield of arecanut. Populations of P. nigra are higher during summer (March–May). However, the populations of both the pest species remained low during the rainy and winter season (July–December). Parasaissetia nigra reproduced parthenogenetically; there being no males, with a total life cycle of 75.24 days. P. nigra infesting arecanut had an incubation period of 6.44 days. Egg was light yellow in colour, oval in shape measuring 0.3 mm length and 0.15 mm breadth. Crawlers crawl around mother’s body in search of suitable place for feeding. Parasaissetia nigra had two nymphal instars; first and second lasting for 7.64 and 19.44 days, respectively. Adult female is dark black in colour. Adult female lives for 38–45 days. Oecophylla smaragdina Smith was the major ant species associated with P. nigra. Chemical control is not advocated against the scale insects since naturally occurring parasitoids and predators are able to check the scale insects.

C.circumdatus feeding on arecanut scale insects The coccinellid predators, Chilocorus nigrita (Fabricius) and C. circumdatus (Gyllenhall) are found to be effective against the scale insects on arecanut. The predatory beetles can be released to control the scale insects. Neem oil at 3% is effective up to 21 days. Spraying dimethoate (0.06%) to the tender bunches is also found to be effective in containing scale insects (Basavaraju et al., 2013). Among the different insecticides tested for the management of Wax scale Chrysomphalus aonidum, the neem oil based formulation 10,000 ppm at 2 mL/L showed maximum percent reduction against the wax scales (81.60). Considering that arecanut palms require high insecticidal solution to drench the foliage, inflorescence/nuts, the results provide important insight to use this economically viable insecticide to avoid negative environmental impact.

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6 Arecanut Whitefly: Aleurocanthus arecae David and Manjunatha (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) The blackfly Aleurocanthus arecae is noticed to infest the leaves heavily in Karnataka and Kerala. Among the different insecticides tested for the management of A. arecae, the neem oil based formulation 10,000 ppm at 2 mL/L showed maximum percent reduction against the whiteflies (72.92) and wax scales (81.60). Considering that arecanut palms require high insecticidal solution to drench the foliage, inflorescence/nuts, the results provide important insight to use this economically viable insecticide to avoid negative environmental impact.

7 Mealybugs: Paracoccus marginatus Williams and Granara de Willink, Pseudococcus cryptus Hempel, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell) and Dysmicoccus finitimus Williams (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Pseudococcus cryptus: It was found to infest leaves, inflorescence and developing fruit bunches and sometimes on the trunk (Daniel, 2003).

Pseudococcus cryptus

Paracoccus marginatus

Dysmicoccus spp.: Dysmicoccus brevipes and Dysmicoccus finitimus were reported on arecanut. They were found colonizing mainly the spindle leaf of the arecanut palm and the inner basal portion of the inflorescence. Rao and Bavappa (1961) reported D. brevipes on areca nut infesting the lamina and collar regions of the seedling causing yellowish patches. Ants associated with D. brevipes protect them by mud nests.

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Colony of Dysmicoccus

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Dysmicoccus damage to arecanut

Management: D. brevipes on areca nut infesting the lamina and collar regions of the seedling causing yellowish patches. Natural enemies of arecanut mealybug D. brevipes include maggots of cecidomyiid, Tryphlodromus sp., coccinellid predators and ichneumonid parasitoid, Oricoruna arcotensis (Mani and Kurian), which keep the pest under check in nature (Daniel, 2003). Populations of D. brevipes were higher during summer (March–May). However, the population remains low during the rainy and winter season (July–December). The parasitoid Anagyrus sp. and the predators, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri and Scymnus sp. are also associated with D. brevipes. Neem oil at 3% significantly reduced the population of D. brevipes.

8 Ambrosia Beetle (Euplatypus parallelus) (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Platypodinae) The exotic Ambrosia beetle, Euplatypus parallelus was reported by Thube et al. (2018) as a pest of arecanut. The typical and new damage symptoms such as exudation of resinous substance, pin sized bore holes and extrusion of frass, etc. are described. The pest is associated with the mycangial fungus aggravating the damage symptoms upon infesting the areca palms.

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Ambrosia beetle

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Damage to areca palm

9 Red Palm Weevil (RPW): Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Oliv. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) R. ferrugineus was reported as an emerging pest on young palms, hybrids and dwarf varieties of arecanut from Vittal, Karnataka (Saneera et al., 2019b). Wilting, yellowing and drying of spindle and innermost leaves are the initial symptom of attack in dwarf arecanut palms. Bore holes with or without extruded fibrous tissues could be found in green regions of stem near to crown with oozing of brown liquid from freshly made holes. Affected crown of the palm showed rotting with a foul smell and the internal tissues of stem display wavy tunnels made by grubs and various stages of red palm weevil (Manjunatha et al., 2013; Dutta et al., 2010). Management: Curative treatment by spot application of imidacloprid 17.8 SL at 1 mL/L of water to the crown after phytosanitation could recover palms at early stages of infestation. Filling the top leaf axils of crown region with a mixture of Fipronil 6 g + sand 250 g/palm could be adopted as a prophylactic measure. Removal and proper disposal of dead palms are of utmost importance as the pest breeds more life cycles inside such palms and will lead to spread of infestation to nearby susceptible palms (Saneera et al., 2019b).

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RPW infested areca palm

10 10.1

Holes on stem Tunnels made by grubs

Mites Raoiella indica Hirst (Acarina: Tenuipalpidae)

Biology: The eggs are laid in groups, often near the midrib or depressions in the leaflet. The incubation period is 8 days. The newly hatched larva is red and has three pairs of legs. The larva typically feeds for 3–5 days and then becomes quiescent for 1.7–1.9 days before moulting to the protonymphal stage. The reddish protonymph emerges with four pairs of legs and feeds for 2–5 days prior to becoming quiescent. The quiescent phase lasts from 1 to 4 days before deutonymphs emerge from the exoskeleton. The active phase lasts 2–5 days and the subsequent quiescent phase lasts from 2 to 4 days. Adult females develop dark markings on the dorsum of the body after feeding. The life cycle from egg to adult typically requires 23–28 days for females and 20–22 days for males. Damage: The reddish mites colonize on the lower surface of the leaves with peak population during April and May. They drain the sap from the leaves and feeding results in yellowish speckles on leaves and bronzed appearance. Yellowing of the leaves may often be severe. In severe infestations, yellowing of leaves is quite prominent. Mortality of seedlings can occur due to severe infestation.

Pests and Their Management in Arecanut

Red mite

10.2

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Mite damage

White Mite: Oligonychus indicus Hirst (Acarina: Tetranychidae)

Biology: Adults lay light yellowish rounded eggs on lower surface of leaves. Nymphs are smaller in size than adults. Adults are greyish green with black blotches scattered over dorsum. Adults possess four pairs of legs. There are 30 overlapping generation in a year. Damage: Adults and nymphs present on the lower surface of leaves. The mites spin and live inside delicate webs on the lower surface of the leaf and suck sap. Injured leaf shows characteristic red spots which enlarge and coalesce making the whole leaf reddish and distinguishable even from a distance. Management of mites: A number of indigenous natural enemies exert a good check on the population of the mites, viz., predatory mites (Amblyseius channavbasavanni), coccinellid beetles (Stethorus keralicus), neuropterans (Chrysopa sp.), etc., and these indigenous natural enemies exert a good check on the population of the mites. Hence conserving these natural enemies by avoiding indiscriminate insecticide sprays to be practiced. Cutting and destroying severely infested leaves, providing adequate shade for seedling and regular irrigation reduces spread of mite infestation. However, in case of epidemic situation, spray application of thiamethoxam 0.02%/dimethoate (0.06%)/neem oil emulsion (0.5%) two times at fortnightly intervals is recommended for pest suppression and to control the pest.

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White mite

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Mite damage.

Burrowing Nematode: Radopholus similis (Cobb) Thorne

Infested palms show general yellowing, reducing growth, vigour and yield, appearance of orange-coloured lesions, blackening of tips of lateral and tertiary roots and rotting of roots. Phorate, at 25 g/plant, alone or in combination with neem cake at l kg/plant was effective in inducing the nematode population on all the tested crops. Application of Gliricidia leaves at 5 kg/plant also reduced the nematode population significantly.

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Other Pests

The margarodid Icerya aegyptiaca Douglas and the stem weevil Diocalandra stigmaticollis Gyll. are also known to attack arecanut in India. The aphid Cerataphis brasiliensis (Hempel) and Rhipiphorothrips cruentatus Hood sometimes infest the inflorescence and fruit bunch. Non-insect pests include the mites Dolichotetranychus sp., Tetranyhus fijiensis Hirst, Oligonychus biharensis Hirst, lesser bandicoot Bandicota bengalensis (Gray) and palm rat Rattus rattus (Linnaeus). Storage pests include arecanut beetle Caccotrypes carpophagus, coffee bean weevil Araecerus fasciculatus, cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne and rice moth Corcyra cephalonica.

References Abraham, C. C. (1994). Pests of coconut and arecanut. In K. L. Chadha & P. Rethinam (Eds.), Advances in horticulture (Vol. 10 (Part 2), pp. 709–726). Malhotra Publishing House. Basavaraju, S. L., Revanappa, S. B., Prashant, K., Rajkumar, Kanatti, A., Sowmya, H. C., Gajanan, K. D., & Srinivas, N. (2013). Bioecology and management of arecanut scale, Parasaissetia nigra

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(Neitner) and mealybug, Dysmicoccus brevipes (Cockerell). Indian Journal of Agricultural Research, 47(5), 436–440. Daniel, M. (2003). Final report ‘NATP project on development of IPM package for plantation crops’. CPCRI, 184p. Daniel, M. (2010). Bionomics of the marmorated bug, Halyomorpha marmorea Fab. (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) in arecanut plantation ecosystem. Journal of Plantation Crops, 38(1), 78–81. Dutta, R., Thakur, N. S. A., Bag, T., Anita, N., Chandra, S., & Ngachan, S. V. (2010). New record of red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on arecanut (Areca catechu) from Meghalaya, India. Florida Entomologist, 93(3), 446–447. Gangadhara Naik, B., Maheshwarappa, H. P., Rajkumar, M., Kalleshwaraswamy, C. M., Nagamma, G., & Latha, S. (2019). Evaluation of entomopathogenic nematodes for the management of white grub, Leucopholis lepidophora Blanchard (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, 7(1), 9–13. ICAR-CPCRI. (2019). Annual report, 2018–2019. ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, 164p. Kalleshwaraswamy, C. M., Adarsha, S. K., Naveena, N. L., & Sharanabasappa. (2015). Incidence of arecanut white grubs (Leucopholis spp.) in hilly and coastal regions of Karnataka. India Current Biotica, 8(4), 423–424. Kantharaju, N., Thippeswam, C., Hosamani, V., Shivasharanappa, Y., & Siddalingappa, H. (2011). Biology of arecanut spindle bug, Carvalhoia arecae Miller and China (Heteroptera: Miridae). Environment and Ecology, 29(1), 148–151. Kantharaju, N., Thippeswamy, C., & Hosamani, V. (2009). Efficacy of certain insecticides against arecanut spindle bug, Carvalhoia arecae Miller and China (Heteroptera: Miridae) under field conditions. International Journal of Plant Protection, 2(2), 237–239. Manjunatha, H., Niranjana, K. S., & Ravikumar, M. (2013). Incidence of red palm weevil, Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on arecanut from Karnataka, India. Current Biotica, 7(1–2), 92–95. Nair, R. B. (1964). Carvalhoia arecae miller and China. A major pest of Areca catechu. Arecanut Journal, 15, 57–61. Nair, R. B., & Rawther, T. S. S. (1969). On the biology of Tirathaba mundella as a pest of areca palms. Agricultural Research Journal of Kerala, 7, 49–50. Padmanabhan, B., & Daniel, M. (2003). Biology and bionomics of palm white grub Leucopholis burmeisteri. Indian Journal of Entomology, 65(4), 444–452. Prathibha, P. S., & Thube, S. H. (2018). Arecanut. In P. Chowdappa, C. Mohan, & A. Josephrajkumar (Eds.), Pests of plantation crops (pp. 79–96). Daya Publishing House. Rajkumar. (2021). Root grub pest diagnostic field visit. Kalpa CPCRI News Letter, 40(2), 15. Rajkumar, Jaganathan, D., Thube, S. H., Harsha, K., Sujithra, M., & Hegde, V. (2019a). Application of Steinernema carpocapsae aqua formulation for integrated management of white grub infestation in areanut gardens of Western Ghats from Karnataka, India. In Proceedings of 23rd Plantation Crops Symposium, March 6–8, 2019, Chikkamagaluru, Karnataka (p. 96). Rajkumar, Jaganathan, D., Thube, S. H., Mohan, C., Joseph Rajkumar A., & Hegde, V. (2018). Entomopathogenic nematode (EPN) for the management of root grub in arecanut. Extension Folder No. 256 (Centenary Series No. 61) (pp. 1–2). ICAR-Central Plantation Crops Research Institute. Rajkumar, Patil, J., Rashid, P., & Kesavan, S. (2019b). Management of white grub (Leucopholis burmesterie) infesting arecanut through entomopathogenic nematodes under field conditions. Annals of Plant Protection Sciences, 27(1), 112–116. Rao, K. S. N., & Bavappa, K. V. A. (1961). Nursery diseases and pests of arecanut and their control. Arecanut Journal, 12, 136. Saneera, E. K., Mohan, C., Santhosh, S., & Thube, S. H. (2019a). First report of two chalcidoids parasitizing arecanut inflorescence caterpillar, Tirathaba mundella Walker (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) from Karnataka, India. Journal of Plantation Crops, 47(2), 124–127.

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Saneera, E. K., Mohan, C., Thube, S. H., & Jose, C. T. (2019b). Beware of red palm weevil, a destructive pest on arecanut. Indian Journal of Arecanut, Spices & Medicinal Plants, 21(1), 27–30. Theurkar, S. V., Patil, S. B., Ghadage, M. K., Zaware, Y. B., & Madan, S. S. (2012). Distribution and abundance of white grubs (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in Khed Taluka, part of Northern Western Ghats, India. International Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 1(7), 1–6. Thube, S. H., Mohan, C., Pandian, R. T. P., Saneera, E. K., Sannagourda, H. M., Hegde, V., & Chowdappa, P. (2018). First record of the invasive neotropical Ambrosia beetle, Euplatypus parallelus (Fabricious) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) infesting arecanut in Karnataka, India. The Coleopterists Bulletin, 72(4), 713–716. Veeresh, G. K., Vijayendra, M., & Rajanna, C. (1982). Bioecology and management of arecanut white grubs. Journal of Soil Biology and Ecology, 2, 78–86. Vidyasagar, P. S. P. V. (1991). Studies on Halyomorpha marmorea F. (Pentatomidae: Heteroptera), associated with tender nut drop in arecanut. Journal of Plantation Crops, 18(Suppl), 305–311. Vidyasagar, P. S. P. V., & Bhat, S. K. (1986). A pentatomid bug causes tender nut drop in arecanut. Current Science, 55, 1096–1097. Yeshwanth, H. M., & Prathapan, K. D. (2014). First report of the occurrence of the arecanut spindle bug, Mircarvalhoia arecae (Miller & China) in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 52(2), 82–84.

Pests of Betelvine and Their Management M. Mani

Abstract Serious pests of betelvine include the shoot bug Disphinctus (¼Pachypeltis) politus, P. maesarum and P. humeralis, Blackfly Aleurocanthus rugosa and A. nubilans, Whitefly Singhiella (¼Dialeurodes) pallida, scale insect Lepidosaphes cornutus and Thrips tabaci, striped mealybug Ferrisia virgata, root mealybugs Geococcus citrinus and Formicoccus polysperes, yellow mite Hemitarsonemus piperae, carmine spider mite Tetranychys cinnabarinus, root knot nematode Meliodogyne arenaria and giant African snail Achatina luliea.

1 Shoot Bug: Disphinctus (=Pachypeltis) politus, P. maesarum and P. humeralis Walk (Hemiptera: Miridae) Nymphs and adults damage the leaves by puncturing and sucking the juice causing the leaves to shrivel, fade and dry up. Adults are light brown to reddish brown. It thrusts its eggs singly within the tender plant parts. Nymphs hatch out in 8–16 days. Nymphal period is from 12 to 18 days. The nymphs and adults damage the leaves by puncturing and sucking the juice which develop black spots near the punctures. Infested leaves fade, become waxy and appear watery in appearance, and the blotches ultimately dry up whole leaf. Peak attack time is from June to October. Application of malathion 50 EC at 2.0 mL/L is useful to control the shoot bug after harvesting of leaves (Jana 2017).

M. Mani (*) ICAR-Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 M. Mani (ed.), Trends in Horticultural Entomology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0343-4_67

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Disphinctus (=Pachypeltis) politus

Leaf damage

2 Blackfly: Aleurocanthus rugosa Singh and A. nubilans Buckton (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Adults are covered with mealy, flocculent wax. Adults of the insect species are crowded near the growing apex preferring ventral surface of apical leaves and suck sap. Pale white eggs are laid in groups under the surface of leaf in concentric ring pattern. Late nymphal instars and puparia are orange red to scarlet red. Elliptical nymphs also suck sap voraciously remaining on ventral aspect leaf. Curling, discolouration and reduced size of leaves, brown scars at the point of injury, stunted plant growth and development of sooty mould on dorsal leaf are some of the resultant effects of the insect damage. Injury results in reduced taste and texture of leaves and market value of the crop. This can be effectively controlled by applying imidacloprid 200 sl or malathion 50% EC at 1 mL/L of water or flubendiamide 20% WDG at 0.25 g/L of water or clothianidin 50% WDG at 0.1 g/L of water or thiomethoxam 25% WG at 0.33 g/L of water or acephate 75% SP at 0.75 g/L of water (IIHR 2014). Aleurocanthus rugosa

Leaf damage Nymphs on the leaf

Nymphs

Pupa

Adult

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3 Whitefly: Singhiella (=Dialeurodes) pallida Singh (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) Adults are soft-bodied, moth-like fly, yellowish dusted with white waxy powder. The wings are covered with powdery wax, and the body is light yellow in colour. Both adults and nymphs suck plant sap of leaves, resulting in the development of discolouration of patches, and yellowish marking appears on infected leaves considerably. When the population is high, they excrete large quantities of honeydew, which favours the growth of sooty mould. The whitefly was found active throughout the year, but the maximum population is observed during the last week of November to December. Management involves erection of yellow sticky trap, application of neem cake and spray application of NSKE 5% or neem oil 2% mixed with 0.1% adjuvant or imidacloprid 200 SL at mL/L of water. Simurali Sanchi and Kalipatti (both are of Sanchi type) are found to be moderately resistant to the whitefly S. pallida

Whitefly infestation

Mealybug infestation

Aleurocanthus nubilans Buckton: Both nymph and adults suck the sap from the tender leaves, causing yellowing, chlorotic spots and sooty mould development on leaves (Sireesha et al. 2009).

4 Scale Insect: Lepidosaphes cornutus Ramakrishna (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) Adults of L. cornutus are tiny, boat-shaped, gnat like insects. Eggs are laid beneath waxy covering. Newly hatched crawlers attach to succulent parts of leaves, petioles and main veins. Females lose their appendages after first moult and do not pupate. Males pupate and become adults without mouth parts. Affected parts look warty, crinkled and dry up. Both nymph and adults infest the leaves, petioles and main veins. The scale-infested leaves lose their colour, exhibit warty appearance, crinkle and dry up ultimately. Vines look sickly and wilt in due course. Management involves the planting the vines free from the scale insects and spraying with

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NSKE 5% or chlorpyriphos 0.05% or malathion 0.05%. Eleven days after spraying, chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, quinalphos and malathion were equally effective, and their residues had fallen below the tolerance level 1 month after spraying. Besides Lepidosaphes cornutus, Aspidiotus destructor is also reported feeding on betelvine (Chandramohan et al. 1980).

Leaf damage

Scale infestation

Scale insect

5 Thrips: Thrips tabaci Lindeman (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) Adults are slender, 1.5 mm, yellow to brown body, antennae seven segmented. Wings are heavily fringed which are shorter at the base, growing broader towards the distal ends. Young resembles the adult. Both nymph and adult suck sap from tender plant parts.

6 Striped Mealybug: Ferrisia virgata Ckll. (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) Adult females are oval, greyish yellow with two longitudinal sub-median dark stripes on the dorsum which is further crisscrossed with many waxy, glassy lines. Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from leaves and tender shoots, and reduce the vitality of vines. Affected leaves become deformed, and vigour of the vine is reduced. Release of the predators like Cryptolaemus montrouzieri can effectively control the mealybugs.

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7 Root Mealybugs 7.1

Geococcus citrinus Kuwana (Hemiptera Pseudococcidae)

Geococcus citrinus lives in the soil and damages the roots of betelvine from Tamil Nadu. Both nymph and adults are found on the root regions and desap the root portions. Management involves spraying chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2 mL/L or dimethoate 2 mL/L. Concentrate the spray towards the collar region. Geococcus citrinus lives in the soil and damages the roots of betelvine from Tamil Nadu. The adults and nymphs of Geococcus suck sap from the lateral roots colonizing at the junction of laterals with main root resulting in drying up of such roots. Such roots cannot absorb water and nutrients from soil. Yellowing and narrowing of leaves, and also burnt appearance, general weakening of the plant, reduction in bunch weight, etc. are the observed symptoms. In severe cases, the plants will be toppled down in wind due to the destruction of anchor. Spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC at 2 mL/L or dimethoate 2 mL/ L. Concentrate the spray towards the collar region.

7.2

Formicoccus polysperes Williams (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

It is known to infest betelvine in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Maharashtra (Williams, 2004). In severe cases of infestation, the root mealybugs were found on the adventurous roots at nodes with which they are attached to the standards. The leaf colour was pale green in case of minor infestation, whereas the leaves turned yellow in the severe case of infestation. In some cases, a gall-like thickening was observed on runner roots with root mealybug colonies. The mealybug-infested plants show stunted growth. Management of root mealybugs: Management including soil drenching with imidacloprid 0.0125%, chlorpyriphos 0.075%, acetamiprid 0.0125% and carbosulfan 0.075% was effective against the root mealybugs.

8 Mites 8.1

Yellow Mite: Hemitarsonemus piperae (Tarsonemidae)

Eggs are oval shaped, large, obovate, flattened at the bottom and white in colour. Eggs are glued firmly on the leaf surface and hatches after 27–32 h. Nymphs are white in colour. Adults are large, oval and broad and yellowish in colour. Females are yellowish and bigger than the males, and they carry the ‘female nymphs’ on their back. Symptoms include the curling and malformation of younger leaves, formation

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of red or brown spots on the lower surface of the leaves and leaves turning to pale yellow and dry after some time.

8.2

Carmine Spider Mite: Tetranychys cinnabarinus (Boisduval) (Tetranichidae)

Adult females are about 1/50 in. long, reddish and more or less elliptical. The males are slightly smaller and wedge shaped. They have a black spot on either side of their relatively colourless bodies.

Read mite infestation

8.3

Adult red mite

False Spider Mite: Brevipalpus phoenicis (Geijskes) (Trombidiformes: Brevipalpidae)

The body is flat, with light to dark green or reddish-orange colouration. A black mark in the shape of an H becomes visible. Symptom of damage includes the distorted tea leaf caused by the mite attack and the withered and discoloured stem of tea plant caused by the attack of B. phoenicis. Control: Spray wettable sulphur 0.3% twice at 7-day interval if necessary.

9 Root Knot Nematode: Meliodogyne arenaria Chitwood (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae) They attack the roots, resulting in the leaves turning yellow and pale. The roots develop knots and galls. Application of neem cake at 2 tons/ha is recommended to control the nematodes (Muthukrishnan et al. 1958).

Pests of Betelvine and Their Management

10

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Giant African Snail: Achatina luliea (Bowdich) (Gastropoda: Achatinidae)

The snail damages the betelvine by feeding on the tender plant parts. In addition, mucus and the excreta falling on the developing leaves will reduce the marketability. Heavy damage was observed in planted young cuttings by feeding on the sprouted buds, affecting the standing of the vine. The snail is managed with the insecticides mixed with food bait at the rate of 10 mL or g/kg. The required quantity of chemicals is mixed in water, and solution is prepared. The prepared solution is mixed thoroughly with rice bran and jiggery, and kept overnight for fermentation. Among the various chemicals tested against the snail, metaldehyde 2.5% is found to be the most effective and registered highest mortality after 1 day (Javaregowda 2006).

11 11.1

Pests of Betelvine Standard Leaf-Eating Caterpillar: Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

The caterpillars feed voraciously on the leaves at night. Eggs are spherical, yellowish, flat-bottomed and laid singly on tender plant parts. Larvae vary in colour according to food, have darker broken lines along sides of the body and have body covered with radiating hairs. Frass is usually present. The moth is greyish brown with white markings on the forewings and hind wings with irradiantly white with a brown border. This pest can easily be controlled by spraying malathion 0.05% or acephate 75% SP at 0.75 g/L of water or indoxacarb 14.5 SC at 0.5 mL/L of water or neem oil 0.30% or 5% neem seed kernel extract.

11.2

Green Looper: Synegia sp. (Lepidoptera: Geometridae)

The caterpillar feeds on leaves causing severe defoliation. The adult is yellow- and orange-spotted moth. It lays eggs singly on leaves. The larva is dark green and grows to a length of 25 mm. It pupates in leaf fold. Life cycle completed in 25–30 days.

11.3

Leaf Folder (Cocoecia sp.)

Symptoms of damage include the webbing the leaflet on the top portions of leaves, pupal stages within the leaf folds and crinkled leaves.

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Aphid: Aphis gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Wingless females have ovoid body in various shades of green, with legs and antennae in yellow, siphuncule wide at base and black in colour. Winged females have fusiform body. Nymphs have a variety of body colours. These are true bugs and suck up plant sap. Nymphs and adults suck the sap from succulent apical shoot and young leaves, causing loss of plant vigour. Damage symptoms include the curling, crinkling and distortion of leaves. Black shooty mould develops on the leaves. Two forms of females are available in an aphid colony. The alate (winged) and apterous (wingless) forms can reproduce parthenogenetically and viviparously, giving birth to 10–20 nymphs/day. The nymph becomes adults in another week time.

11.5

Leaf Folder: Cocoecia sp.

Symptoms include webbing the leaflet on the top portions of leaves, pupal stages within the leaf folds, crinkled leaves, thinning of excessive Sesbania foliage and collection and destruction of folded leaves containing pupal stages. Management of betelvine pests: The following Good Agricultural Practices have to be adopted for the management of various betel vine pests. 1. Destruction of debris, crop residues, weeds and other alternate hosts and deep summer ploughing. 2. Adoption of proper crop rotation. 3. Use pest/disease-free sets from healthy, vigorous vines and treat them before planting. 4. Use well-decomposed FYM at 8–10 tons/acre or vermicompost at 5 tons/acre treated with Trichoderma sp. and Pseudomonas sp. at 2 kg/acre for seed/nursery treatment and soil application. 5. Apply neem cake at 100 kg/acre for reducing nematode population. 6. Pheromone traps for Spodoptera litura should be installed at 4–5 traps/acre. Fix the traps to the supporting poles at a height of 1 ft above the plant canopy. Change the lures after 2–3-week interval. 7. Set up yellow/blue traps/sticky traps 15 cm above the crop canopy for monitoring and mass trapping of Thrips, Whitefly and Aphids at 10–20 traps/acre. 8. Conserve the existing biocontrol agents like Spiders, Coccinellids, Syrphid flies, Anthocorid, mirid bugs, Chrysoperla spp., etc. in the field by using safer and selective products including botanicals and promoting the use of biopesticides including botanicals and microbial. 9. Release of biocontrol agents like Cryptolaemus montrouzieri for mealybugs and soft-scale insects and Chilocorus nigrita for the hard-scale insects. 10. Apply chemical pesticides strictly as per the recommendation of CIB & RC (www.cibrc.gov.in) as a last resort.

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